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Nigeacish dated wae a ess tisaias Pires sity + Oty ay * + t . “ tes os wae Wy “ CPLPOLPCMC OS < se PEPRRPSRLSERERPUPTPREK PE? “ 4 Chest abstasate es ‘ ite tests fea ‘i ols 14} CopPEN TOD My Rhee ERTSROR EE je © Rates 3 Wait OCC RMU ESIC ‘ yee 5 Ale “e ue . “ co ‘ aie sisi eh et UCPC DERE RERE UE os Aas Ag carers 2 \eleleiedy ¥ vee a Waals RPGPAPER ERP PaRt PY pete TPP ad Ay Seka 4 RY ate NEY selatahy Stig Bett hrhs i Bitte se oe ws ae staie wy . ‘ ‘i Ny Spe tele ade ena At fi } ~ * Me eye Wai athe 4 ee 4 : ia pt wk Orv yurl MEE EROS st aye “ aitieay AS Sas ee i ae Hele sas sy he HEN) en oy Hass we Waals at , bth at AY we < Piteretat Crab ss Ute peste y Caner < < me cy Mtatat oe Sy ws! he oe a we . ays as 4 we oy wana ets aN & Henry Stommel Oceanographer MBL/WHOI Library - In Memoriam: 6 2hS9500 TOEO oO MAMAN A 1OHM/181N GEORGIUS AGRICOLA ” DE RE METALLICA TRANSLATED FROM THE FIRST LATIN EDITION OF 1556 with Biographical Introduction, Annotations and Appendices upon the Development of Mining Methods, Metallurgical Processes, Geology, Mineralogy & Mining Law from the earliest times to the 16th Century BY HERBERT CLARK HOOVER A. B. Stanford University, Member American Institute of Mining Engineers, Mining and Metallurgical Society of America, Société des Ingéniéurs Civils de France, American Institute of Civil Engineers, Fellow Royal Geographical Society, etc., etc. AND LOU HENRY HOOVER A. B. Stanford University, Member American Association for the Advancement of Science, The National Geographical Society, Royal Scottish Geographical Society, etc., etc. MARINE BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY LIBRARY WOODS HOLE, MASS. Wee [mbell Oka 1950 ‘Dover Publications, Inc. NEW YF RAR, BY 4 Q % é » Www TO JOHN CASPAR BRANNER Ph.D., The inspiration of whose teaching is no less great than his contribution to science. This New 1950 Edition of DE RE METALLICA is a complete and unchanged reprint of the transla- tion published by The Mining Magazine, London, in 1912. It has been made avail- able through the kind permission of Honor- able Herbert C. Hoover and Mr. Edgar Rickard, Author and Publisher, respec- tively, of the original volume. International Standard Book Number: 0-486-60006-8 Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 451-8994 Manufactured in the United States of America Dover Publications, Inc. 180 Varick Street New York 14, N. Y. TRANSLATORS’ PREFACE. HERE are three objectives in translation of works of this character: to give a faithful, literal trans- lation of the author’s statements ; to give these in a manner which will interest the reader ; and to preserve, so far as is possible, the style of the original text. The task has been doubly difficult in this work because, in using Latin, the author ' availed himself of a medium which had ceased to ME =} expand a thousand years before his subject had in many particulars come into being; in consequence he was in difficulties with a large number of ideas for which there were no corresponding words in the vocabulary at his command, and instead of adopting into the text his native German terms, he coined several hundred Latin expressions to answer his needs. It is upon this rock that most former attempts at translation have been wrecked. Except for a very small number, we believe we have been able to discover the intended meaning of such expressions from a study of the context, assisted by a very incomplete glossary prepared by the author himself, and by an exhaustive investigation into the literature of these subjects during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. That discovery in this particular has been only gradual and obtained after much labour, may be indicated by the fact that the entire text has been re-typewritten three times since the original, and some parts more often ; and further, that the printer’s proof has been thrice revised. We have found some English equivalent, more or less satisfactory, for practically all such terms, except those of weights, the varieties of veins, and a few minerals. In the matter of weights we have introduced the original Latin, because it is impossible to give true equivalents and avoid the fractions of reduction ; and further, as explained in the Appendix on Weights it is impossible to say In many cases what scale the Author had in mind. The English nomenclature to be adopted has given great difficulty, for various reasons ; among them, that many methods and processes described have never been practised in English-speaking mining communities, and so had no representatives in our vocabulary, and we considered the introduction of German terms undesirable; other methods and processes have become obsolete and their descriptive terms with them, yet we wished to avoid the introduction of obsolete or unusual English; but of the greatest importance of all has been the necessity to avoid rigorously such modern technical terms as would imply a greater scientific understanding than the period possessed. Agricola’s Latin, while mostly free from medizval corruption, is some- what tainted with German construction. Moreover some portions have not iv. TRANSLATORS’ PREFACE. the continuous flow of sustained thought which others display, but the fact that the writing of the work extended over a period of twenty years, suffic- iently explains the considerable variation in style. The technical descriptions in the later books often take the form of House-that-Jack-built sentences which have had to be at least partially broken up and the subject occasionally re-introduced. Ambiguities were also sometimes found which it was necessary to carry on into the translation. Despite these criticisms we must, however, emphasize that Agricola was infinitely clearer in his style than his contemporaries upon such subjects, or for that matter than his successors in almost any language for a couple of centuries. All of the illustrations and display letters of the original have been reproduced and the type as closely approximates to the original as the printers have been able to find in a modern font. There are no footnotes in the original text, and Mr. Hoover is responsible for them all. He has attempted in them to give not only such comment as would tend to clarify the text, but also such information as we have been able to discover with regard to the previous history of the subjects mentioned. We have confined the historical notes to the time prior to Agricola, because to have carried them down to date in the briefest manner would have demanded very much more space than could be allowed. In the examination of such technical and historical material one is appalled at the flood of mis-information with regard to ancient arts and sciences which has been let loose upon the world by the hands of non-technical translators and commentators. At an early stage we considered that we must justify any divergence of view from such authorities, but to limit the already alarming volume of this work, we later felt compelled to eliminate most of such dis- cussion. When the half-dozen most important of the ancient works bearing upon science have been translated by those of some scientific experience, such questions will, no doubt, be properly settled. We need make no apologies for De Re Metallica. During 180 years it was not superseded as the text-book and guide to miners and metallurgists, for until Schltiter’s great work on metallurgy in 1738 it had no equal. That it passed through some ten editions in three languages at a period when the printing of such a volume was no ordinary undertaking, is in itself sufficient evidence of the importance in which it was held, and is a record that no other volume upon the same subjects has equalled since. A large proportion of the technical data given by Agricola was either entirely new, or had not been given previously with sufficient detail and explanation to have enabled a worker in these arts himself to perform the operations without further guid- ance. Practically the whole of it must have been given from personal ex- perience and observation, for the scant library at his service can be appreci- ated from his own Preface. Considering the part which the metallic arts have played in human history, the paucity of their literature down to Agricola’s time is amazing. No doubt the arts were jealously guarded by their practitioners as a sort of stock-in-trade, and it is also probable that those who had knowledge were not usually of a literary turn of mind; and, TRANSLATORS’ PREFACE. V. on the other hand, the small army of writers prior to his time were not much interested in the description of industrial pursuits. Moreover, in those thousands of years prior to printing, the tedious and expensive transcription of manuscripts by hand was mostly applied to matters of more general interest, and therefore many writings may have been lost in consequence. In fact, such was the fate of the works of Theophrastus and Strato on these subjects. We have prepared a short sketch of Agricola’s life and times, not only to give some indication of his learning and character, but also of his considerable position in the community in which he lived. As no appreciation of Agricola’s stature among the founders of science can be gained without consideration of thé advance which his works display over those of his predecessors, we therefore devote some attention to the state of knowledge of these subjects at the time by giving in the Appendix a short review of the literature then extant and a summary of Agricola’s other writings. To serve the bibliophile we present such data as we have been able to collect it with regard to the various editions of his works. The full titles of the works quoted in the footnotes under simply authors’ names will be found in this Appendix. We feel that it is scarcely doing Agricola justice to publish De Re Metallica only. While it is of the most general interest of all of his works, yet, from the point of view of pure science, De Natura Fosstlium and De Ovtu et Causis are works which deserve an equally important place. It is unfortunate that Agricola’s own countrymen have not given to the world competent translations into German, as his work has too often been judged by the German translations, the infidelity of which appears in nearly every paragraph. We do not present De Re Metallica as a work of “ practical” value. The methods and processes have long since been superseded ; yet surely such a milestone on the road of development of one of the two most basic of human industrial activities is more worthy of preservation than the thousands of volumes devoted to records of human destruction. To those interested in the history of their own profession we need make no apologies, except for the long delay in publication. For this we put forward the necessity of active endeavour in many directions ; as this book could be but a labour of love, it has had to find the moments for its execution in night hours, week- ends, and holidays, in all extending over a period of about five years. If the work serves to strengthen the traditions of one of the most important and least recognized of the world’s professions we shall be amply repaid. It is our pleasure to acknowledge our obligations to Professor H. R. Fairclough, of Stanford University, for perusal of and suggestions upon the first chapter ; and to those whom we have engaged from time to time for one service or another, chiefly bibliographical work and collateral translation. We are also sensibly obligated to the printers, Messrs. Frost & Sons, for their patience and interest, and for their willingness to bend some of the canons of modern printing, to meet the demands of the 16th Century. THE RED Howse, July 1, 1912. HORNTON STREET, LONDON. INTRODUCTION. BIOGRAPHY. %| EORGIUS AGRICOLA was born at Glauchau, in Saxony, on March 24th, 1494, and therefore entered the world when it was still upon the threshold of the Renaissance ; Gutenberg’s first book had been print- ed but forty years before; the Humanists had but begun that stimulating criticism which awoke the Reformation; Erasmus, of Rotterdam, who was sub- sequently to become Agricola’s friend and patron, was just completing his student days. The Refor- mation itself was yet to come, but it was not long delayed, for Luther was born the year before Agricola, and through him Agricola’s home- land became the cradle of the great movement ; nor did Agricola escape being drawn into the conflict. Italy, already awake with the new classical revival, was still a busy workshop of antiquarian research, translation, study, and publication, and through her the Greek and Latin Classics were only now available for wide distribution. Students from the rest of Europe, among them at a later time Agricola himself, flocked to the Italian Universities, and on their return infected their native cities with the newly- awakened learning. At Agricola’s birth Columbus had just returned from his great discovery, and it was only three years later that Vasco Da Gama rounded Cape Good Hope. Thus these two foremost explorers had only initiated that greatest period of geographical expansion in the world’s history. A few dates will recall how far this exploration extended during Agricola’s lifetime. Balboa first saw the Pacific in 1513 ; Cortes entered the City of Mexico in 1520; Magellan entered the Pacific in the same year; Pizarro penetrated into Peru in 1528; De Soto landed in Florida in 1539, and Potosi was dis- covered in 1546. Omitting the sporadic settlement on the St. Lawrence by Cartier in 1541, the settlement of North America did not begin for a quarter of a century after Agricola’s death. Thus the revival of learning, with its train of Humanism, the Reformation, its stimulation of exploration and the re-awakening of the arts and sciences, was still in its infancy with Agricola. We know practically nothing of Agricola’s antecedents or his youth. His real name was Georg Bauer (‘‘ peasant’), and it was probably Latinized by his teachers, as was the custom of the time. His own brother, in receipts 1For the biographical information here set out we have relied principally upon the following works :—Petrus Albinus, Mezssnische Land Und Berg Chronica, Dresden, 1590 ; Adam Daniel Richter, Umstaéndliche. . . . Chronica der Stadt Chemnitz, Leipzig, 1754; Johann Gottfried Weller, Altes Aus Allen Thetlen Der Geschichte, Chemnitz, 1766; Freidrich August Schmid, Georg Agrikola’s Bermannus, Freiberg, 1806; Georg Heinrich Jacobi, Der Mineralog Georgius Agricola, Zwickau, 1881; Dr. Reinhold Hofmann, Dr. Georg Agricola, Gotha, 1905. The last is an exhaustive biographical sketch, to which we refer those who are interested. INTRODUCTION. Vil. preserved in the archives of the Zwickau Town Council, calls himself ‘‘ Bauer,” and in them refers to his brother ‘ Agricola.”” He entered the University of Leipsic at the age of twenty, and after about three and one-half years’ attendance there gained the degree of Baccalaureus Artium. In 1518 he became Vice- Principal of the Municipal School at Zwickau, where he taught Greek and Latin. In 1520 he became Principal, and among his assistants was Johannes Forster, better known as Luther’s collaborator in the translation of the Bible. During this time our author prepared and published a small Latin Grammar’. In 1522 he removed to Leipsic to become a lecturer in the University under his friend, Petrus Mosellanus, at whose death in 1524 he went to Italy for the further study of Philosophy, Medicine, and the Natural Sciences. Here he remained for nearly three years, from 1524 to 1526. He visited the Universities of Bologna, Venice, and probably Padua, and at these institutions received his first inspiration to work in the sciences, for in a letter? from Leonardus Casibrotius to Erasmus we learn that he was engaged upon a revision of Galen. It was about this time that he made the acquaintance of Erasmus, who had settled at Basel as Editor for Froben’s press. In 1526 Agricola returned to Zwickau, and in 1527 he was chosen town physician at Joachimsthal. This little city in Bohemia is located on the eastern slope of the Erzgebirge, in the midst of the then most prolific metal- mining district of Central Europe. Thence to Freiberg is but fifty miles, and the same radius from that city would include most of the mining towns so frequently mentioned in De Re Metallica—Schneeberg, Geyer, Annaberg and Altenberg—and not far away were Marienberg, Gottesgab, and Platten. Joachimsthal was a booming mining camp, founded but eleven years before Agricola’s arrival, and already having several thousand inhabitants. Accord- ing to Agricola’s own statement‘, he spent all the time not required for his medical duties in visiting the mines and smelters, in reading up in the Greek and Latin authors all references to mining, and in association with the most learned among the mining folk. Among these was one Lorenz Berman, whom Agricola afterward set up as the “learned miner ”’ in his dialogue Bermannus. This book was first published by Froben at Basel in 1530, and was a sort of catechism on mineralogy, mining terms, and mining lore. The book was apparently first submitted to the great Erasmus, and the publication arranged by him, a warm letter of approval by him appearing at the beginning of the book®. In 1533 he published De Mensuris et Ponderibus, through Froben, this being a discussion of Roman and Greek weights and measures. At about this time he began De Re Metallica —not to be published for twenty-five years. 2Georgit Agricolae Glaucit Libellus de Prima ac Simplici Institutione Grammatica, printed by Melchior Lotthet, Leipzig, 1520 Petrus Mosellanus refers to this work (without giving title) in a letter to Agricola, June, 1520. 3Briefe an Destderius Evasmus von Rotterdam. Published by Joseph Forstemann and Otto Giinther. xxvil. Beiheft zum Zentralblatt fiir Bibliothekswesen, Leipzig, 1904. P- 44- 4De Veteribus et Novis Metallis. Preface. 5A summary of this and of Agricola’s other works is given in the Appendix A. Viil. INTRODUCTION. Agricola did not confine his interest entirely to medicine and mining, for during this period he composed a pamphlet upon the Turks, urging their extermination by the European powers. This work was no doubt inspired by the Turkish siege of Vienna in 1529. It appeared first in German in 1531, and in Latin—in which it was originally written—in 1538, and passed through many subsequent editions. At this time, too, he became interested in the God’s Gift mine at Albertham, which was discovered in 1530. Writing in 1545, he says®: “We, as a shareholder, through the goodness of God, have enjoyed the “proceeds of this God’s Gift since the very time when the mine began first “to bestow such riches.” Agricola seems to have resigned his position at Joachimsthal in about 1530, and to have devoted the next two or three years to travel and study among the mines. About 1533 he became city physician of Chemnitz, in Saxony, and here he resided until his death in 1555. There is but little record of his activities during the first eight or nine years of his residence in this city. He must have been engaged upon the study of his subjects and the preparation of his books, for they came on with great rapidity soon after. He was frequently consulted on matters of mining engineering, as, for instance, we learn, from a letter written by a certain Johannes Hordeborch’, that Duke Henry of Brunswick applied to him with regard to the method for working mines in the Upper Harz. In 1543 he married Anna, widow of Matthias Meyner, a petty tithe official ; there is some reason to believe from a letter published by Schmid,® that Anna was his second wife, and that he was married the first time at Joachimsthal. He seems to have had several children, for he commends his young children to the care of the Town Council during his absence at the war in 1547. In addition to these, we know that a son, Theodor, was born in 1550; a daughter, Anna, in 1552; another daughter, Irene, was buried at Chemnitz in 1555; and in 1580 his widow and three children—Anna, Valerius, and Lucretia—were still living. In 1544 began the publication of the series of books to which Agricola owes his position. The first volume comprised five works and was finally issued in 1546 ; it was subsequently considerably revised, and re-issued in 1558. These works were: De Ortu et Causis Subterraneorum, in five ‘‘ books,”’ the first work on physical geology ; De Natura Eorum quae Effluunt ex Terra, in four “ books,” on subterranean waters and gases; De Natura Fosstlium, in ten “ books,” the first systematic mineralogy ; De Veteribus et Novis Metallis, in two “ books,” devoted largely to the history of metals and topographical mineralogy ; a new edition of Bermannus was included; and finally Rerum Metallicarum Interpretatio, a glossary of Latin and German mineralogical and metallurgical terms. Another work, De Ansmantibus Subterranets, usually published with De Re Metallica, is dated 1548 in the preface. It ®De Veteribus et Novis Metallis, Book I. ?Printed in F. A Schmid’s Georg Agrikola’s Bermannus, p 14, Freiberg, 1806. 8Op. Cit., p. 8. INTRODUCTION. ix. is devoted to animals which live underground, at least part of the time, but is not a very effective basis of either geologic or zoologic classi- fication. Despite many public activities, Agricola apparently completed De Re Metallica in 1550, but did not send it to the press until 1553; nor did it appear until a year after his death in1555. But we give further details on the preparation of this work on p. xv. During this period he found time to prepare a small medical work, De Peste, and certain historical studies, details of which appear in the Appendix. There are other works by Agricola re- ferred to by sixteenth century writers, but so far we have not been able to find them although they may exist. Such data as we have, is given in the appendix. As a young man, Agricola seems to have had some tendencies toward liberalism in religious matters, for while at Zwickau he composed some anti- Popish Epigrams ; but after his return to Leipsic he apparently never wavered, and steadily refused to accept the Lutheran Reformation. To many even liberal scholars of the day, Luther’s doctrines appeared wild and demagogic. Luther was not a scholarly man ; his addresses were to the masses ; his Latin was execrable. Nor did the bitter dissensions over hair-splitting theology in the Lutheran Church after Luther’s death tend to increase respect for the movement among the learned. Agricola was a scholar of wide attainments, a deep-thinking, religious man, and he remained to the end a staunch Catholic, despite the general change of sentiment among his countrymen. His leanings were toward such men as his friend the humanist, Erasmus. That he had the courage of his convictions is shown in the dedication of De Natura Eorum, where he addresses to his friend, Duke Maurice, the pious advice that the dissensions of the Germans should be composed, and that the Dukeshould return to the bosom of the Church those who had been torn from her, and adds : “‘ Yet “T do not wish to become confused by these turbulent waters, and be led to “offend anyone. It is more advisable to check my utterances.’”’ As he became older he may have become less tolerant in religious matters, for he did not seem to show as much patience in the discussion of ecclesiastical topics as he must have possessed earlier, yet he maintained to the end the respect and friendship of such great Protestants as Melanchthon, Camerarius, Fabricius, and many others. In 1546, when he was at the age of 52, began Agricola’s activity in public life, for in that year he was elected a Burgher of Chemnitz ; and in the same year Duke Maurice appointed him Burgomaster—an office which he held for four terms. Before one can gain an insight into his political services, and incidentally into the character of the man, it is necessary to understand the politics of the time and his part therein, and to bear in mind always that he was a staunch Catholic under a Protestant Sovereign in a State seething with militant Protestantism. Saxony had been divided in 1485 between the Princes Ernest and Albert, the former taking the Electoral dignity and the major portion of the Princi- pality. Albert the Brave, the younger brother and Duke of Saxony, obtained the subordinate portion, embracing Meissen, but subject to the Elector. The Elector Ernest was succeeded in 1486 by Frederick the Wise, and under % INTRODUCTION. his support Luther made Saxony the cradle of the Reformation. This Elector was succeeded in 1525 by his brother John, who was in turn succeeded by his son John Frederick in 1532. Of more immediate interest to this subject is the Albertian line of Saxon Dukes who ruled Meissen, for in that Princi- pality Agricola was born and lived, and his political fortunes were associated with this branch of the Saxon House. Albert was succeeded in 1505 by his son George, “‘ The Bearded,” and he in turn by his brother Henry, the last of the Catholics, in 1539, who ruled until 1541. Henry was succeeded in 1541 by his Protestant son Maurice, who was the Patron of Agricola. At about this time Saxony was drawn into the storms which rose from the long-standing rivalry between Francis I., King of France, and Charles V. of Spain. These two potentates came to the throne in the same year (1515), and both were candidates for Emperor of that loose Confederation known as the Holy Roman Empire. Charles was elected, and intermittent wars between these two Princes arose—first in one part of Europe, and then in another. Francis finally formed an alliance with the Schmalkalden League of German Protestant Princes, and with the Sultan of Turkey, against Charles. In 1546 Maurice of Meissen, although a Protestant, saw his best interest in a secret league with Charles against the other Protestant Princes, and pro- ceeded (the Schmalkalden War) to invade the domains of his superior and cousin, the Elector Frederick. The Emperor Charles proved successful in this war, and Maurice was rewarded, at the Capitulation of Wittenberg in 1547, by being made Elector of Saxony in the place of his cousin. Later on, the Elector Maurice found the association with Catholic Charles unpalatable, and joined in leading the other Protestant princes in war upon him, and on the defeat of the Catholic party and the peace of Passau, Maurice became acknowledged as the champion of German national and religious freedom. He was succeeded by his brother Augustus in 1553. Agricola was much favoured by the Saxon Electors, Maurice and Augustus. He dedicates most of his works to them, and shows much gratitude for many favours conferred upon him. Duke Maurice presented to him a house and plot in Chemnitz, and in a letter dated June r4th, 1543, in con- nection therewith, says: “ that he may enjoy his life-long a “freehold house unburdened by all burgher rights and other municipal ser- “vice, to be used by him and inhabited as a free dwelling, and that he may “also, for the necessities of his household and of his wife and servants, brew “his own beer free, and that he may likewise purvey for himself and his “household foreign beer and also wine for use, and yet he shall not sell any “such beer. . . . We have taken the said Doctor under our especial “protection and care for our life-long, and he shall not be summoned before “any Court of Justice, but only before us and our Councillor. Be Agricola was made Burgomaster of Chemnitz in 1546. A letter!® from Fabricius to Meurer, dated May roth, 1546, says that Agricola had been ®Archive 38, Chemnitz Municipal Archives. 10Baumgarten-Crusius. Georgii Fabricii Chemnicensis Epistolae ad W. Meuverum et Altos Aequales, Leipzig, 1845, p. 26. INTRODUCTION. xis made Burgomaster by the command of the Prince. This would be Maurice, and it is all the more a tribute to the high respect with which Agricola was held, for, as said before, he was a consistent Catholic, and Maurice a Protestant Prince. In this same year the Schmalkalden War broke out, and Agricola was called to personal attendance upon the Duke Maurice in a diplomatic and advisory capacity. In 1546 alsohe wasamember of the Diet of Freiberg, and was summoned to Council in Dresden. The next year he continued, by the Duke’s command, Burgomaster at Chemnitz, although he seems to have been away upon Ducal matters most of the time. The Duke addresses}! the Chemnitz Council in March, 1547: “We hereby make known to you “that we are in urgent need of your Burgomaster, Dr. Georgius Agricola, “with us. It is, therefore, our will that you should yield him up and forward “him that he should with the utmost haste set forth to us here near Freiberg.” He was sent on various missions from the Duke to the Emperor Charles, to King Ferdinand of Austria, and to other Princes in matters connected with the war—the fact that he was a Catholic probably entering into his appointment to such missions. Chemnitz was occupied by the troops of first one side, then the other, despite the great efforts of Agricola to have his own town specially defended. In April, 1547, the war came to an end in the Battle of Mihlberg, but Agricola was apparently not relieved of his Burgomastership until the succeeding year, for he wrote his friend Wolfgang Meurer, in April, 1548,12 that he “ was now relieved.’”’ His public duties did not end, however, for he attended the Diet of Leipzig in 1547 and in 1549, and was at the Diet at Torgau in 1550. In 1551 he was again installed as Burgomaster ; and in 1553, for the fourth time, he became head of the Municipality, and during this year had again to attend the Diets at Leipzig and Dresden, representing his city. He apparently now had a short relief from public duties, for it is not until 1555, shortly before his death, that we find him again attending a Diet at Torgau. Agricola died on November 2Ist, 1555. A letter!® from his life-long friend, Fabricius, to Melanchthon, announcing this event, states: ‘“‘ We lost, on “November 2itst, that distinguished ornament of our Fatherland, Georgius “ Agricola, a man of eminent intellect, of culture and of judgment. He “attained the age of 62. He who since the days of childhood had enjoyed “robust health was carried off by a four-days’ fever. He had previously “suffered from no disease except inflammation of the eyes, which he brought “upon himself by untiring study and insatiable reading. . . I know that “you loved the soul of this man, although in many of his opinions, more “ especially in religious and spiritual welfare, he differed in many points from “our own. For he despised our Churches, and would not be with us in the “Communion of the Blood of Christ. Therefore, after his death, at the “command of the Prince, which was given to the Church inspectors and “ carried out by Tettelbach as a loyal servant, burial was refused him, and not UAofmarn, Op. cit., p. 99. 12Weber. Virorum Clarorum Saeculi xvi. et xvil. Epistolae Selectae, Leipzig, 1894, p. 8. 13Baumgarten-Crusius. Op. cit., p. 139. X11. INTRODUCTION. “until the fourth day was he borne away to Zeitz and interred in the Cathedral. * I have always admired the genius of this man, so distinguished “in our sciences and in the whole realm of Philosophy—yet I wonder at his “religious views, which were compatible with reason, it is true, and were “dazzling, but were by no means compatible with truth. . . . He “would not tolerate with patience that anyone should discuss ecclesiastical “matters with him.’’ This action of the authorities in denying burial to one of their most honored citizens, who had been ever assiduous in furthering the welfare of the community, seems strangely out of joint. Further, the Elector Augustus, although a Protestant Prince, was Agricola’s warm friend, as evidenced by his letter of but a few months before (see p. xv). However, Catholics were then few in number at Chemnitz, and the feeling ran high at the time, so possibly the Prince was afraid of public disturbances. Hofmann? explains this occurrence in the following words :—“ The feelings of Chemnitz “citizens, who were almost exclusively Protestant, must certainly be taken “into account. They may have raised objections to the solemn interment of “a Catholic in the Protestant Cathedral Church of St. Jacob, which had, “perhaps, been demanded by his relatives, and to which, according to the “custom of the time, he would have been entitled as Burgomaster. The “refusal to sanction the interment aroused, more especially in the Catholic “world, a painful sensation.” A brass memorial plate hung in the Cathedral at Zeitz had already disappeared in 1686, nor have the cities of his birth or residence ever shown any appreciation of this man, whose work more deserves their gratitude than does that of the multitude of soldiers whose monuments decorate every village and city square. It is true that in 1822 a marble tablet was placed behind the altar in the Church of St. Jacob in Chemnitz, but even this was removed to the Historical Museum later on. He left a modest estate, which was the subject of considerable litigation by his descendants, due to the mismanagement of the guardian. Hofmann has succeeded in tracing the descendants for two generations, down to 1609, but the line is finally lost among the multitude of other Agricolas. To deduce Georgius Agricola’s character we need not search beyond the discovery of his steadfast adherence to the religion of his fathers amid the bitter storm of Protestantism around him, and need but to remember at the same time that for twenty-five years he was entrusted with elective positions of an increasingly important character in this same community. No man could have thus held the respect of his countrymen unless he were devoid of bigotry and possessed of the highest sense of integrity, justice, humanity, and patriotism. 14Hofmann, Op. cit., p. 123. xiii. AGRICOLA’S INTELLECTUAL ATTAINMENTS AND POSITION IN SCIENCE. Agricola’s education was the most thorough that his times afforded in the classics, philosophy, medicine, and sciences generally. Further, his writings disclose a most exhaustive knowledge not only of an extraordinary range of classical literature, but also of obscure manuscripts buried in the public libraries of Europe. That his general learning was held to be of a high order is amply evidenced from the correspondence of the other scholars of his time—Erasmus, Melanchthon, Meurer, Fabricius, and others. Our more immediate concern, however, is with theadvances which were due to him in the sciences of Geology, Mineralogy, and Mining Engineering. No appreciation of these attainments cam be conveyed to the reader unless he has some understanding of the dearth of knowledge in these sciences prior to Agricola’s time. We have in Appendix B given a brief review of the literature extant at this period on these subjects. Furthermore, no appreciation of Agricola’s contribution to science can be gained without a study of De Ortu et Causis and De Natura Fosstltum, for while De Re Metallica is of much more general interest, it contains but incidental reference to Geology and Mineralogy. Apart from the book of Genesis, the only attempts at funda- mental explanation of natural phenomena were those of the Greek Philosophers and the Alchemists. Orthodox beliefs Agricola scarcely mentions ; with the Alchemists he had no patience. There can be no doubt, however, that his views are greatly coloured by his deep classical learning. He was in fine to a certain distance a follower of Aristotle, Theophrastus, Strato, and other leaders of the Peripatetic school. For that matter, except for the muddy current which the alchemists had introduced into this already troubled stream, the whole thought of the learned world still flowed from the Greeks. Had he not, however, radically departed from the teachings of the Peripatetic school, his work would have been no contribution to the development of science. Certain of their teachings he repudiated with great vigour, and his laboured and detailed arguments in their refutation form the first battle in science over the results of observation versus inductive speculation. To use his own words: ‘ Those things which we see with our eyes and understand “by means of our senses are more clearly to be demonstrated than if learned “by means of reasoning.”!5 The bigoted scholasticism of his times necessi- tated as much care and detail in refutation of such deep-rooted beliefs, as would be demanded to-day by an attempt at a refutation of the theory of evolution, and in consequence his works are often but dry reading to any but those interested in the development of fundamental scientific theory. In giving an appreciation of Agricola’s views here and throughout the footnotes, we do not wish to convey to the reader that he was in all things free from error and from the spirit of his times, or that his theories, constructed long before the atomic theory, are of the clear-cut order which that basic hypothesis has rendered possible to later scientific speculation in these branches. Hisstatements are sometimes much confused, but we reiterate that 15De Ortu et Causis, Book III. XIV. INTRODUCTION. their clarity is as crystal to mud in comparison with those of his predecessors— and of most of his successors for over two hundred years. As an indication of his grasp of some of the wider aspects of geological phenomena we reproduce, in Appendix A, a passage from De Ortu et Causts, which we believe to be the first adequate declaration of the part played by erosion in mountain sculpture. But of all of Agricola’s theoretical views those are of the greatest interest which relate to the origin of ore deposits, for in these matters he had the greatest opportunities of observation and the most experience. We have on page 108 reproduced and discussed his theory at considerable length, but we may repeat here, that in his propositions as to the circulation of ground waters, that ore channels are a subsequent creation to the contained rocks, and that they were filled by deposition from circulating solutions, he enunciated the founda- tions of our modern theory, and in so doing took a step in advance greater than that of any single subsequent authority. In his contention that ore channels were created by erosion of subterranean waters he was wrong, except for special cases, and it was not until two centuries later that a further step in advance was taken by the recognition by Van Oppel of the part played by fissuring in these phenomena. Nor wasit until about the same time that the filling of ore channels in the main by deposition from solutions was generally accepted. While Werner, two hundred and fifty years after Agricola, is generally revered as the inspirer of the modern theory by those whose reading has taken them no farther back, we have no hesitation in asserting that of the propositions of each author, Agricola’s were very much more nearly in accord with modern views. Moreover, the main result of the new ideas brought forward by Werner was to stop the march of progress for half a century, instead of speeding it forward as did those of Agricola. In mineralogy Agricola made the first attempt at systematic treatment of the subject. His system could not be otherwise than wrongly based, as he could scarcely see forward two or three centuries to the atomic theory and our vast fund of chemical knowledge. However, based as it is upon such properties as solubility and homogeneity, and upon external character- istics such as colour, hardness, &c., it makes a most creditable advance upon Theophrastus, Dioscorides, and Albertus Magnus—his only predecessors. He is the first to assert that bismuth and antimony are true primary metals ; and to some sixty actual mineral species described previous to his time he added some twenty more, and laments that there are scores unnamed. As to Agricola’s contribution to the sciences of mining and metal- lurgy, De Re Metallica speaks for itself. While he describes, for the first time, scores of methods and processes, no one would contend that they were discoveries or inventions of hisown. They represent the accumulation of generations of experience and knowledge ; but by him they were, for the first time, to receive detailed and intelligent exposition. Until Schltiter’s work nearly two centuries later, it was not excelled. There is no measure by which we may gauge the value of such a work to the men who followed in this profession during centuries, nor the benefits enjoyed by humanity through them. 2 INTRODUCTION. XV. That Agricola occupied a very considerable place in the great awakening of learning will be disputed by none except by those who place the development of science in rank far below religion, politics, literature, and art. Of wider importance than the details of his achievements in the mere confines of the particular science to which he applied himself, is the fact that he was the first to found any of the natural sciences upon research and observation, as opposed to previous fruitless speculation. The wider interest of the members of the medical profession in the development of their science than that of geologists in theirs, has led to’ the aggrandizement of Paracelsus, a contem- porary of Agricola, as the first in deductive science. Yet no comparative study of the unparalleled egotistical ravings of this half-genius, half-alchemist, with the modest sober logic and real research and observation of Agricola, can leave a moment’s doubt as to the incomparably greater position which should be attributed to the latter as the pioneer in building the foundation of science by deduction from observed phenomena. Science is the base upon which is reared the civilization of to-day, and while we give daily credit to all those who toil in the superstructure, let none forget those men who laid its first foundation stones. One of the greatest of these was Georgius Agricola. xvi. INTRODUCTION. Agricola seems to have been engaged in the preparation of De Re Metallica for a period of over twenty years, for we first hear of the book in a letter from Petrus Plateanus, a schoolmaster at Joachimsthal, to the great humanist, Erasmus,!* in September, 1529. He says: “ The scientific world “‘ will be still more indebted to Agricola when he brings to light the books “ De Re Metallica and other matters which he has on hand.” In the dedication of De Mensuris et Ponderibus (in 1533) Agricola states that he means to publish twelve books De Re Metallica, if he lives. That the appearance of this work was eagerly anticipated is evidenced by a letter from George Fabricius to Valentine Hertel: 1” ‘ With great excitement the books De Re Metallica “are being awaited. If he treats the material at hand with his usual zeal, “he will win for himself glory such as no one in any of the fields of literature “has attained for the last thousand years.”’ According to the dedication of De Veteribus et Novis Metallis, Agricola in 1546 already looked forward to its early publication. The work was apparently finished in 1550, for the dedication to the Dukes Maurice and August of Saxony is dated in December of that year. The eulogistic poem by his friend, George Fabricius, is dated in 1551. The publication was apparently long delayed by the preparation of the woodcuts; and, according to Mathesius,8 many sketches for them were prepared by Basilius Wefring. Inthe preface of De Re Metallica, Agricola does not mention who prepared the sketches, but does say: “I have hired “illustrators to delineate their forms, lest descriptions which are conveyed “by words should either not be understood by men of our own times, or “should cause difficulty to posterity.’ In 1553 the completed book was sent to Froben for publication, for a letter 19 from Fabricius to Meurer in March, 1553, announces its dispatch to the printer. An interesting letter?° from the Elector Augustus to Agricole, dated January 18, 1555, reads: “Most learned, dear and faithful subject, whereas you have sent to the Press “a Latin book of which the title is said to be De Rebus Metallicis, which has “ been praised to us and we should like to know the contents, it is our gracious “command that you should get the book translated when you have the “opportunity into German, and not let it be copied more than once or be “printed, but keep it by you and send us a copy. If you should need a “writer for this purpose, we will provide one. Thus you will fulfil our “gracious behest.’” The German translation was prepared by Philip Bechius, a Basel University Professor of Medicine and Philosophy. It is a wretched work, by one who knew nothing of the science, and who more especially had no appreciation of the peculiar Latin terms coined by Agricola, most of which 16Briefe an Desiderius Erasmus von Rotterdam. Published by Joseph Férstemann & Otto Giinther. xxvil. Beiheft zum Zentralblatt fiir Bibliothekswesen, Leipzig, 1904, p. 125. M7Petrus Albinus, Meztssnische Land und Berg Chronica, Dresden, 1590, p. 353- 18This statement is contained under “1556” in a sort of chronicle bound up with Mathesius’s Sarepta, Nuremberg, 1562. 1°Baumgarten-Crusius, p. 85, letter No. 93. *0Principal State Archives, Dresden, Cop. 259, folio 102. INTRODUCTION. XVil. he rendered literally. It is a sad commentary on his countrymen that no correct German translation exists. The Italian translation is by Michelangelo Florio, and is by him dedicated to Elizabeth, Queen of England. The title page of the first edition is reproduced later on, and the full titles of other editions are given in the Appendix, together with the author’s other works. The following are the short titles of the various editions of De Re Metallica, together with the name and place of the publisher :— LaTIN EDITIONS. De Re Metallica, Froben .. .. Basel Folio 1556. oe, x x ie or aes 1561. ery 3 Ludwig Konig ay os 162i. beats. ~ Emanuel Kénig we 1657. In addition to these, Leupold, Schmid,?* and others mention an octavo edition, without illustrations, Schweinfurt, 1607. We have not been able to find a copy of this edition, and are not certain of its existence. The same catalogues also mention an octavo edition of De Re Metallica, Wittenberg, 1612 or 1614, with notes by Joanne Sigfrido; but we believe this to be a confusion with Agricola’s subsidiary works, which were published at this time and place, with such notes. GERMAN EDITIONS. Vom Bergkwerck, Froben, Folio, 1557. Bergwerck Buch, Sigmundi Feyrabendt, Frankfort-on-Main, folio, 1580. nS , Ludwig Konig, Basel, folio, 1621. There are other editions than these, mentioned by bibliographers, but we have been unable to confirm them in any library. The most reliable of such bibliographies, that of John Ferguson,?* gives in addition to the above ; Bergwerkbuch, Basel, 1657, folio, and Schweinfurt, 1687, octavo. ITALIAN EDITION. L’ Arte de Metalli, Froben, Basel, folio, 1563. OTHER LANGUAGES. So far as we know, De Re Metallica was never actually published in other than Latin, German, and Italian. However, a portion of the accounts of the firm of Froben were published in 188174, and therein is an entry under March, 1560, of a sum to one Leodigaris Grymaldo for some other work, and also for “correction of Agricola’s De Re Metallica in French.” This may of course, be an error for the Italian edition, which appeared a little later. There is also mention?® that a manuscript of De Re Metallica in Spanish was *1Jacob Leupold, Prodromus Bibliothecae Metallicae, 1732, p. 11. FA. Schmid, Georg Agrikola’s Bermannus, Freiberg, 1806, p. 34. Bibliotheca Chemica, Glasgow. 1906, p. Io. *4Rechnungsbuch der Froben und Episcopius Buchdrucker und Buchhandler zu Basel, 1557-1564, published by R. Wackernagle, Basel, 1881, p. 20. 26Colecion del Sr Monoz t. 93, fol. 255 En la Acad. dela Hist. Madrid. XVIil. INTRODUCTION. seen in the library of the town of Bejar. An interesting note appears in the glossary given by Sir John Pettus in his translation of Lazarus Erckern’s work on assaying. He says?® ‘‘ but I cannot enlarge my observations upon any more words, because the printer calls for what I did write of a metallick dictionary, after I first proposed the printing of Erckern, but intending within the compass of a year to publish Georgius Agricola, De Re Metallica (being fully translated) in English, and also to add a dictionary to it, I shall reserve my remaining essays (if what I have done hitherto be approved) till then, and so I proceed in the dictionary.”’ The translation was never published and extensive inquiry in various libraries and among the family of Pettus has failed to yield any trace of the manuscript. 26Sir John Pettus, Fleta Minor, The Laws of Art and Nature, &c., London, 1636, p. 121. ; RS oo =< SO RKS aa CSR GEORGI AGRICOLAE DERE METALLICA LIBRI XII>P QVIz bus Officia, Inftrumenta, Machine , ac omnia deniqg ad Meralliz cam f{pectantia, non modo luculentiflimeé defcribuntur, fed & per effigies, fuislocis infertas , adiunctis Latinis, Germanicisq appelz lationibus ita ob oculos ponuntur, ut clarius tradi non poffint, EsrIvés 0D E& M DE ANIMANTIBVS SVBTERRANE!S Liber,ab Autorerec cognitus:cum Indicibus diuerfis, quicquid in opere tractatum eft; pulchre demonftrantibus, BASILEAE M> D> LVI» Cum Priuilegio{mperatorisinannos v. & Galliarum Regis ad Sexennium. 3é itt TDA TAG: soe. anaes pal gla ee a’), tae Lu oR ES TRE gee Ve Wy rae me a oo 2 Tinaegte Dai i BAL aps i nl win 4 cot faite ) A irramullieg re Sn ee ee all ak 2 play Ge ards 7 ~*~ wii S Ve aA ede ey OPE: ivdlape with ao ac he : eb cba (fhe pays ine SP tis diet aliione’s ee id Ket Xx. GEORGIVS FABRICIVS IN LI¢ bros Metallicos GEORGIE AGRICOLAEDphie lofophi preftantiffimi. AD LECTORE MM, S' iuuatignita cognofcere fronte Chimzram, Semicanem nympham,femibouemg uirum: Sicentum Seer eantern tate ferentem Sublimem manibus tela cruenta Gygen: Siiuuat Atneum penetrare Cyclopis in antrum, Atque alios, Vates quos peperere,metus: Nunc placeat mecum doa: euoluere libros, Ingenium a GRICOLAE quos deditacre tibi. Non hic uana tenet fufpenfam fabula mentem: Sed precium,utilitas multa,legentis erit. Quidquid terra finu,gremiog recondiditimo, Omne tibi multis eruit ante libris: Siuefluens {uperas ultro nitatur in oras, Inueniat facilem feu magis arte uiam. Perpetui proprns manant de fontibus amnes, Eft grauis Albunez {ponte Mephitis odor. Lethales funt fponte fcrobes Diczarchidis orz, Et micat é media conditus ignis humo. Plana Narifcorum cum tellus arfitin agro, Ter curuanondum falce refe@a Ceres, Necdedit hoc damnum paftor,nec luppiterigne: Vulcani per feruperat ira folum. Terrifico aura foras erumpens,incita motu, Szpe facit montes, ante ubi plana uia eft. Hecab(trufa cauis,imog incognita fundo, Cognita natura feepe fuere duce. Arte hominum,inlucem ueniunt quo multa, manugs Terre multiplices effodiuntur opes. Lydia ficnitrum profert,[standia fulfur, * Acmodo Tyrrhenus mittit alumen ager. Succina,qua trifido fubit equor Viftula cornu, Pifcantur Codano corpora feruafinu. Quid memorem regum preciofa infignia gemmas, Marmoragp excelfis ftructa fub aftra iugis ¢ Nillapides,nil {axa moror:funt pulchra metalia, Creefetuis opibus clara,;Mydagg tuis, Quzg acer Macedo terra Gees fodit, INominepermutans nomina prifca {uo. Atnuncnonullis cedit GER MANIA terris, a 4 £z%Terra XXIl. Terra ferax hominum, terragp diues opum. Hic auriinuenislocupletibus aurarefulget, Nonalio meffis carior ullaloco, Auricomum extulerit felix Campania ramum, Nec fructu nobis deficiente cadit, Eruit argenti folidas hoc tempore maffas Foffor,de preprijsarmag miles agris. Ienotum Graijs eftHefpertisqp metalium, Quod Bifemutum lingua paterna uocat. Candidius nigro,fed plumbo nigrius albo, Noftra quog hoc uena diuite fundit humus, Fundicur in tormenta,corus cum imitantia fulmen, s,ing hoftiles ferrea mafla domos. Scribuntur plumbo libri:quis credidit ante Quam mirandam artem Teutonis ora dedis? Nectamen hocaltjs,aut illa petuntur ab oris, Eruta Germano cuncta meralla folo. Sed quid ego hec repeto,monumentis tradita claris AGRIC OLAE, que nunc doda per ora uolants Hic cauffis ortus,& formas uiribus addit, Et querenda quibus fint meliora locis. Que fimente prius legifti candidus equa: Da reliquis quog nunctempora pauca libris, Viilitas fequitur cultorem:crede,uoluptas Non iucunda minor,rara legentis,erit. ludiciog prius ne quis malé damnetiniquo, Quz funtauctoris munera mira Dei: Eripit ipfe fuis primumtela hoftibus,ings ittentis torquet {picula rapta caput. Fertur equo latro,uehitur pirata triremi: Ergonecandus equus,nec fabricanda ratis¢ Vifceribus terre lateant abftrufa metalla, Vti opibus nefcit quod mala turba fuis¢ Quifquis es,aut doctis pareto monentibus,aut te Inter habere bonos ne fateare locum. Senonin prerupta metallicus abijcit audax, Vi quondam immiffo Curtius acer equo: Sed prius edifcit,qua funt nofcenda perito, Quodg facit,multa doctus ab arte facit. Vig gubernator feruat cum fidere uentos: Sicminime dubjjs utitur ille notis. lafides nauim,currus regit arte Metifcus: Foffor opus peragit nec minus arte fuum. Indagat uenz {pacium,numerumg,modumq, - Siue obliqua fuum,rectaue tendatiter. Paitor Xxlil. Paftor ut explorat quz terra fitapta colenti, Que bene lanigeras,que male pafcat oucs, En terre intentus, quid uincula linea tendit ¢ Fungitur officio iam Ptolemze tuo, Vt @ fue inuenit menfuram iurag uenz, In uarios operas diuiditind euiros, Jam¢p agoreffus opus, uiden’ ut mouet omne quod obftat, Affidua ut uerfat ftrenuus arma manu¢ We tibifurdefeant ferri tinnitibus avres, Ad grauiora ideo confpicienda ueni. Inftruit ecce fuis nunc artibusille minores: Sedulitas nullinon operofaloco, Metiri docet hic uenz {paciumg modumg, Vtg regat pofitis finibus arua lapis, Ne quis transmiffo uiolentus limite pergens, Non fibi conceffas,in fua uertat,opes. Hic docetinftrumenta,quibus Plutoniaregna Tutus adit,faxi permeat atg uias, Quanra(uides) folidas expugnet machina terrast Machina non ullotempore uifa prius, Cede nouis,nulla non inclytalaudeuetuftas, Pofteritas meritis eft quog grata tuis. Tum quia Germano funt hac inuenta fub axe, Si quis es,inuidiz contrahe uela tue. Aufonis ora tu.nct bellis,terra Attica culty, Germanum infractus tollicad aftralabor. Wectamen ingenio folet infeliciter uti, Mite gerat Phoebi,feu graue Martis opus. Tempus adeft, ftructis uenarum montibus,igne Explorare,ufum quem fibi tena ferat, Non labor ingenio catet hie,non copia fru@u, E(t adaperta bonz prima feneftra {pei. Ergo inftat porro grauiores ferre labores, Tntentas operinec remouere manus, Vrere fiue locus pofcat,feu tundere uemas, Siue lauare lacu preter euntis aque. Seu fammis iterum modicis torrere néceffe eft, Excoquere aut faftis ignibus omnemalum, Cum fluit as riuis,auri argentigp metallum, Spes animo foffor uix capit ipfe fuas. Argentum cupidus fuluo fecernitab auro, E, plumbilentam demit utrigs moram. Separat argentum,lucri {tudiofus,ab ere, Seruatis,linquens deteriora, bonis. Q: ice XXIV Que ficuncta uelim tenui percurrere vertu, Antealium reuehat Miemnonis orta diem. Poftremus labor eft,concretos difcerefuccos, Quos fert innumeris Teutonaterralocis, Quo fal,quo nitrum,quo pacto fiat alumen, V fibus artificis cum parat illa manus: Necnon chalcantum,fulfur,fluidumag bitumen, Maflacp quo uitri lenta dolandamodo, Sufcipit haec hominum mirandos curalabores, Pauperiem ufqgadeo ferre famemg graue eft, Tantus amor uictum paruis extundere natis, Et patria ciuem non dare uelle malum. Nec manet in terrz fofforis merfalatebris Mens, fed fert domino uota precescg Deo. Munifice expectat,{pe plenus,munera dextre, Extollens animum latus ad aftra fuum, Diuitias c uR15s T vs dat noticiama fruendi, Cui memori grates pectore femper agit. Hoc quoque laudati quondam fecere Philippi, Quiuirtutis habent cum pietate decus. Huc oculos,huc Aecte animum,fuauiffime Lector, Auctoremg pia nofcito mente Deum. AGRICOLAE hinc optans operofo faufta labori, Laudibus eximsj candidus efto uiri. Iléfuum extollit patria cum nomine nomen, Et uir in ore frequens pofteritatis erit, Cundta caduntletho,ftudi monumenta uigebunt, Purpurei doneclumina folis erunt, Mifenz m. p. 11. éludo illuftri, For completeness’ sake we reproduce in the original Latin the laudation of Agricola by his friend, Georgius Fabricius, a leading scholar of his time. It has but little intrinsic value for it is not poetry of a very high order, and to make it acceptable English would require certain improvements, for which only poets have license. A “‘free’’ translation of the last few lines indicates its complimentary character :— “He doth raise his country’s fame with his own “ And in the mouths of nations yet unborn “ His praises shall be sung ; Death comes to all “ But great achievements raise a monument “Which shall endure until the sun grows cold.” TO THE MOST ILLUSTRIOUS AND MOST MIGHTY DUKES OF Saxony, Landgraves of Thuringia, Margraves of Meissen, Imperial Overlords of Saxony, Burgraves of Altenberg and Magdeburg, Counts of Brena, Lords of Pleissnerland, To Maurice Grand Marshall and Elector of the Holy Roman Empire and to his brother aucustus, GEORGE AGRICOLA §. D. S——s5,0ST illustrious Princes, often have I considered the metallic arts as a whole, as Moderatus Columella? considered the agricultural arts, just as if I had been considering the whole of the human body ; and when IJ had perceived the various parts of the subject, like so many members of the body, I became afraid that I might die before I should understand its full extent, much less before I could immortalise it in writing. This book itself indicates the length and breadth of the subject, and the number and importance of the sciences of which at least some little knowledge is necessary to miners. Indeed, the subject of mining is a very exten- sive one, and one very difficult to explain; no part of it is fully dealt with by the Greek and Latin authors whose works survive ; and since the art is one of the most ancient, the most necessary and the most profitable to mankind, I considered that I ought not to neglect it. Without doubt, none of the arts is older than agriculture, but that of the metals is not less ancient ; in fact they are at least equal and coeval, for no mortal man ever tilled a field without implements. In truth, in all the works of agricul- ture, as in the other arts, implements are used which are made from metals, or which could not be made without the use of metals; for this reason the metals are of the greatest necessity to man. When an art is so poor that it lacks metals, it is not of much importance, for nothing is made without tools. Besides, of all ways whereby great wealth is acquired by good and honest means, none is more advantageous than mining; for although from fields which are well tilled (not to mention other things) we derive rich yields, yet we obtain richer products from mines ; in fact, one mine is often much more beneficial to us than many fields. For this reason we learn from the history of nearly all ages that very many men have been made rich by the 1For Agricola’s relations with these princes see p. 1x. 2Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella was a Roman, a native of Cadiz, and lived during the rst Century. He was the author of De Re Rustica in 12 books. It was first printed in 1472, and some fifteen or sixteen editions had been printed before Agricola’s death. XXV1. PREFACE mines, and the fortunes of many kings have been much amplified there- by. But I will not now speak more of these matters, because I have dealt with these subjects partly in the first book of this work, and partly in the other work entitled De Veteribus et Novis Metallis, where I have refuted the charges which have been made against metals and against miners. Now, though the art of husbandry, which I willingly rank with the art of mining, appears to be divided into many branches, yet it is not separated into so many as this art of ours, nor can I teach the principles of this as easily as Columella did of that. He had at hand many writers upon hus- bandry whom he could follow,—in fact, there are more than fifty Greek authors whom Marcus Varro enumerates, and more than ten Latin ones, whom Columella himself mentions. I have only one whom I can follow ; that is C. Plinius Secundus,? and he expounds only a very few methods of digging ores and of making metals. Far from the whole of the art having been treated by any one writer, those who have written occasionally on any one or another of its branches have not even dealt completely with a single one of them. Moreover, there is a great scarcity even of these, since alone of all the Greeks, Strato of Lampsacus,* the successor of Theophrastus,> wrote a book on the subject, De Machinis Metallicis ; except, perhaps a work by the poet Philo, a small part of which embraced to some degree the occupation of mining. Pherecrates seems to have introduced into his comedy, which was similar in title, miners as slaves or as persons condemned to serve in the mines. Of the Latin writers, Pliny, as I have already said, has described a few methods of working. Also among the authors I must include the modern writers, whosoever they are, for no one should escape just condemnation who fails to award due recognition to persons whose writings he uses, even very slightly. Two books have been written in our tongue ; the one on the assaying of mineral substances and metals, somewhat confused, whose author is unknown’; the other “On Veins,” of which Pandulfus Anglus ® is also said to have written, although the German book was written by Calbus of Freiberg, a well-known doctor; but neither of them accomplished the task 8We give a short review of Pliny’s Naturalis Historia in the Appendix B. ‘This work is not extant, as Agricola duly notes later on. Strato succeeded Theo- phrastus as president of the Lyceum, 288 B.c. 5For note on Theophrastus see Appendix B. ‘It appears that the poet Philo did write a work on mining which is not extant. So far as we know the only reference to this work is in Athenus’ (200 A.D.) Deipnosophistae. The passage as it appears in C. D. Yonge’s Translation (Bohn’s Library, London, 1854, Vol. 11, Book vi, p. 506) is: ‘“‘ And there is a similar fish produced in the Red Sea which “is called Stromateus ; it has gold-coloured lines running along the whole of his body, as “Philo tells us in his book on Mines.” There is a fragment of a poem of Pherecrates, entitled “ Miners,’ but it seems to have little to do with mining. "The title given by Agricola De Materiae Metallicae et Metallorum Experimento is difficult to identify. It seems likely to be the little Probiery Biuchlein, numbers of which were published in German in the first half of the 16th Century. We discuss this work at some length in the Appendix B on Ancient Authors. 8Pandulfus, “the Englishman,” is mentioned by various 15th and 16th Century writets, and in the preface of Mathias Farinator’s Liber Moralitatum .. . Rerum Naturalium, etc., printed in Augsburg, 1477, there is a list of books among which appears a reference to a work by Pandulfus on veins and minerals. We liave not been able to find the book. PREFACE XXVil. he had begun.® Recently Vannucci Biringuccio, of Sienna, a wise man experienced in many matters, wrote in vernacular Italian on _ the subject of the melting, separating, and alloying of metals.!° He touched briefly on the methods of smelting certain ores, and explained more fully the methods of making certain juices; by reading his directions, I have refreshed my memory of those things which I myself saw in Italy ; as for many matters on which I write, he did not touch upon them at all, or touched but lightly. This book was given me by Franciscus Badoarius, a Patrician of Venice, and a man of wisdom and of repute ; this he had promised that he would do, when in the previous year he was at Marienberg, having been sent by the Venetians as an Ambassador to King Ferdinand. Beyond these books I do not find any writings on the metallic arts. For that reason, even if the book of Strato existed, from all these sources not one-half of the whole body of the science of mining could be pieced together. Seeing that there have been so few who have written on the subject of the metals, it appears to me all the more wonderful that so many alchemists have arisen who would compound metals artificially, and who would change one into another. Hermolaus Barbarus,!! a man of high rank and station, and distinguished in all kinds of learning, has mentioned the names of many in his writings; and I will proffer more, but only famous ones, for I will limit myself to a few. Thus Osthanes has written on yxvpevred > and there are Hermes; Chanes ; Zosimus, the Alexandrian, to his sister Theosebia ; Olympiodorus, also an Alexandrian; Agathodemon; Democritus, not the one of Abdera, but some other whom I know not ; Orus Chrysorichites, Pebichius, Comenius, Joannes, Apulejus, Petasius, Pelagius, Africanus, Theophilus, Synesius, Stephanus to Heracleus Cesar, Heliodorus to Theodosius, Geber, Callides Rachaidibus, Veradianus, Rodianus, Canides, Merlin, Raymond Lully, Arnold de Villa Nova, and Augustinus Pantheus of Venice; and three women, Cleopatra, the maiden Taphnutia, and Maria the Jewess.” All these alchemists employ obscure language, and Johanes Aurclius Augurellus of Rimini, alone has used the language of poetry. There are many other books on ®Jacobi (Der Mineralog Georgius Agricola, Zwickau, 1881, p. 47) says: “ Calbus “ Freibergius, so called by Agricola himself, is certainly no other than the Freiberg Doctor “ Rihlein von Kalbe; he was, according to Méller, a doctor and burgomaster at Freiberg “at the end of the 15th and the beginning of the 16th Centuries. . . . The chronicler “describes him as a fine mathematician, who helped to survey and design the mining towns “of Annaberg in 1497 and Marienberg in 1521.’’ We would call attention to the statement of Calbus’ views, quoted at the end of Book III, De Re Metallica (p. 75), which are astonishingly similar to statements in the Niitzlich Bergbiichlin, and leave little doubt that this “ Calbus ” was the author of that anonymous book on veins. For further discussion see Appendix B. 10For discussion of Biringuccio see Appendix B. The proper title is De La Pirotechnia (Venice, 1540). UHermolaus Barbarus, according to Watt (Bibliotheca Britannica, London, 1824), was a lecturer on Philosophy in Padua. He was born in 1454, died in 1493, and was the author of a number of works on medicine, natural history, etc., with commentaries on the older authors. The debt which humanity does owe to these self-styled philosophers must not be overlooked, for the science of Chemistry comes from three sources—Alchemy, Medicine and Metallurgy. However polluted the former of these may be, still the vast advance which it made by the discovery of the principal acids, alkalis, and the more common of their salts, should he constantly recognized. It is obviously impossible, within the space of a footnote, to XXVIil. PREFACE this subject, but all are difficult to follow, because the writers upon these things use strange names, which do not properly belong to the metals, and because some of them employ now one name and now another, invented by themselves, though the thing itself changes not. These masters teach their disciples that the base metals, when smelted, are broken up ; also they teach the methods by which they reduce them to the primary parts and remove whatever is superfluous in them, and by supplying what is wanted make out of them the precious metals—that is, gold and silver,— all of which they carry out in a crucible. Whether they can do these things or not I cannot decide; but, seeing that so many writers assure us with all earnestness that they have reached that goal for which they aimed, it would seem that faith might be placed in them; yet also seeing that we do not read of any of them ever having become rich by this art, nor do we now see them growing rich, although so many nations everywhere have produced, and are producing, alchemists, and all of them are straining every nerve night and day to the end that they may heap a great quantity of gold and silver, I should say the matter is dubious. But although it may be due to the carelessness of the writers that they have not transmitted to us the names of the masters who acquired great wealth through this occupation, certainly it is clear that their disciples either do not understand their precepts or, if they do under- stand them, do not follow them ; for if they do comprehend them, seeing that these disciples have been and are so numerous, they would have by to-day filled give anything but the most casual notes as to the personages here mentioned and their writings. Aside from the classics and religious works, the libraries of the Middle Ages teemed with more material on Alchemy than on any other one subject, and since that date a never- ending stream of historical, critical, and discursive volumes and tracts devoted to the old Alchemists and their writings has been poured upon the world. A collection recently sold in London, relating to Paracelsus alone, embraced over seven hundred volumes. Of many of the Alchemists mentioned by Agricola little is really known, and no two critics agree as to the commonest details regarding many of them; in fact, an endless confusion springs from the negligent habit of the lesser Alchemists of attributing the author- ship of their writings to more esteemed members of their ownilk, suchas Hermes, Osthanes, etc., not to mention the palpable spuriousness of works under the names of the real philosophers, such as Aristotle, Plato, or Moses, and even of Jesus Christ. Knowledge of many of the authors mentioned by Agricola does not extend beyond the fact that the names mentioned are appended to various writings, in some instances to MSS yet unpublished. They may have been actual persons, or they may not. Agricola undoubtedly had perused such manuscripts and books in some leading library, as the quotation from Boerhaave given later shows. Shaw (A New Method of Chemistry, etc., London, 1753. Vol. I, p. 25) considers that the large number of such manuscripts in the European libraries at this time were composed or transcribed by monks and others living in Constantinople, Alexandria, and Athens, who fled westward before the Turkish invasion, bringing their works with them. For purposes of this summary we group the names mentioned by Agricola, the first class being of those who are known only as names appended to MSS or not identifiable at all. Possibly a more devoted student of the history of Alchemy would assign fewer names to this department of oblivion. They are Maria the Jewess, Orus Chrysorichites, Chanes, Petasius, Pebichius, Theophilus, Callides, Veradianus, Rodianus, Canides, the maiden Taphnutia, Johannes, Augustinus, and Africanus. The last three are names so common as not to be possible of identification without more particulars, though Johannes may be the Johannes Rupeseissa (1375), an alchemist of some note. Many of these names can be found among the Bishops and Prelates of the early Christian Church, but we doubt if their owners would ever be identified with such indiscretions as open, avowed alchemy. The Theophilus mentioned might be the metal-working monk of the 12th Century, who is further discussed in Appendix B on Ancient Authors. In the next group fall certain names such as Osthanes, Hermes, Zosimus, Agathodaemon, and Democritus, which have been the watchwords of authority to Alchemists of all ages. These certainly possessed the great secrets, either the philosopher’s stone or the elixir. PREFACE XX1X. whole towns with gold and silver. Even their books proclaim their vanity, for they inscribe in them the names of Plato and Aristotle and other philosophers, in order that such high-sounding inscriptions may impose upon simple people and pass for learning. There is another class of alchemists who do not change the substance of base metals, but colour them to represent gold or silver, so that they appear to be that which they are not, and when this appearance is taken from them by the fire, as if it were a garment foreign to them, they return to their own character. These alchemists, since they deceive people, are not only held in the greatest odium, but their frauds are a capital offence. No less a fraud, warranting capital punishment, is committed by a third sort of alchemists ; these throw into a crucible a small piece of gold or silver hidden in a coal, and after mixing therewith fluxes which have the power of extracting it, pretend to be making gold from orpiment, or silver from tin and like substances. But concerning the art of alchemy, if it be an art, I will speak further elsewhere. I will now return to the art of mining. Since no authors have written of this art in its entirety, and since foreign nations and races do not understand our tongue, and, if they did understand it, would be able to learn only a small part of the art through the works of those authors whom we do possess, I have written these twelve books De Re Metallica. Of these, the first book contains the arguments which may be used against this art, and against metals and the mines, and what can be said in their favour. The second book describes the miner, and branches into Hermes Trismegistos was a legendary Egyptian personage supposed to have flourished before 1,500 B.c., and by some considered to be a corruption of the god Thoth. He is supposed to have written a number of works, but those extant have been demonstrated to date not prior to the second Century; he is referred to by the later Greek Alchemists, and was believed to have possessed the secret of transmutation. Osthanes was also a very shadowy personage, and was considered by some Alchemists to have been an Egyptian prior to Hermes, by others to have been the teacher of Zoroaster. Pliny mentions a magician of this name who accompanied Xerxes’ army. Later there are many others of this name, and the most probable explanation is that this was a favourite pseudonym for ancient magicians ; there is a very old work, of no great interest, in MSS in Latin and Greek, in the Munich, Gotha, Vienna, and other libraries, by one of this name. Agathodaemon was still another shadowy character referred to by the older Alchemists. There are MSS in the Florence, Paris, Escurial, and Munich libraries bearing his name, but nothing tangible is known as to whether he was an actual man or if these writings are not of a much later period than claimed. To the next group belong the Greek Alchemists, who flourished during the rise and decline of Alexandria, from 200 B.c. to 700 A.D., and we give them in order of their dates. Comerius was considered by his later fellow professionals to have been the teacher of the art to Cleopatra (Ist Century B.c.), and a MSS with a title to that effect exists in the Bibliotheque Nationale at Paris. The celebrated Cleopatra seems to have stood very high in the estimation of the Alchemists ; perhaps her doubtful character found a response among them ; there are various works extant in MSS attributed to her, but nothing can be known as to their authenticity. Lucius Apulejus or Apuleius was born in Numidia about the znd Century ; he was a Roman Platonic Philosopher, and was the author of aromance, ‘‘ The Metamorphosis, or the Golden Ass.’’ Synesius was a Greek, but of unknown period ; there is a MSS treatise on the Philosopher’s Stone in the library at Leyden under his name, and various printed works are attributed to him; he mentions ‘‘ water of saltpetre,’’ and has, therefore, been hazarded to be the earliest recorder of nitric acid. The work here referred to as ‘“‘ Heliodorus to Theodesius ” was probably the MSS in the Libraries at Paris, Vienna, Munich, etc., under the title of “ Heliodorus the Philosopher’s Poem to the Emperor Theodosius the Great on the Mystic Art of the Philosophers, etc.” His period would, therefore, be about the 4th Century. The Alexandrian Zosimus is more generally known as Zosimus the Panopolite, from Panopolis, an ancient town on the Nile; he flourished in the 5th Century, and belonged to the Alexandrian School of Alchemists ; he should not be confused with the Roman historian of the same name and period. The following statement is by Boerhaave (Elementa Chemiae, Paris, 1724, Chap. I.) :—‘‘ The name Chemistry written in Greek, or Chemia, is so ancient XXX. PREFACE a discourse on the finding of veins. The third book deals with veins and stringers, and seams in the rocks. The fourth book explains the method of delimiting veins, and also describes the functions of the mining officials. The fifth book describes the digging of ore and the surveyor’s art. The sixth book describes the miners’ tools and machines. The seventh book is on the assaying of ore. The eighth book lays down the rules for the work of roasting, crushing, and washing the ore. The ninth book explains the methods of smelting ores. The tenth book instructs those who are studious of the metallic arts in the work of separating silver from gold, and lead from gold and silver. The eleventh book shows the way of separating silver from copper. The twelfth book gives us rules for manufacturing salt, soda, alum, vitriol, sulphur, bitumen, and glass. Although I have not fulfilled the task which I have undertaken, on account of the great magnitude of the subject, I have, at all events, endeavoured to fulfil it, for I have devoted much labour and care, and have even gone to some expense upon it ; for with regard to the veins, tools, vessels, sluices, machines, and furnaces, I have not only described them, but have also hired illustrators to delineate their forms, lest descriptions which are conveyed by words should either not be understood by men of our own times, or should cause difficulty to posterity, in the same way as to us difficulty is often caused by many names which the Ancients (because such words were familiar to all of them) have handed down to us without any explanation. I have omitted all those things which I have not myself seen, or have “as perhaps to have been used in the antediluvian age. Of this opinion was Zosimus the “ Panopolite, whose Greek writings, though known as long as before the year 1550 to George “Agricola, and afterwards perused . . . . by Jas. Scaliger and Olaus Borrichius, “still remain unpublished in the King of France’s library. In one of these, entitled, ‘ The “Tnstruction of Zosimus the Panopolite and Philosopher, out of those written to Theosebeia, “etc. ...’ QOlympiodorus was an Alexandrian of the 5th Century, whose writings were largely commentaries on Plato and Aristotle ; he is sometimes accredited with being the first to describe white arsenic (arsenical oxide). The full title of the work styled “‘Stephanus to Heracleus Caesar,” as published in Latin at Padua in 1573, was ‘Stephan of Alexandria, the “Universal Philosopher and Master, his nine processes on the great art of making gold and ““silver, addressed to the Emperor Heraclius.”” He, therefore, if authentic, dates in the 7th Century. To the next class belong those of the Middle Ages, which we give in order of date. The works attributed to Geber play such an important part in the history of Chemistry and Metallurgy that we discuss his book at length in Appendix B. Late criticism indicates that this work was not the production of an 8th Century Arab, but a compilation of some Latin scholar of the 12th er 13th Centuries. Arnold de Villa Nova, born about 1240, died in 1313, was celebrated as a physician, philosopher, and chemist; his first works were published in Lyons in 1504; many of them have apparently never been printed, for references may be found to some 18 different works. Raymond Lully, a Spaniard, born in 1235, who was a disciple of Arnold de Villa Nova, was stoned to death in Africa in 1315. There are extant over 100 works attributed to this author, although again the habit of disciples of writing under the master’s name may be responsible for most of these. John Aurelio Augurello was an Italian Classicist, born in Rimini about 1453. Thework referred to, Chrysopoeia et Gerontica is a poem on the art of making gold, etc., published in Venice, 1515, and re-published frequently thereafter ; it is much quoted by Alchemists. With regard to Merlin, as satis- factory an account as any of this truly English magician may be found in Mark Twain’s “Yankee at the Court of King Arthur.” It is of some interest to note that Agricola omits from his list Avicenna (980-1037 A.D.), Roger Bacon (1214-1294), Albertus Magnus (1193- 1280), Basil Valentine (end 15th century ?), and Paracelsus, a contemporary of his own. In De Ortu et Causis he expends much thought on refutation of theories advanced by Avicenna and Albertus, but of the others we have found no mention, although their work is, from a chemical point of view, of considerable importance. PREFACE XXX1. not read or heard of from persons upon, whom I can rely. That which I have neither seen, nor carefully considered after reading or hearing of, ! have not written about. The same rule must be understood with regard to all my in- struction, whether I enjoin things which ought to be done, or describe things which are usual, or condemn things which are done. Since the art of mining does not lend itself to elegant language, these books of mine are correspond- ingly lacking in refinement of style. The things dealt with in this art of metals sometimes lack names, either because they are new, or because, even if they are old, the record of the names by which they were formerly known has been lost. For this reason I have been forced by a necessity, for which I must be pardoned, to describe some of them by a number of words combined, and to distinguish others by new names,—to which latter class belong Ingestor, Discretor, Lotor, and Excoctory.48 Other things, again, I have alluded to by old names, such as the Czszwm; for when Nonius Marcellus wrote,!4 this was the name of a two-wheeled vehicle, but 1 have adopted it for a small vehicle which has only one wheel; and if anyone does not approve of these names, let him either find more appropriate ones for these things, or discover the words used in the writings of the Ancients. These books, most illustrious Princes, are dedicated to you for many reasons, and, above all others, because metals have proved of the greatest value to you; for though your ancestors drew rich profits from the revenues of their vast and wealthy territories, and likewise from the taxes which were paid by the foreigners by way of toll and by the natives by way of tithes, yet they drew far richer profits from the mines. Because of the mines not a few towns have risen into eminence, such as Freiberg, Annaberg, Marienberg, Schneeberg, Geyer, and Altenberg, not to mention others. Nay, if I under- stand anything, greater wealth now lies hidden beneath the ground in the mountainous parts of your territory than is visible and apparent above ground. Farewell. Chemmiz, Saxony, December First, 1550. 137 gestor,—Carrier ; Discretor,—Sorter ; Lotor,—Washer ; Excoctoy,—Smelter. 14Nonius Marcellus was a Roman grammarian of the 4th Century B.c. His extant treatise is entitled, De Compendiosa Doctrina per Litteras ad Filiwm. Bh gee (i, als hy He aes a nea fe boos naga 4 ee ee yoke ups tea . 7 : A Oe eT ge a won hee ieee o bay tigate od eee co | o oe | ialee ONLY Ser ole i ie crane aia Eh tT prety sad Re ee ML okt oF CAT ‘=, fas ip elit avy para vows, Cada ie re tee ps, tk ee 8. 2 ON mR cad Ore eee aaa 1,avk, ean ee See +: 7 ee on i : mato ml alte imnh® aca A Bi onilien : a 1uip Kreeyeagy: «Mm 7 , woe 10 a te: PC at eee set mest pe Hie Pe on Roth coo. Y Lae ey (us ana f doy Lt) Ge Cae b i (GTN wa . Pes hei edd it uP eT : - Se ae wid an sie cal a | ies ‘if ul zeny @ daeeG Kh rine Wear hie? ht aa sll eS a) y hens le eH Ae , it co dea eat Ab (ied Rela ei peal Std iele, ne FAY, 5. a oe a m ’ ou a _ i + io >» ee De eo > » itbee ; 1 it o —_ girly “_ 7 J t 7 == t= '4 ros x - ya Ris ad : iam - 4 Rn as diet BOOK I. a] ANY persons hold the opinion that the metal indus- tries are fortuitous and that the occupation is one of sordid toil, and altogether a kind of business requiring not so much skill as labour. But as for myself, when I reflect carefully upon its special points one by one, it appears to be far otherwise. For a miner must have the greatest skill in his work, that he may know first of all what mountain or hill, what valley or plain, can be prospected most profitably, or what he should leave alone; moreover, he must understand the veins, stringers! and seams in the rocks?. Then he must be thoroughly familiar with the many and varied species of earths, juices®, gems, stones, marbles, rocks, metals, and compounds‘. He must also have a 1Fibrae—“ fibres.’ See Note 6, p. 70. 2Commissurae saxorum—‘‘rock joints,” “seams,” or “‘cracks.’’ Agricola and all of the old authors laid a wholly unwarranted geologic value on these phenomena. See descrip- tion and footnotes, Book III., pages 43 and 72. SSucci— juice,” or succi concreti— solidified juice.” Ger. Trans., saffte. The old English translators and mineralogists often use the word juices in the same sense, and we have adopted it. The words ‘solutions ”’ and “‘ salts’ convey a chemical significance not warranted by the state of knowledge in Agricola’s time. Instances of the former use of this word may be seen in Barba’s ‘‘First Book of the Art of Metals,” (Trans. Earl Sandwich, London, 1674, p. 2, etc.,) and in Pryce’s Mineralogia Cornubiensis (London, 1778, p. 25, 32). ‘Tn order that the reader should be able to grasp the author’s point of view as to his divisions of the Mineral Kingdom, we introduce here his own statement from De Natura Fossilium, (p. 180). It is also desirable to read the footnote on his theory of ore-deposits on pages 43 to 53, and the review of De Natura Fossilium given in the Appendix. “ The subterranean inanimate bodies are divided into two classes, one of which, because “it is a fluid or an exhalation, is called by those names, and the other class is called the ‘*‘minerals. Mineral bodies are solidified from particles of the same substance, such as pure ‘sold, each particle of which is gold, or they are of different substances suchas lumps which “consist of earth, stone, and metal; these latter may be separated into earth, stone and “«metal, and therefore the first is not a mixture while the last is called a mixture. The first “are again divided into simple and compound minerals. The simple minerals are of four “« classes, namely earths, solidified juices, stones and metals, while the mineral compounds “are of many sorts, as I shall explain later.” “Earth is a simple mineral body which may be kneaded in the hands when moistened, “or from which lute is made when it has been wetted. Earth, properly so called, is found “enclosed in veins or veinlets, or frequently on the surface in fields and meadows. This “ definition is a general one. The harder earth, although moistened by water, does not at “once become lute, but does turn into lute if it remains in water for some time. There are ““many species of earths, some of which have names but others are unnamed.” “« Solidified juices are dry and somewhat hard (subdurus) mineral bodies which when ‘moistened with water do not soften but liquefy instead; or if they do soften, they differ “ sreatly from the earths by their unctuousness (pingue) or by the material of which they “consist. Although occasionally they have the hardness of stone, yet because they preserve ‘the form and nature which they had when less hard, they can easily be distinguished from “the stones. The juices are divided into ‘meagre’ and unctuous (macer et pinguis). The ““«meagre’ juices, since they originate from three different substances, are of three species. “They are formed from a liquid mixed with earth, or with metal, or with a “mineral compound. To the first species belong salt and Nitrum (soda); to the second, “chrysocolla, verdigris, iron-rust, and azure ; to the third, vitriol, alum, and an acrid juice “which is unnamed. The first two of these latter are obtained from pyrites, which is “numbered amongst the compound minerals. The third of these comes from Cadmia (in “this case the cobalt-zinc-arsenic minerals ; the acrid juice is probably zinc sulphate). To “the unctuous juices belong these species : sulphur, bitumen, realgar and orpiment. Vitriol “and alum, although they are somewhat unctuous yet do not burn, and they differ in “their origin from the unctuous juices, for the latter are forced out from the earth by heat, ‘‘ whereas the former are produced when pyrites is softened by moisture.” 2 BOOK I. complete knowledge of the method of making all underground works. Lastly, there are the various systems of assaying® substances and of preparing them for smelting; and here again there are many altogether diverse methods. For there is one method for gold and silver, another for copper, another for quicksilver, another for iron, another for lead, and ** Stone is a dry and hard mineral body which may either be softened by remaining “for a long time in water and be reduced to powder by a fierce fire; or else it does not “soften with water but the heat of a great fire liquefies it. To the first species belong “those stones which have been solidified by heat, to the second those solidified (literally “ congealed’) by cold. These two species of stones are constituted from their own material. “However, writers on natural subjects who take into consideration the quantity and quality ““of stones and their value. divide them into four classes. The first of these has no name of “its own but is called in common parlance ‘stone’ : to this class belong loadstone, jasper (or “‘bloodstone) and Aetites (geodes ?). The second class comprises hard stones, either pellucid ‘or ornamental, with very beautiful and varied colours which sparkle marvellously ; they “are called gems. The third comprises stones which are only brilliant after they have been “polished, and are usually called marble. The fourth are called rocks ; they are found in “* quarries, from which they are hewn out for use in building, and they are cut into various “shapes. None of the rocks show colour or take a polish. Few of the stones sparkle ; fewer “still are transparent. Marble is sometimes only distinguishable from opaque gems by its “volume ; rock is always distinguishable from stones properly so-called by its volume. Both “the stones and the gems are usually to be found in veins and veinlets which traverse the “rocks and marble. These four classes, as I have already stated, are divided into many “species, which I will explain in their proper place.” ““Metal is a mineral body, by nature either liquid or somewhat hard. The latter may “be melted by the heat of the fire, but when it has cooled down again and lost all heat, it “becomes hard again and resumes its proper form. In this respect it differs from the “stone which melts in the fire, for although the latter regain its hardness, yet it loses “‘its pristine form and properties. Traditionally there are six different kinds of metals, “namely gold, silver, copper, iron, tin and lead. There are really others, for quicksilver is a “metal, although the Alchemists disagree with us on this subject, and bismuth is also. The “ancient Greek writers seem to have been ignorant of bismuth, wherefore Ammonius rightly “states that there are many species of metals, animals, and plants which are unknown to us. “« Sitbtum when smelted in the crucible and refined has as much right to be regarded as a ‘‘proper metal as is accorded to lead by writers. If when smelted, a certain portion be “added to tin, a bookseller’s alloy is produced from which the type is made that is used by “those who print books on paper. Each metal has its own form which it preserves when “separated from those metals which were mixed with it. Therefore neither electrum nor ““ Stannum is of itself a real metal, but rather an alloy of two metals. Electrum is an alloy “of gold and silver, Stannum of lead and silver (see note 33 p 473). And yet if silver be “parted from the electrum, then gold remains and not electrum ; if silver be taken away “from Stannum, then lead remains and not Stannum. Whether brass, however, is found as “a native metal or not, cannot be ascertained with any surety. We only know of the “artificial brass, which consists of copper tinted with the colour of the mineral calamine. “And yet if any should be dug up, it would be a proper metal. Black and white copper ““seem to be different from the red kind. Metal, therefore, is by nature either solid, as I “have stated, or fluid, as in the unique case of quicksilver. But enough now concerning the “simple kinds.” “‘T will now speak of the compounds which are composed of the simple minerals “cemented together by nature, and under the word ‘compound’ I now discuss those “mineral bodies which consist of two or three simple minerals. They are likewise mineral “substances, but so thoroughly mixed and alloyed that even in the smallest part there is “not wanting any substance that is contained in the whole. Only by the force of the fire “js it possible to separate one of the simple mineral substances from another ; either the ‘‘third from the other two, or two from the third, if there were three in the same compound. “These two, three or more bodies are so completely mixed into one new species that the “pristine form of none of these is recognisable.” “The ‘mixed’ minerals, which are composed of those same simple minerals, differ “from the ‘compounds,’ in that the simple minerals each preserves its own form so that ‘they can be separated one from the other not only by fire but sometimes by water and ‘““sometimes by hand. As these two classes differ so greatly from one another I usually use “two different words in order to distinguish one from the other. I am well aware that 5Experiendae—‘‘a trial.” That actual assaying in its technical sense is meant, is sufficiently evident from Book VII. BOOK I. 3 even tin and bismuth® are treated differently from lead. Although the evaporation of juices is an art apparently quite distinct from metallurgy, yet they ought not to be considered separately, inasmuch as these juices are also often dug out of the ground solidified, or they are produced from certain kinds of earth and stones which the miners dig up, and some of the juices are not themselves devoid of metals. Again, their treatment is not simple, since there is one method for common salt, another for soda’, another for alum, another for vitriol®, another for sulphur, and another for bitumen. Furthermore, there are many arts and sciences of which a miner should not beignorant. First there is Philosophy, that he may discern the origin, cause, and nature of subterranean things; for then he will be able to dig out the veins easily and advantageously, and to obtain more abundant results from his mining. Secondly, there is Medicine, that he may be able to look after his diggers and other workmen, that they do not meet with those “ Galen calls the metallic earth a compound which is really a mixture, but he who wishes to “instruct others should bestow upon each separate thing a definite name.” For convenience of reference we may reduce the above to a diagram as follows : 1. Fluids and gases. Earths (a) Simple }Solidified juices minerals | Stones A. Homogenous Metals bodies (b) Compound (Being homogenous mixtures minerals | of (a) 2. Mineral bodies B. Mixtures. Being heterogeneous mixtures of (a) 6... . plumbum .. . . candidum ac cinereum vel nigrum. “Lead “|. . white, or ash-coloured, or black.” Agricola himself coined the term plumbum cinereum for bismuth, no doubt following the Roman term for tin—plumbum candidum. The following passage from Bermannus (p. 439) is of interest, for it appears to be the first description of bismuth, although mention of it occurs in the Niitzlich Bergbuchhin (see Appendix B). “ Bermannus: I will show you another kind of mineral which is numbered “amongst metals, but appears to me to have been unknown to the Ancients; we call it “bisemutum. Naevius: Then in your opinion there are more kinds of metals than the “seven commonly believed ? Bermannus: More, I consider; for this which just now I ““said we called bisemutum, cannot correctly be called plumbum candidum (tin), nor nigrum “(lead), but is different from both and is a third one. Plumbum candidwm is whiter and “plumbum nigrum is darker, as you see. Naevius: We see that this is of the colour of “galena. Arcon: How then can bisemutum, as you call it, be distinguished from galena ? “ Bermannus : Easily ; when you take it in your hands it stains them with black, unless “it is quite hard. The hard kind is not friable like galena, but can be cut. It is “blacker than the kind of rudis silver which we say is almost the colour of lead, and thus “is different from both. Indeed, it not rarely contains some silver. It generally indicates “that there is silver beneath the place where it is found, and because of this our miners “are accustomed to call it the ‘roof of silver.’ They are wont to roast this mineral, and “from the better part they make metal; from the poorer part they make a pigment of a “kind not to be despised.” 7Nitrum. The Ancients comprised many salts under this head, but Agricola in the main uses it for soda, although sometimes he includes potash. He usually, however, refers to potash as lixivium or salt therefrom, and by other distinctive terms. For description of method of manufacture and discussion, see Book XII., p. 558. 8A tramentum sutortum—‘ Shoemaker’s blacking.”’ See p. 572 for description of method of manufacture and historical footnote. In the main Agricola means green vitriol, but he does describe three main varieties, green, blue, and white (De Natura Fossilium, p.219). The blue was of course copper sulphate, and it is fairly certain that the white was zinc vitriol. 4 BOOK I. diseases to which they are more liable than workmen in other occupations, or if they do meet with them, that he himself may be able to heal them or may see that the doctors doso. Thirdly follows Astronomy, that he may know the divisions of the heavens and from them judge the direction of the veins. Fourthly, there is the science of Surveying that he may be able to estimate how deep a shaft should be sunk to reach the tunnel which is being driven to it, and to determine the limits and boundaries in these workings, especially in depth. Fifthly, his knowledge of Arithmetical Science should be such that he may calculate the cost to be incurred in the machinery and the working of the mine. Sixthly, his learning must comprise Architecture, that he himself may construct the various machines and timber work required underground, or that he may be able to explain the method of the construction to others. Next, he must have knowledge of Drawing, that he can draw plans of his machinery. Lastly, there is the Law, especially that dealing with metals, that he may claim his own rights, that he may undertake the duty of giving others his opinion on legal matters, that he may not take another man’s property and so make trouble for himself, and that he may fulfil his obligations to others according to the law. It is therefore necessary that those who take an interest in the methods and precepts of mining and metallurgy should read these and others of our books studiously and diligently ; or on every point they should consult expert mining people, though they will discover few who are skilled in the whole art. As a rule one man understands only the methods of mining, another possesses the knowledge of washing®, another is experienced in the art of smelting, another has a knowledge of measuring the hidden parts of the earth, another is skilful in the art of making machines, and finally, another is learned in mining law. But as for us, though we may not have perfected the whole art of the discovery and preparation of metals, at least we can be of great assistance to persons studious in its acquisition. But let us now approach the subject we have undertaken. Since there has always been the greatest disagreement amongst men concerning metals and mining, some praising, others utterly condemning them, therefore I have decided that before imparting my instruction, I should carefully weigh the facts with a view to discovering the truth in this matter. So I may begin with the question of utility, which is a two-fold one, for either it may be asked whether the art of mining is really profitable or not to those who are engaged in it, or whether it is useful or not to the rest of mankind. Those who think mining of no advantage to the men who follow the occupation assert, first, that scarcely one in a hundred who dig metals or other such things derive profit therefrom ; and again, that miners, because they entrust their certain and well-established wealth to dubious and slippery fortune, generally deceive themselves, and as a result, impoverished by *Tavandi—‘ Washing.’”’ By this term the author includes all the operations of sluicing, buddling, and wet concentration generally. There is no English equivalent of such wide application, and there is some difficulty in interpretation without going further than the author intends. Book VIII. is devoted to the subject. BOOK I. 5 expenses and losses, in the end spend the most bitter and most miserable of lives. But persons who hold these views do not perceive how much a learned and experienced miner differs from one ignorant and unskilled in the art. The latter digs out the ore without any careful discrimination, while the former first assays and proves it, and when he finds the veins either too narrow and hard, or too wide and soft, he infers therefrom that these cannot be mined profitably, and so works only the approved ones. What wonder then if we find the incompetent miner suffers loss, while the competent one is rewarded by an abundant return from his mining? The same thing applies to husbandmen. For those who cultivate land which is alike arid, heavy, and barren, and in which they sow seeds, do not make so great a harvest as those who cultivate a fertile and mellow soil and sow their grain in that. And since by far the greater number of miners are unskilled rather than skilled in the art, it follows that mining is a profitable occupation to very few men, and a source of loss to many more. Therefore the mass of miners who are quite unskilled and ignorant in the knowledge of veins not infrequently lose both time and trouble!®. Such men are accustomed for the most part to take to mining, either when through being weighted with the fetters of large and heavy debts, they have abandoned a business, or desiring to change their occupation, have left the reaping-hook and plough; and so if at any time such a man discovers rich veins or other abounding mining produce, this occurs more by good luck than through any knowledge on his part. We learn from history that mining has brought wealth to many, for from old writings it is well known that prosperous Republics, not a few kings, and many private persons, have made fortunes through mines and their produce. This subject, by the use of many clear and illustrious examples, I have dilated upon and explained in the first Book of my work entitled ‘“‘ De Veteribus et Novts Metallts,’ from which it is evident that mining is very profitable to those who give it care and attention. Again, those who condemn the mining industry say that it is not in the least stable, and they glorify agriculture beyond measure. But I do not see how they can say this with truth, for the silver-mines at Freiberg in Meissen remain still unexhausted after 400 years, and the lead mines of Goslar after 600 years. The proof of this can be found in the monuments of history. The gold and silver mines belonging to the communities of Schemnitz and Cremnitz have been worked for 800 years, and these latter are said to be the most ancient privileges of the inhabitants. Some then say the profit from an individual mine is unstable, as if forsooth, the miner is, or ought to be dependent on only one mine, and as if many men do not bear in common their expenses in mining, or as if one experienced in his art does not dig another vein, if fortune does not amply respond to his prayers in the first case. The New Schonberg at Freiberg has remained stable beyond the memory of man. 1°90 peram et oleum perdit— loss of labour and oil.” In Veteribus et Novis Metallis, and Bermannus, Agricola states that the mines of Schemnitz were worked 800 years before that time (1530), or about 750 A.D., and, further, 6 BOOK I. It is not my intention to detract anything from the dignity of agri- culture, and that the profits of mining are less stable I will always and readily admit, for the veins do in time cease to yield metals, whereas the fields bring forth fruits every year. But though the business of mining may be less reliable it is more productive, so that in reckoning up, what is wanting in stability is found to be made up by productiveness. Indeed, the yearly profit of a lead mine in comparison with the fruitfulness of the best fields, is three times or at least twice as great. How much does the profit from gold or silver mines exceed that earned from agriculture ? Wherefore truly and shrewdly does Xenophon’ write about the Athenian silver mines: “There is land of such a nature that if you sow, it does not yield crops, but if you dig, it nourishes many more than if it had borne fruit.” So let the farmers have for themselves the fruitful fields and cultivate the fertile hills for the sake of their produce ; but let them leave to miners the gloomy valleys and sterile mountains, that they may draw forth from these, gems and metals which can buy, not only the crops, but all things that are sold. The critics say further that mining is a perilous occupation to pursue, because the miners are sometimes killed by the pestilential air which they breathe ; sometimes their lungs rot away ; sometimes the men perish by being crushed {n masses of rock; sometimes, falling from the ladders into the shafts, they break their arms, legs, or necks; and it is added there is no com- pensation which should be thought great enough to equalize the extreme dangers to safety and life. These occurrences, I confess, are of exceeding gravity, and moreover, fraught with terror and peril, so that I should con- sider that the metals should not be dug up at all, if such things were to happen very frequently to the miners, or if they could not safely guard against such risks by any means. Who would not prefer to live rather than to possess all things, even the metals? For he who thus perishes possesses nothing, but relinquishes all to his heirs. But since things like this rarely happen, and only in so far as workmen are careless, they do not deter miners from carrying on their trade any more than it would deter a carpenter from his, because one of his mates has acted incautiously and lost his life by falling from a high building. I have thus answered each argument which critics are wont to put before me when they assert that mining is an undesirable occupa- tion, because it involves expense with uncertainty of return, because it is changeable, and because it is dangerous to those engaged in it. Now I come to those critics who say that mining is not useful to the rest of mankind because forsooth, gems, metals, and other mineral products are worthless in themselves. This admission they try to extort from us, partly by arguments and examples, partly by misrepresentations and abuse of us. First, they make use of this argument: ‘“‘ The earth does not conceal and remove from our eyes those things which are useful and necessary to that the lead mines of Goslar in the Hartz were worked by Otho the Great (936-973), and that the silver mines at Freiberg were discovered during the rule of Prince Otho (about 1170). To continue the argument to-day we could add about 360 years more of life to the mines of Goslar and Freiberg. See also Note 16, p. 36, and note 19, p. 37. 12Xenophon. Essay on the Revenues of Athens, I., 5. BOOK I. 7 mankind, but on the contrary, like a beneficent and kindly mother she yields in large abundance from her bounty and brings into the light of day the herbs, vegetables, grains, and fruits, and the trees. The minerals on the other hand she buries far beneath in the depth of the ground; therefore, they should not be sought. But they are dug out by wicked men who, as the poets say, are the products of the Iron Age.’’ Ovid censures their audacity in the following lines :— “And not only was the rich soil required to furnish corn and due sustenance, but men even descended into the entrails of the earth, and they dug up riches, those incentives to vice, which the earth had hidden and had removed to the Stygian shades. Then destructive iron came forth, and gold, more destructive than iron ; then war came forth 1% Another of their arguments is this: Metals offer to men no advantages, therefore we ought not to search them out. For whereas man is composed of soul and body, neither is in want of minerals. The sweetest food of the soul is the contemplation of nature, a knowledge of the finest arts and sciences, an understanding of virtue ; and if he interests his mind in excellent things, if he exercise his body, he will be satisfied with this feast of noble thoughts and knowledge, and have no desire for other things. Now although the human body may be content with necessary food and clothing, yet the fruits of the earth and the animals of different kinds supply him in wonderful abundance with food and drink, from which the body may be suitably nourished and strengthened and life prolonged to old age. Flax, wool, and the skins of many animals provide plentifv! clothing low in price ; while a luxurious kind, not hard to procure—that is tiie so called sevic material, is furnished by the down of trees and the webs of the silk worm. So that the body has absolutely no need of the metals, so hidden in the depths of the earth and for the greater part very expensive. Wherefore it is said that this maxim of Euripides is approved in assemblies of learned men, and with good reason was always on the lips of Socrates : “Works of silver and purple are of use, not for human life, but rather for Tragedians.’’14 These critics praise also this saying from Timocreon of Rhodes : “O Unseeing Plutus, would that thou hadst never appeared in the earth or in the sea or on the land, but that thou didst have thy habita- tion in Tartarus and Acheron, for out of thee arise all evil things which overtake mankind ’’1>. They greatly extol these lines from Phocylides : “Gold and silver are injurious to mortals ; gold is the source of crime, the plague of life, and the ruin of all things. Would that thou were not such an attractive scourge! because of thee arise robberies, WOvid, Metamorphoses, 1., 137 to 143. 14Diogenes Laertius, 11, 5. The lines are assigned, however, to Philemon, not Euripides. (Kock, Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta 1., 512). 15We have not considered it of sufficient interest to cite the references to all of the minor poets and those whose preserved works are but fragmentary. The translations from the Greek into Latin are not litera] and suffer again by rendering into English ; we have how- ever considered it our duty to translate Agricola’s view of the meaning. 8 BOOK I. homicides, warfare, brothers are maddened against brothers, and children against parents.” This from Naumachius also pleases them : “Gold and silver are but dust, like the stones that lie scattered on the pebbly beach, or on the margins of the rivers.”’ On the other hand, they censure these verses of Euripides : “Plutus is the god for wise men ; all else is mere folly and at the same time a deception in words.” So in like manner these lines from Theognis : “O Plutus, thou most beautiful and placid god! whilst I have thee, however bad I am, I can be regarded as good.”’ They also blame Aristodemus, the Spartan, for these words : “Money makes the man; no one who is poor is either gocd or honoured.” And they rebuke these songs of Timocles : “Money is the life and soul of mortal men. He who has not heaped up riches for himself wanders like a dead man amongst the living.” Finally, they blame Menander when he wrote: “Epicharmus asserts that the gods are water, wind, fire, earth, sun, and stars. But I am of opinion that the gods of any use to us are silver and gold; for if thou wilt set these up in thy house thou mayest seek whatever thou wilt. All things will fall to thy lot ; land, houses, slaves, silver-work ; moreover friends, judges, and witnesses. Only give freely, for thus thou hast the gods to serve thee.” But besides this, the strongest argument of the detractors is that the fields are devastated by mining operations, for which reason formerly Italians were warned by law that no one should dig the earth for metals and so injure their very fertile fields, their vineyards, and their olive groves. Also they argue that the woods and groves are cut down, for there is need of an endless amount of wood for timbers, machines, and the smelting of metals. And when the woods and groves are felled, then are exterminated the beasts and birds, very many of which furnish a pleasant and agreeable food for man. Further, when the ores are washed, the water which has been used poisons the brooks and streams, and either destroys the fish or drives them away. Therefore the inhabitants of these regions, on account of the devastation of their fields, woods, groves, brooks and rivers, find great difficulty in procuring the necessaries of life, and by reason of the destruction of the timber they are forced to greater expense in erecting buildings. Thus it is said, it is clear to all that there is greater detriment from mining than the value of the metals which the mining produces. So in fierce contention they clamour, showing by such examples as follow that every great man has been content with virtue, and despised metals. They praise Bias because he esteemed the metals merely as fortune’s playthings, not as his real wealth. When his enemies had captured his native Priene, and his fellow-citizens laden with precious things BOOK I. 9 had betaken themselves to flight, he was asked by one, why he carried away none of his goods with him, and he replied, ‘‘ I carry all my possessions with me.’”’ And it is said that Socrates, having received twenty minae sent to him by Aristippus, a grateful disciple, refused them and sent them back to him by the command of his conscience. Aristippus, following his example in this matter, despised gold and regarded it as of no value. And once when he was making a journey with his slaves, and they, laden with the gold, went too slowly, he ordered them to keep only as much of it as they could carry without distress and to throw away the remainder1®. Moreover, Anacreon of Teos, an ancient and noble poet, because he had been troubled about them for two nights, returned five talents which had been given him by Polycrates, saying that they were not worth the anxiety which he had gone through on their account. In like manner celebrated and exceedingly powerful princes have imitated the philosophers in their scorn and contempt for gold and silver. There was for example, Phocion, the Athenian, who was appointed general of the army so many times, and who, whena large sum of gold was sent to him as a gift by Alexander, King of Macedon, deemed it trifling and scorned it. And Marcus Curius ordered the gold to be carried back to the Samnites, as did also Fabricius Luscinus with regard to the silver and copper. And certain Republics have forbidden their citizens the use and employment of gold and silver by law and ordinance ; the Lacedaemonians, by the decrees and ordinances of Lycurgus, used diligently to enquire among their citizens whether they possessed any of these things or not, and the possessor, when he was caught, was punished according to law and justice. The inhabitants of a town on the Tigris, called Babytace, buried their gold in the ground so that no one should use it. The Scythians condemned the use of gold and silver so that they might not become avaricious. Further are the metals reviled; in the first place people wantonly abuse gold and silver and call them deadly and nefarious pests of the human race, because those who possess them are in the greatest peril, for those who have none lay snares for the possessors of wealth, and thus again and again the metals have been the cause of destruction and ruin. For example, Polymnestor, King of Thrace, to obtain possession of his gold, killed Polydorus, his noble guest and the son of Priam, his father-in-law, and old friend. Pygmalion, the King of Tyre, in order that he might seize treasures of gold and silver, killed his sister’s husband, a priest, taking no account of either kinship or religion. For love of gold Eriphyle betrayed her husband Amphiaraus to his enemy. Likewise Lasthenes betrayed the city of Olynthus to Philip of Macedon. The daughter of Spurius Tarpeius, having been bribed with gold, admitted the Sabines into the citadel of Rome. Claudius Curio sold his country for gold to Cesar, the Dictator. Gold, too, was the cause of the downfall of Aesculapius, the great physician, who it was believed was the son of Apollo. Similarly Marcus Crassus, through his eager desire for the gold of the Parthians, was completely overcome together with his son and eleven legions, and became the jest of his enemies ; for they 18Piogenes l.aertius, 11. 10 BOOK I. poured liquid gold into the gaping mouth of the slain Crassus, saying : “ Thou hast thirsted for gold, therefore drink gold.” But why need I cite here these many examples from history ?1? It is almost our daily experience to learn that, for the sake of obtaining gold and silver, doors are burst open, walls are pierced, wretched travellers are struck down by rapacious and cruel men born to theft, sacrilege, invasion, and robbery. We see thieves seized and strung up before us, sacrilegious persons burnt alive, the limbs of robbers broken on the wheel, wars waged for the same reason, which are not only destructive to those against whom they are waged, but to those also who carry them on. Nay, but they say that the precious metals foster all manner of vice, such as the seduction of women, adultery, and unchastity, in short, crimes of violence against the person. Therefore the Poets, when they represent jove transformed into a golden shower and falling into the lap of Danae, merely mean that he had found for himself a safe road by the use of gold, by which he might enter the tower for the purpose of violating the maiden. Moreover, the fidelity of many men is overthrown by the love of gold and silver, judicial sentences are bought, and innumerable crimes are perpetrated. For truly, as Propertius says : “This is indeed the Golden Age. The greatest rewards come from gold ; by gold love is won ; by gold is faith destroyed ; by gold is justice bought ; the law follows the track of gold, while modesty will soon follow it when law is gone.” Diphilus says: “T consider that nothing is more powerful than gold. By it all things are torn asunder ; all things are accomplished.” Therefore, all the noblest and best despise these riches, deservedly and with justice, and esteem them as nothing. And this is said by the old man in Plautus : “T hate gold. It has often impelled many people to many wrong acts.” In this country too, the poets inveigh with stinging reproaches against money coined from gold and silver. And especially did Juvenal : “Since the majesty of wealth is the most sacred thing among us; although, O pernicious money, thou dost not yet inhabit a temple, nor have we erected altars to money.” And in another place : “Demoralising money first introduced foreign customs, and voluptuous wealth weakened our race with disgraceful luxury.”1® And very many vehemently praise the barter system which men used before money was devised, and which even now obtains among certain simple peoples. And next they raise a great outcry against other metals, as iron, than 17An inspection of the historical incidents mentioned here and further on, indicates that Agricola relied for such information on Diogenes Laertius, Plutarch, Livy, Valerius Maximus, Pliny, and often enough on Homer, Horace, and Virgil. 18Juvenal. Satires 1., 1. 112, and v1., 1. 208. BOOK I. II which they say nothing more pernicious could have been brought into the life of man. For it is employed in making swords, javelins, spears, pikes, arrows—weapons by which men are wounded, and which cause slaughter, robbery, and wars. These things so moved the wrath of Pliny that he wrote : “Tron is used not only in hand to hand fighting, but also to form the winged missiles of war, sometimes for hurling engines, sometimes for lances, some- times even for arrows. I look upon it as the most deadly fruit of human ingenuity. For to bring Death to men more quickly we have given wings to iron and taught it to fly.”1® The spear, the arrow from the bow, or the bolt from the catapult and other engines can be driven into the body of only one man, while the iron cannon-ball fired through the air, can go through the bodies of many men, and there is no marble or stone object so hard that it cannot be shattered by the force and shock. Therefore it levels the highest towers to the ground, shatters and destroys the strongest walls. Certainly the ballistas which throw stones, the battering rams and other ancient war engines for making breaches in walls of fortresses and hurling down strong- holds, seem to have little power in comparison with our present cannon. These emit horrible sounds and noises, not less than thunder, flashes of fire burst from them like the lightning, striking, crushing, and shatter- ing buildings, belching forth flames and kindling fires even as lightning flashes. So that with more justice could it be said of the impious men of our age than of Salmoneus of ancient days, that they had snatched lightning from Jupiter and wrested it from his hands. Nay, rather there has been sent from the infernal regions to the earth this force for the destruction of men, so that Death may snatch to himself as many as possible by one stroke. But because muskets are nowadays rarely made of iron, and the large ones never, but of a certain mixture of copper and tin, they confer more maledictions on copper and tin than on iron. In this connection too, they mention the brazen bull of Phalaris, the brazen ox of the people of Per- gamus, racks in the shape of an iron dog or a horse, manacles, shackles, wedges, hooks, and red-hot plates. Cruelly racked by such instruments, people are driven to confess crimes and misdeeds which they have never committed, and innocent men are miserably tortured to death by every conceivable kind of torment. It is claimed too, that lead is a pestilential and noxious metal, for men are punished by means of molten lead, as Horace describes in the ode addressed to the Goddess Fortune: ‘‘ Cruel Necessity ever goes before thee bearing in her brazen hand the spikes and wedges, while the awful hook and molten lead are also not lacking.”*° In their desire to excite greater odium for this metal, they are not silent about the leaden balls of muskets, and they find in it the cause of wounds and death. They contend that, inasmuch as Nature has concealed metals far within the depths of the earth, and because they are not necessary to human life, they are therefore despised and repudiated by the noblest, and should not be 19Pliny, XXXIV., 39. 20Horace. Odes, I., 35, ll., 17-20. 12 BOOK I. mined, and seeing that when brought to light they have always proved the cause of very great evils, it follows that mining is not useful to mankind, but on the contrary harmfuland destructive. Several good men have been so perturbed by these tragedies that they conceive an intensely bitter hatred toward metals, and they wish absolutely that metals had never been created, or being created, that no one had ever dug them out. The more I commend the singular honesty, innocence, and goodness of such men, the more anxious shall I be to remove utterly and eradicate all error from their minds and to reveal the sound view, which is that the metals are most useful to mankind. In the first place then, those who speak ill of the metals and refuse to make use of them, do not see that they accuse and condemn as wicked the Creator Himself, when they assert that He fashioned some things vainly and without good cause, and thus they regard Him as the Author of evils, which opinion is certainly not worthy of pious and sensible men. In the next place, the earth does not conceal metals in her depths because she does not wish that men should dig them out, but because provident and sagacious Nature has appointed for each thing its place. She generates them in the veins, stringers, and seams in the rocks, as though in special vessels and receptacles for such material. The metals cannot be produced in the other elements because the materials for their formation are wanting. For if they were generated in the air, a thing that rarely happens, they could not find a firm resting-place, but by their own force and weight would settle down on to the ground. Seeing then that metals have their proper abiding place in the bowels of the earth, who does not see that these men do not reach their conclusions by good logic ? They say, ‘“‘ Although metals are in the earth, each located in its own proper place where it originated, yet because they lie thus enclosed and hidden from sight, they should not be taken out.” But, in refutation of these attacks, which are so annoying, I will on behalf of the metals instance the fish, which we catch, hidden and concealed though they be in the water, even in the sea. Indeed, it is far stranger that man, a terrestrial animal, should search the interior of the sea than the bowels of the earth. For as birds are born to fly freely through the air, so are fishes born to swim through the waters, while to other creatures Nature has given the earth that they might live in it, and particularly to man that he might cultivate it and draw out of its caverns metals and other mineral products. On the other hand, they say that we eat fish, but neither hunger nor thirst is dispelled by minerals, nor are they useful in clothing the body, which is another argument by which these people strive to prove that metals should not be taken out. But man without metals cannot provide those things which he needs for food and clothing. For, though the produce of the land furnishes the greatest abundance of food for the nourishment of our bodies, no labour can be carried on and completed without tools. The ground itself is turned up with ploughshares and harrows, tough stalks and the tops of the roots are broken off and dug up with a mattock, the sown seed is harrowed, the corn BOOK I. 13 field is hoed and weeded ; the ripe grain with part of the stalk is cut down by scythes and threshed on the floor, or its ears are cut off and stored in the barn and later beaten with flails and winnowed with fans, until finally the pure grain is stored in the granary, whence it is brought forth again when occasion demands or necessity arises. Again, if we wish to procure better and more productive fruits from trees and bushes, we must resort to cultivating, pruning, and grafting, which cannot be done without tools. Even as without vessels we cannot keep or hold liquids, such as milk, honey, wine, or oil, neither could so many living things be cared for without buildings to protect them from long-continued rain and intolerable cold. Most of the rustic instruments are made of iron, as ploughshares, share- beams, mattocks, the prongs of harrows, hoes, planes, hay-forks, straw cutters, pruning shears, pruning hooks, spades, lances, forks, and weed cutters. Vessels are also made of copper or lead. Neither are wooden instruments or vessels made without iron. Wine cellars, oil-mills, stables, or any other part of a farm building could not be built without iron tools. Then if the bull, the wether, the goat, or any other domestic animal is led away from the pasture to the butcher, or if the poulterer brings from the farm a chicken, a hen, or a capon for the cook, could any of these animals be cut up and divided without axes and knives? I need say nothing here about bronze and copper pots for cooking, because for these purposes one could make use of earthen vessels, but even these in turn could not be made and fashioned by the potter without tools, for no instruments can be made out of wood alone, without the use of iron. Furthermore, hunting, fowling, and fishing supply man with food, but when the stag has been ensnared does not the hunter transfix him with his spear? As he stands or runs, does he not pierce him with an arrow? Or pierce him with a bullet? Does not the fowler in the same way kill the moor-fowl or pheasant with an arrow? Or does he not discharge into its body the ball from the musket? I will not speak of the snares and other instruments with which the woodcock, wood- pecker, and other wild birds are caught, lest I pursue unseasonably and too minutely single instances. Lastly, with his fish-hook and net does not the fisherman catch the fish in the sea, in the lakes, in fish-ponds, or in rivers ? But the hook is of iron, and sometimes we see lead or iron weights attached to the net. And most fish that are caught are afterward cut up and dis- embowelled with knives and axes. But, more than enough has been said on the matter of food. Now I will speak of clothing, which is made out of wool, flax, feathers, hair, fur, or leather. First the sheep are sheared, then the wool is combed. Next the threads are drawn out, while later the warp is suspended in the shuttle under which passes the wool. This being struck by the comb, at length cloth is formed either from threads alone or from threads and hair. Flax, when gathered, is first pulled by hooks. Then it is dipped in water and afterward dried, beaten into tow with a heavy mallet, and carded, then drawn out into threads, and finally woven into cloth. But has the artisan or weaver of the cloth any instrument not made of iron? Can one be made 14 BOOK I. of wood without the aid of iron? The cloth or web must be cut into lengths for the tailor. Can this be done without knife or scissors? Can the tailor sew together any garments without a needle ? Even peoples dwelling beyond the seas cannot make a covering for their bodies, fashioned of feathers, without these same implements. Neither can the furriers do without them in sewing together the pelts of any kind of animals. The shoemaker needs a knife to cut the leather, another to scrape it, and an awl to perforate it before he can make shoes. These coverings for the body are either woven or stitched. Buildings too, which protect the same body from rain, wind, cold, and heat, are not constructed without axes, saws, and augers. But what need of more words? If we remove metals from the service of man, all methods of protecting and sustaining health and more care- fully preserving the course of life are done away with. If there were no metals, men would pass a horrible and wretched existence in the midst of wild beasts ; they would return to the acorns and fruits and berries of the forest. They would feed upon the herbs and roots which they plucked up with their nails. They would dig out caves in which to lie down at night, and by day they would rove in the woods and plains at random like beasts, and inasmuch as this condition is utterly unworthy of humanity, with its splendid and glorious natural endowment, will anyone be so foolish or obstinate as not to allow that metals are necessary for food and clothing and that they tend to preserve life ? Moreover, as the miners dig almost exclusively in mountains otherwise unproductive, and in valleys invested in gloom, they do either slight damage to the fields or none at all. Lastly, where woods and glades are cut down, they may be sown with grain after they have been cleared from the roots of shrubs and trees. These new fields soon produce rich crops, so that they repair the losses which the inhabitants suffer from increased cost of timber. More- over, with the metals which are melted from the ore, birds without number, edible beasts and fish can be purchased elsewhere and brought to these mountainous regions. I will pass to the illustrations [have mentioned. Bias of Priene, when his country was taken, carried away out of the city none of his valuables. So strong a man with such a reputation for wisdom had no need to fear personal danger from the enemy, but this in truth cannot be said of him because he hastily took to flight ; the throwing away of his goods does not seem to me so great a matter, for he had lost his house, his estates, and even his country, than which nothing is more precious. Nay, I should be convinced of Bias’s contempt and scorn for possessions of this kind, if before his country was captured he had bestowed them freely on relations and friends, or had distributed them to the very poor, for this he could have done freely and without question. Whereas his conduct, which the Greeks admire so greatly, was due, it would seem, to his being driven out by the enemy and stricken with fear. Socrates in truth did not despise gold, but would not accept money for his teaching. As for Aristippus of Cyrene, if he had gath- ered and saved the gold which he ordered his slaves to throw away, he might BOOK I. 15 have bought the things which he needed for the necessaries of life, and he would not, by reason of his poverty, have then been obliged to flatter the tyrant Dionysius, nor would he ever have been called by him a King’s dog. For this reason Horace, speaking of Damasippus when reviling Staberus for valuing riches very highly, says : “What resemblance has the Grecian Aristippus to this fellow ? He who commanded his slaves to throw away the gold in the midst of Libya because they went too slowly, impeded by the weight of their burden—which of these two men is the more insane ? ’’?! Insane indeed is he who makes more of riches than of virtue. Insane also is he who rejects them and considers them as worth nothing, instead of using them with reason. Yet as to the gold which Aristippus on another occasion flung into the sea from a boat, this he did with a wise and prudent mind. For learning that it was a pirate boat in which he was sailing, and fearing for his life, he counted his gold and then throwing it of his own will into the sea, he groaned as if he had done it unwillingly. But afterward, when he escaped the peril, he said: “It is better that this gold itself should be lost than that I should have perished because of it.” Let it be granted that some philosophers, as well as Anacreon of Teos, despised gold and silver. Anaxagoras of Clazomenae also gave up his sheep-farms and became a shepherd. Crates the Theban too, being annoyed that his estate and other kinds of wealth caused him worry, and that in his con- templations his mind was thereby distracted, resigned a property valued at ten talents, and taking a cloak and wallet, in poverty devoted all his thought and efforts to philosophy. Is it true that because these philo- sophers despised money, all others declined wealth in cattle? Did they refuse to cultivate lands or to dwell in houses? There were certainly many, on the other hand, who, though affluent, became famous in the pursuit of learning and in the knowledge of divine and human laws, such as Aristotle, Cicero, and Seneca. As for Phocion, he did not deem it honest to accept the gold sent to him by Alexander. For if he had consented to use it, the king as much as himself would have incurred the hatred and aversion of the Athenians, and these very people were afterward so ungrateful toward this excellent man that they compelled him to drink hemlock. For what would have been less becoming to Marcus Curius and Fabricius Luscinus than to accept gold from their enemies, who hoped that by these means those leaders could be corrupted or would become odious to their fellow citizens, their purpose being to cause dissentions among the Romans and destroy the Republic utterly. Lycurgus, however, ought to have given instructions to the Spartans as to the use of gold and silver, instead of abolishing things good in themselves. As to the Babytacenses, who does not see that they were senseless and envious? For with their gold they might have bought things of which they were in need, or even given it to neigh- bouring peoples to bind them more closely to themselves with gifts and favours. Finally, the Scythians, by condemning the use of gold and silver *1Horace. Satires, 11., 3, ll., g9-102. 16 BOOK I. alone, did not free themselves utterly from avarice, because although he is not enjoying them, one who can possess other forms of property may also become avaricious. Now let us reply to the attacks hurled against the products of mines. In the first place, they call gold and silver the scourge of mankind because they are the cause of destruction and ruin to their possessors. But in this manner, might not anything that we possess be called a scourge to human kind,—whether it be a horse, or a garment, or anything else ? For, whether one rides a splendid horse, or journeys well clad, he would give occasion to a robber to kill him. Are we then not to ride on horses, but to journey on foot, because a robber has once committed a murder in order that he may steal a horse? Or are we not to possess clothing, because a vagabond with a sword has taken a traveller’s life that he may rob him of his garment? The possession of gold and silver is similar. Seeing then that men cannot conveniently do all these things, we should be on our guard against robbers, and because we cannot always protect ourselves from their hands, it is the special duty of the magistrate to seize wicked and villainous men for torture, and, if need be, for execution. Again, the products of the mines are not themselves the cause of war. Thus, for example, when a tyrant, inflamed with passion for a woman of great beauty, makes war on the inhabitants of her city, the fault lies in the unbridled lust of the tyrant and not in the beauty of the woman. Likewise, when another man, blinded by a passion for gold and silver, makes war upon a wealthy people, we ought not to blame the metals but transfer all blame to avarice. For frenzied deeds and disgraceful actions, which are wont to weaken and dishonour natural and civil laws, originate from our own vices. Wherefore Tibullus is wrong in laying the blame for war on gold, when he says: “This is the fault of a rich man’s gold; there were no wars when beech goblets were used at banquets.”’ But Virgil, speaking of Polymnestor, says that the crime of the murderer rests on avarice : “He breaks all law; he murders Polydorus, and obtains gold by violence. To what wilt thou not drive mortal hearts, thou accursed hunger for gold ?” And again, justly, he says, speaking of Pygmalion, who killed Sichaeus : “And blinded with the love of gold, he slew him unawares with stealthy sword.’’2? For lust and eagerness after gold and other things make men blind, and this wicked greed for money, all men in all times and places have considered dishonourable and criminal. Moreover, those who have been so addicted to avarice as to be its slaves have always been regarded as mean and sordid. Similarly, too, if by means of gold and silver and gems men can overcome the chastity of women, corrupt the honour of many people, bribe the course of justice and commit innumerable wickednesses, it is not the metals which are to be blamed, but the evil passions of men which become inflamed and ignited ; or it is due to the blind and impious desires of their minds. But Virgil. Afnerd, 111., 1. 55, and 1, 1. 349. BOOK 1. 17 although these attacks against gold and silver may be directed especially against money, yet inasmuch as the Poets one after another condemn it, their criticism must be met, and this can be done by one argument alone. Money is good for those who use it well; it brings loss and evil to those who use it ill. Hence, very rightly, Horace says: “ Dost thou not know the value of money ; and what uses it serves ? It buys bread, vegetables, and a pint of wine.’’ And again in another place : “Wealth hoarded up is the master or slave of each possessor ; it should follow rather than lead, the ‘ twisted rope.’ ’’?8 When ingenious and clever men considered carefully the system of barter, which ignorant men of old employed and which even to-day is used by certain uncivilised and barbarous races, it appeared to them so troublesome and laborious that they invented money. Indeed, nothing more useful could have been devised, because a small amount of gold and silver is of as great value as things cumbrous and heavy ; and so peoples far distant from one another can, by the use of money, trade very easily in those things which civilised life can scarcely do without. The curses which are uttered against iron, copper, and lead have no weight with prudent and sensible men, because if these metals were done away with, men, as their anger swelled and their fury became unbridled, would assuredly fight lke wild beasts with fists, heels, nails, and teeth. They would strike each other with sticks, hit one another with stones, or dash their foes to the ground. Moreover, a man does not kill another with iron alone, but slays by means of poison, starvation, or thirst. He may seize him by the throat and strangle him; he may bury him alive in the ground; he may immerse him in water and suffocate him; he may burn or hang him; so that he can make every element a participant in the death of men. Or, finally, a man may be thrown to the wild beasts. Another may be sewn up wholly except his head in a sack, and thus be left to be devoured by worms; or he may be immersed in water until he is torn to pieces by sea-serpents. A man may be boiled in oil; he may be greased, tied with ropes, and left exposed to be stung by flies and hornets; he may be put to death by scourging with rods or beating with cudgels, or struck down by stoning, or flung from a high place. Furthermore, a man may be tortured in more ways than one without the use of metals ; as when the executioner burns the groins and armpits of his victim with hot wax; or places a cloth in his mouth gradually, so that when in breathing he draws it slowly into his gullet, the executioner draws it back suddenly and violently ; or the victim’s hands are fastened behind his back, and he is drawn up little by little with a rope and then let down suddenly. Or similarly, he may be tied to a beam and a heavy stone fastened by a cord to his feet, or finally his limbs may be torn asunder. From these examples we see that it is not metals that are to be condemned, but our vices, such as anger, cruelty, discord, passion for power, avarice, and lust. *8Horace. Satires, 1., 1. 73 ; and Epistle, r., 10, l. 47. 