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Report No. 9, Office of Fiber Investigations.

Frontispiece.

Report No. 9.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OE AGRICULTURE.

FIHER INVESTIGATIONS.

A DESCRIPTRH CATALOGUE

CSEFIL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD,

JNCLUniXC

THE STRriTrilAl AND mmiK riASSIFICATIOXS OF FIBERS.

CHAS. RICHARDS DODGE,

Special Agent.

WASHINGTON:

government printing office.
iSqt.

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

United States Department of Agriculttre,

Office of Fiber Investigations,

Washington, D. C, January 2, 1897.

vSiR: I have the honor to submit herewith the manuscrii)t of a
descriptive catalogue of 1,018 species of useful fibers of tlie world. No
similar work has previously been published in this country, and no
work has appeared in any country with so full descriptive lists of the
commercial and native fibers of the people of the globe, the compila-
tion embodj'ing notes, observation, and research by the author during
a i)eriod of over twenty-five years. During the preparation of the
work for publication the author has had the assistance of fiber experts,
botanists, and others, in nmny lands, and it is thought the volume will
prove a valuable contribution not only to the literature of economic
industries but to ethno-botany as well.

The demand made upon the Department for information regarding
every phase of the fiber industry shows the extent of the industrial
interest in fibers and their manufacture, while the popular interest in
this subject is evinced by the constant applications received by the
Department from teachers in our colleges and schools for fiber speci-
mens and literature. To these two classes especially the work will
l^rove most useful, and at the same time it is hoped that it may be of
assistance to those writers upon industrial topics who from lack of
authoritative information regarding new fibers have sometimes been
led into error and misstatement. The alphabetical arrangement of the
titles, which include both the common and botanical names of the fiber
plants described, affords a ready means of referring to any desired
species.

In the portions relating to the study and uses of fibers and on fiber
identification the technology of fiber work is presented in the hope
that more attention may be given to this work by American students,
as it opens up a broad field of practical research.
I am, respectfully,

Chas. Eichards Dodge,
Sj>e&ial Af/ent, in Charge of Fiber Invtstiyations.

lion. J. Sterling Morton,

Secretary.

PREFACE.

A little over twenty years ago at the Philadelphia Iiiteruatioual
Exhibitiou of 1876, while the writer was acting for the United States
Department of Agriculture, but under the direction of the late Prof.
Spencer F. Baird, the foundation of this work was laid. The exhibi-
tion of 187G brought to this country many superb collections iihistrating
the arts nnd industries of the Avorld, none of these being more interest-
ing or complete than the collections of textiles and textile manufacture.
Prominent among the collections of raw fibers were those contributed
by the Australian colonies, including the magniticent series of Xew
Zealand flax and flax products. These, with many other collections,
in different field's, were presented to the United States Government at
the close of the exhibition, the agricultural products coming to the
Department of Agriculture, while the animal and mineral collections
went to the National Museum.

Xext to the Australian collections of fibers, those from the several
South American Eepublics which were represented in the exhibition
were j)articularly instructive, and it was mainly through the interest
developed by the superb collections of these two regions of the globe
that the descriptive list of fibers which appeared in the annual report
of this Department for 1879 was prepared by the writer. The Austra-
lian exhibit was particularly interesting and valuable, as it illustrated
a series of experiments in economic fiber investigation conducted by
Dr. Guilfoyle, director of the Melbourne Botanic Gardens, the specimens
being properly and systematically labeled and accompanied by valu-
able notes and descriptive matter.

It was this collection, with its carefully prepared notes, that laid the
foundation of the present work, in which has been embodied the notes
of collections from every important international exhibition since that of
187(), and which has been largely augmented by the results of personal
study, observation, and investigation during many years, as well as
through the more recent examination of all available publications relat-
ing to the subject.

The result has been the enumeration of 1,018 species of useful fiber
l)lants, the more imx)ortant of which are fully des(;ribed and treated
from the botanical, agricultural, and industrial standpoints; being
described or referred to under their scientific, commercial, common, and
native names (as far as the latter could be obtained and properlj^ veri-
fied); the kind of fiber produced, the part of the plant producing it, as
well as the position of the species in the vegetable kingdom, being indi-
cated, and in some instances tlie name of museum or museums stated
where si)ecimens of the fiber are preserved. The first images were
definitely prepared for publication about three years ago, after the close

3

4 PREFACE.

of the World's Columbian Exposition, and the work has been pushed,
with only brief interruptions, from that time until the date of its
completion.

The object of the work has been to bring toy,ether in one volume,
arranged for ready reference, a descriptive*list of such useful fibers of
the world as are known to be or that have been employed commercially,
or those prepared by the natives in the countries where they abound,
or that have been the subject of experiment, and shown at prominent
industrial exhibitions. Naturally the sim])le list of commercial species
would make an insignificant showing; the experimental list would be
much larger, the greater number of species therefore coming into the
category of "native" fibers, of which the Indian hemp {Apocymnn cim-
nahinvm)^t\iQ\)\sii\ii\i?it supplies several North American Indian tribes
with material for their cordage, fish lines, and nets, is an example.

The fiber economists find a most interesting study in these native
forms. The native or aboriginal American fibers have never before
been brought together in any way api)roaching a comi>lete list, and in
this particular especially it is hoped that the work will prove a valuable
contribution to the literature of the economic botany of our country.

In like manner, with the aid of Mexican and South American botanists
and observers, the Central and South American lists have been greatly
augmented. The Australian list is verj"- full, and with the list of fibers
of India, which have been so carefully worked up by Dr. George Watt
in the Dictionary of the Economic Products of India, and the lists of
the more commonly known species from other portions of the globe, the
work in its entirety presents a more complete catalogue of the world's
useful fibers than doubtless has before been brought together.

The more than I,(K)(> species of fibers that are enumerated have been
described under the names by which they are known to botanists rather
than under their common names, the scientific designation more clearly
indicating the precise jdant that is meant, while showing at the same
time its exact position in the vegetable kingdom. The common and
native names of the different species, however, as far as known, have
been given place in the ali)habetical arrangement, with the name of the
country making use of such common or native luimes, and followed by
a reference to the botanical species. The descriptive matter, therefore,
may be readily referred to under any name by which the species may
be known, provided it is known to this work.

In the Scientific nomenclature, the Index Kewensis has been gen-
erally followed, exceptions being made in the case of some American
species, which are referred to under names that are in most common
use by American botanists.

The common and native names comi)rise three classes: (1) The com-
mon English names or the recognized commercial names, which in
some instances have been derived from native appellations; (2) the
native nanies which are universalh' recognized as the common names
of the plants in the countries where grown; (.")) the tribal, vernacular.

PREFACE. O

or local names, which, in some instances, are unknown even m the
countries to which the plant is native in localities remote from the dis-
tricts where it grows. The vernacular names of the plants of India are
legion, nearly every district or province having several, which may be
either widely or only slightly dilferent, from the names of the same
plants growing in a neighboring ])rovince. It would be undesirable,
therefore, if not impossible, to reproduce a considerable number of
these local or vernacular names; and another trouble with such names
is the liability of error through their orthography. Many of them
doubtless have been spelled phonetically by the different authorities,
and the difference between chiii and jiti, as an example, is sufficiently
great to suggest two different plants, when the same thing is meant
by both spellings. Xo d(mbt vernacular names have been multiplied
in this manner, resulting in more or less confusion.

Another source of confusion has been the use of names geuerically
that have been applied to a particular species, or vice versa. ''Mahoe"
and "silk grass" as English common names and '•j>y7a" and "/.er^ff/o"
as native names are examples. The leratto of Jamaica is Agave Mor-
risii; the heratio of the Leeward Islands is Agave jwlyaiitha, but a
dozen other species of Agave may be known as keratto in other places,
or keratto may stand for the whole group of Agaves. Silk grass means
anything from coarse Agave iiber to the delicate filament drawn Irom
pineapple leaves. It will be seen, therefore, with the indiscriminate
use of such familiar common names, how difficult it may be to avoid
fiilling into error, and when we consider vernacular or tribal names,
error is almost unavoidable. Regarding this point the author and com-
piler begs to state that while the native names used in this work have
been the subject of most careful investigation, with valuable assistance
rendered by botanists in the countries from which they were derived,
errors no doubt have crept into the work. Many of the fibers collected
at the expositions, particularly those from Central and South American
countries, have borne on their labels only the native common or, in
some instances, the narrowly localized "country" names, and frequently
it has been utterly impossible to trace such names.

The roots of many of these native names are words common to the
vocabulary of the country, and when used in combinations form a com-
pound appellation, such as Enihira preta, or the black einbira, the root
of emhira signifying something resistant. This might be equivalent in
English to such a name as the "black tough." In unfamiliar South
American Spanish it at least afltbrds something that may stand for a
name, slender as the clue may be toward the identification of the plant
from which derived. Many of the East Indian vernacular names are
simply compounds of adjectives with such nouns in everyday use as
"tree," "root," "vine," etc. Some of these are equivalent in value,
therefore, to similar names employed in this country, as "blood-root,"
"gum-tree." and others.

6 PREFACE.

That many common names Lave been omitted from tliis work is not
the fault of the author. It is to be regretted that the example of Hille
brand, in the Flora of Hawaii, where a few brief lines of small type are
given to matters of general economic interest, such as the native names
and the native utility of the species, is nut universally followed.
Such a practice would greatly enhance the value of botanical publica-
tions both for the student and specialist. The admirable work of Dr-
J. W, Fewkes, Dr, Edw. Palmer, and others in this direction is to be
heartily commended.

Acknowledgments are due for valuable aid rendered in the prep-
aration of the work to Dr. D. Morris, assistant director of the Koyal
Kew Gardens; Dr. A. Ernst, director of the Xational Museum of
Caracas; Prof. Jose Ramirez, botanical department, Instituto Medico
Nacional, Mexico: Mr. F. V. Coville, Botanist of the United States
Department of Agriculture, and Dr. V. Havard, IT. S. A.; also to
Dr. W. 11. Guilfoyle, director of the Botanic Gardens, Victoria; Mr. K.
Tawara, agricultural bureau, Tokyo, Japan; Mr. J. H. Hart, director
of the botanic gardens of Trinidad; Mr. William Fawcett, director of
the i)ublic gardens of Jamaica; Mr. Eomulo Escobar (iMexican court,
W. C. E., 1893), Jaurez, Mexico; Mr. A. Dorca, of Lima, Peru;
Mr. Herbert Putnam, librarian of the Boston Public Library; Mr. Gus-
tav Niederlein, of the Phihidelphia (Jommercial Museum; Dr. George L.
Goodale, Harvard T diversity Botanical Museum ; Dr. L. M. Underwood,
department of botany, Columbia University, New York; Mr. J. R. Dodge,
formerly statistician of the Department of Agriculture; Prof. William
H. Seaman, United States Patent Oflice: Dr. Thomas Wilson, Dr. J. W.
Fewkes, Dr. Otis T. Mason, and Mr. Walter Hough, United States
National Museum; and Messrs. Lyster H. Dewey and E. S. Steele,
assistants, botanical division of the Department of Agriculture, for
their kind offices in the collection of material for the work and for
assistance in other ways. And I recall the name of one whose friendly
encouragement in all my endeavors will ever be held in grateful remem-
brance, the late Dr. George Brown Goode.

To the many friends who have aided in the work and whose names
only appear in the list of contributors, on another page, I also desire to
express my thanks for interesting notes of species, which have added
greatly to the value and completeness of the publication in its entirety.

For the photographs of palms from which fig. 2, PI. VI, and the fig-
ures on PI. IX were reproduced, I am indebted to Mr. W. S. Gavey, of
Brooklyn, K. Y.; for the print of California hemp, to Mr. Siduey E.
Meltzer, Bakersfiehl, Cal.; for the photograph of A<jar<^ dccipiens to
Mr. Alfred Monroe, Concord, Mass., and to Prof William Trealease,
of the ^lissouri Botanic Garden, for the original of fig. 2, PL XII.
The frontispiece and PI, XI are from negatives in possession of the
Department. xVll other plate illustrations are from negatives made by
the author.

C. R. D.

CONTEXTS.

Page.

Definition of tiliers 9

The ancient nses of libers 11

Principal fibers used commercially in the United States, and their imports. ... 15

Economic investigation 17

Chemical investigation 19

Micro-chemical study of fibers 22

The classification of fibers, based on uses and structure 22

Structural classification .* 23

Economic classification 27

Descriptive catalogue of w(nld's fibers 34

Authorities and contributors 338

Appendix 346

A. Brief statements regarding fiber machinery 346

B. Prof. W. H. Seaman, "On tlie identification of fibers" 352

C. Dr. Thomas Wilson, article on "Description and History of Lace" 359

7

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Pulling flax. Field o( Linum vsitatissimum. Frontispiece.

I 1 The Century plant, Ar/ancnmericana. 2, Tanipico hemp plant, Agave ln'ieracantUa.
II. 1, Sisal henip,'^l'/at'(' rUiida sisalana. 2. False -sisal hemp. Agave deeipiene.

III. 1, An unidentified Florida Agave. 2, Pineapple plant. Ananas sativa.

IV. 1 Ahunch of Cocoannts. Oocosniicifera. 2, Texas bear grass, i?a»i//in'oH.

T. 1, Louisiana jute, Coichorus. 2. Sunn hemp plants. Crutalaria juncea. 3. California hemp,
Cannabis sativa.
TI. 1, Forster's palm lily. Cordyline ausfralis. 2, The Chusan palm, Trachycarpusfovtunei.
VII. 1, Mauritius hemp plant. Furcrtea gigantea. 2, New Zealand flax. Phormium tenax.
VIII. 1, China gra-ss foliage, Boehmeria nivea. 2, Sponge cucumber, Lxiffa cegyptica. 3, A plant of
Sansevieria lonqiltora.
IX. 1, Talipot palm, Conij>l>fi inntnacnlifera. 2, Screw pine, Pandanus odnialissinnis.

X. 1. Cabbase palmetto! Sahal palmetto. 2. Saw palmetto, Serenoa nerrulata.
XI. The Tree Vuecaof the Mohave desert, Tueea arborescent.
XII. 1, Bear grass, Yitcca rilamcntosa. 2, A plant of Yucca sp , allied to bacratn.

Pag.'.

1. Woodv cella of the Buttonwood, after

Gray 9

2. Structural fiber. Transverse section

through a flbro vascular bundle of

sisal hemp, after Morris 10

3. Bast fiber. Flax highly niagnitied 26

4. Surface liber, (.^otton highly niagnilied 27

5. Spbagnummoss. Exampleofafal.se liber 28

6. Indian mallow, Abutilo/i ariceitnce 36

7. Plant of Acanthorliiza vjar-icewiczii 39

8. Mucujil A crocomia lasiospatha 40

9. An old jilant of Agave decipiens 4.5

10. Plant of Agare deserti 46

\\. 'Lea.ioi Agavehtteracantha 47

12. Blossoms of false sisal hemp plant 49

13. Pole plants of slipsof .lf;«»« Si'-saJaffa. .. .50

14. Leaves of J^jTflrc rij/it/o, the true sisal .. 51

15. Leaves of Ajoiic rf«"ijj('('(i.«, or false sisal. 51
IG. The Easpador or Mexican machine 52

17. The Van Buren machine used in the De-

partment's Florida experiments 53

18. Leaves of unideutitied Florida jljrafv?. . 54

19. Marram grass. Amniopliila arenaria ... 56

20. Indian hemp plant, Apuc.ymim cantta-

binu m 03

21. Young Betel-nut palm, Areca catechu .. 65

22. Sago palm of Malacca, Annga aacchari-

fera 60

23. Deviceformauufactiireof artificial silk- 67

24. Cane, Arundinaria gigantia 09

25. Swamp milk- weed, AirJ'^^iaA- i/icnroafff- 72

26. The Murumuru palm, Attrocaryum

murum uri't - 73

27. The Tecuma palm, Jl.stcoc«c^M)/i f»c»)iia 74

28. The Tucum palm. Astrocaryum vidgare 75

29. Bahia Piaasaba palm, .4<<oie«/i(n(/tcrt - 77

30. Hactris integrifolia 78

31. Leaves of -BaH/u'nirt ra/iKi 82

S2. A properly grown stalk of ramie 86

33. An improperly grown stalk of ramie... 88

34. Clusters of flower racemes of ramie 89

35. Eamie roots for planting, before subdi-

vision 90

36. Leaf of Broussonetia papyri/era 99

37. The hemp plant. Cannabis iativa 107

38. Kentucky hemp brake 109

39. Carc.r paniculata 110

40. The Kittoolpalm, C'aci/ofn iofus 112

41. Cocoanut tree, Cape Florida 121

42. Section of a cocoanut 122

43. Seed vessels of Corchortis capsularis . . . 126

44. Seed vessels of Cocc/ioc«« oii'<ocu(« 127

45. Plant of jute, Corchoriis cap.i^tlaris 128

46. Leaf and blossom of Crotalariajuncea - 140

47. A \t\-Aiit of Desn^onciis 7nacroacantln'i .. 149

48. Tree fern , Dickson ia 150

49. Plant of 7)(af()pna rfcaco 153

50. The oil palm, Elms gidneensis 155

51. Elymus arenarius 157

52. The Mexican broom root, Epicampes

)nacruura 158

Page.

53. Cotton grass, Eriophonim angusti/o-

Hum 160

54. The le.sser cotton grass, Eriophoruvi

latifolium 161

55. TiiQ AiiSSi\, Euterpe oleracea 164

56. Leaves of Ficits religiosn 165

57. The Ubimraua, 6ff'ono»'-<nnM?(i"rfocrt ... 172

58. Tlie cotton plant, Gossypium .'. 174

59. Sea Island cotton 175

60. Upland cotton 177

61. Peach palm, Guilielina siieriot^a 188

62. Leaf and blossom of /A7ji>c(/« W/i^)(.'!. .. 193

63. Loaves and blossoms of Hibiscus inos-

cheutos 196

64. Hopi Indian basket grass, JJHaria

jameiii 198

65. The Doum palm, MyplKeni' thebaica ... 201

66. The Bhabur grass, Ischceinum aiigusli-

folium 203

67. The Paxiuba, Iriartea exorrhiza 204

08. The Paxiviba-mira, /)•!'« /-tf a .sy^if/eri. .. 204

09, Jubcea ijjectabilis, greenhouse plant. .. 205

70. Juncus acutiis 206

71. The Jai)anese mat rush, J'i(ncu« ?/'««((« 206

72. Juncwi C!jngliim''ratus 207

73. The Para Piassaba palm, Leopoldinia

2)iassaba 216

74. TJie ancient flax plant, Linuni angvsti-

folium .' 218

75. Conimou fiax, L-inum iisitatissiminn 220

73, Method of forming stocks 225

77. A \eaf of Mac rozamia d^)ti.^onii 232

78. The Bussu palm, Manicaria saccifera . . 234

79. Maranta aru n din acea 236

80. Thaltki^iAm, Mauritia flexunsa 238

81. The Carana palm, Mavritia aculeata . . 238

82. The Ina,ja palm. Ma.ri)niliana regia ... 239

83. The Sago palm, Mctroxylon sagu 241

84. Leaf of 2Ionstera deliciosa 242

85. The banana, or plantain, 2lu.sa sap-

ientxim 246

86. The Bacc^ba, (Enocarpus bacaba 252

87. The Patawa, CEnoearjitis bataua 2.i3

88. Barnvarrt grass, Panicum crus.rialti. .. 258

89. The date palm, Phanix dartylifera 261

90. iieed-graaa, Phragmites com ii4vnis 265

91. Kentucky blue grass, J'oa pratensis . . . 273

92. The Raflia palm, Baphia ruffla 277

93. The Jupati palm, /("nt^j/iia run/fca 278

94. A plant of .B«i'P)!n?a ". 279

95. Tlie bulrush, <S'c(y/J!/s Jac((«?»'j« 291

96. Cord grass, Spartlna cyiiosuroidcs 301

97. Prairie grass. Sporobolus cryptandrus. 303

98. Tacca pinnati/ida, young plant 309

99. Plant of Th rihax pa rvijtora 312

100. Cat tail flag, Fypha angustifolia 319

101 . The Ciesar weed, Vrena lobata 321

102. Plant of Vrera tenax 323

103. Flax scutching device 347

rSEFl'L FIBER I'L.-WTS OF THE WORLD.

DEFINITION OF FIBERS.

The tissue of plauts when viewed nuder the microscope is seen to be
made up of cells which are compacted together as they are formed dur-
ing- the growth of the plant, thus slowly building up roots, stems, and
leaves. The walls of these cells iuclose the life germ, or protoplasm, and
the substance of which they are composed is known
as cellulose, which chemically is very similar to starch,

Eegardiug the size ot the cells of which common
plants are made up. Dr. Gray states that their ordi-
nary diameter in vegetable tissue is between one
tliree-hundredth and one five-hundredth of an inch.
The smaller of these sizes would allow as many as
125,000,000 cells in the compass of a cubic inch. "All
soft cellular tissue, as leaves, pith, and green bark, is
called parenchyma, while fibrous and woody plants
are composed of prosen(;hyma, that is, of peculiarly
formed strengthening cells." We are also told that
those cells that lengthen and at the same time thicken
their walls form the proper woody fiber, or wood cells;
those of larger size and thinner walls, which are thick-
ened only in certain parts so as to have peculiar mark-
ings, and which often are seen to be made up of a row
of cylindrical cells, with the pa'rtitions between ab-
sorbed or broken away, are called ducts, or sometimes
vessels. There are all gradations between wood cells
and ducts, and between both these and common cells.
But in most plants the three kinds are fairly distinct.
Wood cells, or woody fibers, consist of tubes, com-
monly between one and two thousandths of an inch.
in diameter. A highlj^ magnified group of these cells from Button-
wood (after Gray) illustrates the manner in which wood cells are put
together, their ends pointed and overlai)ping, thus strengthening the
whole. (See fig. 1.)

Wood cells also occur in the bark, though they are longer, finer,
and tougher than those found in the wood. They form the princi-
pal part of fibrous bark, or the bast layer, and are called Bast

9

Fig. 1.— Woody cells
of Buttonwooil.

10

USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

cells. These give tougliuess and flexibility to the structure, and
the extracted bundles of these cells form the filamentous product
known economically as fiber, such as flax, hemp, and jute, derived
from Dicotyledonous plants. "In Monocotyledons the fibrous cells
are found built up with vessels into a composite structure known as
fibro vascular bundle." (Dr. Morris.) Such fiber occurs in the palms,

and in the fleshy-leaved
Agaves, like the century
plant, the fibro-vascular
bundles being found, not in
the outside covering of the
trunk, as in bark, but
throughout the stem, or leaf,
forming what may be termed
(in an Agave leaf, for exam-
ple) the supi)ortiug struc-
ture, or that which gives
rigidity and toughness to
the leaf. These filaments or
bundles of elongated, thick-
ened cells, pressed firmly to-
gether, when extracted or
^ „ ^. ,, ,, . .^ . , „, separated from the soft cell

section through a fibro-vascular hiuidle embedded in maSS by whicll they are SUr-

(PaR) the cellular parenchyma : S. S. starch layer, form- roni^(](»(l maV bC kuOWU IS
ing a ring round the sclerenchyma (SCL.), '^itli the fiber ttu j?

cells closely packed together ; M. L., middle lamella : B. STRUCTURAL 1 iber, Of

S., bundle slieath; X., xylem, or wood cells; P. H , phloem, wllicll the fiber of Sisal hemp

or bast cells, ■ 300. . , , oi ,. r» v

IS an example, (feee fig. 2.)
The simple cells already described, when single or agglutinated
and produced on the surfaces of the leaves, stems, and seeds of plants
as hairs, form a fibrous material also valuable, to which the name Sur-
face Fiber has been given. Such hairs are found enveloping the seeds
of j)lants, and when they are produced in the bolls or capsules of spe-
cies of Gossypium form the cotton of commerce.

The fiber bundles, therefore, whether occurring as bast fiber or struc-
tural fiber, or whether in the form of simple cells, as surface fiber, may
be regarded as the spinning units, and a flax thread is but an aggrega-
tion of bundles of bast cells purified and cleansed of all extraneous
matter and simply twisted together. In the perfecting of processes,
therefore, for separating, cleansing, and purifying the bundles of cell
structure known as fibers a knowledge of their physical structure is
absolutely essential. The rotting of a fiber is simply the breaking down
of the cellular structure or complete separation of the individual cells,
by which means the filament is resolved into its smallest parts, each
part being measured by the length to which the original cell attains:
during the period of its growth.

THE ANCIENT USES OF FIBERS. 11

THE ANCIENT USES OF FIBERS.

It has already been noted as an interesting- fact, tliougli in no wise a
remarkable one, that the most valuable commercial tibers of to-day
were the prominent fibers of ancient times, illnstrating, in a word, the
survival of the fittest. Flax, cotton, hemp, the liliaceous fibers, many of
the palms, reeds, and grasses were known and valued, in past ages on
both hemispheres, being employed in connection with the common animal
fibers, as wool, hair, and silk. When or how vegetable fibers first came
to be used will never be known, but it is i^ossible that they were first
employed in aiding man to secure his food, as the natives of every
country from the burning tropics to the frigid north have drawn
largely ui^on the resources of the vegetable kingdom for their fish
lines and nets. And it might further be conjectured that the rude
knotting of the twisted filaments of fiber in the form of nets may have
first suggested weaving and the substitution of vegetable clothing for
the skins of animals.

Flax has a greater antiquity than any of the fibers of whicli we have
knowledge, for its cultivation goes back to the Stone Age in Europe.
It is known to have been manufactured by the Swiss Lake Dwellers, a
i:)eople contemporaneous with the long-extinct mammoth and other
great mammals of the (Quaternary Epoch, as specimens of the straw,
fiber, fabrics, etc., prepared by them are preserved in the nuiseums. It
is sui)posed that the species cultivated at that remote period of the
world's history, concerning which no written records remain, was Linum
august if olium, while at a later period, though still remote by four or five
thousand years, the Egyptians cultivated the species known to-day as
commercial flax {Linum usitatissiiuum).

Before the books of Genesis and Exodus were written the Egyptians
were skilled in spinning and weaving flax, for both the culture and the
manufacture of this textile are jiictorially carved upon the bas-reliefs
and upon the walls of palaces, temples, and tombs. Egyptian fabrics
of linen 4,500 years old and preserved in the museums and among^
the mummy cloths — fabrics from the most delicate tissues to linen-like
sailcloth — have l)een found, and as many as 300 yards were sometimes
used to enwrap one body. The linens were both white and dyed in col-
ors— yellow, red, and purple — and they were handsomely embroidered.
Spinning and weaving in Bible times were household industries, as we
are assured by many references to women and flax. The Phoenicians
did much to extend the culture of flax and the art of weaving linen, as
their ships plowed the Atlantic more than three thousand years ago,
even journeying to Britain, for they were a nation of traders, and there
is every reason to believe that the Chaldeans excelled in spinning and
weaving flax, while the Babylonians centuries before Christ were noted
for their luxury and the high state of development of their textile art,
flax, cotton, and wool being manufactured by them.

12 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

Wool was more grown in ancient Greece than flax, though the latter
textile was produced in certain favorable districts and imported in
large quantities for maiuiiacture. There was a distinct linen industry,
slaves being the operatives, as well as a household industry, for
whether in the cottage or the palace, if possible, a special room was set
apart for the occupation of weaving. In Homeric times not only were
maids and ladies of high degree familiar with weaving, but with
spinning and embroidery, and the distaft" and spindle were often made
of ivory or of gold. As in Greece, so in IJome there were regular
linen establishments, and at the same time a domestic maiuifactnre
practiced by maids and matrons. Woolen was earlier used for cloth-
ing by the PiOmans; then linen was employed, first for domestic uses,
then as a dress material, the women adopting it before the men.

Eegarding the early use of linen in our own country, the time when
American history began to be made is so recent that the word ancient
does not apply. It has been stated that both flax and hemp were known
to the ancient Mexicans or Aztecs, though I can refer to no records
which relate to their use.

While it has been shown that cotton was the ancient national textile
of India, its cultivation and use were by no means confined to that
country. Flax was the aristocratic textile of P^gypt, and was gen-
erally cultivated, but cotton was grown in the southern part of the
country. Cotton and linen were sometimes woven together (tlax warp
and cotton woof), just as mixed ^'tow linen" is made in the mountains
of Virginia and North Carolina to-day. These Egyptian mixed fabrics,
as well as pure cotton cloths, were largely used in upholstery as the
coverings of chairs and couches, and probably also as drai)ery hang-
ings. The cottons of India weie famous, and Hindoo muslins were
formerly produced that were so fine that when laid upon the grass and
wet with dew they became invisible. The marvelous fabrics of Cos
and Tarentum, by some said to have been made from cotton, were more
likely silk, as they are described as floating like mist around the female
form, disclosing the contour like a gauze veil. There is also the record
of a muslin turban 30 English yards in length, contained in a cocoanut
set with jewels, which was so exquisitely fine that it could scarcely
be felt by the touch. It is impossible to say how' far back into the
ages cotton was first used in India, and though it is referred to 800
B. C, we may be sure that the industry was old at that time. Cotton
was a late introduction into Greece, though it was known 200 B. C,
and even linen was an introduced textile, which came sloAvly into favor
at a time when wool was almost universally used.

Turning to the Western World and to the aboriginal civilization of
the Incas, we find the ancient Peruvians, with their simple handlooms,
were enabled to produce fabrics that were marvels of design and
exquisite in color and finish. Both cotton and wool were used in the
difl'erent articles of dress of these people with other fibers. The Aztecs,

THE ANCIENT USES OF FIBERS. 15

or ancient Mexicaus, Avere familiar with cotton, as well as several otber
vej^etable libers. With cotton and feathers we are told they produced
a soft and beautiful tabric, which was used for mantles and blankets,
iind examples of their plain cotton fabrics are said to have been as fine
as some of tlie imported linens of the present age. Eegarding the early
use of cotton on this continent, there are abundant records to show
that it has been cultivated more or less generally for four or five centu-
ries. How long it has been known to the early ancestors of some of the
native Indian tribes of our own country will never be known, although
from the fact that its use is required in religious ceremonials, as in the
Hopi Indian tribe, for example, we may be sure that such use is no
modern innovation.

Among the ancient libers of India, we have early allusions, in the
Institutes of Menu, to several i)rominent fibers, particularly where
the material of the sacrificial thread is prescribed. Cotton, sana, and
woolen thread are mentioned. Sana has been supposed to refer to Sunn
hemj), one of the commercial fibers of the present time {Croi(daria
juncea). I)r. Watt says the possible sana fibers of the Sanscrit authors
were Sunn, above mentioned, sa}q)at, or Hibiscns cannnhinus., and com-
mon hemp [Cannabis saliva). On the whole, the evidence is in favor of
Sunn. Hemp grows wild throughout India, just as it is found in a wild
state in many parts of our own country, but is regarded as the source
of the drug known as bhang, or hasheesh, rather than as a fiber plant.
We know that the use of hemp among the ancients was very limited. It
has nomention in the Scriptures, and it israrely referred toby theheathen
writers of antiquity. It was used by the Scythians at least five hundred
years before the Christian era, and some writers attribute to its cultiva-
tion an antiquity more remote by a thousand years; and it was known
to the Chinese at a period quite as remote. The Romans were familiar
with the use of hemp for sails and cordage, though not until after the
dawn of the Christian era.

The China grass fiber, more poi)ularly known as ramie, has been grown
in the Orient from time immemorial, and modern writers have.attempted
to prove that it was contemporaneous with flax several thousand years
ago in Egypt, if, indeed, it was not used for mummy cloth. Dr. Watt
also advances a suggestion regarding ramie which would give it a great
antiquity in India. He states that frequent reference is made in the
Eamagana to a garment called the kshanma, and goes on to say that
while Ishaxma is generally regarded as a name for linen, the word
strongly resembles the Chinese name of the grass-cloth plant, or ramie,
which is Chn-ma, schou-ma, or, as now most commonly written, ichou-ma.
The use of ramie fiber is undoubtedly old, but how ancient, history does
not inform us.

The date palm, as we know, aflbrded a valuable material for cordage
in Egypt in very earlj' times, as the modern excavations have revealed
to us, and the fiber is valued quite as highlj^ by the present inhabitants

14 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

of the couutiy: and the aucient Chakleaiis, or Babylonians, are said to
have used this pahii lor everything— food, clothing, wine, and the timber
for tbeir habitations. There is plenty of evidence that palm fiber was
employed throughout this entire region of the ancient world.

Pliny tells us that even the papyrus [Cuperus papyrus) was used for
cordage in Egypt, as well as for matting, curtains, and sails, and
Warden says that small boats were sometimes made from tbe plant.
Ancient vessels of bulrushes are mentioned V)y Isaiah, and Lucan alludes
to the manner of binding and sewing them with papyrus. The use of
papyrus for paper is even more interesting. (See description of tlie
mode of preparation under the title Cyperun papyrus in the catalogue.)
In the realm of rank aquatic vegetation we may note a reed known as
Arundo donax, which has been regarded as the ''reed" of the Scrip-
tures: '"A bruised reed shall he not break, and the smoking Hax shall
lie not quench.'' (The Hebrews employed flax for their lamp wicks.)
Dr. Moore tells us that the heroes of Homer made their arrows of tlie
Arundo (Iliad XI), and that the tent of Achilles was thatched with its
leaves. A coarse grass {Spartium junceum) has been used in Italy as a
fiber plant from ancient times, its Italian name being Gincstra de Spar/na.
It is mentioned by Pliny. It was also largely used by the Greeks and
Eomans for many i)urposes. Another ancient Egyptian fiber grass is
known as Teft' (Port abyssinica), said to have been the "straw" tbat
was used by tbe ancient Egyptians in brlckmaking. The ancients
were also familiar with the use of flexible twigs for tying material, the
name vihuru<( being used for such substances. Twigs of Viburnum
cassinoides are used for such purposes in the present age.

In the Western Hemisphere the fiber of two species at least of Agave
were employed by the ancient 3Iexicans or Aztecs, together with ])alm
fiber and very coarse cotton, as clotiiing for the poorer classes. Cloth
from the Agave was called neqiten, and to day the Yucatan name of the
commercial sisal hemp, or Ayave rigida, is henequen. This may have
been one of the ancient Mexican species, but as the history of their civ-
ilization was grotesquely recorded by. the use of ideographic paintings,
and not by means of written language upon books or scrolls, such fine
distinctions as botanical species are not possible. Agave fiber was also
used to a limited extent by the ancient Peruvians, though wool and cot-
ton were held in first esteem. In the burial mounds of the south-
M^estern United States the remains of fibers are frequently found. Agave
and Yucca fiber being common. Pvcmains of bast fibers are also found,
but they have not been identified.

The subject is interesting, but it is not possible, on these pages, to
give more than an outline, chiefly for the pur])ose of showing that tbe
most valued of the commercial fibers of to day were among tbe useful
fiber species of tbe ancient world.

FIBERS USED COMMERCIALLY IX UNITED STATES. 15

PRINCIPAL FIBERS ISKD COMMERCIALLY IN THE UNITED STATES,

AND THEIR IMPORTS.

Of tlie two dozen species of commercial fibers used in the United
States, 20 figure in tlie list of imported raw products. Taking into
account, also, the imported manufactures from librous substances and
some of tlie rougher manufactures from libers or fibrous substances
produced at home, the complete list of American commercial fibers
uiay be swelled to 30 species, many of these being unimportant.

There are six bast fibers, as follows: Flax, Liniim usituthsiinumj
China grass, Boehmeria nivea (including Rhea, B. tenacissima) ; hemp,
Cioinabis sativd ; jute, Corchoriis cap.sularis and C. olitoriKs; Sunn
liemp, Crotalaria jnnvea, and Cuba bast, Hihlticns tiUaceu.s ; all except-
ing the last beiug spinning fibers, the Cuba bast finding employment
in millinery. There are two surface fibers: Cotton, Gossi/i>i)tm spp.,
and liaftia, BapJiia ruffia. The list of structural fibers numbers 15, rep-
resenting Agaves, palms, ai.d grasses, as follows: Sisal hemp, Agace
rigiiJa (varieties); Manila hemp, Musa tcxtUis; Mauritius, Furcrwa
gigantea, and Xew Zealand fiax, Fhormium tenax, cordage fibers; Tam-
pico, or Istle, Agave heteracantha ; Bahia piassaba, Attalea funifera;
Para piassaba, Leopoldinia piassaha; Mexican whisk, or Broom root,
Epicampex macronra, and Cabbage palmetto, Sabal palmetto, brush
fibers; Crin vegetal, Chanuvrops huniilis; Spanish moss, Tillandsia
Ksneoidcs; Saw palmetto, Serenoa scrmhUa ; Cocoauut fiber, Cocos
nucifera, upholstery and matting fibers; Esparto grass, Sti2)a tenacis-
sima, for paper manufacture; and Vegetable sponge, Ltiffa a'gyptica,
as substitute for bath sponges. The two species of i^almetto and the
■Spanish moss for vegetable hair are wholly produced in this countrj^

xVs to the sources of supply of these fibers, fiax is imported chiefly
from Belgium, Russia, Holland, Italy, the United Kingdom of Great
Britain and Ireland, and from Canada. China grass or ramie comes
from China (in very small quantities). Hemp is derived from Russia,
France, Belgium, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy, the ISTetherlauds,
and British East Indies (the latter in trifling quantity); jute from
India, and Cuba bast from the West Indies. The imports of cotton
are chiefly produced in Egypt and Peru, though small quantities
may be derived from other countries. Raffia, used as agricultural tie
bands, comes from Africa.

The sisal hemp supply is produced in Yucatan, small quantities being
produced in Cuba and the Bahamas. Manila hemp is a product of the
Philippine Islands, cebu hemp being a trade variety. Mauritius or aloe
fiber comes from Africa, and the source of supply of New Zealand flax
is indicated by its name. -Tampico, or Istle, is a Mexican product, and
the Bahia and Para piassabas, or " bass '' fibers, are collected from Bra-
zilian palms. There are other species of bass (see Bass in catalogue)
derived from African palms, which' formerly never came to the United

16 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

States, and now, if at all, ouly in trifling- quantities. Broom root is a
Mexican product, the root of a tall, wiry grass. The two palmetto
fibers are produced from uncultivated species of Florida palms, wliile
the Crin vegetal is derivedfrom an allied palm, growing in Algeria. The
vegetable hair from Spanish moss is prepared iu South Carolina and
other Gulf States, while cocoanut fiber comes from the P:ast Indies.
Esparto grass is produced in Algeria, Spain, and Portugal, and vege-
table sponge comes largely from Japan.

Other commercial species that might be enumerated are imported iu
a ])artinlly prepared state or as manufactures. Such fibrous substances
appear in the form of straw plait from Italy, Japan, and China, chiefly,
the eastern floor mattings, and basketry from various substances. In
this account, however, ouly the raw fibers are noted.

The fibers produced in this country in commercial quantity are cot-
ton, hemp, flax, palmetto fiber, and vegetable hair from Spanish moss.
Hemp and flax production should be largely extended; jute produc-
tion and the growth of sisal' hemp, pineapple, and bowstring hemp are
possible. Cane fiber can be produced in large quantities, and there
are doubtless other kinds that might form the basis of local liber
industries.

The paper materials other than Esparto are not considered in tliis
category. The native fibrous substances that might be employed in
lieu of cellulose from our forest trees, for paper pulp, wonld make a long
list, at the head of which might be placed the waste fiber from a million
acres of flax produced only for seed. A day is surely coming when the
question of securing new pulp materials will present itself, and it is to
be hoped that from the long list of native species of fibrous plants
enumerated in this work something will be found that will snp[)ly at
low cost a better paper material for common use than wood puij),
which has nothing to recommend it but availability of raw material
and cheapness.

The following table of quantities and values of vegetable libers
imported into the United States for the year ended June 30, ISiU), has
been made up from figures supplied by the lUueau of Statistics of the
Treasury Department.

Iinporif of vef/etable fibers iiiio the I'nited Siuits for year ending June ^Vt, 1S96.

Fiber.

Quantity. Vah.e. '^'"t"^^"^''

Tang. Dollars. Dollan.

222 39, 884 l"

Broom root

ChiBa grass, or rninio '

Cocoanut fiber ' '

Cotton 27,075 i 6.578.212

Crinv^getal ' 1,318 I 213.818

Cuba bast ' ,

Esparto grass '

Flax straw

Flax, not hackled

Fiax, dressed line '

Flax, tow of

' Included in all other

32 j fl26 28

.^, 788 1 909, 6ri8 240

1.322 I 6:«. 308 483

1.711 261,082'!, 152

ECONOMIC INVESTIGATION.

17

Imports of vegetable fibers into the United States, etc — Continued.

Fiber.

Hemp, not hackled

Hemp, <lie8sed line '

Hemp, tow of

Istle, or Tanipico tiUer.

Jute

Jute butts

KittuT^

Tons.

8, ;J0G

93

244

12, 205

23, :i93

65, 599

Dollars.

1, 030, 547

22, 847

27, 205

717, 585

957, 054

1, 044, 152

Value Iter
ton.

Dollars.
124
243
111

58
40
15

.k'^

Manila hemp

Maiiritiua liemp''.
New Zealand flax.
Palmyra ■■'

3, 594, 901

5,548

Piassaba and Ba.ss fiber ^

Kattau and Bamboo^

Sisal grass

Vegetable sponge '^

All other, and waste

20, 616

3, 372, 346

183, 768

Total.

221,495 I 19,604,961

' Flax, dressed line, is dutiable at $;!3.G0 per ton ; dressed line of hemp at $22.40 per ton ; all others,
free.
■^ Included in all other.

The $19,000,000 to $20,000,000 represented by the imports of raw
fibers, in the above table, must not be taken as the vahie of tlie fiber
industry to this country. It should be remembered that considerably
larger quantities of many of these fibers are manufactured in other
countries for export to the Cnited States, and that the total value of
our imports of "raw and manufactured"' is ec^ual to three or four times
the value represented in the table. Our raw and dressed flax imports
amount to perhaps $1,750,000, Avhile the imports of flax manufactures
have reached $12,000,000. Even Mexican manufactures from sisal
grass, such as hammocks, etc., are sold in the United States, and the
imports of cordage and yarns from various fibers is considerable.
Where $20,000,000 worth of fibers are now manufactured in this coun-
try it might be possible to manufacture $40,000,000 worth, and thus
double the home fiber industries; and it might easily be possible to
produce home-grown fibers to the extent of half of the suppjy needed
in the manufactures that these industries represent.

ECONOMIC INVESTIGATION.

While 30 of 40 species of plants supply the world's demand for com-
mercial fibers, hundreds of fibrous plants could readily be enumerated,
the simple fiber substance in many of which to outward appearance is
just as good as the fiber of some of the commercial species widely cul-
tivated, and for which they would be the substitutes. This country
imports millions of dollars' worth of jute annually, yet some of the plants
recognized as native weeds in the United States contain stronger and
better fiber. That many of them are capable of producing a, good
quality of fiber has been known for years, yet they are not utilized.
But they are interesting and are the subject of constant inquiry, as tlie
masses of their filaments, disintegrated and semibleached on the parent
12247— No. 9 2

18 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

stalk by the winter storms, attract atteiitiou; aud ofteu the observer,
regarding bis discover^^ as new and considering it the source of a vaiu-
able, undeveloped industry, writes to learn the name and history of the
species, how far the plant is susceptible of cultivation, and what price
the fiber will bring in the market. In consideriog such a plant the first
question is not, can we grow the species, but what will be its uses in man-
ufacture, or, in other words, what commercial fiber will it either replace
or become a substitute for. In most instances the inquiry need not be
carried further, for the i)resent commercial fibers represent in a sense
those that have stood the test of experience, and until these are crowded
out by new conditions, or through what might be termed evolution in
the economic arts, they will have no chance. The only opportunity
that may be alibrded these secondary forms is in the creation of special
uses to which they may be peculiarly adapted, for which the standard
forms known to the market price current are not so well fitted.

Should a fiber be considered "promising,'' it would need to l)e sub-
jected to chemical and microscopic study to determine the length of the
ultimate fiber cell, the proportion of cellulose, and any other elements
which would give it its rating among textiles. By such technical study
we are enabled to obtain direct knowledge of the species and in a
measure to avoid long and costly economic experimentation.

Experiments for the development or extension of vegetable fiber
industries under governmental auspices or direction have been insti-
tuted at difierent times in many countries, and such experiments date
back nearly one hundred years. In some instances these have been
confined to testing the strengths of native fibrous substances for com-
I)arison with similar tests of commercial fibers, as the almost exhaust-
ive experiments of Roxburgh in India early in the present century.
Another direction for Government experimentation has been the testing
of maclnnes to supersede costly hand labor in the preparation of the raw
material for market, or in the development of chemical processes for
the further preparation of the fibers for manufacture, or in microscopic
and chemical investigation. The broadest field of experiment, however,
has been the cultivation of the plants, either to introduce new indus-
tries as sources of national wealth or to economically develop those
which require to be fostered. The introduction of ramie culture is an
example of the first instance, the fostering of the almost extinct fiax
industry of our grandfathers' days an illustration of the second.

The United States Government has conducted experiments or insti-
tuted inquiries in the fiber interest at various times in the last fifty
years, but it is only since 18^0 that an office of practical experiment
and inquiry has been established by the Department of Agriculture,
that has been continued through a term of years. This is known as
the Office of Fiber Investigations.

The work of this branch of the Department of Agriculture has been
mainly directed toward the development or introduction of those fibers

CHEMICAL INVESTIGATION. 19

nhich we do not produce cominercially, but which are ca])able of
cultivation in tlie United States, and whicli will add to our national
resources. This work has been prosecuted by the importation and
distribution of the seeds of fiber jdants, by encouraging and directing
field experiments, by testing fiber machines, and by affording informa-
tion, both through personal correspondence and through a series of
publications.^

flHEMU'AL INVESTKi^ATION.

_n presentnig this phase of the study of fibers I can but refer to the
valuable work that has been accomplished iu England in the field of
chemical research by Messrs. Cross, Bevan, and King, and 1 Avill
refer particularly to the Keport on Indian Fibers- and the work on Cel-
lulose,^ the latter being a recent publication. The methods adopted
in the chemical stud}' of fibers and the processes essential to proper
determinations are as follows:

Moisture. — All the celluloses hold in their ordinary state a certain
proportion of moisture, which, within the limits of variation (one-half
of 1 i^er cent) due to atmospheric changes, is definite and characteristic
of each fiber. It is noteworthy that the pro])ortion of hygroscopic
moisture is an index of susceptibility of attack by hydrolytic agents;
it is certainly true that the textile fibers of the highest class are dis-
tinguished by their relatively low moisture. It is scarce!}' necessary to
say that the moisture is determined by drying a weighed quantity of
the fiber. It is necessary to raise the temperature to 110^ to drive off
the whole of the water; at 100'^ a fiber will often retain 1 percent of its
weight. Owing to the variations in this constituent, it is exi^edient to
express all the results of analysis as percentages of the d)y fiber.

Mineral eoustitnents. — The ash left on incinerating the fiber :s deter-
mined iu the usual way. The proportion is low hi the ligno-celluloses,
higher in the pecto-celluloses, especially when the proportion of non-
cellulose is high. Cellular tissue further contains a higher proportion

'The special reports issued previous to this work are:

1. A Keport on Flax, Hemp, Kamie, and Jute, Illust., pp. 104, 1890.

2. Kecent Progress iu the Ramie Industry in America, i)p. 1(5, 1891.

3. A Keport on Sisal Hemii Culture iu the United States, pp. 59, IHust., 1891.

4. A Report on Flax Culture for Fiber in tlie United States (and Europe), pp. 93,
Ilhist., 1892.

5. A Report on the Leaf Fiheis of the I'nited States. ]>p. 73, Illust., 1893.

6. A Report on the Uncultivated Rast Fibers in the United States, pji. 54, Illust.,
1894.

7. A Report on the Cultivation of Ramie in the United States, i)p. (iS, Illust., 1895.

8. A Report on the Culture of Heni]) aud .Jute in tlie United States, pp. 43, Illust.,
1896.

Five Annual Reports have been issued, which will be found in the Yearbook, or
Annual Reports of the Department of Agriculture, 1890 to 1895; also Farmers' Bulle-
tin No. 27, Flax for Seed aud Fiber, i)p. Ki, 1895.

-See Cross, Bevan, and King, list of authorities.

^See Crossand. Bevan.

20 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

of mineral coustituents than the fibers, and an admixture of the former
therefore raises the jiereentage.

Hydrolysis. — Tliere are two classes of reagents whicli intensify that
resolving action of water upon organic bodies known as hydrolysis;
they are the acids and alkalis. The destructive action of acids has not
been included in the scheme of analysis. The action of boiling dilute
alkalis, however, eftecting a simpler resolution and involving very
important points in the practical applications of the fibers, gives results
which form a necessary part of their diagnosis.

Example of treatment: The fiber is boiled i<i) for five minutes in a
solution of caustic soda (1 per cent Na20), washed, dried, and weighed —
the loss of weight presents the i)roportion of the fiber wiiich yiehls to
the solvent action of the alkali; {b) in a second portion the boiling is
continued for one liour — the loss of weight is an indication of the
"degrading" action of the alkali. In many of the pecto-celluloses the
hydrolytic action of the prolonged boiling is such that the noncellulose
is almost completely dissolved away. The power of resistance of a
fiber to the action of bleaching p:ocesses, as well as the resisting of
'•wear" of the manufactured fabric in subsecjuent washings (launder-
ing), where strong alkaline soaps or even chemicals are used, is shown.

CeUulose. — Celluloses, although similar in external characteristics,
are of widely different chemical constitution, and vary considerably in
their power of resisting the further action of oxidizing and hydrolytic
action. A determination of the value aiul composition of cellulose is
made as follows: A fresh specimen having been boiled in the dilute
alkali (1 per cent ]S'a20), is well "washed and exposed for one hour, at
the ordinary temperature, to an atmosphere of chlorine gas. It is then
removed, washed, and treated with a solution of sodium sulphite,
which is slowly raised to the boiling point. After two or three min-
utes' boiling, it is washed, on a filter when necessary, though in most
cases it may be so placed in a funnel as to act as its own filter. Lastly,
it is treated with dilute acetic acid, washed, dried, and weighed. The
percentage yield on the raw fiber is the most important criterion of
its composition and value.

Mercerizing. — This refers to the action of concentrated solutions of
the alkalis upon vegetable fibers, particularly the compound fibers or
those which are made up of a number of fibrils aggregated into a bun-
dle, the larger portion of fiber consisting of such bundles. " The action
of the alkali often causes a very profound change in structure, not
only dissecting the bundles, but altering the contour of the fibrils.
The treatment takes its name froiu Mercer, v»'hose original studies were
for the determination of the structural modification which cotton under-
goes when treated with strong alkalis.

Niira1ion.—\\\\e\i a fiber is exposed for one hour to a nitrating acid,
such as a mixture of equal volumes of concentrated nitric and sul-
phuric acids, one of the most important results which follow is an

CHEMICAL INVESTIGATION.

21

increase in weiglit. An external cliaracteiistic Avhicli should also be
noted is color. A great deal of information regarding the constitution
of a fiber is ascertained by this process.

Carbon penrnfaf/es from comhustiou. — This process consists in burn-
ing" the substance Avith chromic anhydride in presence of sulphuric
acid and leading over the gaseous products (CO and CO2) into an appa-
ratus in which their volume can be exactly measured. The two oxides
of carbon having tlie same volume, the quantity of carbon in unit
volume is independent of the composition of the gas, which therefore
only reipiires to be measured. The carbon in the typical (cotton) cellu-
lose is 44.4 per cent; the compound celluloses; on the other hand, range
themselves for the n^.ost part into two groups — (1) of lower carbon per-
centage (40-43), (2) of higher (45-50), in the former the pecto-celluloses
are included, the ligno-cclluloses in the latter. This is considered a
prominent chemical constant of the fiber substance.

Acid imrijieation. — The object of this treatment is to clean the fiber
and remove accidental ijnpurities, Avhile occasioning the minimum loss
of weight and therefore alteration in conij^osition. For this purpose
acetic acid (20 per cent) is chosen, the fiber being heated with the acid
to the boiling point, then removed and washed first with alcohol and
lastly with water, dried, and weighed. The loss in weight sustained is
thus determined. It is in the fiber thus purified that the carbon per-
centages are determined.

In a report on the miscellaneous fibers in the Colonial and London
Exhibition of 1886, by C. F. Cross, the scheme of analysis is thus
briefly stated in tabular form:

Moisture Hygroscopic water, or water of condition.

Ash Total residue left on ignition.

Hydrolysis (a) Loss of weight ou boiling raw liber five

minutes in 1 per cent solution of caustic
soda.

Hydrolysis (t) Loss of weight ou continuing to boil one

hour.

Cellulose. Whit(^ or bleached residue from following

treatment: (1) ]?oil in 1 per cent NaOH
five minutes; (2) exposure to chlorine gas
one hour; (3) boil in basic sodium sul-
phite.

Mercerizing Loss on treating one hour with 33 per cent

solution caustic potash, cold.

Nitration Weight of nitrated product obtained by

treatment with mixture equal volumes
of nitric and sulphuric acids one hoar, in
the cold.

Acid purification .. .Raw liber boiled one minute with acetic
acid {'20 per cent), washed with water and
alcohol, and dried.

Carbon ])ercentage. .The carbon in the fiber from al)ove, deter-
mined by combustion.

Separate portion
taken for each
determimation.
Results calcu-
lated in percent-
age of dry sub-
stance.

22 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

THE MICRO-CHEMICAL STUDY OF FIBERS,

The iui(;roscope is a valuable adjuuct to tlie study of fibers, uot only
for tlie purpose of deterraiuiug tlie dimensions of the ultimate cell, the
thickness of the cell walls, the arrangement of the different kinds of
cells in the plant tissue, and the relative abundance of the fiber cells,
but all these taken together, with the employment also of certain chem-
ical reagents, giving a ready means of determining the identity of the
species of fiber where doubt exists as to the kind of fiber that has been
employed in the particular manufacture under investigation. The
methods to be pursued in this kind of fiker analysis should be fully
understood by the textile student, as well as the industrialist and all
others who handle fibers and fabrics commercially.

Among the text-books that may be consulted no better can be sug-
gested than the valuable work of M. Vctillart, of Paris, who has given
many years of study to the subject. As the publication is in French, it
is not readily available to f^nglish students. An abstract of the meth-
ods pursued by M, Yetillart appears, however, in Appendix B in the
valuable paper "On the identification of fibers," which has been spe-
cially prepared for this work by Prof. William H. Seaman.

The identification of fibers involves both chemical and microscopic
study, in many instances microscopic determination only being possible
with the employment of the resources of the chemist, and the use of
both systems, therefore, is essential. As the work of Professor Seaman
covers the ground most thoroughly, a further consideration of the sub-
ject here is unnecessary.

THE CLASSIFICATION OF FIBERS, BASED ON USES AND STRUCTURE.

Among the many wants of man tnere are two which in all ages and
in every clime have been regarded as necessities — food and the cover-
ing of the body. The first is an absolute essential to life; the second,
an adjunct either to comfort or appearance. In supplying the second
necessity man has lused the bark, stems, leaves, and roots of trees,
shrubs, vines, grasses, and the fibrous growth often provided by
nature to i^rotect their fruits during the period of development; he has
employed the skins of animals, their shorn hair or wool, and, lastly,
the cocoons of the silkworm.

At first vegetable substances could scarcely have been employed, for
primitive man was satisfied with the skin of an aninial girded about his
loins; but in time, with the dawn of creative intelligence, the filaments
of bark and wool and hair were rudely twisted into threads and
coarsely woven. These fibers twisted again into larger threads, as fish
Hues, when knotted together formed fish nets, with which he was
enabled to secure food, or a number of these threads wrought together
made him cordage. His wants increasing as his inventive faculties
were more and more developed and he became more intelligent, he felt

STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION. '^6

the need of various utensils in the domestic ecouoniy, aud pottery,
trays, aud baskets were fasliioued from clay, from twigs of bushes or
trees, from rushes and the leaves of palms and similar plants. Aud
when caves or overhanging cliffs and rock shelters ceased to be his
protection from the elements he learned to build huts and to thatch
them with palms and grasses. Having now entered upon a domiciliary
existence and new wants being created, mats and screens were woven
from reeds and sedges or from strips of palm, and primitive man had
entered upon a kind of barbaric civilization.

Aboriginal mau is primitive in all ages, and the age of his particular
race and his environment fixes the scale of his civilization. If, in the
early Stone Age, he threw across his shoulders or girded about his
loins the skin of an animal slaughtered for food, it was because such
rude dress satisfied his simple wants in this direction. And there are
native tribes in Africa and Australia at the present time with no
higher desires as to their raiment aud who still dress in skins, aud
African tribes who still adliere to Adam's costume — not fig leaves, but
a girdle of evergreens and creepers or a leafy branch, as in the Obbo
tribe.

But the economic uses of plants were bnuud to be learned by savage
mau in time, and skill was early acquired in preparing them for use.
We find, therefore, among the uncivilized races all over the world that
many species of fiber idants have become most useful for utensils,
cords, and clothing which civilized man with all his intelligence and
inventive genius can not afford to employ commercially. It is true
that the recognized commercial fibers represent those best adapted for
use, and that many of them, like flax, hemp, and cotton, must be
classed with the fibers of antiquity. They have established their
places because they have been j)roved to be the best for the purposes
for which they are employed, and the others can only be considered as
their substitutes or as simple " native" fibers. We have therefore two
natural groups of fibers — 'the commercial species with their substi-
tutes, which are soon enumerated, and the vast group of the so-called
native fibers, many of which might fitly be termed emergency fibers,
because they are extracted and used at the moment when needed.
These so-called native fibers are all interesting, however, and through
our knowledge of some of them, or when a species finds its way to the
outside world, a new commercial fiber now and then is brought to
light. They are legion when taken collectively, and therefore in
enumerating the many species found in the countries of the globe it is
very easy to secure a list that can only be stated in four figures.

STRUCTURAL CLASSIFrCATIOX.

We have seen that different forms of cellular structure compose the
fibers derived from dicotyledonous and monocotyledouous plants, as

24 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

well as the seed hairs, or other hairs, from certaiu species of both divi-
sions of the vegetable kingdom. In general terms, therefore, fiber is
composed of bundles of bast or fibro-vascular tissue in the form of long,
flexible filaments, such as flax, hemp, or manila, or of hairs, such as
cotton, capable of being twisted or spun into threads or yarns, to be
subsequently manufactured into cordage or fabrics.

In the economic emi)loynieiit of fibrous vegetable material it is often
the case that the fiber bundles .are not separated or subdivided into
such delicate filaments as compose the cleaned fibers of flax and hemp,
but are used in a conglomerated mass, or even in a more primary form,
as the whole stems of reeds or grasses, as in matting manufacture,
where both fibrous substance and the cellular tissue and woody waste
is used without further preparation than drying. Or, a still broader
differentiation is found in the einployment of palm leaves torn into
strips or the woody stems of sucli plants as tlie willow and sumac,
which are coarsely woven or plaited into baskets and similar objects.

These fibrous substances, however, are not always utilized by sub-
jecting them to the operations of twisting, spinning, ])laiting, or weav
ing, but are employed in a mass, as upholstery material for the stuffing
of cushions, mattresses, and the like. Beginning with true fibrous ma-
terial, such as tow or the waste from scutching flax, hemj), etc., and
the seed hairs of the many plants known as cotton and silk cotton,
and coming down through the list we discover the use of mosses,
leaves, and even finely subdivided wood shavings, or '' excelsior," as
forms of stuffing or packing material. The last named are not fiber,
though on account of their economic employment they are regarded as
the substitutes of fibrous substances.

Therefore, in considering the many species of plants which are em-
ployed for so many different uses in the industrial economy, one species
ofttimes being utilized as a cheaper substitute for another, in order to
show their relations, both botanically and economically, a division into
classes is necessary, that the place and value of each form of fiber may
be readily recognized. Several classifications will be found in the
works relating to this subject, but after reviewing the 1,000 or more
species of vegetable fibers and fibrous substances comprised in this
catalogue a new scheme of classification, considered chiefly from the
economic standpoint, has been devised, and is presented as both
simple and natural.

In this arrangement I have separated the fibrous substances derived
from plants into five groups, according to their use in the plant econ-
ony, as well as in relation to part of the plant employed. The first
and third groups follow the natural division of the two great vegetable
kingdoms into exogenous and endogenous plants; the second group
confined wholly to the first division, but only fibrous in a sense; the
fourth group pertaining to both, but more largely confined to the first
division, while the fifth group is comprised of low orders of jdants

STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION. 25

that are not fibrous at all, but which are ehietly used as clieap substi-
tutes of better packing- materials. The classiticatiou is as follows:

A. FlBKO-VASCl'LAR STKUCTURE.

1. Bast fibers.

Derived from the inner fibrous harlv of dicotyledonous plants or exogens,
or outside growers. They fire composed of bast cells, the ends of
which overlap each other so as to form in mass a filament. Tliey
occupy the phloem portion of the fibro-vascular bundles, and their
utility in nature is to give strength and flexibility to the tissue.

2. Woody fibers.

(fl) The stems and twigs of exogenous plants, simply stripped of their
bark and used entire, or separated into withes, for weaving or
plaiting into basketry.

(b) The entire or subdivided roots of exogenous plants, to be employed

for the same purjiose, or as tie material, or as very coarse thread
for stitching or binding.

(c) The wood of exogenous trees easily divisible into layers or splints

for the same purposes, or more finely subdivided into threadlike
shavings for packing material.

(d) The wood of certain soft species of exogenous trees, after grinding

and converting by chemical means into wood pulp, which is sim-
ple cellulose, and similar woods more carefully prepared for the
manufacture of artificial silk.

3. Structural fibers.

(rt) Derived from the structural system of the stalks, leaf stems, and
leaves, or other parts of monocotyledonous plants, or inside grow-
ers, occurring as isolated fibro-vascular bundles, and surrounded
by a pithy, spongy, corky, or often a soft, succulent, cellular
mass covered with a thick epidermis. They give to the plant
rigidity and toughness, thus enabling it to resist injury from the
elements, and they also serve as water vessels.

(b) The whole stems, or roots, or leaves, or split and shredded ]ea\es of

monocotyledonous plants.

(c) The fibrous portion of the leaves or fruits of certain exogenous

plants when deprived of their epidermis and soft cellular tissue.

B. Simple cellular stkucture.

4. Surface fibers.

(a) Thedowu orhairs surrounding theseeds, or seed envelopes, of exogen-
ous plants, which are usually contained in a husk, pod', or capsule.

(6) Hairlike growths, or tomentum. found on the surfaces of the stems
and leaves or on the leaf buds of both divisions of plants.

(c) Fibrous material produced in the form of epidermal strips from the
leaves of certain endogenous species, as the palms.

5. Pseudo-fibers, or false fibroux material.

(a) Certain of the mosses, as the species of Sphagnum, for packing

material.

(b) Certain leaves and marine weeds, the dried substance of which forms

a more delicate packing material.

(c) Seaweeds wrought into lines or cordage.

(d) Fungous growths, or the mycelium of certain fungi that may be

applied to economic uses, for wliich some of the true fibers are
employed.

The bast libers, derived from the bark of exogenous plants, such as
trees, shrubs, the climbing vines, herbaceous vegetation generally, are

26

USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

clearly defined, and the fibers of all species of such plants, wlieii simply
stripped, are similar in form as to outward appearance, differing' cliiefiy
in color, fineness, and strength. An example of a fine bast fiber is the
ribbons or filaments of hemp, and of a coarser form, the bast from the
linden or the cedar. In fig. 3 are shown highly magnified filaments of
fiax. A variation in form should be noted in the lace barks and the
paper barks, where the bundles of fibers which interlace may be i)eeled
off in the form of thin, fiat strips. Tlie woody fibers are only fibrous
in a broad sense, as their cellulose is broken down and all extraneous
matter removed by chemical means, as for the manufacture of pai^er
pulp or of artificial silk. The greater number are merely wood in
the form of flexible slender twigs or osiers that are useful for making
baskets; or the larger branches maybe split or subdivided into strips,
withes, or flat ribbons of wood, for making coarser baskets. The softer

vf

Fig. 3. — Flax fibers: n. a', transverse sections of fibers; 6, fibers viewed in It-iigtli ; r, points or ciuls
i)f fibers. Example of a bast fiber.

woods still further subdivided give the i>r()duct known as excelsior,
which can only claim a ])Iace in a list of filler ]>lants because it is a
substitute for upholsterj- or packing material.

Structural fibers are found in many forms,, some of which may be
enumerated as follows: The stiff, white, or yellowish fibers forming the
structure of all fleshy-leaved or aloe-like plants, as the century plant,
the Yuccas, Agave, and pineapple, or the fleshy trunk of the banana;
as an example, sisal hemp of commerce; the coarser bundles of stiff,
fibrous substance which gives strength to the trunks, leaf, stems (mid-
ribs and veins), and even the leaves of i)alms, a good example being
Piassaba, derived from the dilated margins of the petioles of a i)alm,
where they clasp the stem; these are made into thin strips which
afterwards split into smooth, cylindrical fibers. Another example is
the stifl" fibers extracted by maceration from the ''boots" or bases of
the leaf stems of the cabbage palmetto, or the shredded leaves of the
African fan palm, known as Crin vegetal. Other familiar examples may
be noted in strips of rattan, the fibrous material derived from bamboo,

ECUNOMin CLASSIFICATION.

27

from the cornstalk, the flower stems of broom eorn, and from reeds,
sedges, and tlie true grasses. Still anotlicr form is the tibrous mass
surrounding the fruit of tlie coaeoanut, known as eoir, and as a curious
example may be noted the fiber from pine needles; it notable excep-
tion of a structural fiber derived from an exogenous plant, the fibrous
mass filling the sponge cucumber being another.

The surface fibers are still more varied in form. They may be the
elongated hairs surrounding the individual pods which contain the
single seeds of the thistle, familiarly known as thistledown, or they
may be the hairy growths covering the clusters of seeds contained
within largo pods, as the cotton boll, the pod of the milkweed, or the
seed envelop of species of Bombax found in tropical countries. See
tig. 4, a highly magnified example of the fiber of cotton. In this

Fig. i. — Cotton tibers: a. half ripe tibers of cotton, trauaverso section;
h, mature fibers; c, lialf ripe fibers with thin cell -svall; d and e, mature
fiber with definite cell wall. X 325. (After Bowman.) Surfacefiber.

group also is i)laced the leaf scales or tomeiitum found on the under
surfaces of leaves, etc., or on the leaf buds of both endogenous and
exogenous plants, which can only be used for upholstery, or as tinder.
Epidermal strii>s of palm leaves, raffia being an example, are also
included with the surface fibers.

The pseudo-fibers are not fibers, but substances used as their substi-
tutes. However, they are so clearly defined in the scheme of classifi-
cation it W'ill not be necessary to describe them further or to give
examples. Fig. 5 represents sphagnum moss, used as a packing
material.

ECOXOMIC CLASSIFICATIOX.

The highest use for which a fiber may be employed is in the manu-
facture of cloth or woven fabric. As these fabrics vary greatly in tex-
ture from the fineness of delicate linen cambric to the coarseness of Jute
bagging, it would seem that a large number of fibers might be consid-
ered si^innable forms and capable of manufacture. In point of tact,
however, a comparatively small number are actually spun and woven

28

USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

as commercial articles, these having proved their superior adapta-
bility for the special purposes for which they are employed, and the
form and appearance of the different manufactures from them having
become in a measure so fixed that change could not be made without
serious result. And, besides, it should be recognized that such change
might necessitate complete change in an entire system of textile machin-
ery employed in a special industry. Examples of the fabric fibers of

the first rank are China grass
(bast fiber), pineapple (struc-
tural fiber), and cotton (surface
fiber) ; of the second rank, jute
(bast fiber) and coir or cocoa-
nut (structural fiber). The
FABRIC fibers, therefore, are
easily disposed of, and we come
to the next of the higher uses in
which fibers are employed, the
manufactureof threads, twines,
cords, and ropes, or, reduced
to a term, (ORDAge. The
fibers employed for this group
of manufactures include all the
spinning and weaving fibers,
which for the most part are
employed in the manufacture
of thread and fine twines, and
a larger number of coarser
fibers, Avhich also have their
substitutes, for the manufac-
ture of which ordinary sys-
tems of cordage machinery are
generally adapted. In this
grouj), also, must be included a
still larger number of "native"
fibers, or those which are ex-
tracted, prepared, and rudely
spun or wrought into ropes by
hand by the natives of the
countries where they are pro-
duced, the finer kinds being used for sewing thread, fish lines, nets, and
hammocks. Even the group of "native fibers" used for cordage is
capable of subdivision into prepared fibrous material, for spinning and
twisting, and unprepared bark, or the whole stems or leaves of plants
or bundles of unprepared bast, simply twisted together to form a very
rough rope or cable. Such cordage has been largely used in South
America and in India in the construction of rope bridges. Examples

Fig. 5. — Spliaguum moss.

ECONOMIC CLASSIFICATION. 29

of tlie cordage fibers are: Cominereial — for threads, flax (bast fiber);
for twines, common hemp (bast fiber), and for ropes, manila and sisal
hemi)S (strnctmal fiber); native — for fine twines, fisli lines, etc., Inctian
hemp (or Apocynum) (bast fiber); for ropes, the Ynccas (structural
fiber); for binding and rongh sewing material, si)ruce roots (woody
fiber); and for fish lines, l<el[) or seaweed, used in Alaska and other
high northern latitudes (pseudo fiber).

The third use is the preparation of certain tree basts that are
extracted from the bark in layers or sheets, and whi(;h, by pounding,
are made into rough substitutehi for cloth. Such cloth has long
been' used by the natives of the Pacific islands, and is known as Tappa
or Kapa. Other forms, such as the Damajagua, of Ecuador, are used
in South America as cloth, while similar fibrous bast is employe<l in
India in its primary form, for sacks, etc. In this group are also included
the more delicate tree basts that are extracted in thin lacelike layers
and known as lace barks, as well as other forms of which the cigarette
bast, or Cuban bast, is an examijle. Certain close-textured fibrous
growths from palm trees, Mhen they may be secured in thin sheets,
likewise come into this category.

A fourth use is in the manufacture of brushes and brooms, for
which a different class of fibers are employed than either the fabric or
cordage fibers. The first essentials of a brush fiber are toughness and
stifthess, qualities found in many of the fibers from P^ndogens, and the
brush fibers, therefore, especially the commercial species, are largely
derived from palms. Grasses and grass roots are also used, while the
best substitute for animal bristles is a species of Agave, the fibro-vas-
cular bundles of which are large, smooth, rigid, and cylindrical. The
most important commercial brush fibers derived from palms are noted
as Piassaba, or Bass, of which there are several forms from as many
different species. An American example of palm brush fiber is found
in the finished product from crushed and softened palmetto leaf stems.
Coarser brush material consists of twigs or small stems of woody plants,
or even of splints of wood, while the aboriginies and "natives" use
anything that has the recpiisite stiffness, from a bunch of grass to the
small branches of bushes tied together. Examples of commercial
brush fibers are Tampico, from Agave heteracantha, Piassaba, or Bass,
from Attaha funifera, a palm, and Broom root, from the roots of EjH-
cajnpes macroura, a Mexican grass.

The fifth group of uses comprises plaited or coarsely woven
MANUFACTURES of articles employed in the domestic economy, some
of which are of commercial importance, while the greater number are
"native" productions. The materials used are the whole stems of
reeds, rushes, or grasses, palm leaves, coarse tree basts, etc., wrought
or plaited together in the simplest manner possible. Some of these
articles may be enumerated as follows: Mats and mattings, screens,
wallets, bags, saddle cloths, sandals, hats, toys, chair seats, and bas
ketry in endless form. Examples of the commercial manufactures are

30 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

tlie Japanese mattings from the mat lusli ( J uncus effnsvs), tbeEnssiau
mattings from tbe bast of the linden tree, the finely snbdivided leaves
of Carl Hclorica jmJmata for P-duama hats, and the split stems or straw
of wheat, rye, barley, and rice, for braids or straw plait, all of which
are structural fibers, save the lUissian bast. Examples of "native"
or aboriginal manufactures are the sleeping mats from various sedges
or grasses, the Kast Indian tatties and screens from the fragrant roots
of the Khus-Khus; the split leaves of Yucca, used for making sandals,
and the rain coats of China and Jai^an.

The use of fibers or fibrous substances in the coarse weaving or
plaiting of basketry is an industry that belongs to all civilized coun-
tries and that is i)racticed by the native tribes of tlie world, ami a cata-
logue of the varied forms would be too long for enumeration on tliese
pages. F>y reason of the similarity of construction and materials used,
we must also include in this class a considerable number of articles that
resemble baskets, known as willow ware, such as hampers and infants'
carriages; and even chairs, that are i)roduced from willow withes; and
chair bottoms are also included. AVhile the commercial basket mate-
rial is confined chiefly to the osiers, or willows, to certain forms of wood
splints, and to a few species of rushes and the grain straws, the native
and Indian basket fibers are legion, for they include a range of \'egetable
substances from the stipes of delicate ferns, and the smaller grasses,
through the sedges, reeds, the bamboos, the palms, and liliaceous plants,
to the stems and twig-5 of shrubs, and even the S])lints from the wood
of trees, or their subdivided woody roots. A few exami)les of tliis class
of manufactures are the sweet-scented grass baskets made by the New
England Indians from the holy grass; the delicate fern baskets of the
Sandwich Islanders, the Yucca coil baskets, and others by the llopi
Indians of xVrizona, the sumac and willow trays, and the spruce-root
baskets of Northern tribes, palm-leaf baskets, and those from bamboos,
sedges, and reeds. Among commercial forms are the Italian straw-plait
baskets, the Buscola baskets from certain sedges, the osier manufac-
tures from Italy, and the ash and white-oak splint baskets made in our
own country, together with chair bottoms ])laited in rattau or rushes.

A sixth form of utility is the employment of fibers or fibrous sub-
stances in mass as FiLLiNd material, for stuffing pillows, cushions,
mattresses, furniture, etc., or as packing substances. The surface fibers
for the most part compose this class, as the bast fibers are too valu-
able, while the structural fibers are too stiff for such purposes, excep-
tions being the shredded leaves of palms, the commercially prepared
S])anish moss ( TiUandsia nsneoides), known as vegetable hair, and the
familiar corn "shucks."' The pseudo-fibers embraced in group 5 are
also largely used as packing material, though a notable exception should
be made of certain leaves, as well as species of fungi, and Alaskan sea-
weed, the last being twisted into fish lines, the fungi used for making
cai)s, table mats, etc., or employed as tinder. Mycelium lias also been
employed as a substitute for fabric.

ECONOMIC CLASSIFICATION. 31

A seveuth and most important use is in the maiiufiicture of i'APEr.
With this brief enumeration of some of the ways in which fibers aie
employed by man the foih)wiii<^' economic classification, relating- to the
utility of fiber and fibrous substances, is presented:

A. Spinning kihkhs.

1. Fahric fhcra.

(a) Fibers of the first rank, for spinning and weaving into fine and coarse
textures for wearing apparel, domestic use, or house furnishing
and decoration, and for awnings, sails, etc. (The conuuercial forms
are cotton, tlax, ramie, hemi>, pineai)ple, and New Zealand flax.)

(6) Fibers of tlie second rank, used for burlap or gunny, cotton bagging,
woven mattings and floor coverings, and other coarse uses. (Com-
mercial examples are.iute and coir.)

2. NettiiKj fibers.

(a) Lace flbers, wliich are cottou, flax, ramie, agave, etc.

(6) Coarse netting flbers, for all forms of nets, and for hammocks.
(Commercial forms: Cotton, flax, ramie. New Zealand flax, agave,
etc.) The native netting flbers are legion, and include the flbers
derived from tree basts, palms, etc.

3. Cordatje fibers.

(a) Finespun threads and yarns other than for weaving; cords, lines, and

twines (all of the commercial fabric flbers, sunn, Mauritius, and
bow-string hemps, New Zealand flax, and the so-called commercial
hard fibers, coir, manila and sisal hemps, and other forms) ; the
fish lines made from seaweed.

(b) Ropes and cables. (Chiefly common hemp, sisal and manila hemps,

when produced commercially. In native manufactures made from
palm flber, yuccas, and many other ^ilants.)

B. TiK MATERIAL (vough fivixted).

Very coarse material, such as stripped palm leaves, the peeled bark of
trees, and other coarse growths used without preparation, and
employed in the construction of huts, fences, as emergency cord-
age, and sometimes as cables for "rope bridges,'" with other native
uses too numerous to mention.

C. NaTUKAL TEXTlIiES.

1. Tree basts, ivith toufjh 'u>terhicl)i.<i fibers.

(a) Substitutes for clolh, prepared by simple strijjping and pounding.

(Examples: The Tappa ov Kapa cloth of the Paciflc islands; the
Damajuhato of South American tribes.)

(b) Lace l)arks. (The best example is the bast Irom Laf/etta Uiifearia,

of Jamaica, which has been used for cravats, frills, ruflles, etc.,
and likewise as thongs and whiiie.)

2. The ribbon or lai/er basts, extracted in thin, smooth-surfaced, flexible strips

or sheets. (Examples: The Cuba bast that is employed commer-
cially as a millinery material, i)lain and dyed in colors; cigarette
basts for wrappers.)
8. Interlacing structural filler or sheaths.

(a) Pertaining to leaves and leaf stems of palms, such as the flbrous
sheaths found at the bases of the leafstalks of tlie cocoanut.

(6) Pertaining to flower buds. The natural caps or hats derived from
several species of palms.

jyTyxE.— The separated filaments of these cloth substitutes, .sheet
or ribbon basts, etc., are also employed, by twisting, as cordage.

32 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

I). Brush fibers.

1. Brushes manufactured from prepared fiber.

(a) For soft brushes. (Substitutes for auiiiiiil bristles, such as Tanipico.)
(h) For liard brushes. (Examples: Palmetto fiber, palmyra, kittul, etc.)

2. Brooms and whishs.

(a) Grasslike tibers. (Examples: Broom root, broom corn, etc.)
(ft) Bass fibers; also for coarse brushes aud sweepers. (Monkey bass,
Piassaba, etc.)

3. Very coarse brushes and brooms.

Materials used iu street sweeping, etc. Usually twigs and s))lints.

E. Plaiting and rough weaving fihers.

1. Used in articles for attire, as hats, sandals, etc.

(a) Straw plaits. From wheat, rye, barley, and rice straw. (Exam-

ples: The commercial Tuscan and Japanese braids.)

(b) Plaits from split leaAes, chiefly palms and allied forms of vegetation.

(Examj>le: The celebrated Panama hats, from the finely di\ided
leaves of L'urlndorica pnlmuta.

(c) Plaits from various materials used entire and without pre])aratioi'.

(Example: Basts and thin woods used in millinery trimmings, etc. ;
Chinese sandals from rushes.)

2. Mats and mattniys; also thatch materials.

(a) The commercial mattings, from eastern countries.

(6) Sleeping mats and other forms of mats or mattings, screens, etc.,

made by "natives" for their own use.
(c) Thatch or other covering or protection from the elements, made of

tree basts, palm leaves, grasses, etc.

3. Basketry.

(a) Manufactures from woody fiber. (Couuuercial examples: Osier and

splint baskets; the same forms jiroduced by Indians, and includ-
ing also manufactures from sumac and other twigs, roots of
sprui'e, etc.)

(b) From the whole or split leaves or stems of cmlogeus, or from any

rigid fibrous material, including also the culmsof grasses. (Chiefly
Indian or native manufactures, from yucca leaves, palm leaves,
reeds, grasses, etc., used individually or in combinations.)

4. Miscellaneous manufactures.

Willow ware in various forms, chair bottoms from splints or rushes, etc.

F. A'arious forms of filling.

1. Stuffinrj or upholstery.

(fl) Wadding, batting, etc., usually commercially prejiared lint cotton.
(ft) Feather substitutes. For tilling cushions, jtillows, etc., cotton;

seed hairs or silk cottons, such as kai>ok, Asclepias down, etc.;

tomentum, from the surfaces of stems, leaves, and leaf l)uds of

plants; other similar soft fibrous material.

(c) Mattrass and furniture filling. The tow or waste of prepared fiber;

unprepared bast; straw and grasses; substitutes for curled hair,
as Spanish moss, crin vcgr^tal, luaize husks, etc.

2. Caulking.

(a) Filling the seams in vessels, etc., oakum from various tibers.
(ft) Filling the seams in casks, barrels, etc., leaves of reeds and giant
grasses.

3. Stiffening.

In the manufacture of "staff" for building purposes, and as substitutes
for cow's hair in plaster. New Zealand flax ; palmetto fiber.

ECONOMIC CLASSIFICATION. 33

4. Packing.

(«) In bulkhoads, etc. (as iu armored veaaels). Examples: Coir, cellu-
lose of com pitl), etc. In machinery, as the valves of steam
engines, various soft fibers.
(b) For protection, usually in transportation; various fibers and soft
grasses; marine weeds, excelsior; also stufliug and upholstery
materials generally.
G. Paper matehial.

1. Textile pajwrs.

(a) The spinning libers in the raw state. The secondary (jualities, or

the waste, from spinning mills, which may be used for paper
stock, including tow, jute butts, mauila rope, etc.

(b) (Jottou or tlax liber that has already been sjjuu and woven, l>ut which

as rags find use as a jiaper material.

2. Hast papers.

Tbis includes Japanese papers from soft basts, such as the paper mul-
berry (JBroussonelia), or species of the genus Ed(jeivovthia.

3. I'alm papers.

. From the fibrous material of palms and similar luonocotyledonous
plants. Example: Palmetto and Yucca papers.

4. Bamboo and grass papers.

This includes all paper material from gramineous plants, including the
bamboos, esparto, maize, and the true grasses.

5. JVood pulp, or cellulose.

The wood of spruce, poi)lar, and similar "paper pulp'' woods, prepared
by various chemical and mechanical processes.

It should be noted that au absolute ecouomic classificatiou of uses
with relation to species is impossible, as the same tiber may be used iu
several ways. Manila hemp is mauufactured into rope, aud old mauila
rope iuto mauila paper. Cottou is used for fabrics, as a netting- fiber,
for cordage, in upholstery, and in paper. In fact, there are very few
fibers which may not be made into paper, the amount of cellulose they
contain and the cost of the process by which they are converted being
the main considerations. The same plant may also yield two kinds of
libers, as lint cotton covering the seed, and cotton bast, strijiped from
the stalk.

12247— No. 9 3

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE OF WORLD'S FIBERS.

[Abbreviations. — Countries. — Afr., Africa; Alg., Algeria; Andain. Is., Andaman
Islands; Arab., Arabia; Arg., Argentina; Aus., Austria; Austr., Australia; liomb.,
Bombay; Braz., Brazil; Br. Guian., British Guiana; Bnrni., Burma; Can., Canada;
Cent. Am., Central America; Ceyl., Ceylon; Yi., Frame; Fr. Guian., French Guiana ;
Ger., Germany ; Gt. Brit., Great Britain ; Guat., Guatemala ; Hind., Hindostan ; Holl.,
Holland; Hond., Honduras; Ind., India; It., Italy; Jam., Jamaica; Jap., Jjipan;
Maurit., Mauritius; Mex., Mexico; N. S. W., New South Wales; N. W. Prov. Ind.,
North West Provinces of India; New Zea., New Zealand; Panj., Panjab; Phil. Is.,
Philippine Islands; S. Am., South America; Sp., Spain; Span., Spanish speaking
countries; Tasm., Tasmania ; Trin., Trinidad; Turk., Turkey ; Veuez., Venezuela;
Vict., Victoria; W. Ind., West Indies; Yuc, Yucatan.

MuseumH and ixhibitions. — Bot. Mus. Harv. Univ., Botanical Museum of Harvard
University, Cambridge; C. S. I. Exp., 1895, Cotton States and International Exhibi-
tion, 1805, Atlanta; Field Col. Mus., Field Columbian Museum of Chicago; Herb.
Col. Uuiv.,N. Y., Herbarium of Columbia University, New York City; Phil. Com.
Mus., Philadelphia Commercial Museum; Phil. Int. Exh., 1876, Philadel]>hia Inter-
national Exhibition, 1876; Kew Mus., Museum Koyal Kew Gardens, England; Mus.
U. 8. Dept. Ag., Museum of the United States Department of Agriculture ; Paris Exp.
Univ., 1889, Paris Exposition Universelle, 1889; U. S. Nat. Herb., United States
National Herbarium; U. S. Nat. Mus., United States National Museum; W. C.E.,
1893, World's Columbian Exposition, 1893, Chicago.

An asterisk before the word * Specimen denotes that the author has examined the
fiber. All descriptive matter is invariably given under the botanical name of the
species, this name always being found after a common or native name as a reference.]

Aainunnas (Pers. and Arab.). See Ananas sativa.
Abaca (Phil. Is.). See Mnsa textilis.
Abelmoschus (see Hihiscus).
Abroma augusta. Devil's Cotton.

Exogeu. Sterciiliacea-. Perennial. A small tree.
Native names. — Abrome (Ft.) ; Oelta-kamal and Ulatkamhall (hu\.).
Wild, and cultivated throughout the hotter parts of India, and grows in Mauritius.
The plant yields three crops a year, and is said to be more easily cultivated than jute
or sunn hemp .

Bast Fiber. — Derived from the bark of the twigs; is strong, white, and clean,
and much valued for local uses. "Might be employed as a substitute for silk.''
( Watt.) "A cord of its fiber bore 74 pounds, when sunn hemp broke with 68 ])ouu(ls."
(Boyle.) Chiefly employed for cordage, etc., by the natives in the districts where
grown.

""Sjiecimen. — Herb. Col. Univ., N. Y. '

Abroma mollis is found in the Isles of Sunda, Molucca, and the Spice Islands; the
fiber also derived from the bark.
34

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 35

Abrus precatorius. Indian Licorice. Rosary plant.