18 BOOK I. The question next arises, whether we ought to count metals amongst the number of good things or class them amongst the bad. The Peripatetics regarded all wealth as a good thing, and merely spoke of externals as having to do with neither the mind nor the body. Well, let riches be an external thing. And, as they said, many other things may be classed as good if it is in one’s power to use them either well or ill. For good men employ them for good, and to them they are useful. The wicked use them badly, and to them they are harmful. There is a saying of Socrates, that just as wine is influenced by the cask, so the character of riches is like their possessors. The Stoics, whose custom it is to argue subtly and acutely, though they did not put wealth in the category of good things, they did not count it amongst the evil ones, but placed it in that class which they term neutral. For to them virtue alone is good, and vice alone evil. The whole of what remains is indifferent. Thus, in their conviction, it matters not whether one be in good health or seriously ill; whether one be handsome or deformed. In short : “Whether, sprung from Inachus of old, and thus hast lived beneath the sun in wealth, or hast been poor and despised among men, it matters not.” For my part, I see no reason why anything that is in itself of use should not be placed in the class of good things. At all events, metals are a creation of Nature, and they supply many varied and necessary needs of the human race, to say nothing about their uses in adornment, which are so wonderfully blended with utility. Therefore, it is not right to degrade them from the place they hold among the good things. In truth, if there is a bad use made of them, should they on that account be rightly called evils ? For of what good things can we not make an equally bad or good use? Let me give examples from both classes of what we term good. Wine, by far the best drink, if drunk in moderation, aids the digestion of food, helps to produce blood, and promotes the juices in all parts of the body. It is of use in nourishing not only the body but the mind as well, for it disperses our dark and gloomy thoughts, frees us from cares and anxiety, and restores our confidence. If drunk in excess, however, it injures and prostrates the body with serious disease. An intoxicated man keeps nothing to himself ; he raves and rants, and commits many wicked and infamous acts. On this subject Theognis wrote some very clever lines, which we may render thus : “Wine is harmful if taken with greedy lips, but if drunk in moderation it is wholesome.’’?° But I linger too long over extraneous matters. I must pass on to the gifts of body and mind, amongst which strength, beauty, and genius occur to me. If then a man, relying on his strength, toils hard to maintain himself and his family in an honest and respectable manner, he uses the gift aright, but if he makes a living out of murder and robbery, he uses it wrongly. Likewise, too, if a lovely woman is anxious to please her husband 20Theognis. Maxims, I1., 1. 210. BOOK I. 19 alone she uses her beauty aright, but if she lives wantonly and is a victim of passion, she misuses her beauty. In like manner, a youth who devotes himself to learning and cultivates the liberal arts, uses his genius rightly. But he who dissembles, lies, cheats, and deceives by fraud and dishonesty, misuses his abilities. Now, the man who, because they are abused, denies that wine, strength, beauty, or genius are good things, is unjust and blasphemous towards the Most High God, Creator of the World ; so he who would remove metals from the class of blessings also acts unjustly and blasphemously against Him. Very true, therefore, are the words which certain Greek poets have written, as Pindar : “Money glistens, adorned with virtue; it supplies the means by which thou mayest act well in whatever circumstances fate may have in store for thee.’’?® And Sappho: “Without the love of virtue gold is a dangerous and harmful guest, but when it is associated with virtue, it becomes the source and height of good.” And Callimachus : “ Riches do not make men great without virtue ; neither do virtues themselves make men great without some wealth.” And Antiphanes : “Now, by the gods, why is it necessary for a man to grow rich? Why does he desire to possess much money unless that he may, as much as possible, help his friends, and sow the seeds of a harvest of gratitude, sweetest of the goddesses.’’2? Having thus refuted the arguments and contentions of adversaries, let us sum up the advantages of the metals. In the first place, they are useful to the physician, for they furnish liberally the ingredients for medi- cines, by which wounds and ulcers are cured, and even plagues; so that certainly if there were no other reasons why we should explore the depths of the earth, we should for the sake of medicine alone dig in the mines. Again, the metals are of use to painters, because they yield certain pigments which, when united with the painter’s slip, are injured less than others by the moisture from without. Further, mining is useful to the architects, for thus is found marble, which is suitable not only for strengthening large buildings, but also for decoration. It is, moreover, helpful to those whose ambition urges them toward immortal glory, because it yields metals from which are made coins, statues, and other monuments, which, next to literary records, give men inasenseimmortality. The metals are useful to merchants with very great cause, for, as I have stated elsewhere, the use of money which is made from metals is much more convenient to mankind than the old system of exchange of commodi- ties. In short, to whom are the metalsnot ofuse ? In very truth, even the works of art, elegant, embellished, elaborate, useful, are fashioned in various shapes by the artist from the metals gold, silver, brass, lead, andiron. How few artists 26Pindar. Olymp. I1., 58-60. a7Antiphanes, 4. 20 BOOK I. could make anything that is beautiful and perfect without using metals ? Even if tools of iron or brass were not used, we could not make tools of wood and stone without the help of metal. From all these examples are evident the benefits and advantages derived from metals. We should not have had these at all unless the science of mining and metallurgy had been discovered and handed down to us. Who then does not understand how highly useful they are, nay rather, how necessary to the human race? Ina word, man could not do without the mining industry, nor did Divine Providence will that he should. Further, it has been asked whether to work in metals is honourable employment for respectable people or whether it is not degrading and dishonourable. We ourselves count it amongst the honourable arts. For that art, the pursuit of which is unquestionably not impious, nor offensive, nor mean, we may esteem honourable. That this is the nature of the mining profession, inasmuch as it promotes wealth by good and honest methods, we shall show presently. With justice, therefore, we may class it amongst honourable employments. In the first place, the occupation of the miner, which I must be allowed to compare with other methods of acquiring great wealth, is just as noble as that of agriculture; for, as the farmer, sowing his seed in his fields injures no one, however profitable they may prove to him, so the miner digging for his metals, albeit he draws forth great heaps of gold or silver, hurts thereby no mortal man. Certainly these two modes of increasing wealth are in the highest degree both noble and honourable. The booty of the soldier, however, is frequently impious, because in the fury of the fighting he seizes all goods, sacred as well as profane. The most just king may have to declare war on cruel tyrants, but in the course of it wicked men cannot lose their wealth and possessions without dragging into the same calamity innocent and poor people, old men, matrons, maidens, and orphans. But the miner is able to accumu- late great riches in a short time, without using any violence, fraud, or malice. That old saying is, therefore, not always true that ‘“ Every rich man is either wicked himself, or is the heir to wickedness.” Some, however, who contend against us, censure and attack miners by saying that they and their children must needs fall into penury after a short time, because they have heaped up riches by improper means. According to them nothing is truer than the saying of the poet Naevius : “Til gotten gains in ill fashion slip away.” The following are some of the wicked and sinful methods by which they say men obtain riches from mining. When a prospect of obtaining metals shows itself in a mine, either the ruler or magistrate drives out the rightful owners of the mines from possession, or a shrewd and cunning neighbour perhaps brings a law-suit against the old possessors in order to rob them of some part of their property. Or the mine superintendent imposes on the owners such a heavy contribution on shares, that if they cannot pay, or will not, they lose their rights of possession ; while the superintendent, contrary to all that is right, seizes upon all that they have lost. Or, BOOK I. 21 finally, the mine foreman may conceal the vein by plastering over with clay that part where the metal abounds, or by covering it with earth, stones, stakes, or poles, in the hope that after several years the pro- prietors, thinking the mine exhausted, will abandon it, and the foreman can then excavate that remainder of the ore and keep it for himself. They even state that the scum of the miners exist wholly by fraud, deceit, and lying. For to speak of nothing else, but only of those deceits which are practised in buying and selling, it is said they either advertise the veins with false and imaginary praises, so that they can sell the shares in the mines at one-half more than they are worth, or on the contrary, they sometimes detract from the estimate of them so that they can buy shares for a small price. By exposing such frauds our critics suppose all good opinion of miners is lost. Now, all wealth, whether it has been gained by good or evil means, is liable by some adverse chance to vanish away. It decays and is dissipated by the fault and care- lessness of the owner, since he loses it through laziness and neglect, or wastes and squanders it in luxuries, or he consumes and exhausts it in gifts, or he dissipates and throws it away in gambling : “Just as though money sprouted up again, renewed from an exhausted coffer, and was always to be obtained from a full heap.” It is therefore not to be wondered at if miners do not keep in mind the counsel given by King Agathocles: ‘“‘ Unexpected fortune should be held in reverence,’ for by not doing so they fall into penury; and particularly when the miners are not content with moderate riches, they not rarely spend on new mines what they have accumulated from others. But no just ruler or magistrate deprives owners of their possessions; that, however, may be done by a tyrant, who may cruelly rob his subjects not only of their goods honestly obtained, but even of life itself. And yet whenever I have inquired into the complaints which are in common vogue, I always find that the owners who are abused have the best of reasons for driving the men from the mines; while those who abuse the owners have no reason to complain about them. Take the case of those who, not having paid their contributions, have lost the right of possession, or those who have been expelled by the magis- trate out of another man’s mine: for some wicked men, mining the small veins branching from the veins rich in metal, are wont to invade the property of another person. So the magistrate expels these men accused of wrong, and drives them from the mine. They then very frequently spread unpleasant rumours concerning this amongst the populace. Or, to take another case: when, as often happens, a dispute arises between neighbours, arbitrators appointed by the magistrate settle it, or the regular judges investigate and give judgment. Consequently, when the judgment is given, inasmuch as each party has consented to submit to it, neither side should complain of injustice ; and when the controversy is adjudged, inasmuch as the decision is in accordance with the laws concerning mining, one of the parties cannot be injured by the law. I do not vigorously contest the point, that at times a mine superintendent may exact a larger contribution 22 BOOK I. from the owners than necessity demands. Nay, I will admit that a fore- man may plaster over, or hide with a structure, a vein where it is rich in metals. Is the wickedness of one or two to brand the many honest with fraud and trickery ? What body is supposed to be more pious and virtuous in the Republic than the Senate? Yet some Senators have been detected in peculations, and have been punished. Is this any reason that so honour- able a house should lose its good name and fame? The superintendent cannot exact contributions from the owners without the knowledge and permission of the Bergmeister or the deputies; for this reason decep- tion of this kind is impossible. Should the foremen be convicted of fraud, they are beaten with rods; or of theft, they are hanged. It is complained that some sellers and buyers of the shares in mines are fraudulent. I concede it. But can they deceive anyone except a stupid, careless man, unskilled in mining matters? Indeed, a wise and prudent man, skilled in this art, if he doubts the trustworthiness of a seller or buyer, goes at once to the mine that he may for himself examine the vein which has been so greatly praised or disparaged, and may consider whether he will buy or sell the shares or not. But people say, though such an one can be on his guard against fraud, yet a simple man and one who is easily credulous, is deceived. But we frequently see a man who is trying to mislead another in this way deceive himself, and deservedly become a laughing- stock for everyone; or very often the defrauder as well as the dupe is entirely ignorant of mining. If, for instance, a vein has been found to be abundant in ore, contrary to the idea of the would-be deceiver, then he who was to have been cheated gets a profit, and he who has been the deceiver loses. Nevertheless, the miners themselves rarely buy or sell shares, but generally they have jurvati venditores** who buy and sell at such prices as they have been instructed to give or accept. Seeing therefore, that magistrates decide disputes on fair and just principles, that honest men deceive nobody, while a dishonest one cannot deceive easily, or if he does he cannot do so with impunity, the criticism of those who wish to disparage the honesty of miners has therefore no force or weight. In the next place, the occupation of the miner is objectionable to nobody. For who, unless he be naturally malevolent and envious, will hate the man who gains wealth as it were from heaven? Or who will hate a man who to amplify his fortune, adopts a method which is free from reproach ? A moneylender, if he demands an excessive interest, incurs the hatred of men. If he demands a moderate and lawful rate, so that he is not injurious to the public generally and does not impoverish them, he fails to become very rich from his business. Further, the gain derived from mining is not sordid, for how can it be such, seeing that it is so great, so plentiful, and of so innocent a nature. A merchant’s profits are mean and base when he sells counterfeit and spurious merchandise, or puts far too high a price on goods that he has purchased for little; for this reason the merchant BTuvati Verdstores—‘ Sworn brokers.” (?) BOOK I. 23 would be held in no less odium amongst good men than is the usurer, did they not take account of the risk he runs to secure his merchandise. In truth, those who on this point speak abusively of mining for the sake of detracting from its merits, say that in former days men convicted of crimes and misdeeds were sentenced to the mines and were worked as slaves. But to-day the miners receive pay, and are engaged like other workmen in the common trades. Certainly, if mining is a shameful and discreditable employment for a gentleman because slaves once worked mines, then agriculture also will not be a very creditable employment, because slaves once cultivated the fields, and even to-day do so among the Turks; nor will architecture be considered honest, because some slaves have been found skilful in that profession ; nor medicine, because not a few doctors have been slaves; nor will any other worthy craft, because men captured by force of arms have practised it. Yet agriculture, architecture, and medicine are none the less counted amongst the number of honourable professions; therefore, mining ought not for this reason to be excluded from them. But suppose we grant that the hired miners have a sordid employment. We do not mean by miners only the diggers and other workmen, but also those skilled in the mining arts, and those who invest money in mines. Amongst them can be counted kings, princes, republics, and from these last the most esteemed citizens. And finally, we include amongst the overseers of mines the noble Thucydides, the historian, whom the Athenians placed in charge of the mines of Thasos.2® And it would not be unseemly for the owners themselves to work with their own hands on the works or ore, especially if they them- selves have contributed to the cost of the mines. Just as it is not undignified for great men to cultivate their own land. Otherwise the Roman Senate would not have created Dictator 1. Quintius Cincinnatus, as he was at work in the fields, nor would it have summoned to the Senate House the chief men of the State from their country villas. Similarly, in our day, Maximilian Cesar would not have enrolled Conrad in the ranks of the nobles known as Counts ; Conrad was really very poor when he served in the mines of Schneeberg, and for that reason he was nicknamed the “ poor man” ; but 29There is no doubt that Thucydides had some connection with gold mines ; he himself is the authority for the statement that he worked mines in Thrace. Agricola seems to have obtained his idea that Thucydides held an appointment from the Athenians in charge of mines in Thasos, from Marcellinus (Vita, Thucydides, 30), who also says that Thucydides obtained possession of mines in Thrace through his marriage with a Thracian woman, and that it was while residing on the mines at Scapte-Hyle that he wrote his history. Later scholars, however, find little warrant for these assertions. The gold mines of Thasos—an island off the mainland of Thrace—are frequently mentioned by the ancient authors. Herodotus, vi., 46-47, says :—‘‘ Their (the Thasians’) revenue was derived partly from “their possessions upon the mainland, partly from the mines which they owned. They “were masters of the gold mines of Scapte-Hyle, the yearly produce of which amounted to “eighty talents. Their mines in Thasos yielded less, but still were so prolific that besides “Deing entirely free from land-tax they had a surplus of income derived from the two “sources of their territory on the mainland and their mines, in common years two hundred “and in best years three hundred talents. I myself have seen the mines in question. By “far the most curious of them are those which the Phoenicians discovered at the time “when they went with Thasos and colonized the island, which took its name from him. 24 BOOK I. not many years after, he attained wealth from the mines of First, which is a city in Lorraine, and took his name from ‘ Luck.’%° Nor would King Vladislaus have restored to the Assembly of Barons, Tursius, a citizen of Cracow, who became rich through the mines in that part of the kingdom of Hungary which was formerly called Dacia.3!_ Nay, not even the common worker in the mines is vile and abject. For, trained to vigilance and work by night and day, he has great powers of endurance when occasion demands, and easily sustains the fatigues and duties of a soldier, for he is accustomed to keep long vigils at night, to wield iron tools, to dig trenches, to drive tunnels, to make machines, and to carry burdens. Therefore, experts in military affairs prefer the miner, not only to a commoner from the town, but even to the rustic. But to bring this discussion to an end, inasmuch as the chief callings are those of the moneylender, the soldier, the merchant, the farmer, and the miner, I say, inasmuch as usury is odious, while the spoil cruelly captured from the possessions of the people innocent of wrong is wicked in the sight of God and man, and inasmuch as the calling of the miner excels in honour and dignity that of the merchant trading for lucre, while it is not less noble though far more profitable than agriculture, who can fail to realize that mining is a calling of peculiar dignity ? Certainly, though it is but one of ten important and excellent methods of acquiring wealth in an honourable way, a careful and diligent man can attain this result in no easier way than by mining. “These Phoenician workings are in Thasos itself, between Coenyra and a place called “ Aenyra over against Samothrace; a high mountain has been turned upside down in “the search for ores.’’ (Rawlinson’s Trans.). The occasion of this statement of Herodotus was the relations of the Thasians with Darius (521-486 B.c.). The date of the Phoenician colonization of Thasos is highly nebular—anywhere from 1200 to goo B.c. S°Agricola, De Veteribus et Novis Metallis, Book 1., p. 392, says :—‘‘ Conrad, whose “nickname in former years was ‘pauper,’ suddenly became rich from the silver mines of “Mount Jura, known as the Firstum.’’ He was ennobled with the title of Graf Cuntz von Gliick by the Emperor Maximilian (who was Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, 1493-1519). -Conrad was originally a working miner at Schneeberg where he was known as Armer Cuntz (poor Cuntz or Conrad) and grew wealthy from the mines of Fiirst in Leberthal. This district is located in the Vosges Mountains on the borders of Lorraine and Upper Alsace. The story of Cuntz or Conrad von Gliick is mentioned by Albinus (Metssnische Land und Berg Chronica, Dresden, 1589, p. 116), Mathesius (Sarepia, Nurem- berg, 1575, fol. xvi.), and by others. 31Vladislaus III. was King of Poland, 1434-44, and also became King of Hungary in 1440. Tursius seems to be a Latinized name and cannot be identified. END OF BOOK I. BOOK. Il. ==y| UALITIES which the perfect miner should possess #4,)| and the arguments which are urged for and against the arts of mining and metallurgy, as_ well as the people occupied in the industry, I have sufficiently discussed in the first Book. Now I have determined to give more ample information rig concerning the miners. Shes In the first place, it is indispensable that they Lp Pei at. S29} should worship God with reverence, and that they understand the matters of which I am going to speak, and that they take good care that each individual performs his duties efficiently and diligently. It is decreed by Divine Providence that those who know what they ought to do and then take care to do it properly, for the most part meet with good fortune in all they undertake; on the other hand, misfortune overtakes the indolent and those who are careless in their work. No person indeed can, without great and sustained effort and labour, store in his mind the knowledge of every portion of the metallic arts which are involved in operating mines. If a man has the means of paying the necessary expense, he hires as many men as he needs, and sends them to the various works. Thus formerly Sosias, the Thracian, sent into the silver mines a thousand slaves whom he had hired from the Athenian Nicias, the son of Niceratus!. But if a man cannot afford the expenditure he chooses of the various kinds of mining that work which he himself can most easily and efficiently do. Of these kinds, the two most important are the making prospect trenches and the washing of the sands of rivers, for out of these sands are often collected gold dust, or certain black stones from which tin is smelted, or even gems are sometimes found in them ; the trenching occasionally lays bare at the grass-roots veins which are found rich in metals. If therefore by skill or by luck, such sands or veins shall fall into his hands, he will be able to establish his fortune without expenditure, and from poverty rise to wealth. If on the contrary, his hopes are not realised, then he can desist from washing or digging. When anyone, in an endeavour to increase his fortune, meets the expenditure of a mine alone, it is of great importance that he should attend to his works and personally superintend everything that he has ordered to be done. For this reason, he should either have his dwelling at the mine, Xenophon. Essay on the Revenues of Athens, Iv., 14. “ But we cannot but feel surprised that the State, when it sees many private individuals “enriching themselves from its resources, does not imitate their proceedings ; for we heard “long ago, indeed, at least such of us as attended to these matters, that Nicias the son of “Niceratus kept a thousand men employed in the silver mines, whom he let on hire to “‘Sosias of Thrace on condition that he should give him for each an obolus a day, free of all “charges; and this number he always supplied undiminished.” (See also Note 6). An obolus a day each, would be about 23 oz. Troy of silver per day for the whole number. In modern value this would, of course, be but about 50s. per day, butin purchasing power the value would probably be too to 1 (see Note on p 28). Nicias was estimated to have a fortune of 100 talents—about 83,700 Troy ounces of silver, and was one of the wealthiest of the Athenians. (Plutarch, Life of Nicias). 26 BOOK II. where he may always be in sight of the workmen and always take care that none neglect their duties, or else he should live in the neighbourhood, so that he may frequently inspect his mining works. Then he may send word by a messenger to the workmen that he is coming more frequently than he really intends to come, and so either by his arrival or by the intimation of it, he so frightens the workmen that none of them perform their duties otherwise than diligently. When he inspects the mines he should praise the diligent workmen and occasionally give them rewards, that they and the others may become more zealous in their duties; on the other hand, he should rebuke the idle and discharge some of them from the mines and substitute industrious men in their places. Indeed, the owner should frequently remain for days and nights in the mine, which, in truth, is no habitation for the idle and luxurious; it is important that the owner who is diligent in increasing his wealth, should frequently himself descend into the mine, and devote some time to the study of the nature of the veins and stringers, and should observe and consider all the methods of working, both inside and outside the mine. Nor is this all he ought to do, for sometimes he should undertake actual labour, not thereby demeaning himself, but in order to encourage his workmen by his own diligence, and to teach them their art; for that mine is well conducted in which not only the foreman, but also the owner himself, gives instruction as to what ought to be done. A certain barbarian, according to Xenophon, rightly remarked to the King of Persia that “the eye of the master feeds the horse,’’? for the master’s watchfulness in all things is of the utmost importance. When several share together the expenditure on a mine, it is convenient and useful to elect from amongst their own number a mine captain, and also a foreman. For, since men often look after their own interests but neglect those of others, they cannot in this case take care of their own without at the same time looking after the interests of the others, neither can they neglect the interests of the others without neglecting their own. But if no man amongst them be willing or able to undertake and sustain the bur- dens of these offices, it will be to the common interest to place them in the hands of most diligent men. Formerly indeed. these things were looked after by the mining prefect®, because the owners were kings, as Priam, who owned the gold mines round Abydos, or as Midas, who was the owner of those situated in Mount Bermius, or as Gyges, or as Alyattes, or as Croesus, who was the owner of those mines near a deserted town between Atarnea and Pergamum‘; sometimes the mines belonged to a Republic, as, for 2Xenophon. Oeconomicus xu., 20. “‘‘I approve,’ said Ischomachus, ‘of the bar- ‘‘barian’s answer to the King who found a good horse, and, wishing to fatten it as soon as “ possible, asked a man with a good reputation for horsemanship what would do it?’ The ““man’s reply was: ‘Its master’s eye.’ ”’ 3Praefecius Metallorum. In Saxony this official was styled the Berghauptmann. For further information see page 94 and note on page 78. ‘This statement is either based upon Apollodorus, whom Agricola does not mention among his authorities, or on Strabo, whom he does so include. The former in his work on Mythology makes such a statement, for which Strabo (xIv., 5, 28) takes him to task as follows : “With this vain intention they collected the stories related by the Scepsian BOOK II. 27 instance, the prosperous silver mines in Spain which belonged to Carthage? ; sometimes they were the property of great and illustrious families, as were the Athenian mines in Mount Laurion®. When a man owns mines but is ignorant of the art of mining, then it is advisable that he should share in common with others the expenses, not of one only, but of several mines. When one man alone meets the expense for a long time of a whole mine, if good fortune bestows on him a vein abundant in metals, or in other products, he becomes very wealthy ; if, on the contrary, the mine is poor and barren, in time he will lose everything which he has expended on it. But the man who, in common with others, has laid out his money on several mines in a region renowned for its wealth of metals, rarely spends it in vain, for fortune usually responds to his hopes in part. For when out of twelve veins in which he has a joint interest “‘ (Demetrius), and taken from Callisthenes and other writers, who did not clear them from “false notions respecting the Halizones; for example, that the wealth of Tantalus and of the “ Pelopidae was derived. it is said, from the mines about Phrygia and Sipylus; that of Cadmus “from the mines of Thrace and Mount Pangaeum ; that of Priam from the gold mines of “ Astyra, near Abydos (of which at present there are small remains, yet there is a large “quantity of matter ejected, and the excavations are proofs of former workings); that of “Midas from the mines about Mount Bermium ; that of Gyges, Alyattes, and Croesus, from “the mines in Lydia and the small deserted city between Atarneus and Pergamum, where ‘are the sites of exhausted mines.” (Hamilton’s Trans., Vol. 11., p. 66). In adopting this view, Agricola apparently applied a wonderful realism to some Greek mythology—for instance, in the legend of Midas, which tells of that king being rewarded by the god Dionysus, who granted his request that all he touched might turn to gold ; but the inconvenience of the gift drove him to pray for relief, which he obtained by bathing in the Pactolus, the sands of which thereupon became highly auriferous. Priam was, of course, King of Troy, but Homer does not exhibit him as a mine-owner. Gyges, Alyattes, and Croesus were successively Kings of Lydia, from 687 to 546 B.c., and were no doubt possessed of great treasure in gold. Some few years ago we had occasion to inquire into extensive old workings locally reputed to be Croesus’ mines, at a place some distance north of Smyrna, which would correspond very closely to the locality here mentioned. 5There can be no doubt that the Carthaginians worked the mines of Spain on an extensive scale for a very long period anterior to their conquest by the Romans, but whether the mines were worked by the Government or not we are unable to find any evidence. ®The silver mines of Mt. Laurion formed the economic mainstay of Athens for the three centuries during which the State had the ascendency in Greece, and there can be no doubt that the dominance of Athens and its position as a sea-power were directly due to the revenues from the mines. The first working of the mines is shrouded in mystery. The scarcity of silver in the time of Solon (638-598 B.c.) would not indicate any very considerable output at that time. According to Xenophon (Essay on Revenue of Athens, Iv., 2), written about 355 B.C., ““ they were wrought in very ancient times.’’ The first definite discussion of the mines in Greek record begins about 500 B.c., for about that time the royalties began to figure in the Athenian Budget (Aristotle, Constitution of Athens, 47). There can be no doubt that the mines reached great prosperity prior to the Persian invasion. In the year 484 B.c. the mines returned 100 Talents (about 83,700 oz. Troy) to the Treasury, and this, on the advice of Themistocles, was devoted to the construction of the fleet which conquered the Persians at Salamis (480 B.c.). The mines were much interfered with by the Spartan invasions from 431 to 425 B.c., and again by their occupation in 413 B.c.; and by 355 B.c., when Xenophon wrote the ‘‘ Revenues,” exploitation had fallen to a low ebb, for which he proposes the remedies noted by Agricola on p. 28. By the end of the 4th Century, B.C., the mines had again reached considerable prosperity, as is evidenced by Demosthenes’ orations against Pantaenetus and against Phaenippus, and by Lycurgus’ prosecution of Diphilos for robbing the supporting pillars. The domination of the Macedonians under Philip and Alexander at the end of the 4th and beginning of the 3rd Centuries B.c., however, so flooded Greece with money from the mines of Thrace, that this probably interfered with Laurion, at this time, in any event, began the decadence of these mines. Synchronous also was the decadence of Athens, and, but fox fitful displays, the State was not able to main- tain even its own independence, not to mention its position as a dominant State. Finally, Strabo, writing about 30 B.c. gives the epitaph of every mining district—reworking the dumps. He says (Ix., I, 23): “ The silver mines in Attica were at first of importance, but 28 BOOK Il. one yields an abundance of metals, it not only gives back to the owner the money he has spent, but also gives a profit besides ; certainly there will be for him rich and profitable mining, if of the whole number, three, or four, or more veins should yield metal. Very similar to this is the advice which Xenophon gave to the Athenians when they wished to prospect for new veins of silver without suffering loss. “‘ There are,” he said, ‘“‘ ten tribes of Athenians; if, therefore, the State assigned an equal number of slaves to each tribe, and the tribes participated equally in all the new veins, undoubtedly by this method, if a rich vein of silver were found by one tribe, whatever profit were made from it would assuredly be shared by the whole number. And if two, three, or four tribes, or even half the whole number find veins, their works would then become more profitable ; and it is not “probable that the work of all the tribes will be disappointing”’” Although this advice of Xenophon is full of prudence, there is no opportunity for it except in free and wealthy States; for those people who are under the authority of kings and princes, or are kept in subjection by tyranny, do not dare, without permission, to incur such expenditure ; those who are endowed with little wealth and resources cannot do so on account of insufficient funds. Moreover, amongst our race it is not customary for Republics to have slaves whom they can hire out for the benefit of the people®; but, instead, now- adays those who are in authority administer the funds for mining in the name of the State, not unlike private individuals. “are now exhausted. The workmen, when the mines yielded a bad return to their labour, “committed to the furnace the old refuse and scoria, and hence obtained very pure silver, “for the former workmen had carried on the process in the furnace unskilfully.” Since 1860, the mines have been worked with some success by a French Company, thus carrying the mining history of this district over a period of twenty-seven centuries. The most excellent of many memoirs upon the mines at Laurion, not only for its critical, historical, and archeological value, but also because of its author’s great insight into mining and metallurgy, is that of Edouard Ardaillon (Les Mines du Laurion dans I Antiquité. Paris, 1897). We have relied considerably upon this careful study for the following notes, and would refer others to it for a short bibliography on the subject. We would mention in passing that Augustus Boeckh’s “‘ Silver Mines of Laurion,” which is incorporated with his ‘‘ Public Economy of Athens” (English Translation by Lewis, London, 1842) has been too much relied upon by English students. It is no doubt the product of one acquainted with written history, but without any special knowledge of the industry and it is based on no antiquarian re- search. The Mt. Laurion mining district is located near the southern end of the Attic Peninsula. The deposits are silver-lead, and they occur along the contact between approximately hori- zontal limestones and slates. There are two principal beds of each, thus forming three principal contacts. The most metalliferous of these contacts are those at the base of the slates, the lowest contact of the series being the richest. The ore-bodies were most irregular, varying greatly in size, from a thin seam between schist planes, to very large bodies containing as much as 200,000 cubic metres. The ores are argentiferous galena, accompanied by con- siderable amounts of blende and pyrites, all oxidized near the surface. The ores worked by the Ancients appear to have been fairly rich in lead, for the discards worked in recent years by the French Company, and the pillars left behind, ran 8% to 10% lead. The ratio of silver was from 40 to go ounces per ton of lead. The upper contacts were exposed by erosion and could be entered by tunnels, but the lowest and most prolific contact line was only to be reached by shafts. The shafts were ordinarily from four to six feet square, and were undoubtedly cut by hammer and chisel; they were as much as 380 feet deep. In some cases long inclines for travelling roads join the vertical shafts in depth. The drives, whether tunnels or from shafts, were not level, but followed every caprice of the sinuous contact. They were from two to two and a half feet wide, often driven in parallels with cross-cuts between, in order to exploit every corner of the contact. The stoping of ore-bodies discovered was undertaken quite systematically, the methods depending in the main on the shape of the ore-body. If the body was large, its dimensions were first determined by drives, crosscuts, rises, and BOOK II. 29 Some owners prefer to buy shares® in mines abounding in metals, rather than to be troubled themselves to search for the veins; these men employ an easier and less uncertain method of increasing their property. Although their hopes in the shares of one or another mine may be frustrated, the buyers of shares should not abandon the rest of the mines, for all the money expended will be recovered with interest from some other mine. They should not buy only high priced shares in those mines producing metals, nor should they buy too many in neighbouring mines where metal has not yet been found, lest, should fortune not respond, they may be exhausted by their losses and have nothing with which they may meet their expenses or buy other shares which may replace their losses. This calamity over- takes those who wish to grow suddenly rich from mines, and instead, they become very much poorer than before. So then, in the buying of shares, as in other matters, there should be a certain limit of expenditure which miners should set themselves, lest blinded by the desire for excessive wealth, they throw all their money away. Moreover, a prudent owner, before he buys shares, ought to go to the mine and carefully examine the nature of the vein, for it is very important that he should be on his guard lest fraudulent sellers of shares should deceive him. Investors in shares may perhaps become less wealthy, but they are more certain of some gain than those who mine for metals at their own expense, as they are more cautious in trusting to fortune. Neither ought miners to be altogether distrustful of fortune, as we see some are, who as soon as the shares of any mine begin to go up in winzes, as the case might require. If the ore was mainly overhead it was overhand-stoped, and the stopes filled as work progressed, inclined winzes being occasionally driven from the stopes to the original entry drives. If the ore was mainly below, it was underhand-stoped, pillars being left if necessary—such pillars in some cases being thirty feet high. They also employed timber and artificial pillars. The mines were practically dry. There is little evidence of breaking by fire. The ore was hand-sorted underground and carried out by the slaves, and in some cases apparently the windlass was used. It was treated by grinding in mills and concentrating upon a sort of buddle. These concentrates—mostly galena—were smelted in low furnaces and the lead was subsequently cupelled. Further details of metallurgical methods will be found in Notes on p. 391 and p. 465, on metallurgical subjects. The mines were worked by slaves. Even the overseers were at times apparently slaves, for we find (Xenophon, Memorabilia, 1.,5) that Nicias paid a whole talent for a good overseer. A talent would be about 837 Troy ounces of silver. As wages of skilled labour were about two and one half pennyweights of silver per diem, and a family income of 100 ounces of silver per annum was affluence, the ratio of purchasing power of Attic coinage to modern would be about 100 tor. Therefore this mine manager was worth in modern value roughly £8,000. The mines were the property of the State. The areas were defined by vertical boundaries, and were let on lease for definite periods for a fixed annual rent. More ample discussion of the law will be found on p. 83. *Xenophon. (Essay on The Revenues, Iv., 30). “I think, however, that I am “‘able to give some advice with regard to this difficulty also (the risk of opening new mines), “and to show how new operations may be conducted with the greatest safety. There are ten “tribes at Athens, and if to each of these the State should assign an equal number of slaves, “and the tribes should all make new cuttings, sharing their fortunes in common, then if but “one tribe should make any useful discovery it would point out something profitable to the “whole ; but if two, three, or four, or half the number should make some discovery, it is “plain that the works would be more profitable in proportion, and that they should all fail “js contrary to all experience in past times.” (Watson’s Trans. p. 258). ®Agricola here refers to the proposal of Xenophon for the State to collect slaves and hire them to work the mines of Laurion. There is no evidence that this recommendation was ever carried out. ®Partes. Agricola, p. 89—-g1,-describes in detail the organization and management of these share companies. See Note 8, p. go. 30 BOOK Il. value, sell them, on which account they seldom obtain even moderate wealth. There are some people who wash over the dumps from exhausted and abandoned mines, and those dumps which are derived from the drains of tunnels ; and others who smelt the old slags ; from all of which they make an ample return. Now a miner, before he begins to mine the veins, must consider seven things, namely :—the situation, the conditions, the water, the roads, the climate, the right of ownership, and the neighbours. There are four kinds of situations—mountain, hill, valley, and plain. Of these four, the first two are the most easily mined, because in them tunnels can be driven to drain off the water, which often makes mining operations very laborious, if it does not stop them altogether. The last two kinds of ground are more troublesome, especially because tunnels cannot be driven in such places. Nevertheless, a prudent miner considers all these four sorts of localities in the region in which he happens to be, and he searches for veins in those places where some torrent or other agency has removed and swept the soil away ; yet he need not prospect everywhere, but since there is a great variety, both in mountains and in the three other kinds of localities, he always selects from them those which will give him the best chance of obtaining wealth. In the first place, mountains differ greatly in position, some being situated in even and level plains, while others are found in broken and elevated regions, and others again seem to be piled up, one mountain upon another. The wise miner does not mine in mountains which are situated on open plains, neither does he dig in those which are placed on the summits of mountainous regions, unless by some chance the veins in those mountains have been denuded of their surface covering, and abounding in metals and other products, are exposed plainly to his notice,—for with regard to what I have already said more than once, and though I never repeat it again, I wish to emphasize this exception as to the localities which should not be selected. All districts do not possess a great number of mountains crowded together ; some have but one, others two, others three, or perhaps a few more. In some places there are plains lying between them ; in others the mountains are joined together or separated only by narrow valleys. The miner should not dig in those solitary mountains, dispersed through the plains and open regions, but only in those which are connected and joined with others. Then again, since mountains differ in size, some being very large, others of medium height, and others more like hills than mountains, the miner rarely digs in the largest or the smallest of them, but generally only in those of medium size. Moreover, mountains have a great variety of shapes; for with some the slopes rise gradually, while others, on the contrary, are all precipitous ; in some others the slopes are gradual on one side, and on the other sides precipitous ; some are drawn out in length; some are gently curved; others assume different shapes. But the miner may dig in all parts of them, except where there are precipices, and he should not neglect even these latter if metallic veins BOOK IL. 31 are exposed before his eyes. There are just as great differences in hills as there are in mountains, yet the miner does not dig except in those situated in mountainous districts, and even very rarely in those. It is however very little to be wondered at that the hill in the Island of Lemnos was excavated, for the whole is of a reddish-yellow colour, which furnishes for the inhabit- ants that valuable clay so especially beneficial to mankind!®. In like manner, other hills are excavated if chalk or other varieties of earth are exposed, but these are not prospected for. There are likewise many varieties of valleys and plains. One kind is enclosed on the sides with its outlet and entrance open; another has either its entrance or its outlet open and the rest of it is closed in; both of these are properly called valleys. There is a third variety which is surrounded on all sides by mountains, and these are called convalles. Some valleys again, have recesses, and others have none; one is wide, another narrow; one is long, another short ; yet another kind is not higher than the neighbouring plain, and others are lower than the surrounding flat country. But the miner does not dig in those surrounded on all sides by mountains, nor in those that are open, unless there be a low plain close at hand, or unless a vein of metal descending from the mountains should extend into the valley. Plains differ from one another, one being situated at low elevation, and others higher, one being level and another with a slight incline. The miner should never excavate the low-lying plain, nor one which is perfectly level, unless it be in some mountain, and rarely should he mine in the other kinds of plains. With regard to the conditions of the locality the miner should not contemplate mining without considering whether the place be covered with trees or is bare. If it be a wooded place, he who digs there has this advantage, besides others, that there will be an abundant supply of wood for his underground timbering, his machinery, buildings, smelting, and other necessities. If there is no forest he should not mine there unless there is a river near, by which he can carry down the timber. Yet wherever there is a hope that pure gold or gems may be found, the ground can be turned up, even though there is no forest, because the gems need only to be polished and the gold to be purified. Therefore the inhabitants of hot regions obtain these substances from rough and sandy places, where sometimes there are not even shrubs, much less woods. The miner should next consider the locality, as to whether it has a perpetual supply of running water, or whether it is always devoid of water except when a torrent supplied by rains flows down from the summits of the mountains. The place that Nature has provided with a river or stream can 10This island in the northern AXgean Sea has produced this “earth’’ from before Theophrastus’ time (372-287 B.c.) down to the present day. According to Dana (System of Mineralogy 6809), it is cimolite, a hydrous silicate of aluminium. The Ancients distinguished two kinds,—one sort used as a pigment, and the other for medicinal purposes. This latter was dug with great ceremony at a certain time of the year, moulded into cubes, and stamped with a goat,—the symbol of Diana. It thus became known as ?#erra sigillata, and was an article of apothecary commerce down to the last century. It is described by Galen (x11., 12), Dioscorides (v., 63), and Pliny (xxxv., 14), as a remedy for ulcers and snake bites. 32 BOOK II. be made serviceable for many things ; for water will never be wanting and can be carried through wooden pipes to baths in dwelling-houses ; it may be carried to the works, where the metals are smelted ; and finally, if the conditions of the place will allow it, the water can be diverted into the tunnels, so that it may turn the underground machinery. Yet on the other hand, to convey a constant supply of water by artificial means to mines where Nature has denied it access, or to convey the ore to the stream, increases the expense greatly, in proportion to the distance the mines are away from the river. The miner also should consider whether the roads from the neighbouring regions to the mines are good or bad, short or long. For since a region which is abundant in mining products very often yields no agricultural produce, and the necessaries of life for the workmen and others must all be imported, a bad and long road occasions much loss and trouble with porters and carriers, and this increases the cost of goods brought in, which, therefore, must be sold at high prices. This injures not so much the work- men as the masters; since on account of the high price of goods, the work- men are not content with the wages customary for their labour, nor can they be, and they ask higher pay from the owners. And if the owners refuse, the men will not work any longer in the mines but will go elsewhere. Although districts which yield metals and other mineral products are generally healthy, because, being often situated on high and lofty ground, they are fanned by every wind, yet sometimes they are unhealthy, as has been related in my other book, which is called “ De Natura Eorum Quae Effluunt ex Terra.’ Therefore, a wise miner does not mine in such places, even if they are very productive, when he perceives unmistakable signs of pestilence. For if a man mines in an unhealthy region he may be alive one hour and dead the next. Then, the miner should make careful and thorough investigation con- cerning the lord of the locality, whether he be a just and good man or a tyrant, for the latter oppresses men by force of his authority, and seizes their possessions for himself; but the former governs justly and lawfully and serves the common good. The miner should not start mining opera- tions in a district which is oppressed by a tyrant, but should carefully consider if in the vicinity there is any other locality suitable for mining and make up his mind if the overlord there be friendly or inimical. If he be inimical the mine will be rendered unsafe through hostile attacks, in one of which all of the gold or silver, or other mineral products, laboriously col- lected with much cost, will be taken away from the owner and his workmen will be struck with terror ; overcome by fear, they will hastily fly, to free themselves from the danger to which they are exposed. In this case, not only are the fortunes of the miner in the greatest peril but his very life is in jeopardy, for which reason he should not mine in such places. Since several miners usually come to mine the veins in one locality, a settlement generally springs up, for the miner who began first cannot keep it exclusively for himself. The Bergmeister gives permits to some to mine BOOK II. 33 the superior and some the inferior parts of the veins; to some he gives the cross veins, to others the inclined veins. If the man who first starts work finds the vein to be metal-bearing or yielding other mining products, it will not be to his advantage to cease work because the neighbourhood may be evil, but he will guard and defend his rights both by arms and by the law. When the Bergmeistey™! delimits the boundaries of each owner, it is the duty of a good miner to keep within his bounds, and of a prudent one to repel encroachments of his neighbours by the help of the law. But this is enough about the neighbourhood. The miner should try to obtain a mine, to which access is not difficult, in a mountainous region, gently sloping, wooded, healthy, safe, and not far distant from a river or stream by means of which he may convey his mining products to be washed and smelted. This indeed, is the best position. As for the others, the nearer they approximate to this position the better they are; the further removed, the worse. Now I will discuss that kind of minerals for which it is not necessary to dig, because the force of water carries them out of the veins. Of these there are two kinds, minerals—and their fragments!2—and juices. When there are springs at the outcrop of the veins from which, as I have already said, the above-mentioned products are emitted, the miner should consider these first, to see whether there are metals or gems mixed with the sand, or whether the waters discharged are filled with juices. Im case metals or gems have settled in the pool of the spring, not only should the sand from it be washed, but also that from the streams which flow from these springs, and even from the river itself into which they again discharge. If the springs dis- charge water containing some juice, this also should be collected ; the further such a stream has flowed from the source, the more it receives plain water and the more diluted does it become, and so much the more deficient in strength. If the stream receives no water of another kind, or scarcely any, not only the rivers, but likewise the lakes which receive these waters, are of the same nature as the springs, and serve the same uses ; of this kind is the lake which the Hebrews call the Dead Sea, and which is quite full of bituminous fluids'®. But I must return to the subject of the sands. Springs may discharge their waters into a sea, a lake, a marsh, a river, or a stream ; but the sand of the sea-shore is rarely washed, for although the water flowing down from the springs into the sea carries some metals or gems with it, yet these substances can scarcely ever be reclaimed, because they are dispersed through the immense body of waters and mixed up with UMagister Metallorum. See Note 1, p. 78, for the reasons of the adoption of the term Bergmeister and page 95 for details of his duties. 2Ramenta. ‘Particles.’ The author uses this term indifferently for fragments, particles of mineral, concentrates, gold dust, black tin, etc., in all cases the result of either natural or artificial concentration. As in technical English we have no general term for both natural and artificial ‘““ concentrates,’ we have rendered it as the context seemed to demand. 18A certain amount of bitumen does float ashore in the Dead Sea; the origin of it is, however, uncertain. Strabo (xvi., 2, 42), Pliny (v., 15 and 16), and Josephus (Iv., 8), all mention this fact. The lake for this reason is often referred to by the ancient writers by the name Asphalittes. 34 BOOK II. other sand, and scattered far and wide in different directions, or they sink down into the depths of the sea. For the same reasons, the sands of lakes can very rarely be washed successfully, even though the streams rising from the mountains pour their whole volume of water into them. The particles of metals and gems from the springs are very rarely carried into the marshes, which are generally in level and open places. Therefore, the miner, in the first place, washes the sand of the spring, then of the stream which flows from it, then finally, that of the river into which the stream discharges. It is not worth the trouble to wash the sands of a large river which is on a level plain at a distance from the mountains. Where several springs carrying metals discharge their waters into one river, there is more hope of productive results from washing. The miner does not neglect even the sands of the streams in which excavated ores have been washed. The waters of springs taste according to the juice they contain, and they differ greatly in this respect. There are six kinds of these tastes which the worker!* especially observes and examines; there is the salty kind, which shows that salt may be obtained by evaporation ; the nitrous, which indicates soda ; the aluminous kind, which indicates alum ; the vitrioline, which indicates vitriol; the sulphurous kind, which indicates sulphur ; and as for the bituminous juice, out of which bitumen is melted down, the colour itself proclaims it to the worker who is evaporating it. The sea- water however, is similar to that of salt springs, and may be drawn into low-lying pits, and, evaporated by the heat of the sun, changes of itself into salt ; similarly the water of some salt-lakes turns to salt when dried by the heat of summer. Therefore an industrious and diligent man observes and makes use of these things and thus contributes something to the common welfare. The strength of the sea condenses the liquid bitumen which flows into it from hidden springs, into amber and jet, as I have described already in my books “ De Subterraneorum Ortu et Causis’’15. The sea, with certain 14F'xcoctor,—literally, ‘‘Smelter’”’ or ‘“‘ Metallurgist.”’ 15This reference should be to the De Natura Fossilium (p. 230), although there is a short reference to the matter in De Ortu et Causis (p. 59). Agricola maintained that not only were jet and amber varieties of bitumen, but also coal and camphor and obsidian. As jet (gagates) is but a compact variety of coal, the ancient knowledge of this substance has more interest than would otherwise attach to the gem, especially as some materials described in this connection were no doubt coal. The Greeks often refer to a series of substances which burned, contained earth, and which no doubt comprised coal. Such substances are mentioned by Aristotle (De Muirabilibus. 33, 41, 125), Nicander (Theriaca. 37), and others, previous to the znd Century B.c., but the most ample description is that of Theophrastus (23-28) : “Some “ of the more brittle stones there also are, which become as it were burning coals when put into “a fire, and continue so a long time; of this kind are those about Bena, found in mines and ‘“washed down by the torrents, for they will take fire on burning coals being thrown on them, “‘and will continue burning as long as anyone blows them ; afterward they will deaden, and ‘““may after that be made to burn again. They are therefore of long continuance, but their “smell is troublesome and disagreeable. That also which is called the spinus, is found in “mines. This stone, cut in pieces and thrown together in a heap, exposed to the sun, burns ; “and that the more, if it be moistened or sprinkled with water (a pyritiferous shale ?). But “the Lipara stone empties itself, as it were, in burning, and becomes like the pumuce, “changing at once both its colour and density ; for before burning it is black, smooth, and “compact. This stone is found in the Pumices, separately in different places, as it were, in BOOK Il. 35 directions of the wind, throws both these substances on shore, and for this reason the search for amber demands as much care as does that for coral. Moreover, it is necessary that those who wash the sand or evaporate the water from the springs, should be careful to learn the nature of the locality, its roads, its salubrity, its overlord, and the neighbours, lest on account of difficulties in the conduct of their business they become either impoverished by exhaustive expenditure, or their goods and lives are imperilled. But enough about this. The miner, after he has selected out of many places one particular spot adapted by Nature for mining, bestows much labour and attention on the veins. These have either been stripped bare of their covering by chance and thus lie exposed to our view, or lying deeply hidden and concealed they are found after close search; the latter is more usual, the former more rarely happens, and both of these occurrences must be explained. There is more than one force which can lay bare the veins unaided by the industry or toil of man; since either a torrent might strip off the surface, which hap- pened in the case of the silver mines of Freiberg (concerning which I have “cells, nowhere continuous to the matter of them. It is said that in Melos the pumice “is produced in this manner in some other stone, as this is on the contrary in it; but the ““stone which the pumice is found in is not at all like the Lipava stone which is found in it. “Certain stones there are about Tetras, in Sicily, which is over against Lipara, which “empty themselves in the same manner in the fire. And in the promontory called Erineas, “there is a great quantity of stone like that found about Bena, which, when “burnt, emits a bituminous smell, and leaves a matter resembling calcined earth. Those ‘fossil substances that are called coals, and are broken for use, are earthy; they kindle, “however, and burn like wood coals. These are found in Liguria, where there also is amber, “and in Elis, on the way to Olympia over the mountains. These are used by smiths.” (Based on Hill’s Trans.). Dioscorides and Pliny add nothing of value to this description. Agricola (De Nat. Fos., p. 229-230) not only gives various localities of jet, but also records its relation to coal. As to the latter, he describes several occurrences, and describes the deposits as vena dilatata. Coal had come into considerable use all over Europe, particu- larly in England, long before Agricola’s time; the oft-mentioned charter to mine sea-coal given to the Monks of Newbottle Abbey, near Preston, was dated 1210. Amber was known to the Greeks by the name electywm, but whether the alloy of the same name took its name from the colour of amber or vice versa is uncertain. The gum is supposed to be referred to by Homer (Od. xv. 460), and Thales of Miletus (640-546 B.c.) is supposed to have first described its power of attraction. It is mentioned by many other Greek authors, A%schylus, Euripides, Aristotle, and others. The latter (De Mirabilibus, 8x) records of the amber islands in the Adriatic, that the inhabitants tell the story that on these islands amber falls from poplar trees. “‘ This, they say, resembles gum and hardens “like stone, the story of the poets being that after Phaeton was struck by lightning his sisters “turned to poplar trees and shed tears of amber.” Theophrastus (53) says: ““ Amber is “also a stone ; it is dug out of the earth in Liguria and has, like the before-mentioned (lode- “stone), a power of attraction.” Pliny (XXXvVII., II) gives a long account of both the substance, literature, and mythology on the subject. His view of its origin was: “ Certainly amber is obtained from the islands of the Northern Ocean, and is called by the “Germans glaesum. For this reason the Romans, when Germanicus Cesar commanded in “those parts, called one of them Glaesaria, which was known to the barbarians as “ Austeravia. Amber originates from gum discharged by a kind of pine tree, like gum from “cherry and resin from the ordinary pine. It is liquid at first, and issues abundantly and “hardens in time by cold, or by the sea when the rising tides carry off the fragments from “the shores of those islands. Certainly it is thrown on the coasts, and is so light that it “appears to roll in the water. Our forefathers believed that it was the juice of a tree, for “they called it succinum. And that it belongs to a kind of pine tree is proved by the odour “of the pine tree which it gives when rubbed, and that it burns when ignited like a pitch “pine torch.” The term amber is of Arabic origin—from Ambar—and this term was adopted by the Greeks after the Christian era. Agricola uses the Latin term succinum and (De Nat. Fos., p. 231-5) disputes the origin from tree gum, and contends for submarine bitumen springs. 36 BOOK II. written in Book I. of my work “ De Veteribus et Novis Metallis’”’)®; or they may be exposed through the force of the wind, when it uproots and destroys the trees which have grown over the veins; or by the breaking away of the rocks ; or by long-continued heavy rains tearing away the mountain ; or by an earthquake; or by a lightning flash; or by a snowslide; or by the violence of the winds: ‘‘ Of such a nature are the rocks hurled down from the mountains by the force of the winds aided by the ravages of time.” Or the plough may uncover the veins, for Justin relates in his history that nuggets of gold had been turned up in Galicia by the plough; or this may occur through a fire in the forest, as Diodorus Siculus tells us happened in the silver mines in Spain ; and that saying of Posidonius is appropriate enough : “The earth violently moved by the fires consuming the forest sends forth new products, namely, gold and silver.”17. And indeed, Lucretius has ex- plained the same thing more fully in the following lines: ‘‘ Copper and gold and iron were discovered, and at the same time weighty silver and the sub- stance of lead, when fire had burned up vast forests on the great hills, either by a discharge of heaven’s lightning, or else because, when men were waging war with one another, forest fires had carried fire among the enemy in order to strike terror to them, or because, attracted by the goodness of the soil, they wished to clear rich fields and bring the country into pasture, or else to destroy wild beasts and enrich themselves with the game; for hunting with pitfalls and with fire came into use before the practice of enclosing the wood with toils and rousing the game with dogs. Whatever the fact is, from 16The statement in De Veteribus et Novis Metallis (p. 394) is as follows :— “Tt came about by chance and accident that the silver mines were discovered at “ Freiberg in Meissen. By the river Sala, which is not unknown to Strabo, is Hala, which “was once country, but is now a large town ; the site, at any rate, even from Roman times “was famous and renowned for its salt springs, for the possession of which the Hermunduri “fought with the Chatti. When people carried the salt thence in wagons, as they now do ‘straight through Meissen (Saxony) into Bohemia—which is lacking in that seasoning to-day “no less than formerly—they saw galena in the wheel tracks, which had been uncovered by “the torrents. This lead ore, since it was similar to that of Goslar, they put into their carts ‘‘and carried to Goslar, for the same carriers were accustomed to carry lead from that city. “And since much more silver was smelted from this galena than from that of Goslar, certain ‘‘miners betook themselves to that part of Meissen in which is now situated Freiberg, a “great and wealthy town; and we are told by consistent stories and general report that “they grew rich out of the mines.” Agricola places the discovery of the mines at Freiberg at about 1170. See Note 11, p. 5. 17Diodorus Siculus (v., 35). “‘ These places being covered with woods, it is said that “in ancient times these mountains were set on fire by shepherds, and continued burning for “many days, and parched the earth, so that an abundance of silver ore was melted, and ‘““the metal flowed in streams of pure silver like a river.” Aristotle, nearly three centuries betore Diodorus, mentions this same story (De Mirabilibus, 87): “ They say that in Ibernia “the woods were set on fire by certain shepherds, and the earth thus heated, the country “visibly flowed silver; and when some time later there were earthquakes, and the earth “burst asunder at different places, a large amount of silver was collected.” As the works of Posidonius are lost, it is probable that Agricola was quoting from Strabo (1II., 2, 9), who says, in describing Spain: ‘“‘ Posidonius, in praising the amount and excellence of the “metals, cannot refrain from his accustomed rhetoric, and becomes quite enthusiastic in “exaggeration. He tells us we are not to disbelieve the fable that formerly the forests ‘“having been set on fire. the earth, which was loaded with silver and gold, melted and “threw up these metals to the surface, for inasmuch as every mountain and wooded hill ‘““seemed to be heaped up with money by a lavish fortune.” (Hamilton’s Trans. I., p. 220). Or he may have been quoting from the Deipnosophistae of Athenaeus (vI.), where Posidonius is quoted: “And the mountains . . . when once the woods upon them had caught fire, spontaneously ran with liquid silver.” BOOK II. 37 whatever cause the heat of flame had swallowed up the forests with a frightful crackling from their very roots, and had thoroughly baked the earth with fire, there would run from the boiling veins and collect into the hollows of the grounds a stream of silver and gold, as well as of copper and lead.’!8 But yet the poet considers that the veins are not laid bare in the first instance so much by this kind of fire, but rather that all mining had its origin in this. And lastly, some other force may by chance disclose the veins, for a horse, if this tale can be believed, disclosed the lead veins at Goslar by a blow from his hoof!®. By such methods as these does fortune disclose the veins to us. But by skill we can also investigate hidden and concealed veins, by observing in the first place the bubbling waters of springs, which cannot be very far distant from the veins because the source of the water is from them ; secondly, by examining the fragments of the veins which the torrents break off from the earth, for after a long time some of these fragments are again buried in the ground. Fragments of this kind lying about on the ground, if they are rubbed smooth, are a long distance from the veins, because the torrent, which broke them from the vein, polished them while it rolled them a long distance; but if they are fixed in the ground, or if they are rough, they are nearer to the veins. The soil also should be con- sidered, for this is often the cause of veins being buried more or less deeply under the earth; in this case the fragments protrude more or less widely apart, and miners are wont to call the veins discovered in this manner “ fragmenta.’’?