Exogen. Legnminond'. A twining Bhriih.
Native of India, but found in tho West Indies, Manritins, au<l other tiopi<';il
regions. The bark or bast is twisted into rough cordage.

Abutilon avicennae. Indian Mal.l<^w.

Exogen. Malracea: Herbaceous annual.
Native names.— Ca«ajn»7a. (Arg. Rep.); Ch'ing Ma (Cliina).
See A. indicitm for Indian names of Jbniilon, sjip.

Widely distribiited, north and south, east of the Rocky Mountains, and is found
in the State of Washington. Although it has been considered an indigenous species.
Gray states that it was introduced from India, and when found growing wild has
escaped from cultivation. Also distributed to northern Asia and westward to
southern Europe. Grows in northwestern India (Sind and Kashmir). Said to be
found in South America; cultivated experimentally in United States and India, com-
mercially in China, from whence the liber is exported as China jute. In the United
States the plant grows so freely upou any rich soil, even thrusting itself in and
growing spoutaneously, that it has come to be cf)nsidered a farm pest in many por-
tions of the country. It grows luxuriantly throughniit the West and North, the line
of States from Ohio to ISIissouri producing vast quantities of the bast, which rots
and goes to waste upon the stalks every year. (See fig. 6.)

The revised name of this species is AhutUon ahulUon.

Bast Fiber. — A jute substitute, which may be nianufacture«l into twine, rope, and
common cordage. Fiber white and glossy, and shows good strength. Has been
manufactured into paper in Illinois, the ligneous body of the plant giving more
cellulose for ])aper stock tlian other species. Early exiierinienters stated tliat fiber
extracted fnmi ])lauts that had not reached their maturity would be fine enough to
work iuto jams for carpet fillings and even fabrics. It takes dyes readily, and an
advantage is claimed in this respect over India jute, which is antagonistic to cheap
bleaching and dyeing. The fiber was once classified in value between Italian and
manila hemp, but it will not grade so high, coming nearer to jute, as is proved by its
being sold as a variety of jute. The seed of the plant is so hardy that it is not
affected by the severest winter, which enaT)les the plant to perjietuate its species in
anj' locality where introduced. It is claimed that an acre of ground will produces
tons of Abutilon stalks, givingabout20per cent of fiber. Of doubtful economic value,
considering that we have other and better fibers which are already in cultivation.

Cultivation. — Experiments with cultivation in the United States date back to
about 1870, when the plant attracted considerable attention in the West, particu-
larly in Illinois, through the endeavors of Mr. J. H. McCounell to establish the
industry, and the fiber was given a flattering promise of utility. 'The plants are
stated to grow 9 to 14 feet high ; the seed should be sown 12 to 16 quarts per acre, in
corn-planting time, in the same manner as hemp; it is cut with a reapei", shocked
like hemp till cured, then water retted like hemp; a volunteer crop will spring uj*
the last of July, which can be dew^ retted. The cost of cutting is given at 75 cents
per acre; water retting, $10; dew retting, $5; hand cleaning, $12; and half asmuch
by machinery, making the total cost, not including rent of land, $19 to $IU. Messrs.
McCounell offered $100 per ton for all water retted that could be furnished and $75
for the dew-retted. The crop is not exhausting to the soil if the refuse is restored
to it.

Seven or eiglit years later the plant was the subject of special investigation and
experiment in the State of New Jersey, through the endeavors of Mr. Samuel C.
Brown, secretary '"f the bureau of labor, statistics, and industries of that State. A
circular was issued in 1878 for the twofold purpose of awakening an interest in the
subject of fiber Cultivation and to ascertain what portions of the State were best
adapted to its cultivation. While the promoters of these experiments were satis-
fied that no difficulty existed in the cultivation of the fiber, the enterprise failed

36

USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

completely, notwitbstantlins^ the fact that a bounty was offered for the production
of the fiber. It was demonstrated at the time of these experiments that the plant
would thrive in any rich soil suitable for corn and potatoes.

Preparation. — The fiber can be disintegrated and separated from the stalks by
steeping in water, like flax, liemp, or Jute (as inacticed in India), but such practice
should be avoided in this country if possible. At the time of the New Jersey experi-
ments it was thought that the question of economically cleaning the fiber had been

Fl:;. 0. — Tlu! Indian mallow, Abutilnn nvieenntv.

settled by the invention of a "conil)ined chemical and mechanical process." There
18 no doubt that a combined mechanical and chemical process must be employed in
extracting all jute-like fibers, but the process must give straight fiber, uninjured as
to strength, and with the natural color preserved. This means a machine that will
strip the bark at economical cost and an after-process that will remove the gums
without weakening the fiber. Steeping the ribbons in water for the requisite num-
ber of days is the simplest form of accomplishing the result, but this is primitive.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 37

Nevertheless, machiue stripping and water retting of Jute lias been practiced in this
country in Texas in a small way. An ccononiicul machine for extracting this class
of bast fibers is yet a desideratnm. See Machinery, Appendix A.

* Specimens.— Field Col. Mus. ; U. S. Nat. Mns. ; Mns. U. S. Dept. Ag.

Abutilon bedfordianum.

Native of Brazil. Tall rank shrnb. Iiitrodnced into Victoriji, Australia, where its
growth is rapid.

Bast Fiueu. — Almost white, the lilaments fine and regular. "The bark yields a
fiber of superior (|uality, suitable ibr whipcord, line matting, paper, and perhaps
textile fabrics." { (iuilfoylt.) A beautiful example of the liber was shown in the
Victorian collection, Phil. Int. Exh., 1876. A. alhutn is another Victorian species.
See Ann. Rept. U. S. Dept. Ag., 1879.

* Specimen. — Mns. IT. S. Dept. Ag.

Abutilon incanum.

Nativk Mexican name. — Tronadora.

The species is found in Mexico, acquiring greatest perfection on the rich bottom
lands. It reaches a height of about 8 feet.

Bast Fiber. — F.xtracted from the bark. The Zotlahuacar Indians, who live 40
miles south of Manzanillo, are said by Dr. Palmer to utilize the fiber in making ham-
mocks, ropes, and carrying nets, which are so durable that they last from seven to
ten years in constant use.

Native I'REPARation. — When the plant is mature, the lateral branches are cnt
away and the stems are buried in the mud at the edge of Lake Alcuzagua (Lake of
the Devil). Three or fonr days afterwards the plants are removed and washed, and
are then ready for the stri]i])ing of the inner bark or fiber. This is done in the fol-
lowing manner: The workman, standing upright, with the stem, which rests lirmly
upon the ground, in his left hand, presses the right thumb firmly upon the stick, and
taking the fiber between the fingers, he pulls steadily, bending gradually to the work
until he falls upon his knees. When the fiber is removed, the stem rebounds and dies
over the shoulder of the operator, stripped of half its bark. This seems a very slow
process, but jute was formerly cleaned as slowly, and it was only aftermany and
repeated trials that machinery was ]>erfecteil to perform this tedious work. Prob-
ably if this, like jute, is allowed to die before cutting, it would become brittle and
fit only for paper manufacture; therefore, in more northern latitudes, it msiy be best
to cut the plants before frost. Experiments will be necessary to ascertain the proper
time for cutting, the length of time it should be immersed, if water will "accomplish
the same result as mud, rendering the bark soft and pliable. (Dr. Edw. Palmer,
Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb., Vol. I.)

Abutilon indicum. Country Mallow.

Native namhs. —Eanr/hi (Hind.); PoUiri (Beng.;; l>eishar (Arab.); Jhiralhle-
shanah (Pers.) ; rram {Malay); Anoda-fiaha (Ceyl.).

A small annual shrub, common to India and Burma, but cultivated in Mauritius;
found in south Afriia.

Bast Fiber. — Very similar to that of A. avicennff, which see. " The stems contftin
good fibersuitable for cordage.'' ( Watt.) A fine sample of the fiber was exhibited in
the Indian Court, Forestry, W. C. E., 1893. The leaves, seed, and bark of this spe-
cies and A. asiaiicum are used as a medicine in India. The last-named species also
yields a good cordage fiber.

There are 10 or 12 Indian species of Abutilon, among which may be also named A.
grareolen.s, A. muficnm, and A. poli/inidrum, all of which are fiber plants. The latter
is said to yield a long silky fiber resembling hemp.

38 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

Abutilon moUe. Lantern Flower.

Native of Brazil. Introduced into Australia, where it is considered worthy of cul-
tivation.

Bast Fiber. — "Very strong and suitable for matting, paper, etc." ( GuUfoijle. ) The
sample of liber shown in the Victorian collection, Phil. Int. Exh., 1876, was poorly
prepared and lacked in strength. The sample was accompanied l)y fiber from two
other Brazilian species introduced into Australia, A. venosum and A. orycarpion. ( )f
the first Dr. Guilfoyle says: "Fiber of fine i^uality, suitable for fishing lines, textile
fabrics, etc." The fiber of the latter was Avell prepared, white, soft, and lustrous,
and was produced in Oneeusland. A. (jiyaiilenm is another .South American species,
noted for withstanding cold. Fiber has been extracted from the bark.

'"Sjiecimen of J. molh; Mns. U. S. Dept. Ag.

Abutilon periplocifolium. Maholtine.

The species thrives in tropical America.

Live plants, stalks, and fiber of this species Avere received from Trinidad through
T. J. St. Hill in 1890. The stalks reach a height of 12 feet. The plant grows wild,
but can be easily cultivated, and large crops assured. Seed was obtained and sent
to several points in Florida for experiment, but the Department was unable to secure
from the experimenters any reports of the results.

Bast Fibku. — When the bark is green, it can be peeled its entire length with no
other preparation than steeping the stalks in ])Ools of water from five to eight days.
The color of the fil)er is a creamy yellow, anil some of the samples received measured
11 feet 10 inches in length. Samples of the fibers submitted to London brokers were
favorably reported upon and valued at £17 to £20 per ton.

A true bnst fiber of good quality. The stems strip well and readily and the b.irk
"rets" out, leaving a fine fiber of a type to compete with jute. A very large cro]> of
this fiber can bo grown per acre, but as no regular cultivation exists only an approxi-
mate estimate can l>e given. It is estimated that as much as 10,000 pounds of stripjied
bark can be obtained from an acre, and that from 25 to 40 per cent of cleaned fiber
could be obtained from this. Iti)romises best of all the newer fibers. {J. H. Hart.)

Mr. St. Hill states that it thrives magnificently in barren and rocky soil; the laud
is prepared simply bj' burning, when the seeds are thrown broadcast over the plain,
about the beginning of the month of May, and the stalks are ready to be converted
into fiber one year after. No attention is required to be paid to the plants while
growing, and wild weeds, etc., do not affect them in the least. Plants growing very
near to each other will produce very tall stems, say from 10 to 12 feet high and
straight, but those that happen to grow far a)>art will shoot out branches and make
bad growth, and the ribbons will be very irregular.

* .Vc'""*c"s.— Mus. l^ S. Dept. Ag. ; U. S. Nat. Mus. ; Field Col. Mns.

Abutilon striatum. Streaked Lantern Flower.

Native of Brazil. Widely distributed as a flowering plant in greenhouses and
gardens. Common in Uniteil States. Introduced into Victoria.

Fiber. — It has only been produced ex])erimentally in Victoria. " Its bark, which
peels readily, furnishes a fiber of fine texture." Is worthy of experiment in the l'nit»(l
States.

* Specimen. — Mus. U. S. Dept. Ag.

Acacia leucophloea. Panicled Acacia.

Exogeu. Le(jinni))osa\ A tree.

Native Xames.— Sw/erf-AiAar (Hind.); Safcd-habiU (Burm.), and many others.
Wild in many districts of India, Ceylon, and Burma. Plains of Panjab to South
India.

Bast Fiber. — "A coarse, tough fiber is ])repared from the bark, much valued

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE.

39

(locally) for fishing nets and ropes." (Dr. Ceorge Wait.) A. luodesta \»i\m\\%\om- A hy
Llotard as a possible paper plant in India; IcnowTi as I'liulahi.

Acanthorhiza vrarscewiczii.

A mayuiticfnt palm found in the forests of Chirifiiii. " I'^inployed by tbe natives
for nialving brushes of very fine quality, carpets, tajKstries, etc'' (Manual IToci)li).
Cultivated in greenhouses. (See fig. 7.)

Achiial, or Aguash (Peru). See Mauri tia jiextioHa.

Acrocomia lasiospatha. Great Macaw Palm.

Eudogeu. Palnuv.

Native name, Mncuja (Bra/.). Cuban name of the fiber, I'ita dc corojo.

This species is common in the neighborhood of Para, wliere its nearly globular
crown of drooping feathery leaves is verj" ornamental. The fruit, though oily and
bitter, is very much esteemed and is
eagerly sought after. It grows ou
dry soil about Para and the Lower
Amazon, but it is quite unknown in
the interior. The stem is about forty
feethigh, strong, smooth, and ringed.
The leaves are rather large, terminal,
and drooping. The leaflets are long
and narrow, and spread irregularly
from the midrib, every part of which
is very spiny. The sheathing bases
of the leafstalks are persistent on
the upper part of the stem, and in
young trees clothe it down to the
ground. The spadioes grow from
.among the leaves erect or somewhat
drooping, and are simply branched.
The spathes are woody, persistent,
and clothed with spines. The fruit
is the size of an apricot, globular,
and of a greenish-olive color, and
has a thin layer of firm edible pulp
of an orange color covering the seed.
{Wallace.)

Structural Fiber. — "The strands
of fiber present a ribbon-like appear-
ance somewhat resembling Raffia, but
firmer and not so papery. Extremely
strong and capable of being divided
into verj-^ tough filaments." {Morris.)

Specimens of the fiber were re-
ceived by the Department from Cuba
so long ago ;i8 the early seventies.

Tiie ribltons are verj' white. By rolling between the hands it breaks up into innu-
merable filaments, some of great fineness. It might prove a valuable fiber for cord-
age, though a drawba<'k (in the specimen examined) is the presence of little spines,
doubtless those mentioned by Squier, which are as sharp as needles, and half an
inch in length. They are not readily seen, but by gra8])ing a handful of the fiber
in the hand they make their presence known with painful surety. Two varieties
of Corojo are given in the catalogue of M. Bernardin, the "Corojo de la tnia"
from the West Indies, stated to be Cocoa crispa, and the Corojo, Corozo, or Cocoyal

FiQ. 7. — Plant of Acanthorhiza warxccwiezH

40

USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

from Central America, without name. Squier states that the Corosal, Coyal, or
Corojo palm abounds in dry and rocky locations in Central America and Cuba and
some other portions of tropical America. It is described as a tree 20 feet high, pro-
ducing a large cluster of nuts, with a hard shell, which yields an oil similar to that
of the cocoanut. The trunk and leaves of the coyal are armed with long, narrow,
hard spines. "The leaves are lined with a long and excellent fiber called Pita de
corojo, from which ropes ami cords are manufactured. The fibers are e<iual to those
of Henequen, from which they can hardly be distinguished." Among Brazilian jialm
fibers the handbook of Para (W. C. E., 1893) mentions the mucuja as this species.

A iine sample of Corojo fiber from Cuba
was contributed, by Messrs. Ide & Chris-
tie, to Kew in 1890. At the time it was im-
pos.sible to trace its origin. A careful ex-
amination showed that the fiber was fonned
of the eijidermal layer of a palm leaf and
probably derived from a species of Jiacfris
or Acrocomia armed Avith prickles. In
March, 189.5, a further inquiry elicited tlie
fact that the fiber was ol)taini^d from the
uuo])eiicd leaflets of the " (Irn-grn palm of
the West Indies (./. lasiospatha).'" The Kew
Mus. contains a cap and a strainer made from
the spathe, the latter used as a strainer for
cassava. Dr. Morris says: '■ It is a remark-
able fiber, and in point of teusil(< strength
it surpasses even the oil piilm fiber, Eluis
(/uhieenais." For further details refer to
Ann. Rept. U. S. Dep. Ag., 1879, p. 551;
Cantor Lectures on Commercial Fibers, by
Dr. I). Morris, p. 31.

* Specvmcns. — Mus. U. S. Dept. Ag.

Acrocomia sclerocarpa.
Tree. Gru grit.

iNfACAW

Endogen. A palm.

Nativmc names. — Macaiiha (Braz.); groo
groo (W.Ind.), of Fawcett.
The tree grows from 20 to 30 feet high;
found in .lamaica, Granada, Trinidad, Gui-
ana, and Brazil. (See fig. 8.)
Fiber. — Derived from the leaves, valued
for local uses. " Distinguished from other fibers of this class by remarkable fineness
and softness." (Cross.) .1. lofal appeared in the collection of Argentina. "The
leaves of this species give a good textile fiber." (Xiederlein.) A. tolai is known as
the Mhocai/n. See notes on the State of Para, Exposition Handbook. Brazil, W. C.
E., 1893.

* Specimens. — W. C. I'., exhibits of Brazil and Argentina.

Fig. 8.— Tlie Mucu.j.a, or Gni gru P.tliu, Aero
comia lasiospatha.

Adam's needle. See Yucca.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 41

Adansonia digitata. Baobau Tree. Monkey Bread Tree of
Africa.

Exogen. Malvacea'. One of the largest trees in the worlil.

Native names. — (ioralha-amJi (Boml>.); ITnjed (Ar.ab.); ^fowal)a (Afr. ), and
many others.

Native of Africa (west and interior). " This is one of the largest and longest-lived
trees in the world." (Watt.) Abounds Senegal to Abyssinia. Found in India, where
it has been cultivated experimentally. Introduced into the West Indies.

Fiber. — Deri veil from the bark; strong and ranch valued for cordage; can be
woven into cloth. The commercial liber from Africa quot«^d in London market at
£9 to £15 per ton.

"The hard, outer bark is first chopped away, and the inner l)ark stripj>ed off in
large sheets. These are beaten to remove pithy matter, sun dried, and l>ale(l. Afri-
cans use tlie fiber for rope, twine, and sacking. In India elepliaut saddles are made
from it.'' (Spon.) "Cultivation deserves to be extended." (Walt.)

This fiber has been mentioned as a raw material for ])a])er makers in this country.
Ide and Christie, tlie London fiber brokers, inform me that the bark of this species has
never been imported into (ireat Britain from either Senegal or Abyssinia. It
has never been a large trade and has invariably come from St. Paul de Loando and
perhaps some adjacent port in Portuguese west Africa, to either Liverpool or Hull.
The fiber w.as held in some esteeniby makers of strong light-colored wrapplngpapers
called in the trade "small hands," and ten or twenty years ago good parcels ranged
in value from £8 to £10 per ton. It formerly came to Liverpool and Hull from the
Avest coast, both direct and by way of Portugal, but no direct slii])ments have been
made since 1892. The importations have fallen off from 190 tons in 1887 to 2 tons in
1896.

Adki (Ind.). See Areea catechu.

Adiantum si)p. Maiden-hair Ferns.

A large genus of polypodiaceous ferns, the representatives of which are fonnd in
many parts of the world, but more particularly in the Tropics. They all have black
shining sti])es, and in structure are unlike any other ferns.

Structural Fiber. — J. ptdtiium. is a beautiful specimen found in this country.
It affords "an elegant material for the woof of the nicer caps and l»askets of the
Hoopa and Klamath Indians." {T)r. V. Havard.)

The black glossy stalks of A. capiUus-veneris, as well as of rteris deciphnu, are
worked by native women (of Hawaii) into ornamental baskets and mats ( Hille-
hrand). Native Hawaiian name, Iiraiiva.

^schynomene aspera.

Exogen. Leguminosw. A small stibfloating bush.
Native j^amks.— Sola or SIioIu (Beng.); ratdpan {Buvm.}.
Frequents marshes, growing in Bengal, Burma, Assam, and Sontli India daring
the inundation jieriod.

FlBEi;. — Derived from the bark (in Burma). The pith is used for floats ^>\ fish-
ermen, and the same is used by Europeans for making hats, which are very light and
perfect protectors from the sun's heat. See Die. i:c. Prod. Ind., Vol. I, p. 125.

African Button Flower. Dais cotinifolia.
African Millet. Eleus'me coracana.
Agave spp.

A very large genus of fleshy-leaved plants belonging to the Jmari/lUdacefr, chiefly
found in Mexico, and Central and South America, a few species creeping up to and

42 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

crossing the southern boundaries of the United States. Some of the species, as the
familiar Century plant (A. americana), are cultivated in our conservatories as orna-
mental plants. They tlower hut once, sending up a flower stalk or "mast" some-
times the height of 20 feet, upon which the flowers appear. Two or three species
furnish valuable commercial fibers, while others not known to commerce might be
utilized in like manner. Several of the species in Mexico yield the distilled li([uor
known as mescal, as well as the fermented pulque, both of which are national bever-
ages. A few of the more interesting of the Agaves tliat are used for iiber are
described at length in the i)ages which follow, and some others that I have treated
for fiber are briefly referred to here. Among the Agaves used by the Indians of the
United States maybe mentioned A. heteracaniha, which is treated at length on another
page. Dr. Havard names A.palmeri and A . parr y\ &^ the mescal plantsof the Apaches
and other Indians. They also yield useful fibers, scraped from the edible portions of
the baked leaves.

In June, 1891, the leaves of some 20 species of Agave were collected at the United
States Botanical Gardens, Washington, and run through a Van Buren machine. Small
museum specimens only were secured, and the iiuality of the fiber was found to be
as follows: A. americana, fiber as strong as A.sisalana from greenhouse plants,
but quite inferior to the Florida-grown fiber. This species is fully described below.
A. hranniana, a weak fiber, resembling A. jacquiuiaiia. A. carihua, fiber similar to
A. rariegata in color and general appearance, but finer, and showing less strength
than A. americana. A. cordtroiji, fiber straight, fine, white, of average strength. A.
coccixert, three varieties, worthless, -t. flaccid a i^iiye a a fry fine fiber; not straight,
approaching in strength that of A. sisalana. A. decipiens, worthless. A. inijliami, a
coarse, harsh fiber, the filaments smooth and polished, and of such stift'ness that the
material would make a sujierior brush fiber, possibly ri\aling the tampico of com-
merce derived from A. heteracantha. Under repeated tests three filaments stood an
average strain of 10 pounds. A. jacquiniana, a very fine, white fiber, but possess-
ing no strength. A. j>r«iM08a, worthless. A. kerchocei, a harsher fiber than that
obtained from the rigida group below, but apparently having less strength; some-
what resembles tampico. .(. rigida var. elongata, similar to the preceding, the fiber
not distinguishable from it in appearance or strength. A. rigida var. longifolia, gave
fiber that was much finer than that from A. sisalana (above), but quite deHcient in
strength. In appearance it resembles the fiber from A. americana rather than A. sisal-
ana, though differing from either. A. rigida var. sisalana (greenhouse plants), th(i
fiber appearetl to be finer than that from Florida plants, and not (luite so strong,
A. salmiana, almost as fine as the fiber from J. am('rlra«<t; not straight; very little
strength. A. ririjjara, similar to A. itighaini, though not so coarse, but of sufficient
stift'ness to ])roduce a good brush fiber. The fiber if waslu'tl when extracted would
have come out very white. Three filaments bore an average strain of 7 jioiinds.
These two species yielded about 5 per cent of pure bristle fiber. A. rariegata, fiber
very white, crinkly, and elastic, stronger than A. americana, but inferior to good sisal
hemp.

Out of 16 species other than A. rigida (varieties) but 2 species can take rank with
A. rigida var. sisalana in strength, A. inghami and A. vivipara. In the next grade
I would place J. /fa tci(?rt, .1. americana, A. kerchorei, and possibly ./. cordcroyi, while
the other species are either not half the strength of J. sisalana or are worthless. ./.
latcrerens went to pieces in the machine, coming out in short, pulpy fragments.
It would be interesting to secure fiber from these species as grown in the open air of
the Tropics. No doubt several of the better species would give fiber of fair strength,
though inferior to sisal hemp grown under the same conditions.

A. Isabel Mulford, in the Seventh Report of the Missouri Botanical Garden, names,
as the Agaves of the United States, A. rirginica, A. rirginica var. iigrina, A. rariegata,
A. maculata, A. schottii, A. 8chottiiva.T. serrulala, A. piarriftora, A. lecheguilla, A. utah-
ensis, A. deserti, A. applanata, with varieties parryi and huachnccnsis, A. shairii. A.
palmeri, A. asperrima, A. americana, A. i-igidaviir. sisalana, A. dccipiens, and two species

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 43

which remain unideutitied, one of these beint^ the immense Ajrave tifi;nred by the
author on page 38 of Rept. 5, Fib. luv. series.
The commercial Agaves are described on the pages whicli foHow.

Agave americana. Century Plant. American Aloe.

Eiidogen. AmarylUdaceo' . Aloe-like leaf duster.

Native names. -.UaY/itf//, the plant; Fita, tlie fiber (iMcx.); I'ile, aloes (Fr.);
Bans-keora (Hind.); Jitngli (Beng.); ('(////i<//at/-H«r (Ind. of Koyle) ; Scnhhara
(Arab.).

A native of tropical America, but now distributed over both homisidieres. Emi-
ployed iu the United States as an ornamental plant; in Mexico, for its fiber; in India
(Madras), as a hedge plant along railways ; in Spain and Sicily, for cordage and mats ;
in the West Indies, for cordage, hammocks, and fishing lines; in South America,
for various uses. Fig. 1, PI. I, is a century plant in the grounds of the Alcazar Hotel,
St. Augustine, Fla.

Structural Fiber. — Three to 7 feet, derived from the leaves. " Commercial liber
is white to straw color. Its main faults are the stiffness, shortness, and thinness of
wall of the individual fibers, aud a liability to rot." (Spon.) "Composed of large
filaments, white, brilliant, and readily separated by friction; it takes color freely
and easily. It is light, and contracts under water rapidly." {Watt.) Commercial
([notation, London, £35 to £40 per ton. A number of samples in the (Tovernment
fiber exhibit (W. C. F., 1893), including not only those prepared by myself, but
samples extracted liy Mr. T. Albee Smith, of Baltimore, show a fine, soft, white fiber,
of more or less brilliancy, a distinctive characteristic being a wavj- or crinkled
ap])earance which ])reveut8 the bundles of fibers in mass from lying closely parallel,
as is the case with sisal hemp and similar straight fibers. Another marked peculiar-
ity is great elasticity.

Dr. Forbes Royle states that the India pito has been found superior in strength to
either coir, jute, or sunn hemp. In a trial of strength near Calcutta, the tests were
made with ropes 1 fathom long aud 3 inch(!S iu circumference, with the following
results: The Agave ox pita broke in a strain of 2, .519} pounds; coir, 2,175 pounds;
jute, 2,456t pounds, and sunn hemp, 2,269i^ pounds. In an experiment with Russian
hemp and pita, the first named broke with 160 pounds' weight, and the latter with
270 pounds. These experiments show the great strength of the fiber, which is
worthy of more extended cultivation and employment in the arts.

Among the interesting uses of this fiber is the manufacture of lace by the peasant
women of Fayal. At one time the Mus. U. S. Dept. Ag. contained a valuable series
of manufactures of this delicate and beautiful lace, which at that time was largely
sold in Paris at very high prices. It was said by the donor of the series that there
were but 25 women on the island capable of producing this lace, the art requiring
practice from childhood.

Cultivation and preparation. — The plant is cultivated in Mexico, iu the south
of Europe, in India, Mauritius, etc. The best account of the method of cultivation
is given in the Die. Ec. Prod. Ind., Vol. I, p. 137.

No attempt has been made in the United States either to cultivate the species or
to use the leaves of growiiig plants for fiber. R. W. Patou, representing a California
industrial company, corre8pon<led with the Department of Agriculture a few years
ago relative to cultivation in southern California, and proposed to utilize the fiber
in commerce. The want of a good machine, however, was the principal obstacle
met with in the endeavor to start the industry. A quantity of leaves were at that
time sent to Mr. Van Bureu, of Jacksonville, Fla., to be extracted l)y his machine,
but this inventor found the leaves too thick and wide for the machine as at that
time ccmstructed. T. Albee Smith, has cleaned the leaves successfully on a machine
described in Rept. 3, Fib. Inv., Dept. Ag., p. 39. A powerful machine emjjloyed for
extracting the fiber is also described in Spon's Enc, pt. 3, p. 913.

44 USEFUL, FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD,

"The plant requires about three years to come to perfection, but it is exceedingly
hardy, easy of propagation, very prolific, and grows in arid wastes where scarcely
any other plant can live. It perishes after inflorescence, and then sends up numer-
ous shoots. In Mexico 5,000 to 6,000 plants may be found on an acre. The aver-
age number of leaves is 40, each measuring 8 to 10 feet long and 1 foot wide, and
yielding 6 to 10 per cent by weight of fiber. Thi^ culture of the plant is being
extended in America, but not in the proportion which its value deserves. In India
it is all but neglected." (Spou.)

A. amcricoua is not found in Florida, save in conservatories or gardens, though
an allied form was met with at various localities. Some magnificent cultivated
examples were observed in Fernandina, and others were noticed in St. Augustine,
their leaves so large and fleshy that no ordinary machine could work them without
first eutting tbem into strips. Though the plants come to nuiturity in three years,
they do not flower before eight, and sometimes not before twenty years.

Utility. — Twines aiul rope; fishing lines, nets, and hammocks; imitation horse-
hair cloth, and other coarse fabrics; Fayal lace, and pai)er. For further details refer
to Kept. U. 8. Dept. Ag., 1879, p. 545; Fib. Inv. Kept. 5, p. 34; Kew I'.ull., 1889, p.
301; Die. Ec. Prod. Ind., Vol. I, p. 134; Spou Enc, pt. 3, p. 912.

" Sjiechnens. — W. C. E., United States Government exhibit; from Mexico, Costa
Rica, and India; U. S. Nat. Mus. ; Field Col. Mua. ; Mus. U. S. Dept. Ag.

Agave aurea.

Lower California and Sonora, Mexico. Recently described by Brandegee. The
plant is recognized by the natives as a form of lechiigidUa; wild, and cultivated in
gardens.

Specimens of the leaves of this plant were recently received by the Department
from Louis F. Kwiat Kowski, of Los Angeles, Cal., who stat»>s that the native name
of the plant is lechiigii ilia mescal. "There is also a hchiKjuilUi magucji, .and a hchti-
{inilla blanca. It is claimed that leclnignilla hlanca gives the best mescal, while
h'chiiguilhi maguey is the most cultivated for the purpose." One of the largest leaxes
sent weighed, when freshly cut, 2^ jiounds. Its length was about 20 inches not
including spine, and its greatest width fully (5 inches.

Structural Fiber. — This correspondent evidently confuses A. aurea with A. hetera-
eantha, the lechiigitilla which supjdies the major part of the tampico or istle fiber
of commerce. Ho says: "The lerhiif/inUa mescal, leaves of which I send the Depart-
ment, gives the istle fiber." In the mail with these specimens a leaf of the same
species was received from T. Albee Smith, of Baltimore, and probably received by
him from the above source, as the leaves are identical. Mr. Smith, who is thoroughly
familiiir with tiic commercial fiber Agaves of Mexico, says: "I send you a sample
leaf and fiber of an Agave I received last Friday from Lower California. They are
the first I have ever seen, of the size and description, with such fiber. I have seen a
great many Agave plants having leaves of about this size, but the fiber was worth-
less and obtained in very small quantities. My correspondent writes that he has sev-
eral million plants that are now available, and be ])ropo.ses to extract the fiber on a
large scale; he has forwarded samples to dealers with good results. I have also for-
warded several samples that he has sent me and have received good reports there-
from, but I was under the impression that the samples sent me came from the regular
lechiiguilla until I received the sample leaf."

This species is an interesting addition to our list of fiber plants that may be employed
commercially. The liber compares well with tampico of couuuerce, and as the leaf
is several times larger it can be more economically extracted. Its cultivation wonld
mean a new and profitable industry, as the tampico of commerce is secured only from
wild plants. See Agave hcteracaiitha.

'Specimens. — Leaves and fibers, Mus. U. S. Dept. Ag. ; U. S. Nat. Herb.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE.

45

Agave decipiens. The False Sisal Hemp op Florida.

Found wild along the roasts and keys of the Florida peninsula. Species described
by Dr. Baker from material obtained in the liber investigations of the Department
ol' Agriculture in Florida. Fig. 2, PL II, is a large false sisal plant idiotograi)hed at
the Government experimental factory on Kiscayue Hay.

SrRUCTUUAL FiBEH.— From the leaves; 2 to 3 feet. Biscay ne Bay and keys; '^ to
4 feet, Lake Worth region. In color very white, fine, soft; about lialf as strong as
sisal hemp, from which it is readily distinguished by its lighter color. An inferior
tiber.

P^CONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS. — The importance of this plant in the list of vegetable
fibers is due totbe fact that it has so long been confounded with the true sisal hemp
of Florida, both by the people of Florida and by P.alianiians who have purchased, or
otherwise obtained,
plants for cultivation
in the Iiahainas. The
two forms, the false
and the true sisal, dif-
fer so greatly in habit
and general appear-
ance that there should
be no mistaking them
when their peculiari-
ties are known. A.
ri<c(j;(ens throws out its
mass of leaves from the
top of a footstalk,
sometimes 6 feet high,
the leaves seeming to
radiate like a many-
pointed star, while the
color is always in
strong contrast to the
surrounding vegeta-
tion. The true sisal
plant, on the contrary,
sends nj) its mass of
leaves from the sur-
face of the ground,
though sometimes
with a very shwrt foot-
stalk, this difference
alone rendering iden-
tification easy, for before the lower leaves of .st8rt7rt//a have been cut, as in cultivation,
the plant never shows this habit. Other marked differences are: The shorter, nar-
rower leaf in decipiens nearly always (on the keys) rolled in at the sidessothat a cross
section appears like the letter U. In color it is a brighter, more livid green. Its
spines, which are very thickly set along the edges, are strongly curved, and so sharp
that it is impossible to go about among the plants with(mt lacerating the flesh or
tearing the clothing. Even the young plants which have not actiuired their footstalks
differ so greatly from the jonng plants of sisalana that no one should mistake them
after having had the diiierences once pointed out. The young sisalana grows very
erect, the leaves being flatter and of a dark green, and without spines. The fZetyncJiB
throwsoutitsleaveswith amorespreadinghabit, the lower series usually bent (recum-
bent) to the ground, the leaves themselves being short, stocky, and Avith the edges more
or less turned up. Thecolor, even in the young plants, is a brighter green than sisaYana,

^^fcM^-'v .,«,,,„,_,

Fio. 9.— An old plant of A(javo decipiens.

46

USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

the tout euseinble presenting a particularly marked foi in of plant. In their manner
of poling we find the only similarity between the two, and this doubtless has caused
the expensive mistake so often made by those collecting sisal plants, and through
which ship loads have Ijeeu taken from Florida to the Bahamas in past time. Dr.
Baker even says : " I can not make out any material difiereuce between the flowers of
the two species.'' The poling is not only similar, but the young pole plants are
similar, though I soon learned to detect adifl'ereuce in the stockier appearance of the
decipiens. But when once fixed in the soil the identity of the sjiecies is soon 1)r()ught
out in a marked manner. Fig. 9 is an olil plant growing at I^ake Worth, Florida.

Coming to the fiber, we find the strongest mark of difference between the two
forms of fiber plants. In decipiens it is whiter, finer, softer, and greatly deficient in
strength, though it approaches nearer the appearance of the true sisal fiber than
that of any of the allied Agaves not varieties of the A. ligida known commercially.

A. decipiens is always most abundant in the wilds, as on uninhabited keys, where
A. sisalana is never found. It is a singular fact, however, that in the Lake Worth
region it changes its form somewhat, the leaves being longer and often flattened
(sometimes perfectly flat), but always provided with the iootstalks and armed with

the terrible spines. For
further accounts see
Fib.Inv. Rept. 5, i).28;
Kcw Bull., 1892, p. 183.

* Specimen s . — W .0.1'^.,
United States (jovern-
ment exhibit; Mus. U.
S. Dept. Ag. ; Field Col.
Mus., Chicai^o.

Agave deserti.

This species, discov-
ered by Lieutenant Em-
ory in 1846, is found at
the base of the coast
range in San Diego
L County, Cal., extending

into the adjoining des-
ert. (See fig. 10.)

STU(CTUi;AT.Fii{r,K.—
"This species has very
fibrous leaves; is used
for ropes, mats, nets, etc., and even for sewing thread.'' (hr. V. Harard.)

* Specimens of the fiber, and rope made from it by the Californi i Indians, collecteil
by Dr. P^dvaid Palmer, are in the U.S. Nat. Mus. Tlie fiber is very harsh, but
strong and durable.

Agave heteracantha. Leohuguilla. Mexican Fiber.

Endogen. ArtiaryUidacew. Low aloe-like leaf cluster.

Native names. — Istle or Ixtle (Mex.); Tampico hemp, the commercial name.

Found in Mexico, southwestern Texas, and southern California. "The various
plants from which istle is extracted are found at present chiefiy on the idains and
rugged mountain slopes of the States of Coahuila, Tamaulipas, Nuevo Leon, and
San Luis Potosi. The central towns for the trade in the several States are: In
Coahuila, Saltillo; in Nuevo Leon, Monterey; in Tamaulipas, .laumava, Tula, Tam-
pico, and formerly Matamoras; in San Luis Potosi, San Luis Potosi." (Kew Bull.,
Oct., 1890.) Fig. 2, PI. I, represents a plant of this species growing in the United
States Botanic Garden.

Structural Fiber.— Derived from the leaves; stifl", harsh, but pliant, bristle-like.

Fig. 10.— Plant of Agave deserti.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE.

47

Employed as a substitute for aniiual Itristles and for the niauufacturc of cheap brushes ;
length, 18 inches to 2 feet. "The best known fiber plant of northern Mexico and
southwestern Texas. In extracting the fiber the parenchyma or pith squeezed out
(40 per cent of the leaf) is a valuable substitute for soaj), possessing remarkable
cleaning and detergent qualities." (Dr. J'. Harard.)

Economic co.nsiukkations. — Until recently there has been con8i<lerable doubt as
to the identity of the species of Agave from which the istle of commerce is produced.
The common name of the plant is lechuguilla (or "lecJiuiilla''), and the writers upon
the subject usually refer to it under this name. In the report of
the Mexican Boundary 8ur\ey the name Agave leduguiUa appears
as the botanical designation of a plant producing a coarse fiber
employed in the manufacture of cordage and bagging. Specimens
of this tiber, and brushes made from it, were sent to tlie Kew
Mus. fourteen years ago by the late Dr. C. C. Parry, formerly
botanist of this Department, and from this and other material
the identity of the plant, or plants, producing "tampico hemp"
has been established. In A]ipendix XXI, Report of the Chief of
Ordnance for 1883, there is a report on brush material and the
manufacture of brushes, by Capt. A. L. Varney, in which appears
an account of this fiber, with rude figures. This writer, misled
by Squier in his work on Tropical Fibers, makes istle the prod-
uct of Bromelia sylvestrk. He also produces a letter from Hon. J.
McLeod Murphy to the De]»artment of Agriculture, who states
that the average length of the leaf is 6 feet. This would indicate
that Mr. Murphy has also been mistaken in the identity of the
plant, and doubtless, likewise, has referred it to Bromelia sylre.strw.
The confusion is complicated by Spon (Enc, pt. 3, p. 985), who
refers it to Nidulnrinni Karatas, "Silk grass," Bromelia sylvesfris
being cited as an alternative name. Specimens of the plant
furnishing the true istle have been examined by the writer from
difierent sources in the past two years. The leaves have also been
examined at T. Albee Smith's establishment in Baltimore, and they
have never averaged over 18 inches in length. Mr. Smith has also
produced the fiber in quantity in Mexico and is familiar with the
plant. At the same time there is no doubt that several other allied
species of Agave (having harsh, bristle-like fiber) are also employed
in obtaining the commercial supply of istle. Mr. Smith states,
however, that fully 90 per cent of the fiber made in Mexico is from
the species represented by the leaves of ^f . heteracantha. For further
accounts, see JTb. Inv. Kept. 5, j). 38; Kew Bull., Dec, 1887, p. 5;
Idem, Oct., 1890, p. 220. See also Agave aurea, this catalogue.

* Sjyecimetis.—W. C. E., United States Government exhibit (man-
ufactures also shown) ; Mexican exhibit, from various localities; Mus. U. S. Dept. Ag.

*-

FiG.'ll.— A leaf of
Agave heteracan-
tha.

Agave mexicana.

This species is also called the maguey, and is said to be one of the Agaves allied to
A. americana vfhich produces the li<iuor caWed pulque and the spirit known as mescaL
As its fiber bears a close resemblance to that of the century plant, no special mention
is necessary, and reference is made to that species. The plant referred to in Rept. 5,
Fib. Inv. series, as A. mexicana is A. decipiens.

Agave morrisii. The Keratto of Jamaica.

Fiber.— "Fiber of little strength and undesirable; value £12 to £14 per ton; it
is not an even fiber." {Idc <)• Christie.)
Economic considerations. — Has been referred to, in West Indian sisal hemp

48 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

literature, as "the worthless keratto." An atteuipt was receutly made to start a
fiber indastry in the Virgin Islands, east of Puerto Rico, with this species, but with
unsatisfactory results.

"Keratto is a term widely used in the West Indies in connection with Agave plants.
It is used generically for the whole tribe of American aloes. 'I'he keratto of Jamaica
is A. morrisii of Baker. The keratto of the Leeward Islands is J. poli/antha; what
the keratto of the other islands is we can not say. In any case we can not define
any species by the name. It only means generically an Agave of some kind." {Dr.
Mon-is. )

Agave potatorum.

This species is possibly A. scolymus.

The species, which is niucli smaller than A. salmiana, is em])loyed in the region of
Tehuacan for making the brandy called mescal or mczcal, and for this reason Zuc-
carini has given to it the name A. potatorum. Many other species of maguey are
likewise employed in the manufacture oimeiical, but this species does not generally
produce textile fiber. {Dr. Weber.) See A. salmiana.

Agave rigida elongata. Sisal Hemp of Yucatan. The Sacqui
OR Sacci of Dr. Perrine.

Agave rigida sisalana. Sisal Hemp of Florida and the Baha-
mas. The Yashi^ui or Yaxoi of Dr. Perrine.

Endogen. Amaryllidacea: Aloe-like leaf cluster.

Native names. — Henequeii or Jenequen (Yuc.) ; Sosqnil (Mex. ) ; CalntUa or Calniya
(Cent. Am.).

Natives of Yucatan, but found in other portions of Mexi(M), Honduras, (.'entr.il
America, and distributed to the W^est Indies ami to the islands of tlie Caribbean Sea.
"Recommended for culture in Victoria" (Spon). The variety aisalana was intro-
duce<l into Florida by Dr. Perrine in 1836. Introduced into the Bahamas by C. Xesbit
in 1845. Large importations of Florida plants into the Bahamas in recent years.
Fig. 1, PI. II, represents a sisal thicket, with plants in "pole,'' <tn Indian Kej'.

Stkuctukal Fiber. — Yellowish white, straight, smooth, clean. A valuable cord-
age fiber, second only to inanila in strength. Does not renuire retting, and dries white
from the machine when well cleaned, without washing. The Yucatan fiber (of com-
merce), a little coarser than the Florida fiber. As freshly imported sometimes shows
a greenish tinge, due to careless manipulation. "The yaxci (or yashqiii), with shorter
leaf of bright velvety green, produces less fiber, but excels in softness, flexibility, and
luster, and brings a higher price in the market." {Dr. Schott.)

Climate and soil. — The plants will not stand frost. Northerly limit of safe cul-
tivation in Florida the line of 27^ north latitude running across tlie State. Possibly
may be grown a little higher in the interior with safety. Fully matured plants will
stand one or two degrees of frost without injury.

The majority of writers agree that ari<l, rocky land is suited to the growth of the
plant. The soil of Yucatan best suited to this culture is of a gravelly, stony, and in
some places of a rocky character, the plants thriving best and yielding the largest
amouTit of fiber in comparatively arid districts only a few feet above the level of
the sea. On the other hand, moist or rich land is considered unsuitcd because
of the lesser yield of the fiber which results. The plants thrive upon the Florida
keys, Indian Key especially, upon the almost naked coral rock, with a luxuriant
growth, and similar conditions prevail in the Bahamas where plantations have been
established.

Cultivation. — The first consideration is the preparation of the land. If hnm-
niock growth, the timber is simply cleared. In other situations, and especially

UKSCRirTIVE CATALOGUE.

49

where palmetto 8trul» occurs, the soil must bo cleared of these roots, there being
about 20 cords of roots to the acre. Dr. Wasliburii, of Fort Myers, estiuuites the
expeuse of clearing the laud in this maunerat $25 (see statements ujiou this subject,
iu Fib. luv. Rept. No. 3, U. S. ))ept. Ag.). As sisal plants will not thrive when
even slightly shaded, all other growth should be <leared away.

riantations are established by setting either suckers or " pole ])lants." Suckers are
the shoots which spring from the roots of old idauts. Pole i)laut8 form ou the blos-
som stalk of old plants that have Uowered. (See lig. 13.) When the old plant llowers,
itseudsupastalk, or ''pole,"
as it is called, to the height
of 15 or sometimes 20 feet.
After the tulip-shaped blos-
soms which appear have
begun to wither, there starts
forth from the point of con-
tact with the tlower stalk a
bud, which develojjS into a
tiny plant, which, when
grown to the length of sev-
eral inches, becomes de-
tached and falls to the
ground. Such pole plants
as come in contact with the
soil take root, and in a very
short time are large enough
to transplant. In the Ba-
hamas these flower stalk
plants are largely utilized in
establishing sisal fields, and
with as good results as
where the suckers alone are
used. Precisely the same
course must be pursued in
Florida. Such plants should
first be set out in the nurs-
ery. It should be remem-
bered that the smaller the
plants used iu establishing
a plantation the longer the
time that must elapse be-
fore leaves are sufficieutly
mature to cut for liber.

In setting out plants in
Florida, we must be guided
by the experience of other
countries. In the Bahamas
650 plants are set to the acre
in rows U feet by 6 feet Fig. 12.-Bloss,„„s of lalso ai.salhemi. plant.

distant from each other. ''This will give room for the laborers to work between
the rows without being wounded by the terrible spurs. Besides, closer planting
would result in the piercing of innumerable leaves every time tlie wind blew, and
the consequent destruction of lil)er. Stabs and bruises mean discoloration." ( Edgar
Bacon.) Evidences of this are seen in every "wild" sisal patch growing on the
Florida keys.

The number of plants usually set out in an acre iu Yucatan is 650. Kows 11 to 12

12247— No. 9 4

50

USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

feet apart and 6 feet apart iu the row; some old fields 9 feet between the rows and
4 feet in the row, tbe plants set Avith considerable regularity. Tbe ])lants receive
two dressings the first year and one every year afterwards.

The size of the cultivations on the estates ran;;e from 250 to 3,500 acres. They are
laid out in fields or sections of 50 to 200 acres, and contain from (500 to 'itOO jdants to
tbe acre. When preparing the fields, the land is cut during tbe dry season, is then
allowed to spring up, after which it is '' sjirig weeded," and burned after the first fall
of rain. Tbe stumps are cut close to tbe ground, so as to be out of the way of tbe
leaves of tbe plants and to facilitate the running of tbe lino for planting and get-
ting tbe rows straight. When planting, the laborers bavi^ a small line with tbe dis-
tances at which tbe plants are to be set out knotted on it and a pole cut to tbe
length that the rows are to be apart. A man and a boy are employed at each line.
The boy drops the plants along the row at the distance marked on the line, and
then removes the line to the next row, dropping the plants as before. The man does

the planting, and is responsible
for the rows being straight.
When (oming to a rock the
planter does not turn aside,
but goes on and places the jilant
in th(^ row a little beyond. (Stu-
art's Hcport.)

Mr. Stuart states that the hemp
plantations in Yucatan vary from
500 to 28,000 acres in extent,
with a total number of 105,000
acres under cultivation, employ-
ing 12,000 Indian laborers. The
largest and best estates are on
the rocky, gravelly lands, and
they are valued from .isiOOjOOO
to $500,000 each. Each estate
is managed by three princijjal
men — the attorney, the manager,
and assistant manager. The
largest estates em))loy locomo-
tives for hauling iu tbe crop from
the fields, others using tramway
trucks or carts drawn by mules
or oxen. Estates with less than 800 acres under cultivation erect one Rasjtador (see
fig. 16) for every 100 acres. Those of 1,000 acres use the large automatic machines.

Regarding the rate of growth iu Florida, a plant set out at 18 inches high, from
the nursery, will produce leaves fit for cutting in three years.

"In June, 1887, I set out plants around my house; these were from (5 to 8 inches
high. At tbe end of the first year small jdants began to appear around the base,
which I used for propagation. At two years the leaves of the large plants were 2
feet 8 inches long at tbe same time tbe longest leaves were 3 feet 2 inches bmg and
were fit to commence cutting. The resultof one plant here of two and one-half years'
growth is an average of 17 young plants and 10 leaves sufficiently long to harvest.
The same plant iu its fourth year will give a still larger result, increasing in use-
fulness each year until it flowers in its eleventh to its thirteenth year, which ends
the life of tbe plant." (Robert Jia)ison.)

Mr. Cleminson, of Jupiter, states that the average length of the leaf from a 4-year-
old plant as grown iu Florida is 3 feet 3 inches when cut, and for three years after-
wards 6 inches longer each year. Thrifty plants 7 years old will produce leaves 5
feet in length.

"The length of time required for tbe production f ibe first cutting of leaves may,

Fig. 13.— Pole plants or slips, Agave gisalana.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE.

51

I think, safolv bt

Fig. 14 Leaves of the true

sisal hemp plant.

rej^anlcd as 4 years from the time of phintiiif;. A great ileal
depends upon the siz<' of the phints when tninsphinted, but
if they be of a suitahle size, say from 12 to 15 inches, with-
out doubt the leaves will attain a leu:;th »( from 1 to 5 feet
and bo fit to cut well within the period named. 1 have .seen
thousands of plants with leaves from 2 to 3 feet long tiiat
had been growing only two years; I have also seen plants
that, I was told, were 3 years old, from which leaves had
been already cut." (line's Report.)

The life of a plant when undisturbed is six or seven years,
after which it sends up its blossom stalk and then perishes.
In Vucatan cutting extends the life of the plant fifteen to
twenty years; T. Albee Smith says twenty-five years.
No special cultivation is needed further than to see that
the laud is kept clean and the suckers kejit down. These
are valuable for starting new plantations.

Yield ok Fibek. — The annual yield of filler in Yucatan
is from 1,000 to 1,470 pounds per acre; 50 to 70 pounds of
fiber is <lerived from 1,000 leaves. Calculating S3 leaves to
the plant as the annual cuttings from the
650 plants on an acre, the 21,450 loaves may
be said to yield 1,287 pounds of clean fiber.

T. Albee Smith states that the plants are
set out in Yucatan at the rate varying from
96 to 140 plants per inecate (one-tenth of
an acre). The latter is thought to bring
the best yield and longest fiber — say 1,400
plants per acre. The producer pays a tax to
the State of 3 cents per arroba (25 pounds),
which equals $2.40 i>er ton of 2,000 pounds.
Ho has seen 90 loaves cleaned in live min-
utes on one wheel with two feeders, but says
that this speed can not be continued. Oue
thousand leaves of henequen weigh in the
rainy season 160 to 200 arrobas, in the dry
season, 100 to IGO arrobas. One thousand
leaves average a yield of 55 pounds of fiber.

The average weight of a leaf of the Mexi-
can form of plant is 1 pound, 10 ounces,
according to reliable authorities. A calcu-
lation based on the above figures jilaces the
yield of dried fiber from 2,240 pounds of
leaves at 82 j)ounds and a fraction. The
actual product of a long ton of Indian Key
(Florida) leaves from the duaJaiia form as
determined by the Department's Florida ex-
periments is about 79 pounds. The machine
made a very considerable waste, which,
after being carefully washed and dried,
gave a weight of 22.i pounds from the ton
of leaves. This gi vcs a total of very nearly
102 pounds of straight fiber and waste from
a ton of leaves. Kegarding the waste made
by the Raspador in Mexico no statements
can be made. The average yield of 2,000

Fig. 15.— Leaves
ofthe false sisal
hemp plant.

pounds of sisal leaves in the Bahamas is 75 pounds, equivalent to 83 pounds to tlie

52

USEPUI^ FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

long ton. Wastaj^e uot stated. Dr. MorriH reduces these yields to e(|uivalents,
inKew Bull., 18!)3, p. 207. "Highest possible yifld (waste accounted for), 4.6 per
cent; yield in Yucatan with the Kaspador, 3.6 i»er cent; in Florida (Van Bureu
machine), 3.5 per cent; iu Bahamas (supposed to be Van Bureu machine, C. R. 1).), 3.7
per cent." Percentage with the automatic mac hines in i)re8ent use in the Bahamas,
unknown. (See tigs. 14 and 15, leaves of true and false sisal hemp.)

Harvesting ani> i-rei-aration. — Little can he said ou these points from actual
experience in our own country. The machinery used in the (Jovernment experiments
in southern Florida was too small and too slow to give a basis for estimating cost of
production. (See fig. 17, the Van Bui*en machiue.)

The cutting of the leaves is done in Y'ucatan by Indians, using a heavy-bladed,
saber-like knife called a machete. The task is 2,000 to 2,500 leaves per day. The
spine at the leaf end is cut oft" and the leaves bundled for rt^moval to the machines.

On large plantations the leaves
are transported by steam power
over tramways running from
diH'erent portions of the estate.
"Spicimens. — Complete series
illustrating the (iovernment
ex])eriments in Florida, Field
Col. Mus.; Mus. F. S. Dept.
Ag. ; U. S. Nat. Mus.

Agave salmiana. The
Maguey Blando of
Mexico.

Fiber. — Specimens shown
in the Mexican exhibit at the
Paris Exposition closely re-
sembled the tiberof ./. irmeri-
cana ; white, wavy, of medium
strength. Fiber from a plant
of J. sa^JHioHrt growing in the
United States Botanic (iarden,

extracted by the Department, was coarse, harsh, and wiry, without any of the cliar-

acteristics of Mexican samples.
Dr. Weber, of Paris, informs me that the maguey, or metl, which is cultivated on

the plains of Apam for the production of ^m?</mc, bears in Mexico the name maguey

manso fin 0, and is the A. salmiana; A. potatorum, reported by Antonio G. Cubas,

being an error. See -1. 2>otatorum.
*Specimens. — U. S. Nat. Mus. ; Mus. U. S. Dept. Ag.

Agave tuberosa. Cabulla of Costa Rica. See Furcrcca.

Fio. 16.— li<aspador or Patmillo machine used in Mexico.

Agave vivipara. Bastard Aloe.

Eudogeu. AmaryUidacea'. Aloe-like leaf cluster.
Native Mexican name, Theo-metl; C/io«ca of the Antilles.
Flourishes in Southern United States; tropical America; northwest provinces of
India. Closely resembles A. liryinica, also growing in the United States.

Structural Fiber. — Said to be strong and useful. Known as Bombay aloe fiber.
"In the jails a good fiber is made from its leaves." {India Oudh Gazetteer. ) Used for
cordage and twine in India.

"(Specimen. — Bot. Mus. Harv. Univ.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE,

53

Agave

A species of Agave which has not yet been itlentitied waa found in many portions
of southern Florida. Fine specimens of the leaves hiivo been sent from the Indian
River region bj' Mr. McCarthy, who states that the plant is connnon in that section.
I have myself seen it growing at Jupiter, at Lake Worth, and at other ])oints on the
mainland to the southward as far as the Perrine grant, but do not recall a specimen
on any of the keys. The mature leaves measure 5 feet or more in length, 8 to 10
inches in breadth, and will weigh 8 pounds or more. The serrations on the edges
are Aery line and close set, the terminal spine being present. The color of the leaf
is a light bluish green. (See fig. 18).

Fig. 1, PI. Ill, shows several young plants of this species found on Addison's phice,
Perrine grant, in southern Florida.

A (juantity of small leaves of this species were run through the machine at Cocoa-
nut Grove, but owing to the thickness of the butts it was necessary to split each

Fio. 17.— The V,an Buren niacliine, used in the experiments of the Department in Florida.

leaf into four pieces and crush the butts with a mallet. The fiber is similar to that
of A. americaiia in every respect, crinkly, elastic, and very white. A sufficient
(|uantity of the fiber was secured for exhition purposes, but not enough for test in
manufacture. See The Agaves of the United States, by A. Isalxd Mulford, St. Louis,
1896, and Kept. No. :>, Fib. Inv. series, p. 38

' Specimens.— Field Col. Mus. ; Mus. U. S. Dept. Ag.

Agbari-ettu (Afr.). See Alafia.

Aguaje (Peru). See Mauritia flexuosa.

Agust, Agusta, Agasti. East Iiidiiui names of Sesbama yrandiftora.

Agotai (Pliil. Is.). See Mum textilis.

Akaroa (New Zea.). Flagianthus betulinus.

54

USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

Ake-iri (Yorubaland). See Urena lohata.
Akia (Hawaii). Wiksfroemia virkUflora.
Akpako (Yorubaland). Raphia vinifera.
Alfa (Alg-.). See Stipa tenacis-sima.
Alafia sp.

This creeper grows wild, Yorubaland, west Africa, where it is called Afihari-cttu ;
species not ideutified.

Bast Fiber. — The stems are used to make a coarse roj)e for tyiug rafters, iu

house construction. (Kew Bull., 185)1, p. 208.)

Albardine (Alg.). SeeLygeum sparfum.
Algae. See Seaweeds.
Albero (Tt.) = Tree.

del pane, Artocarpus incisa; della seta,

AscJepias frulicosa (now Comjthocarpim frutiioniin).

Algodon (Sp.). See GoHsypiiim.
Ali (Iiid.). See Linum ufiitatinsimum.
AUaeanthus zeylanicus.

Kxogen. I'tt'tcarcd'. A tree.

Native of Ceylon, 1.000 to 2,000 feet elevation,
where the plant is known as Allandoo-fi<(s.

FlBEii. — The inner liark furnishes a very tongh
fiber, employed in many native uses.

Allandoo-gas. See A Jhca nth us zri/la n icv.s.
Aln kabel (Ceyl.). See Musa Hapientum.

Alnus nitida.

Exogeu. Bvtiilucece. A large tree.
Nativk Indian names. — Shral, sarali, etc.
Found in the Himalayas, 1,000 to Jt,000 feet ele-
vation; principal value for dyeing and tanning.

Fiber. — The natives employ the young twigs iu
rope bridges and for tying loads, etc. ; also used for
making baskets. (Die. Ec. Prod. Ind., Vol. I, p,
177.)

Alocasia macrorrhiza. See A rum .

Aloe.

Fig. 18.-

- Leaves of Florida Agave (spe-
cies unidentified).

The American

Agave anicricaua

lace, the Lace of Fayal made from this spe<'ies ; tiie
Bastard , or False , ./. ririptrn ; — — —

leaved Adam's needle, Yucca aloifolia. Savorgnan gives boemica as a common

Italian name of J. avuricana. See also Aloe vera.

Aloes.

The name is usually applied to the bitter extract from the leaves of certain species

of Aloe, valued in pharmacy. Barbados and Indian , Aloe vera. Also a]>plied

to fiber plants , veri, Furcraa gigautea; the word is used by tlie French to des-
ignate .li/aie amerkaHa, though Bernardiu states that it is a French generic term
applied to the Agaves generally.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 55

Aloe vera. Barbados Aloks. Indian Aloes.

Endogeu. LUiacbw. Rosette of thick leaves with central tlower stalk.
Native Indian namks. — Chi-karar, Ghirta-l'umari, auil many others.

The plant is said to be a native of northern Africa, Canary Isles, and southern
Spain, and its many varieties have been introdnced into all tropical < onutries.
Cultivated in the West Indies, Barbados, and Antigua. Grows generally in India,
and in sonth India has escaped from cnltivation.

Structural Fiber. — While the plant is grown for itsmedicinal qnalities, the leaves
contain a good fiber which could be utilized, as the leaves are of no further use after
the juice has been extracted. This fiber should not be confounded with the Aloe
fiber of commerce derived from A(jare americana.

"Specimens of fiber from J. indica were exhibited in the Indian department at the
W. C. E., 1893, Chicago.

Alsi (Hiud.). Linum usitaUssimum.

Althaea cannabina.

Exogen. Malracew A shrub.

This species is found in southern Eurojye — Spain and Italy — and is also indigeuoiis
to southern Russia, Hungary, and the Caucasus. In Italy it is known as Canapa
salvatica, or wild hemp.

Fiber. — The bast is said by Savorgnau to yield a fiber in Spain that is employed
"for very fine cloth." Enumerated in Bernardin's catalogue as a fiber plant.

Althaea rosea. The Hollyhock.

This species of Malvace;e, which is the origin of the common hollyhock, grows
wild in China and also southern Europe. It is similar to the common marsh mallow,
A. officinalis.

Bast Fiber. — A sample of its fiber of good length, experimentally prepared liy
Henry Koenig, a Missouri correspondent, was recently sent to the Department. The
fiber is bright in color, a light straw, but exhibits only medium strength ; would be a
poor jute substitute.

"* Specimen. — Mus. U. S. Dept. Ag.

Alva marina. See Zostera.

Ambada (Intl.). See Hibiscus cannahinus.

American Aloe. Agave americana.

Amole (U. S.). Chlorogalum pomeridianum and other i)laijts us(mT for

soap.
Ambari hemp (Ind.). See HiMscus cannahinus.
Ambrosia trifida. Tall Eagweed.

Exogen. ComposUa: A coarse annual weed.

The species of this genus are found in North and South America, tropical India,
and Africa, growing in waste places.

Bast Fiber.— Dr. Havard states that the fiber of the tall, stout stems of the rag-
weed were formerly utilized by Indians to make strings and to]u'h.

Ammophila arenaria. Beach Grass.

Syn. rsamma armaria, Ammophila arundinacea.
Endogen. Graminea'. A sea reed or grass.

Common names. — Marram, maritm, sea reed, sea matweed, beach grass, bent
grass, etc.
Habitat: Temperate North America, Europe, northern Africa, and introduced into

56

USEFUL FIBER PLATSTTS OF THE WORLD.

Australia. A. arenaria is native along the Atlantic coast of the I'^nitcd States and
also on the coasts of western Euroiie. It was introduced into Australia from Hol-
land, and its Dutch name " Marram grass" was taken with it. It is known in this
country and in most places in England as " beach grass " and sea-sand grass. It
is one of the most A^aluable of the grasses adapted to binding the drifting sands
of onr coasts, and has been cultivated for this purpose in this as well as i:i other
countries. The action of tliis grass in holding the drifting sands is like that of
brush or bushes cnt and laid n])on the ground in accuminulating snow when drifted
by the wind. The sand collects around tlie clnmiis of grass, and as it accumulates
the grass grows up and overtops it, and will so continue to grow, no matter how
high the sand liill nuiy rise. A plant Avill, by gradual up-growth, (uially form stems
and roots saurled in to the depth of fully 100 feet, ilany years ago it was as cus-
tomary to warn the iuliabitants of Truro and some other towns
"U Capo Cod to turn out to ]daiit marram grass as it was in the
inland towns to turn out and mend the roatls. This was re-
([uired by law, with suitable penalties for its neglect, and took
])la<e in Apiil. Marram grass is best propagated by trans-
jdanting, the grass being pulled by liand and set in a hole
about a foot decji and the sand pressed about it. (Scrilmer.)
It is also used in Eastern countries and in Holland for binding
the sands upon the coast and i)rcser\ ing them from the inroads
of the sea. (See fig. 11»)-

Sthuctuual FiiiEU.— In the norlh of England the grass is
said to be used for table mats and basket work. Spon says
that its fiber is used for pa])er making, matting, and agricul-
tural tie bands; also employed as thatch material. Its liber
is not used in the United States.
!^prcimrns. — U. S. Nat. Herb.

Amomum magnificum.

Endogen. Zitif/iberaceo'. Herb.
A genus of aromatic herbs. The species is found in Mauritius
"From the very fine liber of the leaves textures ile luxe are
made" (Manual Hoepli).

Ainpelodesnia tenax. J)iss.

JCndogen. (iramitiea .
The plant grows wild on the Algerian coast, and is said to

produce 84 per cent of fiber, with an average length of ."> feet.

One of the plants often confounded with Stipa Irnachsima, as

it grows wild in the regions where the true esparto abounds.

In the Kew Mns. are shown examples of rope from the (lis8
made in Genoa. lias been im])orted into Sicily for paper making. Nets from .im-
pelodcama tenax have been used on the Tuscan coast in the tunney fishery. Tlie nets
are very durable if kept in water and protected from the action of the sun." (Off.
Guide Kew Mus.)

riu.l9. — Murrain gras
Ammophila arenaria

Amsonia taberncemontana.

Exogeu. Aporiinavcii . Herb.
A genus of J oooynaceo' with five species, natives of North America. The si)e(ies
named has been received from Mr. S. S. Boyce, of Rolling Fork, Miss., who regards
it as a promising liber plant.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE, 57

Anadendrum sp.

Kndogeu. Aracea'.

Native name. — Audamau Islands, Yolha.
FiHEH. — From the bark ; usod for liowstriiij^s and netted reticules carried by the
women.

Ananas sativa. Pineapple.

Endogon. Bromeliacew. Aloe-like leaf cluster.

Native NAMES. — Ananas {Yr.)] Vina (Eastern Archipelago); ^ na jmas (Beng.);
Aainunnas (Arab, and Pers.) ; Po-lo-Ma (China,).

Native of tropical America, probably Brazil, and distributed over southern Europe,
and tropical Asia and Africa. In the United States chietly cultivated for its fruit
in subtropical Florida. Dr. Morris informs me that the Crowia of British (iuiana, a
plant (if which is growing at Kew, has been determined to be a wild form of the com-
mon pineapple. The term silk grass, sometimes applied to its fiber, is meaningless
and a misnomer. See Crowia in the alphabetical arrangement. Fig. 2, PI. Ill, shows
the pineapple plant in cultivation.

Structural Fiber. — "Both the wild and cultivated pineapple yield fibers which,
when spun, surpass in strength, fineness, and luster those obtained from fiax; can be
employed as a substitute for silk, and as a material for mixing with wool or cotton."
( Wait.) Useful for cordage, textile fabrics, sewing silk or twist, laces, etc. In
China fabrics for clothing of agriculturists. In request in India as material for string-
ing necklaces. Produces the celebrated j>i/7a cloth of the Philippine Islands. "It is
remai'kably durable, and unaffected by immersion in water; and is white, soft, silky,
fiexiblo, and long in staple." (Spon.) Samples cleaned, without washing, in the
Government experiments in Plorida", 1892, when twisted to the size of binding twine,
showed a l>reakage strain of 150 pounds. Dr. Taylor subdivided a specimen of this
fiber to one ten-thousandth of an inch.

Economic coxsideratioxs. — Pineapple culture, for its fruit, in Florida is a com-
paratively recent industry, the first plantings having been made on the keys about
1886, though the first plantation of commercial importance was not established until
fifteen years later, on the Indian Kiver. The value of the fiber has loug been known,
however, and in 1891 the fiber expert of the United States Department of Agriculture
began a series of investigations into the practicability of utilizing the I'lorida leaves
for fiber after the fruit has been gathered, as their utilizatio:i would give to the
United States a new industry. In the experiments of 1892 it was shown that the
yield of fiber from freshly cut pineapple leaves ranges from 45 to (JO pounds per ton
of 2,240 pounds of leaves. An importaut point to be noted is the fact that selected
leaves, as to size, do not give as high a yield of fiber as average leaves. Lot No. 1
was 820 pounds of average leaves and 202 pounds of selected. While the total 1,022
pounds of leaves gave 25 pounds of fiber, tlie 820 pounds gave 21 pounds of fiber
against a yield of 4 pounds from 202 pounds of leaves. Reduced to e<iuivalents, the
average leaves yielded at the rate of 57i pounds to the ton, while the selected leaves
yielded less than 44A pounds of fiber to the ton.

Lot No. 5 was from Fuzzard's plantation, near the Perriue grant, 1,000 pounds of
leaves, tips cut off. The leaves averaged 10 to the pound. Dry fiber from this
1,000 pounds weighed 18 jjounds, 2 ounces, or a little over 40 pounds to the ton of
leaves. It should also be uoted that there was an excessive waste of fiber in the
process of cleaning.

Special Agent Monroe, who attended to the details of the exi)erimental work of
1892 in Florida, stated that the practice has been to allow the leaves to decay under
the plant and afford possible nourishment to the young suckers. The general opin-
ion on this point is in favor of cutting the leaves, but experiments covering several
seasons will be necessary to properly decide this point. Owing to the practice on
the keys of planting very close, it was found that a large proportion of the leaves

58 USEFUL FIBER PLATTTS OF THE WORLD.

were injured l)y chafing one on another, and also from being crushed under foot in
weeding and catting the fruit. This condition seems to be almost entirely obviated
by spacing the plants afc least 2 feet, .as has been done on the mainland. Another
defect was found in the withered condition of several inches of the tip or end, not
noticeable in the younger leaves. This, however, nuiy have been due to the excessive
drought of the season. It does not occasion much loss of fiber, but adds to the cost
of extraction, the decayed parts having to be cut otF. The approximate acreage in
pineapples in 1892 on keys Metaeomba, Largo, and Elliott's was 930, and the num-
ber of apples shipped (1892) about 1,916,400, which did not include many thousands
marketed after the close of the season.

The average yield of good leaves from the Red Si)ani8h was about 10 out of the
average 25 of each plant, and the weight 1 pound, making the total for fruited jjlants,
in round numbers, 958 tons. Adding the leaves to be secured after the close of the
season and from abandoned fields, the quantity might be raised to 1,000 or 1,100
tons. This refers, of course, to extreme southern Florida, no account having been
taken of the large acreage on Indian River and elsewhere.

As to the value of the fiber, a London quotation for a lot of Avell cleaned from an
Asiatic source was $150 per ton. There is no doubt that if the fiber could be pro-
duced in (juantity at an economical cost, manufacturers would soon find a use for it
and would know what price they could afford to ])ay for it. The market price
would then be fixed by the demand and su|)ply. The machine question enters
largelj' into the ]»roblem, however, and as the leaves are small a quantity would
need to be cleaned at one feeding of the machine to nuike it pay. Estimating 10
leaves to the pound, there would be over 22,000 leaves to the ton, Avhich, as We
haA^e seen, would ])roduce from 50 to 60 pounds of fiber.

The machine used in the Department experiments produced a fine product, but in
too small quantity to be employed commercially. There is no doubt that a modified
sisal hemp ma<-hine (automatic) would do the work, although a machine has recently
been constructed for all small-leaved plants th.at may be adajited to use in extract-
ing this fiber. .See Appendix A.

The Chinese extract the fiber by hand. "The first step is the removal of the
fleshy sides of the leaf A man sitting astride a narrow stool extends on it in front
of him a single leaf, one end of which is held beneath him. He then, with a kind of
two-handled bamboo plane, removes the succulent matter. Another man receives
the leaves as they are planed, and with his thumb nail loosens the fibers about the
middle of the leaf, gathers them in his hand, and by one efi'ort detaches them from
the outer skin. The fibers aie next steeped in water, washed, and laid out to dry
and bleach on rude frames of split bamboo. The processes of steeping, washing, and
exposing to the son are repeated until the fibers are consider(!<l proiterly bleached.
In the Philippines the blunt end of a jiotsherd is used and the fiber is carefully
combed and sorted into four classes." (Spon.)

The Chinese fiber is manufactured into a strong, coarse fabric resembling the
coarser kinds of grass cloth. In Formosa its chief use is for the inner garments of
the agricultural class. The fabric is called Jluanfi-li-Pu. I'iua is considered to be
more delicate in texture than any other known to the vegetable kingdom. It is
woven from the untwisted fibers of the pineapple leaf after reducing theui to extreme
fineness and alter the ends have been glued together to form a continuous thread.
There is another delicate fabric, used for ladies' dresses, which is said to be manu-
factured from i)inea])ple fiber woven with silk, the latter forming lustrous stripes in
soft colors or shades.

The pineapple cloth of the Philippines is produced by the common piueai)p]e also,
i. e., Jiiaiins satira. The plants have become ahuost wild in Singapore and the Phil-
ippines, with leaA^es 5 to 6 feet long. The fruit is small, but the leaves appear to
yield better liber than the cultivated plants. {Dr. Morris.)

Further accounts of the fiber will be found in the Ann. Rept. U. S. Dept. Ag., 1879,
p. 542; Fib.Inv. Rept. No.5,p.44; Kew Bull., 1X87, p. 8: Jan.. 1880, p. 27; Oct., Nov.,

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 59

1891, p. 251; Spon. Enc, pt. 3, p. 917; Die. Ec. Prod. Ind., Vol, I, p. 236; Rovle,
Fib. PL of Ind., p. 38.

* Specimens.— Fiher, IT. S. Nat. Mns. ; Mus. U. S. Dept. Ag. ; Field Col, Mns. ; cloth,
Bot. Mus. Harv. Univ.

Ananas bracteatus.

Syn. Bromelia sagenaria.
A South American species, from which a good fiber has been extracted, called Gra-
Wrt//irt liy Savorguan; though IJernardin states that Graivatha \s Bromelia medicalis.

Ancient fibers. See Introduction.

Andromachia igniaria. See Liahum igniarium.

Andropogon gryllus. See Chrysopof/o7i.

Andropogon schcenanthus. EusA or Ginger Grass of India.

This species yields an oil which is used in European Turkey to adulterate attar of
roses. It abounds in tropical and subtropical Asia and Africa.

Structural Fiber. — Specimens of this grass are preserved in the Mus. U. S.
Dept. Ag. It is described in India as a tall grass, too coarse to stack, but used for
thatching and for screens.

Andropogon sorghum vulgaris. Broom Corn.

Endogen. Gramineiv. A giant grass.

Cultivated in many iiarts of the world. Andrnpoijon sorghum includes many varie-
ties, a number of which have been recognized by some authors iis distinct botanical
species under the genus Sonjlinm; others, including Hackel, have referred them all
to the genus Andropo<jou. The same name has been applied to difi'erent varieties,
and the same variety has often been designated under ^arious names. All the forms
are of Eastern origin, and have arisen probably from a common stock through ages
of cultivation. From varieties of this species are obtained grain, which furnishes
nutritious food for man and domestic animals, particularly poultry; sirup and sugar
ill commercial quantities are obtained from the saccharine A'arieties. The variety
saccharatus, or Chinese sugar grass, yields about 13 per cent of sugar, and all furnish
fodder of more or less value for farm stock. In Africa alcoholic drinks are jirepared
from the grains, and useful coloring pigments are contained in the fruiting glumes.

V/hile this is not, strickly speaking, a liber plant, it yields a T)rush material and is
therefore included in this list. The statements which follow are extracted from Cir-
cular No. 28, OfiSce of Experiment Stations, United States Deiiartinent Agriculture:

Broom corn, as is well known, resembles sorghum in appearance, both plants being
varieties of the same species. Broom corn usually grows 8 to 12 feet high, though
the dwarf variety attains only half that height. The chief economic difference
between broom corn and other varieties of sorghum consists in the greater length,
strength, and straightness of the fine stems composing the head, or panicle, and sup-
porting the seeds. The longer, straighter, and tougher these stems or straws and
the greener their color aft«r curing, the higlier the price the product commands.
The different varieties of broom corn attord dissimlar products. The dwarf variety
produces the short brush used in the manufacture of small brooms and whisks. It
is somewhat difficult to harvest and is cultivated only to a limited extent. Of the
large varieties the Evergreen, known also as the Missouri or Tennessee Evergreen,
has given general satisfaction. The Mohawk is regarded as earlier, but as affording
a smaller yield. There is some advantage in planting more than one variety and at
several different dates so as to extend through a long seasoTi the time of harvesting.

CULTURK. — A climate suitable for Indian corn is also adapted to tlie growth of the
broom-corn plant. Dry weather at harvesting time is a favorable climatic condi-
tion. A well-drained, rich, san«ly or gravelly loam soil such .as will produce a heavy

60 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

yield of Indian corn, and is as free as possible from weeds, is best for broom corn. If
the soil is not fertile, i t should be liberally manured. The seed tan be planted almost
as e;irly as corn. Only mature seed should be used, and it may be planted in hills
or drills, although drill culture is generally recommended. The rows should be 3 to
4 feet apart, and sufficient seed should be planted to iusure three to five stalks every
15 or 18 inches in the row ; or the seed may be drilled thinly so as to leave one stalk
every 3 or 4 inches. The cultivation of broom corn is similar to that given to corn
or sorghum. The early growth of the plant is slow, hence the need of prouqit and
frequent shallow cultivation to keep the weeds iu subjection and to maintain a thin
layer of loose soil on the surface.

Harvestixo. — The chief difficulty euconntcred by the novice in broom-corn cul-
ture is in deterniiuing when to harvest the l>rnsh. Even experienced growers are
not uunninions on this point, some cutting the heads while in blossom, and otiiers
harvesting later so as to obtain better dev6lo])ed seeds possessing considerable nutri-
tive value. The time geucrallj' preferred is just after the fall of the .so-called
"blossom" (anthers). A common custom with tall varieties at time of harvesting
is to bend down the stalks of two rows diagonally toward each other iu such man-
ner that the bent parts support each other in a nearly horizontal position. The
stalks of one row cross diagonally those of the other .iml form a y>l;itfoiin or " talile."
The break, or rather the sharp bend, in the stalk is made about 2h or 3 feet above the
ground. The brush borne on one row j)rojccts over and beyond the other row in a
position convenient for the cutter, avIio follows immediately. 'I'he heads \^th 5
inches of stalk are laid on the lable, or ]ilatforni, until they can be removed to a <lry-
ing shed. Cutting while the i)lant8 are wet with dew or rain should be a\oided.
The brnsh of the dwarf variety is pulled out, not cut. If the season is dry as the
corn approaches maturity the brush renmiis striiight, but if the weather is hot and
damp at this pt-riod the straws are likely to bend and to form crooked brnsh. In
harvesting and in curing great pains are taken to keep the brush straight. Crooked
or targ]ed brnsh is carefully sorted out. From the field the brush is taken to the
scrapers, which remove the seed. Large grow< rs of broom corn employ special
scraping machines, consisting of one or two cylinders provided with ir< n teeth and
usually driven by horsepower. The most complete scrapers are provided with an
automatic feeding arrangement. With cheaper machines the operator h<dd8 the
seed end of a handful of brush against the cyliinlers until the seeds are removed.
It is stated that the ordinary threshing machine, with concave removed, has been
used in a similar manner. For .small <;uantities of brush a long-toothed currycomb,
or a wooden comb made by sawing teeth in a plank has been used. The brush
should be cured in the shade, as exposure to sun or moisture injures its color and
strength. I'ree circulation of air i-i necessary in this process. Hence, when large
quantities are to I)e cured special curing houses tiioronghly ventilated mid provided
with racks made of narrow planks and laths are constructed. On these racks layers
of brush 3 inches thick are laid. Curing is continued until the brush will not heat
when bulked or baled. When curing the brnsh is ])re8sed into bales, usually 46 by
30 by 24 inches and weighing about 300 pounds. The butts are placed evenly at the
ends of the bale, and the pieces of "brush " lap in the middle.

Foreign uses. — The Venetian whisks of Italy are made from this species, which
is employed in all civilized countries for similar use, and for the manufacture of
brooms iind lirushes.

Andropogon squarrosus. The Cuscus, Khuh Khus, or Koosa.

Endogen. Gramineiv. Perennial grass, 8 to 10 feet.

Common and native names. — Vctivert, Kush-kush, JJeuv; Kha.s (Hind, and
Pers.); r8ir(Arab.); Miyamore {liurm.), etc.
Native of India. Very common in many ])ortion8 of India, growing in low, moist,
rich soil, usually along the water courses, but found on the plains of northwest

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 61

India. Also fouiul in the West Indies and Brazil, gfowing on rivtT banks and in the
marshes. It was introduced into Lonisiana many years aijo, and is now spontaneous
in someof the lower parts of that State. Cultivated successfully at Knox.ville, Tenn.,
where the fragrance of the rhizomes and roots was develoiie<l to a marked degree,
but the plants did not bloom.

Stkuctiral FiBEK. — Tliis siiecies is interesting as su])plying the material for the
sweet-scented, Hbrous fans from India, whicli ])ro\'ed one of the novelties of the Chi-
cago Exposition of lSit3. Tliese fans are made from the roots, which are also employed
for making the fragrant screens known as tatties, which when wet are hung before
the open windows and doors of houses to cool tJie atmosphere. The Kew Mus. col-
lection contains a series of specimens of fans, baskets, and hand screens made from
these roots. *'Also used for awnings and as covers for i)alaniiuins and fans, and
brushes used by weavers in arranging the thread of tlie web are made from either the
roots or the whole plant. The roots laid among clothing impart a pleasing fra-
grance to the garments and are said to keep theui free from insects. The roots are
an article of commerce s(dd by druggists. In European drug stores the roots are
known as Badix anathcri or liadix vefirer'uv, a stimulant or antiseptic. They yield a
perfume known as retirert, or, in India, itar." (F. Latnson-Scrihtier.) This grass is
used as thatching material in India.

A. hirohitns, another In<lian species, was formerly supposed to produce the " Hha-
har" grass, which, however, is the product of an I.svha'itiiim. A. nardus is the Citro-
nella of India, the stems of which have been proposed as a useful 'paper product.
Die. Ec. Prod. lud. A. condeiisatns is an Argentine species, noted as n.seful for its fiber.
Other fiber species are ./. tennis and A. serkeus, in South Australia. The natives of
Kavirondo, ISritish Central Africa, make use of the material of a species of Aiidro-
pof/on for grass ropes with which their cattle are tethered. There are a number of
species of the genus in the United States, but none has been reported as a fiber nnite-
rial other than cultivated broom corn.

' Specimens of fans, W. C. E., 1893, Indian section ; grass and fiber, U. S. Nat. Herb,
and Mus. U. S. Dept. Ag.

Anjan (Hind.). See Hardivickia.

Anoda-gaha (Ceyl.). Abntilon indicum.

Anodendron paniculatum.

Exogen. Apoc\inacea\ A giant climber.
An Indian species of plant also found in Ceylon. The stems are said to yield a
very strong, fine fiber much esteemed in Ceylon for native uses, known as dul.

Anoer (Malay). Cocos nucifera.
Anona squamosa. Sour sop.

Exogen. Anonticetr. Small trees or shrubs.

There are several species of the genus, found in America, .Africa, and Asia. They
are chiefiy prized for their fruit, though a fibrous substance is yielded by the bark,
which has been utilized in some countries. Savorgnan states that in Guadalonpe
the fiber has been employed for cordage. A. reficulata, the true custard apple of the
West Indies, a fiber said to have been extracted from the young twigs which is better
tlian that from the above species. A. palustria, Brazil, which is known as aratica-
for/ico, supplies the natives of Para with a useful tibcr. Species of J hojki of Vene-
zuela, known locally as anoveiUo and manirito, find a place in the list of useful fibers
of that country. Several of the sjjecies named above are found in India, A. reticulata
bein<»- prized as yielding dye and tanning material, fiber, Ibod, medicine, and timber.
See Diet. Ec. Prod. Ind., Vol. I, p. 258, and Cat. Veuez. Expos., 1883, by Dr. Ernst,
The State of Para, Braz. Com. W. C. E., 1893.

* Specimens of J. muricaia. — Herb. Col. Univ., N. Y.

62 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OK THE WORLD.

Anoncillo (Venez.). Anona spp.
Anthistiria arundinacea.

Endogeu. <iramine<f. A grass.

This species is foiuul iu iiorihein India, where, uccordiug to VV^att, the culms yield a

tiber used for cordage and for the sacrificial striugs used liy the Hindoos. The

leaves are also employed as a thatching matt'rial. Another species, the kangaroo

grass of Australia (./. «».s</-«Zi.s), is given in Bernardin's list of tiber-producing i)l;ints.

Anthurium acaule.

Belongs to the .Iriim family. Native of tropical America. " The small, broad leaves
are used as a thatch material by the Indians of British (iuiana, strung together many
on a stick" (E. F. im Tliurn).

Antiaris toxicaria. The Upas Tree.

Exogen. Moracea. Large evergreen tree.

By some autliors ./. iox'uaria and A. innoxla (syn. A. .saccidora), the Travancore
sacking trees, are rcgnrded as one species. Botii abound in portions of India, the
former on the Western (Jliats and in Ceylon, the latter in Burma. The stripped bark
is soaked in water and beaten, producing a white fibrous cloth, employed by the
natives. The tiber is also used for native coidage, matting, and sacking. !5oth
clothing and natural sacks are formed from the bark. An account of this rude
manufacture is given in Die. Ec. Prod. Ind., Vol. I, p. 208, as follows: "Small
branches are made into legs of trousers and arms of coats, the larger ones forming
the bodies of the garments. * * "* In making sacks, sojiietimes a disk of the wood
is left aitaclied to the fiber to form the bottom of the sack. At other times the bark
is ])eeled off. and after being beaten iu water and dried the top and bottom are sewed
up, forming the sack."

'^Sjjecimviix. — Bot. Mus. Hurv. Univ.

Antidesma alexiteria.

A species of Enphorhidccw, found in India, the leaves of wliich are an antidote for
snake bites. Its fruits are edible, and cords are made from the tiber of the bark.

Antirrhinum majus. Common Snapdragon.

The species of tliis genus of Scrojyhu I ariacew are found in southern Europe and in
California. A. majitsis common in Italy, where it is known as /Auo (hi Miiri, Jiocca
de leone, etc. It grows in walls and is cultivated in gardens. "The tiber of the stem
is tenacious and can be used as a textile" (Manual Hoepli>.

Apeiba tibourbou.