° Further, we search for the veins by observing the hoar-frosts, which whiten all herbage except that growing over the veins, because the veins emit a warm and dry exhalation which hinders the freezing of the moisture, for which reason such plants appear rather wet than whitened by the frost. This may be observed in all cold places before the grass has grown to its full size, as in the months of April and May ; or when the late crop of 18]ucretius De Rerum Natura v. 1241. 19Aericola’s account of this event in De Veteribus et Novis Metallis is as follows (p. 393): “ Now veins are not always first disclosed by the hand and labour of man, nor has art “always demonstrated them; sometimes they have been disclosed rather by chance or by *‘sood fortune. I will explain briefly what has been written upon this matter in history, “what miners tell us, and what has occurred in our times. Thus the mines at Goslar are ““said to have been found in the following way. A certain noble, whose name is not recorded, “tied his horse, which was named Ramelus, to the branch of a tree which grew on the “mountain. This horse, pawing the earth with its hoofs, which were iron shod, and thus “turning it over, uncovered a hidden vein of lead, not unlike the winged Pegasus, who in the “legend of the poets opened a spring when he beat the rock with his hoof. So just as that “spring is named Hipprocrene after that horse, so our ancestors named the mountain ““Rammelsberg. Whereas the perennial water spring of the poets would long ago have dried “up, the vein even to-day exists, and supplies an abundant amount of excellent lead. That “a horse can have opened a vein will seem credible to anyone who reflects in how many ways “the signs of veins are shown by chance, all of which are explained in my work De Re ““ Metallica. Therefore, here we will believe the story, both because it may happen that a “horse may disclose a vein, and because the name of the mountain agrees with the story.” Agricola places the discovery of Goslar in the Hartz at prior to 936. See Note II, p. 5. 20Fvagmenta. The glossary gives ‘“‘Geschube.’’ This term is defined in the Bergwerks’ Lexicon (Chemnitz, 1743, p 250) as the pieces of stone, especially tin-stone, broken from the vein and washed out by the water—the croppings. 38 BOOK II. hay, which is called the cordum, is cut with scythes in the month of September. Therefore in places where the grass has a dampness that is not con- gealed into frost, there is a vein beneath ; also if the exhalation be excessively hot, the soil will produce only small and pale-coloured plants. Lastly, there are trees whose foliage in spring-time has a bluish or leaden tint, the upper branches more especially being tinged with black or with any other unnatural colour, the trunks cleft in two, and the branches black or discoloured. These phenomena are caused by the intensely hot and dry exhalations which do not spare even the roots, but scorching them, render the trees sickly ; wherefore the wind will more frequently uproot trees of this kind than any others. Verily the veins do emit this exhalation. Therefore, in a place where there is a multitude of trees, if a long row of them at an unusual time lose their verdure and become black or discoloured, and frequently fall by the violence of the wind, beneath this spot there is a vein. Likewise along a course where a vein extends, there grows a certain herb or fungus which is absent from the adjacent space, or sometimes even from the neigh- bourhood of the veins. By these signs of Nature a vein can be discovered. There are many great contentions between miners concerning the forked twig?!, for some say that it is of the greatest use in discovering veins, and others deny it. Some of those who manipulate and use the twig, first cut a fork from a hazel bush with a knife, for this bush they consider more efficacious than any other for revealing the veins, especially if the hazel 21So0 far as we are able to discover, this is the first published description of the divining rod as applied to minerals or water. Like Agricola, many authors have sought to find its origin among the Ancients. The magic rods of Moses and Homer, especially the rod with which the former struck the rock at Horeb, the rod described by Ctesias (died 398 B.c.) which attracted gold and silver, and the vargula divina of the Romans have all been called up for proof. It is true that the Romans are responsible for the name virgula divina, “ divining tod,” but this rod was used for taking auguries by casting bits of wood (Cicero, De Divinatione). Despite allthis, while the ancient naturalists all give detailed directions for finding water, none mention anything akin to the divining rod of the Middle Ages. It is also worth noting that the Monk Theophilus in the 12th Century also gives a detailed description of how to find water, but makes no mention of the rod. There are two authori- ties sometimes cited as prior to Agricola, the first being Basil Valentine in his “ Last Will and Testament” (xxIv—vul.), and while there may be some reason (see Appendix) for accepting the authenticity of the “ Triumphal Chariot of Antimony” by this author, as dating about 1500, there can be little doubt that the ‘“‘ Last Will and Testament ”’ was spurious and dated about 50 years after Agricola. Paracelsus (De Natura Rerum 1x.), says: “‘ These (divina- “‘tions) are vain and misleading, and among the first of them are divining rods, which have “deceived many miners. If they once point rightly they deceive ten or twenty times.’’ In his De Origine Morborum Inyisibilium (Book I.) he adds that the “ faith turns the rod.” These works were no doubt written prior to De Re Metallica—Paracelsus died in 1541— but they were not published until some time afterward. Those interested in the strange persistence of this superstition down to the present day—and the files of the patent offices of the world are full of it—will find the subject exhaustively discussed in M. E. Chevreul’s “De la Baguette Dinnatoire,’ Paris, 1845; L. Figuier, ‘‘ Histoire du Merveilleux dans les temps moderne II.’’, Paris, 1860; W.F. Barrett, Proceedings of the Society of Psychical Research, part 32, 1897, and 38, 1900; R. W. Raymond, American Inst. of Mining Engin- eers, 1883, p. 411. Of the descriptions by those who believed in it there is none better than that of William Pryce (Mineralogia Cornubiensis, London, 1778, pp. 113-123), who devotes much pains to a refutation of Agricola. When we consider that a century later than Agricola such an advanced mind as Robert Boyle (1626-1691), the founder of the Royal Society, was convinced of the genuineness of the divining rod, one is more impressed with the clarity of Agricola’s vision. In fact, there were few indeed, down to the 19th Century, who did not believe implicitly in the effectiveness of this instrument, and while science has long since abandoned it, not a year passes but some new manifestation of its hold on the popular mind breaks out. BOOK II. 39 bush grows above a vein. Others use a different kind of twig for each metal, when they are seeking to discover the veins, for they employ hazel twigs for veins of silver; ash twigs for copper ; pitch pine for lead and especially tin, and rods made of iron and steel for gold. All alike grasp the forks of the twig with their hands, clenching their fists, it being necessary that the clenched fingers should be held toward the sky in order that the twig should be raised at that end where the two branches meet. Then they wander hither and thither at random through mountainous regions. It is said that the moment they place their feet on a vein the twig immediately turns and twists, and so by its action discloses the vein; when they move their feet again and go away from that spot the twig becomes once more immobile. The truth is, they assert, the movement of the twig is caused by the power of the veins, and sometimes this is so great that the branches of trees growing near a vein are deflected toward it. On the other hand, those who say that the twig is of no use to good and serious men, also deny that the motion is due to the power of the veins, because the twigs will not move for everybody, but only for those who employ incantations and craft. More- over, they deny the power of a vein to draw to itself the branches of trees, but they say that the warm and dry exhalations cause these contortions. Those who advocate the use of the twig make this reply to these objections : when one of the miners or some other person holds the twig in his hands, and it is not turned by the force of a vein, this is due to some peculiarity of the individual, which hinders and impedes the power of the vein, for since the power of the vein in turning and twisting the twig may be not unlike that of a magnet attracting and drawing iron toward itself, this hidden quality of a man weakens and breaks the force, just the same as garlic weakens and overcomes the strength of a magnet. For a magnet smeared with garlic juice cannot attract iron; nor does it attract the latter when rusty. Further, concerning the handling of the twig, they warn us that we should not press the fingers together too lightly, nor clench them too firmly, for if the twig is held lightly they say that it will fall before the force of the vein can turn it; if however, it is grasped too firmly the force of the hands resists the force of the veins and counteracts it. Therefore, they consider that five things are necessary to insure that the twig shall serve its purpose: of these the first is the size of the twig, for the force of the veins cannot turn too large a stick ; secondly, there is the shape of the twig, which must be forked or the vein cannot turn it; thirdly, the power of the vein which has the nature to turn it; fourthly, the manipulation of the twig ; fifthly, the absence of impeding peculiarities. These advocates of the twig sum up their conclusions as follows: if the rod does not move for every- body, it is due to unskilled manipulation or to the impeding peculiarities of the man which oppose and resist the force of the veins, as we said above, and those who search for veins by means of the twig need not necessarily make incantations, but it is sufficient that they handle it suitably and are devoid of impeding power; therefore, the twig may be of use to good and serious 40 BOOK II. $2 —— LY) (WW A oe, Z Z = Bp Ss Z A—Twic. B—TRENCH. men in discovering veins. With regard to deflection of branches of trees they say nothing and adhere to their opinion. Since this matter remains in dispute and causes much dissention amongst miners, I consider it ought to be examined on its own merits. The wizards, who also make use of rings, mirrors and crystals, seek for veins with a divining rod shaped like a fork ; but its shape makes no difference in the matter,—it might be straight or of some other form—for it is not the form of the twig that matters, but the wizard’s incantations which it would not become me to repeat, neither do I wish to do so. The Ancients, by means of the divining rod, not only procured those things neces- sary for a livelihood or for luxury, but they were also able to alter the forms of things by it; as when the magicians changed the rods of the Egyptians into serpents, as the writings of the Hebrews relate??; and as in Homer, Minerva with a divining rod turned the aged Ulysses suddenly into a youth, and then restored him back again to old age; Circe also changed Ulysses’ companions into beasts, but afterward gave them back again their human form?’ ; moreover by his rod, which was called ‘‘ Caduceus,’ Mercury gave 22 xodus VII., I0, II, 12. *8Odyssey XVI., 172, and x., 238. BOOK II. 4 sleep to watchmen and awoke slumberers**. Therefore it seems that the divining rod passed to the mines from its impure origin with the magicians. Then when good men shrank with horror from the incantations and rejected them, the twig was retained by the unsophisticated common miners, and in searching for new veins some traces of these ancient usages remain. But since truly the twigs of the miners do move, albeit they do not generally use incantations, some say this movement is caused by the power of the veins, others say that it depends on the manipulation, and still others think that the movement is due to both these causes. But, in truth, all those objects which are endowed with the power of attraction do not twist things in circles, but attract them directly to themselves ; for instance, the magnet does not turn the iron, but draws it directly to itself, and amber rubbed until it is warm does not bend straws about, but simplv draws them to itself. If the power of the veins were of a similar nature to that of the magnet and the amber, the twig would not so much twist as move once only, in a semi-circle, and be drawn directly to the vein, and unless the strength of the man who holds the twig were to resist and oppose the force of the vein, the twig would be brought to the ground; wherefore, since this is not the case, it must necessarily follow that the manipulation is the cause of the twig’s twisting motion. It is a conspicuous fact that these cunning manipulators do not use a straight twig, but a forked one cut from a hazel bush, or from some other wood equally flexible, so that if it be held in the hands, as they are accustomed to hold it, it turns in a circle for any man wherever he stands. Nor is it strange that the twig does not turn when held by the inexperienced, because they either grasp the forks of the twig too tightly or hold them too loosely. Nevertheless, these things give rise to the faith among common miners that veins are discovered by the use of twigs, because whilst using these they do accidentally discover some; but it more often happens that they lose their labour, and although they might discover a vein, they become none the less exhausted in digging useless trenches than do the miners who prospect in an unfortunate locality. Therefore a miner, since we think he ought to be a good and serious man, should not make use of an enchanted twig, because if he is prudent and skilled in the natural signs, he understands that a forked stick is of no use to him, for as I have said before, there are the natural indica- tions of the veins which he can see for himself without the help of twigs. So if Nature or chance should indicate a locality suitable for mining, the miner should dig his trenches there; if no vein appears he must dig numerous trenches until he discovers an outcrop of a vein. A vena dilatata is rarely discovered by men’s labour, but usually some force or other reveals it, or sometimes it is discovered by a shaft or a tunnel on a vena profunda?. 24OQdyssey XXIV., I, etc. The Caduceus of Hermes had also the power of turning things to gold, and it is interesting to note that in its oldest form, as the insignia of heralds and of ambassadors, it had two prongs. 25In a general way venae profundae were fissure veins and venae dilatatae were sheeted deposits. For description see Book III. 42 BOOK. II. The veins after they have been discovered, and likewise the shafts and tunnels, have names given them, either from their discoverers, as in the case at Annaberg of the vein called “ Kolergang,’ because a charcoal burner discovered it; or from their owners, as the Geyer, in Joachimstal, because part of the same belonged to Geyer; or from their products, as the ‘‘ Pleygang’”’ from lead, or the ‘“‘ Bissmutisch”’ at Schneeberg from bismuth26 : or from some other circumstances, such as the rich alluvials from the torrent by which they were laid bare in the valley of Joachim. More often the first discoverers give the names either of persons, as those of German Kaiser, Apollo, Janus; or the name of an animal, as that of lion, bear, ram, or cow ; or of things inanimate, as “silver chest’ or “ ox stalls’; or of something ridiculous, as “‘ glutton’s nightshade” ; or finally, for the sake of a good omen, they call it after the Deity. In ancient times they followed the same custom and gave names to the veins, shafts and tunnels, as we read in Pliny: “It is wonderful that the shafts begun by Hannibal in Spain are still worked, their names being derived from their discoverers. One of these at the present day, called Baebelo, furnished Hannibal with three hundred pounds weight (of silver) per day.” 2’ 26These mines are in the Erzgebirge. We have adopted the names given in the German translation. 27. The quotation from Pliny (xXxxIII., 31) as a whole reads as follows :— “Silver is found in nearly all the provinces, but the finest of all in Spain; where it “is found in the barren lands, and in the mountains. Wherever one vein of silver has been ‘“‘ found, another is sure to be found not faraway. This is the case of nearly all the metals, “whence it appears that the Greeks derived metalla. It is wonderful that the shafts begun “by Hannibal in Spain still remain, their names being derived from their makers. One of “these at the present day called Baebelo, furnished Hannibal with three hundred pounds’ ‘‘ weight (of silver) per day. This mountain is excavated for a distance of fifteen hundred ““paces ; and for this distance there are waterbearers lighted by torches standing night and “ day baling out the water in turns, thus making quite a river.’ Hannibal dates 247-183 B.c. and was therefore dead 206 years when Pliny was born. According to a footnote in Bostock and Riley’s translation of Pliny, these workings were supposed to be in the neighbourhood of Castulo, now Cazlona, near Linares. It was at Castulo that Hannibal married his rich wife Himilce ; and in the hills north of Linares there are ancient silver mines still known as Los Pozos de Anibal. END OF BOOK Ii. BOOK III. 3 REVIOUSLY I have given much information 1 concerning the miners, also I have discussed the choice of localities for mining, for washing sands, and for evaporating waters; further, I described the method of searching for veins. With such matters I was occupied in the second book; now I come to the third book, which is about veins and stringers, and the seams in the rocks. The term ‘‘vein’” is sometimes used to indicate canales in the earth, but very often elsewhere by this name I have described that which may be put in vessels?; I now attach a second significance to these words, for by them I mean to designate any mineral substances which the earth keeps hidden within her own deep receptacles. 1Modern nomenclature in the description of ore-deposits is so impregnated with modern views of their origin, that we have considered it desirable in many instances to adopt the Latin terms used by the author, for we believe this method will allow the reader greater freedom of judgment as to the author’s views. The Latin names retained are usually expressive even to the non-Latin student. In ageneral way, a vena profunda is a fissure vein, a vena dilatata is a bedded deposit, and a vena cumulata an impregnation, or a replacement or a stockwerk. The canales, as will appear from the following footnote, were ore channels. “The seams of the rocks” (commissurvae saxorum) are very puzzling. The author states, as appears in the following note, that they are of two kinds,—contemporaneous with the formation of the rocks, and also of the nature of veinlets. However, as to their supposed relation to the strike of veins, we can offer no explanation. There are passages in this chapter where if the word “‘ore-shoot” were introduced for “seams in the rocks” the text would be in- telligible. That is, it is possible to conceive the view that the determination of whether an east-west vein ran east or ran west was dependent on the dip of the ore-shoot along the strike. This view, however, is utterly impossible to reconcile with the description and illustration of commissurae saxorum given on page 54, where they are defined as the finest stringers. The following passage from the Niitzliche Bergbiichlin (see Appendix), reads very much as though the dip of ore-shoots was understood at this time in relation to the direction of veins. “‘ Every vein (gang) has two (outcrops) ausgehen, one of the “ausgehen is toward daylight along the whole length of the vein, which is called the ausgehen “of the whole vein. The other ausgehen is contrary to or toward the strike (streichen) of “the vein, according to its rock (gesfeim), that is called the gesteins ausgehen;, for instance, “every vein that has its strike from east to west has its gesteims ausgehen to the east, and “vice-versa.” Agricola’s classification of ore-deposits, after the general distinction between alluvial and im situ deposits, is based entirely upon form, as will be seen in the quotation below relating to the origin of canales. The German equivalents in the Glossary are as follows :— Fissure vein (vena profunda) = = = ——. . wa ee Gang. Bedded deposit (vena dilatata) = _—....... Schwebender gang oder fletze. Stockwerk or impregnation (vena cumulata) ...... Geschute oder stock. Simimger (ane) © = hh Klufft. Seams or joints (commissurae saxorum) ...... Absetzen des gesteins. It is interesting to note that in De Natura Fossilium he describes coal and salt, and later in De Re Metallica he describes the Mannsfeld copper schists, as all being venae dilatatae. This nomenclature and classification is not original with Agricola. Pliny (XXXIII, 21) uses the term vena with no explanations, and while Agricola coined the Latin terms for various kinds of veins, they are his transliteration of German terms already in use. The Niitzliche Bergbiichlin gives this same classification. HisTorIcAL NOTE ON THE THEORY OF ORE Deposits. Prior to Agricola there were three schools of explanation of the phenomena of ore deposits, the orthodox followers of the Genesis, the Greek Philosophers, and the Alchemists. The geology of the Genesis—the contemporaneous formation of everything—needs no comment other than that for anyone to have proposed an alternative to the dogma of the orthodox during the Middle Ages, required 2The Latin vena, “vein,” is also used by the author for ore; hence this descriptive warning as to its intended double use. 44 BOOK. III. First I will speak of the veins, which, in depth, width, and length, differ very much one from another. Those of one variety descend from the surface of the earth to its lowest depths, which on account of this characteristic, I am accustomed to call “‘ venae profundae.” much independence of mind. Of the Greek views—which are meagre enough—that of the Peripatetics greatly dominated thought on natural phenomena down to the 17th century. Aristotle’s views may be summarized: The elements are earth, water, air, and fire; they are transmutable and never found pure, and are endowed with certain funda- mental properties which acted as an “efficient” force upon the material cause—the elements. These properties were dryness and dampness and heat and cold, the latter being active, the former passive. Further, the elements were possessed of weight and lightness, for instance earth was absolutely heavy, fire absolutely light. The active and passive proper- ties existed in binary combinations, one of which is characteristic, z.e., “earth” is cold and dry, water damp and cold, fire hot and dry, air hot and wet ; transmutation took place, for instance,, by removing the cold from water, when air resulted (really steam), and by removing the dampness from water, when “earth” resulted (really any dissolved substance). The transmutation of the elements in the earth (meaning the globe) produces two “exhalations.”” the one fiery (probably meaning gases), the other damp (probably meaning steam). The former produces stones, the latter the metals. Theophrastus (On Stones, 1 to vii.) elaborates the views of Aristotle on the origin of stones, metals, etc.: “‘ Of things ‘formed in the earth some have their origin from water, others from earth. Water is the “basis of metals, silver, gold, and the rest; ‘earth’ of stones, as well the more precious “as the common. . . . All these are formed by solidification of matter pure and “equal in its constituent parts, which has been brought together in that state by mere “afflux or by means of some kind of percolation, or separated. . . . The solidification ‘is in some of these substances due to heat and in others to cold:’”” (Based on Hill’s Trans., pp. 3-11). That is, the metals inasmuch as they become liquid when heated must be in a large part water, and, like water, they solidify with cold. Therefore, the ‘‘ metals are_cold and damp.” Stones, on the other hand, solidify with heat and do not liquefy, therefore, they are “dry and hot’ and partake largely of ‘“‘earth.” This “earth’’ was something indefinite, but purer and more pristine than common clay. In discussing the ancient beliefs with regard to the origin of deposits, we must not overlook the import of the use of the word “‘vein’’ (vena) by various ancient authors including Pliny (XxxuI, 21), although he offers no explanation of the term. During the Middle Ages there arose the horde of Alchemists and Astrologers, a review of the development of whose muddled views is but barren reading. In the main they held more orless to the Peripatetic view, with additions of their own. Geber (13th (?) century, see Appendix B) propounded the conception that all metals were composed of varying proportions of “spiritual” sulphur and quicksilver, and to these Albertus Magnus added salt. The Astrologers contributed the idea that the immediate cause of the metals were the various planets. The only work devoted to description of ore-deposits prior to Agricola was the Bergbiichlin (about 1,520, see Appendix B), and this little book exhibits the absolute apogee of muddled thought derived from the Peripatetics, the Alchemists, and the Astrologers. We believe it is of interest to reproduce the following statement, if for no other reason than to indicate the great advance in thought shown by Agricola. “The first chapter or first part; on the common origin of ore, whether silver, gold, “tin, copper, iron, or lead ore, in which they all appear together, and are called by the common “name of metallic ore. It must be noticed that for the washing or smelting of metallic ore, “there must be the one who works and the thing that is worked upon, or the material upon “which the work is expended. The general worker (efficient force) on the ore and on all “things that are born, is the heavens, its movement, its light and influences, as the “philosophers say. The influence of the heavens is multiplied by the movement of the ““firmaments and the movements of the seven planets. Therefore, every metallic ore “receives a special influence from its own particular planet, due to the properties of the “planet and of the ore, also due to properties of heat, cold, dampness, and dryness. Thus “gold is of the Sun or its influence, silver of the Moon, tin of Jupiter, copper of Venus, iron “of Mars, lead of Saturn, and quicksilver of Mercury. Therefore, metals are often called by “these names by hermits and other philosophers. Thus gold is called the Sun, in Latin Sol, “ silver is called the Moon, in Latin Luna, as is clearly stated in the special chapters on each “metal. Thus briefly have we spoken of the ‘common worker’ of metal and ore. But the “thing worked upon, or the common material of all metals, according to the opinion of “the learned, is sulphur and quicksilver, which through the movement and influence of the “heavens must have become united and hardened into one metallic body or one ore. © Certain others hold that through the movement and the influence of the heavens, vapours “or braden, called mineral exhalations, are drawn up from the depths of the earth, from “sulphur and quicksilver, and the rising fumes pass into the veins and stringers and are BOOK III. 48 A. C.—THE MOUNTAIN. B—Vena profunda. Another kind, unlike the venae profundae, neither ascend to the surface of the earth nor descend, but lying under the ground, expand over a large area ; and on that account I call them “ venae dilatatae.”’ A. D.—THE mMounTaIn. B. C—Vena dilatata. 46 BOOK III. Another occupies a large extent of space in length and width ; there- fore I usually call it “ vena cumulata,” for it is nothing else than an accumu- lation of some certain kind of mineral, as I have described in the book “united through the effect of the planets and made into ore. Certain others hold that “metal is not formed from quicksilver, because in many places metallic ore is found and “no quicksilver. But instead of quicksilver they maintain a damp and cold and slimy “« material is set up on all sulphur which is drawn out from the earth, like your perspiration, ‘‘and from that mixed with sulphur all metals are formed. Now each of these opinions is “correct according to a good understanding and right interpretation; the ore or metal is “formed from the fattiness of the earth as the material of the first degree (primary element), ““also the vapours or braden on the one part and the materials on the other part, both of which “are called quicksilver. Likewise in the mingling or union of the quicksilver and the ‘sulphur in the ore, the sulphur is counted the male and quicksilver the female, as in the “bearing or conception of a child. Also the sulphur is a special worker in ore or metal. “The second chapter or part deals with the general capacity of the mountain. “‘ Although the influence of the heavens and the fitness of the material are necessary to the “formation of ore or metal, yet these are not enough thereto. But there must be adapt- “ability of the natural vessel in which the ore is formed, such are the veins, namely “* steinendegange, flachgange, schargange, creutzgange, or as these may be termed in provincial “names. Also the mineral force must have easy access to the natural vessel such as “through the kluffte (stringers), namely hengkluft, querklufte, flachekluffte, creutzklufft, and “other occasional flotzwerk, according to their various local names. Also there must be a “suitable place in the mountain which the veins and stringers can traverse.” AGRICOLA’S VIEWS ON THE ORIGIN OF ORE Deposits. Agricola rejected absolutely the Biblical view which, he says, was the opinion of the vulgar; further, he repudiates the alchemistic and astrological view with great vigour. There can be no doubt, however, that he was greatly influenced by the Peripatetic philosophy. He accepted absolutely the ~four elements—earth, fire, water, and air, and their “‘ binary’ properties, and the theory that every substance had a material cause operated upon by an efficient force. Beyond this he did not go, and a large portion of De Ortu et Causis is devoted to disproof of the origin of metals and stones from the Peripatetic ‘“‘ exhalations.” No one should conclude that Agricola’s theories are set out with the clarity of Darwin or Lyell. However, the matter is of such importance in the history of the theory of ore- deposits, and has been either so ignored or so coloured by the preconceptions of narrators, that we consider it justifiable to devote the space necessary to a reproduction of his own statements in De Ortu et Causis and other works. Before doing so we believe it will be of service to readers to summarize these views, and in giving quotations from the Author’s other works, to group them under special headings, following the outline of his theory given below. His theory was :— (I) Openings in the earth (canales) were formed by the erosion of subterranean waters. (2) These ground waters were due (a) to the infiltration of the surface waters, rain, river, and sea water; (b) to the condensation of steam (halitus) arising from the penetration of the surface waters to greater depths,—the production of this halitus being due to sub- terranean heat, which in his view was in turn due in the main to burning bitumen (a com- prehensive genera which embraced coal). (3) The filling of these canales is composed of “earth,” “‘ solidified juices, stone,” metals, and “‘ compounds,” all deposited from water and “‘ juices’ circulating in the canales. (See also note 4, page I). “Earth” comprises clay, mud, ochre, marl, and “peculiar earths” generally. The origin of these “‘earths”’ was from rocks, due to erosion, transportation, and deposition by water. “‘Solidified juices’ (succt concreti) comprised salt, soda, vitriol, bitumen, etc., being generally those substances which he conceived were soluble in and deposited from water. ‘‘Stones’’ comprised precious, semi-precious, and unusual stones, such as quartz, fluor-spar, etc., as distinguished from country rock; the origin of these he attributed in minor proportion to transportation of fragments of rock, but in the main to deposits from ordinary mineral juice and from “‘stone juice” (succus lapidescens). Metals comprised the seven traditional metals; the “compounds’”’ comprised the metallic minerals; and both were due to deposition from juices, the compounds being due to a mixture of juices. The “juices” play the most important part in Agricola’s theory. Each substance had its own particular juice, and in his theory every substance had a material and an efficient cause, the first being the juice, the second being heat or cold. Owing to the latter the juices fell into two categories—those solidified by heat (1.¢., by evaporation, such as salt), and those solidi- fied by cold, (z.e, because metals melt and flow by heat, therefore their solidification was due to cold, and the juice underwent similar treatment). As to the origin of these juices, some were generated by the solution of their own particular substance, but in the 2) 66 BOOK Iii. 47 entitled De Subterraneorum Ortu et Causis. It occasionally happens, though it is unusual and rare, that several accumulations of this kind are found in one place, each one or more fathoms in depth and four or five in main their origin was due to the combination of ‘dry things,’ such as ‘‘ earth,” with water, the mixture being heated, and the resultant metals depended upon the propor- tions of ‘‘earth’’ and water. In some cases we have been inclined to translate succus (juice) as “ solution,’ but in other cases it embraced substances to which this would not apply, and we feared implying in the text a chemical understanding not warranted prior to the atomic theory. In order to distinguish between earths, (clays, etc.,) the Peripatetic “earth’’ (a pure element) and the earth (the globe) we have given the two former in quotation marks. There is no doubt some confusion between earth (clays, etc.) and the Peripatetic “earth,” as the latter was a pure substance not found in its pristine form in nature ; it is, however, difficult to distinguish between the two. ORIGIN OF CANALES (De Orvtu, p. 35). ‘‘I now come to the canales in the earth. “These are veins, veinlets, and what are called ‘seams in the rocks.’ These serve as “vessels or receptacles for the material from which minerals (res fossiles) are formed. “The term vena is most frequently given to what is contained in the canales, but likewise “the same name is applied to the canales themselves. The term vein is borrowed from “that used for animals, for just as their veins are distributed through all parts of the “body, and just as by means of the veins blood is diffused from the liver throughout the “whole body, so also the veins traverse the whole globe, and more particularly the “mountainous districts; and water runs and flows through them. With regard to veinlets “or stringers and ‘seams in the rocks,’ which are the thinnest stringers, the following is the “mode of their arrangement. Veins in the earth, just like the veins of an animal, have certain “veinlets of their own, but in a contrary way. For the larger veins of animals pour blood “into the veinlets, while in the earth the humours are usually poured from the veinlets into “the larger veins, and rarely flow from the larger into the smaller ones. As for the seams in “ the rocks (commissurae saxorum) we consider that they are produced by two methods: by “the first, which is peculiar to themselves, they are formed at the same time as the rocks, “for the heat bakes the refractory material into stone and the non-refractory material “similarly heated exhales its humours and is made into ‘earth,’ generally friable. The “other method is common also to veins and veinlets, when water is collected into one “place it softens the rock by its liquid nature, and by its weight and pressure breaks and “ divides it. Now, if the rock is hard, it makes seams in the rocks and veinlets, and if it is “not too hard it makes veins. However, if the rocks are not hard, seams and veinlets are “created as well as veins. If these do not carry a very large quantity of water, or if they “are pressed by a great volume of it, they soon discharge themselves into the nearest veins. “The following appears to be the reason why some veinlets or stringers and veins are “ profundae and others dilatatae. The force of the water crushes and splits the brittle rocks ; “and when they are broken and split, it forces its way through them and passes on, at one “time in a downward direction, making small and large venae profundae, at another time “in a lateral direction, in which way venae dilatatae are formed. Now since in each “class there are found some which are straight, some inclined, and some crooked, it should “be explained that the water makes the vena profunda straight when it runs straight “ downward, inclined when it runs in an inclined direction; and that it makes a vena “ dilatata straight when it runs horizontally to the right or left, and in a similar way inclined “ when it runs in a sloping direction. Stringers and large veins of the profunda sort, extending. “for considerable lengths, become crooked from two causes. In one case when narrow “veins are intersected by wide ones, then the latter bend or drag the former a little. In “the other case, when the water runs against very hard rock, being unable to break through, “it goes around the nearest way, and the stringers and veins are formed bent and crooked. “This last is also the reason we sometimes see crooked small and large venae dilatatae, not “unlike the gentle rise and fall of flowing water. Next, venae profundae are wide, either “because of abundant water or because the rock is fragile. On the other hand, they are “narrow, either because but little water flows and trickles through them, or because the “rock is very hard. The venae dilatatae, too, for the same reasons, are either thin or thick. “ There are other differences, too, in stringers and veins, which I will explain in my work “De Re Metallica. . . . There is also a third kind of vein which, as it cannot be “described as a wide vena profunda, nor as a thick vena dilatata, we will call a vena cumulata. “These are nothing else than places where some species of mineral is accumulated ; “sometimes exceeding in depth and also in length and breadth 600 feet ; sometimes, or “yather generally, not so deep nor so long, nor so wide. These are created when water “has broken away the rock for such a length, breadth, and thickness, and has flung aside “and ejected the stones and sand from the great cavern which is thus made; and afterward “when the mouth is obstructed and closed up, the whole cavern is filled with material “from which there is in time produced some one or more minerals. Now I have stated ‘ 48 BOOK _ III. width, and one is distant from another two, three, or more fathoms. When the excavation of these accumulations begins, they at first appear in the shape of a disc; then they open out wider; finally from each of such “‘when discoursing on the origin of subterranean humours, that water erodes away ““substances inside the earth, just as it does those on the surface, and least of all does it “‘shun minerals ; for which reason we may daily see veinlets and veins sometimes filled with “air and water, but void and empty of mining products, and sometimes full of these same “materials. Even those which are empty of minerals become finally obstructed, and when ‘the rock is broken through at some other point the water gushes out. It is certain that ‘“‘old springs are closed up in some way and new ones opened in others. In the same ‘manner, but much more easily and quickly than in the solid rock, water produces stringers ‘‘and veins in surface material, whether it be in plains, hills, or mountains. Of this kind are “the stringers in the banks of rivers which produce gold, and the veins which produce “peculiar earth. So in this manner in the earth are made canales which bear minerals.” ORIGIN OF GROUND WATERS. (De Ortu p.5). “ ; Besides rain there is “another kind of water by which the interior of the earth is ‘soaked, so that being heated “it can continually give off halitus, from which arises a great and abundant force of waters.” In description of the modus operandi of halitum, he says (p. 6): “. . . . Halitus “rises to the upper parts of the canales, where the congealing cold turns it into water, which “by its gravity and weight again runs down to the lowest parts and increases the flow of “water if there is any. If any finds its way through a camales dilatata the same thing “happens, but it is carried a long way from its place of origin. The first phase of distillation “teaches us how this water is produced, for when that which is put into the ampulla is “warmed it evaporates (expirare), and this haltus rising into the operculum is converted “by cold into water, which drips through the spout. In this way water is being continually “created underground.” (De Ortu, p. 7): “‘ And so we know from all this that of the waters “which are under the earth, some are collected from rain, some arise from halitus (steam), some “from river-water, some from sea-water ; and we know that the halitwm is produced within “the earth partly from rain-water, partly from river-water, and partly from sea-water.” It would require too much space to set out Agricola’s views upon the origin of the subter- ranean heat which produced this steam. It is an involved theory embracing clashing winds, burning bitumen, coal, etc., and is fully set out in the latter part of Book II, De Ortu et Causis. ORIGIN OF GANGUE MINERALS. It is necessary to bear in mind that Agricola divided minerals (res fossiles—‘‘ Things dug up,’ see note 4, p. 1) into “ earths,” “solidified juices,” “stones,” “‘ metals,” and “ compounds ;”’ and, further, to bear in mind that in his conception of the origin of things generally, he was a disciple of the Peripatetic logic of a “‘ material substance” and an “efficient force,’’ at mentioned above. As to the origin of “‘earths,’”’ he says (De Ortu, p. 38): “Pure and simple ‘earth’ “ originates in the canales in the following way : rain water, which is absorbed by the surface “of the earth, first of all penetrates and passes into the inner parts of the earth and ““mixes with it; next, it is collected from all sides into stringers and veins, where it, “and sometimes water of other origin, erodes the ‘earth’ away,—a great quantity of it if the “stringers and veins are in ‘earth,’ a small quantity if they are in rock. The softer the “rock is, the more the water wears away particles by its continual movement. To this “class of rock belongs limestone, from which we see chalk, clay, and marl, and other unctuous “earths ’ made ; also sandstone, from which are made those barren ‘ earths ’ which we may ““see in ravines and on bare rocks. For the rain softens limestone or sandstone and carries “particles away with it, and the sediment collects together and forms mud, which afterward “solidifies into some kind of ‘earth.’ In a similar way under the ground the power of water “softens the rock and dissolves the coarser fragments of stone. This is clearly shown by “the following circumstance, that frequently the powder of rock or marble is found in a “soft state and as if partly dissolved. Now, the water carries this mixture into the course “of some underground canalis, or dragging it into narrow places, filters away. And in each “case the water flows away and a pure and uniform material is left from which ‘earth’ “ig made. . . . Particles of rock, however, are only by force of long time so softened “by water as to become similar to particles of ‘earth.’ It is possible to see ‘earth’ being “made in this way in underground canales in the earth, when drifts or tunnels are driven into ““the mountains, or when shafts are sunk, for then the canales are laid bare; also it can be ““seen above ground in ravines, as I have said, or otherwise disclosed. For in both cases “it is clear to the eye that they are made out of the ‘ earth’ or rocks, which are often of the “same colour. And in just the same way they are made in the springs which the veins “discharge. Since all those things which we see with our eyes and which are perceived “with our senses, are more clearly understood than if they were learnt by means of reasoning, “we deem it sufficient to explain by this argument our view of the origin of ‘earth.’ In “the manner which I have described, ‘earths’ originate in veins and veinlets, seams in the “rocks, springs, ravines, and other openings, therefore all ‘earths’ are made in this way. BOOK III. 49 Sma ONG es SSS = os, 7 a SS) =, = MMO FS <3, i on mer > Se MM Gf — z ag co A, B, C, D—TuHE mountain. E, F, G, H, I, K—Vena cumulata. accumulations is usually formed a ‘‘ vena cumulata.” “ As to those that are found in underground canales which do not appear to have been derived “from the earth or rock adjoining, these have undoubtedly been carried by the water for a “greater distance from their place of origin ; which may be made clear to anyone who seeks “their source.” On the origin of solidified juices he states (De Ortu, p. 43): “I will now speak of “solidified juices (swcci concrett). 1 give this name to those minerals which are without “ difficulty resolved into liquids (humore). Some stones and metals, even though they are “ themselves composed of juices, have been compressed so solidly by the cold that they can only “be dissolved with difficulty or not at all. . . . For juices, as I said above, are either “made when dry substances immersed in moisture are cooked by heat, or else they are ““made when water flows over ‘earth,’ or when the surrounding moisture corrodes metallic “material ; or else they are forced out of the ground by the power of heat alone. There- “fore, solidified juices originate from liquid juices, which either heat or cold have condensed. “But that which heat has dried, fire reduces to dust, and moisture dissolves. Not only “does warm or cold water dissolve certain solidified juices, but also humid air; and a juice “which the cold has condensed is liquefied by fire and warm water. A salty juice is con- “densed into salt ; a bitter one into soda; an astringent and sharp one into alum or into “vitriol. Skilled workmen in a similar way to nature, evaporate water which contains “juices of this kind until it is condensed; from salty ones they make salt, from “aluminous ones alum, from one which contains vitriol they make vitriol. These workmen “imitate nature in condensing liquid juices with heat, but they cannot imitate nature in “condensing them by cold. From an astringent juice not only is alum made and vitriol, but ‘also sory, chalcitis, and misy, which appears to be the ‘ flower’ of vitriol, just as melanteria ““is of sory. (See note on p. 573 for these minerals.) When humour corrodes pyrites so that “it is friable, an astringent juice of this kind is obtained.” ON THE ORIGIN OF STONES (De Oriu, p. 50), he states: “It is now necessary to “Teview ina few words what I have said as to all of the material from which stones are “made ; there is first of all mud; next juice which is solidified by severe cold; then frag- “ments of rock; afterward stone juice (succuslapidescens), which also turns to stone when “it comes out into the air; and lastly, everything which has pores capable of receiving a “stony juice.” As to an “efficient force,’’ he states (p. 54): “ But it is now necessary “that I should explain my own view, omitting the first and antecedent causes. Thus the 50 BOOK Iii. = S Sk — SS A—Vena profunda. B—Intervenium. C—ANOTHER vena profunda. 7, WG BOOK II. 51 The space between two veins is called an iterventum ; this interval between the veins, if it is between venae dilatatae is entirely hidden under- ground. If, however, it lies between venae profundae then the top is plainly in sight, and the remainder is hidden. Venae profundae differ greatly one from another in width, for some of them are one fathom wide, some are two cubits, others one cubit ; others again are a foot wide, and some only half a foot ; all of which our miners call wide veins. Others on the contrary, are only a palm wide, others three digits, “immediate causes are heat and cold; next in some way a stony juice. For we know that “stones which water has dissolved, are solidified when dried by heat; and on the contrary, “we know that stones which melt by fire, such as quartz, solidify by cold. For solidification “and the conditions which are opposite thereto, namely, dissolving and liquefying, spring “from causes which are the opposite to each other. Heat, driving the water (Awmorem) out of “a substance, makes it hard; and cold, by withdrawing the air, solidifies the same stone “firmly. But if a stony juice, either alone or mixed with water, finds its way into the pores “either of plants or animals . . . . it creates stones. . . . If stony juice is “obtained in certain stony places and flows through the veins, for this reason certain springs, “ brooks, streams, and lakes, have the power of turning things to stone.” ON THE ORIGIN oF METALS, he says (De Ortu, p. 71): “ Having now refuted the “opinions of others, I must explain what it really is from which metals are produced. “The best proof that there is water in their materials is the fact that they flow when “melted, whereas they are again solidified by the cold of air or water. This, however, “must be understood in the sense that there is more water in them and less ‘earth ’; for it “is not simply water that is their substance but water mixed with ‘earth.’ And such a “proportion of ‘earth’ is in the mixture as may obscure the transparency of the water, but “not remove the brilliance which is frequently in unpolished things. Again, the purer the “mixture, the more precious the metal which is made from it, and the greater its resistance “to fire. But what proportion of ‘earth’ is in each liquid from which a metal is made “no mortal can ever ascertain, or still less explain, but the one God has known it, Who has “given certain sure and fixed laws to nature for mixing and blending things together. It “is a juice (succus) then, from which metals are formed; and this juice is created by various “operations. Of these operations the first is a flow of water which softens the ‘earth’ or “carries the ‘earth’ along with it, thus there is a mixture of ‘earth’ and water, then the “power of heat works upon the mixtures so as to produce that kind of a juice. We have “spoken of the substance of metals; we must now speak of their efficient cause. aoe “(p. 75): We do not deny the statement of Albertus Magnus that the mixture of ‘earth’ “and water is baked by subterranean heat to a certain denseness, but it is our opinion that “the juice so obtained is afterward solidified by cold so as to become a metal. Sane “We grant, indeed, that heat is the efficient cause of a good mixture of elements, and also “ cooks this same mixture into a juice, but until this juice is solidified by cold it is not a “metal.” . . . (p. 76): This view of Aristotle is the true one. For metals melt “through the heat and somehow become softened ; but those which have become softened “through heat are again solidified by the influence of cold, and, on the contrary, those “which become softened by moisture are solidified by heat.” ON THE OrIGIN oF CompouNDs, he states (De Ortu, p. 80): “‘ There now remain “for our consideration the compound minerals (mistae), that is to say, minerals which “contain either solidified juice (swccws concretus) and ‘stone,’ or else metal or metals and ““ stone,’ or else metal-coloured ‘earth,’ of which two or more have so grown together “by the action of cold that one body has been created. By this sign they are distin- “suished from mixed minerals (composita), for the latter have not one body. For “example, pyrites, galena, and ruby silver are reckoned in the category of compound “minerals, whereas we say that metallic ‘earths ’ or stony ‘ earths’ or ‘earths’ mingled with “juices, are mixed minerals ; or similarly, stones in which metal or solidified juices adhere, “or which contain ‘earth.’ But of both these classes I will treat more fully in my book De “Natura Fossilium. 1 will now discuss their origin in a few words. A compound mineral “is produced when either a juice from which some metal is obtained, or a humour and some “other juice from which stone is obtained, are solidified by cold, or when two or more juices “ of different metals mixed with the juice from which stone is made, are condensed by the same “cold, or when a metallic juice is mixed with ‘earth ‘ whose whole mass is stained with its “colour, and in this way they form one body. To the first class belongs galena, composed “of lead juice and of that material which forms the substance of opaque stone. Similarly, “transparent ruby silver is made out of silver juice and the juice which forms the 52 BOOK III. or even two; these they call narrow. But in other places where there are very wide veins, the widths of a cubit, or a foot, or half a foot, are said to be narrow ; at Cremnitz, for instance, there is a certain vein which measures in one place fifteen fathoms in width, in another eighteen, and in another twenty ; the truth of this statement is vouched for by the inhabitants. “substance of transparent stone; when it is smelted into pure silver, since from it is “separated the transparent juice, it is no longer transparent. Then too, there is pyrites, “or lapis fisstlis, from which sulphur is melted. To the second kind belongs that kind of ““pyrites which contains not only copper and stone, but sometimes copper, silver, and stone; “sometimes copper, silver, gold, and stone; sometimes silver, lead, tin, copper and silver “glance. That compound minerals consist of stone and metal is sufficiently proved by “their hardness ; that some are made of ‘earth’ and metal is proved from brass, which is “composed of copper and calamine ; and also proved from white brass, which is coloured “by artificial white arsenic. Sometimes the heat bakes some of them to such an extent that “they appear to have flowed out of blazing furnaces, which we may see in the case of “cadmia and pyrites. A metallic substance is produced out of ‘earth’ when a metallic “juice impregnating the ‘earth’ solidifies with cold, the ‘earth’ not being changed. A “stony substance is produced when viscous and non-viscous ‘earth’ are accumulated in “one place and baked by heat; for then the viscous part turns into stone and the non- “viscous is only dried up.” THE ORIGIN OF JUICES. The portion of Agricola’s theory surrounding this subject is by no means easy to follow in detail, especially as it is difficult to adjust one’s point of view to the Peripatetic elements, fire, water, earth, and air, instead of to those of the atomic theory which so dominates our every modern conception. That Agricola’s ‘juice’ was in most cases a solution is indicated by the statement (De Ortu, p. 48): “ Nor is juice “anything but water, which on the other hand has absorbed ‘earth’ or has corroded or “touched metal and somehow become heated.’’ That he realized the difference between mechanical suspension and solution is evident from (De Ortu, p. 50): “A stony juice differs “from water which has abraded something from rock, either because it has more of that which “deposits, or because heat, by cooking water of that kind, has thickened it, or because there “is something in it which has powerful astringent properties.” Much of the author’s notion of juices has already been given in the quotations regarding various minerals, but his most general statement on the subject is as follows :—(De Ortu, p. 9): “ Juices, however, are “ distinguished from water by their density (crassitudo), and are generated in various ways— “either when dry things are soaked with moisture and the mixture is heated, in which way “by far the greatest part of juices arise, not only inside the earth, but outside it: or when “water running over the earth is made rather dense, in which way, for the most “part the juice becomes salty and bitter; or when the moisture stands upon metal, “especially copper, and corrodes it, and in this way is produced the juice from which “chrysocolla originates. Similarly, when the moisture corrodes friable cupriferous pyrites “an acrid juice is made from which is produced vitriol and sometimes alum ; or, finally, ““juices are pressed out by the very force of the heat from the earth. If the force is great “the juice flows like pitch from burning pine . . . . in this way we know a kind of “bitumen is made in the earth. In the same way different kinds of moisture are generated ““in living bodies, so also the earth produces waters differing in quality, and in the same ““ way juices.” ConcLusion. If we strip his theory of the necessary influence of the state of knowledge of his time, and of his own deep classical learning, we find two propositions original with Agricola, which still to-day are fundamentals : (1) That ore channels were of origin subsequent to their containing rocks; (2) That ores were deposited from solutions circulating in these openings. A scientist’s work must be judged by the advancement he gave to his science, and with this gauge one can say unhesitatingly that the theory which we have set out above represents a much greater step from what had gone before than that of almost any single observer since. Moreover, apart from any tangible proposition laid down, the deduction of these views from actual observation in- stead of from fruitless speculation was a contribution to the very foundation of natural science. Agricola was wrong in attributing the creation of ore channels to erosion alone, and it was not until Von Oppel (Anleitung zur Markscheidekunst, Dresden, 1749 and other essays), two centuries after Agricola, that the positive proposition that ore channels were due to fissuring was brought forward. Von Oppel, however, in neglecting channels due to erosion (and in this term we include solution) was not altogether sound. Nor was it until late in the 18th century that the filling of ore channels by deposition from solutions was generally accepted. In the meantime, Agricola’s successors in the study of ore deposits exhibited positive retrogression from the true fundamentals advocated by him. Gesner, Utman, Meier, Lohneys, Barba, BOOK Iii. 53 Rekes,” = Swe — A—WIDE vena profunda. B—Narrow vena profunda. Venae dilatatae, in truth, differ also in thickness, for some are one fathom thick, others two, or even more ; some are a cubit thick, some a foot, some only half a foot ; and all these are usually called thick veins. Some on the other hand, are but a palm thick, some three digits, some two, some one ; these are called thin veins. Rossler, Becher, Stahl, Henckel, and Zimmerman, all fail to grasp the double essentials. Other writers of this period often enough merely quote Agricola, some not even acknowledging the source, as, for instance, Pryce (Mineralogia Cornubiensis, London, 1778) and Williams (Natural History of the Mineral Kingdom, London, 1789). After Von Oppel, the two fundamental principles mentioned were generally accepted, but then arose the complicated and acrimonious discussion of the origin of solutions, and nothing in Agricola’s view was so absurd as Werner’s contention (Neue Theorie von der Entstehung der Gange, Freiberg, 1791) of the universal chemical deluge which penetrated fissuresopen at the surface. While it is not the purpose of these notes to pursue the history of these subjects subsequent to the author’s time, it is due to him and to the current beliefs as to the history of the theory of ore deposits, to call the attention of students to the perverse representation of Agricola’s views by Werner (op. cit.) upon which most writers have apparently relied. Why this author should be (as, for instance, by Posepny, Amer. Inst. Mining Engineers, gor) so generally con- sidered the father of our modern theory, can only be explained by a general lack of knowledge of the work of previous writers on ore deposition. Not one of the propositions original with Werner still holds good, while his rejection of the origin of solutions within the earth itself halted the march of advance in thought on these subjects for half a century. It is our hope to discuss exhaustively at some future time the development of the history of this, one of the most far-reaching of geologic hypotheses. 54 = ~ ISVy A, B, C—VE1N. A BOOK III. SS — =. Z= —— Pa SS. aA Ir - = ae —- SOUTH is ~ S N Si) NortTH D, E, F—SEAMs IN THE Rock (Commsssurae Saxorum). i I ———S Zoe\ Ws j “ISVA BOOK. III. Others, on the other hand, run from west to east. SOUTH. i YT » A, B, C—VEIN. Others run from south to north. y Pa ew Vdd) : A, B, C—VErIn. = il BV D NortTH. D, E, F—Seams in the Rocks. Ss =—\\ ThW==s KW VES = N — NorrtTH. D, E, F—Seams in the Rocks. 5) WEST. 56 BOOK III. Others, on the contrary, run from north to south. A, B, C—VeEIn. D, E, F—Seams in the Rocks. The seams in the rocks indicate to us whether a vein runs from the east or from the west. For instance, if the rock seams incline toward the westward as they descend into the earth, the vein is said to run from east to west ; if they incline toward the east, the vein is said to run from west to east ; in a similar manner, we determine from the rock seams whether the veins run north or south. Now miners divide each quarter of the earth into six divisions; and by this method they apportion the earth into twenty-four directions, which they divide into two parts of twelve each. The instrument which indicates these directions is thus constructed. First a circle is made; then at equal intervals on one half portion of it right through to the other, twelve straight lines called by the Greeks Sayerpox., and in the Latin dimetientes, are drawn through a central point which the Greeks call xévtpov, so that the circle is thus divided into twenty-four divisions, all being of an equal size. Then, within the circle are inscribed three other circles, the outer- most of which has cross-lines dividing it into twenty-four equal parts ; the space between it and the next circle contains two sets of twelve numbers, inscribed on the lines called “ diameters ’’; while within the innermost circle it is hollowed out to contain a magnetic needle’. The needle lies directly 8The endeavour to discover the origin of the compass with the Chinese, Arabs, or other Orientals having now generally ceased, together with the idea that the knowledge of the lodestone involved any acquaintance with the compass, it is permissible to take a rational BOOK III. 57 “e over that one of the twelve lines called ‘‘ diameters ’’ on which the number XII is inscribed at both ends. SouTH. EAST. WEST. Nort. When the needle which is governed by the magnet points directly from the north to the south, the number XII at its tail, which is forked, signifies the north, that number XII which is at its point indicates the south. The sign VI superior indicates the east, and VI inferior the west. Further, between each two cardinal points there are always five others which are not so important. The first two of these directions are called the prior directions; the last two are called the posterior, and the fifth direction lies immediately between the former and the latter; it is halved, and one half is attributed to one cardinal point and one half to the other. For example, between the northern number XII and the eastern number VI, are points numbered I, II, III, IV, V, of which I and view of the subject. The lodestone was well known even before Plato and Aristotle, and is described by Theophrastus (see Note 10, p. 115.) The first authentic and specific mention of the compass appears to be by Alexander Neckam (an Englishman who died in 1217), in his works De Utensilibus and De Naturis Rerum. The first tangible description of the instrument was in a letter to Petrus Peregrinus de Maricourt, written in 1269, a translation of which was published by Sir Sylvanus Thompson (London, 1902). His circle was divided into four quadrants and these quarters divided into 90 degrees each. The first mention of a compass in connection with mines so far as we know is in the Niitzlich Bergbiichlin, a review of which will be found in Appendix B. This book, which dates from 1500, gives a compass much like the one described above by Agricola. It is divided in like manner into two halves of 12 divisions each. The four cardinal points being marked Mutternacht, Morgen, Mittag, and Abend. Thus the directions read were referred to as 11. after midnight, etc. According to Joseph Carne (Trans. Roy. Geol. Socy. of Cornwall, Vol. 11, 1814), the Cornish miners formerly referred to North-South veins as 12 o’clock veins ; South-East North-West veins as g o'clock veins, etc. 58 BOOK III. II are northern directions lying toward the east, IV and V are eastern directions lying toward the north, and III is assigned, half to the north and half to the east. One who wishes to know the direction of the veins underground, places over the vein the instrument just described ; and the needle, as soon as it becomes quiet, will indicate the course of the vein. That is, if the vein proceeds from VI to VI, it either runs from east to west, or from west to east: but whether it be the former or the latter, is clearly shown by the seams in the rocks. If the vein proceeds along the line which is between V and VI toward the opposite direction, it runs from between the fifth and sixth divisions of east to the west, or from between the fifth and sixth divisions of west to the east ; and again, whether it is the one or the other is clearly shown by the seams in the rocks. In a similar manner we determine the other directions. Now miners reckon as many points as the sailors do in reckoning up the number of the winds. Not only is this done to-day in this country, but it was also done by the Romans who in olden times gave the winds partly Latin names and partly names borrowed from the Greeks. Any miner who pleases may therefore call the directions of the veins by the names of the winds. There are four principal winds, as there are four cardinal points: the Subsolanus, which blows from the east ; and its opposite the Favontus, which blows from the west ; the latter is called by the Greeks Zépupoc, and the former ‘Amn\wrne. There is the Auster, which blows from the south ; and opposed to it is the Septentrio, from the north; the former the Greeks called Néroc, and the latter “Arapxriac. There are also subordinate winds, to the number of twenty, as there are directions, for between each two ptincipal winds there are always five subordinate ones. Between the Subsolanus (east wind) and the Auster (south wind) there is the Orntthiae or the Bird wind, which has the first place next to the Subsolanus ; then comes Caecias: then Eurus, which lies in the midway of these five; next comes Vulturnus ; and lastly, Euronotus, nearest the Auster (south wind). The Greeks have given these names to all of these, with the exception of Vulturnus, but those who do not distinguish the winds in so precise a manner say this is the same as the Greeks called Evpoc. Between the Auster (south wind) and the Favonius (west wind) is first Altanus, to the right of the Auster (south wind); then Libonotus ; then Africus, which is the middle one of these five; after that comes Subvesperus ; next Argestes, to the left of Favonius (west wind). All these, with the exception of Libonotus and Argestes, have Latin names ; but Africus also is called by the Greeks Ac. In a similar manner, between Favonius (west wind) and Septentrio (north wind), first to the right of Favonius (west wind), is the Eteszae ; then Circius; then Caurus, which is in the middle of these five; then Corus ; and lastly Thrascias to the left of Septentrio (north wind). To all of these, except that of Caurus, the Greeks gave the names, and those who do not distinguish the winds by so exact a plan, assert that the wind which the Greeks called Képoc and the Latins Caurus is one and the same. Easr. BOOK III. 59 Again, between Septentrio (north wind) and the Subsolanus (east wind), the first to the right of Septentvio (north wind) is Gallicus ; then Supernas ; then Aqimilo, which is the middle one of these five; next comes Boreas; and lastly Carbas, to the left of Subsolanus (east wind). Here again, those who do not consider the winds to be in so great a multitude, but say there are but twelve winds in all, or at the most fourteen, assert that the wind called SouTH. Ormitb ig Bubsolanus NortTuH. by the Greeks Bopéac and the Latins Aquilo is one and the same. For our purpose it is not only useful to adopt this large number of winds, but even to double it, as the German sailors do. They always reckon that between each two there is one in the centre taken from both. By this method we WEST. 60 BOOK. IIi. also are able to signify the intermediate directions by means of the names of the winds. For instance, if a vein runs from VI east to VI west, it is said to proceed from Subsolanus (east wind) to Favontus (west wind) ; but one which proceeds from between V and VI of the east to between V and VI west is said to proceed out of the middle of Carbas and Subsolanus to between Argestes and Favonius; the remaining directions, and their intermediates are similarly designated. The miner, on account of the natural properties of a magnet, by which the needle points to the south, must fix the instru- ment already described so that east is to the left and west to the right. In a similar way to venae profundae, the venae dilatatae vary in their lateral directions, and we are able to understand from the seams in the rocks in which direction they extend into the ground. For if these incline toward the west in depth, the vein is said to extend from east to west ; if on the contrary, they incline toward the east, the vein is said to go from west to east. In the same way, from the rock seams we can determine veins running south and north, or the reverse, and likewise to the subordinate directions and their intermediates. eS B MT SS Lm | A, B—Venae dilatatae. C—Seams im the Rocks. Further, as regards the question of direction of a vena profunda, one runs straight from one quarter of the earth to that quarter which is opposite, while another one runs in a curve, in which case it may happen that a vein proceeding from the east does not turn to the quarter opposite, which is the west, but twists itself and turns to the south or the north. BOOK Ill. 61 mee iy Z Ze ey 7 " Yih Ze Us A—STRAIGHT vena profunda. B—CURVED vena profunda [should be vena dilatata(?)). Similarly some venae dilatatae are horizontal, some are inclined, and some are curved. ft Ohm 4 i eS \ > o Feu al i das Yi ss —— —— \ \s z SS A aa EE Ky vy SZV—A c— = & —— Za Nurs SSSR A—-HorizontaL vena dilatata. B—INCLINED vena dilutata. C—CURVED vena dilataia. BOOK III. Also the veins which we call profundae differ in the manner in which they descend into the depths of the earth ; for some are vertical (A), some are inclined and sloping (B), others crooked§(C). 62 SG Moreover, venae profundae (B) differ much among themselves regarding the kind of locality through which they pass, for some extend along the (A-C) and do not descend down the sides. slopes of mountains or hills es ISS 5 — ty < LC EG
SS
SSS
SSG
A—PRINCIPAL VEIN. B—VEIN WHICH CUTS A GBLIQUELY. C—-PART CARRIED AWAY.