Exogen. Tiliacew. A tree.
This species abounds in many South American countries, the fiber being iu the
form of a thin ribbon of coarse bast, similar to that ])roduced from the Tilias, and
capatde of rude weaving into mats and similar manufactures. Not an important
fiber, 'hough given by Dr. Ernst in the list of Venezuelan fibers. Known in Vene-
zuela as Erizo. Bernardin mentions A. idmifolia as one of the fiber trees of Trinidad.
A. petoumo, known as Corlega in Panama, is nsed for cordage, its fiber being white,
tough, and strong. Savorgnan mentions A. glabra as a fiber species found in Guiana.
Bernardin catalogues two otlier species as fiber producing, A. aspera and A. idmifolia.

Apocynum cannabinum. Indian Hemp.

Exogen. Apocynactiv. A perennial herb.

Abounds throughout the western portion of the United States. Specimens of
fiber have been received from Minnesota. Nebraska, Utah, Nevada, and Arizona.

Bast Fiber. — Easily separated from the stalk, and when cleaned is quite fine,
long, and tenacious. In color it is light cinnamon as usually seen, though finely

DESCRIPTIVE CATAI.OGUE.

63

prepared specimens are creamy white ami remarkably iino and soft; will rank with
Asflepias for streugtli, and is readily obtained, as the stems are lonjr, straight,
smooth, and slender. Althon,i;h paper has not been made of it, it could doubtless
be ntilized for the purpose. It is principally employed by the North American
Indians, who maunfacture from it in rude fashion bags, mats, small ornamental
baskets, belts, twine, and other cordage, fishing lines, and nets. Among fine speci-
mens received is a lisli line, such as is used by the I'ai Utes at the Walker Kiver
Reservation in Nevada.

Flfi. 20. — The Indian liemp plant, Ajioci/inim cminahi ini in.

The plant belongs to the Dogbane family, having upright branching stems -1 or 5
feet in length with opposite leaves, and a tough, r<Ml<lish bark. Spon mentions the
sjiecies, but gives it the common name "Colorado hemp," whic'li does not apply to
this species, bnt to Seshania niacrocarpa. lie states that " it yields a fine, white,
strong fiber." The naturally prepared fiber of the specimens of A. cannabinum that
have come under the notice of the author are always a dark cinnamon color and
not white, and it is probable that the two species have been confounded. (Fig. 20.)

64 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

In tlie Russian cxhibifc at tlio Coltiiubian Exhibitiou of 1893 was shown a beautiful
example of Jpocynuni liber, about 2A feet in length, and dark salmon in color, which
it was claimed is used commercially in Russia to a limited extent. Bernardin
places A. cannubinitm in his list as produced in Virginia, and states that the fiber is
adapted to cordage and fabrics. "A. canadeiise" the same author designates as
"Canadian hemp."

There are several foreigu species, as A. syriaciim {Spoil's Enc. ), A. rciufinn, etc., which
abound in southern Siberia, Turkestan, Transcaucasus, au<l on the Adriatic, and
that produce liber employed for cordage, fishing nets, lines, and other uses. Spou
states that in some districts where the fiber is more carefully jirepared it is manu-
factured into textiles. ''It is separated by a short retting, is strong and elastic,
easily divisible, bleaches and dyes well, and has a length of 6 to 12 feet." A. rcneliim
is difficult of extraction. .1. androsamifoHum probably affords as good a liber as A.
cannabiniim. but is not so available on account of the more spreading or brauching
habit of the plant.

^ S2)ecinieiis of A. ciiniiahinitm. — I'. S. Nat. Mus. ; Field Col. Mum.; ;ind Mus. U. 8.
Dept. Ag.

Aralia papyrifera. liiCE Pai'ER I^lant. ^ve Fatsia jxtfi^rifcm.

Araticu cortica (Braz.). See Anona.

Arbol del Pan (Peru). ArtocdrpuH incisa.

Arcidiavolo (It.). Celtis (msiralis.

Araujia sericifera.

An asclepiadacoous plant of Brazil growing in uncultivated liilds, blooming in
the winter mouths. It is known as ruina de cauijio, and also Cipo Sapo. Liifgren
states that it is found in Sao Paulo, s\ here its cotton is used in the same manner as
that from species of Bomhax.

Arctium lappa. The Common Burdock.

Lxogen. Compositiv. Coarse herb.

This familiar plant and troublesome weed, which is said to be of no utility in the
vegetable economy, was several years ago the subject of expc^riment by Mr. W. W.
Ball, of Lasalle, 111., who hoped to produce at low cost a fiber material suitable for
binding twine. It was claimed that the plants could be produced in (juantity in
new or waste land, and could be cut, crushed with a cane mill, and the bast steeped
in pools of water at small cost, the fiber to be stripped by children, aud a lengthy
correspondence followed.

FiiJKK. — Upon examination of the manj' specimens of stalks and samples of the
"fil)er," submitted both straight and in the form of "'tow," thelllameuts were found
to be harsh and wiry, very brittle, and ])osscssing little strength. A suiall sample,
extra treated, yellowish in color, very soft aud pliant to the toucli, and absolutely
worthless as to strength, it was suggested could be employed as jiaper stork, but the
entire series showed no possibilities in the textile economy.

Fibrous plants of this cl.iss have no value in the industrial economy, the fibrous
material contained in their bast being too inferior ever to be used in manufacture
where so many other better fibers are obtainable that may be produced possibly at
less cost.

* Specimens. — Field Col. Mus. ; Mus. U. S. Dept. Ag.

Arctium minus.

This is a European species, but has been reported from Sao Paulo, Brazil. Brazil-
ian name, Carapicho do grande.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE.

65

This plant could certainly be utiliztHl industrially, having- an excellent fiber
beneath the bark which often attains a length of 1 meter without a break. It grows
in the suburbs of towns, and flowers in the summer mouths. (Jlberio Lijfgrcn.)

Areca catechu. Betel-nut Palm.

Kndogen. I'dlma'. Palm, 80 feet.
Native of Cochin China, Malayan Peninsula, etc. Cultivated throughout trop-
ical India, growing near the seashore and not above .3,000 feet elevation.
FiBKU — While grown chiefly for its nuts, " the flower sheath is made into skull

\lf,

Fig. 21.— Vomig Betel-nnt ji.iliii, Areca calechu.

caps, small umbrellas, aud dishes ; and the coarser leaf sheath is made into cups,
plates, and bags for holding plantains, sweetmeats, and fish" (Bombay Gazetteer).
The flower spathe and the fibrous pericarp from the nut is adapted to paper making.
In some parts of Ceylon the chief vessels used for carrying water are made from
the leaves of this graceful palm, which, being of leather-like consistency, are easily
converted into strong and durable Avater buckets, in the making of which the
natives show great ingenuity. Fig. 21 is a greenhouse plant of this species.
12247— No. 9^-^ — o

66

USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

Arenga saccharifera. Sago Palm of Malacca.

Endogeii. ralmw. Palm, upward of 40 feet.

Malayan name, Gomiiti ; known in Bnrma as ti>inHi-on<j. This is also a Malayan
species, generally cnltivated in India, the Asiatic islands, .Tava, Suln Archi-
pelago, and Celehes. (See fig. 21'.)
Stki:ctur.vl Fihku. — The gomnti fiber, EJoo or J:jii of the Malays. The product
is a horse-hair like substance found at the base of the lea\es, which is useful for the
nuiuufacture of cables, i-opos, brush making, and upholstery. ''Within the sheaths
is fouud a layer of reticulated fibers, which is said to be in great demaud in China,
being apjdied, like o:ikum, in calking the seams of ships" (Jla//). Rox1>urgh
etatcs that the black fibers of the leaf stalks are adapted
,ii//Z^ for cables and ropes intended to long resist wet. Sim-
N,^ " >^^. inonds regards the Ejoo fiber as superior in durability,
^^ quality, and cheapness to cocoaunt fil>er, on account of its
j::' ^^ resistance to the action of water. The fiber placed in the

^^ bottom of a vessel is useful for filtering water of its me-

chanical impurities. Royle states that a coarse line of
Ejoo, tested for its strength, stood a strain of 85 pounds,
while a similar line of coir broke with 75 pounds. The
same author states that the bow anchor of a merchant
ship, buried in the sands of the Hoogly, was raised by
means of an Ejoo cable after three Russian cables had
given way in previous attempts. The fiber is oiually
elastic with coir, floats on the water, and is more service-
able than coir. Sandals are nuide from the leaf sheath.

Aristida adscensionis. Broomstick Grass.

Kndogeu. (Iraminea-. A broom grass.
From the root fibers of this grass, which is common in
northwest India, a material is obtained for the manufac-
ture of weavers' brushes. Fine specimens of the product
were shown in the Indian Court at Chicago, AY. C. E., 1893,
though little information could be ac.cured concerning them.
"The Telinga paper makers construct their frames from
the culms; it also serves to make brooms" {Wall). Used
for tatties, or hot-weather screens, in India in the same
manner as the Cuscus roots {Andropofjon) are employed.
The material is spread thinly over bamboo frames. See
Die. Ec. Prod. Ind., Vol. I, p. 312. The Indian Agricul-
turist for February 25, 1893, contains a full account of this
grass and the manner of collecting it for use in making
weavers' brushes. The Bot. Mns. Harv. Univ. shows
Mexican brooms made from the rigid culms of J. appreasa.

Fig. 22.— Leaf of the Sago
Palm of Malacca, Arenga
saccharifera.

Aristotelia macqui.

Exogen. TiUacca: A shrub or small tree.
Native of Chile. The wood of this tree is considered to be the most sonorous of all
in the vegetable kingdom; elegant and resonant guitars are made from it, and from
the bark are constructed strings for the same. The acid berries of this plant are
used in China as a remedy for malignant fever. In Chile they are used to make a
sort of wine. (Manual lloepli. ) I can find i.o other reference to the use of this plant
for fiber.

Arnotto or Annato plant. See BLm orcllana.
Aromatic sumac. Rhus tnlohata.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE.

67

Aroosha or Arusha (liul.). See Galliciuya cana.
Arrowroot plant (see Ma rant a).
Artabotrys spj).

Exogens. Anonacea'.
Natives of India aiul Indian Archipelago; shrubs or cliiuliiug plants. Savorgnan
mentions A. zeiihinicits, the iiber of which — the color of iron rust — is use<l iu tackle
lor marine purposes, and .1. suareoleiis, the twigs of which are used by the natives
of the Malaysian Archipelago for cords. The species is cultivated in greenhouses.
J. oiloratisshniis is a scandent shrub, cultivated in India and eastern countries. It
is not mentioned as a fiber plant by Dr. Watt, l)ut is included in list of hbers. Kept.
Fhix and Hemp Com., 1863. The tiber is said to be of good length.

Artemisia moxa.

Exogen. Comjiosita'. .Small shrubs.

The wormwoods arc widely distributed over the tom]terate regions of the two
hemisplieres. In Texas, New Mexico, and other regions of the ''great West'' entire
tracts are covered by species oi Artemisia. A. absiidhitim is of well-known economic
value.

FiBEH. — On the authority of Savorgnan the down or cottony substance produced,
as a surface fiber, by J. moxa, is used as au absorbent by Chinese and .Japanese phy-
sicians. He also mentions A. vulgaris, found iu stony ])laces and among the gravelly
soil of water courses (presumably in Italy), known as Vauupuaia, the bark of which
is filamentous and gives a material similar to liemp. A common species of temperate
Europe.

Artificial Silk.

One of the interesting exhibits iu Machinery Hall, at the Paris Exposition of 1889,
was that illustrating the i^rocess of drawiug out the filmy thread of artificial silk
and reeling it into skeins of wonderful brilliancy and finish, this
process being the invention of Count M. de Chardonnet. The process
is intended to produce from pure cellulose, as a starting point, an
artificial substance resembling as far as possible in form, appearance,
and in adaptability to the uses of manufacture, tlie animal substance
spun from the cocoons of Bombijx mori (or other species) and known
as silk. The various kinds of cellulose can be employed to pro-
duce the substance out of which the silk is drawn, ou condition that
they are pure and not lial)le to alteration by reagents. The inventor
in his own exiieriments has given his attention principally to cotton
and the pulp of soft woods suli)hureted.

With these materials there is formed a pure octonitric cellulose,

dissolved iu the proportion of (5.5 per 100 in a mixiure of 38 iiarts

ether and 42 j)arts alcohol. This collodion is inclosed iu a reservoir

of tinned copper where an air pump keeps a pressure of several iio- -3— Device

atmospheres, which is held down by a ramp, upon which are fixed ^""^^ '*^ mauu-
... .,, • i . 11,. Jacture of ar-

ghiss tubes terminating in a capillary section A. A second tube, 13, tiiici il silk

envelops each of the first and receives an excess of water by the

tubulure C. This water, held by an india-rubber pipe, D, falls again around 13.

The collodion driven through the orifice A is iiuuiediately solidified at the surface

iu coutact with the water, and falls with this water iu thread form around B, and

there pincers, which move automatically, take up the thread and carry it over the

reels, which are turning above. The threads coming from the neighboring jets are

united, forming a combined thread like raw silk. Each jet is furnished with a

device for regulating the size of the thread. Iu manufacturing this thread the jets

and bobbins are inclosed iu a glass case to prevent the loss of the dissolveut, and iu

68 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

Avhich an even qnantity of air circulates, being constantly reheated at the entrance
of the machine (to dry the threads) and cooled again at the exit (to collect the vapor).
The skeins are formed like those from the silk cocoons. {Count de Chardonnet.)

Starting with paper pulp, ^vhich is pure cellulose, this is nitrated, as has V»een
shown, transforming it into pyroxylino or gnu cotton. It is this collodion that is
spun, and the "silk" is naturally inflammable to a high degree, and consequently in
this form would be a decidedly undesirable form of fabric to use for any purpose.
It is necessary to denitrify the silk, therefore, before the processes of spinning and
subsequent manufacture. The various pyroxylines reduced in tepid baths lose their
nitric acid. Pure water is also effective, though the reaction is even more complete
in diluted nitric acid. The nitric acid of the cellulose is removed by a dissolution
which takes place more or less ciuickly in proportion as the bath is warm and con-
centrated; but it can be pushed lurthcr in i)roportion as the bath is cooler and more
diluted. The elasticity of the artificial silk is claimed to bo equal to the natural
silk of animal origin. The elongatiou before rupture is from 15 to 25 i>er cent. "The
real elasticity is about 4 to 5 per cent." A square millimeter of artificial silk will
stand a breaking strain of 25 to 35 kilograms. Haw silk will break at 30 to 45 kilo-
grams. In density, artificial silk rates at about 1.49, coming between that of natural
raw silk at 1.66 and natural boiled silk at (about) 1.43. In luster and brilliancy it
is said to surpass the natural article. Examined under the microscope in section,
the filament of artificial silk has the appearance of a grooved cylinder. It is claimed
that this silk can be produced for 15 to 20 francs per kilogram, or al)Out $1.40 to $1.80
]»er pound, natural silk costing from three to four times as much. The Textile World,
Boston Mass., for June 1897, publishes recent interesting statements on this subject.

Artocarpus incisa. Breadfruit Tree.

Exogeu. Moraceo:

This species is the well-known breadfruit tree of the South Sea Islands. A caout-
chouc is derived from the tree which is used as a glue and for calking the canoes of
the islanders. Known in Peru as the Arbol del I'an, which means breadfruit tree.
The species of this genus are found in India and the East Indies. New Guinea, Poly-
nesia, New Zealand, and the Pacific islands.

Fiber.— "The bark yields a liber used by the Indians of Loreto for making cloth-
ing" {A. Dorca). "The bark of the young branches is utilized for clothing in the
more southern islands of Malaysia" {Savor (j-n an). A. integrifolia, the.jackfiuit tree,
yields a fiber, samples of which were sent to the Paris Exposition from India. The
timber is much used for making furniture and resembles mahogany. A. lakoocha
also yields a fiber, said to be employed for cordage.

Arum spp.

A genus of Aracerr, the species of which are found in many parts of the w(U-ld.

Fiber. — I have never seen the fiber of any species, but Bernardin states that fiber
has been extracted from A. macrorrhizon (now Alocasia macrorrhiza) and from A.
funiculacenm (species not in the Index Kewensis). Both are included in the Flax
and Hemp Commission li.st, the first-named fiber measuring 19 feet, and the second,
"aerial root, 10^ to 14i feet; petiole, 2 feet 6 inches."

Arundinaria falcata. Himalayan Bamboo.

Endogen. Graminea\ Cane-like grass, 6 to 10 feet.
Western Himalayas, above 4,000 feet elevation, but descending to the plains in the
eastern. "The leaves are used for roofing and baskets" (TVatt). The Kew Mus.
exhibits a rough mat made from the split stems in India. See also I><imhii.sa and
Dendrocalamus for other forms of bamboos. The Harvard University botanical col-
lection contains some examples of Japanese fans from A. japonica.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE.

69

Aruiidinaria gigantea. Cane.

Endojjen. draminea: I'erennial, 10 to 30 feet.

Caue of the Southern swamps. (See fig. 2t.)

"A valuahh^ snpplemeut to the winter i»astures. Thonsauds of animals have
almost no other food. The foddor furnished, however, does little more than sustain
life, and is of no value for fattening or lor milch cows. Attemi)ts made to cultivate
this grass have not heeu successful. The plant hlooius hut once, and when tbe seeds
mature the cane dies. The caues are used for mau y purposes, such as fishing rods,
scafiblds for dryiug cotton, splints for haskets, mats, etc." (/■'. Lamsoii-Scrihner.)

Two species are recognized — the above, or large cane, and J. lecta, the suuvll cane,
which is the more important a^ a fiber plant. See the next title.

Arundinaria tecta. Lesser Cane.

''This is regarded by some as ouly a variety of the cane mentioned above, but it
is of smaller growth, rarely exceeding 10 feet In height: it e ctends as far north as
Maryland. Its woody stems and perennial
leafage are like those of J. f/if/iDitea, aftbrd-
iug similar fodder to cattle upon the winter
ranges." ( /■'. Lamson-Scribner. )

Structural Fibkr. — Coarse, but very
strong, the length depending upon the dis-
tance between the joints of the cane. As
prepared, it is a yellowish ochre in colt r. Is
suitable for coarse cordage, such as l>iniling
twine, and for paper manufacture.

Economic C'oxsidkkations. — The employ-
ment of southern cane as a fiber substance
dates back to about 1870, wJien an effort was
made to produce a paper material from the
canesby a process known as "steam blowing."
In reducing the caue to this fibrous state,
tightlj^ compressed bundles of the " bamboo "
were placed in steam cylinders or guns 24
feet long and 12 inches in diameter, and there
subjected to the action of steam at a pressui-e
of about 170 pounds to the scjuaro inch for
about ten minutes. The gums and glutinous
matters which held the fibers together were

thereby dissolved or softened, and while in that state the cane Avas blown into the
air by the force of the steam in the gun, and the fibers separatcid by the ex))ausion of
steam among them. The papers manufactured from the steam-blown fiber were
difterent grades of wrapi)ing paper, book, and -'news," some of the samples being
quite white and of good quality. The industry never l)ecame permanent, however.
See Ann. Kept. U. S. Dep. Ag., 187i», p. 563.

Recently another form of caue fiber has been produced from this species, which
promises to become an industry, as the fiber is prepared at such low cost that it will
be able to compete with the better fibers for certain purposes. Beautiful samples
of the straight and tangled liber were exhibited with the canes in the collection of
the Office of Fiber Investigations in the United States Government exhibit at Chi-
cago. Tests of the fiber made by the author show that it Avill stand a breaking
strain .about equal to sisal hemp and approaching to that of manila hemp. The
process is patented.

Dr. ITavard makes the statement that the caue of the Southern States furnishes
the principal basket material of the remnants of the Cherok«'es, Choctaws, Creeks,

Fig. 24. — Caiic Aniitttiiiarla (;i iiutfci.

70 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

Chickasiiws, .and .Scniiiioles. The Choctaws cspcciiilly excel in its use, and their
little baskets, variously colored, are oil'ercd i'or sale in .several Soutliern cities.
^Specimens. — Field Col. Mus. ; Mus. U. S. Dept. Ag.

Arundo donax.

Endogen. (Iramincd'. Tall grass or reed.

A widely distributed s])ecies, supposed to be the scriptural "reed." The ])lant
grows to a height of 10 feet in England, tliongh luuch taller in llie south of Europe.

USE.s. — The canes being long, straight, and light, make adniiral)le fishing rods and
excellent arrows; the latter quality being of great iuiportance to the warlike Jews
after they began to practice archery with effect. See also riiragmites comminiis, an
allied species. J. Icarlca is nientiouod by Liotard as one of the fiber-producing
plants of the Prfi^ince of Sindh, in India. See page H, Introduction.

Arvore de Paina (Braz.). See Chorixia apeciono.

Asa (Jap.). Sec (Uoinahis fKdira.

Asclepias syriaca. Common Milkweed, ot^ Silkweed, oi' the
1'nited States.

Syu. A. ronniti.

Exogen. Juvlcpinddccd: Perennial shrul).

Abounds in Canada, grows over a Avicb; section of our own country, and is well
known in portions of South America and in the Old Worhl. The culture of the plant
is said to be attended with little dilliculty, as it geuer.illy thrives on poor soil and is
a jierennial. It grows from either the roots or seed, so wouhl be easily ]troiiagated
if desirable to cultivate it. Probably the commont\st and best known species of
milkweed or "silkweed'' growing in the United States.

FiiiKR. — The only ]>ortion of the plant of which practical use can be made is the
hast, which furnishes (|uite a tine, long, glossy iilier that is strong and dur.able.
Early authorities have given it a place between llax and hemp, and the yield has
been claimed about equal to the latter. Dr. Schaeffer, as far back as the fifties,
made com])arisons of the two fibers in Kentucky, and his conclusions were most
favorable to the Asclepias fiber. The native fiber was taken in winter from the
decayed stalks as they stood in the ground where they grew without culture, while
the hemp had not only been cultivated but treated afterwards with the usual care.
The fiber of the milkweed was nearly, if not quite, as strong as that of theiiemp, but
apparently finer and more glossy, while the quantity from a single stalk of each was
nearly the same.

Among specimens of the fiber shown in the Mus. U. S. Dept. Ag. are some fine exam-
ples from Brazil, which have been most carefully prepared, showing that the value
of the plant has been recognized in that country, though there are no records of its
nse in manufacture. According to one of the old authorities, "an early knowledge
of the fiber of silkweed causedits introduction into Europe, where it has fully become
a cultivated plant, while in its own country but little is known of its true value."
Dr. Masters, an European authority, states that "its excellent fiber is woven into
muslin, and in some parts of India is made into paper.'' From the Flax and Hemp
Comnnssion of 1863 the Department received small pieces of .l.tchpias cloth mixed
with one-third cotton. The bast forms a good paper material.

Surface Fiber. — While the stalks yield a good liber, the x>ods or seed vessels pro-
duce a mass of silk-like filaments, adhering to the seed, resembling thistle down, and
frequently called Acgetable silk. Experiments in this country have shown that the
substance has no value beyond a mere upholstery material, or for nse as wadding,
and i'or stuffing pillows. Spon makes the statement that the material is used for
stuffing beds in this country, and reference is mad(; to the nianni'acture of fabrics
from it in Russia and France. A French firm has used it by mixing 20 ]ier cent of
the "down" Avith 80 per cent of wool, the fabric being called "sil\<'r iloth." The

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 71

suhstancc could not be used alone, as the colls are so .smooth that they have no fVlt-
infj iiroperty, and therefore will not hold together and can not be spun. They
possess little strength, and can only bo considered as silky hairs, and not as fiber.

In my notes made at Kew I find reference to samples of muslin made from a species
of Asclrj)ia8 from Syria. There was also a very beautiful and delicate fabric in colors.
J. si/riaca is referred to by Royle, who states that it is a native of Syria and culti-
vated as far north as Upper Silesia. "The plants thrive luxuriantly in light soil,
but flourish on any poor land. The fibers of the stem, prepared in the same man-
ner as those of hemp, furnisli a very long fine thread of glossy whiteness." The Syrian
species, doul)tle8S introduced from the New World, is the common milkweed of the
United States. .John Robinson, Museum, Pealiody Academy of Science, Salem,
informs me that as early as 1862 ]\Iiss Margaret Gerrish, of that city, spun and
wrought from the fiber of A. syriaca purses, workbags, socks, and skeins of thread,
which were dyed in many colors.

^Specimens — Mus. U. S. Dept. Ag.

Asclepias curassavica. Wild Ipecacuanha.

This species is found in the southeru United States, Mexico, West Indies, and ])or-
tions of South America, as Venezuela. Common in Yucatan, cucliUijciii being the
Maya name. The plant is also found iu India, having been introduced from South
America, though it is not mentioned iu any list of Indian fiber plants.

Surface Fiber. — While the stalks produce n bast, the only mention of the plant
as a textile is iu regard to its yielding ''silk cotton." Dr. Havard states that the
seed hairs of this species are claimed to be stronger than those of other siiecies that
have been considered. The Kew ISIns. has a collar made from the fiber. The eco-
nomic value of the plant in the West Indies is its employment in pharmacy.

Asclepias fruticosa.

The down of this species is used iu Italy to a small extent as wadding. The plants
only thrive in favorable situations. The plant is known as Alhero della srln, or
silk tree.

Asclepias incarnata. The Swamp Milkweed.

This species, according to Cray, abounds from Maine to Minnesota and southward
to Louisiana, l>eing found as far south as the Carolinas on the Atlantic coast. A
variety, pulchra, having hairy stems, has almost as wide a northerly distriluition,
and is also found in North Carolina.

Bast Fiher. — Light gray to white in color, according to preparation, specimens
from the old stalks in the field resembling dew-retted llax in appearance* The fiber is
finer than hemp as usually prepared, soft and glossy, i)ossessiug greater strength than
the majoi-ity of bast fibers of Avild growth in the United States. Useful for all pur-
poses to Avhich hemp maybe applied. "Binder twine from this species stood a
breaking test of 95 to 125 pounds" (/.'. ./. Hall).

Economic coxsideratioxs. — In 1890 this plant attracted attention in Jlinnesota
as worthy of cultivation, and a quantity of the fiber from wild ]tlants was secured
and manufactured into binding twine for examination and experiment. While no
better than common hemp, it might pay to cultivate the plant for its fiber, but as
hemji culture is an established thing, and hemp is also found growing wild (escaped
from cultivation) in many localities where A. incarnata aljounds, there would be no
special advantage in its cultivation.

"It can be produced on overfiowed land where no other cultivated plants will
grow and yield double the fiber that flax will produce. Such lands maj' be described
as bottom lands subject to overtlow, of which Miunesota has thousands of acres. The
use of such tracts would avoid drawing upon our grain lands. The plant will pro-
duce as much fiber as a crop of hemp and with less labor. It grows as far north as the
forty-sixth parallel, and I incline to the opinion that cultivation will carry it uj) to

72

USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

the British line and perhaps beyond. It Idossoma in Angnst, and the liber does not
fully develop nntil nearly or quite ripe, in September." (A. E. Hall. )

"A. incartiaUi lionrishes in low, moist grounds and by slow running streams, grow-
ing annually from a perennial root some 5 to 7 feet high. It grows in clumps or
stools, starting as soon as frosts leave, and seems to assert its position successfully
with other shrubbery and weeds. In many respects the plant seems to resemble the

ramie; the fiber is soft and
silky until the plant is quite
mature, and rather diflicult
of handling by any i)resent
liiioNvu process, but from
(•xi>oriments already made
it ])romise8 to equal the
ramie in fineness and value.
The plant may be propa-
gated by seed, but the root
may be divided into from
live to ten separate plant
hills and produce stalks the
same season. It should
have an abundance of wa-
ter to draw from, although
]>]ants 4 feet high have been
noticed growing upon u])-
lands, but unless set thick-
ly together the plant is
shorter and more bushy."
(S. S. Jloyce.) (See fig. 25.)
Undoubtedly J. iMCrtrHrt/c
promises better results than
any of the indigenous spe-
cies of bast fibers in the
United States that have
been considered. If it will
thrive upon Avaste lands
where no other crops will
grow, it has to that extent
an advantage over hemp,
considering the strength of
the fiber as fully equal to
hemp. Recent cultural ex-
]>eriments under the direc-
tion of the Department of
Agriculture seem to show
that the plant does not
thrive on upland, nor do as well in cultivation as in the uncultivated state. See
Kept. Fib. Inv. series, U. S. Dei)t. Ag., No. G.

* Specimevs. — Mus. U. S. Dept. Ag. ; Field Cid. Mus.

Asclepias verticillata.

Abounds in New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, and contiguous territory, and as far
eastward as the Mississippi Valley.

"The fiber is grayish Avhite, very strong, and is used by the Indians of the South-
we.st for sewing togetlrer the skins for 'rabbit robes,' and also as a tying material
in the <"onstruction of their habitations" (C. TV. Irmh). Tliesoil thrown nji to form
the banks of irrigating ditches is soon covered with this Astlepias.

Fir.. 2.">. — Till' Swamp Jiiilkwoi'd. Ascli'pias incanttita.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE.

73

Ash (for basket si)liiits). See Fraxinii.s nif/ra.

Asimina triloba. The Papaw of Temperate United States.

Exogen. Jtioiuiecir. A tree.

Abounds in eastern middle I'nited States Irom Miebiyan to tlie (Julf.

FiBKK. — Derived from tlie inner bark, but now seareely employed lor any purpose.
"The inner bark stripped from the branches in the early spring is still used by lisher-
men ou the Ohio and other Western rivers for stringing iish; formerly employed in
making hshuets" (('. S. Sargent). Dr. Ilavard states that the inner bark has a
tough librous textnre, and in former
times was commonly used by the Indi-
ans for withes, strings, nets, etc.
Savorguau states that the bast from
the inner bark of young sjjrouts is
very strong au<l lustrous.

Assai Palm, of Para. ( I>ia/..).
Eutirpe oleracea.

Astelia banksii.

Endogen. Lillacea'. A rush.
This species belongs to a genus of
rush-like plants found in the islands
of the southern ocean. The plant is a
native of New^ Zealand, and grows to
a height of 4 feet. " It is ridi in fiber
suitable for ropes, paper," etc. The
liber is of a dirty yellow color, the
"filaments" exceedingly coarse and
wiry; rather brittle when bent sharii-
ly, but of considerable strength when
tested with a lateral strain. The
".specimen lu the collection of the De-
partment of Agriculture was prepared
by Dr. Guilfoyle. The leaves of A.
alpbia which grow on the sand liills of
the coast of Tasmania are edible.

Astrocaryuni acaule. The Iu
Palm. -i»S^g^.,jjs^v;v„

Endogen. Falma'. A palm, 8 to p-ui. 20.- Tlie ^Murumuni ]i:iliu, ,l.<f/rooari/in(j jHwru
10 feet. iiinrii.

"This palm never has any stem, the
leaves springing at once from the ground. They are 8 or 10 feet hmg, slender and
pinnate. The Icallets are very narrow ai.d drooping, and are disposed in groups of
three or four, at intervals along the midrib, the separate leafb^ts standing out in all
directions." {TVallace.)

It is stated that this palm grows iu the dry Catiug.-i forests of the ui)per Kio Negro,
Brazil. The rind of the leafstalks is u.sed by the Indians for juaking baskets. A.
ayri, another Brazilian species, is used in the manufacture of coarse articles. The
fiber is derived from the leaves.

Astrocaryum murumuni. The Murumuru Palm.

This is another South American^ species of palm. It grows "on the tide lands of
the lower Amazon, and on the margins of the rivers and gai»os of the upper Amazon,
though it is possible that the two may be distinct species." Fig. 26 grows iu Para,

74

USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

The stem is from S to 12 feet high, irregularly ringed, and armed Avithloug, scattered
l)lack spines. 'J'he leaves are terminal and of moderate size, regularly pinnate, the
Icallets spreading out uniformly in one i)lane, elongate, aente, with the terminal pair
shorter anil Inoader. The petioles and sheathing bases are thickly covered Avith long
black spines generally directed downward, and often 8 inches long. The spadices
grow from a-niong the leaves and are simply branched and spiny, erect when in
tlower, l)nt drooping with th(> fruit. The spathes are elongate, splitting open and
decidnons. The fruit is of a moderate size, oval, of a yellowish color, and with a
small quantity of rather juicy eatable pulp covering the seed. (./. 7i. Wallace.)

This author also states that the cattle of the upper Amazon eat the fruit, which
is liard and stony, wandering about for days in the forest to procure it . There is

scant D'ference to its liber. It is
called the Miirurtiui in a pamphlet
distributed by the Brazilian com-
mission, W. ('. E., 1893, where it is
stated that its fruit serves for food
for cattle and the stems of its new
leaves for braiding hats and making
baskets. It is also mentioned by
Hrton.

Astrocaryuni tucuma. The
Tecuma J'alm.

In the list of Brazilian fibers pub-
lished by the lirazilian commission,
W. C. E., 1893, the. /<n(ar^ (J. /fljinrf)
and the tiicmn (A. tucinna) are men-
tioned as valuable fiber-producing
plants. From A. Iiiciima "the fiber
is extracted for niauufacture into
hats, baskets, ropes, and other useful
articles," In Bernardiu's list the
TncKVi palm is given as Astrocarymn
nilf/are (which see), found in Guaya-
quil, Guiana, and Trinidad, In the
Ofiicial Guide of the Kew Mns, the
Tecuma jialm is given as A. tncmna,
the Thciuh palm being. 'J. rnlf/arr.

SnucTiHAL Fir.KK. — Samples of
the fiber of A. Inciima were exhib-
ited in the Brazilian collection,
Phil, Int. Exh., 187G, and 'presented
to the United Sates Department of
Agriculture,

It was stated that the liber is obtained from the young leaves and is readily secured,
as it lies just under the epidermis of the leaf, Avhich is so exceedingly thin that it is
easily rubbed off, leaving the fiber white and clean. Its strength was claimed to be
equal to llax. The filaments are so fine that it has received the name of vegetable
wool. In the specimens received by the Department the fiber had not been cleaned,
yet in some portions the l)undles of iilamcnts Avere clear and white, showing the
fiber to the best advantage. This was sufficiently strong for fine weaving, and from
the ease with which it is separated might be obtained very cheaply, "Its nse in
Brazil is for the manufacture of nets, fish lines, and hammocks." Fig. 27 shows a
young and an old tree.

"While autiiorities .agree that Tncitm is .-in .istrorarj/iim, Jlarlria srtosii is mentioned
as the Tkciiiii in a volume on the resources of Brazil distributed at the Philadelphia

=;i^^f^

Fin. 27.— Til.' T.'ruin:i palm.

Istrocanjiirir tiiciiina.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE.

75

exbil)ition of 1870, and Afitrocaryum is called tlie Tucunutn. In IJiTnardiii's list
Baciris is called Tevuii. Tlio Kcw Mus. Guide names ./. (tcnlealitm as the (Iri (h-i.
* Sjyichneiis. — Mus. U. S. Pei)t. Ag.

Astrocaryum vtilgare. The Tfcum Palm.

This species grows on the dry forest land of the Amazon and Rio Negro. Culti-
vated by the Indians Avhen not met with in a wild state. (See fig. 28).

Stkuctural Fiber. — "Tucuin thread," derived from the unopened leaves, "is
used chiefly for bowstrings and fishing' nets; employed also for hiunmoeks, which
fetch a high figure in Rio Janeiro." By the native method of extraction only about
2 ounces of fiber can be extracted in a day, even by an expert manipulator. Savorg-
nan states that the leaves yield a fiber of
great strength, which is made into cord-
age, and also furnish material for hats
known commonly as Arvora.

The only part used is the young unex-
panded leaves, the cuticle of which, when
twisted, furnishes cordage of extreme
fineness, combined with great strength
and duraliility. Some of the tribes on the
upper Amazon are said to make all their
hammocks of this fiber, Wallace, in his
Palm Trees of the Amazon, says : The Bra-
zilians of the Rio Negro and upper Ama-
zon make very beaiitil'nl hannnocks of fine
'iiiciim' thread, knitted by hand into a
compact web of so fine a texture as to
occupy two persons three or four months
in their completion. They then sell at
about £3 each, and when ornamented
with the feather-work borders, at double
that sum. Most of them are sent as pres-
ents to Rio de Janeiro.

The fiber is fine, resistant, and durable,
and the natives employ it in making ropes,
coarse linen, nets, horse blankets, and es-
pecially hammocks and strong fish nets,,
for which it is much esteemed. The fiber
is yellowish white and Aery elastic. A
small cord of scarcely 2 millimeters in
thickness will sustain a weight of 3 kilos.
And at the end of six hours it will have
extended in length from 800 millimeters to
809 millimeters, which is equal to 1.12;")
per cent. It is capable of absorbing a

great quantity of water; a rope weighing 72 grams after having been submerged
in water something more than one hour showing an increase of 27.7 per cent.

^•'^pecimeiis are preserved in the Bot. Mus. Harv. Univ.

Atabula (lud.). Si da rhomhifolia.
Atiraukawa (^evr Zea.). Phormhim leuax.
Attalea funifera. IUhia Piassaba, or Piassaya.

Endogen. Pahnw. A palm tree, 30 to 40 feet. (See fig. 29.)
"Widely distributed in the lowlands of Brazil ; common throughout the Province of
Bahia parallel to the coast from latitude 13^ to 18^. A very full account of the fiber

Fig. 28.— 'I'lii

%'^'''

Tiiciiiu pnlni .[slinranntm )'nl-
qari'.

76 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

and nietliods of gatliciiiijjf it for market appears in the Kew P>nlletin for 1889, from
which tiie followiiij; statements have been lar<^ely eom])ile<l :

Stkuctx'KAL Fihkk. — Obtained from the dilated base of the leaf stalks, which
separates into a long, coarse frinjje, which is collected by the natives by cuttinn with a
small ax. The iiber is stiff, wiry, and a brij;ht chocolate in color, and is employed in
the manufactnre of brushes; largely used on strt^t-sweeping machines, particularly
in London. The natives twist these fibers into coarse cables, which are light and
durable, and which will iloat on the water.

Fiber from young undeveloped plants, called J:aiia)ielras, is bright c(dored and
more flexible. The fiber from tlie fully matured plants, called Coguciran, is sepa-
rated into three cjualities —

(1) Ordinary fiber, which is i'ouml wound up ainoug the broken leaves and the
upper part of the trunk.

(2) Ualloou, formed by the elder fiber which has fallen to the ground rouutl the
base of the trunk.

(3) Fiassava (Volho, or "eye ]>iassavn,"' which is the latest growth, and is in all
resi^ects similar to thnt yielded bj-^ the Jlanaueirax. The latter, on account of its
flexibility and color, is chiefly used in tying the bales. Its yield is small.

COLLECTIOX AXD PREIWKATIOX. — The palm grows in the neighborhood of rivers
and on land that is always in a half swampy condition. The trees bear filter fit to
jiull or cut at the of age G to 9 years. The mean temperature of the piassava district
is 77"^ . 'Crops"' are discovered by exploration, as a tract of scattered trees can not
he advantageously worked over. After a suitable location is discovered the camp is
stocked with mules and food for both men and animals, and the work begins. The
average cutof one nuiu is 3 arrobas perday(l arroba --32^ pounds) of theloo.se fiber,
though the filter is only weighed after putting into bumlles, into which stones and
pieces of palm are often smuggled to add to the weight. After weighing the tiber it
is trausi>orted to the fazenda of the projtrietor, where it is baled (both by haiul and
by press), ready for shipment to Bahia. Including cutting, expenses of transporta-
tion. Avith wages of muleteers and hire of animals, and then food, packing, labor, com-
mission, etc., amount to 2.4(i8 milrei.s, or, ai)proximat<dy, $1.38. Very little of the
fiber is used locally, almost the eutire product being exported. Of the annual exjtort
of 7,000 tons, (ireat Britain takes about half, Germany very nearly a quarter, the
remainder going to Belgium, France, Portugal, and the southeru Republics.

In the monthly circular of Messrs. Ide & Christie, the London fiber brokers, all
the harsher conunercial brush fibers are classed under "Piassava,-' the following forms
being recognized : Brazilian, Bahia ( J</«/ea./'«H(/tT«) and Vnra { Lcojioldinia jnassaba) ;
Kitool, from Ceylon, etc. (Canjota irreiis) ; Palmyra, also from Ceylon (Horasstis fiubel-
lifer); West Africa, P>uphia vinxfera, and Madagascar, Dklyospcrmafihrosum. Bahia
jriassaha ranges in ])rice from 18s. to .58s. per hundredweight in London.

A.ftinifera iinds a place in Dr. Ernst's Venezuelan list, known as Chiqnech'iqne. Its
fiber is an article of export from Venezuela as well as Brazil, some 90,000 pounds
having been exported in a single year. "The liber is employed for brooms, brushes,
ropes, and cables. The last arc very strong, durable, and so light that they float on
water. Recently there have been experiments made in the United States to trans-
form these fibers into an article similar to hor.sehair for making mattresses."' {Dr.
Krnst.) I'rincipally used in the United States as a brush fiber.

A. spedahUis, the Ciiriia jialm, found on the Rio Negro, Brazil, furnishes in its leaves
a thatch material. In Peru it is known as Shacapa, and "the fiber is used for ropes."
James Orton, in The Andes and the Amazon, mentions also .1. humhoJiiava, the Yagiia
of the Indians. Dorca gives Calirina as t'he Peruvian name of Attaha.

* Specimens of fiber and ropes, Mus. U. S. Dept. Ag.

Attalea speciosa. Uauassu Palm.

This species grows on tlie dry forest lands of the upjter Amazon. It is a noble
palm, with a stem .">0 or 00 feet high, str.aight, cylimlrii a), and nearly snuioth. 'I'he

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE.

77

leaves are very large, tenninal, and ie<;ularly pinnate. The leaflets are elongate,
rigid, closely set together, and spreading ont Hat on each side of tlio midrib. The
sheathing hases of the petioles are persistent for a greater or less distance down
the stem, and in young trees down to the ground, as in tlio (Knovuipna hataua. The
spadices grow from among the leaves and arc large and simply branched. The
fruit is of large size compared with most American palms, being about 3 inches long,
and from this circumstance it derives its native name " I'auatisii" signifying " large
fruit."

On the lower Ani.i/.oM and in the iieighhorhood of Para ./. i.nrl.sii is not iinconimon.
It is a handsome, lofty species which grows on lauds Hooded at high tides, and is
called by the natives rniciiri. The fruit of this tree is burnt, and the smoko is
used to black the newly made
India rubber. Martins says that
the fruit of the A. 82)cci(>f<a is used
for this purpose, but that species
is not found in the principal rub-
ber districts, while ,(. cjcil.su is
abuiulant there. ( If'allace. Palms
of the Amazou).

Structural Fiuki;. — The foliage
of this tree is very extensively
used for thatching. The young
plants produce very large leaves
befoie the stem is formed, and it is
in this state that thej' are gener-
ally used. The unoxiened leaves
from the center are preferred, as,
though they reqviire some prepara-
tion, they produce a more uniform
thatch. The leaf is shaken till
it falls partially open, aiid then
each leadet is torn at the base so
as to remain hanging by its mid-
rib only, which is, however, quite
sufificient to secure it firmly. They
thus hang all at right angles to
the midrib of the leaf, which ad-
mits of their being laid in a very
regular manner on the rafters.
They are generally known as
"palha brauca''or "white thatch,"
from the pale yellow color of the
unopened leaves, and are consid-
ered the best covering for liouses
in places where 7?«ss»' can not be oljtainetl

m

y\n. ■_'9.--Tlie Ballia Piassubii jiiiliii, Attahn t'liii
{Wallace, Palms of the Amazon.)

Athryxia phylicoides.

Thisspecies, known in Xatal as i-Tsh(iniida, is said by .1. Medley Wood, in tlie Peport
of the Colonial Herbarium (Durban, 1894), to be employed as a material for brooms.

Australian mallow. See Laratera plebela.

Aya-mushiro matting (.lap.). See Gyperux unitans,

Baboi and Babui (Beng.). See Lschcvmum.

78

USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

Bacaba (Braz.). See (Enovarirm hacaha.
Bacona and Vacona (Maurit^. Vandaniis uHlls.
Bactris setosa.

Endontu. I'alnuv. A slender palm.

This iijciiiis of palms is Ibuml in the West Indies, ISiazil, and other tropical regions
of .South America.

StkiCTLKAL FiHEJi. — The liber of tlie lea\es, known as Tccnn (or Tcci(iii) both in

I'eru and Brazil, is very strong, and
is used " for (ishiug uels and lines"
(Sarorgiiaii), and "for hats, routes,
hanimoeks, etc." {Dorva).

The species a])pears in Bernardin's
Catalogue ^vitll the common nanio
Tecum, the liber of which is "em-
ployed for hammocks and fillets."
t?ee also .lutrocaryum inciima and .1.
ntlijarc. li. inaraja is another Bra-
zilian species mentioned in Notes ou
the State of I'ara, W. C. E., 1893, as
8npi»lying a useful liber.

Bactris integrifolia.

A Brazilian species found on the
u]>per Kio Negro. The stem is
hardly so thick as the little finger,
and 9 or 10 J'eet high, smooth and
distinctly jointed. Tlie leaves are
four or live in number, terminal,
entire, three or four times as long
as they are wide, and not very deeply
bifid at the end. The petioles and
their .sheathing bases are thickly set
with long, flat black spines. The
spadices are Aery small, erect, and
two-branched, growing from among
the persistent sheathing liases below
the leaves. The spathes are small,
erect, and persistent, clothed with
adpressed brown spines. The fruit
is small and globular and of a black
color. ( 11 allacc.) Not iiarticulai ly interesting as a lilier jdaut, but serves to illus-
trate the group. (See lig. 30.) Refer to Guiliclma niyeciosa.

Bagasse.

The refuse of sugar c;iue after roller crushing, before the dilfusi(ui process had
been adopted. The Ibllowing is from a report by the author issued in 1S79:

" Among other iibrous products named in reply to the circular sent to manufacturers
were samples of the bagasse of sugar cane and a series of the products derived from
it for paper manufacture. The raw product is obtained at the mills (Louisianasiigar
plantation) at about $15 per ton, or three-fourths of a cent per pound. The bagasse
from Louisiana cane is considered superior to that fron« the West Indies, from the
fact that it never reaches its real state of maturity, Avhilo the latter is not used until
(luite rijie. The matured liber is coarser and less Hexiblo and strong."

"Megasse, or Bagasse, the refuse of the sugar cane after passing through the

I'k;. ISO. — Bactris iiiU'jirifiiU.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 79

rollers of the sugar mill for tbo oxpressiou of the juice. It is generally used in the
Tropics as fuel, but latterly an attempt has been made to use it for jniper making.
Samples of paper made from it are shown." (Off. Guide Kew Mus.)

Bagolaro (It.). Celtls (tt(str((n.s.

Bahia piassaba (Braz.). See Attn lea fum/era.

Bakrabadi jute (lud.). See Cordwrus.

Balizier (Triu.). See IlcUconia.

Balsa or Balso (S. Am.). See Ochroma httiopus, etc.

Bambagia (see Bomlxi.v inalabaricum).

Bamboo (see Arundiiiariit, liamhusa, and Dcndroralamuti).

Bambusa arundinacea. The Ba3i13oo.

Eudogeu. Graminav. A cane, 70 to 80 feet.

Native NAMES. — Quu'ih {Arah.); X(n{Vevs.); Maiultju!) (nomh.); lUttis (ISeiig.);
Kattu-una (Ceyl.).

"The 8i)iny bamboo of central and southwest India."

The genus Bamhnxa embraces many species of ''giant grass "' found in the Trojiics
of both hemispheres, but B. arundinacea may be generally accepted as the one com-
monly known as bamboo. The largest and best caucs a:c produced from this spe-
cies, though other cultivated species are sometimes mistaken for it. Dr. Morris says
that B. vulgaris is generally cultivated in British gardens.

Stkuctukal Fiber. — This is derived from the shoots, which are reduced to librous
material to form paper stock. For other manufactures the canes are sjilit or shred-
ded, to be afterwards Avrought into various forms.

CuLTiVATiox. — The method of planting it most commonly adopted by the natives
of India is by shoots, or the lower jiart of the halm with a portion of the rhizome,
set out during the rains, but heavy and constant rain for some time afterwards is
essential. In Algeria projjagatiou by stem cuttings is found to succeed admirably.
Cultivation from seed is, perhaps, the most certain plan; but it is open to the serious
disadvantage that the plant then re(iuires ten to fifteen years to attain a growth
sufficient to admit of cropping. The plant will not grow in poor or waste soils, but
prefers the rich land on the banks of streams. Abundance of moisture, suiiplied
either naturally or by irrigation, is absolutely essential. Thousands of acres of
wild bamboo jungle exist in the Tropics, but very little of this is available for the
pnri)oses of the paper manufacturer, as experience has shown that shoots of the year
are the only ones which can be used. This fact, couj)led with the effually iuiportaut
one that an abundance of bamboo is essential to the very existence of the native
races of the East Indies, renders it certain that for industrial undertakings the plant
would have to be systematically cultivated. (Spon.)

Utility. — The variety of jjurposes to which the bamboo is applied is almost end-
less. The Chinese use it in one way or another for nearly everything they rei^uire.
The sails of their ships as well as their masts and rigging consist chiefly of bamboo,
manufactured in different ways. Almost every article of furniture in their houses,
including mats, screens, chairs, tables, bedsteads and bedding, aiul utensils gener-
ally employed in the domestic economy, and even coarse underclothing, are made of
this material, which is similarly used in Japan, Java, and .Sumatra.

"Employed in shipbuilding and in the construction of bridges. lUickets, i)itcher3,
flasks, and cups, are made from sections of the stems. Baskets, boxes, fans, hats,
and jackets are made from the s]ilit bamboo. Ropes and Chinese paper are made
from these grasses. A Chinese umbrella consists of bamboo paper, witii a )>and)Oo
handle and split bamboo for a frame. The leaves are used for packing, filling beds,
etc., and occasionally serve as fodder for stock. The young shoots serve as a vege-

80 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

table. Tabashir, or bamboo uianna, a siliceous and crystalliue substance which
occurs in the hoUow stems of some bamboos, is regarded as ])ossessiug medicinal
properties. Good drinking water collects in quantities in the hollows of the inter-
nodes of many of the larger bamboos. All sorts of agricultural implements, appli-
ances for spinning cotton and wool or for reeling silk arc often constructed entirely
from bamboo. Very many articles of household use or decoration made from bam-
boo have become articles of commerce in Europe and in this country. So many and
A'aried are the uses of the several species of bamboo that it is possible to mention
here only a part of them." (F. Lamsun-Scribner.)

For making paper stock the Chinese employ the shoots 1 and 2 years old. The
material is macerated in water for a week or more, after which the pieces — some 5
feet in length— are washed and i)laccd in a dry ditch and covered Avith slacked lime
for a number of days, when they are again washed, cut into tilaments, and dried or
bleached in the sun. In this state they aie boiled in large kettles and subsequently
reduced to pulp in wood mortars by means of heavy pestles. A glutinous substance is
then mixed with the ])ulj), and upon this mixture the (piality of the ])aper depends.
Another account is given in An Index to Economic Products of Jamaica, 1891, under
Bamhusa vithjaris, as follows:

"In China, it is the principal, if not the only, material for 2)aper making. The
Chinese use the native bamboo, which they split into lengths of 3 or 4 feet, and place
in a layer in a tank. This is covered with lime, and alternate layers of bamboo and
lime are so placed until the tank is full. AVater is run in to cover the whole, and
left for three or four months, when the bamboo has become rotten. The soft bam-
boo is pounded in a mortar into a pulp, mixed with water, and then poured on
square, sieve-like molds. The sheets are allowed to dry on the mold, then placed
against a hot wall, and finally exposed to the sun. Mr. Rontledgo advocated the use
of young shoots, but one difficulty is that cutting them weakens the stock ; in fact,
if all the young shoots are cut for three successive years the stock dies. At Lacovia,
bamboo is crushed, and exported in shoi't lengths as i)acking for cylinders. The
young shoots, freed from the sheaths, arc used in India in curries, ])ickle8, and pre-
serves. The A'ery young shoots are not unlike asparagus." (Faircett.)

While articles of bamboo are common in this country, being largely imported
brush making from bamboo splints is a considerable industry.

Bamiya (Arab.). Hibiscus cscKlenius.

Banana (see Mnsa sapicntnm).

Ban-b^vay (Burm,). See Carcija arborea.

Bandaka (Ceyl.). See Hibiscus esculentus.

Bandala. See Musa textilis.

Bandura-wel (Ceyl.). See Nepenthes.

Bang (Pers.). Cannabis sativa.

Bankas and Bankush (X. W. Tiov. lud.). See Ischwmum,

Banraj and Banraji (Beng.). BauMnia racemosa.

Ban-rhea (Iiid.). Sec ViUebriinea.

Bans and Behur bans (Beng.). Bambusa arundinavea.

Bans-keora (Ind.). See Agave amcricana.

Banyan Fiber (see Ficus bvnghalcnsis).

Baobab Tree. Monkey Bread of Africa. See Adansonia digitata.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 81

Barbone (It.). Chrysopogon f/rj/IIus.
Barbari (Ind.). See Beaionontiii.

Barley stra-w. l^.inployed in straw ]»lait. See Hnrdrnm.
Barrigon (S.Am.). See Ceiha.
Barriguda (Braz.). Iriartea ventHco.sa.
Bashofu (cloth, of Jap.). See ^rusa hasjoo.
Basket manufacture.

Jiaskots are made from grasses and sedges, from the lauee-like leaves of I'rccd' and
similar plants, from palm leaves, and from the twigs of various dicotyledonous plants,
such as the willows, etc. See Salix riminalis, S. iriandra, S. lasiandro, etc.; liliiis
irllohata, Yucca hrerifolia, Scirjnis lacusiris, Epicampes rigens, Lygeum 8i)artmn, etc.
Also m;ul(^ from splints of ash, pine, hickory, and other woods. See Fraxiuiis.

Bass fiber. Monkey or Para j^ifismha {seeLeo2)oldiui(( piassaba) ;

West African (see Raphia vinifera).

Bass-like fibers {>>ee Attalea fvnifera. Borassun iiahellifer, and Dic-

ti/osjH'DN ion fihrosum).

Bassia longifolia.

An India species of Sapoiiicco mentioned by Liotard in his >\ork on India paper
materials.

Bassine. Same as Palmyra. See Borassus.

BassTvood or Linden. See Tilia.

Bast Fiber, Description of. See Introduction, ]>age 25.

Bastard Aloe. Af/are vivipara.

Bastard cedar (Jam.). See Guazuma.

Batatas paniculata. Caffir Cotton. See Ipommi.

Bauhinia coccinea.

Exogen. Leguminosiv. Small tree.
A jilaut of Cochin China, the bark of which, according to tlie Manuiil Hoepli,
yields a very strong fiber; the uses are not stated.

Bauhinia racemosa. Maloo Climber.

The Bauhhiias are a genus of arborescent or climbing jtlants belonging to the
Legiimhio8(i', and are found in tropical countries.

Fhjer. — The inner bark of this Indian species yields a bast fiber that can be made
into rude cordage, but which soon rots in water. It is reddish in color, very tough
and strong, and on account of this (quality has been employed in India in the con-
struction of I)ridges across the .lumna. The stems are usually cut in .1 uly or August,
the outer bark being stripped off and thrown away, while the inner layers are used
for rope as wanted, being pn-viously soaked in water, and are twisted wet.

Other Indian species yielding fiber are B. macrostachi/d, Jl. loinentosa, B. purpurea,
B. angnina (the suake climber), and B. vahlii (the gigantic climber). (See fig. 31.)

The uses of B. racemosa are, perhaps, more numerous than those of any other for-
est plant; the strong cordage prepared from its bark is an important article with the

12247— 2s^o. 9 Q

82

USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

hill tribes. Specimens of this fiber were exhibited at the Loudon Exhibition of
1851 under the name of Fatwa or 2Iawal. A large tollection of strong red ropes
from it were also displayed at the Calcutta International Exhibition. Captain
Huddlestou in his Report on Hemp in Garhwal, in 1810, gives the following facts:
"The 'maloo' is a largo creeper, 40 or 50 yards m leugtli, aud of considcralde thick-
ness, from the \:j.ik of which a very strong rope is made. The natives ehielly use it
for tying up their cattle aud sewing their straw mats with the fresh bark; it also
makes capital matches for guns, aud muzzles for oxen and calves." It is "cut gen-
erally in July or August, thou'^h it may be cut all seasons, and the outer bark, being

strii)ped oil', is thrown aAvay, the inner
coating being used for ropes, as wanted,
by l)eing jjreviously soaked in water aud
twisted when wet. A large creeper will
pioduce a maund of fiber, called 'seloo.'
The bark before being used is boiled and
beaten with mallets, whi( h renders it soft
and i>lial)le for being made into ropes aud
string for charpoys." (Jf'ait.) See Si)on,
Enc.,lJiv. 3, p. 921; Die. Ec. Prod. Ind.,
A'ol. I, p. 122; Ann. Kept. U. S. Dept. Ag.,
187!". p. 528.

Bauhinia splendens. The Chain
('KEi:ri;K.

X.VTIVE NAME. — Bejuco de Cadena
(Venez.). Bejuco (Cent. Am.).
Grows wild in Brazil, Venezuela, and
South America generally. Samples of tlie
librous l)ark from the countries named
were received from the Phil. Int. Exh.,
1876. "Found in hot, damp forests. The
stems are extremely flexible and tough so
that they can be used as cords, being more
durable than iron nails, which in the damp
atmosjjhere rust very soon and give way."
(Ernst.)

Specimens of heavy cordage from this
species exhibited in the museum of the De ■
l)artment Avere made by twisting together
the unprepared strips of Ijark as peeled
from the plant. The ribbon-like strip is
very dark, almost black, and the cordage
is of the coarsest description. The cables
are about 1} inches in diameter. In the handbook of Para, Ilnithlnia is referred to as
the mitraro, which jiroduces strong libers for ropes. Also found in Costa Rica.

Beach grass (see Ainni02)}iila).

Bear grass (see Yia-ra und Dasylirion).

Beaumontia grandiflora.

Exogen. Apocynacece. Evergreen clim.ber.

India, east and north Bengal. From Nepal eastward to Sikkim, Sylhet, and Chit-
tagong, ascending to 4,000 feet elevation.

SCUFACE Fiber. — "It furuishes the best seed hairs yet known, though least util-
ized. The fiber is said to be not only the nu)st lustrous aud most purely white of all

Fui. 31. — Leaves of Bauhinia vahlii.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 83

the so-called 'vegetable silks,' but possesses besides a reinarkablc degree ofstiengtli.
Moreover, the hairs are very easily separated from the seeds. The diiiiensions of (he
fibers are, 1.181 to 1.771 iiuhcsloug, and 0.001287 to O.OOlWiuch in diameter.' (Spou.)
A fiber is also prepared from the young twigs. ( IVutt.)

Bedanjir (Pers.). See Ricinun communis.

Bedolee sutta (lud.). See Pwderia.

Bejuco, or Bejuco de Cadena (S. Am.). See Bauhinia splnnlcns.

Beligobel (Ceyl.). Hibiscus tiUaccns.

Belli patta (IJouib. and Cejd.). See Hibiscus tiliaccus.

Bene. Aiidropoijon squarrosus.

Bengi (Paiij.). Cannabis satira.

Bent grass (see Ammophila arenaria).

Bernauda palm. Sabal blaclburnianum.

Bertholletia excelsa. Brazil 2sut Tkee.

Exogen. Lcvi/lliidacai. Tree, 100 to 150 feet.

Native of British Guiana, Venezuela, and Brazil. The fruit is the Avell-known
Brazil nut. The tree is one of the most majestic in the South American forests,
attaining a height of 100 or 150 feet, with a smooth cylindrical trunk, about 3 or 1
feet in diameter, and seldom having any branches till near tlie top. (J. Smith.)

Fiber. — Samples of the bark of this tree were exhibited at the Pbiladeliihia Exhibi-
tion with the fiber produced from it. -'Used as a substitute for oakum for calking
vessels'" (De Gama).

Betel-nut palm (see Areca).

Betina-da (Iiid,). The fiber. See Melochia arborca.

Betula bhojpattra. Indian Paper Birch.

Exogen. Jlctuhtccn . A tree.

An Indian species, found in the higher ranges of the Hinialayas, in India. -'The
bark is well known as the material upon which the ancient Sanskrit manuscripts of
northern India are written."

FiBF.K. — The bark, in sheets, used as a substitute for i)ap(!r. •• I'heyoung ))ranches
are plaited into twig bridges"' ( Jra//). It is also used as wrapiuug paper and in
the manufacture of the llexible pipe stems used by hookah smokers. Has been used
for umbrellas and for clotliing by Hiudu i^ilgrims in Kashmir.

Betula papyrifera Paper Birch. Canoe Birch.

North America. XorlhwesterQ and uortheastern in United States; northward iu
British America. It reaches a higher latitude than most other North American trees;
grows to a height of 00 feet. " The wood is extensively employed in the manufac-
ture of spools, shoe lasts, and all kinds of turnery; lately much employed for paper
]>ulp "(/>'. E. Frnioir).

The thick bark of this tree, whicli can be readily removed from a long clean trunk
iu sprin". is the one employed l)y the Indians for making their bark canoes. 'I'lic
bark is also used in the manufacture of suiall ornaments, such as napkin rings, bas-
kets, pincushions, etc. (C />'. Smlworth.)

Bhabiir grass (see Iscluemuni).
Bhanga (^Suuscrit). Cannabis sativa.

84 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

Bhatialjute (Iiul.)- See Corchorus.
Bhat niggi (Iiul.). See Wiksfr<nni(i.

, (Iiul.). Thcspesia populnea and Hihiscus escuJentns.
Bhindi S

Various forms of the wonl are used in different proviiu-es, and for hotli speiies.
Bible, Fibers of the. See Ancient Fibeis, in Introduction, page 11.
Biboci (Bolivia). See Cotiratari.
Bichu (Ind.). Urticn dioica.
Bignonia viminalis. Liane a CoiiDiiS, of tlie T'lencli colonies.

lv\on«ii. Jlii/iKiniuced'. Climber.
Many species of tlie genus are found in North and South America. They are
scandent, tendrilled ]»hints, oftc^n clinibiujr to the toi)8 of the highest trees. 7>. rhni-
Hrt/Ks is mentioned in IJernardin's Catahiguo as a cordage substitute. "Tlio natives
of Frcncli Huiana use the tcuigh, tiexihlo .stems of /.'. keirrc as a substitute for ropes,
and from strips of tliem weave various kinds of baskets and broad-brimmed hats"
(A.iSmith). B. aqi(inuclia}i>i ia a Brazilian species. " From the young branches the
natives make baskets and fishing-tackle" (Savorgnan). See Tecoma.

Bingo-i. Ja])anese matting rush. See Juncns.
Bira-bira (Arg.). Sec Dciphnop.sls Irffiiizanionis.
Bissus. The ancient Greek name of tiax. JAmim.
Birch. See Tietnla.
Bixa orellana. Aknatto. The Kocor.

Exogeu. B'uarid'. Small tree, to !>0 feet.
Native najies. — rrnca (Braz.); hoiajliiomhi (Beug.).
Tropical America. Escaped from cultivation in India. This species sujiplies the
well-knowu Arnatto dye.

Fiber. — ''The bark yields a good cordage" (Walt). I'huuuerated in the State of
Para (W. ('. E., 1803) among the species that yield fibers for rope making.

Black Ash. Fraxinns nigra.

Black Bunch grass. Hilariajdmc.sii.

Black Fiber (Oeyl.). Cari/otti miti.s.

Black G-rama. Muhlenberg la pniigenfi.

Black Reed (Vict.). See Ghania.

Black Run Palm (Afr.). See Borassus.

Black sage. See Cordia.

Blood -wood. See Croton gossypiffolkis.

Blue grass. Poa jiratcnsis.

Blue mahoe. JlihiscKfi elatiis.

Blue moor grass (Gt. Brit.). Molinia cwridea.

Bocca di Leone (It.). See Aniirrhlnum majus.

Bockara (of Bernardin), or Bokhara clover. See Md'dotua.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 85

Boehmeria spp. Stingless Nettles.

This genus of Uriicaceir comprises 40 or more species found in hotli heniisplicies,
aud is closely allied to the genus Crtka, the plants of which have stinging hairs.
They are herlis or shriihs producing slender stalks, clothed with large, ohovato
leaves. There is but one American representative of the genus, Ikiehnieria cijlUnh-ica
(the false netth')? »" annual plant found in waste lands from Ontario, Canada, to
Minnesota aud southward from Florida to Kansas. It has no value as a fiber plant.
B. cauduta is a Brazilian species used only medicinally, and J', stipularis is found in
the Sandwich Islands, its bark having been used to a slight extent for making
"kapa," or native beaten cloth. An allied si>ev[efi, I'ipliirHH (juudicluiiidiainis, {or-
nierly included in the genus Hoclimeria, is also used in this manner by the natives of
these islands. Other Indian species are lipolystiichiid, /-'. sidd folia, />'. didi/moynmr, etc

Among the species native to India, of which there are nearly a score, are fouiul
some better liber plants, though not worthy of special mention. I may note, how-
ever, B. ma(ro^>hyIU(,^\■hk^\l abounds from Kumaou to the Khasia hills, and which
yields a beautiful fiber nuich prized by the natives for fishing nets. B. jylatyplnjUa
is a south Indian sjiecies which produces a strong cordage bast, and B. vialabarica is
found in the tropical forests of India, Burma, and Ceylon. This species yields a very
tenacious fiber which has found use in Ceylon for fishing lines.

The commercially important species of Boehmeria are J>. nirea and B. ienacissima,
full descriptions of which are to be found below. See fig. 1, PI. VIII, tht^ ujiper
portion of a stalk of B. virca, showing form of leaves.

Regarding the identity of these two species, particularly in relation to their com-
mon names, so much confusion has existed that Dr. Morris, of the Royal Gardens,
Kew, has proposed the following economic classification, which has been adopted:
Series A — Boehmeria nirea.

1. China grass. The commercial fiber, hand cleaned in China.

2. China grass. Stripped bast or ribbons (hand or machine).

3. China grass Fiber prepared (hand or machine).
Series B — Boehmeria knacissima.

4. Ramie or Rhea. Ribbons or stripped bast (hand or machine cleaned).
.5. Ramie or Rhea. Fiber prepared (either hand or machine).

It should be further uoteil that B. nirea is the temperate and 8ubtroi)ical species,
while B. tenacissima thrives best in subtropical and tropical climes.

There are several allied s])ecies which jiroduco superior fiber, among which may
be mentioned Maoiiiia pnya, found in India. See also Tonchardia latifolia, which
produces the Olona fiber of the Sandwich Islands, a textile that should be better
known.

Boehmeria nivea. China (Irass.

Exogen. Urticacea'. Shrub 5 to 8 feet as cultivated.

Native x.\mes. — The following names have been used indiscriminately to desig-
nate the two commercial species of Boehmeria (see economic classification
under Boehmeria) : China grass, Bhea, Ramie (Eng.) ; Bamio aud Kamie (Span.) ;
Ortie Blanche sans dards de Chine (Fr.), Ramie, Rameh (Java); Tsjo, Mao, and
others (.Jap.); Tchoti-ma and others (China); Klooi, Caloee, etc. (Siam);
Kanlhiira (Beng.); Poah (Xepal) ; Ovun (Burm..),and many others.
Indigenous in India, and probably also in China, .Japan, and the Indian Archijjel-
ago, l>ut introduced by cultivation into the warmer parts of Europe and North and
South America.

The China grass (/.'. nivea) is a shrubby plant with the habit of the common nettle,
but without stinging hairs. There are numerous straight shoots that arise from the
pereuuial rootstock to a height of 4 to 8 feet. The leaves are on long petioles,
l)roadIy heart-shaped, with serrated edges ami white, downy beneath. The seeds
are small, and produced somewhat sparingly. This is the original ( 'hina grass plant

86

USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

so loni^ cultivated by the Chinese tinder the name of Tchon Ma. There are two
forms of this plant. One is the China grass mentioned above, lloehmcria nh^ca, a tem-
perate, and the other, ramie or rhea, a tropical, plant, known as Jl. virra, var. tcnacis-
sima. It wonld he well to jireserve these distinctions in
regard to the lihef also. The term ramie, or rhea, sliould
only be apjilied to the A^ariety tenocissima. This dilt'ers from
the type by its more robust habit and larger leaves, ■which
arc green on both sides. This cliaracter easily distinguishes
it from China grass, which has leaves white-fcdtcd beneath.
Tlic distinction here suggested is an im])ortant one. Kamie
or rhea is a native of Assam and the Malay Islands. It
thri\ es only in tropical countries, and it is useless to culti-
\ ate it elsewhere. At Kcw it has been found that while
ramie or rhea (/)'. iiirea var. icnaciasima) can not be grown in
the open air, the Cliina grass (Jl. uirca) remains in the
ground all the winter, and furnishes a crop of shoots, but
only once in the year. The value of the ramie or rhea iiber,
as com])ared with Cliina grass, has not been carefully and
liilly investigated. Ramie from India has, however, not
jiroved so valuable, so far, as the China grass. In tlie largo
mass of literature on Cliina grass there is considerable con-
fusion between it and ramie or rhea, and the results in
consefiuence lose their value. (Dr. 7). Morris.)

Bast Fihkh. — The fiber of China grass is strong and dur-
able, is of all fibers least affected by moisture, and from
these characteristics must take tirst rank in value as a textile
substance. It has three times the strength of Russian hemp,
while its (ilaments can be separated almost to the fineness
of silk. In manufacture it has been spun on various forms
of textile machinery, also used in connection with cotton,
wofd, and silk, and can be emjiloyed as a substitute in cer-
tain forms of manufacture for all of these textiles, and for
llax also, where elasticity is not essential. It likewise pro-
duces superior ])aper, the fineness and close texture of its
pulp making it a most valuable bank-note paper. The fiber
can be dyed in all desirable shades or colors, some examples
having the luster and brilliancy of silk. In China and .Tapaii
it is extracted by hand Labor; it is not only manufactured
into cordage, fish lines, nets, and similar coarse manufac-
tures, but woven into the finest and most beautiful of fabrics,
Thespccific gravity of ramie' yarn is less than thatof linen
yarn in the ratio of 6 to 10, so that 1 kilogram linen yarn
No. 10 measures 0,000 meters, Avhilo the same weight of ramie
yarn measures 10,000 meters. This iieculiarity lessens the
api^areut dill'erence in the price of the two yarns. On the
other hand, ramie yarn is heavier than cotton in the ratio of
G to 5. Ramie yarn is easily distinguished from other yarns
by its high luster and silky appearance, in which it excels
linen and cotton. Ramie fibers are distinguished from all
FiG..'!2.— A i.iopeily gii.w u Other fibers by their great length, usually from 10 to 1.5 ceuti-
stalk of ramie. meters (often 25 to 40 centimeters or more), by a certain

etraightness and stiffness, and by the considerable breadth

s-^j

' The term ramie, used in this statement, as well as in those which follow, refers to
the fiber from either species of lloehmcria, Ramie proper being H. vivea var. tenactssima,
while China grass is Jl. nivea.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 87

of from 0.04 to O.OB millimeter (flax, 0.016; cotton, O.Oll to 0.021 ; silk, 0.009 to 0.020).
{J!r. H((ssach.)

History. — The active interest in China grass, ramie, and rhea began in 1869, when
a reward of £5,000 was offered by the Government of India for the Ijest machine with
which to decorticate the geeen stalks. The lirst exhibition and trial of machines
took place in 1872, rcsnlting in ntter failure. The reward was again offered, and in
1879 a second official trial was held, at which ten machines competed, though none
filled the requirements, and subsecjnently the offer was withdrawn. The immediate
result Avas to stimulate invention iu many countries, and from 1869 to the present
time inventors have been untiring in their efforts to protluce a successful machine.

The first records of Chinese shipments of fiber to European markets show that in
1872 200 or 300 tons of the fiber were sent to London, valued at £80 per ton, or about
$400. India also sent small shipments, but there was a light demand and prices fell
to £30 to £40 per ton for Chinese and £19 to £30 for the India product. In a letter
from Messrs. Idc & Christie, the London fiber brokers, discussing the point of demand
and supidy, received in 1890, it was stated that ramie ribbons had at no time been
shipped to Eurojie from any country iu large quantity. Three hundred or 400 tons
during the preceding five years would represent the maximum quantity brought
from China, while India and other producing countries had sent little more than
sample lots and trial parcels. The largest lot of ramie ever received at any one
time was in October, 1888, when 120 to 130 tons of ribbons were oftered in the Lon-
don market. There was nothing like competition for it, and it was sold for £8 to
£9, less than half what it cost in China.

Experiments in manufacture iu England date back to the sixties. There were
difficulties, however, in the way of preparing the fiber and in adapting machinery
for spinning it that made these processes too costly, and after fortunes had been
wasted the effort was abandoned.

Ramie seed is said by Favier to have been first introduced into France in 1836,
and in 1844 plants Avero brought from China by the surgeon of the war ship Faroriie,
which were grown in the acclimating gardens. While one writer claims that the
plant was first brought to the gardens of Europe in 1733, Favier states that Dr.
Fras cultivated the iilant iu the botanical gardens of Munich in 18."jO, and that it
Avas grown iu Belgium iu 1860.

Introduction into the I'nited States dates back to 1855, but the records seem to
show that it did not obtain a foothold in Mexico until 1867, the year in which the
first American ramie machine was lirought to public attention. It is interesting to
note that the first shipment of plants into France in considerable number was from
America, 10,000 plants haA'ing been imported for distribution in France and Algiers
in 1868.

The first French ofiflcial trials took place in 1888, followed by the trials of 1889, in
Paris, at Avhich the writer was present, and which are recorded in Report No, 1 of
the Fiber Investigations series. Another trial was held in 1891, and in the same
year-tho first official trials iu America took place, in the State of Vera Cruz, in
Mexico, folloAved the next year by the first official trials of American machines in
the United States; these being followed by the trials of 1894. The history of the
experiments in cultiA'atiou in the United States are recorded or referred to in the
reports issued by the Office of Fiber Investigations of the United States Department
of Agriculture, notably Nos. 1, 2, and 7, to which reference should be made for more
detailed statements than are here i^reseuted.

Cl'LTiVATiox. — In general terms it may be said that the ramie plant requires a
hot, moist climate, with no extremes of temperature, and a naturally rich, damp, but
ncA'er a Avet, soil, the necessary moisture to be supplied by frequent rains or by
irrigation; in other words, such a climate and soil that, when the groAving season
has commenced, the growth will be rapid and continuous. In the United-States the
best localities, so far as expei-iment has determined, are jiortions of Florida, Mis-
sissippi, Louisiana, and Texas on the Gulf, and central California on the Pacific

USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

4

^

Coast. Tlu! other Gulf States, doubtless, will jirove equally favorable to this culture
wlien more extensive experiments have been undertakeu than are now recorded.
Regarding- the northern limit of commercial culture it is difficult to make positive
statements. The plant thrives in South Carolina, and it is fair to 8up]iose that two
annual crops are possible, though the quality and yield of the iiber can only be
ascertained to a certainty by careful tests of the x»roduct of both crops. North of
this State commercial culture is hardly possible. Intelligently conducted experi-
ments in ^Missouri have demonstrated that but a single crop of filier, of doubtful
value, can be secured in a season in that latitude, while atteiuptcd niltiire in the
State of New .Jersey, with the aid of a State bounty, resulted in nothing. In China
the commercial crop is produced between latitudes which in
this country form very nearly the northern and southern
boundaries of I^onisiana. Fig. 80 is a properly grown stalk
of ramie, which matured seed in ten weeks in Louisiana.
(Sec also fig. 32). Fig. 31 is a stalk of ramie, which grew
through an entire season on the grounds of the Department
of Agriculture in Washington without even blossoming, Avliile
the i)lants branched to such an extent that the stalks were
totally ruined for liber. In no country are the stalks cut
for fiber until mature, for if cut before proper maturity the
portion of the stalk which is still growing and green and suc-
culent can not produce fiber. These facts dis])rove, in toto,
the idea that ramie can be cultivated for its fiber as a jiaying
industry in any section where straight, ])roi)eily-matured
stalks, free from branches, can not be grown, and produce at
least two annual crops.

In the Gulf States ramie has been grown experimentally in
a great variety of soils, from the liglit sandy uplands to the
rich black lands of the Louisiana bottoms, though light,
sandy, alluvial soils have always given the best results. In
California deej) alluvial, sandy, or loamy lands which, when
well prepared, Avill hold their moisture through the growing
season, or that can be irrigated, are most commonly selected.
Dr. Hilgard, director of the California Agricultural Experi-
ment Station, says only strong soils can be exi)ected to pro-
duce in one season one crop of 10 tons of stalks of any kind,
and that few can continue to produce such crojis for many
years without substantial returns to the land, no matter how
fertile originally. Among the strongest soils in the State are
those containing more or less of "alkali,'' and, as these are
mostly valley lands, the question of their adaptation to ramie
culture is important. He considers that the plant will stand
alkali providdl it is not of the black kind, viz, carbonate of
soda.

In all countries where ramie has been grown commercially
or experimentally the necessity for heavily enriching the soil by the application of
the farm manures or chemical fertilizers is emphasized, for successful ramie culture
is an impossibility on impoverished land. Where it is difficult to obtain sufficient
(juautities of manure it is recommended to collect and burn all refuse of decortica-
tion and retiu'n the ashes to the soil. The jiroportion of mineral constituents found
in the liber which is taken away is very small. The French writers attach great
importance to the use of leaves as fertilizing material, and as these amount to almost
half of the green weight of the crop, the advantage of such a practice; will be readily
appreciated. Well-decomposed stable manures and well-ground chemical fertilizers,
guano, and oil cake are all used with success upon French ramie plantations. The
practice is to spread these ui)on the land, the rains or irrigation carrying the nutritive

Fig. 33.— All iiniiroii-
erly grown .stalk iif
ramie.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE.

89

elements to the roots of the plants. A'loiit 7,000 pouuils of stable luaiinro, or ~>'2r)
to 615 pounds ol" chemical I'eitili/.eis or oil cake are nsed per acre. Allison recom-
mends oOO ponuds of cotton-seed meal and oOO pounds of kainit per .acre.

The plant is propaujated hy seeds, l>y cuttings, or hy layers, and lij' division of the
roots. When produced from seed, oi)en-air planting can hardly he relied upon,
plants started in the hotbed giving the best results. After planting, the seeds are
covered thinly witb silted earth and kept shaded from the sun until the young plants
are 2 or 3 inches high. In five or six weeks they will bo strong enough to trans-
plant to the field. The most practical method is propagation by a division of the
roots of old or fully matured plants. (See fig. 3.').)

In preparing the land for a plantation, thorough tilth — that is, deep plowing and
cross harrowing — is essential, which should be done in the fall. The ground is fre-
quently broken to a depth of lo inches or more, but never less than a depth of 12
inches, to secure good results, and liuapy land is rolled. Before planting, the ground
is again cross plowed, harrowed, and rolled, about the
1st of l-'ebruary being a good time for the work. The
roots are usually set in rows 1 to 5 feet apart, and 1
foot to 1.") inches in the row, although practice differs
in ditterent sections.

The estimated cost of establishing a ramie planta-
tion in the United States per acre is about $60, inclnd-
iug purchase of 8,000 roots at $35, and about !j<10 for
fertilizers. The crop is ready to cnt when the leaves
can be readily detached by passing the hand down the
stems and when the base of the stalks begius to turn
brown. In France the first crop is cut from June to
.July, and the second from September to October. See
chapter on culture, in different countries, in Eeport 7.
Fiber Investigations series, published by the United
States Department of Agriculture.

Yield. — The yield per acre of green stalks with
leaves has been iilaced at 8 to 10 tons, or say 25 tons
for two cuttings under the most fav(uable circum-
stances. A calculation based on the above figures
places the yield of dry fiber per acre at about 1,000
pounds for two annual cuttings, provided that the
crop has been properly gi'own. Mr. Charles Eiviere
(director of the botanic garden at Algiers) states that
1,000 kilograms (2,200 pounds) of stalks and leaves Fio. :i4.— Clu.<ters of flower ra-
will yield 520 kilograms (1,141 pounds) of stripped cemcs ..frami.-.

stalks; the 520 kilograms of stripped stalks will give

104 kilograms (228.8 pounds) of dry stalks, and these will yield 20.8 kilograms (45.7
pounds) of decorticated i)roduct (a little less than 20 per cent), and this weight will
give 11.2 kilogi-ams (24. (i pounds) of degummed filasse. "This is a yiehl which I have
proven in all ray experiments " ( De Landtsheer). This means that a long ton of green
ramie stalks with leaves will yield 46i pounds of decorticated fiber, which will give
25 pounds of degummed filler, the figures forming a ready basis of calculation when
the total weight of an acre of stalks is known.

Extraction of the Fiber. — There are but three ways in which the fiber of China
grass and ramie may be extracted: By hand stripping, as practiced in China; by
boiling the stalks in water or solutions, which also requires a certain amount of hand
manipulation; and by machinery. The stripping by hand can only be made to pay
where wages are down to the level of these paid in China, and almost the same may
be said of boiling processes, on account of the after handling necessary to separate
trash from fiber when the bark separation has been accomplished. As far as the
Department has knowledge of new machines, this phase of the raiuie question is still

90

USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

unsettled, though progress is being made from year to year, as ohl machines are
im]>roved and ne\v ones are devised. For further considerations of this subject, see
Appendix A.

Degumming of thk Raw Fibkr. — Before tlie fiber can be combed, it is subjected
to a cliemical treatment called degumming. Through the researches of the late M.
Fremy, member of the French Institute, it has been shown that the gums and cements
holding together the filaments of ramie are essentially composed of pectose, cntose,
and vasculose, while the filier itself is coni])oscd of fibrose, cellulose, and its deriva-
tives. The theory of degumming, tlierefore, is to dissolve and wash ont the gums
without attacking tlie cellulose. In order to eliminate the vasculose and cutose it
is necessary to employ alkaline oleates or canstic alkalies, employed under pressure,
.and even bisulphates and hydrochlorates. The gums being dissolved, the epidermis
is detached and can bo mechanically separated from the layers of fil)er by washing.
The larger number of degumming processes in ])resent use embody these general
principles.

French ex])erimenters have shown that it costs no nnn'o to degum the China grass

tiiat will fill a kier or tank of certain dimen-
sions than the charge of simple stripped
ribbons that will fill the same tank. Yet
the weight of China grass that will fill this
kier Avill be almost doiil)le that of the
stripped bark, and while the kier of China
grass will .show a shrinkage (waste) of only
;W per cent, let us say, the loss from the
strip])ed bark may be 6G per cent. To state
this difl'erently, a half-ton charge (1,120
pounds, French) of China grass may give
775 pounds of degummed liber, the expense
of degumming (at $20 per charge, let us
say) being about 2?^ cents per pound. Now
the same kier, when charged with simple
strijiped bark, will hold only 060 pounds
and give but 204 jiounds of degummed
filasse. But, as the cost of degumming the
contents of the tank will be the same in
both instances, the last operation has cost
7i cents per pound of pure fiber turned out.
The conmiercial value of the degummed
fiber is stated according to French figures
at about 13^ cents per pound.
Manufacture. — It is not important to
go into the details of manufacture here. This branch of the industry has pa.ssed
the stage of exiierimcnt and is an established fact. At the present time there are
two filatures or sjunning mills in France, two in Germany, one in Austria, one in
Switzerland, and two English companies, one of which — the ISoyle Fiber Syndicate —
operates at Long Eaton. Probably the most successful spinning mills are those
operated at Emmendingen, Baden, Germany.

Uses of tiik Fiueij. — As to the ])ossibilitie8 of ramie manufacture there seems to
be no limit. Stuff goods for men's wear, upholstery, curtains, laces and embroideries,
plushes and velvets, stockings, underclothing, table damask, napkins, handkerchiefs,
shirtings, sheetings, sail duck, carpets, cordage, fishing nets, and yarns and threads
for various uses not enumerated, bank-note paper, etc. Regarding these various
uses of ramie fiber in manufacture, however, M. Roux says we should not conclude
that this textile is destined to be employed so largely. The cost of its preparation
will always prevent its common use as a substitute for the textiles that can be more
chea]dy grown and prepared. He concludes that Avhile it has brilliancy it has not

. — lianiio roots ln'Coic siibilivision.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 91

the elasticity of wool ami silk, nm- tlio llexibility of cotton; but it will always be
jireferred for raakiiifj articles n^fiuiring the strength to resist tlie wear and tear of
washing or exposure to weather. This facility to imitate all other texdles is one
of the principal causes which has kept back the development of the ramie industry;
and if, instead of launching out into a series of exporiments, attention had been con-
centrated upon the exclusive manufacture of tliose articles to whidi the ])ro]iertie8
of the plant were peculiarly and naturally adapted, this industi'y would probiibly be
in a more advanced condition than it is at present. The Dc]iartment of Agriculture
has held to this position since its work in this held was begun. The folly of build-
ing up a ramie manufacturing industry <m a false basis, that is, employing the textile
as a substitute for something else, is to be deprecated. The liber should be used in
those articles of economic necessity which would appear on the market as ranue, that
any distinctive merit th.e textile may jiossess will become known, not only to the
ramie trade, hut to consumers of the product.

AuTHf)UiTiES. — The publications upon this subject are legion. A few principal
English references are therefore given, viz : Report on Rhea Fiber ( Watso)i.), London,
1875; various articles in Bull. Royal Kcw Gardens (.l/ornx.'t ; Die. Ec. Prod. Ind.
( Watt.) ; Spon's Enc., pt. o ; Reports 1, 2, and 7, Fiber Investigations series, U. S. Dejit.
Ag. (Dodfje.); Bulletin of the Experiment Station of Louisiana, No. ii2{Stiibhs.), and
of the CalilVnnia Experiment Station, Xos. HO and 94. {irthiard.) See also the Frencli
publications of Favier, De Landtsheer, jNIichotte, Ronx, and of the Ministry of Agri-
culture.

Boehnieria tenacissima. Ramie, or Ehea.