D—THAT PART WHICH HAS BEEN CARRIED FORWARD.
Sometimes venae profundae join one with another, and from two or
more outcropping veins?, one is formed ; or from two which do not outcrop
one is made, if they are not far distant from each other, and the one dips
into the other, or if each dips toward the other, and they thus join when they
have descended in depth. In exactly the same way, out of three or more
veins, one may be formed in depth.
4Crudarus. Pliny (XXXIII., 31), says :—‘‘ Argent: vena in summo reperta crudaria
appellatur.’ “Silver veins discovered at the surface are called crudaria.”’ The German
translator of Agricola uses the term sylber gang—silver vein, obviously misunderstanding the
author’s meaning. ;
BOOK III.
66
THEIR JUNCTION.
1s
yp Lf
My Wi |
WHICH DIPS TOWARD D.
?
D—INDICATES ONE DESCENDING VERTICALLY.
Two VEINS DESCEND INCLINED AND DIP TOWARD EACH OTHER.
a)
ia)
8 A
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BOOK III. 67
However, such a junction of veins sometimes disunites and in this
way it happens that the vein which was the right-hand vein becomes
the left ; and again, the one which was on the left becomes the right.
Furthermore, one vein may be split and divided into parts by some hard
rock resembling a beak, or stringers in soft rock may sunder the vein and
make two or more. These sometimes join together again and sometimes
remain divided.
A, B—VEINS DIVIDING. C—THE SAME JOINING.
Whether a vein is separating from or uniting with another can be deter-
mined only from the seams in the rocks. For example, if a principal
vein runs from the east to the west, the rock seams descend in depth
likewise from the east toward the west, and the associated vein which
joins with the principal vein, whether it runs from the south or the north,
has its rock seams extending in the same way as its own, and they do not
conform with the seams in the rock of the principal vein—which remain
the same after the junction—unless the associated vein proceeds in the same
direction as the principal vein. In that case we name the broader vein the
principal one, and the narrower the associated vein. But if the principal
vein splits, the rock seams which belong respectively to the parts, keep
the same course when descending in depth as those of the principal vein.
But enough of venae profundae, their junctions and divisions. Now
we come to venae dilatatae. A vena dilatata may either cross a vena profunda,
or join with it, or it may be cut by a vena profunda, and be divided into parts.
68 BOOK III.
ULL
TIM
LE
Yy
Yi,
MMMM
y
{" Hh WA =
x
i?)
"
.)
per
=
I)
a
i}
|
yl)
i
W,
A, © -Vena dilatata CROSSING A vena profunda. B—Vena profunda. D, E—Vena
dilatata WHICH JUNCTIONS WITH A vena profunda. EF—Vena profunda. G—Vena dilatata.
H, I—Its DivipED paRTS. K—Vena profunda WHICH DIVIDES THE vena dilatata.
Finally, a vena profunda has a “‘ beginning ’’ (ovigo), an ‘‘end”’ (fints), a
“head” (caput), and a “tail” (cauda). That part whence it takes its rise
is said to be its “ beginning,” that in which it terminates the “end.” Its
“head’’® is that part which emerges into daylight ; its “tail” that part
which is hidden in the earth. But miners have no need to seek the
“ beginning ”’ of veins, as formerly the kings of Egypt sought for the source
of the Nile, but it is enough for them to discover some other part of the vein
and to recognise its direction, for seldom can either the “ beginning ’’ or the
“end” be found. The direction in which the head of the vein comes into
the light, or the direction toward which the tail extends, is indicated by its
footwall and hangingwall. The latter is said to hang, and the former to lie.
The vein rests on the footwall, and the hangingwall overhangs it; thus,
when we descend a shaft, the part to which we turn the face is the foot-
wall and seat of the vein, that to which we turn the back is the hanging-
wall. Also in another way, the head accords with the footwall and the tail
with the hangingwall, for if the footwall is toward the south, the vein
extends its head into the light toward the south; and the hanginewall,
because it is always opposite to the footwall, is then toward the north.
Consequently the vein extends its tail toward the north if it is an inclined
vena projunda. Similarly, we can determine with regard to east and west
and the subordinate and their intermediate directions. A vena pyofunda
which descends into the earth may be either vertical, inclined, or crooked ,
the footwall of an inclined vein is easily distinguished from the hangingwall,
but it is not so with a vertical vein; and again, the footwall of a crooked
vein is inverted and changed into the hangingwall, and contrariwise the
hangingwall is twisted into the footwall, but very many of these crooked
veins may be turned back to vertical or inclined ones.
It might be considered that the term ‘“ outcrop” could be used for “head,” but it
will be noticed that a vena dilatata would thus be stated to have no outcrop.
EES =
a we.
SS,
ee
t
C—Tue “HEAD” (caput).
i
A—THE “BEGINNING” (origo). B—THE “END” (fins).
& c
D—TuHE “TaIL”’ (cauda).
A vena dilatata has only a “ beginning” and an “‘end,”’ and in the place
of the “‘head’”’ and “‘tail’’ it has two sides.
SS: \ = SS y
SS
SS
( | ij
Laie
LL aN
Z Nil m
\ uy
IN) )
hs
C, D—THE “‘sIDEs.”’
A—THE ‘‘ BEGINNING.” B—THE “END.”
70 BOOK III.
SS J
A—THE “ BEGINNING.” B—TuHeE “ END.” C—THE “HEAD.” D—THE “TAIL.”
E—TRANSVERSE VEIN.
A vena cumulata has a “ beginning,’ an “end,” a “head,” and a
“tail,” just as a vena profunda. Moreover, a vena cumulata, and likewise
a vena dtlatata, are often cut through by a transverse vena profunda.
Stringers (fibrae)®, which are little veins, are classified into fibrae trans-
versae, jfibrae obliqgquae which cut the vein obliquely, ibrae sociae,
fibrae dilatatae, and fibrae incumbentes. The fibra transversa crosses
the vein; the fibva obliqua crosses the vein obliquely ; the fibya socia joins
with the vein itself; the fibva dilatata, like the vena dilatata, penetrates
through it; but the jibva dilatata, as well as the fibra profunda, is usually
found associated with a vein.
The fibra incumbens does not descend as deeply into the earth as the
other stringers, but lies on the vein, as it were, from the surface to the
hangingwall or footwall, from which it is named Subdialis.?
In truth, as to direction, junctions, and divisions, the stringers are not
different from the veins. ;
SIt is possible that ‘‘ veinlets ’’ would be preferred by purists, but the word “‘ stringer ”
has become fixed in the nomenclature of miners and we have adopted it. The old English
term was “‘stringe,’”’ and appears in Edward Manlove’s ‘‘ Rhymed Chronicle,” London,
1653; Pryce’s, Mineralogia Cornubiensis, London, 1778, pp. 103 and 329; Mawe’s “ Mineralogy
of Devonshire,” London, 1802, p. 210, etc., etc.
*Subdialis. ‘‘In the open air.” The Glossary gives the meaning as Ein tag klufft
oder tag gehenge—a surface stringer.
>,
Bid ar
Sa" Ph A
: Ep
Ine
A, B—Vetns. C—TRANSVERSE STRINGER. D—OBLIQUE STRINGER.
E—ASSOCIATED STRINGER. F—fthra dilatata
GA
A—VEIn. B—Fibra wcumbens FROM THE SURFACE OF THE HANGINGWALL. C—SAME
FROM THE FOOTWALL.
72 BOOK. III.
Lastly, the seams, which are the very finest stringers (fibrae), divide
the rock, and occur sometimes frequently, sometimes rarely. From
whatever direction the vein comes, its seams always turn their heads
toward the light in the same direction. But, while the seams usually run
from one point of the compass to another immediately opposite it, as
for instance, from east to west, if hard stringers divert them, it may
happen that these very seams, which before were running from east to
west, then contrariwise proceed from west to east, and the direction of
the rocks is thus inverted. In such a case, the direction of the veins is
judged, not by the direction of the seams which occur rarely, but by those
which constantly recur.
asd)
(Um
)
)
Nes SS 5 SSS
SSS yg —
A—SEAMS WHICH PROCEED FROM THE EAST. B—THE INVERSE.
Both veins or stringers may be solid or drusy, or barren of minerals,
or pervious to water. Solid veins contain no water and very little air. The
drusy veins rarely contain water; they often contain air. Those which
are barren of minerals often carry water. Solid veins and stringers con-
sist sometimes of hard materials, sometimes of soft, and sometimes of a
kind of medium between the two.
BOOK IIl. 73
A—SOLID VEIN. B—SOLID STRINGER. C—CAVERNOUS VEIN. D—CAVERNOUS
STRINGER. E—BARREN VEIN. F—BARREN STRINGER.
But to return to veins. A great number of miners consider® that the
best veins in depth are those which run from the VI or VII direction of the
east to the VI or VII direction of the west, through a mountain slope which
inclines to the north; and whose hangingwalls are in the south, and whose
footwalls are in the north, and which have their heads rising to the north,
as explained before, always like the footwall, and finally, whose rock
seams turn their heads to the east. And the veins which are the next
®The following from Chapter tv of the Niitzlich Bergbiichlin (see Appendix B) may
indicate the source of the theory which Agricola here discards :—“‘ As to those veins which
“are most profitable to work, it must be remarked that the most suitable location for the vein
“is on the slope of the mountain facing south, so its strike is from viI or vi east to VI or
““vir west. According to the above-mentioned directions, the outcrop of the whole vein
“should face north, its gesteins ausgang toward the east, its hangingwall toward the south,
“and its footwall toward the north, for in such mountains and veins the influence of the
“ planets is conveniently received to prepare the matter out of which the silver is to be made
“orformed. . . . The other strikes of veins from between east and south to the region
“* between west and north are esteemed more or less valuable, according to whether they are
“nearer or further away from the above-mentioned strikes, but with the same hanging-
“wall, footwall, and outcrops. But the veins having their strike from north to south,
“their hangingwall toward the west, their footwall and their outcrops toward the east,
“are better to work than veins which extend from south to north, whose hangingwalls
“are toward the east, and footwalls and outcrops toward the west. Although the latter
“veins sometimes yield solid and good silver ore, still it is not sure and certain, because
“the whoie mineral force is completely scattered and dispersed through the outcrop, etc.”
74 BOOK III.
best are those which, on the contrary, extend from the VI or VII direction
of the west to the VI or VII direction of the east, through the slope of a
mountain which similarly inclines to the north, whose hangingwalls
are also in the south, whose footwalls are in the north, and whose
heads rise toward the north; and lastly, whose rock seams raise
their heads toward the west. In the third place, they recommend those
veins which extend from XII north to XII south, through the slope
of a mountain which faces east; whose hangingwalls are in the
west, whose footwalls are in the east; whose heads rise toward
the east ; and whose rock seams raise their heads toward the north.
Therefore they devote all their energies to those veins, and give very little
or nothing to those whose heads, or the heads of whose rock seams rise
toward the south or west. For although they say these veins some-
times show bright specks of pure metal adhering to the stones, or they come
upon lumps of metal, yet these are so few and far between that despite them
it is not worth the trouble to excavate such veins ; and miners who persevere
in digging in the hope of coming upon a quantity of metal, always lose their
time and trouble. And they say that from veins of this kind, since the sun’s
rays draw out the metallic material, very little metal is gained. But in
this matter the actual experience of the miners who thus judge of the veins
does not always agree with their opinions, nor is their reasoning sound ;
since indeed the veins which run from east to west through the slope of a
mountain which inclines to the south, whose heads rise likewise to the
south, are not less charged with metals, than those to which miners are
wont to accord the first place in productiveness ; as in recent years has been
proved by the St. Lorentz vein at Abertham, which our countrymen call
Gottsgaab, for they have dug out of it a large quantity of pure silver ; and
lately a vein in Annaberg, called by the name of Himmelsch hoz®, has made it
®The names in the Latin ate given as Donum Divinum—“God’s Gift,” and
Coelestis Exercitus—‘‘ Heavenly Host.” The names given in the text are from the German
Translation. The former of these mines was located in the valley of Joachim, where Agricola
spent many years as the town physician at Joachimsthal. It is of further interest, as Agricola
obtained an income from it as a shareholder. He gives the history of the mine (De Veteribus
et Novis Metallis, Book I.), as follows :—‘‘ The mines at Abertham were discovered, partly
“by chance, partly by science. In the eleventh year of Charles V. (1530), on the 18th of
‘“‘ February, a poor miner, but one skilled in the art of mining, dwelt in the middle of the
“forest in a solitary hut, and there tended the cattle of his employer. While digging a little
‘trench in which to store milk, he opened a vein. At once he washed some in a bowl and saw
“particles of the purest silver settled at the bottom. Overcome with joy he informed his
‘“employer, and went to the Bergmeister and petitioned that official to give him a head
“mining lease, which in the language of our people he called Gottsgaab. Then he proceeded
“to dig the vein, and found more fragments of silver, and the miners were inspired with
‘great hopes as to the richness of the vein. Although such hopes were not frustrated,
“still a whole year was spent before they received any profits from the mine ; whereby
““many became discouraged and did not persevere in paying expenses, but sold their shares
“in the mine ; and for this reason, when at last an abundance of silver was being drawn
“out, a great change had taken place in the ownership of the mine; nay, even the first
“finder of the vein was not in possession of any share in it, and had spent nearly all the
“money which he had obtained from the selling of his shares. Then this mine yielded such
“a quantity of pure silver as no other mine that has existed within our own or our
‘fathers’ memories, with the exception of the St. George at Schneeberg. We, as a share-
“holder, through the goodness of God, have enjoyed the proceeds of this ‘God’s Gift’
““since the very time when the mine began first to bestow such riches.” Later on in the
BOOK. IIl. 75
plain by the production of much silver that veins which extend from the
north to the south, with their heads rising toward the west, are no less rich
in metals than those whose heads rise toward the east.
It may be denied that the heat of the sun draws the metallic material
out of these veins; for though it draws up vapours from the surface of the
ground, the rays of the sun do not penetrate right down to the depths ; because
the air of a tunnel which is covered and enveloped by solid earth to the depth of
only two fathoms is cold in summer, for the intermediate earth holds in check
the force of the sun. Having observed this fact, the inhabitants and dwellers
of very hot regions lie down by day in caves which protect them from the
excessive ardour of the sun. Therefore it is unlikely that the sun draws
out from within the earth the metallic bodies. Indeed, it cannot even dry
the moisture of many places abounding in veins, because they are pro-
tected and shaded by the trees. Furthermore, certain miners, out of all
the different kinds of metallic veins, choose those which I have described,
and others, on the contrary, reject copper mines which are of this sort, so
that there seems to be no reason in this. For what can be the reason if the
sun draws no copper from copper veins, that it draws silver from silver veins,
and gold from gold veins ?
Moreover, some miners, of whose number was Calbus!9, distinguish
between the gold-bearing rivers and streams. A river, they say, or astream,
is most productive of fine and coarse grains of gold when it comes from the
east and flows to the west, and when it washes against the foot of mountains
which are situated in the north, and when it has a level plain toward the
south or west. In the second place, they esteem a river or a stream which
flows in the opposite course from the west toward the east, and which has
the mountains to the north and the level plain to the south. In the third
place, they esteem the river or the stream which flows from the north to the
south and washes the base of the mountains which are situated in the east.
But they say that the river or stream is least productive of gold which flows
in a contrary direction from the south to the north, and washes the base of
same book he gives the following further information with regard to these mines :—“ Now
“if all the individual mines which have proved fruitful in our own times are weighed in
“the balance, the one at Annaberg, which is known as the Himmelsch hoz, surpasses all
“others. For the value of the silver which has been dug out has been estimated at 420,000
“Rhenish gulden. Next to this comes the lead mine in Joachimsthal, whose name is the
** Sternen, from which as much silver has been dug as would be equivalent to 350,000 Rhenish
“ gulden; from the Gottsgaab at Abertham, explained before, the equivalent of 300,000.
*« But far before all others within our fathers’ memory stands the St. George of Schneeberg,
“whose silver has been estimated as being equal to two million Rhenish gulden.” A Rhenish
gulden was about 6.9 shillings, or, say, $1.66. However, the ratio value of silver to gold at
this period was about 11.5 to one, or in other words an ounce of silver was worth about a
gulden, so that, for purposes of rough calculation, one might say that the silver product
mentioned in gulden is practically of the same number of ounces of silver. Moreover, it must
be remembered that the purchasing power of money was vastly greater then.
1°The following passage occurs in the Niitzlich Bergbiichlin (Chap. V.), which is interesting
on account of the great similarity to Agricola’s quotation :—“ The best position of the stream is
“when it has a cliff beside it on the north and level ground on the south, but its current should
“be from east to west—that is the most suitable. The next best after this is from west to
“east, with the same position of the rocks as already stated. The third in order is when the
“stream flows from north to south with rocks toward the east, but the worst flow of water
“‘for the preparation of gold is from south to north if a rock or hill rises toward the west.”
Calbus was probably the author of this booklet.
76 BOOK III
mountains which are situated in the west. Lastly, of the streams or rivers
which flow from the rising sun toward the setting sun, or which flow from
the northern parts to the southern parts, they favour those which approach
the nearest to the lauded ones, and say they are more productive of gold,
and the further they depart from them the less productive they are. Such
are the opinions held about rivers and streams. Now, since gold is not
generated in the rivers and streams, as we have maintained against
Albertus"! in the book entitled “ De Subterraneorum Ortu et Causis,” Book
V, but is torn away from the veins and stringers and settled in the sands of
torrents and water-courses, in whatever direction the rivers or streams flow,
therefore it is reasonable to expect to find gold therein; which is not
opposed by experience. Nevertheless, we do not deny that gold is generated
in veins and stringers which lie under the beds of rivers or streams, as in
other places.
11Albertus Magnus.
END OF BOOK. III.
BOOK IV.
#} HE third book has explained the various and
manifold varieties of veins and stringers. This
fourth book will deal with mining areas and the
method of delimiting them, and will then pass on to
the officials who are connected with mining affairs}.
Now the miner, if the vein he has uncovered
is to his liking, first of all goes to the Bergmeister
to request to be granted a right to mine, this
official’s special function and office being to adjudi-
cate in respect of the mines. And so to the first man who has discovered
the vein the Bergmeister awards the head meer, and to others the remaining
meers, in the order in which each makes his application. The size of
a meer is measured by fathoms, which for miners are reckoned at six feet
each. The length, in fact, is that of a man’s extended arms and hands
measured across his chest; but different peoples assign to it different lengths,
1The nomenclature in this chapter has given unusual difficulty, because the organisa-
tion of mines, either past or present, in English-speaking countries provides no exact
equivalents for many of these offices and for many of the legal terms. The Latin terms in
the text were, of course, coined by the author, and have no historical basis to warrant their
adoption, while the introduction of the original German terms is open to much objection, as
they are not only largely obsolete, but also in the main would convey no meaning to the
majority of readers. We have, therefore, reached a series of compromises, and in the main
give the nearest English equivalent. Of much interest in this connection is a curious exotic
survival in mining law to be found in the High Peak of Derbyshire. We believe (see note
on p. 85) that the law of this district was of Saxon importation, for in it are not only
many terms of German origin, but the character of the law is foreign to the older
English districts and shows its near kinship to that of Saxony. It is therefore of interest
in connection with the nomenclature to be adopted in this book, as it furnishes about the
only English precedents in many cases. The head of the administration in the Peak was the
Steward, who was the chief judicial officer, with functions somewhat similar to the
Berghauptmann. However, the term Steward has come to have so much less significance
that we have adopted a literal rendering of the Latin. Under the Steward was the Barmaster,
Barghmaster, or Barmar, as he was variously called, and his duties were similar to those of
the Bergmeister. The English term would seem to be a corruption of the German, and as
the latter has come to be so well understood by the English-speaking mining class, we have
in this case adopted the German. The Barmaster acted always by the consent and with the
approval of a jury of from 12 to 24 members. In this instance the English had functions
much like a modern jury, while the Geschwornen of Saxony had much more widely extended
powers. The German Geschwornen were in the main Inspectors ; despite this, however, we
have not felt justified in adopting any other than the literal English for the Latin
and German terms. We have vacillated a great deal over the term Praefectus Fodinae, the
German Steiger having, like the Cornish ‘“‘ Captain,” in these days degenerated into a foreman,
whereas the duties as described were not only those of the modern Superintendent or
Manager, but also those of Treasurer of the Company, for he made the calls on shares
and paid the dividends. The term Purser has been used for centuries in English mining for
the Accountant or Cashier, but his functions were limited to paying dividends, wages, etc.,
therefore we have considered it better not to adopt the latter term, and have compromised
upon the term Superintendent or Manager, although it has a distinctly modern flavor. The
word for area has also caused much hesitation, and the “meer’’ has finally been adopted
with some doubt. The title described by Agricola has a very close equivalent in the meer
of old Derbyshire. As will be seen later, the mines of Saxony were Regal property, and
were held subject to two essential conditions, 7.¢., payment of a tithe, and continuous
operation. This form of title thus approximates more closely to the “lease” of Australia
than to the old Cornish se#t, or the American claim. The fundgrube of Saxony and Agricola’s
equivalent, the area capitis—head lease—we have rendered literally as “head meer,”
although in some ways “‘ founders’ meer ”’ might be better, for, in Derbyshire, this was called
the “ finder’s ” or founder’s meer, and was awarded under similar circumstances. It has
also an analogy in Australian law in the ‘“‘reward’’ leases. The term “ measure” has the
merit of being a literal rendering of the Latin, and also of being the identical term in the same
78 BOOK IV.
for among the Greeks, who called it an épyud, it was six feet, among the
Romans five feet. So this measure which is used by miners seems to
have come down to the Germans in accordance with the Greek mode of
reckoning. A miner’s foot approaches very nearly to the length of a Greek
foot, for it exceeds it by only three-quarters of a Greek digit, but like that
of the Romans it is divided into twelve unctae?.
Now square fathoms are reckoned in units of one, two, three, or more
““measures’’, and a “measure” is seven fathoms each way. Mining
meers are for the most part either square or elongated ; in square meers all the
sides are of equal length, therefore the numbers of fathoms on the two sides
multiplied together produce the total in square fathoms. Thus, if the
shape of a “measure ’’ is seven fathoms on every side, this number multi-
plied by itself makes forty-nine square fathoms.
The sides of a long meer are of equal length, and similarly its ends are
equal ; therefore, if the number of fathoms in one of the long sides be multi-
plied by the number of fathoms in one of the ends, the total produced by the
use in the High Peak. The following table of the principal terms gives the originals of the
Latin text, their German equivalents according in the Glossary and other sources, and those
adopted in the translation :—
AGRICOLA. GERMAN GLOSSARY. TERM ADOPTED.
Praefectus Metallorum .. Bergampimann .. Mining Prefect.
Magister Metallicorum . Bergmeister Bergmeister
Scriba Magister M etallicorum Bergmerster’s schreiber. . Bergmeister’s clerk.
Jura... O.6 .. Geschwornen .. Jurates or Jurors.
Publicus Signator .. Gemeiner sigler .. Notary..
Decumanus oc .. Zehender 0° .. Tithe gatherer.
Distributor a8 .. Aussteiler .. .. Cashier.
Scriba partium a6 .. Gegenschreiber .. Share clerk.
Scriba fodinarum .. .. Bergschreiber -. Mining clerk.
Praefectus fodinae
Praefectus cuniculs
Praeses fodinae
Praeses cuniculi
Manager of the Mine.
Manager of the Tunnel.
Foreman of the Mine.
Foreman of the Tunnel.
4 Steiger
ae
bie | Schichtmeister
Fossores .. 60 .. Berghauer .. .. Miners or diggers.
Ingestores. . ae .. Berganschlagen .. Shovellers.
Vectaru .. O6 .. Hespeler So .. Lever workers (windlass men).
Discretores 28 .. Entzpucher .. .. Sorters.
Lotores .. ie .. Wescher und seiffner .. Washers, buddlers, sifters, etc.
Excoctores of .. Schmelizer .. .. Smelters.
Purgator Argenti .. .. Silber brenner .. Silver refiner.
Magister Monetariorum .. Miintzmeister .. Master of the Mint.
Monetarius Be .. Mintzer ae .- Coiner.
Area fodinarum .. .. Masse ne .. Meer.
Area Capitis Fodinarum .. Fundgrube .. .. Head meer.
Demensum Lehen 3 Measure.
2The following are the couvelents of the measures mentioned in this book. It is
not always certain which “ foot ”’ “fathom ”’ Agricola actually had in mind although
they were probably the German.
GREEK—
Dactylos = .76 inches 16 = Pous = 12.13 inches 6 = Orguia = 72.81 inches.
ROMAN
Unia = .o7 ,, I2 = Pes = I1.6 » 5 = Passus = 58.1 i
GERMAN—
Zoll = .93 , £«x+I2 = Werckschuh = 11.24 ,, 6 = Lachter = 67.5 "
ENGLISH—
Inch = 1.0 A Iz = Foot = 12.00 ,, 6 = Fathom = 72.0 is
The discrepancies are due to variations in authorities and to decimals dropped. The
werckschuh taken is the Chemnitz foot deduced from Agricola’s statement in his De Mensuris
et Ponderibus, Basel, 1533, p. 29. For further notes see Appendix C.
HA
BOOK IV. 79
VIL
Siecee N=
= a
VI
SHAPE OF A SQUARE MEER.
multiplication is the total number of square fathoms in the long meer. For
example, the double measure is fourteen fathoms long and seven broad,
which two numbers multiplied together make ninety-eight square fathoms.
XI111
S XCVIII 2
XIII
SHAPE OF A LoNG MEER OR DoUBLE MEASURE.
Since meers vary in shape according to the different varieties of veins
it is necessary for me to go more into detail concerning them and
their measurements. Ii the vein is a vena profunda, the head meer is
composed of three double measures, therefore it is forty-two fathoms in
length and seven in width, which numbers multiplied together give two
hundred and ninety-four square fathoms, and by these limits the Bergmetster
bounds the owner’s rights in a head-meer.
XLII
CCXCIIII
XLII
SHAPE OF A HEAD MEER.
The area of every other meer consists of two double measures, on which-
ever side of the head meer it lies, or whatever its number in order may be,
that is to say, whether next to the head meer, or second, third, or any later
number. Therefore, it is twenty-eight fathoms long and seven wide, so
multiplying the length by the width we get one hundred and ninety-six
square fathoms, which is the extent of the meer, and by these boundaries
the Bergmeister defines the right of the owner or company over each mine.
Vil
IIA
80 BOOK IV.
XXVIII
< =
= CXCV1 =
XXVIII
SHAPE OF A MEER.
Now we call that part of the vein which is first discovered and mined,
the head-meer, because all the other meers run from it, just as the nerves
from the head. The Bergmeistey begins his measurements from it, and the
reason why he apportions a larger area to the head-meer than to the others, is
that he may give a suitable reward to the one who first found the vein
and may encourage others to search for veins. Since meers often reach
to a torrent, or river, or stream, if the last meer cannot be completed
it is called a fraction’. If it is the size of a double measure, the Bergmetster
grants the right of mining it to him who makes the first application, but if
it is the size of a single measure or a little over, he divides it between the
nearest meers on either side of it. It is the custom among miners that
the first meer beyond a stream on that part of the vein on the opposite
side is a new head-meer, and they call it the “ opposite,’4 while the
other meers beyond are only ordinary meers. Formerly every head-meer
was composed of three double measures and one single one, that is, it was
forty-nine fathoms long and seven wide, and so if we multiply these two
together we have three hundred and forty-three square fathoms, which
total gives us the area of an ancient head-meer.
XLIX
CCCXLIII
XLIX
SHAPE OF AN ANCIENT HEAD-MEER.
Every ancient meer was formed of a single measure, that is to say, it
was seven fathoms in length and width, and was therefore square. In
memory of which miners even now call the width of every meer which is
located on a vena profunda a ‘‘square’’>. The following was formerly the
8Subcisivum— Remainder.”’ German Glossary, Ueberschar. The term used in Mendip
and Derbyshire was primgap or primegap. It did not, however, in this case belong to adjacent
mines, but to the landlord.
*Adversum. Glossary, gegendrumb. The Bergwerk Lexicon, Chemnitz, 1743, gives
gegendrom or gegentramm, and defines it as the masse or lease next beyond a stream.
5Quadratum. Glossary, vierung. The vierung in old Saxon title meant a definite
zone on either side of the vein, 33 lachter (lachter = 5ft. 7.5 inches) into the hanging-wall
and the same into the footwall, the length of one vierung being 7 lachter along the strike. It
Vil
BOOK IV. 81
usual method of delimiting a vein: as soon as the miner found metal, he
gave information to the Bergmeistey and the tithe-gatherer, who either
proceeded personally from the town to the mountains, or sent thither men
of good repute, at least two in number, to inspect the metal-bearing vein.
Thereupon, if they thought it of sufficient importance to survey, the Bergmeister
again having gone forth on an appointed day, thus questioned him who first
found the vein, concerning the vein and the diggings: ‘‘ Which is your
vein?” “Which digging carried metal? ’’ Then the discoverer, pointing
his finger to his vein and diggings, indicated them, and next the Bergmeister
ordered him to approach the windlass and place two fingers of his right hand
upon his head, and swear this oath in a clear voice: ‘“‘I swear by God and
all the Saints, and I call them all to witness, that this is my vein; and more-
over if it is not mine, may neither this my head nor these my hands henceforth
perform their functions.” Then the Bergmeister, having started from the
centre of the windlass, proceeded to measure the vein with a cord, and to
give the measured portion to the discoverer,—in the first instance a half and
then three full measures ; afterward one to the King or Prince, another to
his Consort, a third to the Master of the Horse, a fourth to the Cup-bearer,
a fifth to the Groom of the Chamber, a sixth to himself. Then, starting
from the other side of the windlass, he proceeded to measure the vein in a
similar manner. Thus the discoverer of the vein obtained the head-meer,
that is, seven single measures ; but the King or Ruler, his Consort, the leading
dignitaries, and lastly, the Bergmezster, obtained two measures each, or two
ancient meers. This is the reason there are to be found at Freiberg in Meissen
so many shafts with so many intercommunications on a single velin—which are
to a great extent destroyed by age. If, however, the Bergmeister had already
fixed the boundaries of the meers on one side of the shaft for the benefit of
some other discoverer, then for those dignitaries I have just mentioned,
as Many meers as he was unable to award on that side he duplicated
on the other. But if on both sides of the shaft he had already defined the
boundaries of meers, he proceeded to measure out only that part of the
vein which remained free, and thus it sometimes happened that some of
those persons I have mentioned obtained no meer at all. To-day, though
that old-established custom is observed, the method of allotting the vein
and granting title has been changed. As I have explained above, the head-
meer consists of three double measures, and each other meer of two
measures, and the Bergmeister grants one each of the meers to him who
makes the first application. The King or Prince, since all metal is taxed, is
himself content with that, which is usually one-tenth.
Of the width of every meer, whether old or new, one-half lies on the
footwall side of a vena profunda and one half on the hangingwall side. If
the vein descends vertically into the earth, the boundaries similarly descend
must be borne in mind that the form of rights here referred to entitled the miner to follow
his vein, carrying the side line with him in depth the same distance from the vein, in much
the same way as with the Apex Law of the United States. From this definition as given in the
Bergwerk Lexicon, p. 585, it would appear that the vein itself was not included in the measure-
ments, but that they started from the walls.
82 BOOK IV.
vertically ; but if the vein inclines, the boundaries likewise will be inclined.
The owner always holds the mining right for the width of the meer, however
far the vein descends into the depth of the earth.* Further, the Bergmeister,
on application being made to him, grants to one owner or company a right
SHISTORICAL NOTE ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF Mininc Law.—There is no branch of the
law of property, of which the development is more interesting and illuminating from a social
point of view than that relating to minerals. Unlike the land, the minerals have ever been
regarded as a sort of fortuitous property, for the title of which there have been four principal
claimants—that is, the Overlord, as represented by the King, Prince, Bishop, or what not;
the Community or the State, as distinguished from the Ruler; the Landowner; and the
Mine Operator, to which class belongs the Discoverer. The one of these that possessed the
dominant right reflects vividly the social state and sentiment of the period. The Divine
Right of Kings; the measure of freedom of their subjects; the tyranny of the land-owning
class ; the rights of the Community as opposed to its individual members ; the rise of indivi-
dualism ; and finally, the modern return to more communal view, have all been reflected
promptly in the mineral titie. Of these parties the claims of the Overlord have been limited
only by the resistance of his subjects ; those of the State limited by the landlord; those of
the landlord by the Sovereign or by the State ; while the miner, ever in a minority in in-
fluence as well as in numbers, has been buffeted from pillar to post, his only protection
being the fact that all other parties depended upon his exertion and skill.
The conception as to which of these classes had a right in the title have been by no
means the same in different places at the same time, and in all it varies with different periods ;
but the whole range of legislation indicates the encroachment of one factor in the community
over another, so that their relative rights have been the cause of never-ending contention,
ever since a record of civil and economic contentions began. In modern times, practically
over the whole world, the State has in effect taken the rights from the Overlord, but his claims
did not cease until his claims over the bodies of his subjects also ceased. However, he still
remains in many places with his picture on the coinage. The Landlord has passed through
many vicissitudes ; his complete right to minerals was practically never admitted until the
doctrine of Jaissez-faire had become a matter of faith, and this just in time to vest him with
most of the coal and iron deposits in the world ; this, no doubt, being also partially due to the
little regard in which such deposits were generally held at that time, and therefore to the
little opposition to his ever-ready pretentions. Their numbers, however, and their prominence
in the support of the political powers de jure have usually obtained them some recognition.
In the rise of individualism, the apogee of the laissez-faire fetish came about the time of the
foundation of the United States, and hence the relaxation in the claims of the State in that
country and the corresponding position attained by the landlord and miner. The discoverer
and the operator—that is, the miner himself—has, however, had to be reckoned with by all
three of the other claimants, because they have almost universally sought to escape the risks of
mining, to obtain the most skilful operation, and to stimulate the productivity of the mines ;
thereupon the miner has secured at least partial consideration. This stands out in all times
and all places, and while the miner has had to take the risks of his fortuitous calling, the Over-
lord, State, or Landlord have all made for complacent safety by demanding some kind of a
tithe on his exertions. Moreover, there has often been a low cunning displayed by these powers
in giving something extra to the first discoverer. In these relations of the powers to the mine
operator, from the very first we find definite records of the imposition of certain conditions with
extraordinary persistence—so fixed a notion that even the United States did not quite escape it.
This condition was, no doubt, designed as a stimulus to productive activity, and was the
requirement that the miner should continuously employ himself digging in the piece of ground
allotted to him. The Greeks, Romans, Medieval Germans, old and modern Englishmen,
modern Australians, all require the miner to keep continuously labouring at his mines, or lose
his title. The American, as his inauguration of government happened when things were easier
for individuals, allows him a vacation of rr months in the year for a few years, and finally a
holiday altogether. There are other points where the Overlord, the State, or the Landlord
have always considered that they had a right to interfere, principally as to the way the miner
does his work, lest he should miss, or cause to be missed, some of the mineral ; so he has usually
been under pains and penalties as to his methods—these quite apart from the very proper
protection to human life, which is purely a modern invention, largely of the miner himself.
Somebody has had to keep peace and settle disputes among the usually turbulent miners
(for what other sort of operators would undertake the hazards and handicaps ?), and therefore
special officials and codes, or Courts, for his benefit are of the oldest and most persistent of
institutions.
Between the Overlord and the Landowner the fundamental conflict of view as to their
respective rights has found its interpretation in the form of the mineral title. The Overlord
claimed the metals as distinguished from the land, while the landowner claimed all beneath his
BOOK IV. 83
over not only the head meer, or another meer, but also the head meer and
the next meer or two adjoining meers. So much for the shape of meers
and their dimensions in the case of a vena profunda.
I now come to the case of venae dilatatae. The boundaries of the areas
soil. Therefore, we find two forms of titlek—that in which the miner could follow the ore
regardless of the surface (the ‘‘apex’”’ conception), and that in which the boundaries were
vertical from the land surface. Lest the Americans think that the Apex Law was a
sin original to themselves, we may mention that it was made use of in Europe a few centuries
before Agricola, who will be found to set it out with great precision.
From these points of view, more philosophical than legal, we present a few notes on
various ancient laws of mines, though space forbids a discussion of a tithe of the amount it
deserves at some experienced hand.
Of the Ancient Egyptian, Lydian, Assyrian, Persian, Indian, and Chinese laws as to
mines we have no record, but they were of great simplicity, for the bodies as well as the property
of subjects were at the abject disposition of the Overlord. We are informed on countless occasions
of Emperors, Kings, and Princes of various degree among these races, owning and operating
mines with convicts, soldiers, or other slaves, so we may take it for certain that continuous
labour was enforced, and that the boundaries, inspection, and landlords did not cause much
anxiety. However, herein lies the root of regalian right.
Our first glimpse of a serious right of the subject to mines is among some of the Greek
States, as could be expected from their form of government. With republican ideals, a rich
Mining district at Mount Laurion, an enterprising and contentious people, it would be sur-
prising indeed if Athenian Literature was void on the subject. While we know that the
active operation of these mines extended over some 500 years, from 700 to 200 B.C., the period
of most literary reference was from 400 to 300 B.c. Our information on the subject is from two
of Demosthenes’ orations—one against Pantaenetus, the other against Phaenippis—the first
mining lawsuit in which the address of counsel is extant. There is also available some infor-
mation in Xenophon’s Essay upon th2 Revenues, Aristotle’s Constitution of Athens,
Lycurgus’ prosecution of Diphilos, the Tablets of the Poletae, and many incidental references
and inscriptions of minor order. The minerals were the property of the State, a conception
apparently inherited from the older civilizations. Leases for exploitation were granted to indi-
viduals for terms of three to ten years, depending upon whether the mines had been previcusly
worked, thus a special advantage was conferred upon the pioneer. The leases did not carry
surface rights, but the boundaries at Mt. Laurion were vertical, as necessarily must be the case
everywhere in horizontal deposits. What they were elsewhere we do not know. The land-
lord apparently got nothing. The miner must continuously operate his mine, and was
required to pay a large tribute to the State, either in the initial purchase of his lease or in
annual rent. There were elaborate regulations as to interference and encroachment, and
proper support of the workings. Diphilos was condemned to death and his fortune con-
fiscated for robbing pillars. The mines were worked with slaves.
The Romans were most intensive miners and searchers after metallic wealth already
mined. The latter was obviously the objective of most Roman conquest, and those nations
rich in these commodities, at that time necessarily possessed their own mines. Thus a map
showing the extensions of Empire coincides in an extraordinary manner with the metal dis-
tribution of Europe, Asia, and North Africa. Further, the great indentations into the
periphery of the Imperial map, though many were rich from an agricultural point of view,
had no lure to the Roman because they had no mineral wealth. On the Roman law
of mines the student is faced with many perplexities. With the conquest of the older States,
the plunderers took over the mines and worked them, either by leases from the State to
public companies or to individuals ; or even in some cases worked them directly by the State.
There was thus maintained the concept of State ownership of the minerals which, although
apparently never very specifically defined, yet formed a basis of support to the contention
of regalian rights in Europe later on. Parallel with this system, mines were discovered
and worked by individuals under tithe to the State, and in Pliny (xxXxIv, 49) there is refer-
ence to the miners in Britain limiting their own output. Individual mining appears
to have increased with any relaxation of central authority, as for instance under
Augustus. It appears, as a rule, that the mines were held on terminable leases,
and that the State did at times resume them; the labour was mostly slaves.
As to the detailed conditions under which the mine operator held his title, we know
less than of the Greeks—in fact, practically nothing other than that he paid a tithe. The
Romans maintained in each mining district an official—the Procurator Metallorum—who
not only had general charge of the leasing of the mines on behalf of the State, but was usually
the magistrate of the district. A bronze tablet found near Aljustrel, in Portugal, in 1876,
generally known as the Aljustrel Tablet, appears to be the third of a series setting out the
regulations of the mining district. It refers mostly to the regulation of public auctions,
the baths, barbers, and tradesmen ; but one clause (vit.) is devoted to the regulation of those
84 BOOK IV.
on such veins are not all measured by one method. For in some places the
Bergmeister gives them shapes similar to the shapes of the meers on venae
profundae, in which case the head-meer is composed of three double
measures, and the area of every other mine of two measures, as I have
who work dumps of scoria, etc., and provides for payment to the administrator of the mines
of a capitation on the slaves employed. It does not, however, so far as we can determine,
throw any light upon the actual regulations for working the mines. (Those interested will
find ample detail in Jacques Flach, “ La Table de Bronze d’Aljustrel : Nouvelle Revue Histora-
que de Droit Francais et Etranger, 1878, p. 655; Estacio da Veiga, Memorias da Acad. Real
das Ciencias de Lisbon, Nova Serie, Tome V, Part II, Lisbon, 1882.) | Despite the systematic
law of property evolved by the Romans, the codes contain but small reference to mines, and this
in itself is indirect evidence of the concept that they were the property of the State. Any
general freedom of the metals would have given rise to a more extensive body of law. There
are, of course, the well-known sections in the Justinian and Theodosian Codes, but the former
in the main bears on the collection of the tithe and the stimulation of mining by ordering
migrant miners to return to their own hearths. There is also some intangible prohibition
of mining near edifices. There is in the Theodosian code evident extension of individual
right to mine or quarry. and this “freeing ’’ of the mines was later considerably extended.
The Empire was, however, then on the decline ; and no doubt it was hoped to stimulate the
taxable commodities. There is nothing very tangible as to the position of the landlord with
regard to minerals found on his property ; the metals were probably of insufficient frequency
on the land of Italian landlords to matter much, and the attitude toward subject races was
not usually such as to require an extensive body of law.
In the chaos of the Middle Ages, Europe was governed by hundreds of potentates,
great and small, who were unanimous on one point, and this that the minerals were their
property. In the bickerings among themselves, the stronger did not hesitate to interpret
the Roman law in affirming regalian rights as an excuse to dispossess the weaker. The rights
to the mines form no small part of the differences between these Potentates and the more
important of their subjects ; and with the gradual accretion of power into a few hands, we find
only the most powerful of vassals able to resist such encroachment. However, as to what
position the landlord or miner held in these rights, we have little indication until about the
begianing of the 13th century, after which there appear several well-known charters, which
as time went on were elaborated into practical codes of mining law. The earliest of these
charters are those of the Bishop of Trent, 1185 ; that of the Harz Miners, 1219; of the town
of Iglau in 1249. Many such in connection with other districts appear throughout the 13th,
14th, and 15th centuries. (References to the most important of such charters may be found
in Sternberg, Umrisse der Geschichte des Bergbaues, Prague, 1838; Eisenhart, De Regalz
Metalli Fodinarium, Helmestadt, 1681; Gmelin, Beytrage zur Geschichte des Teutschen
Bergbaus, Halle, 1783; Inama-Strenegg, Deutsche Wirthschaftsgeschichte, Leipzig, 1879-
1go1; Transactions, Royal Geol. Soc. Cornwall vi, 155; Lewis, The Stannaries, New
York 1908.) By this time a number of mining communities had grown up, and the charters
in the main are a confirmation to them of certain privileges ; they contain, nevertheless, rigor-
ous reservation of the regalian right. The landlord, where present, was usually granted some
interest in the mine, but had to yield to the miner free entry. The miner was simply a
sort of tributer to the Crown, loaded with an obligation when upon private lands to pay a
further portion of his profits to the landlord. He held tenure only during strenuous opera-
tion. However, it being necessary to attract skilled men, they were granted many civil
privileges not general to the people ; and from many of the principal mining towns “ free
cities’ were created, possessing a measure of self-government. There appear in the Iglau
charter of 1249 the first symptoms of the “apex” form of title, this being the logical
development of the conception that the minerals were of quite distinct ownership from
the land. The law, as outlined by Agricola, is much the same as set out in the Iglavian
Charter of three centuries before, and we must believe that such fully developed conceptions
as that charter conveys were but the confirmation of customs developed over generations.
In France the landlord managed to maintain a stronger position vis-a-vis with the
Crown, despite much assertion of its rights; and asa result, while the landlord admitted the
right to a tithe for the Crown, he maintained the actual possession, and the boundaries were
defined with the land.
In England the law varied with special mining communities, such as Cornwall, Devon,
the Forest of Dean, the Forest of Mendip, Alston Moor, and the High Peak, and they exhibit
a curious complex of individual growth, of profound interest to the student of the growth
of institutions. These communities were of very ancient origin, some of them at least pre-
Roman ; but we are, except for the reference in Pliny, practically without any idea of their
legal doings until after the Norman occupation (1066 a.D.). The genius of these conquerors
for systematic government soon led them to inquire into the doings of these communities,
and while gradually systematising their customs into law, they lost no occasion to assert the
BOOK IV. 85
explained more fully above. In this case, however, he measures the meers
with a cord, not only forward and backward from the ends of the head-
meer, as he is wont to do in the case where the owner of a vena profunda has
a meer granted him, but also from the sides. In this way meers are marked
regalian right to the minerals. In the two centuries subsequent to their advent there are
on record numerous inquisitions, with the recognition and confirmation of “the customs
and liberties which had existed from time immemorial,’”’ always with the reservation to the
Crown of some sort of royalty. Except for the High Peak in Derbyshire, the period and
origin of these ‘‘ customs and liberties ’’ are beyond finding out, as there is practically no
record of English History between the Roman withdrawal and the Norman occupation.
There may have been “liberties” under the Romans, but there is not a shred of evidence
on the subject, and our own belief is that the forms of self-government which sprang up were
the result of the Roman evacuation. The miner had little to complain of in the Norman
treatment in these matters ; but between the Crown and the landlord as represented by the
Barons, Lords of the Manor, etc., there were wide differences of opinion on the regalian rights,
for in the extreme interpretation of the Crown it tended greatly to curtail the landlord’s
position in the matter, and the success of the Crown on this subject was by no means universal.
In fact, a considerable portion of English legal history of mines is but the outcropping of
this conflict, and one of the concessions wrung from King John at Runnymede in 1215 was
his abandonment of a portion of such claims.
The mining communities of Cornwall and Devon were early in the 13th century
definitely chartered into corporations—‘* The Stannaries ’’—possessing definite legislative
and executive functions, judicial powers, and practical self-government; but they were
required to make payment of the tithe in the shape of “‘coinage’”’ on the tin. Such recog-
nition, while but a ratification of prior custom, was not obtained without struggle, for the
Norman Kings early asserted wide rights over the mines. Tangible record of mining in
these parts, from a legal point of view, practically begins with a report by William de Wrotham
in 1198 upon his arrangements regarding the coinage. A charter of King John in 1201, while
granting free right of entry to the miners, thus usurped the rights of the landlords—a claim
which he was compelled by the Barons to moderate; the Crown, as above mentioned did
maintain its right to a royalty, but the landlord held the minerals. It is not, however, until
the time of Richard Carew’s “Survey of Cornwall ’’ (London, 1602) that we obtain much
insight into details of miners’ title, and the customs there set out were maintained in broad
principle down to the rgth century. At Carew’s time the miner was allowed to prospect freely
upon “Common” or wastrel Jands (since mostly usurped by landlords), and upon mineral
discovery marked his boundaries, within which he was entitled to the vertical contents.
Even upon such lands, however, he must acknowledge the right of the lord of the manor to a
participation in the mine. Upon “enclosed” lands he had no right of entry without the
consent of the landlord ; in fact, the minerals belonged to the land as they do to-day except
where voluntarily relinquished. In either case he was compelled to “‘ renew his bounds ”
once a year, and to operate more or less continuously to maintain the right once obtained.
There thus existed a “labour condition ”’ of variable character, usually imposed more or less
vigorously in the bargains with landlords. The regulations in Devonshire differed in the
important particular that the miner had right of entry to private lands, although he was not
relieved of the necessity to give a participation of some sort to the landlord. The Forests of
Dean, Mendip, and other old mining communities possessed a measure of self-government,
which do not display any features in their law fundamentally different from those of Cornwall
and Devon. The High Peak lead mines of Derbyshire, however, exhibit one of the most pro-
foundly interesting of these mining communities. As well as having distinctively Saxon names
for some of the mines, the customs there are of undoubted Saxon origin, and as such their
ratification by the Normans caused the survival of one of the few Saxon institutions in
England—a fact which, we believe, has been hitherto overlooked by historians. Beginning
with inquisitions by Edward I. in 1288, there is in the Record Office a wealth of information,
the bare titles of which form too extensive a list to set out here. (Of published works, the
most important are Edward Manlove’s ‘‘ The Liberties and Customs of the Lead Mines within
the Wapentake of Wirksworth,” London, 1653, generally referred to as the “ Rhymed
Chronicle”; Thomas Houghton, “ Rara Avis in Terra,’ London, 1687; William Hardy,
“The Miner’s Guide,” Sheffield, 1748; Thomas Tapping, “‘ High Peak Mineral Customs,”
London, 1851.) The miners in this district were presided over bya “‘ Barmaster,” “‘ Bargh-
master,” or “ Barmar,’ as he was variously spelled, all being a corruption of the German
Bergmeister, with precisely the same functions as to the allotment of title, settlement of
disputes, etc., as his Saxon progenitor had, and, like him, he was advised by a jury. The
miners had entry to all lands except churchyards (this regulation waived upon death), and a
few similar exceptions, and was subject to royalty to the Crown and the landlord. The dis-
coverer was entitled to a finder’s ‘‘ meer’”’ of extra size, and his title was to the vein within
the end lines, z.e., the “apex” law. This title was held subject to rigorous labour con-
86 BOOK IV.
out when a torrent or some other force of Nature has laid open a vena
dilatata in a valley, so that it appears either on the slope of a mountain
or hill or on a plain. Elsewhere the Bergmeister doubles the width of the
head-meer and it is made fourteen fathoms wide, while the width of each of
the other meers remains single, that is seven fathoms, but the length is not
defined by boundaries. In some places the head-meer consists of three
double measures, but has a width of fourteen fathoms and a length of
twenty-one.