Tropical variety of B. nirca. Dr. Morris states that the term ramie, or rhea, shonld
only 1)6 applied to teiiaclsaimii, which may be known liy its robust habit and larger '
leaves, which ai-e green on both surfaces, and which do not show the silvery white
under surface characterizing /.'. nirca, or the plant belonging to a temperate climate.
For general statements as to cultivation, etc., see the preceding siiecies.

Bog Moss (See Sphaf/niim ct/mhi folium).

Bois (Fr.). = wood.

ceij), Ocoiea sieheri ; dentellc, Lagetta liniearia; Vovie, Guaznma

iilmifolio ; snnf/, see Crolou.

Bola (Beiig'.). See Hibiscus tiUaceiis.
Bolobolo (W. Afr.). See Honchenya.
Bombax ceiba. God-tree. Yaxche.

Exogen. Malvacew. A large tree.

This species of liomhnx, or silk cotton tree, was considered by A. Smith, in the
Treasury of Botany, to be the same as Eriodendron mifractiiosum. Examples of
silk cotton labeled Ceiha were received from the Mexican exhibit at the World's
C(dumbian Exhibition of 1893. On the authority of Dr. Ernst, of the Xational
Museum of Caracas, '' Ceiba" fiber is stated to be the ])roduct of Bomhar ceiha, and
is applied to the same uses as the silk cottons from allied species. The Pernviau
name is Hiiimhac/Kiro-ceiho.

Surface Fiber. — Distinguished by its yellowish color and lustrous silky appear-
ance. Like other seed hairs, it can not be spun unless mixed with other lil)ers.
" Used in the manufacture of mattresses, cushions, etc., and the bark is useful for
cordage" (Dorca). See Ceiba, Bombax malabaricum, and Eriodendron anfractuosum,
in the alphaljetical arrangement.

Bombax malabaricum. Hed Silk Cotton.

Syn., Sahnalia malabarica.
The Simal Tree of India. Abounds throughout flic hotter forests r>f India and
Burma; distributed to .lava and Sumatra.

92 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

The fruit of the various species of Bomliax is a woody capsule Avith divisions con-
taining numerous seeds, each seed surrounded by a mass of silky hairs, which, Avheu
collected after the opening of the pod, produce the "silk cotton."

SuuFACK FlBKR. — The silk-like down, or seed hairs, described above and known
as Simal cotton may be used as upholstery material, for stuffing pillows, etc.
The "cotton" is similar, though inferior, to the kapok of commerce derived from
Eriodendron nnfracliiosiim, which sec.

Fiber too short and soft to be sjiuu. The smoothness of the cotton jirevents cohe-
sion or felting, and hence in the textile industries could only be used to mix with
others, imparting a silky gloss to the fabric. It has also been talked of as a pa])er
fiber. The inner bark of the tree yields a good liber suitable for cordage. ( Watt.)

*Specimeiiii. — ?Ierb. Col. Univ., N. Y. ; Bast liber, Bot. Mns. Harv. Univ.

Bombax mungaba. Silk Cotton of Brazil.

A tree, 80 to 100 feet, common along the banks of the Amazon and Rio Xegro. Its
frnit is about 8 inches long by 1 wid(^, and of a clear brick color. The silk cotton
surrounding the seeds is light brown in color. It has fonnd limited use as a material
for stufling cushions. In a catalogue of the products of Brazilian forests, by Jose
Saldanha da Gama (Phil. Int. Exh., 1870), it is stated that tliis tree furnishes in its
bark fibrous material for coarse rope, as well as vegetable silk in its i)od8. He also
mentions Eriodendron samanma as "the largest tree of the Amazon, the fruit con-
taining a silk much sought for mattresses."

A species of Jiomhax silk-cotton was received from the ^'enezuelan Department,
\V. C. E., 18J».S, named Sibiicara wool, and another example was labeled "I.ana del
Tambor, the silky wool Avhich envelops the seeds of liomhax ciitnanense. It can not
be spun, but is used for making pillows." (Ernst.)

Bombax pubescens. The I^mbira-guassu.

This is also calhd the Emhir-nssd in Brazil. It is fonnd in the province of Minas
Geraes, and attains a height of 2.5 to 30 feet.

Bast Fihei:. — This species has a tough, fibrous bark, which yields quite a strong
fiber, resemlding jute in color, and very useful for making ropes and cordage. A
surface fiber is also oT)tained from its seed capsules, mucli enijjloyed in Sao Paulo for
filling bolsters and mattresses. The tree is found in secluded places and blossoms in
the winter.

Lofgren mentions another species (B. f/raciUpes), which is found in brambly locali-
ties along the river banks, and which also supplies fiber.

Bombay Aloe (see Agave viviparn).
Bombonaje (S. Am.). See Garludovica j)almata.
Booba Palm (Braz.). See Iriartea exorrhiza.
Borassus flabellifer. Palmyra Palm.

Endogen. I'almw. Tall palm.

Xativk names. — Tal, Tari, etc. (Hind.); Tal-gas (Ceyl.); Tan, hinn, (Burm.),
and others. lu west Africa known as the Black Run Palm.
Found in Ceylon and the Indian Arcliipelago ; throughout tro])ical India, in Bengal,
and Northwest Provinces. Cultivated in Ceylon. Also ioimd in tropical west Africa.
Stuuctukal Fiber. — This is obtained from the base of the petioles, or the sheath-
ing leafstalks. It is stiff, harsh, wiry, and resembles the bass and jilfissaha fibers of
commerce, particularly the Brazilian forms. A trade name is bassine.

It came into notice as a commercial article in 1891, when the high prices of jxas-
saha induced the introduction of substitutes. At that time even split rattan, stained
black, was reciuisitioned as a brush fiber. Palmyra fiber has steadily increased in
quantity, and, contrary to what was at first anticipated, it has also risen in value.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOCJUE. 93

I'aliiiyra now has practically taken th - place of west African bass. The latter on
the Ifith of September, 1805, was "dnll, business small, £14 to £23 per ton." Pal-
myra fiber on the other hand was: "Good, £26 to £34; medium, £22 to £25: com-
mon, £15 to £19 per ton" {Dr. ]). J/o?t/.s).

The fiber extracted from the leafstalks is used for rope and twine makin.<;, and
may also be used for paper. This fiber is strong and wiry, and is about 2 feet long.
In Ceylon it is extracted and the ropes and string largely used for cattle yokes and
other agricultural purposes are made of it. In Madras it is also nuide into rope and
twine. In P.engal the trees are too scattered to admit of an extended trade in this
fiber. The long cord-like and dark-colored fibrovascular bundles are carefully
extracted, however, while preparing dugouts, etc. By the fishermen tlieso are made
into invisible fish traps. ( Wait.) Employed in the United States as a brush mats-
rial, and imported in bundles of prepared fiber.

Every part of the plant is employed in one Avay or another, some 800 uses having
been enumerated. Further accounts in the Die. Ec. Prod. Ind. ; Cantor Lectures,
London, 1895.

^Specimens of the fibers were received from the Ceylon court, W. C. E., 1893.

Bow^string hemp (see Sansevicria).

Brachystegia, si)p. UctAnda Bark Cloth Trees.

Exogens. Lefjumlnoaa'. Trees, 20-50 feet.

Native names: The several species are known variously as Mecomha, Matondo,
Motondo, M'Cheiiga, and others.

Found iu the Uganda country, Africa, several species being referred to in the Bul-
letin of the Royal Kew Gardens for 1892, from which this account is reproduced.
The trees produce a bark cloth.

Bast Fibki:. Messrs. Speke and Grant, in their expedition to tlie sources of the
Nile, 1860-1863, made some interesting notes on the preparation and uses of cloth
from this source. They say of /Jrac/ii/s/c^/iVf sjyica'Jarmis Benth., that it is alight,
graceful tree of 20 to 40 feet high, common in rich forests, and is known in the
Robeho Mountains, Zanzibar, under the name of " M'chentja" or " M'ticnr/a,'' the bark
of which is made into kilts, cloths, bandboxes, huge grain stores, matclies, roofing
for camp huts, etc. ; they also add that a blood-red juice exudes on cutting the bark.
These same explorers collected slight herbarium material at Keegwah, in lat. 5"^ 5'
S., of what is so far determined as Brachystegia tamarindoidcs Welw. var. f With the
following note: "Native name ' Mecomho,^ a first-class tree, as it has so many uses.
Tree 50 feet high; long, naked trunk 9 feet in circumference. Foliage deep green.
Tlie wood is considered good for building. Its bark, after being bf)i]ed and prepared,
is made into white sheets of cloths worn by the natives at 10'^ S. They also make
canoes, boxes, matches, and ropes i'rom it. Its honey is considered very superior iu
flavor and whiteness. First met with 30 miles from the sea; afterwards iu the interior
it was frequent. It is so plentiful at 0- S. lat. that our temporary huts were roofed
with its bark, and my plants were protected by planks of its bark, which answered
admirably, being light and stitl'."' During Livingston's Zambesi expedition, in 1860,
Sir John Kirk collected s])eeiuicns of Ilrachjistegia appcndiciduia Benth., a tree of 20
to 40 feet high in the liighiands of the Batoka country, where it is known by the
name of '' Molondo'' (Sdoka), the seeds being eaten by the natives; lie also collected
the same species near Muata Mauja, 14^ 19' S. lat., and states that the fibrous bark
is made into cloth by being beaten out. According to Dr. Meller, tliistrec is known
as " Clieiiga" near Zomba. The herbarium contains a specimen of Jlrarhi/.itefjia longu
folia Benth., collected by Mr. J. Buchanan in the Shire highlands, and bears the
following label: " XJomho. Bark-cloth tree, wood very soft." Another herbarium
specimen collected by Sir John Kirk near Kusuma, on the river Shire, is labeled
Braihystegia, sp. nov., and is described as being a good-sized tree with a fibrous bark,
which, is used lor cloth.

94 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

Brecco (Tuscan). See Cliryso2>ogon, (jryllu.s.

Bricks, Ancient Clay. Made Avith stems of Foa (ibyssmica.

Brazil-nut Tree (see llerthoUctia).

Broad-leaved flax lily (Tasm.). JJiancUa latifoUa.

Brome (Fr-). Abroma aiujuxta.

Bronielia spp.

A geuiKs of plauts having very hliort stems and densely packeil, rigid, lauco-shaped
leaves, the margins of which are armed with sharp spines. They are natives of
tropical Americn, though they have been distributed to the East Indies, Africa, and
other countries, several species being cultivated as greenhouse jdants.

"While many species are known to produce fiber, three or four are regarded valuable
as liber i)lants, among them l'>.pin(iniu being the best known, while all are interesting.
'^B. fastnosa, commonly cultivated in greenhouses in England, yields liber in New
Granada" {Dr. Morris), and Spon states that Jl. saijenaria,^ known in Brazil as the
Ciirratow, is worthj' of cultivation for its liber. In portions of Mexico a liromelia,
cultivated as a textile plant, yields a fiber which is described as very fine, from 6 to
!S feet in length, and from its fiueness and toughness connuouly used in belt-making
works. It also finds application in the manufacture of many articles, such as bag-
ging for baling cottou, wagon sheets, carpets, etc., besides forming a valuable material
for making cordage, nets, hammocks, and similar articles of common use. Beautiful
examples of JiromcUa fiber were brought back from Santo Domingo in 1871 by Dr. C. C.
Parry, and at the W. C. E. many unnamed fibers of great length and fineness were
shown which doubtless Avero derived from species of this genus. There is great con-
fusion regarding the species of liromelia yielding fiber, which can only be clcare<l
up by studying the i)lauts where they grow and extracting the tibcr from the dili'er-
eut si)ecies.

Bromelia argentina. CaraguatA.

Eudogen. Jlromeliacca'. Aloe-like leaf cluster.

Allied to the wild pineapple, Bromelia 2}iiiijHin. Abcmnds in Paraguay and in
northwestern Argentina. "Very abundant in the Gran Cliaco and ^lissiones terri-
tories, Corrii-ntes, and Santa Fo. Two forms are recognized, Carayuuta ibira and the
Caraifitatd de arjua." {XieiJerhiti.)

Stiuctliial Fiueu. — Soft and silky, obtained in lengths of 4 to 6 feet, medium
strength, resembles pineaiiple fiber. The production is limited to native uses, such
as for rude cordage, sacks, etc. There is no doubt that with proper machinery the
preparation of this fiber might become a commercial industry in the countries where
grown. 1 have met with it in South American exhibits at international expositions,
and the samples secured were remarkably line, particularly those from Argentina,
where two species of Bromelia are thus cmi)loyed. See also Bromelia svrr<(, or the
chaguar.

In the year 1S70 Messrs. Branlio Artecona and Louis L. Lcuguas made experiments
with machinery that they established in the department of Arroyos y Esterios, Para-
guayan Republic, having obtained from the Government a concession for the working
of this product freely for the space of fifteen years in all fiscal lands, and to export
the same when manufactured free of duty. This industry did not give satisfactory
results, owing to the inexperience of those in charge and to the imi)erfection of the
nuichinery. After several fruitless atteuipts they retired and their concession lapsed.
In 1889-90 lS\v. Artecona again organized the same industry with modern machinery,
and took a contract from the company 'Tejidora,' of Buenos Ayres, for all he could
remit. He remitted altogether 400 tons, and the result of the sale might have been

' i'. iUijenaria is now referred to Anana.'i bractcatut.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 95

remunerative if no iiad not coiumittod the ianlt of employing; inexpert luinds; he
spent his capital in useless experiments, and again suspeudeil operations. ( Kew
Bull., September, 1892).

Bromelia karatas (see K((r<(tas plumieri).

Bromelia pingiiin. The Wild Pineapple. riN(JUiN.

Abounds in the West Indies and Central America, British (Jniaiia, and Venezuela.
Common in Yucatan; known as Cliom. The species is conunon on the rocky hills of
the West Indies, and particularly in Jamaica, where the plants are used for hedjjes
and fences. It is abundant in Trinidad, where it grows on the poorer soils, the leaves
often reaching a length of 5 or G feet.

In the literature of the fiber-producing species of Bromelia in tropical America the
greatest confusion exists, and particularly in relation to the liber of this species and
B. sijlvestris. 1 have myself been led into error regading B. sylcestris, basing my
published statements on the literature of the subject of thirty or forty years ago,
including the communications which appear in the earlier publications of the
Department of Agriculture, and upon the records accompanying the specimens them-
selves received through the Smithsonian Institution, and from early correspondents
of the Department, together with documents and specimens received at a com2)ara-
tively recent jieriod. Bec(nuing convinced of the confusion regarding B. i^i/lrestris, a
communication on the subject was addressed to Dr. Morrisi, of Kew, who says in
reply :

"1 am afraid the investigation of the tiber-yielding members of the Bromvliacea- is a
very difficult question. We know really very little of the si)ecies yielding libers in
tropical America Iteyond two or three of the most common of them. B. sylcestris
has been confounded by many writers as a form of the common pineapple. Hence,
liber labeled B. sylrestris may after all be nothing but pineapple fiber. The true B.
si/lrestris Willd, figured in the Bot. Mag., t. 2392, as the 'narrow-leafed wild iiine-
apple,' probably does yield fiber, but it is impossible to say without careful study
of the jilant itself whether it is the form of the common pineapple or true B. si/lves-
tris. The wild pineapple fiber of British Honduras, which is mentioned in my book
as Bromelia pita is probably Karatas plumieri yielding silk grass. The former must be
dropped. It has no meaning except as a synonym of the latter."

B. ptnguin is everywhere common in the West Indies, yet only one or two speci-
mens iVom the West Indies in the Department collection are labeled pin</uin, while
many are named sylrestris. A recent specimen from Trinidad, marked B. sylrestris,
and which also bears the name pinquine, is probably from this species. See further
remarks under B. sylrestris.

Botanical dkscuiptiox. — B. pinquin Linn., Sp. Plant., 408 (Dill. Elth., t. 240, fig.
311; Trew Ehret., t. 51); Red. Lil., t. 396. Agallostarhy-s pinyitin Beer. Karatas
peuguinMillei: Ananas pinyuin Gaert. Karatas phimiei'i Devan, non Morren — Acaules-
ceut. Leaves 100 or more iti a rosette, ensiform, stil'Hy erect in the lower half,
reaching a length of 5 to 6 feet, 1^ to 2 inches broad at the middle, tapering gradu-
ally to the point, green and glabrous on the face, thinly white-lei»idote on the back,
armed with very large-toothed pungent brown prickles. Peduncle stout, stifliy
erect, about a foot long, its leaves ofteji bright red. Panicle dense, stittly erect, 1 to
2 feet long ; axis and branches densely mealy ; branch-bracts oblong, pale, lower with
a rigid spine-edged cusi); lower branches 3 to 4 inches long, bearing (5 to 8 sessile
duwcrs; fiower-bracts, minute, ovate. Ovary cylindrical, very pubescent, about an
inch long; sepals nearly as long, with a densely matted tip. Petals reddish, densely
matted at the tip with white tomeutum, about \\ inches longer than the calyx.
Berry ovoid, yellowish brown, 1 inch diameter. {Dr. Baker.)

Structural Fibf.r. — In the Kew Bulletin for April, 1887, page 8, the fiber of this
species is thus referred to: The fiber of the .Jamaica pinquin (Uroniclia pinyuin L.)
would appear not to be of high value. The plant covers hundreds of acres in the

96 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

plains and lowlands of Jamaica, and an eft'ort was made some time ago to prepare the
fiber for commercial purposes. The report of the brokers npon a sample of 90 pounds
was as follows: "A long, towzeled, weak fiber, of bad color, coarse, no strength, and
only fit for breaking up. Similar to St. Helena hemp tow, but not so good. We
should think £12 to £10 per ton the utmost value." Several samples of this pinguin
fiber, from Jamaica and elsewhere, cleaned both by hand and by machine, are to he
seen in the Kew Mus., Xo. 2.

* Sjyecimens of the fiber were secured from the exhibit of British Guiana, W. C. E.,
1893. " Usctl for commercial purposes only to a slight extent. Probably used for
cordage by natives employed in making cables and large ropes for use on the rivers."
{Quelch.) The Kew Bulletin for September, 1892, states that the fiber of the pinguin
was carefully investigated by the hotauical department in Jamaica in 1884. The
plant covers hundreds of acres in the island, and it would readily support a large
industry. Great difiSculty was, however, experienced in extracting the fiber by
machinery, without maceration, and the results were by no means satisfactory.
Several samples were forwarded to Louilon and to New York for the oi>inion of brok-
ers, and the London reports were as follows : " Poor, dull fiber, gummy, fair strength,
value about £20. Almost unsalable in the form sent, not well dressed, not good
color, and in some parts rather tender. H" this was better dressed it might have a
sale, but in the ])resent form, when so gummy, it is difficult to form an estimate
ofit."

Spon refers to the fiber "yielded by the leaves of Jl. pigna {pinguin), a native of
the Philippine Islands, being woven into a most delicate textile fabric, known as
pigna cloth, from which the celebrated manila handkerchiefs are nuide;" and M.
Perroutel is said to have considered the pineapple cloth of the Philippines the prodnct
of a distinct species, which he called />'. pigna, but this has been determined to be
the cultivated i^ineapple. Ananas aatira, in a semiwild state. Specimens of "(/wamara"
fiber were secured from the Mexican exhibit, AV. C. E., 1893. Dr. Ernst refers gita-
mara to B. pinguin, though the name has also been given to Earatas plumieri.

Bromelia serra. Chaguar.

This sjjccies abounds in the northwestern portions of Argentina. The fiber is
chiefly used by the Indians, who manufacture it into cords, hammocks, sacks, etc.,
known as chaguar. In the KewMns. is shown a tuirass of ciiagnar fiber nuule by the
Mataeo Indians of Argentina. '•\\'henworn by these people it is ]»added before
and behind with cotton from the fruit of the Yachan, Choiixia inxignis. By rolling
themselves in water, the fiber swells and the whole becomes arrow proof." (Off.
Guide Kew Mus.)

Bromelia sylvestris.

A foi lu of "wild pineapple " fouiul in the West Indies and Central America. While
many examples of its fiber have been sent to the Department from time to time, spe-
cifically named B. sijlrestna, I have serious doubts as to the correctness of the labeling
in a majority of instances, for they not only difier widely when compared, but the
statements concerning them give evidence of error and confusion.

Botanical description. — B. syhesti-is Willd. ; Sims in Bot. Mag., t. 2392. Agnllos-
fachys sglvestris Beer. — Acaulescent. Leaves ensiform, rigid, 3 to 4 feet long, 1 i inches
broad low down, narrowed gradually to the point, bright green on the face, thinly
all)o-lepidote on the back, armed with strong hooked prickles. Peduncle a foot or
more long, its leaves reflexing, the upper bright red. Inflorescence a narrow panicle
with short spaced-out corymbose branches, all subtended by bright-red bracts, the
lower with rigid spine-edged tips. Ovary pubescent, cylindrical-trigonous, about
an inch long; sepals nearly as long as the ovary. Petals reddish, not matted at the
tip, protruding one-fourth of an inch from the calyx. (Dr. Baker.)

Stul'ctiral riBf.K. — Occurs in various forms, the age of the jdant making a difter-
©nce iu the appearance and (quality of the fiber. Dr. Morris states that "there are

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 97

several samples of a wild pineapple (Bromelia sijl rcstr is Willd.) from tlie West Indies
and Central America iit Kew, but tiiere is no record of their commercial value."' A
sample sent to Kew from Trinidad in 1887, supposed to be from this species, was
reported upon as follows: "Not in commercial use, but destined, we think, to a suc-
cessful future; line, soft, supple liber, strong and <;ood color, ample length, (worth)
saj- £30 per ton and upwards."

A beautiful sample of fiber secured by me from the Mexican exhibit at the Paris
Exposition of 1889, and labeled B. sylrei^tris, was very long, creamy white, line, soft,
and silky. A memorandum secured with the sample reads as follows : " Grows wild
in a zone extending from Tustepec in the State of Oaxaca to Acayucan in Vera Cruz.
Employed in making hunting bags or game pouches and fine woven textures. For-
merly it was used for the line sewing of shoes." This sample is finer, softer, and of
a better color than any other samples labeled B. sylcestris in the Department collec-
tion. Eegarding the correctness of the identification, however, nothing authorita-
tive can be stated.

The name "silk grass," and "silk grass of Honduras" has been given to this species
(in the books), though " silk grass " has also been given to other species, and even to the
fiber of Agaves. Dr. Morris writes mo that a wild form of the common pineapple,
Jnaitas >iaih-(i, growing at Kew, yields a fiber called "silk-grass fiber" by the Eng-
lish. This plant is the "Crowia" of British Guiana (see also Krowa in this catalogue).
He further states that the name silk grass is applied indiscriminately to the fiber of
the common pineapple, of a Bromelia, a Karatas, and also of Fiircraa cabensis. The
name silk grass therefore serves no i)urpose of identification in connection with the
fiber of 7>. sylvestris.

EcoNOJiic LITERATURE.— In the monthly report of the United States Department
of Agriculture for 1869, pages 232-233, there is a communication from Hon. J. McLeod
Murphy, which, when sent to the Department, was "accompanied with three skeins
of the istle fiber, Bromelia sylrcstris," etc., and also with a package of the hackled
fiber and small samples of fishing-tackle. In this communication the leaf is described
as "being shaped like a sword, its edges armed with prickles similar, in fact, to the
weapon formed from itzli, or obsidian, used by the Aztecs; hence the term." It was
said to grow almost exclusively on the southern shore of the Mexican Gulf, between
Alvarado and Tabasco, extending as far inland as the northern slopes of the dividing
ridge which separates the Atlantic IVom the Pacific. The leaves were 5 to 6 feet in
length. In the monthly report of the Department for August and September, 1870,
page 354, there is another communication from the same source which was sent to tlie
Department with a package of dried leaves "sun dried by Squier," and a hank of
the fiber. These specimens are still in the collection of the Department; the leaves
are without s^Hnes, though these niaj' have been cut off. .

In Squier's Tropical Fibers (New York, 1861) there is an account of the "Bromelia
sijlrestris, or wild pineapple, the istle of Mexico, but known as pita aud pinueUa in
Central America and Panama, and in the West Indies as Bromelia jnnguin or jjciujniit,
(which) can hardly bo said to rank second to the Jienequois in economic, importance."
This is reproduced in the report of the Flax and Hemp Commission of 1863. Siiuier
also quotes Major Barnard, U. S. A., in a report on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, who,
speaking of the " isiZe," says: "Among the spontaneous products of the Isthmus is
the Bromelia pita or ixtle, which difiers in some regard from the Acjave amrricana of
Europe,"etc. Further he quotes from a paperreadby Chief Justice Temple, of Belize,
or British Honduras, in the year 1857, which appeared in the journal of the Royal
Society of Arts, Vol. V, p. 125. An extract is hero reproduced :

"Among other objects of interest he exhibited a quantity of the fiber of the ])lant
under notice as well as of the Jyavc nisalana." Of the former, or llromelia sylreslris,
he said : "The plant called Bromelia pita, islle by the Mexicans, and silk grass by the
Creoles of British Honduras, grows spontaneously in the greatest abundance. The
leaves are of a soft, dark green, from 5 to 15 feet long and from 14 to 4 inches wide.
12247— No. 9 7

98 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

Aloug the edge of the leaf, about 6 inches apart, are Bhort, sharp, curved thorns.
When the plant is cultivated these gradually disappear."

Capt. A. L. Varuey, in a paper on bristle libers (Report of the (^hicf of ( )rdnance,
1883, p. 161), refers to the statements of Squier and others, and, commenting on the
confusion that exists as to the names of the iibers of the Agaves and Hromelias, says :
"Most -writers, however, refer to the ' intle,' 'ixtle,' or ' itzlc' as the fiber of BromelUi
sylrestris,"' which he regards as the source of Tarapico. He then gives a plate illus-
tracion of " BromcUa sylvestris ov penqHin (sic.), the wild Pineapple."

The writer also fell into error in his "Report on vegetable fibers," in Annual
Report of the De])artment of Agriculture for 1879, the statements being reproduced
in No. 6, New Commercial Plants and Drugs, by Thos. Christy (London, 1882). And
the confusion is still further added to iu the writer's treatment of 7>. sylrestris in No.
5, Filter Investigations scries, A Report on the Leaf Fibers of the United States (1893).
In Pernardin's Catalogue the species is treated thus: '■^Iztlc, Mexique; inta, pinuella,
Am. cent.; P<'Wf/H(«, lud. oc. ; Silk grass, Honduras Brittauiquo. Jiromelia KaraUis
en parait une lari^tr." In the Manual Hoepli B. sylrestris is stated to be ibund in Brazil
and Guiana. "The fiber is white, lustrous, and fine, from which is manufactured
exclusively articles de luxe." {Sarorgnan.)

See Istle nnd Agare heteracanthd, in this catalogue, and also refer to Bromd'ut jtin-
guin, aV)ove, and to the note by Dr. Morris on Bromelia pita, under B. pingitin; see
Karatas plnmieri.

Broom (see Cytisus scoparius).

Broom corn (see Andropoyon sorghum rnUjaris).

Broom hemp (see Crotalaria).

Broom palm (see Attalea and Thrinax).

Broom root (Mex.). See Epicampes.

Broom, Spanish (see Spartinm).

Broomstick grass (see Aristida setacea).

Broussonetia papyrifera. Paper Mulberry.

Exogen. Moracea. A small tree.

Native names. — Kodzn and Ao^o (Jap.); Iwa-lo-cliu (China); kendang (Java);
ma-lo (Fiji Is.). The fabric made from its bark, by beating, is known on the
Pacific Islands as tappa, tapa, and lapa.

Native of China, Japan, Siam, Polynesian Islands, and Burma. Introduced into
other countries. (See fig. 36.)

FiBKK. — The fibrous substance of the bark puljts readily, and is therefore esteemed
in Japan as paper stock. In Burma iti s used iov pupivr macliL '' The fiber is strong
and fine, and has the great merit of requiring little bleach" (Watt). Beautiful
specimens of the fiber were received from the .Japanese <ourt, W. C. E., 1893, and
are now in the collection of this Department.

It is said that the finest and whitest cloth and mantles worn by Sandwich Island-
ers and " the principal people of Otaheite," are made from the bast of this tree. It
dyes readily, particularly iu red, and takes a good color. Tapa cloth is also printed,
a large sheet from the Fiji Islands, iu possession of the Department, being stamped
or rudely printed in black, in large checks or squai'es, resembling the patchwork
of a i[uilt. The manner in which the fiber is beaten out by the native women of
Otaheite is very curious. The cleansed fibers are spread out on plantain leaves to
the length of about 11 or 12 yards; these are placed on a regular or even surface of
about a foot iu breadth. Two or three layers are tlius placed one upon the other,
much attention being paid to making the cloth of uniform thickness; if thinner in

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE.

99

ouo place tliau imothcr ii thicker piece is laid over this place, wlieu the uext jayer is
laid down. The cloth is left to dry during the night, and a part of the moisture
beiug evaporated, the several layers are found to adhere together so that the -whole
mass may he lifted from the ground in one piece. It is then laid on a long smooth
plank of wood i^repared for the purpose, aud beaten witha\vooden instrument about
a foot long aud 3 iuches square. Each of the four sides has longitudinal grooves of
different degrees of fineness, the depth aud width of those on one side being suffici-
ent to receive a small pack thread, tlie other sides being liner in a regular gradation,
so that the grooves of the last would scarcely admit anything coarser than sewing
silk. A long handle is attached, aud the cloth is fust beaten with its coarser side,
and spreads very fast nndor the strokes; it is then beaten with the other sides suc-
cessively, and is then considered lit for nse. Sometimes, however, it is made still
thinner by beating, after it has been several times doubled, with the finest side of

Fio. 36. — Leaf of Jlromsimetia pa-pyrifcra.

the mallet, aud it can thus bo attenuated until it becomes as tine as muslin. Should
the cloth break uuder this process, it is easily repaired by laying on a piece of bark,
which is made to adhere by moans of a glutinous substance made from the arrow-
root, and this is done with such nicety that the break can hardly be detected. The
King of the Friendly Islands had a piece made which was 120 feet wide aud 2 miles
long, a part of which is now in the Kew Mus.

W. D. Alexander makes statements regarding the manufacture and uses of the
Kapa cloth of the Hawaiian Islanders as follows: ''This was made of the bark of
the paper mulberry or waukc (Bronssouelia papyrifera) and of the mamale {Piptiirm
(tlhidus), which were cultivated with much care. Its manufacture was left entirely
to the women, who peeled off strips of the bark and scraped off the outer coat with
shells. After being soaked a while in water each strip was laiil upon a smooth log
and beaten with a square-grooved mallet of hard wood until it resembled thick,

100 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

flexible paper. The strips were united by overlaying- tlic edges and beating them
together. There were several qualities of kapa, some so lino as to resemble muslin,
and other kinds very thick and tough, which appeared like wash leather. It was
bleached white or stained witli vegetable or mineral dyes, impressed with bamboo
stamps in a great variety of patterns and colors, ;ind ghized with a kind of gum or
resin. Nothing like a loom was known in Polynesia. Th<! dress of the women con-
sisted of the 2)a-u, a wrapi>er composed of five tliicknesses of kapa, about 4 yards
long and 3 or feet wide, passed several times around the waist and extending below
the knee, while that of the men was the malo or girdle, wliich was about a loot wide
and 3 or 4 yards long. The kilui or mantle, about 6 feet square, was occasionally
worn by both sexes. It was worn by tiie men by tying two corners of the same side
together so that the knot rested on one shoulder, and by the women as a long shawl.
In general, this paper cloth would not bear washing and lasted only a few weeks.
The kajya moe or sleeping Anjja was made of five layers of common 7irtj>rt, 3 or 4 yards
square. The outside piece (kilohana) was stained or painted with vegetable dyes,''

In Jai)an a kind of cloth is made from paper derived from this tree. It is cut into
thin strips, which are twisted togetlier and spooled, to be used in the woof of the
fabric, while the warp is comijosed of silk or hemp. About 250 pieces only are
manufactured at the principal nianufacturiug place. The i)apcr mulberry grows
everywhere in .Japan, and is a valuable tree as furnishing the bast from which a
large portion of the .Japanese paper is made. The plants arc rej)roduccd in quantity
by subdividing the roots, and in two or three years are ready to be cut. Tliis work
is done in November, and the branches (7 to 10 feet long) are made up into bundles
3 or 4 feet in length, and steamed, so that the bark is loosened and can be more readily
stripped off. This is washed, dried, and then again soaked in water and scraped
with a knife to remove the outer skin, which is used for inferior kinds of paper.
The bast when cleaned is washed, repeatedly kneaded in clean water, and rinsed.
It is then bleached in the sun until snfliciently white, after which it is boiled in a
lye, chiefly of buckwheat ashes, to remove all gummy matters. The fibers are now
readily separated, and are transformed into pulp by beating with wooden mallets.
The pulj) is mixed in vats with the necessary ([uantity of water, to which is added
a milky substance prepared from rice Hour and the gummy infusion of th<' bark of
Hydrangea panicidatu, or the root of Hihincus maiiihot. The couches on which the
paper sheets are produced are made of bamboo, split into very thin sticks, and
united in paralleled lines by silk or hemp tlireads, so as to form a kind of mat. This
is laid upon a wooden frame and the apparatus dipped into the vat, raised, and
shaken so as to spread the pulp evenly, after which the cover is lirst removed, then
the bamboo couch with the sheet of paper, and in returning the ojjerative lays the
sheet upon the others. When a number of .sheets have thus l)eeu prepared they are
jiressed to exclude the water, and afterwards spread out Avith a brush upon boards
and allowed to dry. The sheets are only about 2 feet iu length, but sometimes sheets
10 feet long are produced. (From a report by the Jap;mese commissioners to the
Phil. Int. Exh., 1876.)

The topographical features fit for the plant is a sloping place facing southeast, so
as to receive the full light of the sun and protected from high wind. The suitable
soil is gravel loam, or vegetable mold or yellow loam with some gravel. The jirop-
agation is done either by planting divisions of old roots, layerings, cuttings, or
seeds; but the most common method is the first mentioned. This is performed in
March, digging off" young shoots from the old stubble, which is well manured, once
in the previous winter and again early in the spring, and the land is hand hoed at
the same time. The young shoots, with some rootlets, are cut to the length of about
1 foot and planted in rows of about 2h feet wide, at an interval of about 3 inches,
leaving the top about 2 inches above the ground, manured with some li<|uid manure,
and covered with straw to prevent burning by the sun. And when the buds come out
at the beginning of June the covering of straw is taken ortand watering is repeated
scA'eral times according to need. Weak branches, which come out in abundance, are

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 101

takcu ort", leaviug at last only one vigorous shoot. The young plants are carefully
dug out after the leaves have fallen and heeled in temporarily in some place till
the time for transplanting. No particular preparation of the soil is necessary
where they are to he replanted besides digging holes to receive the young plants,
which are usually transplanted at any time from the end of November to the begin-
ning of January, or beginning of February to the end of March. At the time of
transplanting, tlie holes jireviouslj'^ dug are partly filled with farmyard manure or
with some oil cake, covered slightly with earth, over which the seed plants are sot
one by one. the remaining open part of the holes is filled np with earth liglitly
trodden in around the plants. Tlie seed plants required for an acre vary A'ery much ;
but usually range between 1,.")00 and 4,500. Manures used after transplanting are
commonly farmyard manure, grasses, tree leaves, night soil, dried fish, etc., and
they arc placed around the plants in spring.. Weeding should be done many times,
especially, in the first year, and weak shoots pruned from time to time. The yield
from one acre varies according to the time of transplanting, but the average of five
years is estimated at 300 to 600 kilograms of raw bark. As the plants are cut, they
arc steamed and the bark is strij^ped off before cooling and dried by hanging on
bamboo frames under the roof. The dried bark is now steeped in water and when
softened rubbed violently in order to remove the exterior coarse and woody part
which is again cleaned off by means of a small knife, then well dried, and is now
ready for market. (Desc. Cat. Ag. Prod. Jap., W. C. E., 1898.)

Bro-wn Hemp (Ind.). CrotaJaria juncea.

Buaze (So. Afr.). See Secnridaca longepedtmculata.

Bullrush (or Bulrush). /Seirjms locustris.

Also Typha latifoliii, the cat-tail Hag. Lesser . Typlui angnstifolia; of

the Nile, Cypems papijrHs.

Bun ochra (Ind.), See Urena lohata and Triumfetfa rhomhoidea.

Bun-pat or Bhunji-pat. (Beng.) Corchoriis oUforius.

Buphane disticha.

An amiiryllid found in south Africa, remarkable in producing a bulb as large as a
man's head, supporting 100 or more flowers. This bulb yields a fiber, examples of
wliich are shown in the Kew Botanical Museum.

Burdock, Common (see Arctium lappa).

Burity (see MaurHia).

Burn-nose Bark (Jam.). Daphnopsis tinifoUa.

Buscola, or Bruscola Baskets, of Italy; made from the ^'■Giunco
marlnoy See Junvns aeutus and Lygeum spartum.

Biissu (see Manicaria s-accifera).
Butea frondosa. Butea Gum.

Exogen. Leiiuminosn' A tree.

Found throughout India and P>nrma. Yields the gum known as Bengal Icino. The
flowers furnish the tcsii dye.

Bast Fiber. — "It yields a tough fiber said to be useful for paper making and for
cordage; also the young roots yield a strong fiber known as clihoel. Tliis is made
into rojjes in Chutia Nagpur, Central Provinces^ Oudh, Rajputana, and Bombay hill
tracts, etc.; it is also used in some i)art8 of India for making native sandals. The
roots and young branches of 7>. siiperha, another Indian species (also mentioned by

102 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

Savorgnari;, affords a strong and useful fiber prepared iu Chutia Xagpur, tlie Central
Provinces, and Rajputana."' ( Watt.)

Cabbage palm, of tlie West Indies, Orendoxa oleracea; of Australia,
Lit'istona (distralis.

Cabbage palmetto (Fla). Sabal palmetto.

Cabo negro. Caryota vnnsta, or Arenf/<( saccharifera.

Cabouja, or Cabiija (W. Ind.). See Furcrcva.

Cabulla (Cent. Am.). Agave rigida sisalana ; of Costa Eica, Fur-
cnea tiiberosa.

Cabuya (Cent. Am.). Agave rigida.
Cactus. See Opuntia.

The sisal hemp plant has sometimes been called cactus erroneously. See Agave.

Cadhi (Arab.). See Pandanus.
Cadillo (Venez.). Urena lohat'a.
Cadillo negro. Triumfetta.
Csesar weed (Fla.). Urena lobata.
Caffir cotton (Afr.). See Ipomaa digitata.
Cajun (Cent. Am.). Fvrerwa eubensis.
Caladium giganteum.

A genus of the Aracea'. This species, now Colocasia indica, is found in Ouiana.
Savorgnau mentions that the fiber from the stems is adapted for paper stock. Dorca
mentions in his textile list a Peruvian species, C. pertusum, known as Chimcn, but
does not state how it is used.

Calamus rotang. The Kattan Cane.

Endogen. VaJma-. A scandent palm.
Known in Ceylon as tlie ela-wcirel.

Nearly 200 species of this genus inhabit tropical and subtropical Asia, Africa, and
Australia. (L rotang is found in India, Burma, and Ceylon, and yields the best rattan
canes of commerce. Sjilit into strips, it is woven or plaited into chairs and fur-
niture, baskets, etc. '' It is made into ropes, or is stretched, entire, across rivers as
the main supports of cane suspension bridges."

Good examples of these may be seen in the Khasia and northern Cachar hills. On
the march from Silchar to Manipur, for example, three have to be crossed, namely,
over the Muku, the Barak, and the Irang rivers. Within the past few years, owing
to heavy traffic, these have been strengthened by one or two wire ropes, but cane
bridges are by no means unfrequent in the mountainous tracts of the eastern side of
India, and cane ladders are not uncommon iu the south on the Animalis. Carefully
selected canes. 300 or 400 feet long, constitute the chains, and the bridges of that
length are often thrown across rocky valleys 50 feet above the water. This height
is necessary in order to be above the water level in the sudden rising of the rivers
which takes place during the rains.

Ropes are regularly made in China by splitting the rattan and twisting the long
fibers thus prepared into cordage of any desired thickness. In the Kew Mus. speci-
mens of cuft's, and an undershirt, are shown from China, made of the split stems of

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 103

this or allied species. C. rotanfj also supplies the material for Malacca canes. " Tliey
are imported in large quantities from Siak, and are valued according to the length of
their iuternodes, the longest being used for walking sticks and the shorter ones for
the handles of chimney-sweepers' brushes, etc." (Otf. Guide Kcw Mus.)

The European uses of canes are eveu more varied than tlie Asiatic. They are
valued on account of their lightness, llexibility, and strength. They are extensively
used as walking sticks, umbrella handles, and even as a substitute for whalebone
for uuibrella and parasol ribs, each set of such ribs costing only from Id. to 2id,
instead <tf 2s. 6(1. to 3s. for whalebone. Cane is also extensively employed in saddlery
and harness, and a wickerwork of rattan is now used in the construction of the
German military helmet, which is said to make it sword proof. But the chief pur-
pose to which cane is put in Europe is in furniture and basket making.

In the United States rattan is used in a great variety of manufactures, among
which UKxy be enumerated chairs and other articles of furniture, chair seating, baby
carriage bodies, baskets, tloor mattings, brooms, corset stays, whips, and other uses
of minor importance.

Calamus rudentum. The Ma-wewel.

Several species of rattan i)alnis abound in Ceylon. Among tlie most common
are C rudentum, C. pachiistemonus, and ('. radiatus (the luktd-u-el).

These palms are common throughout the damp forests of the island up to 3,500
feet altitude. In some districts they occur in great abundance, afl'ording a con-
spicuous feature in the forests, their tall feathery heads overhanging the highest
trees, while their powerful stems, often 200 feet in length, appear like green cables
coiling about the ground in curious contortions and disorder. The first two species
named are very largely used for a variety of purposes, such as the manufacture of
baskets, chairs, crates, and the hoods of carts; while, split into strips and twisted,
they become most jjowerful ropes. A very large trade is done in making tables and
chairs of these canes, of which tlie most familiar is probal>ly the well-known ''deck
chair," to be found on every passenger shii> in eastern waters. The two smaller
canes, C. paclujslemonus and C. radiatus, the stems of which only attain the thickness
of a pencil, are used in vast quantities for the manufacture of baskets for Ceylon
tea gardens, for receiving the tea leaves as they are plucked from the bushes; in
fact, so great is the quantity consumed in this way that if the canes used in these
baskets were put end to end they would extend for some thousands of miles. In
addition to its use in basket making, C. radiatus supplies the material for making
the bottoms of chairs, for which purpose it is first split into long thin strips to ren-
der it elastic and pliable. Twisted, the lukul-wel supplies rope for towing purposes,
as its tenacity is prodigious. Finally, the thin strijjs cut from this caiid are used for
making frames for hats used by some of the laboring classes in Ceylon. (Official
Cat. anil Handbook, Ceylon Courts, W. C. E., 1893.)