XX1
XX!
SHAPE OF A HEAD-MEER.
TITIXx
AILITI
In the same way, every other meer is composed of two measures,
doubled in the same fashion, so that it is fourteen fathoms in width and
of the same length.
XII
* =
= x
XIII
SHAPE OF EVERY OTHER MEER.
ditions, amounting to forfeiture for failure to operate the mine for a period of nine weeks.
Space does not permit of the elaboration of the details of this subject, which we hope to
pursue elsewhere in its many historical bearings. Among these we may mention that if the
American “Apex law” is of English descent, it must be laid to the door of Derbyshire, and
not of Cornwall, as is generally done. Our own belief, however, is that the American
“apex ”’ conception came straight from Germany.
It is not our purpose to follow these inquiries into mining law beyond the 15th century,
but we may point out that with the growth of the sentiment of individualism the miners and
landlords obtained steadily wider and wider rights at the cost of the State, until well within
the Igth century. The growth of stronger communal sentiment since the middle of the last
century has already found its manifestation in the legislation with regard to mines, for the
laws of South Africa, Australia, and England, and the agitation in the United States are all
toward greater restrictions on the mineral ownership in favour of the State.
BOOK IV. 87
Elsewhere every meer, whether a head-meer or other meer, comprises
forty-two fathoms in width and as many in length.
In other places the Bergmeistey gives the owner or company all of some
locality defined by rivers or little valleys as boundaries. But the boundaries
of every such area of whatsoever shape it be, descend vertically into the
earth; so the owner of that area has a right over that part of any vena
dilatata which lies beneath the first one, just as the owner of the meer on
a vena profunda has a right over so great a part of all other venae profundae
as lies within the boundaries of his meer; for just as wherever one vena
profunda is found, another is found not far away, so wherever one vena
dilatata is found, others are found beneath it.
Finally, the Bergmeistey divides vena cumulata areas in different ways,
for in some localities the head-meer is composed of three measures, doubled
in such a way that it is fourteen fathoms wide and twenty-one long; and
every other meer consists of two measures doubled, and is square, that is,
fourteen fathoms wide and as many long. In some places the head-meer
is composed of three single measures, and its width is seven fathoms and
its length twenty-one, which two numbers multiplied together make one
hundred and forty-seven square fathoms.
ARI
ILA
VII
CXLVII
XX}
SHAPE OF A HEAD-MEER.
Each other meer consists of one double measure. In some places the
head-meer is given the shape of a double measure, and every other meer that
of asingle measure. Lastly, in other places the owner or a company is given
a right over some complete specified locality bounded by little streams,
valleys, or other limits. Furthermore, all meers on venae cumulatae, as in
the case of dilatatae, descend vertically into the depths of the earth, and
each meer has the boundaries so determined as to prevent disputes arising
between the owners of neighbouring mines.
The boundary marks in use among miners formerly consisted only of
stones, and from this their name was derived, for now the marks of a
boundary are called ‘‘ boundary stones.’ To-day a row of posts, made either
of oak or pine, and strengthened at the top with iron rings to prevent them
from being damaged, is fixed beside the boundary stones to make them
more conspicuous. By this method in former times the boundaries of the
fields were marked by stones or posts, not only as written of in the book “ De
Limitibus Agrorum,’” but also as testified to by the songs of the poets. Such
7 ?De Limitibus et de Re Agraria of Sextus Julius Frontinus (about 50-90 A.D.)
88 BOOK IV.
then is the shape of the meers, varying in accordance with the different
kinds of veins.
Now tunnels are of two sorts, one kind having no right of property, the
other kind having some limited right. For when a miner in some particular
locality is unable to open a vein on account of a great quantity of water, he
runs a wide ditch, open at the top and three feet deep, starting on the slope
and running up to the place where the vein is found. Through it the water
flows off, so that the place is made dry and fit for digging. But if it is not
sufficiently dried by this open ditch, or if a shaft which he has now for
the first time begun to sink is suffering from overmuch water, he goes to
the Bergmeister and asks that official to give him the right for a tunnel.
Having obtained leave, he drives the tunnel, and into its drains all the
water is diverted, so that the place or shaft is made fit for digging. If
it is not seven fathoms from the surface of the earth to the bottom of this
kind of tunnel, the owner possesses no rights except this one: namely, that
the owners of the mines, from whose leases the owner of the tunnel extracts
gold or silver, themselves pay him the sum he expends within their meer in
driving the tunnel through it.
To a depth or height of three and a half fathoms above and below the
mouth of the tunnel, no one is allowed to begin another tunnel. The reason
for this is that this kind of a tunnel is liable to be changed into the other
kind which has a complete right of property, when it drains the meers to a
depth of seven fathoms, or to ten, according as the old custom in each place
acquires the force of law. In such case this second kind of tunnel has the
following right ; in the first place, whatever metal the owner, or company
owning it, finds in any meer through which it is driven, all belongs to the
tunnel owner within a height or depth of one and a quarter fathoms. In
the years which are not long passed, the owner of a tunnel possessed all the
metal which a miner standing at the bottom of the tunnel touched with
a bar, whose handle did not exceed the customary length; but nowadays
a certain prescribed height and width is allowed to the owner of the tunnel,
lest the owners of the mines be damaged, if the length of the bar be
longer than usual. Further, every metal-yielding mine which is drained
and supplied with ventilation by a tunnel, is taxed in the proportion of one-
ninth for the benefit of the owner of the tunnel. But if several tunnels of
this kind are driven through one mining area which is yielding metals, and
all drain it and supply it with ventilation, then of the metal which is dug
out from above the bottom of each tunnel, one-ninth is given to the owner of
that tunnel; of that which is dug out below the bottom of each tunnel,
one-ninth is in each case given to the owner of the tunnel which follows
next in order below. But if the lower tunnel does not yet drain the shaft of
that meer nor supply it with ventilation, then of the metal which is dug out
below the bottom of the higher tunnel, one-ninth part is given to the owner
of such upper tunnel. Moreover, no one tunnel deprives another of its
right to one-ninth part, unless it be a lower one, from the bottom of which
to the bottom of the one above must not be less than seven or ten fathoms,
IIA
BOOK IV. 89
according as the king or prince has decreed. Further, of all the money
which the owner of the tunnel has spent on his tunnel while driving it
through a meer, the owner of that meer pays one-fourth part. If he does
not do so he is not allowed to make use of the drains.
Finally, with regard to whatever veins are discovered by the owner
at whose expense the tunnel is driven, the right of which has not been
already awarded to anyone, on the application of such owner the Bergmeister
grants him a right of a head-meer, or of a head-meer together with the next
meer. Ancient custom gives the right for a tunnel to be driven in any
direction for an unlimited length. Further, to-day he who commences a
tunnel is given, on his application, not only the right over the tunnel, but
even the head and sometimes the next meer also. In former days the owner
of the tunnel obtained only so much ground as an arrow shot from the bow
might cover, and he was allowed to pasture cattle therein. In a case where
the shafts of several meers on some vein could not be worked on account of
the great quantity of water, ancient custom also allowed the Bergmeister to
grant the right of a large meer to anyone who would drive a tunnel. When,
however, he had driven a tunnel as far as the old shafts and had found
metal, he used to return to the Bergmeister and request him to bound and
mark off the extent of his right to a meer. Thereupon, the Bergmezster,
together with a certain number of citizens of the town—in whose place
Jurors have now succeeded—used to proceed to the mountain and mark off
with boundary stones a large meer, which consisted of seven double
measures, that is to say, it was ninety-eight fathoms long and seven wide,
which two numbers multiplied together make six hundred and eighty-six
square fathoms.
XC VIII
DCLXXXVI
XC VIII
LarGE AREA.
But each of these early customs has been changed, and we now employ
the new method.
I have spoken of tunnels ; I will now speak about the division of owner-
ship in mines and tunnels. One owner is allowed to possess and to work
one, two, three, or more whole meers, or similarly one or more separate
tunnels, provided he conforms to the decrees of the laws relating to
metals, and to the orders of the Bergmeister. And because he alone pro-
vides the expenditure of money on the mines, if they yield metal he alone
obtains the product from them. But when large and frequent expenditures
are necessary in mining, he to whom the Bergmeister first gave the right
Vil
90 BOOK IV.
often admits others to share with him, and they join with him in forming a
company, and they each lay out a part of the expense and share with him
the profit or loss of the mine. But the title of the mines or tunnels remains
undivided, although for the purpose of dividing the expense and profit it
may be said each mine or tunnel is divided into parts’.
This division is made in various ways. A mine, and the same thing
must be understood with regard to a tunnel, may be divided into two halves,
that is into two similar portions, by which method two owners spend
an equal amount on it and draw an equal profit from it, for each possesses
one half. Sometimes it is divided into four shares, by which compact
four persons can be owners, so that each possesses one-fourth, or also two
persons, so that one possesses three-fourths, and the other only one-fourth ;
or three owners, so that the first has two-fourths, and the second and third
one-fourth each. Sometimes it is divided into eight shares, by which plan
there may be eight owners, so that each is possessor of one-eighth ; some-
times there are two owners, so that one has five-sixths® together with one
twenty-fourth, and the other one-eighth ; or there may be three owners, in
which one has three-quarters and the second and third each one-eighth ;
or it may be divided so that one owner has seven-twelfths, together with
one twenty-fourth, a second owner has one-quarter, and a third owner has
one-eighth ; or so that the first has one-half, the second one-third and one
twenty-fourth, and the third one-eighth ; or so that the first has one-half,
as before, and the second and third each one-quarter; or so that the first
and second each have one-third and one twenty-fourth, and the third one-
quarter ; and in the same way the divisions may be adjusted in all the other
proportions. The different ways of dividing the shares originate from the
different rioportions of ownership. Sometimes a mine is divided into
sixteen parts, each of which is a twenty-fourth and a forty-eighth ; or it may
be divided into thirty-two parts, each of which is a forty-eighth and half a
seventy-second and a two hundred and eighty-eighth ; or into sixty-four
parts of which each share is one seventy-second and one five hundred and
seventy-sixth ; or finally, into one hundred and twenty-eight parts, any one
of which is half a seventy-second and half of one five hundred and seventy-
sixth.
Now an iron mine either remains undivided or is divided into two,
four, or occasionally more shares, which depends on the excellence of the
veins. But a lead, bismuth, or tin mine, and likewise one of copper or even
quicksilver, is also divided into eight shares, or into sixteen or thirty-two,
and less commonly into sixty-four. The number of the divisions of the silver
mines at Freiberg in Meissen did not formerly progress beyond this ; but
8Such a form of ownership is very old. Apparently upon the instigation of Xenophon
(see Note 7, p. 29) the Greeks formed companies to work the mines of Laurion, further
information as to which is given in note 6, p. 27. Pliny (Note 7, p. 232) mentions the
Company working the quicksilver mines in Spain. In fact, company organization was
very common among the Romans, who speculated largely in the shares, especially in those
companies which farmed the taxes of the provinces, or leased public lands, or took military
and civil contracts.
®The Latin text gives one-sixth, obviously an error.
BOOK IV. gi
within the memory of our fathers, miners have divided a silver mine, and
similarly the tunnel at Schneeberg, first of all into one hundred and twenty-
eight shares, of which one hundred and twenty-six are the property of
private owners in the mines or tunnels, one belongs to the State and one
to the Church; while in Joachimsthal only one hundred and twenty-two
shares of the mines or tunnels are the property of private owners, four
are proprietary shares, and the State and Church each have one in the
same way. To these there has lately been added in some places one share
for the most needy of the population, which makes one hundred and twenty-
nine shares. It is only the private owners of mines who pay contributions.
A proprietary holder, though he holds as many as four shares such as I have
described, does not pay contributions, but gratuitiously supplies the owners
of the mines with sufficient wood from his forests for timbering, machinery,
buildings, and smelting; nor do those belonging to the State, Church, and
the poor pay contributions, but the proceeds are used to build or repair
public works and sacred buildings, and to support the most needy with the
profits which they draw from the mines. Furthermore, in our State, the
one hundred and twenty-eighth share has begun to be divided into two,
four, or eight parts, or even into three, six, twelve, or smaller parts. This
is done when one mine is created out of two, for then the owner who formerly
possessed one-half becomes owner of one-fourth; he who possessed one-
fourth, of one-eighth; he who possessed one-third, of one-sixth ; he who
possessed one-sixth, of one-twelfth. Since our countrymen call a mine a
sympostum, that is, a drinking bout, we are accustomed to call the money which
the owners subscribe a symbolum, or a contribution!®. For, just as those who
go to a banquet (sympostum) give contributions (symbola), so those who purpose
making large profits from mining are accustomed to contribute toward the
expenditure. However, the manager of the mine assesses the contributions
of the owners annually, or for the most part quarterly, and as often he
renders an account of receipts and expenses. At Freiberg in Meissen the
old practice was for the manager to exact a contribution from the owners
every week, and every week to distribute among them the profits of the
mines, but this practice during almost the last fifteen years has been so far
changed that contribution and distribution are made four! times each
year. Large or small contributions are imposed according to the number
of workmen which the mine or tunnel requires; as a result, those who
possess many shares provide many contributions. Four times a year the
owners contribute to the cost, and four times during the year the profits of
the mines are distributed among them; these are sometimes large, some-
times small, according as there is more or less gold or silver or other metal
dug out. Indeed, from the St. George mine in Schneeberg the miners extracted
so much silver in a quarter of a year that silver cakes, which were worth
10A symposium is a banquet, and a symbola is a contribution of money to a banquet.
This sentence is probably a play on the old German Zeche, mine, this being also a term for
a drinking bout.
Jn the Latin text this is ‘‘ three ”—obviously an error.
92 BOOK IV.
1,100 Rhenish guldens, were distributed to each one hundred and twenty-eighth
share. From the Annaberg mine which is known as the Himmelich H6z,
they had a dole of eight hundred thaler; from a mine in Joachimsthal
which is named the Sternen, three hundred thaler; from the head mine at
Abertham, which is called St. Lorentz, two hundred and twenty-five thaler?!.
The more shares of which any individual is owner the more profits he takes.
I will now explain how the owners may lose or obtain the right over a
mine, or a tunnel, or a share. Formerly, if anyone was able to prove by
witnesses that the owners had failed to send miners for three continuous
shifts!®, the Bergmeister deprived them of their right over the mine, and
gave the right over it to the informer, if he desired it. But although miners
preserve this custom to-day, still mining share owners who have paid
their contributions do not lose their right over their mines against their will.
Formerly, if water which had not been drawn off from the higher shaft of
some mine percolated through a vein or stringer into the shaft of another
mine and impeded their work, then the owners of the mine which suffered
the damage went to the Bergmeistey and complained of the loss, and he sent
to the shafts two Jurors. If they found that matters were as claimed,
the right over the mine which caused the injury was given to the owners
who suffered the injury. But this custom in certain places has been changed,
for the Bergmeister, if he finds this condition of things proved in the case
of two shafts, orders the owners of the shaft which causes the injury to
contribute part of the expense to the owners of the shaft which receives the
injury ; if they fail to do so, he then deprives them of their right over their
mine ; on the other hand, if the owners send men to the workings to dig
and draw off the water from the shafts, they keep their right over their
mine. Formerly owners used to obtain a right over any tunnel, firstly, if
in its bottom they made drains and cleansed them of mud and sand so that
the water might flow out without any hindrance, and restored those drains
which had been damaged ; secondly, if they provided shafts or openings to
supply the miners with air, and restored those which had fallen in; and
finally, if three miners were employed continuously in driving the tunnel.
But the principal reason for losing the title to a tunnel was that for a period
of eight days no miner was employed upon it; therefore, when anyone
was able to prove by witnesses that the owners of a tunnel had not done
these things, he brought his accusation before the Bergmeister, who, after
going out from the town to the tunnel and inspecting the drains and the
ventilating machines and everything else, and finding the charge to be true,
placed the witness under oath, and asked him: ‘“‘ Whose tunnel is this at the
present time?” The witness would reply: “The King’s” or “ The
See Note 9, p. 74, for further information with regard to these mines. The Rhenish
gulden was about 6.9 shillings, or $1.66. Silver was worth about this amount per Troy
ounce at this period, so that roughly, silver of a value of 1,100 gulden would be about 1,100
Troy ounces. The Saxon thaler was worth about 4.64 shillings or about $1.11. The thaler,
therefore, represented about .65 Troy ounces of silver, so that 300 thalers were about
195 Troy ounces, and 225 thalers about 146 Troy ounces.
Opera continens. The Glossary gives schicht,—the origin of the English “ shift.”
BOOK IV. 93
Prince’s.”’ Thereupon the Bergmetstey gave the right over the tunnel to
the first applicant. This was the severe rule under which the owners at one
time lost their rights over a tunnel; but its severity is now considerably
mitigated, for the owners do not now forthwith lose their right over a tunnel
through not having cleaned out the drains and restored the shafts or
ventilation holes which have suffered damage; but the Bergmeister orders
the tunnel manager to do it, and if he does not obey, the authorities fine
the tunnel. Also it is sufficient for one miner to be engaged in driving the
tunnel. Moreover, if the owner of a tunnel sets boundaries at a fixed spot
in the rocks and stops driving the tunnel, he may obtain a right over it so
far as he has gone, provided the drains are cleaned out and ventilation
holes are kept in repair. But any other owner is allowed to start from the
established mark and drive the tunnel further, if he pays the former owners
of the tunnel as much money every three months as the Bergmeister decides
ought to be paid.
There remain for discussion, the shares in the mines and tunnels.
Formerly if anybody conveyed these shares to anyone else, and the latter
had once paid his contribution, the seller!4 was bound to stand by his bargain,
and this custom to-day has the force of law. But if the seller denied that the
contribution had been paid, while the buyer of the shares declared that he could
prove by witnesses that he had paid his contribution to the other proprietors,
and a case arose for trial, then the evidence of the other proprietors carried
more weight than the oath of the seller. To-day the buyer of the shares proves
that he has paid his contribution by a document which the mine or tunnel
manager always gives each one; if the buyer has contributed no money
there is no obligation on the seller to keep his bargain. Formerly, as I have
said above, the proprietors used to contribute money weekly, but now con-
tributions are paid four times each year. To-day, if for the space of a month
anyone does not take proceedings against the seller of the shares for the con-
tribution, the right of taking proceedings is lost. But when the Clerk has
already entered on the register the shares which had been conveyed or
bought, none of the owners loses his right over the share unless the money
is not contributed which the manager of the mine or tunnel has demanded
from the owner or his agent. Formerly, if on the application of the manager
the owner or his agent did not pay, the matter was referred to the Berg-
meister, who ordered the owner or his agent to make his contribution; then
if he failed to contribute for three successive weeks, the Bergmeister gave
the right to his shares to the first applicant. To-day this custom is un-
changed, for if owners fail for the space of a month to pay the contribu-
tions which the manager of the mine has imposed on them, on a stated day
their names are proclaimed aloud and struck off the list of owners, in
the presence of the Bergmeister, the Jurors, the Mining Clerk, and the Share
Clerk, and each of such shares is entered on the proscribed list. If, how-
14The terms in the Latin text are donator, a giver of a gift, and donatus, areceiver. It
appears to us, however, that some consideration passed, and we have, therefore, used “‘ seller”
and “‘ buyer.”
94 BOOK IV.
ever, on the third, or at latest the fourth day, they pay their contributions
to the manager of the mine or tunnel, and pay the money which is due from
them to the Share Clerk, he removes their shares from the proscribed
list. They are not thereupon restored to their former position unless the
other owners consent ; in which respect the custom now in use differs from
the old practice, for to-day if the owners of shares constituting anything
over half the mine consent to the restoration of those who have been
proscribed, the others are obliged to consent whether they wish to or not.
Formerly, unless such restoration had been sanctioned by the approval of
the owners of one hundred shares, those who had been proscribed were not
restored to their former position.
The procedure in suits relating to shares was formerly as follows: he
who instituted a suit and took legal proceedings against another in respect
of the shares, used to make a formal charge against the accused possessor
before the Bergmeister. This was done either at his house or in some public
place or at the mines, once each day for three days if the shares belonged to
an old mine, and three times in eight days if they belonged to a head-
meer. But if he could not find the possessor of the shares in these places, it
was valid and effectual to make the accusation against him at the house of
the Bergmetster. When, however, he made the charge for the third time, he
used to bring with him a notary, whom the Bergmeister would interrogate :
“Have I earned the fee? ’’ and who would respond: “‘ You have earned
it’; thereupon the Bergmeister would give the right over the shares to him
who made the accusation, and the accuser in turn would pay down the
customary fee to the Bergmeister. After these proceedings, if the man whom
the Bergmeister had deprived of his shares dwelt in the city, one of the
proprietors of the mine or of the head-mine was sent to him to acquaint him
with the facts, but if he dwelt elsewhere proclamation was made in some
public place, or at the mine, openly and in a loud voice in the hearing of
numbers of miners. Nowadays a date is defined for the one who is answer-
able for the debt of shares or money, and information is given the accused
by an official if he is near at hand, or if he is absent, a letter is sent him ;
nor is the right over his shares taken from anyone for the space of one and
a half months. So much for these matters.
Now, before I deal with the methods which must be employed in
working, I will speak of the duties of the Mining Prefect, the Bergmezster,
the Jurors, the Mining Clerk, the Share Clerk, the manager of the mine
or tunnel, the foreman of the mine or tunnel, and the workmen.
To the Mining Prefect, whom the King or Prince appoints as his deputy,
all men of all races, ages, and rank, give obedience and submission. He
governs and regulates everything at his discretion, ordering those things
which are useful and advantageous in mining operations, and prohibiting
those which are to the contrary. He levies penalties and punishes offenders ;
he arranges disputes which the Bergmeister has been unable to settle, and if
even he cannot arrange them, he allows the owners who are at variance over
some point to proceed to litigation ; he even lays down the law, gives orders
BOOK IV. 95
as a magistrate, or bids them leave their rights in abeyance, and he deter-
mines the pay of persons who hold any post or office. He is present in
person when the mine managers present their quarterly accounts of profits
and expenses, and generally represents the King or Prince and upholds his
dignity. The Athenians in this way set Thucydides, the famous historian,
over the mines of Thasos!°.
Next in power to the Mining Prefect comes the Bergmeister, since he
has jurisdiction over all who are connected with mines, with a few exceptions,
which are the Tithe Gatherer, the Cashier, the Silver Refiner, the Master
of the Mint, and the Coiners themselves. Fraudulent, negligent, or dissolute
men he either throws into prison, or deprives of promotion, or fines ;
of these fines, part is given as a tribute to those in power. When the mine
owners have a dispute over boundaries he arbitrates it; or if he cannot
settle the dispute, he pronounces judgment jointly with the Jurors;
from them, however, an appeal lies to the Mining Prefect. He transcribes
his decrees in a book and sets up the records in public. It is also his duty
to grant the right over the mines to those who apply, and to confirm their
rights ; he also must measure the mines, and fix their boundaries, and see
that the mine workings are not allowed to become dangerous. Some of
these duties he observes on fixed days; for on Wednesday in the presence
of the Jurors he confirms the rights over the mines which he has granted,
settles disputes about boundaries, and pronounces judgments. On Mondays,
Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Fridays, he rides up to the mines, and dismounting
at some of them explains what is required to be done, or considers the
boundaries which are under controversy. On Saturday all the mine managers
and mine foremen render an account of the money which they have spent
on the mines during the preceding week, and the Mining Clerk transcribes
this account into the register of expenses. Formerly, for one Principality
there was one Bergmeister, who used to create all the judges and exercise
jurisdiction and control over them; for every mine had its own judge,
just as to-day each locality has a Bergmeister in his place, the name alone
being changed. To this ancient Bergmeister, who used to dwell at Freiberg in
Meissen, disputes were referred ; hence right up to the present time the one
at Freiberg still has the power of pronouncing judgment when mine owners
who are engaged in disputes among themselves appeal to him. The old
Bergmeistey could try everything which was presented to him in any mine
whatsoever ; whereas the judge could only try the things which were done
in his own district, in the same way that every modern Bergmeztster can.
To each Bergmeister is attached a clerk, who writes out a schedule
signifying to the applicant for a right over a mine, the day and hour on which
the right is granted, the name of the applicant, and the location of the mine.
He also affixes at the entrance to the mine, quarterly, at the appointed time,
a sheet of paper on which is shown how much contribution must be paid to
the manager of the mine. These notices are prepared jointly with the
15See Note 29, p. 23.
96 BOOK IV.
Mining Clerk, and in common they receive the fee rendered by the foremen
of the separate mines.
I now come to the Jurors, who are men experienced in mining
matters and of good repute. Their number is greater or less as there
are few or more mines; thus if there are ten mines there will be five
pairs of Jurors, like a decemviral collegel®. Into however many
divisions the total number of mines has been divided, so many divisions
has the body of Jurors; each pair of Jurors usually visits some of
the mines whose administration is under their supervision on every
day that workmen are employed; it is usually so arranged that they
visit all the mines in the space of fourteen days. They inspect and con-
sider all details, and deliberate and consult with the mine foreman on
matters relating to the underground workings, machinery, timbering, and
everything else. They also jointly with the mine foreman from time to
time make the price per fathom to the workmen for mining the ore, fixing
it at a high or low price, according to whether the rock is hard or soft; if,
however, the contractors find that an unforeseen and unexpected hardness
occurs, and for that reason have difficulty and delay in carrying out their
work, the Jurors allow them something in excess of the price fixed ;
while if there 1s a softness by reason of water, and the work is done more
easily and quickly, they deduct something from the price. Further, if the
Jurors discover manifest negligence or fraud on the part of any foreman
or workman, they first admonish or reprimand him as to his duties and
obligations, and if he does not become more diligent and improve, the matter
is reported to the Bergmeister, who by right of his authority deprives such
persons of their functions and office, or, if they have committed a crime,
throws them into prison. Lastly, because the Jurors have been given
to the Bergmetstey as councillors and advisors, in their absence he does not
confirm the right over any mine, nor measure the mines, nor fix their
boundaries, nor settle disputes about boundaries, nor pronounce judgment,
nor, finally, does he without them listen to any account of profits and
expenditure.
Now the Mining Clerk enters each mine in his books, the new mines
in one book, the old mines which have been re-opened in another. This
is done in the following way: first is written the name of the man who has
applied for the right over the mine, then the day and hour on which he
made his application, then the vein and the locality in which it is situated,
next the conditions on which the right has been given, and lastly, the day on
which the Bergmeistey confirmed it. A document containing all these
particulars is also given to the person whose right over a mine has been
confirmed. The Mining Clerk also sets down in another book the names
of the owners of each mine over which the right has been confirmed ;
in another any intermission of work permitted to any person for cer-
16Decemvivi—‘ The Ten Men.” The original Decemviri were a body appointed by
the Romans in 452 B.C., principally to codify the law. Such commissions were afterward
instituted for other purposes, but the analogy of the above paragraph is a little remote.
BOOK IV. 97
tain reasons by the Bergmeistey ; in another the money which one mine
supplies to another for drawing off water or making machinery; and in
another the decisions of the Bergmeistey and the Jurors, and the disputes
settled by them as honorary arbitrators. All these matters he enters in the
books on Wednesday of every week; if holidays fall on that day he does it
on the following Thursday. Every Saturday he enters in another book the
total expenses of the preceding week, the account of which the mine manager
has rendered ; but the total quarterly expenses of each mine manager, he
enters in a special book at his own convenience. He enters similarly in
another book a list of owners who have been proscribed. Lastly, that no one
may be able to bring a charge of falsification against him, all these books
are enclosed in a chest with two locks, the key of one of which is kept by the
Mining Clerk, and of the other by the Bergmezster.
The Share Clerk enters in a book the owners of each mine whom
the first finder of the vein names to him, and from time to time replaces the
names of the sellers with those of the buyers of the shares. It sometimes
happens that twenty or more owners come into the possession of some
particular share. Unless, however, the seller is present, or has sent a letter
to the Mining Clerk with his seal, or better still with the seal of the Mayor
of the town where he dwells, his name is not replaced by that of anyone else ;
for if the Share Clerk is not sufficiently cautious, the law requires him
to restore the late owner wholly to his former position. He writes out a
fresh document, and in this way gives proof of possession. Four times a
year, when the accounts of the quarterly expenditure are rendered, he
names the new proprietors to the manager of each mine, that the manager
may know from whom he should demand contributions and among whom
to distribute the profits of the mines. For this work the mine manager pays
the Clerk a fixed fee.
I will now speak of the duties of the mine manager. In the case of the
owners of every mine which is not yielding metal, the manager announces
to the proprietors their contributions in a document which is affixed to the
doors of the town hall, such contributions being large or small, according as
the Bergmeistey and two Jurors determine. If anyone fails to pay these
contributions for the space of a month, the manager removes their names
from the list of owners, and makes their shares the common property of the
other proprietors. And so, whomsoever the mine manager names as not
having paid his contribution, that same man the Mining Clerk designates
in writing, and so also does the Share Clerk. Of the contribution, the
mine manager applies part to the payment of the foreman and workmen,
and lays by a part to purchase at the lowest price the necessary things for
the mine, such as iron tools, nails, firewood, planks, buckets, drawing-ropes,
or grease. But in the case of a mine which is yielding metal, the Tithe-
gatherer pays the mine manager week by week as much money as suffices
to discharge the workmen’s wages and to provide the necessary implements
for mining. The mine manager of each mine also, in the presence of its
foreman, on Saturday in each week renders an account of his expenses to
98 BOOK IV.
the Bergmeistey and the Jurors, he renders an account of his receipts,
whether the money has been contributed by the owners or taken from the
Tithe-gatherer ; and of his quarterly expenditure in the same way
to them and to the Mining Prefect and to the Mining Clerk, four
times a year at the appointed time; for just as there are four seasons
of the year, namely, Spring, Summer, Autumn, and Winter, so there are
fourfold accounts of profits and expenses. In the beginning of the first
month of each quarter an account is rendered of the money which the
manager has spent on the mine during the previous quarter, then of the
profit which he has taken from it during the same period; for example,
the account which is rendered at the beginning of spring is an account of all
the profits and expenses of each separate week of winter, which have been
entered by the Mining Clerk in the book of accounts. If the manager
has spent the money of the proprietors advantageously in the mine and
has faithfully looked after it, everyone praises him as a diligent and honest
man ; if through ignorance in these matters he has caused loss, he is generally
deprived of his office; if by his carelessness and negligence the owners have
suffered loss, the Bergmezster compels him to make good the loss ; and finally,
if he has been guilty of fraud or theft, he is punished with fine, prison, or
death. Further, it is the business of the manager to see that the foreman
of the mine is present at the beginning and end of the shifts, that he digs
the ore in an advantageous manner, and makes the required timbering,
machines, and drains. The manager also makes the deductions from the
pay of the workmen whom the foreman has noted as negligent. Next,
if the mine is rich in metal, the manager must see that its ore-house is closed
on those days on which no work is performed ; and if it is a rich vein of gold
or silver, he sees that the miners promptly transfer the output from the shaft
or tunnel into a chest or into the strong room next to the house where the
foreman dwells, that no opportunity for theft may be given to dishonest
persons. This duty he shares in common with the foreman, but the one
which follows is peculiarly his own. When ore is smelted he is present in
person, and watches that the smelting is performed carefully and advan-
tageously. If from it gold or silver is melted out, when it is melted in the
cupellation furnace he enters the weight of it in his books and carries it
to the Tithe-gatherer, who similarly writes a note of its weight in his books ;
it is then conveyed to the refiner. When it has been brought back, both
the Tithe-gatherer and manager again enter its weight in their books. Why
again? Because he looks after the goods of the owners just as if they were
his own. Now the laws which relate to mining permit a manager to have
charge of more than one mine, but in the case of mines yielding gold or
silver, to have charge of only two. If, however, several mines following the
head-mine begin to produce metal, he remains in charge of these others until
he is freed from the duty of looking after them by the Bergmeister. Last of
all, the manager, the Bergmeistey, and the two Jurors, in agreement
with the owners, settle the remuneration for the labourers. Enough of the
duties and occupation of the manager.
BOOK IV. 99
I will now leave the manager, and discuss him who controls the workmen
of the mine, who is therefore called the foreman, although some call him.
the watchman. It is he who distributes the work among the labourers, and
sees diligently that each faithfully and usefully performs his duties. He
also discharges workmen on account of incompetence, or negligence, and
supplies others in their places if the two Jurors and manager give their
consent. He must be skilful in working wood, that he may timber shafts,
place posts, and make underground structures capable of supporting an under-
mined mountain, lest the rocks from the hangingwall of the veins, not being
supported, become detached from the mass of the mountain and over-
whelm the workmen with destruction. He must be able to make and lay
out the drains in the tunnels, into which the water from the veins, stringers,
and seams in the rocks may collect, that it may be properly guided and
can flow away. Further, he must be able to recognize veins and stringers,
so as to sink shafts to the best advantage, and must be able to discern one
kind of material which is mined from another, or to train his subordinates
that they may separate the materials correctly. He must also be well
acquainted with all methods of washing, so as to teach the washers how
the metalliferous earth or sand is washed. He supplies the miners with iron
tools when they are about to start to work in the mines, and apportions a
certain weight of oil for their lamps, and trains them to dig to the best
advantage, and sees that they work faithfully. When their shift is finished,
he takes back the oil which has been left. On account of his numerous and
important duties and labours, only one mine is entrusted to one foreman,
nay, rather sometimes two or three foremen are set over one mine.
Since I have mentioned the shifts, I will briefly explain how these are
carried on. The twenty-four hours of a day and night are divided into three
shifts, and each shift consists of seven hours. The three remaining hours are
intermediate between the shifts, and form an interval during which the
workmen enter and leave the mines. The first shift begins at the fourth hour
in the morning and lasts till the eleventh hour; the second begins at the
twelfth and is finished at the seventh; these two are day shifts in the
morning and afternoon. The third is the night shift, and commences at the
eighth hour in the evening and finishes at the third in the morning. The
Bergmeister does not allow this third shift to be imposed upon the workmen
unless necessity demands it. In that case, whether they draw water from
the shafts or mine the ore, they keep their vigil by the night lamps, and to
prevent themselves falling asleep from the late hours or from fatigue, they
lighten their long and arduous labours by singing, which is neither wholly
untrained nor unpleasing. In some places one miner is not allowed to
undertake two shifts in succession, because it often happens that he either
falls asleep in the mine, overcome by exhaustion from too much labour, or
arrives too late for his shift, or leaves sooner than he ought. Elsewhere he
is allowed to do so, because he cannot subsist on the pay of one shift,
especially if provisions grow dearer. The Bergmezster does not, however,
forbid an extraordinary shift when he concedes only one ordinary shift.
Too BOOK. IV.
When it is time to go to work the sound of a great bell, which the foreigners
call a ‘“‘campana,” gives the workmen warning, and when this is heard they
run hither and thither through the streets toward the mines. Similarly,
the same sound of the bell warns the foreman that a shift has just been
finished ; therefore as soon as he hears it, he stamps on the woodwork of the
shaft and signals the workmen to come out. Thereupon, the nearest as soon
as they hear the signal, strike the rocks with their hammers, and the sound
reaches those who are furthest away. Moreover, the lamps show that the
shift has come to an end when the oil becomes almost consumed and fails
them. The labourers do not work on Saturdays, but buy those things which
are necessary to life, nor do they usually work on Sundays or annual
festivals, but on these occasions devote the shift to holy things. However,
the workmen do not rest and do nothing if necessity demands their labour ;
for sometimes a rush of water compels them to work, sometimes an impending
fall, sometimes something else, and at such times it is not considered
irreligious to work on holidays. Moreover, all workmen of this class are
strong and used to toil from birth.
The chief kinds of workmen are miners, shovelers, windlass men, carriers,
sorters, washers, and smelters, as to whose duties I will speak in the fol-
lowing books, in their proper place. At present it is enough to add this one
fact, that if the workmen have been reported by the foreman for negligence,
the Bergmeister, or even the foreman himself, jointly with the manager,
dismisses them from their work on Saturday, or deprives them of part of
their pay ; or if for fraud, throws them into prison. However, the owners
of works in which the metals are smelted, and the master of the smelter, look
after their own men. As to the government and duties of miners, I have
now said enough; I will explain them more fully in another work entitled
De Jure et Legibus Metalltcts!?.
17This work was apparently never published; see Appendix A.
END OF BOOK IV.
BOOK V.
N the last book I have explained the methods of
delimiting the meers along each kind of vein, and
the duties of mine officials. In this book! I will
in like manner explain the principles of under-
ground mining and the art of surveying. First
then, I will proceed to deal with those matters
which pertain to the former heading, since both the
subject and methodical arrangement require it.
And so I will describe first of all the digging of
shafts, tunnels, and drifts on venae profundae ; next I will discuss the good
indications shown by canales*, by the materials which are dug out, and by
the rocks; then I will speak of the tools by which veins and rocks are broken
down and excavated ; the method by which fire shatters the hard veins ;
and further, of the machines with which water is drawn from the shafts
and air is forced into deep shafts and long tunnels, for digging is impeded
by the inrush of the former or the failure of the latter; next I will deal
with the two kinds of shafts, and with the making of them and of tunnels ;
and finally, I will describe the method of mining venae dilatatae, venae cumu-
latae, and stringers.
1Jt has been suggested that we should adopt throughout this volume the mechanical
and mining terms used in English mines at Agricola’s time. We believe, however, that but
a little inquiry would illustrate the undesirability of this course as a whole. Where there
is choice in modern miner’s nomenclature between an old and a modern term, we have leaned
toward age, if it be a term generally understood. But except where the subject described
has itself become obsolete, we have revived no obsolete terms. In substantiation of this
view, we append a few examples of terms which served the English miner well for centuries,
some of which are still extant in some local communities, yet we believe they would carry
as little meaning to the average reader as would the reproduction of the Latin terms coined
by Agricola.
Rake = A perpendicular vein. Slough = Drainage tunnel.
Woughs = Walls of the vein. Sole = Lowest drift.
Shakes = Cracks in the walls. Stool = Face of a drift or stope.
Flookan = Gouge. Winds
Bryle = Outcrop. Turn = Winze.
Hade = Incline or underlay of the Dippas
vein. Grove = Shaft.
Dawling = Impoverishment of the vein. Dutins = Set of timber.
Rither = A “horse” in a vein. Stemple = Post or stull.
Twitches = “ Pinching” of a vein. Laths = Lagging.
As examples of the author’s coinage and adaptations of terms in this book we may
cite :—
Fossa latens = Dritt®
Fossa latens transversa = Crosscut.
Tectum = Hangingwall.
Fundamentum = Footwall.
Tigna per intervalla posita = Wall plate.
Arbores dissectae = Lagging.
Formae = Hitches.
OG
We have adopted the term “tunnel” for openings by way of outlet to the mine.
The word in this narrow sense is as old as “ adit,” a term less expressive and not so generally
used in the English-speaking mining world. We have for the same reason adopted the word
“ drift ” instead of the term “level” so generally used in America, because that term always
leads to confusion in discussion of mine surveys. We may mention, however, that the term
“evel” is a heritage from the Derbyshire mines, and is of an equally respectable age as “‘drift.”’
#See note on p. 46-47. The canales, as here used, were the openings in the earth, in
which minerals were deposited.
102 “BOOK V.
Now when a miner discovers a vena profunda he begins sinking a shaft
and above it sets up a windlass, and builds a shed over the shaft to prevent
the rain from falling in, lest the men who turn the windlass be numbed
by the cold or troubled by the rain. The windlass men also place their
barrows in it, and the miners store their iron tools and other implements therein.
Next to the shaft-house another house is built, where the mine foreman and the
other workmen dwell, and in which are stored the ore and other things which
are dug out. Although some persons build only one house, yet because
sometimes boys and other living things fall into the shafts, most miners
deliberately place one house apart from the other, or at least separate them
by a wall.
Now a shaft is dug, usually two fathoms long, two-thirds of a fathom
wide, and thirteen fathoms deep; but for the purpose of connecting with a
tunnel which has already been driven in a hill, a shaft may be sunk to a
depth of only eight fathoms, at other times to fourteen, more or less?. A
shaft may be made vertical or inclined, according as the vein which the
miners follow in the course of digging is vertical or inclined. A tunnel is a
subterranean ditch driven lengthwise, and is nearly twice as high as it is
broad, and wide enough that workmen and others may be able to pass and
carry their loads. It is usually one and a quarter fathoms high, while
its width is about three and three-quarters feet. Usually two workmen are
required to drive it, one of whom digs out the upper and the other the lower
part, and the one goes forward, while the other follows closely after. Each
sits upon small boards fixed securely from the footwall to the hangingwall,
or if the vein is a soft one, sometimes on a wedge-shaped plank fixed on to the
vein itself. Miners sink more inclined shafts than vertical, and some of each
kind do not reach to tunnels, while some connect with them. But as for
some shafts, though they have already been sunk to the required depth,
the tunnel which is to pierce the mountain may not yet have been driven
far enough to connect with them.
It is advantageous if a shaft connects with a tunnel, for then the miners
and other workmen carry on more easily the work they have undertaken ;
but if the shaft is not so deep, it is usual to drift from one or both sides of it.
From these openings the owner or foreman becomes acquainted with the
veins and stringers that unite with the principal vein, or cut across it, or
8This statement, as will appear by the description later on, refers to the depth of
winzes or to the distance between drifts, that is “the lift.” We have not,
however, been justified in using the term ‘“‘winze,’’ because some of these were openings
to the surface. As showing the considerable depth of shafts in Agricola’s time,
we may quote the following from Bermannus (p. 442): “The depths of our shafts
“forced us to invent hauling machines suitable for them. There are some of them
“larger and more ingenious than this one, for use in deep shafts, as, for instance,
“those in my native town of Geyer, but more especially at Schneeberg, where the
“shaft of the mine from which so much treasure was taken in our memory has reached the
“depth of about 200 fathoms (feet ?), wherefore the necessity of this kind of machinery.
‘Naevius : What an enormous depth! Have you reached the Inferno? Bermannus: Oh,
“at Kuttenberg there are shafts more than 500 fathoms (feet ?) deep. Naevius : And
“not yet reached the Kingdom of Pluto?” It is impossible to accept these as fathoms,
as this would in the last case represent 3,000 feet vertically. The expression used, however,
for fathoms is passus, presumably the Roman measure equal to 58:1 inches.
103
BOOK V.
however, my discourse is now concerned mainly with
divide it obliquely ;
vena profunda, but most of all with the metallic material which it contains.
iN ic
SSS
fy
Kua
Wj
im
SS
WS
( un
SG 3'B . : ‘ Nag yay) Zi, Zl
gral
((
“ =~ by
ca i iG
SYS YS AAS VESTA ISN i
NN Ye 1 >
iS I i A \
WY (( Na UC Y
Sy
i
@
aN
(
CCE
SAAT AE FG,
AN AU
"ite at
Ly)
THREE VERTICAL SHAFTS, OF WHICH THE FIRST, A, DOES NOT REACH THE TUNNEL; THE
D—TUNNEL.
SECOND, B, REACHES THE TUNNEL; TO THE THIRD, C, THE TUNNEL HAS NOT YET BEEN
DRIVEN.
pumTTat for, extending
along after the manner of a tunnel, they are entirely hidden within the
BOOK V.
Excavations of this kind were called by the Greeks «
104
li
NG ; Ziq
Hs 47
a |
B REACHES THE
lls
|
|
Yyy,
§
=
=
gel
OF WHICH A DOES NOT YET REACH THE TUNNEL ;
THREE INCLINED SHAFTS
TUNNEL ;
TUNNEL.
iD—
N.
?
THE TUNNEL HAS NOT YET BEEN DRIVE
2
» ©,
TO THE THIRD
105
Vie
BOOK
This kind of an opening, however, differs from a tunnel in that it
is dark throughout its length, whereas a tunnel has a mouth open to daylight.
ground.
gaa
SWE,
Nyaa thidh Feis wing ea.
\
mitt
lw) SSN Va) yea 111 f
\ (a!
Ate g
~—
"
VEN Af
. i
Se Ne are rae ARTI Wa
(Fig, ony Cy
Y
| ? Y, /
A \\\ Oy
|
i
v
]
SSS ——
HX
F—MOUvTH OF TUNNEL.
E—TuNNEL.
ER SHAFT.
B, C—Drirt. D—AnotH
A—SHABET.
106 BOOK V.
I have spoken of shafts, tunnels, and drifts. I will now speak of the
indications given by the canales, by the materials which are dug out, and by
the rocks. These indications, as also many others which I will explain, are
to a great extent identical in venae dilatatae and venae cumulatae with venae
profundae.
When a stringer junctions with a main vein and causes a swelling, a
shaft should be sunk at the junction. But when we find the stringer inter-
secting the main vein crosswise or obliquely, if it descends vertically down
to the depths of the earth, a second shaft should be sunk to the point where
the stringer cuts the main vein; but if the stringer cuts it obliquely the
shaft should be two or three fathoms back, in order that the junction may
be pierced lower down. At such junctions lies the best hope of finding the
ore for the sake of which we explore the ground, and if ore has already been
found, 1t is usually found in much greater abundance at that spot. Again,
if several stringers descend into the earth, the miner, in order to pierce
through the point of contact, should sink the shaft in the midst of these
stringers, or else calculate on the most prominent one.
Since an inclined vein often lies near a vertical vein, it is advisable
to sink a shaft at the spot where a stringer or cross-vein cuts them both ;
or where a vena dilatata or a stringer dilatata passes through, for minerals
are usually found there. In the same way we have a good prospect of finding
metal at the point where an inclined vein joins a vertical one; this is why
miners cross-cut the hangingwall or footwall of a main vein, and in these
openings seek for a vein which may junction with the principal vein a few
fathoms below. Nay, further, these same miners, if no stringer or cross-
vein intersects the main vein so that they can follow it in their workings,
even cross-cut through the solid rock of the hangingwall or footwall. These
cross-cuts are likewise called “ cpurra‘,’’ whether the beginning of the
opening which has to be undertaken is made from a tunnel or from a drift.
Miners have some hope when only a cross vein cuts a main vein. Further,
if a vein which cuts the main vein obliquely does not appear anywhere
beyond it, it is advisable to dig into that side of the main vein toward which
the oblique vein inclines, whether the right or left side, that we may ascer-
tain if the main vein has absorbed it; if after cross-cutting six fathoms it
is not found, it is advisable to dig on the other side of the main vein, that
we may know for certain whether it has carried it forward. The owners
of a main vein can often dig no less profitably on that side where the vein
which cuts the main vein again appears, than where it first cuts it; the
owners of the intersecting vein, when that is found again, recover their title,
which had in a measure been lost.
The common miners look favourably upon the stringers which come
from the north and join the main vein; on the other hand, they look
unfavourably upon those which come from the south, and say that these do
much harm to the main vein, while the former improve it. But I think
that miners should not neglect either of them: as I showed in Book III,
experience does not confirm those who hold this opinion about veins, so now
BOOK V. 107
again I could furnish examples of each kind of stringers rejected by the
common miners which have proved good, but I know this could be of little
or no benefit to posterity.
If the miners find no stringers or veins in the hangingwall or footwall of
the main vein, and if they do not find much ore, it is not worth while to
undertake the labour of sinking another shaft. Nor ought a shaft to be sunk
where a vein is divided into two or three parts, unless the indications are
satisfactory that those parts may be united and joined together a little later.
Further, it is a bad indication for a vein rich in mineral to bend and turn
hither and thither, for unless it goes down again into the ground vertically or
inclined, as it first began, it produces no more metal; and even though it
does go down again, it often continues barren. Stringers which in their
outcrops bear metals, often disappoint miners, no metal being found in depth.
Further, inverted seams in the rocks are counted among the bad indications.
The miners hew out the whole of solid veins when they show clear evidence
of being of good quality; similarly they hew out the drusy‘ veins,
especially if the cavities are plainly seen to have formerly borne metal, or
if the cavities are few and small. They do not dig barren veins through
which water flows, if there are no metallic particles showing ; occasionally,
however, they dig even barren veins which are free from water, because
of the pyrites which is devoid of all metal, or because of a fine black soft
substance which is like wool. They dig stringers which are rich in metal,
or sometimes, for the purpose of searching for the vein, those that are devoid
of ore which lie near the hangingwall or footwall of the main vein. This
then, generally speaking, is the mode of dealing with stringers and veins.
Let us now consider the metallic material which is found in the canales
of venae profundae, venae dilatatae, and venae cumulatae, being in all these
either cohesive and continuous, or scattered and dispersed among them,
or swelling out in bellying shapes, or found in veins or stringers which
originate from the main vein and ramify like branches ; but these latter veins
and stringers are very short, for after a little space they do not appear again.
If we come across a small quantity of metallic material it is an indication ;
but if a large quantity, it is not an “indication,” but the very thing for
which we explore the earth. As soon as a miner who searches for veins
discovers pure metal or minerals, or rich metallic material, or a great
abundance of material which is poor in metal, let him sink a shaft on the
spot without any delay. If the material appears more abundant or of better
quality on the one side, he will incline his digging in that direction.
Gold, silver, copper, and quicksilver are often found native®; less
often iron and bismuth; almost never tin and lead. Nevertheless tin-stone
is not far removed from the pure white tin which is melted out of them, and
galena, from which lead is obtained, differs little from that metal itself.
Now we may classify gold ores. Next after native gold, we come to the
4Cavernos. The Glossary gives drusen, our word drusy having had this origin.
5Purum,— pure.” Interpretatio gives the German as gedigen,—‘‘ native.”
108 BOOK V.
vudts®, of yellowish green, yellow, purple, black, or outside red and inside
gold colour. These must be reckoned as the richest ores, because the gold
exceeds the stone or earth in weight. Next come all gold ores of which each
one hundred ibyae contains more than three wnciae of gold’ ; for although but
a small proportion of gold is found in the earth or stone, yet it equals in value
other metals of greater weight.® All other gold ores are considered poor, because
®Rudis,—‘‘ Crude.’”’ By this expression the author really means ores very rich in
any designated metal. In many cases it serves to indicate the minerals of a given metal, as
distinguished from the metal itself. Our system of mineralogy obviously does not afford an
acceptable equivalent. Agricola (De Nat. Foss., p. 360) says: “I find it necessary to call
“each genus (of the metallic minerals) by the name of its own metal, and to this I add a
““word which differentiates it from the pure (puro) metal, whether the latter has been mined
“or smelted ; so I speak of rudis gold, silver, quicksilver, copper, tin, bismuth, lead, or iron.
“This is not because I am unaware that Varro called silver rudis which had not yet been
“refined and stamped, but because a word which will distinguish the one from the other is
“not to be found.”
7The reasons for retaining the Latin weights are given in the Appendix on Weights
and Measures. A centumpondium weighs 70.6 lbs. avoirdupois, an umcia 412.2 Troy
grains, therefore, this value is equal to 72 ounces 18 pennyweights per short ton.
8Agricola mentions many minerals in De Re Metallica, but without such description
as would make possible a hazard at their identity. From his De Natura Fossilium, however,
and from other mineralogies of the 16th Century, some can be fully identified and others
surmised. While we consider it desirable to set out the probable composition of these
minerals, on account of the space required, the reasons upon which our‘opinion has been based
cannot be given in detail, as that would require extensive quotations. In a general way, we
have throughout the text studiously evaded the use of modern mineralogical terms—unless
the term used to-day is of Agricola’s age—and have adopted either old English terms of
pre-chemistry times or more loose terms used by common miners. Obviously modern
mineralogic terms imply a precision of knowledge not existing at that period. It must not
be assumed that the following is by any means a complete list of the minerals described by
Agricola, but they include most of those referred to in this chapter. His system of min-
eralogy we have set out in note 4, p. I, and it requires no further comment here. The
grouping given below is simply for convenience and does not follow Agricola’s method. Where
possible, we tabulate in columns the Latin term used in De Re Metallica; the German equiv-
alent given by the Author in either the Interpretatio or the Glossary ; our view of the probable
modern equivalent based on investigation of his other works and other ancient mineralogies,
and lastly the terms we have adopted in the text. The German spelling is that given in the
original. As an indication of Agricola’s position as a mineralogist, we mark with an asterisk
the minerals which were first specifically described by him. We also give some notes on
matters of importance bearing on the nomenclature used in De Re Metallica. Historical notes
on the chief metals will be found elsewhere, generally with the discussion of smelting methods.
We should not omit to express our indebtedness to Dana’s great “‘ System of Mineralogy,”
in the matter of correlation of many old and modern minerals.
GoLD MINERALS. Agricola apparently believed that there were various gold
minerals, green, yellow, purple, black, etc. There is nothing, however, in his works that
permits of any attempt to identify them, and his classification seems to rest on gangue
colours.
SILVER MINERALS.
Argentum purum im vents
reperitur Ss 8 Gedigen stlbey oe as sis *Native silver
Argentum rude .. rs Gedigen silber ertz .. 00 00 Rudts silver, or
pure silver
minerals
Argentum rude plumber
coloris .. his ie Glas ertz be .. Argentite *Silver glance
(Ag2S) ;
Argentum rude rubrum .. Rot gold ertz .. Pyrargyrite *Red silver
(Ag3Sb Ss)
Argentum rude rubrum Durchsichtig rod Proustite *Ruby silver
translucidum .. ne gulden ertz .. we (Ag3 As S3)
Argentum rude album .. Weis rod gulden ertz:
Dan es ist frisch wie
offtmals rod gulden
ertz pfleget zusein .. 60 6.5 White silver
BOOK V. 109
the earth or stone too far outweighs the gold. A vein which contains a
larger proportion of silver than of gold is rarely found to be a rich one.
Earth, whether it be dry or wet, rarely abounds in gold; but in dry earth
there is more often found a greater quantity of gold, especially if it has the
Argentum rude jecoris Gedigen leberfarbig Part Bromyrite Liver-coloured
colore .. 4c Be erlz .. 5 a0 (Ag Br) silver
Argentum rude luteum .. Gedigen geelertz = Yellow silver
Argentum rude cineraceum Gedigengraweriz .. Part Cerargurite *Grey silver
(Ag Cl) (Horn
Argentum rude nigrum .. Gedigen schwariz ertz } Silver) Part *Black silver
| Stephanite
Argentum rude purpureum Gedigen braun ertz (AgsSbS4) \ *Purple silver
The last six may be in part also alteration products from all silver minerals.
The reasons for indefiniteness in determination usually lie in the failure of ancient
authors to give sufficient or characteristic descriptions. In many cases Agricola is sufficiently
definite as to assure certainty, as the following description of what we consider to be silver
glance, from De Natura Fossilium (p. 360), will indicate: ‘‘ Lead-coloured rudis silver is
“called by the Germans from the word glass (glasertz), not from lead. Indeed, it has
“the colour of the latter or of galena (plumbago), but not of glass, nor is it transparent
“Vike glass, which one might indeed expect had the name been correctly derived. This
“mineral is occasionally so like galena in colour, although it is darker, that one who is not
“experienced in minerals is unable to distinguish between the two at sight, but in substance
“they differ greatly from one another. Nature has made this kind of silver out of a little
“earth and much silver. Whereas galena consists of stone and lead containing some silver.
“But the distinction between them can be easily determined, for galena may be ground
“to powder in a mortar with a pestle, but this treatment flattens out this kind of rudis silver.
“Also galena, when struck by a mallet or bitten or hacked with a knife, splits and breaks to
“pieces ; whereas this silver is malleable under the hammer, may be dented by the teeth,
“and cut with a knife.”
COPPER MINERALS.
Aes purum fossile Gedigen kupfer .. Native copper a0 Native copper
Aes rude plumber
coloris a: Kupferglas ertz .. Chalcocite (Cu2S) .. *Copper glance
Chalcitis a0 Rodt atrament Pe A decomposed copper Chalcitis (see notes
orironsulphide .. on p. 573)
Pyrites auret : Part chalcopyrite (Cu
colore 0 cee ae Fe S) Sart bornite Copper pyrites
Pyrites aerosus.. PIETERS (Cu3FeS3) .. :
Caeruleum ve Berglasur ae Azurite i bic Azure
Chrysocolla a Berggriin und { Part chrysocolla 0 Chrysocolla (see
schifergriin .. | Part Malachite ab note 7, p. 560)
Molochites re Molochit Ne Malachite O° ee Malachite
Lapis aerarius .. Kupfer ertz od 20 bo He Copper ore
Aes caldarium
rubrum fuscum Lebeter kupfer 20 When used for an ore, is
or probably cuprite .. *Ruby copper ore
Aes sui coloris .. Rotkupfer
Aes mgrum .. Schwartz kupfer .. Probably CuO from
oxidation of other
minerals .. ae *Black copper
In addition to the above the Author uses the following, which were in the main
artificial products :
Aerugo .. a6 Griinspan oder
Spanschgriin .. Verdigris o8 a0 Verdigris
Aes luteum 56 Gelfarkupfer Impure blister copper ( Unrefined copper
Aescaldarium .. Lebeterkupfer see note 16, p. 511)
Aeris fi Kupferb 4 ¢ fl :
erts flos Se upferbraun , : : opper flower
Aeris squama .. Kupferhammerschlag | VEDHUS G7URIE SEES { Copper scale (see
note 9, p. 233)
Atramentum
sutorium
caeruleum or
chalcanthum .. Blaw kupfer wasser Chalcanthite .. 50 Native blue vitriol
(see note on p. 572)
IIo BOOK V.
appearance of having been melted in a furnace, and if it is not lacking in
scales resembling mica. The solidified juices, azure, chrysocolla, orpiment,
and realgar, also frequently contain gold. Likewise native or rudis gold is
found sometimes in large, and sometimes in small quantities in quartz,
Blue and green copper minerals were distinguished by all the ancient mineralogists.
Theophrastus, Dioscorides, Pliny, etc., all give sufficient detail to identify their cyanus and
caeruleum partly with modern azurite, and their chrysocolla partly with the modern mineral
of the same name. However, these terms were also used for vegetable pigments, as well
as for the pigments made from the minerals. The Greek origin of chrysocolla (chrusos, gold
and kolla, solder) may be blamed with another and distinct line of confusion, in that this
term has been applied to soldering materials, from Greek down to modern times, some of the
ancient mineralogists even asserting that the copper mineral chrysocolla was used for this
purpose. Agricola uses chrysocolla for borax, but is careful to state in every case (see note
XX., p. X): “‘ Chrysocolla made from nitrum,” or “ Chrysocolla which the Moors call Borax.”
Dioscorides and Pliny mention substances which were evidently copper sulphides, but no
description occurs prior to Agricola that permits a hazard as to different species.
LEAD MINERALS.
Plumbarius lapis Glantz De Aaa aaKe Galena as Ss Galena
Galena .. a0 Glantz und pletertz Galena ae at Galena
Plumbum nigrum |
lutei coloris .. Pleieriz oder pleischweis Cerussite (Pb CO3) .. Yellow lead ore
Plumbago metallica
Cerussa Be Pleiweis .. ee Artificial White-lead. . White-lead (see
Ochra facticia : note 4, p. 440)
or ochra plumbana Pleigeel .. ay Massicot (Pb O) .. *Lead-ochre (see
note 8, p. 232)
Molybdaena | . 5 Hearth-lead (see
Plumbago fornacis | LEGION) 30 = Pete WETENES 02 note 37, p. 476)
Spuma argentt .. \ . Litharge (see note
Lithargyrum } CHa Latina ge on p. 465)
Minium secundarium Menning .. ae Minium (Pb3;0,) .. Red-lead (see note
7) P- 232)
So far as we can determine, all of these except the first three were believed by Agricola
to be artificial products. Of the first three, galena is certain enough, but while he obviously
was familiar with the alteration lead products, his descriptions are inadequate and much
confused with the artificial oxides. Great confusion arises in the ancient miineralogies over
the terms molybdaena, plumbago, plumbum, galena, and spuma argenti, all of which, from
Roman mineralogists down to a century after Agricola, were used for lead insome form. Further
discussion of such confusion will be found in note 37, p. 476. Agricola in Bermannus and
De Natura Fossiliwm, devotes pages to endeavouring to reconcile the ancient usages of these
terms, and all the confusion existing in Agricola’s time was thrice confounded when the
names molybdaena and plumbago were assigned to non-lead minerals.
Tin. Agricola knew only one tin mineral: Lapilli nigri ex quibus conflatur plumbum
candidum, t.e., ““ Little black stones from which tin is smelted,” and he gives the German
equivalent as zwitter, “tinstone.” He describes them as being of different colours, but
probably due to external causes.
ANTIMONY. (Interpretatio,—spiesglas.) The stibt or stibtum of Agricola was no
doubt the sulphide, and he follows Dioscorides in dividing it into male and female species.
This distinction, however, is impossible to apply from the inadequate descriptions given.
The mineral and metal known to Agricola and his predecessors was almost always the sulphide,
and we have not felt justified in using the term antimony alone, as that implies the refined
product, therefore, we have adopted either the Latin term or the old English term “ grey
antimony.” The smelted antimony of commerce sold under the latter term was the
sulphide. For further notes see p. 428.
BismuTH*. Plumbum cinereum (Interpretatio,—bismut). Agricola states that this
mineral occasionally occurs native, “but more often as a mineral of another colour” (De
Nat. Fos., p. 337), and he also describes its commonest form as black or grey. This,
considering his localities, would indicate the sulphide, although he assigns no special name to
it. Although bismuth is mentioned before Agricola in the Niitzliche Bergbiichlin, he was the
first to describe it (see p. 433).
QUICKSILVER. Apart from native quicksilver, Agricola adequately describes cinna-
bar only. The term used by him for the mineral is minium nativim (Interpretatio,—
bergzinober or cinnabaris). He makes the curious statement (De Nat. Fos. p. 335) that rudis
quicksilver also occurs liver-coloured and blackish,—probably gangue colours. (See p. 432).
BOOK V. III
schist, marble, and also in stone which easily melts in fire of the second
degree, and which is sometimes so porous that it seems completely decom-
posed. Lastly, gold is found in pyrites, though rarely in large quantities.
When considering silver ores other than native silver, those ores are
ARSENICAL MINERALS. Metallic arsenic was unknown, although it has been main-
tained that a substance mentioned by Albertus Magnus (De Rebus Metallicis) was the
metallic form. Agricola, who was familiar with all Albertus’s writings, makes no mention
of it, and it appears to us that the statement of Albertus referred only to the oxide from
sublimation. Our word “arsenic” obviously takes root in the Greek for orpiment, which
was also used by Pliny (xxxtv, 56) as arrhenicum, and later was modified to arsenicum
by the Alchemists, who applied it to the oxide. Agricola gives the following in Berymannus (p.
448), who has been previously discussing realgar and orpiment :—‘ Ancon: Avicenna
“also has a white variety. Bermannus: I cannot at all believe in a mineral of a white
“colour ; perhaps he was thinking of an artificial product ; there are two which the Alchemists
“make, one yellow and the other white, and they are accounted the most powerful poisons
“to-day, and are called only by the name arsenicum.” In De Natura Fossilium (p. 219) is
described the making of “the white variety’’ by sublimating orpiment, and also it is noted
that realgar can be made from orpiment by heating the latter for five hours in a sealed
crucible. In De Re Metallica (Book X.), he refers to auripigmentum facticum, and no doubt
means the realgar made from orpiment. The four minerals of arsenic base mentioned by
Agricola were :—
Auripigmentum Operment Orpiment (As2S3) Orpiment
Sandaraca Rosgeel Realgar (As S) Realgar
Arsenicum Arsentk a Artificial arsenical oxide White arsenic
Lapis subrutilus atque
. Splendens Mistpuckel Arsenopyrite (Fe As S) *Mispickel
We are somewhat uncertain as to the identification of the last. The yellow and red sul-
phides, however, were well known to the Ancients, and are described by Aristotle, Theophrastus
(7x and 89), Dioscorides (v, 81), Pliny (xxx1u, 22, etc.); and Strabo (X11, 3, 40) mentions
a mine of them near Pompeiopolis, where, because of its poisonous character none but slaves
were employed. The Ancients believed that the yellow sulphide contained gold—hence
the name auripigmentum, and Pliny describes the attempt of the Emperor Caligula to extract
the gold from it, and states that he did obtain a small amount, but unprofitably. So late
a mineralogist as Hill (1750) held this view, which seemed to be general. Both realgar and
orpiment were important for pigments, medicinal purposes, and poisons among the Ancients.
In addition to the above, some arsenic-cobalt minerals are included under cadmza.
IRON MINERALS.
Ferrum purum
Terra ferna ..
Ferri vena
Galenae genus tertium
omnis metallt
inanissimt
Schistos
Ferri vena jecoris
colore
Ferrugo
Magnes
Ochra nativa.. 00
Haemaiites
Schistos
Pyrites
Pyrites argentr coloris
Misy ..
Sory .. A
Melanteria
Gedigen eisen..
Eisen ertz
Eisen ertz
Eisen glantz ..
Glaskopfe oder
bliitstein
Leber ertz
Rist ..
Siegelstein oder
magnet
Berg geel
Bliit stein
Glas kipfe
Kis
wasser oder
weisser kis ..
Gel atrament ..
Graw und
schwartz atrament
Schwartz und
grau atrament
Native iron .. Ae
Various soft and hard
iron ores, probably
mostly hematite
Part limonite fe
Magnetite ne ate
Limonite
Part hematite
Part jasper
Part limonite. . 4
Pyrites 20 0.0
Marcasite
Part copiapite
Partly a decomposed
iron pyrite ..
Melanterite (native
vitriol)
*Native iron
Ironstone
Tron rust
Lodestone
Yellow ochre or
ironstone
Bloodstone or
ironstone
Tronstone
Pyrites
*White iron pyrites
Misy (see note on
P- 573)
Sory (see note on
P- 573)
Melanteria (see
note on p. 573)
The classification of iron ores on the basis of exterior characteristics, chiefly hardness and
I12 BOOK V.
classified as rich, of which each one hundred /ibvae contains more than three
libvae of silver. This quality comprises rudis silver, whether silver glance or
tuby silver, or whether white, or black, or grey, or purple, or yellow, or liver-
brilliancy, does not justify a more narrow rendering than “ironstone.” Agricola (De Naé.
Fos., Book V.) gives elaborate descriptions of various iron ores, but the descriptions under
any special name would cover many actual minerals. The subject of pyrites is a most con-
fused one; the term originates from the Greek word for fire, and referred in Greek and
Roman times to almost any stone that would strike sparks. By Agricola it was a generic
term in somewhat the same sense that it is still used in mineralogy, as, for instance, iron
pyrite, copper pyrite, etc. So much was this the case later on, that Henckel, the leading
mineralogist of the 18th Century, entitled his large volume Pyrztologia, and in it embraces
practically all the sulphide minerals then known. The term marcasite, of medieval Arabic
origin, seems to have had some vogue prior and subsequent to Agricola. He, however, puts
it on one side as merely a synonym for pyrite, nor can it be satisfactorily defined in much
better terms. Agricola apparently did not recognise the iron base of pyrites, for he says
(De Nat. Fos., p. 366): “ Sometimes, however, pyrites do not contain any gold, silver, copper,
“ or lead, and yet it is not a pure stone, but a compound, and consists of stone and a substance
““which is somewhat metallic, which is a species of its own.” Many varieties were known
to him and described, partly by their other metal association, but chiefly by their colour.
CapmiA. The minerals embraced under this term by the old mineralogists form
one of the most difficult chapters in the history of mineralogy. These complexities reached
their height with Agricola, for at this time various new minerals classed under this heading
had come under debate. All these minerals were later found to be forms of zinc, cobalt, or
arsenic, and some of these minerals were in use long prior to Agricola. From Greek and
Roman times down to long after Agricola, brass was made by cementing zinc ore with
copper. Aristotle and Strabo mention an earth used to colour coppez, but give no details.
It is difficult to say what zinc mineral the cadmium of Dioscorides (v, 46) and Pliny
(XXXIV, 2), really was. It was possibly only furnace calamine, or perhaps blende, for it was
associated with copper. They amply describe cadmia produced in copper furnaces, and
pompholyx (zinc oxide). It was apparently not until Theophilus (1150) that the term
calamina appears for that mineral. Precisely when the term “ zinc,’ and a knowledge of
the metal, first appeared in Europe is a matter of some doubt; it has been attributed to
Paracelsus, a contemporary of Agricola (see note on p. 409), but we do not believe that author’s
work in question was printed until long after. The quotations from Agricola given below, in
which zimcum is mentioned in an obscure way, do not appear in the first editions of these
works, but only in the revised edition of 1559. In other words, Agricola himself only learned
of a substance under this name a short period before his death in 1555. The metal was
imported into Europe from China prior to this time. He however does describe actual
metallic zinc under the term conterfet, and mentions its occurrence in the cracks of furnace
walls. (See also notes on p. 409).
The word cobalt (German kobelt) is from the Greek word cobalos, “ mime,’’ and its
German form was the term for gnomes and goblins. It appears that the German miners,
finding a material (Agricola’s ‘‘ corrosive material’) which injured their hands and feet, con-
nected it with the goblins, or used the term as an epithet, and finally it became established
for certain minerals (see note 21, p. 214, on this subject). The first written appearance of the
term in connection with minerals, appears in Agricola’s Bermannus (1530). The first
practical use of cobalt was in the form of zaffre or cobalt blue. There seems to be no mention
of the substance by the Greek or Roman writers, although analyses of old colourings show
some traces of cobalt, but whether accidental or not is undetermined. The first mention
we know of, was by Biringuccio in 1540 (De La Pirotechnica, Book 11, Chap. 1x.), who did
not connect it with the minerals then called cobalt or cadmia. ‘“‘ Zaffera is another mineral
“substance, like a metal of middle weight, which will not melt alone, but accompanied
“by vitreous substances it melts into an azure colour so that those who colour glass, or
“paint vases or glazed earthenware, make use of it. Not only does it serve for the above-
“mentioned operations, but if one uses too great a quantity of it, it will be black and all other
“colours, according to the quantity used.” Agricola, although he does not use the word
zaffre, does refer to a substance of this kind, and in any event also missed the relation
between zaffre and cobalt, as he seems to think (De Nat. Fos., p. 347) that zaffre came from
bismuth, a belief that existed until long after his time. The cobalt of the Erzgebirge was
of course, intimately associated with this mineral. He says, “the slag of bismuth, mixed
“together with metalliferous substances, which when melted make a kind of glass, will tint
‘glass and earthenware vessels blue.’’ Zaffre is the roasted mineral ground with sand, while
smalt, a term used more frequently, is the fused mixture with sand.
The following are the substances mentioned by Agricola, which, we believe, relate
to cobalt and zinc minerals, some of them arsenical compounds. Other arsenical minerals
we give above,
BOOK V.
coloured, or any other.
also, if much native or vudis silver adheres to it.
II3
Sometimes quartz, schist, or marble is of this quality
But that ore is considered
of poor quality if three /ébvae of silver at the utmost are found in each
one hundred librae of it®.
Calmet ; lapis
calaminaris
Cadmia fossilis
Cadmia metallica. . Kobelt ‘
Cadmia fornacis Mitlere und obere
offenbriiche
Bituminosa cadmia Kobelt des bergwacht
Silver ore usually contains a greater quantity
Calamine
*Cadmia metallica
Calamine
Part cobalt
Furnace accretions
or furnace calamine
(Mansfeld copper
schists)
Furnace accretions
Bituminosa cadmia
(see note 4, p. 273)
Galena inanis Blende Sphalerite* (Zi S) *Blende
Cobaltum ctneraceum a 50 ; Smallite* (CoAs2)
Cobaltum nigrum a6 oe oe Abolite* ena Hil
Cobaltum ferri freA OMtee strerdenes
colore aa Cobaltite (CoAsA)
Zincum : Sic Zinck Zinc O° Zinc
Liquor Candidus
ex fornace. . . etc Conterfer Zinc See note 48, p. 408
Atramentum sutorium,
candidum, polts-
simum reperitur
Goselariae 50 ney ie a0 Goslarite (Zn SO,4) .. *Native white vitriol
oe ne Geeler zechen rauch | Grey spodos
Schwartzer zechen
Spodos subterranea | vauch, auff dem, Either natural or arti- ; Black d
nigra. bee Altenberge nennet ficial zinc oxides, no | ~*° SnaEHeS
man in kis doubt containing |
Spodos subterranea | Crinenaethion ringh arsenicaloxides .. | Green spodos
viyidis
Pompholyx Pompholyx (see
note 26, p. 394)
As seen from the following quotations from Agricola, on cadmia and cobalt, there was infinite
confusion as to the zinc, cobalt, and arsenic minerals ; nor do we think any good purpose is
served by adding to the already lengthy discussion of these passages, the obscurity of which
is natural to the state of knowledge ; but we reproduce them as giving a fairly clear idea of
the amount of confusion then existing. It is, however, desirable to bear in mind that the
mines familiar to Agricola abounded in complex mixtures of cobalt, nickel, arsenic, bismuth,
zinc, and antimony. Agricola frequently mentions the garlic odour from cadmia metallica,
which, together with the corrosive qualities mentioned below, would obviously be due to
arsenic. Bermannus (p. 459). “This kind of pyrites miners call cobaltuwm, if it be allowed
“to me to use our German name. The Greeks call it cadmia. The juices, however, out
“of which pyrites and silver are formed, appear to solidify into one body, and thus is produced
“what they call cobaltum. There are some who consider this the same as pyrites, because
“it is almost the same. There are some who distinguish it as a species, which pleases me,
“for it has the distinctive property of being extremely corrosive, so that it consumes the
“hands and feet of the workmen, unless they are well protected, which I do not believe that
“ pyrites can do. Three kinds are found, and distinguished more by the colour than by other
“properties ; they are black (abolite ?), grey (smallite ?), and iron colour (cobalt glance ?).
“Moreover, it contains more silver than does pyrites. ” Bermannus (p. 431). “It (a
“sort of pyrites) is so like the colour of galena that not without cause might anybody have
“doubt in deciding whether it be pyrites or galena. . . Perhaps this kind is neither
“‘ pyrites nor galena, but has a genus of its own. For it has not the colour of pyrites, nor the
“hardness. It is almost the colour of galena, but of entirely different components. From
“it there is made gold and silver, and a great quantity is dug out from Reichenstein which
“is in Silesia, as was lately reported to me. Much more is found at Raurici, which they call
““ zincum ; which species differs from pyrites, for the latter contains more silver than gold,
“the former only gold, or hardly any silver.”
(De Natura Fossilium, p. 170). “ Cadmia fossilis has an odour like garlic”. . (p. 367).
“We mow proceed with cadmia, not the cadmia fornacis (furnace accretions) of
“which I spoke in the last book, nor the cadmza fossilis (calamine) devoid of metal, which
“is used to colour copper, whose nature I explained in Book V, but the metallic mineral
“ (fossilis metallica), which Pliny states to be an ore from which copper is made. The
“Ancients have left no record that another metal could be smelted from it. Yet it is a fact
Hiittenrauch
®Three librae of silver per centumpondium would be equal to 875 ounces per short ton.
II4 BOOK V.
than this, because Nature bestows quantity in place of quality; such ore
is mixed with all kinds of earth and stone compounds, except the various
kinds of rudis silver ; especially with pyrites, cadmia metallica fosstlis, galena,
stibium, and others.
“that not only copper but also silver may be smelted from it, and indeed occasionally both
“copper and silver together. Sometimes, as is the case with pyrites, it is entirely devoid
“of metal. It is frequently found in copper mines, but more frequently still in silver mines.
“And there are likewise veins of cadmia itself. . . . There are several species of the
“cadmia fossilis just as there were of cadmia fornacum. For one kind has the form of grapes
“and another of broken tiles, a third seems to consist of layers. But the cadmia fossilis
“has much stronger properties than that which is produced in the furnaces. Indeed, it often
““ possesses such highly corrosive power that it corrodes the hands and feet of the miners.
“Tt, therefore, differs from pyrites in colour and properties. For pyrites, if it does not
“contain vitriol, is generally either of a gold or silver colour, rarely of any other. Cadmia
“is either black or brown or grey, or else reddish like copper when melted in the furnace.
ch 6 For this cadmia is put in a suitable vessel, in the same way as quicksilver, so
“that the heat of the fire will cause it to sublimate, and from it is made a black or brown or
“grey body which the Alchemists call ‘‘sublimated cadmia” (cadmiam sublimatam). This
“possesses corrosive properties of the highest degree. Cognate with cadmia and pyrites
“ig a compound which the Noricians and Rhetians call zimcum. This contains gold and
‘silver, and is either red or white. It is likewise found in the Sudetian mountains, and is
“devoid of those metals. . . . With this cadmza is naturally related mineral spodos,
“known to the Moor Serapion, but unknown to the Greeks; and also pompholyx—for both
“are produced by fire where the miners, breaking the hard rocks in drifts, tunnels, and
“shafts, burn the cadmia or pyrites or galena or other similar minerals. From cadmia is
“made black, brown, and grey spodos; from pyrites, white pompholyx and spodos ; from
“galena is made yellow or grey spodos. But pompholyx produced from copper stone (lapide
“aeroso) after some time becomes green. The black sfodos, similar to soot, is found at
“ Altenberg in Meissen. The white pompholyx, like wool which floats in the air in summer,
““is found in Hildesheim in the seams in the rocks of almost all quarries except in the sand-
“stone. But the grey and the brown and the yellow pompholyx are found in those silver
““mines where the miners break up the rocks by fire. All consist ‘of very fine particles which
“are very light, but the lightest of all is white pompholyx.”
QUARTZ MINERALS.
Quarzum (“ which Quertz oder Quartz o0 0 Quartz (see note 15,
Latins call silex ’’) kiselstein Bic p- 380)
Silex 00 D0 Hornstein oder Flinty or jaspery
feurstein aa quartz 06 90 Hornstone
Crystallum G0 Crystal .. of Clear crystals. . 00 Crystal
Achates .. ae Achat .. Oo Agate .. a6 Be Agate
Sarda a bs Carneol .. ae Carnelian He Carnelian
Jaspis oo 00 Jaspis .. 90 Part coloured quartz,
part jade .. ae Jaspis
Murrhina .. 56 Chalcedonius .. Chalcedony .. Chalcedony
Coticula .. an Goldstein if A black silicious stone Touchstone (see
note 37, p. 252)
Amethystus ae Amethyst a Amethyst ne a0 Amethyst
LIME MINERALS.
ee i: Gips Gypsum sf ae Gypsum
Marmor .. Marmelstein .. Marble a5 fe Marble
Marmor alabastrites Alabaster es Alabaster a 46 Alabaster
Marmor glarea .. ae ie uy Calcite (?) ae un Calc spar(?)
Saxum calcis Ee Kalchstein oe Limestone .. ae Limestone
Marga bi ae Mergel .. ve Marl .. : re Marl
Tophus .. 50 Toffstein oder Sintry limestones, Tophus (see note
topstein a stalagmites, etc. .. 13, Pp. 233)
MISCELLANEOUS.
Amiantus .. 00 Federwis, pliant
salamanderhar .. Usually asbestos Asbestos
Magnetis .. te Silberweis oder
Ratzensilber
Bracteolae magnetids Mica *Mica
simile on ae oo
Mica Ee A Katzensilber oder
glimmer
BOOK V. II5
As regards other kinds of metal, although some rich ores are found,
still, unless the veins contain a large quantity of ore, it is very rarely worth
while to dig them. The Indians and some other races do search for gems in
veins hidden deep in the earth, but more often they are noticed from their
clearness, or rather their brilliancy, when metals are mined. When they
outcrop, we follow veins of marble by mining in the same way as is
done with rock or building-stones when we come upon them. But
gems, properly so called, though they sometimes have veins of their own,
are still for the most part found in mines and rock quarries, as the
lodestone in iron mines, the emery in silver mines, the lapis judaicus,
trochites, and the like in stone quarries where the diggers, at the bidding
of the owners, usually collect them from the seams in the rocks.!° Nor does the
miner neglect the digging of ‘‘ extraordinary earths,’ whether they are found
Silex ex eo ictu ferrt
facile ignis elicitur.
ate excubus
figuris 3 is oe Feldspar .. Bo *Feldspar
Medulla saxorun .. Steinmarck.. Bt Kaolinite. . bo Porcelain clay
Fluores (lapides gem-
marum similt) .. Flusse 3 se Fluorspar a0 *Fluorspar (see note
Marmor in metallis 15, p- 380)
repertum .. oe Spat ae 30 Barite .. é *Heavy spar
Apart from the above, many other minerals are mentioned in other chapters, and
some information is given with regard to them in the footnotes.
10As stated in note on p. 2, Agricola divided “stones so called” into four kinds ;
the first, common stones in which he included lodestone and jasper or bloodstone; the
second embraced gems; the third were decorative stones, such as marble, porphyry, etc. ;
the fourth were rocks, such as sandstone and limestone.
LODESTONE. (Magnes; Interpretatio gives Siegelstein oder magnet), The lode-
stone was well-known to the Ancients under various names—magnes, magnetis, heraclion,
and sideritis. A review of the ancient opinions as to its miraculous properties would require
more space than can be afforded. It is mentioned by many Greek writers, including
Hippocrates (460-372 B.c.) and Aristotle; while Theophrastus (53), Dioscorides (v, 105),
and Pliny (KXXIV, 42, XXXVI 25) describe it at length. The Ancients also maintained
the existence of a stone, ¢heamedes, having repellant properties, and the two were supposed
to exist at times in the same stone.
EMERY. (Smiris; Interpretatio gives smirgel). Agricola (De Natura Fossilium., p.
265) says: “ The ring-makers polish and clean their hard gems with smiris. The glaziers
“use it to cut their glass into sheets. It is found in the silver mines of Annaberg in Meissen
“and elsewhere.” Stones used for polishing gems are noted by the ancient authors, and
Dana (Syst. of Mineralogy, p. 211) considers the stone of Armenia, of Theophrastus (77), to be
emery, although it could quite well be any hard stone, such as Novaculite—which is found
in Armenia. Dioscorides (v, 166) describes a stone with which the engravers polish gems.
Lapis Jupaicus. (Interpretatio gives Jiiden stein). This was undoubtedly a fossil,
possibly a pentremites. Agricola (De Natura Fosilium, p. 256) says: “ It is shaped like an
“acorn, from the obtuse end to the point proceed raised lines, all equidistant, etc.” Many
fossils were included among the semi-precious stones by the Ancients. Pliny (KXXVII, 55,
66, 73) describes many such stones, among them the balanites, phoenicitis and the pyren,
which resemble the above.
Trocuitis. (Interpretatio gives spangen oder rederstein). This was also a fossil,
probably crinoid stems. Agricola (De Natura Fosilium, p. 256) describes it : “‘ Trochites is so
“called from a wheel, andis related to lapis judaicus. Nature has indeed given it the shape
“of a drum (tympanum). The round part is smooth, but on both ends as it were there is a
“ module from which on all sides there extend radii to the outer edge, which corresponds with
“the radii. These radii are so much raised that it is fluted. The size of these ¢rochites
“varies greatly, for the smallest is so little that the largest is ten times as big, and the largest
“are a digit in length by a third of a digit in thickness . . . when immersed in vinegar
“they make bubbles.”
UThe “extraordinary earths”’ of Agricola were such substances as ochres, tripoli,
fullers earth, potters’ clay, clay used for medicinal purposes, etc., etc.
116 BOOK V.
in gold mines, silver mines, or other mines ; nor do other miners neglect them
if they are found in stone quarries, or in their own veins ; their value is usually
indicated by their taste. Nor, lastly, does the miner fail to give attention to
the solidified juices which are found in metallic veins, as well as in their own
veins, from which he collects and gathers them. But I will say no more
on these matters, because | have explained more fully all the metals and
mineral substances in the books “ De Natura Fossilium.”’
But I will return to the indications. If we come upon earth which is
like lute, in which there are particles of any sort of metal, native or rudis,
the best possible indication of a vein is given to miners, for the metallic
material from which the particles have become detached is necessarily close
by. But if this kind of earth is found absolutely devoid of all metallic
material, but fatty, and of white, green, blue, and similar colours, they must
not abandon the work that has been started. Miners have other indications in
the veins and stringers, which I have described already, and in the rocks, about
which I will speak a little later. If the miner comes across other dry earths
which contain native or rudis metal, that is a good indication; if he comes
across yellow, red, black, or some other ‘‘ extraordinary” earth, though it is
devoid of mineral, it is not a bad indication. Chrysocolla, or azure, or verdigris,
or orpiment, or realgar, when they are found, are counted among the good
indications. Further, where underground springs throw up metal we ought
to continue the digging we have begun, for this points to the particles having
been detached from the main mass like a fragment from a body. In the
same way the thin scales of any metal adhering to stone or rock are counted
among the good indications. Next, if the veins which are composed partly
of quartz, partly of clayey or dry earth, descend one and all into the depths
of the earth together, with their stringers, there is good hope of metal being
found; but if the stringers afterward do not appear, or little metallic
material is met with, the digging should not be given up until there is nothing
remaining. Dark or black or horn or liver-coloured quartz is usually a good
sign; white is sometimes good, sometimes no sign at all. But calc-spar,
showing itself in a vena projunda, if it disappears a little lower down is not a
good indication ; for it did not belong to the vein proper, but to some stringer.
Those kinds of stone which easily melt in fire, especially if they are translucent
(fluorspar ?), must be counted among the medium indications, for if other
good indications are present they are good, but if no good indications are
present, they give no useful significance. In the same way we ought to form
our judgment with regard to gems. Veins which at the hangingwall and
footwall have horn-coloured quartz or marble, but in the middle clayey
earth, give some hope; likewise those give hope in which the hangingwall
or footwall shows iron-rust coloured earth, and in the middle greasy and
sticky earth ; also there is hope for those which have at the hanging or footwall
that kind of earth which we call “ soldiers’ earth,’ and in the middle black
earth or earth which looks as if burnt. The special indication of gold is
orpiment ; of silver is bismuth and stzbiwm ; of copper is verdigris, melanteria,
sory, chalcitts, misy, and vitriol; of tin is the large pure black stones of
BOOK V. 117
which the tin itself is made, and a material they dig up resembling litharge ;
of iron, iron rust. Gold and copper are equally indicated by chrysocolla and
azure; silver and lead, by the lead. But, though miners rightly
call bismuth ‘‘ the roof of silver,” and though copper pyrites is the common
parent of vitriol and melanteria, still these sometimes have their own
peculiar minerals, just as have orpiment and sézbiwm.
Now, just as certain vein materials give miners a favourable indication,
so also do the rocks through which the canales of the veins wind their
way, for sand discovered in a mine is reckoned among the good indications,
especially if it is very fine. In the same way schist, when it is of a
bluish or blackish colour, and also limestone, of whatever colour it may be, is
a good sign for a silver vein. There is a rock of another kind that is a good sign ;
in it are scattered tiny black stones from which tin is smelted ; especially when
the whole space between the veins is composed of this kind of rock.
Very often indeed, this good kind of rock in conjunction with valuable
stringers contains within its folds the canales of mineral bearing veins: if
it descends vertically into the earth, the benefit belongs to that mine in
which it is seen first of all; if inclined, it benefits the other neighbouring
mines’. As a result the miner who is not ignorant of geometry can calculate
from the other mines the depth at which the canales of a vein bearing rich
metal will wind its way through the rock into his mine. So much for these
matters.
I now come to the mode of working, which is varied and complex, for in
some places they dig crumbling ore, in others hard ore, in others a harder
ore, and in others the hardest kind of ore. In the same way, in some places
the hangingwall rock is soft and fragile, in others hard, in others harder, and
instill others of the hardest sort. i call that ore ‘“‘ crumbling ”’ which is com-
posed of earth, and of soft solidified juices ; that ore ‘‘hard’’ which is composed
of metallic minerals and moderately hard stones, such as for the most part
are those which easily melt in a fire of the first and second orders, like lead
and similar materials. I call that ore ‘“‘harder’’ when with those I have already
mentioned are combined various sorts of quartz, or stones which easily melt
in fire of the third degree, or pyrites, or cadmia, or very hard marble. I call
that ore hardest, which is composed throughout the whole vein of these hard
stones and compounds. The hanging or footwalls of a vein are hard, when
composed of rock in which there are few stringers or seams; harder, in
which they are fewer; hardest, in which they are fewest or none at all.
When these are absent, the rock is quite devoid of water which softens
it. But the hardest rock of the hanging or footwall, however, is seldom as
hard as the harder class of ore.
Miners dig out crumbling ore with the pick alone. When the metal
has not yet shown itself, they do not discriminate between the hangingwall
and the veins ; when it has once been found, they work with the utmost care.
For first of all they tear away the hangingwall rock separately from the vein,
afterward with a pick they dislodge the crumbling vein from the footwall
12Presumably the ore-body dips into a neighbouring property.
118 BOOK V.
into a dish placed underneath to prevent any of the metal from falling to
the ground. They break a hard vein loose from the footwall by blows with
a hammer upon the first kind of iron tool!’, all of which are designated by
appropriate names, and with the same tools they hew away the hard hanging-
wallrock. They hew out the hangingwall rock in advance more frequently, the
rock of the footwall more rarely ; and indeed, when the rock of the footwall
resists iron tools, the rock of the hangingwall certainly cannot be broken unless
it is allowable to shatter it by fire. With regard to the harder veins which are
tractable to iron tools, and likewise with regard to the harder and hardest
kind of hangingwall rock, they generally attack them with more powerful
iron tools, in fact, with the fourth kind of iron tool, which are called by their
appropriate names; but if these are not ready to hand, they use two or
three iron tools of the first kind together. As for the hardest kind of metal-
bearing vein, which in a measure resists iron tools, if the owners of the
neighbouring mines give them permission, they break it with fires. But if
these owners refuse them permission, then first of all they hew out the rock of
the hangingwall, or of the footwall if it be less hard; then they place timbers
set in hitches in the hanging or footwall, a little above the vein, and from
the front and upper part, where the vein is seen to be seamed with small
cracks, they drive into one of the little cracks one of the iron tools which
I have mentioned; then in each fracture they place four thin iron
blocks, and in order to hold them more firmly, if necessary, they place
as many thin iron plates back to back; next they place thinner iron
plates between each two iron blocks, and strike and drive them by
turns with hammers, whereby the vein rings with a shrill sound; and the
moment when it begins to be detached from the hangingwall or footwall
rock, a tearing sound is heard. As soon as this grows distinct the miners
hastily flee away ; then a great crash is heard as the vein is broken and torn,
and falls down. By this method they throw down a portion of a vein weigh-
ing a hundred pounds more or less. But if the miners by any other method
hew the hardest kind of vein which is rich in metal, there remain certain
cone-shaped portions which can be cut out afterward only with difficulty. As
for this knob of hard ore, if it is devoid of metal, or if they are not allowed to
apply fire to it, they proceed round it by digging to the right or left, because
it cannot be broken into by iron wedges without great expense. Meantime,
while the workmen are carrying out the task they have undertaken, the
depths of the earth often resound with sweet singing, whereby they lighten a
toil which is of the severest kind and full of the greatest dangers.
As I have just said, fire shatters the hardest rocks, but the method of its
application is not simple!*. For if a vein held in the rocks cannot be hewn
18The various kinds of iron tools are described in great detail in Book VI.
14Fire-setting as an aid to breaking rock is of very ancient origin, and moreover it
persisted in certain German and Norwegian mines down to the end of the rgth century—
270 years after the first application of explosives to mining. The first specific reference to
fire-setting in mining is by Agatharchides (znd century B.c.) whose works are not extant,
but who is quoted by both Diodorus Siculus and Photius, for which statement see note 8, p.
279. Pliny (XXXII, 21) says: “‘ Occasionally a kind of silex is met with, which must be
“broken with fire and vinegar, or as the tunnels are filled with suffocating fumes and smoke,
BOOK V. 11g
out because of the hardness or other difficulty, and the drift or tunnel is
low, a heap of dried logs is placed against the rock and fired; if the drift-or
tunnel is high, two heaps are necessary, of which one is placed above the
other, and both burn until the fire has consumed them. This force does not
generally soften a large portion of the vein, but only some of the surface.
When the rock in the hanging or footwall can be worked by the iron tools
and the vein is so hard that it is not tractable to the same tools, then the
walls are hollowed out; if this be in the end of the drift or tunnel or above
or below, the vein is then broken by fire, but not by the same method ; for
if the hollow is wide, as many logs are piled into it as possible, but if narrow,
only a few. By the one method the greater fire separates the vein more
completely from the footwall or sometimes from the hangingwall, and by the
other, the smaller fire breaks away less of the vein from the rock, because in
that case the fire is confined and kept in check by portions of the rock which
surround the wood held in such a narrow excavation. Further, if the
excavation is low, only one pile of logs is placed in it, if high, there are
two, one placed above the other, by which plan the lower bundle being
kindled sets alight the upper one; and the fire being driven by the draught
into the vein, separates it from the rock which, however hard it may be, often
becomes so softened as to be the most easily breakable of all. Applying this
principle, Hannibal, the Carthaginian General, imitating the Spanish miners,
“they frequently use bruising machines, carrying 150 librae of iron.” This combination
of fire and vinegar he again refers to (XXII, 27), where he dilates in the same sentence on the
usefulness of vinegar for breaking rock and for salad dressing. This myth about breaking
rocks with fire and vinegar is of more than usual interest, and its origin seems to be in the
legend that Hannibal thus broke through the Alps. Livy (59 B.c., 17 A.D.) seems to be the first
to produce this myth in writing ; and, in any event, by Pliny’s time (23-79 A.D.) it had become
an established method—in literature. Livy (XXI, 37) says, in connection with Hannibal’s
crossing of the Alps: “They set fire to it (the timber) when a wind had arisen suitable to
“excite the fire, then when the rock was hot it was crumbled by pouring on vinegar (infuso
“aceto). In thismanner the cliff heated by the fire was broken by iron tools, and the
“declivities eased by turnings, so that not only the beasts of burden but also the elephants
“could be led down.” Hannibal crossed the Alps in 218 B.c. and Livy’s account was
written 200 years later, by which time Hannibal’s memory among the Romans was generally
surrounded by Herculean fables. Be this as it may, by Pliny’s time the vinegar was
generally accepted, and has been ceaselessly debated ever since. Nor has the myth ceased
to grow, despite the remarks of Gibbon, Lavalette, and others. A recent historian (Hen-
nebert, Histoire d Annibal 11, p. 253) of that famous engineer and.soldier, soberly sets out to
prove that inasmuch as literal acceptance of ordinary vinegar is impossible, the Phoenecians
must have possessed some mysterious high explosive. A still more recent biographer swallows
this argument 7m toto. (Morris, ‘‘ Hannibal,’ London, 1903, p. 103). A study of the com-
mentators of this passage, although it would fill a volume with sterile words, would disclose
one generalization: That the real scholars have passed over the passage with the comment
that it is either a corruption or an old woman’s tale, but that hosts of soldiers who set about
the biography of famous generals and campaigns, almost to a man take the passage seriously,
and seriously explain it by way of the rock being limestone, or snow, or by the use of explosives,
or other foolishness. It has been proposed, although there are grammatical objections, that the
text is slightly corrupt and read zufosso acuto, instead of imfuso aceto, in which case all becomes
easy from a mining point of view. If so, however, it must be assumed that the corruption
occurred during the 20 years between Livy and Pliny.
By the use of fire-setting in recent times at K6nigsberg (Arthur L. Collins,
“ Fire-setting,”’ Federated Inst. of Mining Engineers, Vol. V, p. 82) an advance of from 5 to
20 feet per month in headings was accomplished, and on the score of economy survived the
use of gunpowder, but has now been abandoned in favour of dynamite. We may mention
that the use of gunpowder for blasting was first introduced at Schemnitz by Caspar Weindle,
in 1627, but apparently was not introduced into English mines for nearly 75 years afterward,
as the late 17th century English writers continue to describe fire-setting.
120 BOOK V.
overcame the hardness of the Alps by the use of vinegar and fire. Even
if a vein is a very wide one, as tin veins usually are, miners excavate into the
small streaks, and into those hollows they put dry wood and place amongst
them at frequent intervals sticks, all sides of which are shaved down fan-
shaped, which easily take light, and when once they have taken fire com-
municate it to the other bundles of wood, which easily ignite.
eee
LT VSS
Y \ j \\
== Is NW
GSS
SSRN” “
iF
ci ; x >
ANNA ieiae
“ Do eceensy
SWS
A—KINDLED LoGs. B—STICKS SHAVED DOWN FAN-SHAPED. C—TUNNEL.
While the heated veins and rock are giving forth a foetid vapour and the
shafts or tunnels are emitting fumes, the miners and other workmen do not
go down in the mines lest the stench affect their health or actually kill them,
as I will explain in greater detail when I come to speak of the evils which
affect miners. The Bergmeister, in order to prevent workmen from being
suffocated, gives no one permission to break veins or rock by fire in shafts or
tunnels where it is possible for the poisonous vapour and smoke to permeate
the veins or stringers and pass through into the neighbouring mines, which
have no hard veins or rock. As for that part of a vein or the surface of the
rock which the fire has separated from the remaining mass, if it is overhead,
the miners dislodge it with a crowbar, or if it still has some degree of hardness,
they thrust a smaller crowbar into the cracks and so break it down, but if
BOOK V. I2I
it is on the sides they break it with hammers. Thus broken off, the rock
tumbles down; or if it still remains, they break it off with picks. Rock
and earth on the one hand, and metal and ore on the other, are filled into
buckets separately and drawn up to the open air or to the nearest tunnel.
If the shaft is not deep, the buckets are drawn up by a machine turned by
men ; if it is deep, they are drawn by machines turned by horses.
It often happens that a rush of water or sometimes stagnant air hinders
the mining; for this reason miners pay the greatest attention to these
matters, just as much as to digging, or they should do so. The water of the
veins and stringers and especially of vacant workings, must be drained out
through the shafts and tunnels. Air, indeed, becomes stagnant both in
tunnels and in shafts; in a deep shaft, if it be by itself, this occurs if it is
neither reached by a tunnel nor connected by a drift with another shaft ;
this occurs in a tunnel if it has been driven too far into a mountain and no
shaft has yet been sunk deep enough to meet it; in neither case can the
air move or circulate. For this reason the vapours become heavy and
resemble mist, and they smell of mouldiness, like a vault or some under-
ground chamber which has been completely closed for many years. This
suffices to prevent miners from continuing their work for long in these places,
even if the mine is full of silver or gold, or if they do continue, they cannot
breathe freely and they have headaches; this more often happens if they
work in these places in great numbers, and bring many lamps, which then
supply them with a feeble light, because the foul air from both lamps and
men make the vapours still more heavy.
A small quantity of water is drawn from the shafts by machines of
different kinds which men turn or work. If so great a quantity has flowed
into one shaft as greatly to impede mining, another shaft is sunk some
fathoms distant from the first, and thus in one of them work and labour are
carried on without hindrance, and the water is drained into the other, which
is sunk lower than the level of the water in the first one; then by these
machines or by those worked by horses, the water is drawn up into the drain
and flows out of the shaft-house or the mouth of the nearest tunnel. But
when into the shaft of one mine, which is sunk more deeply, there flows all
the water of all the neighbouring mines, not only from that vein in which
the shaft is sunk, but also from other veins, then it becomes necessary for a
large sump to be made to collect the water; from this sump the water is
drained by machines which draw it through pipes, or by ox-hides, about
which I will say more in the next book. The water which pours into the
tunnels from the veins and stringers and seams in the rocks is carried
away in the drains.
Air is driven into the extremities of deep shafts and long tunnels by
powerful blowing machines, as I will explain in the following book, which
will deal with these machines also. The outer air flows spontaneously into
the caverns of the earth, and when it can pass through them comes out again.
This, however, comes about in different ways, for in spring and summer it
flows into the deeper shafts, traverses the tunnels or drifts, and finds its way
122 BOOK V.
out of the shallower shafts ; similarly at the same season it pours into the
lowest tunnel and, meeting a shaft in its course, turns aside to a higher tunnel
and passes out therefrom ; but in autumn and winter, on the other hand, it
enters the upper tunnel or shaft and comes out at the deeper ones. This
change in the flow of air currents occurs in temperate regions at the beginning
of spring and the end of autumn, but in cold regions at the end of spring
and the beginning of autumn. But at each period, before the air regularly
assumes its own accustomed course, generally for a space of fourteen days
it undergoes frequent variations, now blowing into an upper shaft or
tunnel, now into a lower one. But enough of this, let us now proceed to
what remains.
There are two kinds of shafts, one of the depth already described, of
which kind there are usually several in one mine; especially if the mine is
entered by a tunnel and is metal-bearing. For when the first tunnel is
connected with the first shaft, two new shafts are sunk ; or if the inrush of
water hinders sinking, sometimes three are sunk; so that one may take
the place of a sump and the work of sinking which has been begun may be
continued by means of the remaining two shafts; the same is done in the
case of the second tunnel and the third, or even the fourth, if so many are
driven into a mountain. The second kind of shaft is very deep, sometimes
as much as sixty, eighty, or one hundred fathoms. These shafts continue
vertically toward the depths of the earth, and by means of a hauling-rope
the broken rock and metalliferous ores are drawn out of the mine; for which
reason miners call them vertical shafts. Over these shafts are erected
machines by which water is extracted; when they are above ground the
machines are usually worked by horses, but when they are in tunnels, other
kinds are used which are turned by water-power. Such are the shafts which
are sunk when a vein is rich in metal.
Now shafts, of whatever kind they may be, are supported in various
ways. If the vein is hard, and also the hanging and footwall rock, the shaft
does not require much timbering, but timbers are placed at intervals, one end
of each of which is fixed in a hitch cut into the rock of the hangingwall and
the other fixed into a hitch cut in the footwall. To these timbers are fixed
small timbers along the footwall, to which are fastened the lagging and
ladders. The lagging is also fixed to the timbers, both to those which screen
off the shaft on the ends from the vein, and to those which screen off the
rest of the shaft from that part in which the ladders are placed. The lagging
on the sides of the shaft confine the vein, so as to prevent fragments of it
which have become loosened by water from dropping into the shaft and
terrifying, or injuring, or knocking off the miners and other workmen who
are going up or down the ladders from one part of the mine to another. For
the same reason, the lagging between the ladders and the haulage-way on
the other hand, confine and shut off from the ladders the fragments of rock
which fall from the buckets or baskets while they are being drawn up;
moreover, they make the arduous and difficult descent and ascent to appear
less terrible, and in fact to be less dangerous.
123
These
V.
BOOK
If a vein is soft and the rock of the hanging and footwalls is weak,
a closer structure is necessary ; for this purpose timbers are joined together.
in rectangular shapes and placed one after the other without a break.
i
---.. 224228; 239
ASSAYING (see also ‘Probierlnichlein)...
is 219; 219; 220). 354
Amalgamation : neoasabccooss 243
Bismuth ...... 247
Copper .. 244
Cupellation . asiiees 240
Gold and silver alloys 248
(Gold¥orewene- eee 242— 244
Tron ore . 247
Lead . 245— 246
Silver . ee 242—245
Silver and copper alloys 249—250
sDinveeeeee 246
Tin and silver alloys” 3 251
Assay MuFFLes (see Muffle:
JASEISE INGIN coc poo cop one ca000
ASSYRIAN COPPER 402
INGABEDNVR 6 Gop canonoond ssRGe0 ceo 000 G00000 000000 214
ASTRONOMY.
Knowledge necessary for miners... 4
A TARNEA.
IMDINES SDP soonoccco neces cap eon esoaecsc 265° 27
ATHENS.
INTIS VERY sea ses2octae sco spe cop eopooeste 83
Sea power and mines . ..............- Zl
620 GENERAL INDEX.
PAGE
ATHENS.
Silver mines (see Mt. Laurion,
Mines of).
Atvamentum Sutorium (see also Vitriol) 572; 110
Aivamentum Sutoriumcandidum ...... 113
Atramentum Sutorium vubrum ..
Aurichalcum . of
Auripigmentum (see Orpiment)._
AZURE Meeen 996000
An indication of copper
An indication of gold.
; 109; 220
116
© 117
(Coyloyeye Os TERING 559006000000 500000000000 235
IAZURIGEM sees eos 109; 220; 402
BABEL, TOWER OF . -..e.eeeeeee eee seers 582
BABYLONIA.
TEyKEOaTE!Y 360) p5060000900000n 200000000000000 582
WIRE CHF SAG) 5055c0000090000000000000009 000 391
BABYTACE.
Gold buried ae inhabitants ......... 9; 15
BAEBELO ........ 0000009000 42; 42
BALANCES. ; 264—265
BARITE ....- 6 pod 115
BARMASTER, OF ‘Hic “PEAK ‘ no 17
Bars, FOR FURNACE WORK . 382
BASKETS, FOR HOISTING .... 153
TBYNIBDYA, g0560000000000000000000 0 156
BEER ..... - 230; 220
BELL, TO CALL WoRKME oxocaes 100
BELLOWS . 00 362—373; 419
354; 355; 362
226; 245
Ancient 1 use 5 Olle
Assay furnace ..
Mine ventilation with’ e 207—210
BeEnI HassEN, INSCRIPTIONS AT 30 586
Berg-geel ......--.-.- 09008 111
BERGMEISTER . 33; ‘81 ; “95; UUB vae3 Us
Deals with forfeited shares ......... 92—93
Jurors ....... so0000 on 96
BERGMEISTER’S CLERK . 95; 78
Bergzinober (sée Quicksilver).
Bermius (BERMIUM), Mr. (see Mt.
Bermius).
TBHISIAUIBEL 500 ca p09 D0 cog son 909000000 433; 354; 220
Assaying ores Of . ...-..----2-++0+----- 247
Indication of silver . 00 116
Minerals ............ : : 2; 111
Smelting of .. 433— 437; 400
The “‘ roof of silver” - 117; 433
ZZGG TO © 000000000009 600000009000000000 000000 112
BITUMEN.
Ancient knowledge of 220; 581—582; 354
Colour of fumes .......... 235
DEAE! SEA, 5 cooasocoosseceoaosccs ono cdoa0n 33
Distillation .... 581
From springs ........ 582
Harmful to metals . 273
Roasting from ore .. 973; 276 ; ast
Soy ba bUaVERI TEMES ona00090600009 90000009000
Bitwninosa cadmia (see Cadmia
bituminosa).
BLAST, REGULATION OF ............---- 3805; 386
IBLAGIBERIG so08000000900005000 119
BLENDE 113
BLEYBERG 008080000 60 239
BLOODSTONE .........-- oo lll; 2
TBILOYORS go00c0090.000000000000000000000000.008900 420
Blutstein (see Ironstone).
BOHEMIA.
Antimony sulphide ...............-.- 428
Pestilential vapours ......... 00
Sifting ore)in’ <2... --e.n--n--- 293
Smelting ....... ei 384
TBYORMABANGIEl coco cop 006000 000 020500000990050000 230; 466
BoRAX . ue 221; 110
Method ‘of [manufacture ae 560
Use in gold smelting ....... “aaa: 457; 464
Use in assaying g0000 245; 246
Bornite ......- 109
BouNDARY STONES . 87; 129
BOUNDARIES ......- cee are (0
Bows For ALLUVIAL “WASHING....-.
neeomanececn 322; 324; 334; 336
Brass . 410; 34; 2
Aneient methods, of ay “404—495 ; 112 2
PAGE
BREAKING ORE .......0200eeeeeeeeeeeeeeee 117—119
Brick Dust.
Used in cementation ................. 454; 454
Used in making nitric acid ......... 440
BRINE (see also Salt).
Val pOT ALONG Oltianeerente rr esctes rete 547—548
BRITAIN.
I.ead-silver smelting ....... 00 392
Miners mentioned by EnY, 83
ABN TEES 5 coconocsecoss00ge0 G00 411—413
BritisH MusEuM.
Egyptian gold- aaa poo gsc0sace0c00 399
Egyptian lead 0 ee 390
Egyptian steel .. 5 402
JESROW NAW AND G95 400000008000 00000000000000000 109
BRONZE.
Historical notes ............... 411; 402; 354
BRONZE AGE. ....... 355; 402; 411
BrYLE (Outcrop) . 101
BUCKETS, FOR HoIstING ORE “153154; 157
TSXGIDYDILID, ono pocaccccocosonsuancadece §©PSILS MIE YF7/
Dividedir-.a.etecscecssee cece 302—303
Simple ..... --. 300—302; 312—315
BULLION, POURING INTO ISYNRS cogoo aco 382
BURNING (O}D Sonscossegs 009000000
Burnt ALUM
231; 273; 267
233; 565; 221
Cadmia (see also Zinc, Pompholyx,
and Cobalt)...... 542; 542; 112—113
Ancient ore of brass
From dust chambers .
From liquation ........
From roasting matte .
Poisonous to miners ..
Roasting .. 00
Smelting for r gold and ‘silver 990.505000 410
Cadmia bituminosa.. 276; 273; 113
Cadmia fornacis (see Furnace Accre-
tions).
Cadmia fossilis (see Calamine and
Blende).
Cadmia metallica (see also Cobalt)...... 403; 113
Caeruleum (see Azure).
Cakes OF MELTED PyRITES ........... 379; 222
IN TALES coo pnd6a00009005000000000 234
Roasting of 349—351
Use in smelting ... 00 379
CaLarM (see also Zinc).............--.2-++ 409
CALAMINE oe
CALCITE
CALCSPAR..
Caldarium COpPER........ B12; 542; 404) B11
CALDRONS, FOR EVAPORATING *Satts 548
Calmei (see Calamine).
CAMEROS.
TORS, HONG! BYE oon aodn00ca0000020000000000 409
CAMPHOR . 238; 238; 221
Cam- SHAFT e80060
282—283; 267
Canales (Ore Channels). cooooecg “RS CWG}G Zlh/
Ore shoots in ...... oH 60 117
CANNON .........-.. 11
CARDINAL POINTS 57; 58
CARNELIAN 114
Carneol (see Carnelian).
Cayni ... $.000600086000000000.000000000000 390
Cupellation ........... D9 483
Smelting of lead ores ...........-..-.- 390
CARPATHIAN MOUNTAINS.
Liquation piacece iM .....--.------- 5405 544
Sieves ....... wee 289
Stamp- -milling . 319
CARTHAGE.
IMinespingspalniesseseredse seen ane 27
CasTUuLo (Cazlona) ........-.....seeeee ees 42
CEMENTATION (see also Parting Gold
from Silver) .......-- 453—457; 453; 458
Centumpondium ... 616; 242; 509
Scale of weights 5 260—261
GERAGURIGE ener eeeeeceer esterases 109
Cerussa (see White- ie
CERUSSITE 69
Cuatn Pumps ...
CHALCANTHITE ..
Chalcanthum (eco aso Vitriol)
GENERAL
PAGE
CRASGEDONY) ccccsveve rt tndcssansissheusiens ll4
GHMIGILES enn eavguscsvendacacas S73; 109
Indication of copper . oon 116
CHALCOCITE .....4.5 +» 109: 402
CHALCOPYRITE oF Rewanstneneas 109
CHALDEAN ANTIMONY ..ecccccecceseeees 429
CHEMISTRY.
(OVEN pecennonaatacorcricnocentne XXVIII; 220
CHEMNITZ.
Agricola appointed city physician Vil.
Agricola elected burgomaster... VIII; IX.
(Quarrel over Agricola’s burial...... XI.
Cina, GRAND CANAL OF ...ccseceeeees 129
CHINESE.
Early copper smelting 402
Early iron . 421
Early silver metallurgy 391
Early zine smelting pon 409
Chyysocolla (see also Seen 110; 221; 584; 1
Collection in vats. SCRORCHOS EDA G ECE 584
Colour of fumes ..... 235
Indication of copper . 116
Indication of gold ..........0..scce.s. 117
Mineral.. crongoasocoingo popennangnsndine 109
Smelting ‘of. 401
CHURCH, SHARE IN “Min 91
(Cincgnimohe Bree ee 31
CINNABAR (see Quicksilver and Minium).
CLAIM, IN AMERICAN TITLE ..........- 77
CLotu.
(BME ey SLICES ee tee niente ee ois ciascla 322
Ventilation By shale 210
(CLOYANE: coconensnecenaoanss 34
COBALT ...... 112—113
Cobalt-blue . pocanne .... 112; 433
From lead smelting doscncdss gone 408
Iking Hiram’s experience with ...., 214
Poisonous WO) AN OKENHS) oopaconoss 9 214
Relation to cadmia ..... s 112
Relation to bismuth 435
Smelting ores of . .... eee 401
CoRaLT-ARSENIC MINERALS. (see
Arsenic).
(COWBAIERIIND, cconsencopacceasonnde6o0 540000560 113
Cobaltum cinevaceum (see Smallite).
Coballum ferrt colove (see Cobaltite).
Cobaltum nigrum (see Abolite).
(COSHUNUDIRS:. cede codpacensansbonnoseoosbad eb 95; 78
(COUISS). Sccunsocepnopeoessenbe sano ats ” 251—253 ; 457
CoLcuis.
Alluvial gold washing ............... 330
COLOGNE.
Salle Ol WSTEIMIS coooposncoss.0es0c00000 263
ComPANIES, MINING . 89—93; 90
Fraudulent dealing 22
Investment in ... ponodenaengone 29
CoMPASS......- 141—142; 56; 129
Divisions of the Sodnoseblcotiood soneaebed 56; 5 oF
SIRuISS gonad ada cboncnogpenSeapecaasocceacanonamL(: -irime ces!
ConcENTRATES.
From washing liquation Bs 542
SHIMUEBINEG Oli daeooocsecoedensecosens 401
Smelting of .. 394; “396 399; 401
CONCENTRATION 267—-348; 279; 354
Congtits.. 153: 172; 617
CoNSTAN' TINOPLE, “ALUM TRADE ...... 569
CoNSUMPTION.
Miners) liable) tomene-te-reeceeseeecieseeee 214
Conterfer (see Zinc).
Contracts, METHOD OF SETTING ... 96
CopiaPITeE . o8 panioodesaaso 111
COPPER (see ‘also Liquation). 109; 402; 511]
ASSBWY @ii_ 200 56a0008000000000 244; 249
Granulation of . 250
Indications of ... 80 116
Parting from gold ..................-.-- 462—464
Parting gold from silver... ~ 448— 451; 448
Ratio in liquation cakes ... 505; 506
Residues from liquation 521
IROSehtE ya ce ee cenieseoeerees 538
COPPER-FILINGS .
CorpeR FLOWERS...
Pliny’s description 6003000 00009006
CopPpERAG MANGE Mm cereeteee eee a
senses PREVA BEe Dil
538; 110; 233: 538
404
401; 109
INDEX. 621
PAGE
CorvprerR MATTE,
RoaShoriivencrtipsataresansrceretscateeds 350
WOEOELUMN Cursvetnnbekeisecestiees Ty 404-407
Coprer ORE (see also Copper Smelting,
EEG.) wasinus opnieeseauissmiransnnaenineness 109
Assaying .. 244245
CorrER PYRITE
CoprPpER REFINING
117; 109
mod th 530—538; 492; 535—536
Breaking cakes 501—503
Enrichment of silver by settling 510
Oman MethOcencvesseeemaneneees meee 404
Rosette copper 535
CopPerR SCALES. 539
Use in assaying . : 245
COPPER SCHISTS (see “also Mannsfeld
Copper Slates) 127
Method of smelting
Coprer SMELTING 388— 390; 34 401; 404; 402
Invention of appliances .. seuss 300—304
CORNWALL.
Ancient tin mining ..............0..60 413
Early German miners 282
Early mining law. 85
Early ore dressing . 282
Influence on German mining 283
pelnoc erShas eneenscceas on i 217
Mining terms............ Cie ‘101 : 267; 282
Royal Geol. Soc. ‘Transactions 50000 84
Coticula (see Touchstone).
Counterfeht (see Zinc).
CRANE.
For cupellation furnaces ............ 476—4717
For lead! cakes ............. 500
For liquation cakes 514
CREMNITZ.
Age of mines ....... cece secede 5
Width of veins 52
CRINOID STEMS ... 115
CROPPINGS 37; 37
CrosscuTs .. 106
GROWBARS oe -ceectceadetescoseceeeesaeceees 152
CRUCIBLE.
ASSAly so .ises «pars 228; 230; 241; 245; 221
Of blast furnaces cipad conBaaSaG 376; 377
Crudaria ....... co 65
CrusHING Mitts (see Stamp- mill and
Mills).
CRUSHING ORE) <2. 2-0-2. 231; 279—287; 279
CRYSTAL (Crystallum) ......0.2cecee eens 114
CUMBERLAND.
Early report on ores of............... 267
Roman lead furnaces ................. 392
Cup-BEARER.
Right to a meer ........ 81
CUPELLATION............... “464483 ; 3 465—466
Buildings and furnaces ...... 464-472; 3 #92
Brightening of the silver ............ 241; 475
In assaying 240
In “ tests’ 483
Latin and German terms - ~ 22's 92
Witharge) tee) -dacseesseseseceenee ee eciee 475
CUPELS ....
228—230; 221; 466
IDJEWAURE, coc oso c00cc0090 000 one con acecc0.500 240
Moulds ..... 231
Cupric OXIDE 22)
CuPRITE Rene Seceee cat mL OOH e402
Cyanus (see also Azurite). 500000600000 000 110
Cyprus.
Ancient copper smelting ............ 402
I DYTEI corn cad peacosenabencdadng panSoNoSacaAneD 127)
LDA MIOS. cag00000 Da 617; 78
DANGERS TO MINERS 214—218
IDV TANTS cooneaescesncec7 492
IDCGTAY2 cocconcoccooncs¢ 492
Darrsohle . 6 ooo 492
DAWLING, OF A VEIN” 101
DFAD SEA.
Bittimentintereececer teeta 33
DECEMVIRAL COLLEGE .. 96
Decumanus (see Tithe Gatherer).
Demensum (see Measure).
Demons (see also Gnomes)
622 GENERAL INDEX,
DERBYSHIRE (see also Hish Feet);
Early ore washing .. 990000
Introduction hgsing sieve .
Mining law ............- 000
DESCENT INTO MINES - 200600000000000000
DEVON.
Mining ylaw) enccecess-rcros-cesesrerieesiere 85
DILLEUGHER . 267
DIOPTRA ...... 129
Diphrygum ... 404
Dip oF VEINS .. 65—75
DIPPAS ........00 101
DIPPERS .... 0 157
(©)? FBXEERVSS) 65600000000000000000000099000000 172
Discretores (see Sorters).
DISTILLATION ......-- oga90000900009 441
For making nitric ‘acid. 200500 i
Of amalgam ......... 244
Of quicksilver.. 426—432
Distributor ...... : 78
DIVINING ROD ..........00.0000 38— ‘40; 38; 40
DIVISIONS OF THE COMPASS . 900 56; 57
DRAINAGE OF MINES . 30 “424 ; 171—198
VHT DOES onc ccanse ano can q90 000600000 171
With chain pumps ...... 2° 172
With rag and chain pumps . 20 188
With suction pumps .......... ° 172
With water bags ............0..csseeeee 198
DRAWING.
Knowledge necessary for miners... 4
IDJQIOTTD) cosoccose coonosSaadno nbc ano5K0 104; 105; 101
Timbering of 125
Drusy VEINS. 000 opanesosocee UR NO
“ DRYING ”’ LIQUATION RESIDUES (see
also Liquation)... 527—529; 491; 492
Furnaces for .. seseeeeeeess 5213 526; 492
Silver extracted by 960000 529
Slags from ............ 523
Dumps, WoRKING OF . 30
Dust CHAMBERS o0onee
DuTIns (Timbers) .......-..0. esses ene ees
IDRANIGS 506 do0q000n0000000 ca0090000000000 a
“EARTHS.”
Agricola’s view Of .............0.0
Extraordinary......... 0000
Peripatetic view Of ................00
EGYPTIANS.
AMER EN SretboVAYS 54560000000 cco 000050508 330
Antimony ........ 3 428
IB} ROVGAD 90000000000 402; 411
Copper smelting .. 402
Crushing and concentration 279
Furnaces .........-..-.0...00-s 355
Glass panen, 586
Gold pee 399
IronWereene: 421
Maps........ 129
Mining law ... 83
Silver and lead metallurgy ci 390
“INES 5 o00.000 seseseee 411; 412
EGYPTIAN ScREW cee “Archimedes,
Screw of).
EIFEL.
Spalling ore ..... soonesccoa00090 272
Esenertz (see Ironstone).
Fisenglantz (see Ironstone).
EISLEBEN«
Heap roasting .. aponcosoaoosqnoben |. AUCH. estes
Electrum ....... fleeces 458; 2; 35
ELEMENTS, PERIPATETIC “THEORY OF 44
YBMEBID? co090000000000080000000600000 400000000 115
ERBISDORFF.
gins tralkesteeceespe tere teeeeectecces ss 304
Excoctores (see Smelters).
EXHALATIONS.
IHREN WHEWTE, coonaacs00005090000000000000 38; 44
ExuaustED LIQUATION CAKES (see
Liquation Cakes, Exhausted).
FANS, VENTILATION .....--.-0s000+ ees ees 203—207
ADHOMereeecese eect re eeeen LOLOL emaa ls aES,
Federwis (see also Asbestos) ......... 114; 274
USES. sopoccsqsddea009000000 000000000000 114
PAGE
Ferrugo (see Iron-rust).
Ferrum purum (see Native Iron).
Fibr@ (see Stringers).
FINENESS, SCALES OF ........-0.+-00e--e- 253; 617
FIRE-SETTING ......00000+ 118—120; 118—119
Frrstum MInEs (see Furst).
FisSURE VEIN (see Vena profunda).
FLAME.
Determination of metal by ......... 235
Determination of sequueee flux aus 235
FLInT, AS A FLUX. : . 380
FLoat, FROM VEINS .. 37
FLOOKAN . geoo 101
FLUE- DUST ......- pooonecoeaH 09 394—396
Fluores (see Fluorspar).
FLUORSPAR . 0 20 ; 380; 381
Indication ‘of | ore. 116
Flisse (see Fluorspar).
Fiuxes (see also Argol, Saltpetre,
Limestone, Stones which easily
FONE, B25) oos0q509000000000000000000
ooones 232—239; 232; 237; 380; 221
Basic ... po 09 237
De- -sulphurizing. 236; 237
For smelting .. 2 379; 380; 386; 390
Reducing . podode0c0 236; ; 237
Stock fluxes for assaying . 236
Sulphurizing.......... 236; 237
FootwaLl .... phonons f6560 .. 68; 117
FOREHEARTH ...... H ; 386; 355
For tin furnaces .................-.--.. 4113 413
FOREMAN (see aa Foreman).
FOREST-FIRES .........- 36; 36
Forest OF DEAN ............- 84
ForEST OF MENDIP ....... 84
Formae ....... 101
Fossa latens (see ‘also Drifts)....... 101
Fossa latens transversa (see also
(CROESEIS)) ccoscupcnoces ococosnnoDe 101
Fossoves (see Miners).
FOUNDERS’ HOARDS .......-0eseeeeeeeeess 355; 402
FRACTIONAL MEERS .......ccseeseeeeeees 80
FRANCE.
Medieval mining law ................ 84
FREE MINING CITIES ...
FREIBERG . ° XXXI.
Age of the mines 5
Bergmeister ........ 95
Division of shares .... 81; ; 90; 91
First discovery of veins . 35; 36
Flooding of mines ........ 218
Method of cupellation . F 482
FULLERS’ EARTH ........02-.00eeeeee eee ees 116
FuMEs.
From heated Ore ..........0:sseeeeeeee 235
Poisonous . 215—216
Baepdloraantean Geel igo) Footwall)
Fundgrube (see also Meer)... “al
Furnaces 374—378; 386 ; “388; 5 355; 492
Assaying (see Assay Furnaces).
Bismuth smelting . 433— 437
Burning tin concentrates . 349
Cementation .. 5 455
Copper smelting - 401—408
Cupellation S00 8606 20 467—468 ; 482—483
“ Drying ” liquated copper. ano oseeoe 522— 526
Enriching copper bottoms.. 0 510
Gold and silver ores ....... 382—384
Heating copper cakes. 503
Tron smelting .. 6 00 420— 421; 420
Latin and German terms . 220
Lead ores. 99
Liquation of ‘silver 00
Melting lead cakes ..
Nitric acid making .. 506
Parting precious metals ‘with anti-
mony .. Spasaceeo . 452—453
Quicksilver distillation 426—432
Refining copper ...... 531—533
Refining silver .... 483; 489
Refining tin.. 418
Roasting ...... be 276—277
Smelting liquation slags ° 507
Tin smelting ...........-. ati— 413; 419
GENERAL INDEX. 623
PAGE
FURNACE ACCRETIONS.......... 113; 221; 492
Removal of ......... 376
ISURNAGE LLOODS evcsccacccaccanredeceacivas 494
Furst.
Wineciolienrencncarctenuscrsdreasnacssdcer 24; 24
Gaarherd (see Refining- hearth).
Gaarmachen (see SAPRe Refining).
Gap .. Orne 150
GALENA 110; 221
Bismuth distinguished frome... 3
Smelting of 400—401
GANGUE MINERALS. .... 0.0 .eeeeeeeeeeeees 48
Gar.ic.
Magnet weakened by ................+ 39
GARNETS ....... Scraeneenaccoece 334
GASES (see also Fumes)
From fire-setting ..........1:esseeeeee 120
Gedigen eisen, silher, etc. (see Native
Iron, Silver, etc.).
Gel atvament (see Misy).
(CRELTIRY Raabe Se enennec eC aU RBS ge pEGEOD pe cansaCeS 115; 1
GEOLOGY.
PGTICO ASW WSieneccene taxes) decsncea 595
GERMANS.
English mining influenced by ...... 283
Mining men imported into England 282
Ore-dressing methods................. 281—282
Geschwornen (in Saxon mines) ......... 77
GEYER on - MXXI; 42; VI.
Shafts ... oencns nos 102
Tin-strakes 304
GILDING ...... a 460
Removal from objects seeceeceeceeses 4605 464
Gips (see Gypsum).
GITTELDE.
Smelting of lead ore .................- 391
Glantz (see Galena).
Glaseriz (see Silver Glance).
Glaskopfe (see Ironstone).
(GIL AGS) -cqoaseasnssosbaseqen cddees0odecO000 000 534—592
Blowing 2s 592
Furnaces .. 586—590
From sand 380
GLASS-GALLS . 2 235; 221
As a flux . 235; “238; 243; 246
Use in parting “gold from copper rr 464
Use in smelting gold concentrates... 397; 398
Glette (see Litharge).
Glimmer (see Mica).
GNOMES.
In mines ..........----- 217; 112; 214; 217
GoBLINS (see Gnomes).
Gop’s Girt Mine (see Gottsgaab
Mine).
Goxp (see also Gold Ores, Parting,
Smelting, Sane -Mill, pee):
Alluvial mining . 321—336; 330
Alluvial streams .. 75
Amalgamation . 297
Gold-dust......... a 396
Historical notes -. 399; 354
Indications of.. ------- 108; 116
Lust for, not the fault of the metal 16
Minerals ..... oo
Minerals associated swith
Smelting of ores ......
eceion0 381— 382; "386; “388; 390; 396
Wickedness caused By. eas 5— 10
Goip CoNCENTRATES
GOLDEN FLEECE.........00.s0eeeeeeeeeeeee 330: 330
(COLD) OVS sae orseenecassscnsqs60c0000000 536 107—108
Amalgamation ............... 295—299; 297
Assay by amalgamation. 243—244
Assay by fire ............... 242— 243
Flux used in assaving ... 235
Flux used in smelting ... 398
Smelting in blast furnace . 398—400
Smelting cupriferous ores . -.. 404—407
Smelting in lead bath ..... 399
Smelting pyritiferous ore .... 398—401
Stamp-milling .. Renereatcecscccars 321
Goldstein (see Touchstone).
GOSUAR casctacsaneincsnss as
Lead sme Iting . sree
Native zine vitriol Sn
PROASUN PLOLeS paces enetasieasieeneanecsses
Spalling hard ore
GOSLARITE .......++++
GorTtTsGaaB MIN
GOUNCE
GRAND CANAL OF CHINA .....05 129
GRANULATION METHODS FOR BULLION 444
GRANULATION OF COPPER ........0e000s 250
GREEKS.
ANAT GTR | a acnnacccpcnccoctocancenocoond 428
Brass making .. 410
Copper smelting .. nceingecron 403
Iron and steel making. 421
Metallurgy from ESYyDE:, if 402
Mining law ........ 83
Ore dressing .. 281
Quicksilver ......... 432
Silver-lead smelting Bec 391
Smelting appliances 355
Grey ANTIMONY (see also Stibium) oon
atoéaneastencancosnaacne JOG Puls cts
GrieFINs . 00 ocaqsccorecuen 331
GROOM OF THE CHAMBER.
Right to a meer ..... 81
GRoovE (see also Shafts) 101
GROUND SLUICES ...... 336—337
GROUND WATERS .... 46—48
Gritinspan (see VEGES) aay
Gulden .........
GUNPOWDER.
First use for poses in mines. 119
Invention of . Se500005 0 0 562
GNPSUME seen tse cea ta eeeae ate eentiecwistrinns 114
JBUNIBIS, coaccoos nocsesooda0 101
Haematites (see ‘Ironstone).
Haltnitrum (see Saltpetre).
HALLE, SALT INDUSTRY .............-. 552
HAMMERS.. 5 = 151
With water power .. 2 423
ISTARIGIRNIGN NBL) Gseqoaeapnne00e000000000005 68; 117
Harz MINERS.
Agricola consulted ...........-..-..- VII.
Antimony sulphide .. 428
First mining charter 84
First stamp-mill ..... 282
Pumps .. ea 194
HAULING APPLIANCES (see also Whims
and Windlasses) ........- 160—168; 149
Heap ROASTING 274—276
HEARTH-LEAD (see also , Molybdaena).
475; 476; 110; 221
INS @, SWE paacnoaconscecoococstcccosaco0Nce 232
Use in smelting ........... ... 3879; 398; 400
HEARTHS.
For bismuth smelting ................ 433—437
For melting lead ....... 390; 498
HEAVENLY Host MINE (see ‘Himmelisch
Hoz Mine).
TSUNA? SPAR o5acc0000ces 000600030009009000 115
HEBREWS.
Knowledge of antimony ............ 428
Silver-lead smelting .... Ba00 391
TSiEEN 2O}F 1b cocasasosaccabsnan9DeDNc000 412
HEMATITE .. 00 ill
HEMICYCLE (Hemicyclium) sepabegesneido 137—138
Heyvaclion (see Lodestone).
Herdplei (see Hearth- vecd)
HieERoO, KING .-.. acpanpecancenne, PLACA PHN
HicH PEAK (Derbyshire).
Mining law ............2c0--0cee see eee ees 84
Nomenclature in mines ..... 09 77
Saxon customs, connection with... 717; 85
Himmelisch Hoz MINE weveeeeseeseeee 74; 92; 75
LEGS) acoacoonen oo 152
HOLIDAYS OF : MINERS 99
Horn SILVER . 109
Horns OF DEER... 20 230
HORNSTONE .......ccceccsecsereercereeeess> 096; 114
HunGary.
Cupellation ...........-.12c--eeeeeeeeeees 483
624 GENERAL
PAGE
Hiittenvauch (see Pompholyz).
IGLAU, CHARTER OF ..... : 84
INCENSE IN CUPELLATION FurNa ACES 472
INDICATIONS OF ORE............ 106; 107; 116
Ingestores (see Shovellers)
INDIA
SIGE! coop ono sap secacaqc0 cog 990000000000 000 423
BYNES scos00 = 409
LGEREUCRRECE: 021000000000 000000000000000000000 51; 50
INVESTMENT IN MINEs .. 26—29
RON} enescnsoecseseesees 354; 111
CASE cooosace 420
Censure of .... 11
Indications of es 116
Malleable ...... Re 420
Smelting .... -- 420—426
Sulphur harm{ul to c 273
TRON LNCS, coco00ydo000000000000 000500 600600 420
Iron FitinGs (see also Iron-Scales) ... 22]
Use in assaying . 234; 238; 246
TRON ORE.
JNERE NDING Ci cncosmescacntocoecoa snp enasad 247
Smelting of .. 420—426
IRON-RUST ..... 2 5 Fike alibi
IRON-SCALES g0000600009005 221
JENIERS 2.50000000000000000000000000 234
Use in smelting gold ....... 398
Use in smelting silver .... 400
Use in making nitric acid 440
Use in parting eee from CORRE 464
TRON-SLAG. ......... ©0000 221
As a flux.. .. 234; 235
IRONSTONE 390; 111
ITALIANS.
Alluvial mining in Germany ........ 334
Irary.
Mining formerly forbidden ......... 8
JADE.. 114
JAPAN
s 423
11; 2
114
34
JIGGING SIEVE .
JOACHIMSTHAL 20... .eccesiseroeesnceesiens VI.
First stamp-mill .... 6 281
Mining shares and profits 800606 91; 92
Jtidenstein (see nabs eas)
JUICES .. . 3800000 1; 47
Agricola’ Ss ‘theory . 46; 52
From springs and streams 33
Stoney Uicelerceecesceecseceaet) 46; 49
Tastes of . 34
JUICEs, SOLIDIFIED.
Agricola’s view of . Seen ntyensieee 1; 49
Extraction of metals from Bo 350
Preparation Of ................-05------ 545
JuLian ALPs.
Stamp-milling in .... 319
es (see Veins, Intersections of).
Jurati (see Jurors).
JURORS......... 00600 22; 92; 96; 78
In English mining custom .......... 85
Relations to Bergmeister .. 95; 77
JusTINIAN CODE.
IMGAES cossapncoscacdocss soo edenceenoqsn60s 84
Kalchstein (see Limestone).
Kammschale .......--- eats 127
KAOLINITE (see Porcelain Clay).
Katzensilber (see Mica).
KING.
Deputy... coseocdo cos caon9sc0000H000 94
Right toa “meer .... 0000 81
Kinstock (see Liquation Cakes,
Exhausted).
Kis (see Pyrites).
KNockERS(see Gnomes).
Kobelt (see Cobalt).
KOLERGANG VEIN ....----- eee eee eee teens 42
KGNIGSBERG.
Fire-setting .. 300 119
Kupferglas ertz (see ‘Copper Glance).
INDEX.
PAGE
Kupferschiefer (see Copper Schists).
KUTTENBERG.
Depthsiofeshattstearetsecees-eeeesceeeee 102
LaBouR CONDITION IN MINING TITLE.
eroonecapsneccosescossenconcconeaces |§EF29 EEC
LACEDAEMONIANS (see Spartans).
Lachter (see Fathom).
LADDERWAYS IN SHAFTS ............... 124; 212
WADDLE) HORUS BULLION eee tects eee 382
Lapis aerarius (see pope ae
Lapis alabandicus ........... ssogeoue 380
Lapis Judaicus ....... 55500 115; 115
Lapis specularis (see Gy psum).
Larus (Lagging) ae 101
La ToLFa.
Alum manufacture..................... 565
Discovery of . one cogcaanee 570
LAURION (Laurrum), 1 ‘Mr. Gee Mr.
LAURION, MINES OF).
LavuTENTAL, Liguation EGR ppnBanoounen +91
Law (see Mining Law).
LAw-SUITS OVER SHARES IN MINES... 94
[LIS4N9D) 45500000000000000 000000 000009000 354; 390; 110
Censure of Seco 11
Cupellation ........... ... 4§64—483
Melting prior to liquation ........... 500
In liquation cakes... 505—506; 505; 506
IRCA SIKGEE coc c09 c06 cao onc 0sH000006 483—490
Smelting of ores 388—392; 400
Use in assaying ....
ine 532; 239 ; 2425 “244; 249; 251
x 347
Washing in sluices 06
LEAD-ASH 237; 237; 221
As a flux gaeea 234
Use in parting gold fi from n copper 086 463
LEAD Bath ..... o6ed 381
IUENOREIANSS 6600000000000000600000000000000 236
239; 463; 221
LEADING (in liquation).................-5.
Seo 304; 507; 513; 491; 492; 504
Components of the charge............ _505—509
ILADINB) (QXSFIID cooaeoscoocoocsccaocce a2 INS Ppl
LEAD ORE.
Assay methods ........................ 245—246
Roasting 5 275
Smelting in blast ‘furnace 6 390; 408
LEASE, IN AUSTRALIAN TITLE ......... 77
LEAveS. PREPARATION OF BULLION INTO 444
ID AIEGNEVYS, sesqcocoosa0cGo0nG8H000000000000 24
LEES OF aqua WHICH SEPARATES GOLD
FROM SILVER ............ 234; 443; 221
AS av AUK. Scedccessect osvaieceedcltastcere 234; 238
LEES OF VINEGAR ie also Argol) ... 221
Asa flux ............... 2345 236 ; 243; 234
LEEs OF WINE (see Argol).
LEMNOS, ISLAND OF .........-----+0----+ 31
LeMNIAN EARTH .....-. 6008900006 31
Leprosy oF HousE WALLs (Gee Salt-
petre).
LEVEL (see also Drift) ...... 101
LEVEL, PLUMMET (see Plummet Level)
TIMESTONE Tee 114; 221
As a flux . 236; 390
LIMONITE ... 5 111
LINARFS.
Hannibal’s mines near ..............- 42
Lipari IsLANDs.
JAllumefroml fsascsce-seceerisesseciaceeecece 566
LIQUATED SILVER-LEAD (see Stannum
and Silver-lead).
LIQUATION....... 519—521; 491; 519
Ash-coloured copper f from .......... 529
ISFHOUIED OES HOF? soaoago0 coasee coe cenana nse 491
Furnace 080 515—518; 492
Historical note ¢ on. 99000000 494
Losses ....... 491; 539
Nomenclature 492
LiguaTion Cakes §05—509; 492; 505; 506
Enrichment of the lead............... 5125 512
Extraction of silver from ....... 512
From bye-products of PERE as 539—540
From copper bottoms ............ 512; 512
GENERAL INDEX. 625
LIQUATION CAKES, PAGE
Proportion of lead in rich silver
copper 509
E3 XHAUSTED ......
ocheeore 521—526; 406; 492; 520
LIQUATION SLAGS .....+.. 509; 492; 541
Furnaces for ... 507
Treatment of .. : 541
LIQUATION THORNS 522; 53 ; 492; 539; 540
From cupellation ..........ccseeeeeeees 543; 543
From ‘ drying "’ copper residues... 529
LITHARGE (see a/so Cupellation).......
475; 232—238; 466; 476; 110; 222
Use in reducing silver nitrate ...... 447
Use in smelting ............ 379; 398; 400
Lithargyrum (sea Litharge)
LIQUATION CAKEs,
LODESTONE . nore ao Uo R alle shi b)
Compass ....... Seste oo 57
Los Pozos de Anibal). 42
Lotoves (see Washers).
LUSITANIA.
(CO) GLANTZ EN aesrconodedoarncoseceacdecs 347
Sluices for gold washing 325
Tin smelting ........ 0 419
ILYOUIE oem arp nr anObOSeR AAR ODNONO BEE ]
Preparation of for furnace linings 375—376
Lypia.
AUOVONIOYE JERR? con apccancceseacnoceasonnadans 83
The King’s mines . poaGoONR 27
IU got epee -- 5583 221; 233
Use in making ‘fluxes Fochadcodoscantee 236
Use in parting . engagcconbopa9ecoacd 463
Magister Metallicorwm (see Bergmeister).
Magistey Monetariovum (see Master of
the Mint).
Magnes (see also Lodestone aiid Man-
g@anese) -.--.....-.. 5845 V1; 115; 584
MAGNET 247
Garlic 39
Magnetis Ger nea
MAGNETITE . 111
MaLacuite .... 109; 221
MALADIES oF MINERS -. 214-217
IMUATDHIAU esa uci tecienseesicvafasecectsess ens 581
MANAGER (see Mine Manager).
MANGANESE.. 586; 354
MANNSFELD Copper “SLATES 0... sse
126—127; 279; 127; 273
MApP-MAKING : 129
MaRBLE .... bed “415; 2; 114
WURGNSIGISD consecacoacosooneoneoscs NIL Ss ils seas)
Marga (see Marl).
IMESRIENIBERG) cy-iscenccecvenssneenetceleee XXXII; VI.
IAI caloaa doo soseeseo Seno Hoc onseAO aHEOaRES 114
MARMELSTEIN (see Marble).
Maymor (see Marble).
Marmoy alabastrites (see ane
Maymor giarea . 114
MASSICOT (see also Lead ( Ochre) “110; 221; 232
MASTER OF THE HORSE...-..-:.-------- 81
MASTER CF THE MINT ........---.------ 95; 78
Marte (see Cakes of Melted Rone):
MATTE SMELTING ..... ..-. 404—407
78; 78
MEASURE ee of mining area)
MEASURES.. 616—617; 78; 550
MEDICINE.
Knowledge necessary for miners ... 3
Medulla saxorum (see Porcelain Clay).
MBER yer sacici cess ceen cactastcteceeiend 77—89
Boundary stones .. 87
On vena cumulata . 060 87
OM CAG CHICA s0000000000000000000000 86
MEISSEN.
Durips from mines...................- 312
Melanteria ....... -- 117; 112; 573
Indication of copper n6o8ee 116
MELANTERITE .. 111
MELos, ISLAND « OF a 566
Menning (see Red- lead).
Mergel (see Marl).
Mera. Si) ceartesteeeenece ; 44; 51
Advantages and uses 19; 20
Necessity to man ; 12—13
Not responsible for evil passions... 15
PAGE
NCCT cocbbrre conieance nc Here noc Dero: cacte 153
MExIco
Patio aie SABRE EERO EP PRORCE CECE 297
WINKED coceocrdn a 114
MIDDLE AGES, “MininG Law OF ...... 84
MILLS FOR GRINDING ORE ...... 294—299; 280
MIMEs(see a/so Gnomes) .........60.0+ 0+ 217
IMINEACAPRDAIN \.cccapecrsisessasiaevisntiersiass 26; 77
MINE MANAGER ............... 97; 98; 77; 78
MINERAL KINGDOM, AGRICOLA’S
DIVISIONS) OF (eccicenscsisesisesiaveces 1
MINERALS... 200000000
594; 108; 48; 51
Compound . 2; 51
Mixerlin sented: PAR Jay
MINERS a —4; 25; 78
Duties and punishments ............ 100; 22
Law (see Mining Law).
Litigation aMONg ..........sseseeee ee 21
SIEKES BE oosccosss qoaancdds nop ao addORNOOD 23
MINES.
Abandonment Of cs... cscccsesnessees 217
Conditions desirable . 6c 30—33
Investments in 26—29
Management of .. 25; 26
IN/ald CSO fimettsemtaceieacetsenttes ett ih. 42
Mines Roya, COMPANY OF.. 283
MINING (see also Sett, Lease, “Claim,
Meer, etc.).
Criticisms of . Se sncanotego6 4—12
Harmless and honourable. c
Methods of prea ore ..
Stoping .. pederengs codan0 boo BoB OCHONI
MINING CLERK Schjamuasieures 93; 95; 96; 78
MininG COMPANIES (see Companies,
Mining).
MINING FOREMAN... 98—99; 78
Frauds by 21—22
MIninc Lavy ...... 82—86
Boundary stones .......... 87
Drainage requirements 92—93
iBuplandiaeescerete ees 84—86
Europe 84
Forfeiture of title 92—93
France . 84
Greek and ‘Roman 9 83
Middle Ages ...... 84—85
Right of Overlord, “Landowner,
State and Miner .................. 82
TNBESTIETS soooobqpcoocecice 20
MINING PREFECT . 20
MINING RIGHTS (see Mining ‘Law and
Meer).
MininGc TERMS, OLD ENGLISH......... 77; 101
MINING TOOLS .........22....-+5 --- 149—153
Buckets for ore .. 153—154
Buckets for water 157
Mrucks eco cee 156
Wheelbarrows .. 155
Minium .......-.-+-- 111
Quicksilver from . ooo 433
Red-lead . 508600608060 009 000 232
Minium secumndarium (see Red-lead).
MISPICKEL (Mistpuckel) ..............++ 111
Misy (the mineral)......... Bish 111; 403
An indication of copper ... po90
Use in parting gold and silver . ° 459
Mitlere und obere offenbriiche “(see
Furnace Accretions).
[MOG IWS wascaesilsne,s tec ee salectiessleriee sieiston ele 617; 405
Moeiirz.
ia, WOMEN > ccoosaccoceass cnn 060500000 318
WAI@INL, cocoscosnccs é 150
Molybdaena 400; 408
Term for lead carbonates 400; 408
Molybdenite .. 477
Monetarius (sap Coiners)..
Money, ASSAYING OF ............-...... 251—252
Morano Grass FACTORIES .........+.- 592
MORAVIA.
Gupellationtersressseeeteeeee reece tes 483
Stamp-milling .... oo 321
Washing gold ore 208 324
IMORDIANTS meee eeste eee cee oseeeee eee 569
MorTAR-BOX...... 279—280; 312; 319; 267
626 GENERAL INDEX.
MOovuNnrTAINS. PAGE
TROTTEYETOIN ©)’ cooecadoaq00000000000009000 595
Mz. BERMIUS.
Gold Mines of ........
Aecoes 26; 27
Mr. Laurion, MINES OF ...
“973 27—29 391
Crushing and concentration of ores 281
Cipella tion Were cce seem -tecieleeeac a 465
Mining law .. 83
Smelting appliances 355
HEN} "OA OI ccoaoaccnasacn00wc09660009 6
Mt. SINAI.
Ancient copper smelting ............ 355; 402
MUFFLE FURNACES ...........-.. 224—228; 239
MUFFLES . 00 -- 227; 239; 222
Refining Silvers Gane eines 489—490
MUu.pere, BATTEN OF inh Gace X.
Murrhina (see Chalcedony).
MIUSICE CS esneecnenectonteeeteceececncccee 11
MYCENAE.
Copper .. 402
Silver-. lead smelting pogc0deeaqs0K001000 391
NAMES OF MINES ........0..0e00eeeee ee 42
NAPHTHA .........-.-- 581
INGA NAD (COyADI Soocgscqa050853000000000000 109
NATIVE [RON .
Native MINERALS . Z
INADIVE ROLLE VER Giaaclencinccioesloceianstarcieee ies
NaTRON (see Nitrum).
NEOLITHIC FURNACES ......- 35d
NEUSOHL, METHOD OF SCREENING ORE 290
NEWBOTILE ENEXEIRRY oog4000000009000000 35
Nitocris, BRIDGE OF .
NITRIC Aci (see also Aqua valens) o0e
439—443; 460; 439; 354
Assay parting gold and silver 609000 248
Testing silver regulus with 449
Use in cleaning gold dust ... 396
Nitrum (see also Soda) .... 558; 110
NOMENCLATURE ......-++ I; 267
Mining law .... 17; 78
Mining officials . 717; 78
IN@HEGE ccoccosca0aseccace 00 388
Conveyance Of OF€ .........-...66-0008 169
NORMANS.
Mining Law in seis snacesdoaas: 85
NOTARY ........ pegcoos B4d005 94; 78
NuBIA.
Early gold-mining . 29000 399
NUREMBERG, SCALE oF WEIGHTS .... 264
OOS coaccacoscoanesqnocsnecenesces6e0500000 25
Ochra nativa .. é lll
OCHRE YELLOW . 111
Offenbriiche (see Furnace ‘Accre ions).
OLYNTHUS.
Betrayal to Eup of Macedon...... 9
Operculum .....00-+-- 00 - 441; 222
Orbis ..... 141; 137
ORE (see various. metals, Assaying,
Mining, etc.).
OrE CHANNELS (see Canales).
Ore Deposits, THEORY OF .. XIII ; 43—53
ORE DRESSING .....-.2.ceeceececersetereees 267—351
Burning . u 273
Hand spalling 271—272
Sortingpeesee 268—271
QUARUB, cce200.900000500020009 009509000000 78; 78; 617
Orichalcum (see ee)
ORPIMENT . 6 pecsteecesdecseee, US 222
Colour of fumes . 235
Harmful to metals i 273
Indication of gold, etc. 116
Roasted from ore ....... 273
Use in assaying .. 237
QUTCROPS ... 68; 43
OX-BLOOD IN SALT “MAKING ococec-s- 552
Pactotus, GOLD SANDS OF .........+.- 27
Park'S PROCESS ...... 465
Parrinc GOLD FROM Copper .. 462— 464
PartING GOLD FROM SILVER ..
0 443— 460; 458—463
Antimony sulphide 500090R680 a90000056
weccedeceeeeees AST 452); 451-452); 461
PAGE
PARTING GOLD FROM SILVER.
Cementation... 453—457; 453—454; 458
Chlorine gas ..... seveeee 458; 462
Electrolysis ... edc90000 458; 462
Nitric acid ...... 443— 447; “443 ; 447; 460
Nitric acid (in assaying) ... . 247—249
Sulphur and coPEct 200 448-451 j ; 448; 461
Sulphuric acid ...... - 458; 462
PARTITIONS. 500 493
Passau, PEACE. OF. IX.
Passus ....... osc0d 616; 78
Patio PROCESS | caa0t00 297—298
PATTINSON’s PRocESsS . 900080400006 465
Peak, THE (see ee Peak).
Pentremites cb G08 ooniced 080 115
PERGAMUM.
IBYEVAIN GES. OH coaccoassooc0snde000009 000 11
Mines near .......... 26; 27
PERIPATETICS . 000 XII
Theory of ore deposits 47; 44
WiewlOtawealthueeemeseeeeeeeerees 18
PERSIANS.
ATiClentimMinin pela waeeseceass seca 83
JOB" cadooaacancccesa00¢ee0 616; 78
PESTLES ...... 231; 483
PETROLEUM ..... 581—582
PHALARIS. BRAZEN BULL OF .......... 11
PHILOSOPHY.
Knowledge necessary for miners... 3
PHOENICIANS.
Copperandibronzemen reece 402
In Thasos ..
TEIN coo0n0000
PICKS ...
Pickschetfery (see Ash-coloured Copper).
II ULAGIIR TINTS occoasensocassons0090008000 321—348
Pleigeel (see Lead Ochre).
Pletweis (see White- oat
IPIEVGANGIVEIN Ieee eresecceeseeente: 42
Plumbago ....... 110
Plumbum OGRE 2 110; 3; 473
Plumbum cinereum......... lll; 3
Plumbum nigrum lutei coloris ........... 110; 3
PLUMMET LEVEL.
Standing .. esters seceenecceececree el aOlLL Od
Suspended . BEaCaCOnSOO 145; 146; 137
PocKETS IN ALLUVIAL Sturces s00005 322—330
Poisonous FuMEs (see Fumes).
POLAND.
Cupellation -.- 2.0.00 .. 2... ss ece eee ee 483
Lead ore washing . Ss 347
Lead smelting ........ 392
Poletae, TABLETS OF THE 83
POLinG COPPER ......... 38; ; 535—536
POMPEIOPOLIS.
Arsenic mine at .................. 111
Pompholyx... 9 394 > ‘113—114 ; 403
From copper ‘Tefinings o0s0000 000 538
From cupellation .... 476
From dust-chambers 394
From roasting ore ... 278
Poisonous .............- 214; 215
Used for brass malig 410
PORCELAIN CLAY .. 115
PotasH “558559 ; 5 558 ; 233; 220
In Sal artifictosus Ppa 463
PoTtTERY, EGYPTIAN 391
TPO ENCE aga.ceaese 000098000000 i 298
Pozos DE ANIBAL, Los 42
Pous. 56 617; 78
Prcohcnes GORDO aes 718
Praefectus fodinae (see Mine Manager).
Praefectus metallorum (see Mining
Prefect).
Praeses cunicult ..... 18
Praeses fodinae (see Mining Foreman).
PRECIOUS AND BaSE METALS ........- 439
PRIMGAP ....... o000000001 80
Procuratoy etalon 2 00 83
PROSPECTING ......-.- 06 35
RROWSMAND 26 eosnodcccoconscosossaanseoo 109
PUMPS ... 171—200; 149
(Ghainteereeeeeecceeree eee eceecien ees 171—175
Rag and) chain fee -18="200
GENERAL
PUMPS. PAGE
Suction. . 175—188
Purgator argenti (see ‘Silve er r Refiner).
IAG UTR SS Scrcacretccer sence nor concer Ceecpecnree 77
PUTEOLI....... . 501
PYRARGYRITE ..... “ 109
Pyriten argentum ......ccccccceee picoted 408
PyriTeEs (see also Cakes of Melted
FAYTICES)ieecuacasisxscavsens (OL) LOTS UUs)
AS a flux ..-..... corcecence’ 234
Assay for gold ... 243
In tin concentrates ....... 348
Latin and German terms . 222
Roasting . rere 273—274
Roasting cakes of ..... 349—351
Smelting for gold and silver 399; 401
Used in making vitriol . Saocsanas 578
Pyrites aerosus (see Copper ‘Py rites).
Pyrites auret coloris (see Copper
Pyrites).
Quartz (see also Stones which coatly
MHL t) oe eat ceses sec ook ome 114
As a flux ..... 380
An indication of ore co 116
Material of glass...... co 380
Silver ore ....... £6 113
Smelting of . ceiggeIce MCR ECEOOON 401
Quarzum (see Quartz).
(QUEIROIAE, seécodenocoheqonsaccocescoeioncresonn 380
QUICKSILVER... wea. 402; 2; 304; 11)
Amalgamation of gilt objects $0500 46i
Amalgamation of gold dust . a 396
Amalgamation of gold ores 297; 297
Assaying methods. 247
(ORE) oreonsacwasco ago ono cdacee 3 .. 426—432
Use in assaying gold ore ............ 243
RAG AND CHAIN PUMPS..............-.. 188—200
RAKE VEINS .........--.--- 101
RAMMELSBERG.
Collapse of mines ..................... 216
Discovery .. 37
Early vitriol making . 572
Rauchstein ...... 6 127
REALGAR .. lll; 222
Colour of fumes ... 235
Harmful to metals 273
Indication of ore .. 116
Roasted from ore.. doddod 504650008 273
Rederstein (see Tyochitis).
RED-LEAD . 232; 110; 222
Use in parting ‘gold from copper 200 463
Use in parting gold from silver...... 459
REFINED SALT.................... 454; 463; 233
REFINERY FOR SILVER. AND CopPER 491— 498
REFINING GOLD FROM COPPER 462—464
REFINING GOLD FROM SILVER . -- 443—458
REFINING-HEARTH ........-ceeeee senses eee 492
REFINING SILVER......... 483—490; 465; 484
REFINING SILVER FROM LEAD ........ 464
REFORMATION, THE ............
RE-OPENING OF OLD Mines nance cod6e0
REVIVAL OF LEARNING.
Agricola’s position in ......
REWARD LEASE, IN AUSTRALIAN Law 77
IRENE, cag codceosshonseaannaceodnneasceatce 388
RHAETIAN ALPS.
Stamp milling in. oapacoo6accoccd 319
RING-FIRE . ppbsaosncaacASccuceseon 448
Rio Tinto Mines.
Roman methods of smelting........ 405
Roman water-wheels ...... o0 149
Risks oF MINING . 28—29
RITHER (a horse) .. 101
ROASTED COPPER 233: 233; 222
ROASTING .
0 273—279 ; 267
Heap roasting 20 274—275
In furnaces . 276
Mattes 349—351
Prior to assaying 231
Rocks ......... 119; 2
ROCK-SALT ......... 548; 222
Use in cementation 454
RoMAN ALUM . 565
INDEX. 627
PAGE
ROMANS.
Mal PAMATON cevescesssseonvscsvnuasnen 297
Antumony ....... . 28
Brass making 410
Companies ....... 90
Copper smelting . 404—406
Mining law ....... 83
Minium Company 232
Quicksilver ....... 433
Roasting .. 20 : 267
Silver-lead smelting sositssinaneneinseiane 392
Washing of Ore ...............sceece ene 281
ROSETTE COPPER ............ 538; 535
Rosgeel (see Rees)
RUBY: COPPER) -ccececereclesseesenecesicseee) LOO) 02
RUBY SILVER . 61; 109
Assaying of .. 244
Cupellation .. 473
Rudis Ores ..... 108
Rust (see Iron- crust).
ISVAEVOSGOR) cnacoonanndnocpasdececoncopcecosticn 9
Saigerdorney (see Liquation Thorns).
Saigerwerk (see Stannum).
Salamander har er ee):
Salamis, Battle of . Goasco dco GHOcOseCO 27
Sal-ammoniac . -- 560; 560; 222
In cements for ‘parting ‘Bold and
silver . ‘ o sees 454—457
In making aqua valens 441
Uses in cupellation .. o 474
Uses in making aqua ‘regia neounnoa9 460
Uses in parting gold from CODPEE 463
Sal artifictosus . 236 : 463; 236
In assaying edonoben0 242
As a flux .. 234
Use in cementation S000 454; 454
Use in parting gold from n copper . 463; 464
Use in sues ores . -. 396; 400
Wells .. = 546—547
SALT MADE FROM ‘AsHES OF Musk Ivy 560; 233
Sal torvefactus.........-.-.....---. 2423; 222; 233
Sal tostus...... J sere 2003 2383; 222
SALTPETRE......... '561—564; 561; 5662; 222
ING @)1iES cecoce PREVA 236-238 ; 5 245; 247
In smelting gold concentrates ..... 398
Uses in cementation ......... 454; 454
Uses in making nitric acid
pecos . 439; 440; 447; 454
Uses in melting silver nitrate ...... 447
SAMPLING COPPER BULLION ..... 5
SAND . 5 117
Sandaraca (see Realgar).
SANDIVER (see Glass-galls).
Sarda (see Carnelian).
SAXONY.
High Peak customs from ............ 717; 85
Political state in Agricola’s time. VIII; IX.
Reformation ....... 20 IX
Saxum calcis (see Limestone).
SCALES OF FINENESS ............00+----- 263; 617
ScapTE-HYLE, MINES OF .......+.------ 23
SCHEMNITZ.
Age of mines ...... 5
canpowder & for 7 blasting . 119
Pumps .. 9 194
ScHIST . noooonqdeaod ace 222
Schistos (see noone,
SCHLACKENWALD.
Ore washing ........-...0.sseeee teeter ees 304
SCHMALKALDEN LEAGUE | 0 IX.
ScHMALKALDEN War . IX; X.
SCHNEEBERG .........- XXXII; VI.
Cobalt ... 435
Depth of shafts ... 102
Ore stamping .. 281
Shares ......... 2 91
St. George mine.. 92; 74; 75
Schwartz-atrament (gee “Melanteria and
Sory).
628 GENERAL INDEX.
PAGE
SCORIFICATION ASSAY .......0-..eeee eee 239
SCORIFIER .. ae 228; 230; 222
JACEENIS IVS). eo oonaduoa ded sed obonodeoo HCD be 238; 239
SCREENING ORE (see Sifting Ore).
SCREENS (see also Specie) op95000s0000 267
In stamp-mill . oppeno0 0 315
Scriba jodinavum|| (see Mining Clerk).
Scriba magistri macplearaa. (see
Bergmeister's Clerk).
Scriba partium (see Share Clerk).
Scum OF LEAD FROM CUPELLATION ... 475
SCYTHIANS.
Wealth condemned ...................+ 9; 15
SEAMS IN THE ROCKS... 72; 43; 47
Indications of ore ..... 67; 107
SEA-WATER, SALT FROM 545—546
SAQGURGB coponcona55s0009000008 448
SEDDeeqeeeee 77
SETTLING Pits . 316; 267
SHAFT-HOUSES..
SHAFTS weeseeees 102—107; 122124
Surveys of ...... 129—135
Venae cumulatae 128
SHAKES . 0 é 101
SHARE CLERK i ‘97; 93; 78
SHare IN MINES” ‘(see “Companies,
Mining).
SHEARS FOR CUTTING NATIVE SILVER 269
SJEWIOF® cogape SoabandBagbIScoSEaadoOeOONeO 99; 92
SHOES (stamp) . 285— 286; 267
SHOVELLERS ......
Sideritis (see Lodestone).
Stegelstein (see Lodestone).
153 ; 169 ; > 78
SIEVES.
TRoye CMEWACEY ccooacadeacc9 9000000 375
Yor crushed ore ... 287293 ; 341
SIFTING ORE a 287_— 293
Signatory publicus ‘(see Notary).
Silbeyweis (see Mica).
Silex . 6500 seceeeeee 114; 118
SILVER R (see also “Assaying, Liquation,
Parting, Refining, etc)... 390; 354; 109
Amalpamlationtaneceaccernesnectteeecten 297; 300
Assaying ....... vce 248251
Cupellation ........... ‘464—483 ; 241
“ Drying’’ copper residues from
HEPWENBTOD Sac ccnensccesancoacsoanoDe0 529
Enrichment in copper bottoms ... 510; 510
Exhausted liquation cakes ......... 524
Indicated by bismuth, etc. ......... 116
Liquation......... 505—507; 506; 509; 512
Parting from gold (see Parting Gold
and Silver),
Parting from iron ..................... 544; 644
Precipitation from solution in
copper bowl ...........-....- 444
Refining.......
Smelting Oi CES nonce
381—382; 386;
483490; 465; 484
388; 390; 400; 402
Use in clarification of nitric acid... 443; 443
SILVER, Ruy (see Ruby Silver).
SILVER GLANCE .....2..0csecceese ces sosees 109
Assaying ...... 909 244
Cupellation . 4 473
Dressing ...... 008 269
SILVER-LEAD ALLOY (see Siannum, etc.).
CHT ORS doaceccaccancoscoaccanesasooss US LOY
JNGEER PINE cocoopeoo00c000908e0
Assaying cupriferous ores ....
Fluxes required in assaying .
Smelting cupriferous ores ....
SILVER-PLATING 905009
SILVER REFINER .............5
SILVER REFINING (see Refining).
SILVER VEINS cpa9000006000
SINGING BY MINERS .........
SINTERING CONCENTRATES ....
Sracs (see also Liquation Slags) .
From blast furnace ............. 200
From liquation ..... -. 491; 492; 523
SLAVES AS MINERS.. 23; 83
In Greek mines 25; 25; 28
SLOUGH (tunnel) .. nco 101
SUUICESiecere eee rete “319; 322—348
PAGE
SINGH END, ccondosca onsen onocebcoooasaecoso nse 113
SMALT .. 112
SVAGYD, ccoscocsocoonsncoccon ses sea cee esc00s000 404
SMELTERS .... 78
SMELTING (see also v various metals) . 50560
: 379—390; 353—355
Assaying ‘compared 900000000 p00 220
Building for .........
Objects of . 00
Smirgel (see Emery).
Smiris (see Emery).
SMYRNA.
IM DHAYES) TCENP ogc poonan on 0bOb000s0080000 500 27
SNAKE-BITES 31
Sopa (see also Nitrum)... 558; 559: 233; 222
INS By SEMWR ge0000000000 233; 234
Historical notes . 558; 354
Solidified juice ... i
SOW coaos000 101
SOLIDIFIED ‘Jurces ‘(see “Juices,
Solidified).
SOMfUL UI. ceacnrencesenceacsssseseejeesenriaas) 216);) 216
SORTERS ...... 78
SORTINGIOREM yecceeee eee ee 268—271
Sory .. aes ai ; 403; 573
Sows .. See ceeaaes 386; 376
SPAIN (gaa ‘Gis
Ancient silver-lead mines ........... 149; 392
Ancient silver mines of Carthage 27
Ancient tin mines ................:.... 411—412
SPALLINGaORD Eee eeeceeren erence 271—272
Spangen (see Tvochitis).
Spanschgriin (see Verdigris).
SPARTANS.
Gold and silver forbidden ........... 9; 15
Interference with Athenian mines 27
Spat (see Heavy Seat:
SPELTER .........- BangnecsDooucoodo noo 409
SPHALERITE . Bo 113
Sptauter ....... ogandon06 066005 409
Spiesglas (see Stibium).
SPINES OF FISHES FOR CUPELS.. 0 230
Spodos .. ... 538; "394 ; 113; 114
Spuma argenti (Gee ‘Litharge).
STAFFORDSHIRE.
First pumping engine................. 149
STALAGMITES ..........0.-00+ peeanno 114
STALL ROASTING . 350—351
STAMP ........ 267
For breaking copper cakes 501—503
For crushing crucible lining 373—375
STAMPING REFINED SILVERY 489
STAMP-MILL .. 279—287 ; 282; 267
IWietsorel, \sesseeseareietees 312—314; 319—321
STANDING PLUMMET LEVEL (see
Plummet Seve:
STANNARIES.. e9c09c0sc0000 000 85
Stannum.. : a “473; “9 ; 384; 492
STEEL... 423— 426; 422 — 423; 354
SYGUFE? 000000000000000000008000900000000000000 77
Steinmack (see Porcelain Clay).
STEMPLE Goal): eats Seve eee ole aslncs inserts 101
STEPHANITE.. 09 109
STERNEN Mine co80 09 92; 75
STEWARD (of High Peak ‘mines) 2c0000 77
St. GEORGE Mine (Schneeberg) ... 92; 74; 75
Stibium (see also Antimony and Anti-
mony De ws L105 428)5 2); 2211)
Flux to be added to . 0 000 235
nga ssalyin pies meaeeece te eeean :. 237—239
In cementation ..... 458—460
Indication of silver .. 116
In making nitric acid | 900 440
In parting gold and silver... “451— 452; 459
In parting gold from copper coseeos 464
In treatment of gold concentrates 396; 397
SEWEITIND, 905.050 6c 090500 ano cna cos sa 0a0Ge0Nc0 428; 451
St. LorRENTZ MINE qeogsacnace 74; 92
STOCKWERKE (see Vena cumulata).
SToIcs.
Views on wealth............ss0eesseree 18
Stomoma .....++.+- 423
SONS |GHEIS coposa0a0ea000 090000 000 s05000 46; 49
GENERAL
STONES. PAGE
Agricola’s view Of ........secsereeee 2; 46; 49
Various orders of fusibility ......... 380
“STONES WHICH Lasity MELT" (see
GISGRCAUGNCZ)livaneuedvudusuctravssices 380; 222
As a flux ......... 233; 236; 233
In making nitric ‘acid enecoercnes 440
In smelting rcoCeRETOECE 380; 390
Smelting of..... 401
STooL (of a drift) 101
in pasecseacce 126
STOPING 125
Venae cumulatae 128
Venae dilatatae . 126; 127
NADICA MES Tenchvnciseatsenax
Canvas ..
s+» 803—310; 267; 282
“307—310; 314; 316; 267
Egyptians .. sodieret 280
(CHEERS) coocengerincconneedecorcocebocecsaren 281
Short . 306—307; 267
Washing tin concentrates 341—343
RAUL AM cesecansveccenencaceca 126
STREAMING .. 316—318
STRINGERS.. 70; 43; 47; 70
Indication of ¢ RO cansoosensndonaeanoencn 106
Mining method . 128
SER TAG Crieeciesaveiiess ees 388
SUBTERRANEAN HEAT .. 46; 595
SucTION Pumps ...... 175—183
SULPHIDES ..... 267; 355
SULPHUR .......... 6 5 579); 222
Colour of fumes ... noadeta 235
Harmful to metals 273
Umbassayin Syecntcccecctscaesessleee 235— 238
In parting gold from copper. -- 463; 462
In parting gold from silver .........
on Rogen DU OESe ECE CEE 448—451; 448; 461
In smelting gold dust . co aneeoo 396
Roasted from ores ........ 273; 276
SIME! FURS cancoseacecercacasesasaces 1
SULPHUR ‘‘ NOT EXPOSED TO THE FIRE.”’
458; 463; 579
137; 144; 142
128—148; 129
boon96dea000 4
137—138
SURVEYorR’S FIELD .
SURVEYING .. .....
Ney for miners
Rod . ai 285000
SUSPENDED. “PLUMMET “LEVEL (see
Plummet Level).
SWISSICOMPASS) -e--cceecteeeseeeerees 145); 137,
SWISS SURVEYORS .......eeeee eee eee es 145
SIP OSUUI laacfawalselvan (se sfee-eecnctseeine« 91
TVNPSTEON Dogacspanseoneonescoseseocaaceescqece GEOR SEL
TAPPETS ..... 282; 319; 267
TAPPING-BAR ... 4 381
TARSHISH, TIN TRAD 412
TARTAR (Cream of) . .. 220; 234
Tectum (Hangingwall) ons coc eco boccceNd 101
Terra sigillata (see Lemnian Earth).
“ TEsTs ”’, REFINING SILVER IN ......
. 483—490; 465; 484
Thaler - 92
Tasos, MINES OF . 93; 95; 23
Theamedes Sboaedoseu 00 115
THEODOSIAN CopE.
Mines.. 84
THORNS (see Liquation. Thorns).
THURINGIA.
Roasting ypy tes ee scee seca ees sseees eee 276
Sluices of gold washing. nc 327
TiGNA (Wall plate) ..................062. 101
TIMBERING.
Of ladderways and shafts...
285 123; 124
Of stopes ...... 20008 126
Of tunnels and drifts . 1241 25
Tin.. sos 0s5500 “411—413 ; 354; 110
Alluvial mining . prdseo6eons dan 336—340
Assaying ore ...... 246
Assaying for silver . 251
Colour of fumes ... 235
Concentrates....... 340342; 348—349
Comishitreatments eens ee eee eee 282
Refining . -- 418—419
Smelting ....... 411—420
Stamp-milling 312—317
Streaming 316—318
INDEX. 629
TIN.
Wiasbinpttievecdedsacacneas