C. equestris is a scandent palm found in the Moluccas, or Spice Islands, and the
Philippines, and also cultivated in conservatories. " On account of the fiexibility
and elasticity of its delicate branches it is nuuh sought for making harness, the
reins of bridles," etc.

Calathea zebrina. Zebra Plant.

A representative species of a genus of Marantacem inhabiting the West Indies and
South America. Bernardin mentions this Jamaica species as producing a fiber.
" The species are natives of tropical America, and some of them are in cultivation for
the sake of their handsome foliage, especially C. zebrina, the leaves of whieh have
alternate dark-colored and green stripes. The leaves of some of the South American
kinds are used for making baskets." {Dr. Masters.)

Caldera bush (see randanus).
Calla-wel (Ceyl.). See Derris scandens.

104 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

Callicarpa cana. Arusha.

An India shrub (3 to i I'eet) belonging to the Verhenacea', common along the road-
sides. Forbes Royle states that fiber has been extracted from the plant, "but it
does not appear of much value in a country Avhere so many others abound." Tested
with Russian hemp of a given size, the aroosha broke at 127 pounds, while the hemp
stood a strain of 400 pounds. "It possesses all the free and kindly nature of flax,
and even swells like flax" {Captain Thompson.)

Calmelia (It.). See Daphne mezerenni.

Caloee (Siam). See Boehmeria.

Calotropis gigantea. Giant Asclepias. Madar; Mudar.

Exogen. Asclepiadacew. Perennial shrub.

Abounds in India, Malay Islands, and south China. "It is not very common in
Burma, and as represented by the doubtfully distinct species, C. procera, it is dis-
tributed to Persia and tropical Africa" ( Watt).

Bast Fibkk. — The species yields a fine fiber in the bast, while the seeds are envel-
oped in a silk cotton known as maddr floss. In th(! .lavanese exhibit at the Chicago
World's Fair two fibrous production.s were shown, one a bast fiber of good color and
great strength, the other a substance resembling cotton, but of a creamy color. The
bast fiber was derived from the Giant Asclei>ias {€'. y'ujanlea). It is of considerable
value in Indian pharmacy, growing Avild upon arid wastes, and jiroducing a iiber of
superior quality. It resembles flax somewhat in a]>pearance, and is quite strong.
It is not cultivated in India, though its fiber is regarded in ^ladras, where the plant
grows wild, as the best and strongest material for bowstrings and tiger traps. The
plant is known under a variety of names, as .Ishur in Arabic, Muddr and Ak-Miiddar
in Hindoo ; in Madras it goes by the name of Yercuni. As it thrives upon soils where
nothing else will grow, needing neither culture nor water, it has been considered an
advisable ])lant for bringing waste land under tillage and for reclaiming drifting
sands.

An acre of ground stocked with ]>lants 4 feet apart each way will yield 10 tons of
green stems and 582 pounds of fiber per acre, as y)repared bj- native methods, which
waste 25 per cent. The liber is said to possess many of the qualities of flax {Linum
iisitatissimum), though it is somewhat finer. Its fineness, tenacity, luster, and softness
fit it for many industrial ])iirposes. It is said to be better adapted for textiles than
for cordage, and that it may readily be mixed with silk; yet it shows a high degree
of resistance to moisture. "Samjiles exposed for two hours to steam at two atmos-
pheres, boiled in water for three hours, and again stcameil for four hours, lost only
5. 17 per cent by weight, as compared witli flax, 3. .50; manila hemp, 0.07; henij), 6.18-
8.44; coir, 8.13" (Spon).

The mode of separating the fiber as practiced by the natives is exceedingly tedious
aud Avould ])revent the material from becoming an article of commerce unless some
more speedy and less trifling way for preparing it could be discovered. In short,
no water is used, and everything is done by hand manipulation, assisted by the
teeth. Flax machinery might facilitate the matter if it was desired to cultivate
extensively for fiber. As to its cultivation, " it is difiicult to conceive anything less
productive than dry sand, j'et the inuddr thrives in it, requiring no culture and no
water." Dr. Wight tested samples of the fiber from Madras, where it is much
employed for fish lines, and found that it bore a strain of 5.52 pounds when sunn
hemp bore 404 pounds Royle's experiments gave 160 for Russian hemp and 190
pounds each for Jubljtiljiore hemp (Crotalaria) and the mitddr or Calotropis (jigantea.

In the autumn of 1884, while testing different machines in their power ol extracting
the libers of various fiber yielding plants, I devoted attention to tlie dkunda or maddr
amongst other plants. I had already studied this shrub previously, to a certain
extent, and had formed a hopeful idea of it. But the trials just alluded to have
induced me to alter considerably my previous opinion. I can now confidently state

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 105

that the hopes expressed by previous writers and by myself that the madtir -vvoiild
be one of the best fiber iiroducers of this country will never be realized. Its liber
is certainly fine, strong, white, and silky, and could doubtless be extracted in a ukt-
chantable condition (though none of the machines tested by me produced any good
results with it), but the obstacles to its profitable utilization on a large scale out
weigh its natural good qualities: (1) The very small proportion of the fiber to wcigbt
of the stems, tlio proportion being only 1.56 per cent; and (2) the shortness of tin-
fibers, extending as they xisually do from joiiit to joint, the joints being from .S lo S
inches apart. These two chief obstacles are sufficient to justify a withtlrawal of the
maddr from the list of hopeful fiber-bearing plants of India. (L. Liotard, in Die.
Ec. Prod. lud.).

Surface Fiber. — The cotton-like substance derived from the pods is similar to
the silkj' hairs of the common milkweed, though coarser and less silky. The sub-
stance .shown in the Javanese exhibit was erroneously stated to have been derive
from this species. The Javanese name of the fiber was kapok, and the kapok of
Java is the product Er'iodendron atifracfuosiim. The cottony fiber of C. gigantea i<
said to have been manufactured into shawls and handkerchiefs, but it hanlly
possesses sufficient strength to be spun alone. I am aware, however, that a soft
kind of a cloth has been made from the "down" of this tree. Dr. "Walker, jirisou
superintendent, Agra, sent to the London Exhibition of 1862 three specimens of this
cloth, as follows: ilade entirely of miiddr lloss; made of one part cotton and out-
part tloss; and made of three parts cotton and one part doss. A rug ma<le of the
floss was also exhibited. It has also been used in the manufacture of paper. There
are several other species of plants belonging to the Asrlejiiadaccw, that are kuown to
the vegetable economy as fiber producers, and found chiefly in the ('Id World.

The maddr is not alone a fiber plant, as it produces gutta-percha, varnish, dye, medi-
cine, and a liquor, and besides it is useful in the domestic economy.

Savorgnan mentions C. procera, the fiber of which presents some of the character-
istics of the above.

Camelina sativa.

Exogen. Crucifera'. Annual herb, 2 feet.
"Cultivated in nuddle and southern Europe and in tem])erate Asia for its fiber,
but especially for its oil'' (Spon). There are several Knropeau and North American
sjiecies of this genus. "The stems of C. saiira contain a considerable proportion of
fiber, and are commonly used for making brooms in many parts of Europe" (A.
SniHh). It is sometimes known as false flax and is a bad weed in some places. It
produces a bast fiber.

Canielote, or Gamelote (Venez.). Fanieum myuriis.

Camona (Peru). Iriartea dcItouJea. See also Ma^atinazia.

Cananio (Peru). Cannabis sativa.

Canapa (It.). See Cannabis satira.

Canapaccia (It.). See Artemisia riih/aris.

Canapiiia (S. Am.). See Abutilon avicemuv.

Candee rush (Vict.). See Jnncus effnsns.

Cane, The Rattan (see Calamus rotang, aud Calamus rudentiim).

Cane fiber (T. S.). See Arundinaria tecta.

Canna (It.).

"Canna da stiioje," etc., cane for mats. "Common generic name for a great many
plants of the Graminea', more or less marshy in their growing localities, especially

106 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

the Arundo donax, with the stems of which are braided mats and matting, fishing
baskets," etc. {Savorgnan). This should not be confounded with the ornamental
plant known as Canna, or Indian shot.

Cannabis sativa. Common Hemp^

Exogen. TJriicacea'. Annual shrub, 6 to 15 feet.

Common and native names. — Hemp (Eng.) ; Chanrre (Fr.) ; jB'an/(Ger.) ; Canapa
(It.); KonapU (Rns.); Band (Pers.); (Ihniiga (Beug.); Asa (Jap.); Chti-ts-ao
(Chma). The .Sanskrit name of the plant is Bhanf/a ; in Hindostau it is called
Ganja; the Arab name is Einnuh, Eanah, or Kauitah, from which, doubtless, its
Latin name, Cannahis, is derived.
Its native homo is India and Persia, but it is in general cultivation in many parts
of the world, both iu temperate and more tropical climes. Its cultivation is an estab-
lished indnstrj'^ iu the United States, Kentucky, Missouri, and Illinois being the
chief sources of supply, though the culture has extended as far north as Minnesota
and as far south as the Mississippi Delta, while California has recently become inter-
ested in its growth. Fig. .3, PI. V, shows a growth of hemi> in Kern County, Cal.,
where it reaches a height of 12 to 15 feet. Tliis hemp is of remarkably fine quality,
and it brings an extra ])rice in 1he New Y(nk market.

Several varieties are recognized in cultivation in this country, that cultivated in
Kentucky, and having a hollow stem, being the nio.st common. China hemp, with
slender stems, growing very erect, has a wide range of culture. Snij-rna Lemj) is
adapted to cultivation over a still wider range, and a variety is beginning to be
cultivated in California known as Japanese hcivip, but which is doubtb-ss indentical
with China hemp. In Europe five varieties are cultivated, which are enumerated as
follows: The connnou hemp, grown largely in France, and generally iu Europe out-
side of Italy, growing to a height of 5 to 7. feet. IJologne hemp, known in France as
Piedmontese hemp, or Great hemp, an Italian variety averaging 12 feet in height.
Chinese hemp, known in Europe since 184fi, and said to have been imported by Sig-
ner Itier. It is stated that in Algiers this hemp has been grown to a height of 20
feet, and that its fiber is remarkably fine and wonderfully elastic. The Canapa
piccola, or small hemp of Italy, is another variety, with a reddish stalk, which is
found in the valley of the Arno and around Tuscany. The fifth variety is the Ara-
bian hemp known as Takroitsi, a short species cultivated for its resinous principle
from which hasheesh is derived.

Bast Fibei:. — In the literature of fiber-producing plants of the world the word
hemji appears fre<iuently, applied oftentimes to fibers that are widely distinct from
each other. The word is usually employed with a prefix, even when tht^ true hemp
is meant, as manila hemp, sisal hemp, Russian hemp, etc. The hemp jilant ])ro])er,
the C. satira of the botanists, has been so generally cultivated the world over as a
cordage fiber that the value of all other fibers as to the strergth and durability is
estimated by it, and iu many of the experinaents of Roxburgh and others we find
"Russian liemp" or "best English hemp"' taken as standards of comparison. The
fiber is produced for export chiefly in Russia and Poland, much of it being dark in
color and low in grade. It approaches nearer to American hemp than any other.
French or Breton hemp is fine, white, and lustrous; but little, if any, is exported,
as the homo demand equals the supply. Italian hem]) is the highest grade which
comes to our market, 2,500 tons having been received in 1894-95, out of a total import
of about 6,000 tons.

A sample of Persian hemp in the Department collection is the sim]de stripped
bast. It is light in color and very strong. A sample of Siamese-hemp bast also
shown is so rough that it appears like another fiber. Hemp grows in all parts of
India, and in many districts flourishes in a wild state. It is but little cultivated for
its fiber, although Bombay-grown hemp at one time "was jiroved to be superior to
the Russian." In portions of India, as well as other hot countries, it is cultivated
for its narcotic i^roducts, the great value of which makes the India cultivators indif-

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE.

107

fereiit about the fiber. The raw hemp prodnced in Japan is usirally sold in tlie form
of ribbons, thin as jiajjer, but as smooth and glossy as satin, a light straw color, the
frayed ends showing a fiber of exceeding fineness. Beautiful samples of tliis hemp
wer<> secured by the Department at the World's C'olumliian Exposition, togfther
with many samples of manufactures. The fiber is largely grown in .lapau for tlie
manufacture of cloth and the indu.stry is very old, as prior to the introduction of
silk weaving it was the only textile fabric of the country.

UsKS. — Largely employed in the T'nited States for small twines and cordage, bind-
ing twines, etc. Formerly large areas were devoted to the cultivation of the plant
in the United States, and thirty-five years ago nearly 40,000 tons of hemi> was pro-
duced in Kentucky alone, while now hardly more than a fourth of this ([uantity is
produced in the whole country.
There are several reasons for the
decline in production in the
United States, but it dates back,
prim.'irily, to the decline in Amer-
ican shipbuilding and to the in-
troduction of the Philippine Is-
land hemp (Miisa tejiilis), the
manila hemp of commerce, and
later to the large importation of
jute. Quite recently there has
been a further falling oft' in pro-
duction, and it is worthy of note
that this is largely due to the
overproduction of this same hemp
of Manila, brought about by the
high prices of the latter fiber in
1890-91, a direct result of the
manipulation of the fiber market
by certain binding-twine manu-
facturers. In past years the hemp
of Kentucky was not only used
for the rigging of vessels, and in
twines or yarns, and bagging, but
it was spun and woven into cloth,
just as to-day it is manufactured
into fabrics in portions of P>rit-
tany.

Culture. — As m Breton
J'rance, so in Kentucky, limestone
soils, or the alluvial soils, such as
are found in the river bottoms,
are best adapted to this plant.
The culture, therefore, is quite general along the smaller streams of Brittany, where
tlie climate is mild and the atmosphere humid; and in Kentucky the best lands only
are chosen for hemp, and the most favorable results being obtained where there is
an underlying bed of blue limestone. As a general rule, light or dry soils or heavy,
tenacious soils are most unfavorable.

Hemp is not considered a very exhaustive crop. It is stated by a successful Ken-
tucky grower that virgin soil sown to hemp can be followed with this crop for fifteen
to twenty years successively; alternating then with small grain or clover, it can be
grown every third year, without fertilizers, almost indefinitely. In France a rotation
of crops is practiced, hemp alternating with grain crops, although competent authori-
ties state that it may also be allowed to grow continuously upon the same land, but
not without fertilizers. Regarding this mode of cultivation, they consider that it is

Fig. 37. — The Hcini) i)laut, Cannafns sativa.

108 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

not contrary to the law of rotation, as by deep plowing and the annnal nse of an
abundance of fertilizer the ground is kejit sufficiently enriched forthe demands which
are }uade upon it. If the soil is not sufficiently rich in phosphates or the salts of
potassium, these must be supplied by the use of lime, marl, ground bones, animal
charcoal, or a.shes mixed with prepared animal compost. Even hemp cake, the leaves
of the plant, and the ''shive," or "boon," maybe returned to the land with benefit.
This high fertilizing is necessary, as the hemp absorbs the equivalent of 1,500 kilos
of fertilizers per every hundred kilos of iiber obtained. In Japan, where most excel-
lent heuip is produced, the ground is given a heavy dressing of barnyard manure
before it is plowed in November. After the soil has been well pulverized and reduced
to iinc tilth, the seed is drilled and the land given a top dressing composed of one
part fish guano, two parts wood ashes, and four parts animal manure. The pro])or-
tions and tlie quantities used differ, of course, upon ditt'ereut soils. In New York,
where hemp was formerly grown, barnyard manures or standard fertilizers were used,
as it was considered essential to put the soil in good fertility to make a successful
croi). A Kentucky i)ractice is to burn the refuse and spread the ashes over the land.

As in flax culture, a careful and thorough preparation of the seed bed is important,
for the finer and more mellow the ground the better will be the fiber. Soil jirepara-
tion in the blue-grass region of Kentucky consists in a fall or early spring plowing,
and a short time before seeding, which, in general terms, is about corn-])lantiiig time,
the ground is thoroughly pulverized by means of an improved harrow, such as the
disk harrow, after which it is made smooth. The date of planting A-aries according
to whether the soil is wet or dry and may range from the last week in March to the
last week in April, or even the 1st of May. In Shell)y County, Ky., the ordinary
grain drill is used for l)roadeast seeding. The rubber pipes are removed from the
drill, and a board is attached directly beneath the hopi>er. The seed falling upon
the board is scattered in front of the drill hoes, which do tiie covering. A light drag
pasi-ed over the field levels and evens the surface, after which nothing is done until
the hemp is ready for the harvest.

The quantity of seed sown to the acre varies in different practice from 33 pounds
to 1 to li bushels. In New York 1 to 3 bushels have been sown, 1 bushel giving bet-
ter results than a larger (luantity. In Illinois it varies from 1 to 2} bushels. In
France a ditlerence is made regarding the use to which the fiber will be put, a third
nu>re seed being sown for spinning fiber than for cordage fiber. On a farm in Sarthe,
visited liy the writer, a little less than 3 bushels to the acre was the usual quantity
sown, but as high as 4 bushels are sown on some farms. There will be little trouble
wilh weeds if the first crop is well destroyed by the spring jilowing, for hemp gen-
erally occupies all the ground, giving weeds but little chance to intrude. For this
reason the j)lant is an .admirable weed killer, and in flax-growing countries is some-
times employed as a crop, in rotation, to precede llax, because it puts the soil in good
condition.

In Kentucky the hemp stalks are considered ready to cut in one hundred days, or
when the first ripe seed is found in the heads. The cutting is usually done with a
hooked implement, or knife bent at right angles about 21 inches from the hand. In
recent years, however, the work is sometimes done by machines adapted to the pur-
pose, and jiarticularly when the stalks are slender. The foreign practices relating
to the harvesting differ materially from those usually followed in this country. They
are fully described, however, in Report No. 8 of the Fiber Investigations series issued
by the Department, to which the reader is referred.

In this country when the stalks are cut they are laid in rows, even at the butts,
and are allowed to remain on the ground not over a week to dry — only long enough,
as one correspondent expresses it, to get a rain on the leaves, so that they will drop
off" readily. When the rain is too long deferred, however, tlie hemp should be \n\t
in shocks, or small stacks, having been first made into bundles of convenient size for
easy handliug. Hemp is usually dew retted — that is, spread evenly over the ground
to undergo the action of the elements which dissolve or rot out the gums holding

DESCKIPTIVE CATALOGUE.

109

the filaments together. Formerly pool, or water, rettiug was practiced ia a very
small way in Kentucky and to a slight extent later in Illinois. The hemp is allowed
to remain in stack until November or December, or about two mouths, when it is
spread over the grouud until retted. No rule can be given regarding tlic prosier
length of time that the hemp should lie, as this varies according to the weather,
sudden freezing, followed by thaws, hasteuing the opia-atiou. It is usually allowed
to lie until the bast separates readily from the woody portion of the stalk. When
there is a large crop there may be an advantage in spreading the hemp earlier than
November, in order that the breakiug uuiy be done in the winter mouths. Winter-
retted hemp is brighter, however, than that retted in October. It is usually stacked
and spread upou the same grouud upon which it is growu, and when suiiicieutly
retted, as can be determined by breakiug out a little, it is again put into shocks. If
the hemp be dry, the shocks should be tied around the top tightly with a baud of
hemp to keep out the rain. The shocks are made firm by tying with a band the first
aimful or two, raising it up and beating it well agaiust the ground. The reuuiiuder
of the hemp is set u]} around this central support. By flaring at the bottom, and
tying well, a firm shock
can be made that will
stand firmly without dan-
ger of being blown over
by the wind.

Asthe bestheuip which
comes to our market is
that grown in Italy, a
few words on the Italian
practice will not be out
of place. Several varie-
ties are cultivated in
Italy, the soil chosen
being a soft, deep, sedi-
mentary formation, aud
this is twice plowed in
November, fifteen days
intervening between the
twojilowiugs. The quan-
tity of seed sown varies according to the soil, climate, and variety of hemp, but in
Lombardy the average quantity is 200 liters j)er liectare, or about 2^ Imshels per acre.
The crop is well fertilized, but not excessively, and regard is had to ecouomy of cost.
In addition to other fertilizers, in Bologna, Professor Marconi namee the following:
First, manure and olive husks (after the last pressing); second, manure and excre-
ment from hens (little used but very efficacious) ; third; manure and chrysalides of
worms, 1. e., silk worms; fourth, manure and olive husks with one or more of the
others. The guide for harvesting the crop is the state of maturity of the tops, which
become yellow, and the white appearance at the foot of the stalks. First, the male
plants are harvested and twenty or twenty-four days later the female plants. These
two operations are never retarded nor precipitated. After cutting, the stalks are
removed to a shady place and the tops inclined over a sort of trestle to dry. Ten or
twelve handfuls of stalks form a bundle of equal length stems for the o])cration of
macerating.

In favorable soils Italian hemp averages a yield of 1,700 to 2,200 pounds of dry
stalks per acre, which produce from 450 to 530 pounds of fiber. "In general, 100
kilos of raw hemp furnish 25 kilos of raw filasse, and 100 kilos of ordinary (ilasse
(fiber) give 65 kilos combed filasse and 32 kilos of tow; 100 kilos of seed furnish 27
kilos of oil." {Saror(jnan.) A kilo is 2.2 pounds.

The stalks are retted in water and either dried in the open air, in furnaces, or in
treuches, the last practice being rarely followed. Drying in the open air has advantages

vN^^

Fig. as.— Xeiitucky bemp br.ike.

110

USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

over any otlier method; first, less expensive; second, ii superior bleaching of the
fiber. In the ovens the operation is hastened, and many times this is a verj' desirable
system. In a perfectly' dry atmosphere three to six days sul'iice for drying thorougLly.
The stalks are again put into bundles and placed in dry locations, safe from rodents.
The drying by artilicial heat is done in common Ijread ovens, but the temperature
should be very moderate; usually the hemp is introduced one hour or one hour and
a half after the removal of the bread from the oven. The hemp stalks are decorti-
cated in various ways, by hand processes of beating, or by machinery. The French
brake, -which is somewhat similar to the Kentucky brake, is little used, though a
machine quite as primitive is largelj' employed. In this device the stalks are first
crushed, then cleaned by beating. The hemp is not ready
for market when it Comes from this machine, but is fur-
ther cleaned, and the bits of wood, etc., which adhere to
the libers are cjirefully removed. See Hemp Machinery in
Ajipendix A. Fig. 38 is a Kentucky hemp brake.

The market prices for American rough hemp at the pres-
ent time may be stated at $10 to $S() per ton for Missouri
and $135 per ton for Kentucky. No recent figures are at
h;ind showing cost of production, but in 1890, counting
a man and a team worth $3.r)0per day, the cost of produc-
ing an acre of hemp in Kentucky was shown to be about
$24. The average yield is about 1,000 pounds per acre,
but this is frequently exceeded by several hundred
pounds.

'iSpiciiiicns. — Field Col. Mus. ; U. S. Nat. Mus. ; Mus.
U. S. Dept. Ag.

Canoe birch (see Bctula papurifera).
Capas, or Kapas. Gossi/pium.
Capo di bue (It.). See Antirrhinum.
Caraguata (Arg.). Sec Bromelia urgvniina.
Caraiia.

Orton gives this as the Brazilian name of a tine glossy
fiber from a species of Bromelia, from which ropes are
made.

Carex brizoides, et sp. div.

Endogen. Cyperacio'. A sedge.
-,„„,, . , , This and the two species of Carex, which follow, are

mentioned in the Manual Hoepli, and are presumably
Italian species. They are sedges or rushes. C. brizoides can be employed as a
substitute for Esparto in brush making, and is woven. The species appears in
Beruardiu's list as Alpcngrass, from Holland. C. pend^da is employed for chair
seating, its Italian wa.meXwAng Sala per seggiole. C'.j>a/H(?osffl supplies similar material
and is known by the simple name Sala.

Other species of Carex are mentioned in the Official Guide Kew Mus., as follows:
C. tereticauUs is an Australian species, that has been employed by the Murray Kiver
native tribe for net making. Guilfoyle names the species as paper stock. C. lepo-
rina is employediu Switzerland for stuffing furniture. The culms of ('. rhynchoplujsa
are used for making table mats in Japan, and C. paniculata, in England, is employed
for hassocks and brooms. The species is also mentioned by Guilfoyle as a good paper
s<tock. See Fig. 39.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. Ill

Carex vulpinoidea (?). Slough Grass.

A species of Carex or sedge supposed to be C. vulpinoidea has been used to some
extent in the manufacture in Iowa, under the Lowry patents, of a grass biudin"-
fcwine. Samples of this twine in the Department collection show a strand composed
of the grass leaves, held together by means of a thread or fine twine which winds
spirally about the mass, forming a continuous "twine," or tying substance, of
considerable strength.

C. rul^yinoidea is a very common sedge in this State (Iowa) in rather low places. I
am not familiar with the manufacture of this twine, bnt am of the opinion that this
may not have been the only species that was used. There are several species which
have tough, librous stems. Professor Budd informs me that this sedge was largely
used in tying sacks, and that it is of excellent quality. (Prof. L. H. Pammel.)

Mr. Lowry, the patentee, makes the following statements regarding the manu-
facture of this twine :

The grass for twine should be cut the latter part of July or early in August ; if cut
earlier it is pulpy aud has no strength; if allowed to grow longer the slender tops
wither off and the stalk becomes brittle. It is cut with a reaper, which delive'rs from
the platform straight and in gavels; the following day the gavels are bound and
'•stooked " or " shocked " on the butt ends, as is done with grain, and allowed to dry
or "cure" for about three days, when it is stacked or baled for shipment. The vield
is from li to 2 tons per acre. In baling, it is necessary, for twine, that it should be
kept straight. The first process is putting it through the combing machine to remove
the short grass and any weeds there may be among it. The machines as made at
present have each a capacity of 7,500 yards per hour. The machine takes the grass
from the hopper, twists it, puts the thread around it, and bales it. The labor of
combing the grass and feeding the machine is light work and could be done by boys
or girls. One ton of grass yields about 1,850 pounds of twine and 250 pounds of hay.
For binder twine it requires no treatment of any kind, but it should not be subjected
to excessive moisture or artificial heat.

" Specimens. — Field Col. Mus. ; Mus. U. S. Dept. Ag.

Careya arborea.

A deciduous tree, found in India, which yields a gum, tan bark, dye, medicine,
fruit, and fiber. "The bark yields a good fiber for coarse cordage, and a stuff suit-
able for brown paper of good quality. Silk worms feed on the leaves. The fibrous
bark is used in Mysor as a slow match to ignite gunpowder, and in many parts of
India as fusees for matchlocks." (Die. Ec. Prod. Ind.).

Carica papaya. The Papaw of the Tropics.

While celebrated for its fruit, it yields a fiber that may be obtained 5 feet long,
and is mentioned in the lists of liernardin and the Flax and Hemji Commission and
alluded to by Dr. Watt. Of qnestionable utility.

Carludovica palmata.

Endogen. Cyclanthacew.

The plants of this genus are found in tropical South America and in Central America.
C. palmata is a stemless species, ''connuon in shady places all over Panama and along
tlie coast of New Granada [United States of Columbia] and Ecuador."

The leaves^ which are plaited like a fan, " are borne ou three-cornered stalks from
6 to 14 feet high. They are about 4 feet in diameter and deeply cut into four or five
aivisions, each of which is again cut. The leaves are cut while young, aud the stiff
parallel veins removed, after wfiich tlu-y are slit into shreds, but not separated at
the stalk end, and immersed in boiling water iov a short time and then bleached in
the sun." (J. Smith.)

Specimens of the prepared leaves, in bundles, were obtained from the several

112

USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

Ceutrai and South American collections at the W. C. E., 1893, and are preserved in
tlie National Museum and the Museum of the Department of Agriculture. These
always have the ap])earance of a bundle of straws. The leaf is split in narrow strips,
Avhich are dried in the sun. Under the action of the heat they roll up into this straw-
like form, and it only remains to Ideach and weave them.

Uses. — The leaves are plaited into many useful objects, the best known being the
celebrated Panama hats, which have been sold as high a $150 apiece. It is said that
the hats of superior quality are plaited from a single leaf Avithont any joinings.
Ci" ar cases, small bags, and similar objects are also made from these leaves.

"Specimens. — Mus. U. S. Dept.

Ag. U. S. Nat. Mus. Phil. Com.

Mus.

Carnauba palm (Braz.).

See Copcrnicia.

Carnestolendas (Venez.).
Goch losperm v m f/ oss yp-
hint.

Carolinea fastuosa ( Mex.).
See Fachira.

Carya. See Hicoria.

Caryota urens. Kittool
Palm. JacgeryPalm.

Endogen. J'aliini. Palm

tree, (50 feet. See iig. 40.

Common in the eastern and

western moist zone pf India and

has long been known to the

native inhabitants of Ceylon.

"In places it has been iutro-

duced by the natives into their

gardens, as it yields so much

that enters into the economy of

their daily life, while affording

a remarkable commodity in the

form of jaggery or native sugar."

(Handbook of Ceylon, W. C. E,,
Fig. 40— The Kittoi)! palm, Caryota urens. „ „

Structural Fiber.— Brownish black, the filaments straight, smooth, and glossy
It (•xliil)its considerable tenacity and will bear twisting, as the liber is somewhat
elastic. Some of the lilaments resemble horsehair very closely, and, drawn between
the thumb and nail of the forelinger, curl as readily as coir. Samples of fiber from
this palm as well as tow prepared from it were received from the Philippine Islands
and from Victoria, the latter prepared by Dr. Guilfoyle. It is indigenous in north-
ern Australia. In Jtlalabar it is called Shunda-pana, in Burma M'uibaw, and the Siu-
galese name is KUtiil or Kiltool. It is a beautiful tree, growing to a height of (50 feet,
and surmounted by an elegant crown of graceful curved leaves. The tree is a foot
in «liameter. The fiber, which is black and very coarse, is useful for making ropes,
brushes, brooms, b.iskets, etc. ; and a woolly substance or scurf scraped from the leaf-
stalks is used for calking boats. It is also extensively used in machine brushes for
polishing linen and cotton yarns, for cleaning flax liber after it is scutched, for
brushing velvets, and other similar purposes. In Ceylon the black fiber is mauufac-

^^^=s^^^^^^^^=-

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 113

tured into ropea of great streugth aiul tlural)ility, which are used for tyiug elephants.
It is both regnhir and compact, and its manufacture exhibits considerable skill. In
Australia, Dr. Guilfoylesays, it is used for making paper. As high as $16,000 worth
of this fiber has been exported from Ceylon in a single year; it enters largely into
the manufacture of brushes, and there is a considerable demand. '"The fiber, as it
is called, forms at the base of the leaves of the palm, in a strong sort of bracing, that
tends to hold the leaf against the stem as it appears on both sides of the blade of the
leafstalk. This is removed with a kuil'e from the fallen leaves, and then cleaned, to
free it from extraneous matter, and finally put u]) into bobbins, in shape not unlike
a torpedo, when it is ready lor sale. Hopes, and even fishing lines, are made from
kitul fiber, as it is easily twisted into fine cord, and is strong and durable." (Hand-
book of Ceylon.)

When first imported the finer fibers were used for mixing with horsehair for stutF-
iug cushions. As the fiber is imported it is of a dusky-brown color, but after it
arrives here it is cleaned, combed, and arranged in long, straight fiber.s, after which
it is steeped in linseed oil to make it more jdiable ; this, also, has the eff'ect of darken-
ing it, and it becomes, indeed, almost black. It is softer and more pliable than pias-
saba, and can consequently be used either alone or mixed with bristles in makino-
soft, long-handled brooms, Avhich are extremely durable, and can be sold at about a
third the price of ordinary hair brooms. The use of Eittool fiber is said to be spread-
ing not only in this country but also on the Continent. During 189.5 Kitiool fiber
has not been much in demand. (Cantor Lectures, Morris.) Its chief use in the
L'nited States is for the manufacture of brewer's brushes.

"" Specimens. — Field. Col. Mus. ; Mus. L^ S. Dept. Ag. I'hil. Com. Mus.

Caryota spp.

C. mitis is mentioned by Savorgnan as another species found in Ceylon, from the
leaves of which a kind of Crin vegetal is manufactured called Black fiber. Ber-
nai-din also mentions C. onusta from the Philippine Islands, called CaVo Xrgro-
C. onusta is Arenga sacliarifera.

Cascara (Peru.) See Couratari legalis.

Cascara also means a husk, as, Cascara de coco, husk of the cocoanut.

Cassia auriculata. Tanner's Cassia.

Exogeu. Leyiiminosa'.
The species of this genus are more important from the medical standpoint as pro-
ducing " Senna," besides gums, tans, and dyes. C. auriculata is merely mentioned as
yielding fiber in its bast. " Specimens of the bark were sent to the Calcutta Exhi-
bition from Cuddapah, Madras, as a tanning material, but an excellent fiber was
prepared from a surplus of this bark and made into rope. The fibrous property of
the jilaut does not appear to have been investigated. The caterpillar of a large spe-
cies of silkworm feeds on the leaves of this plant." ( Watt.)

Cassytha melantha. Co3imon Scrub Vine of Australia.

Mentioned by Dr. Guilfoyle as a fiber-producing species. These scrub vines some-
times form impenetrable thickets. The plant belongs to a common genus of semi-
parasitical leafless, thread-like plants. Their habit is to twine around other trees,
with which they come in contact, with their wire-like branches. They are some-
times called Dodder laurels. C ./f?J/orJHi'8 is found in India.

Castilloa elastica.

Exogen. Moraceo'. A tree.
This species abounds in Mexico and Central America. It has male and feuiale
flowers alternating one with the other on the same branch. The male flowers have
12247— i^o. 9. 8

114 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

several staraeus iuserted iuto a bemispheiical perianth, consi.sting of several iiuited
scales. The female flowers consist of numerous ovaries iu a similar cup. The tree
contains a milky juice, yielding caoutchouc.

Bast Fiber. The Costa Rican exhibit, W. C. E., 1893, contained an interesting
collection of the tough, cloth-like bast from this tree, some of the examples measur-
ing 10 to 12 feet in length and 15 inches wide. The sheets of bast are similar to the
Damajagua bast from Peru and applicable to the same uses.

Specimens: Phila, Com. ]Mus.

Casuarina stricta. The Droopinct She Oak.

Exogen. CasKai-inavew.

These singular trees are met with most abundantly iu tropical Australia and New
Caledonia, where, according to Dr. Bennett, they are called oaks. "They have very
much the appearance of gigantic horse tails (Eqiiinctacew), being trees with tliread-
like jointed furrowed pendant branches. Their sombre appearance causes them to
be planted in cemeteries, where their branches give out a mournful sighing sound as
the breezes pass over them, waving at the same time tlieir gloomy hearse-like
j)lunies.'' C. siricta is common on the coast as well as the inland tracts of South Aus-
tralia, Victoria, Tasmania, and New South Wales.

Fibkk. — The stringy foiiage formed by the cylindrical concrescence of the branch-
lets with the leaves can be converted into an excellent pulp for packing, and even
printing paper and millboard. The mechanical contrivances for preparing the pulp
are of particular ease. (Ferd. ton Mueller).

('. subero/ia, the Erect She Oak, is restricted to Mctoria and New South Wales.
The foliage in its use is .akiu to that of the former species. Different Casuarinw occur
in the other Australian colonies, in south Asia and the Pacific Islands, but none of
the species has been employed before for paper manufacture, and consequently the
investigations instituted in Victoria may bo found even of value iu a country so
anciently industrial as China. {Ferd. von Mueller).

C. muricata is a native of southern India, and C. equisetifolia is found iu the South
Sea Islands. Tlic trees of tlieso two species are valuable for many economic uses,
but are not particularly mentioned as fibrous.

Catirina (Peru). See .Uhdea.

Cat-tail flag (s(>e Tj/pha).

Cavanillesia plantanifolia. Yolandero.

Exogen. Leguminosw.
Found in Panama aud New Carthagena. "The inner bark affords a fiber much
resembling Cuba bast. It bleaches readily and makes a strong, white, opacpie
paper." (Spon.)

Cebu hemp (Phil. Is.). Musa texUlis.
Cecropia peltata. Trumpet Tree.

Exogen. Moracew. Tree, 50 feet.
Native name. — Emhauha or umhauba.

Native of West Indies and tropical South America.

Fiber. — Produced from the inner bark of the young branches; said to be very
tough. Bernardin says the fiber is used iu Brazil for sacks. In notes on the State
of Para, W. C. E., 1893, the fiber is claimed to be used for strong ropes and cordage.

The Uaupe Indians, who inhabit the Rio Uaupcs, a tributary of the Rio Negro,
convert the hollow stems of this tree into a very curious kind of musical instrument,
a species of drum, called by them Amhoohas. They select a trunk 4 or 5 inches in
diameter, aud ciit off a piece about 4 feet long, removing the partitions and render-
ing the inside smooth by means of fire ; they then close up the lower end with leaves

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 115

beaten down iuto <a bard mass witb a pestle, and out two boles toward tbo top end
so as to form a bundle. Tbese nide instruments are commonly used in tbe native
dances, tbo performer, boldiug by tbe bandle, lieats tbe lower end upon tbe ground,
and moves bis feet in unison witb tbe sounds tbus produced. (Treas. Botany.)

Cedar, G-igantic Red, of tbe Pacific Coast. Thuja f/iffantea.
Ceiba (Mex.). See Bomhax ceiba.

Tbe following nomenclature is given in Bernardin's List of 5.50 Textiles Fibers,
under tbe title " Duvet Brun " (brown downs or silk cottons) : Silk cotton, Domin-
i([ue; Sole de la Havane, Kawo-kawo, Malais; Siifed-simul,lUud.; Cotton, kapok, S.
M. ; (hiana, Cuba; Poor, Tel.; Pania, Paniaht, Mai. (Eriodeiidron (oifracluosum).
Diirct de Bimha, Peru; {Bomhax sp.) Dunt de Ceiba, Cent. Am.; Comaca, Demarani ;
PitUo)ii, Cote d'Afrique, {Bomhax ceiha) Buret de Lanero, Cuba; patte de Ucrre edre-
doH ri'gt'fal, Antilles; Balsa, Cent. Am. (Ochroma lagopus).

Tbo Venezuelan llora possesses tbo following species : Bomhax ceiha, B. cumanense,
B. sepienatum, Eriodendron aufractuosum. Tbese are called in common parlance
ceiba ; but we prefer, witb Andres Belle, tbe form ceibo, according to tbe analogy
witb otber species, as halso 6 lano, Ochroma lagopus. (Dr. Ernst.)

Tbe Bot. Mus. Harv. Uuiv. has fine " specimens of tbe fiber of C. Inria, from Costa
Rica.

Ceiba pentandra.

This is Eriodendron anj'ractuosum, or " I'ochote,'' which see.

In Millspaugb's Contributions to tbe Flora of Yucatan (^Field Col. Mns. Pub.,
No. 4, Bot. series), I find C. pentandra with notes as follows: "Pochote,'' " Pcem,"
Bomhax pentandrum Linn., /). ceiha Linn., Eriodendron anfractnosum DC. Plentiful
throughout tbe peninsula. Under tbe general head Bomhax, a few lines above,
occurs : Bomhax ceiha, "ceiha," Yaxche, a tree 80 to 100 feet. Dr. Ernst, who was asso-
ciated with me in making the awards in group 9, W. C. E., 1893, refers " pochote"
to Eriodendron anfractnosum.

Celastrus scandens. Climbing Bitter Sweet.

Exogen. Celastracea'. A vine.

Common in eastern United States, its showy red berries making the species par-
ticularly' marked. It has tbe habit of twining about other woody plants and even-
tually embedding itself in their bark so deeply that tbe spiral form is preserved after
cutting for canes, etc.

Fiber. — The bark yields a good liber, Avhicb many years ago was p^repared exper-
imentaMy bj"- Mr. Phippen, of .Salem, and exhibited at tbe meeting of tbe Essex
Institute. ,

Cellulose.

The cellular structure of plants reduced by chemical means and purified; as an
examjile, wood pulp. See Classitication, p. 25, group 2, woody fibers, sub group d.
See also page 20; Corn-iiitb Cellulose, see Zea inags; Cotton and Wood Cellulose, see
under Artificial Silk.

Celmisia coriacea. Leather Plant. "Tekapu.''

Exogen. Compositw.

Hills of South Island, New Zealand. Samples of the thick, leatberj- leaves of this
species were received from tbe Phil. Int. Exb., 1876. " Used for the manufacture of
garments.'' My only authority for this species is tbe exhibition label which accom-
panied tbe specimen, and notes made at Kew: "Leaves resemble corn busks, but
with a silky gloss. Tbe garments are made by weaving together in longitudinal
layers."

* Specimens. — Mus. U. S. Dept. Ag.

116 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

Celosia crlstata.

Exogen. Amara7itace(v. A shrub.

ludia. Cultivated as an oiuameutiil plant.

Fiber. — "It yields a strong, llexible ba.st liber, so highly esteemed that rope made
of it sells at five times the price of jute rope." Contirmation of this fact is much
required, and also samples of the plant from which tlu; fiber has been extracted. It
is known in Bengali as LiU-mnrga, but Roxburgli makes no unmtion of the fiber;
indeed, ■with the exception of the notice in Spou's Encycloj^uMlia quoted above, no
autho)-, as far as the writer can discover, alludes to the fiber. ( Watt.)

Celtis australis.

Exogen. I'liinicca'. A shrub or small tree.
An Italian species known by the names Arcidiavolo, Bagato, liagolaro, Buccrata,
FratjiracoJo, Legno da racchetie, Loto, I'erlaro, ^j^accrt-sassi. The bark yields a fiber for
cordage. (Manual noei)li.)

Celtis caucasica. Nettle Tree.

An Indian species supposed to be a variety of the Euro])eau nettle tree, C. aus-
tralis. Baden Powell mentions that the bark is made into cordage.

Celtis orientalis.

Now Tremu orientalis; Ibrmerly referred to Sjyoitia. A very common Indian spe-
cies of nettle tree. "The nether bark consists of numerous reticulated fibers, which
some of the tribes of Assam convert into coarse textile fabrics. 0. philippinensis,
in the Philipi)ines, and C. [now Trvma^ aspera and C. sinensis, in Japan, also ali'ord
useful fibers.'' (S])on.) See Trcma.

Century plant (see Agave americana).

Cerbera odollam.

Exogen. Jpo(tjnavea\

A genus of trees natives of trojjical Asia, and said to be A'ery poisonous, the seeds
being particularly so. "The inner shell of the drupe is fil)rous, partly divided, when
ripe, into twodivisicms, and when seen in the dried state resembles a ball of string."
(Treas. Botany.)

Ba.st Fiijki;. — Watt states that fil)er prepared from the bark was sent by the for-
estry department of Madras to the Amsterdam Exhibition of 1883.

Surface Fiber. — C. opposilifolia is a Cochin China species held in liigh esteem in
pb.irmacy. From the silky down of the fruit is obtained a substance for wadding.

Ceroxylon.

A species of ]iahu Ibund in Peru, which, on the authority of A. Dorca, supplies
nuiterial lor cordage and coarse textures. Known locally as J'atma dc la cvra.

Chaguar (Arg-.), See Bromelia serra.
Chain creeper (Braz.). See Bauhinia.
Chain fern (U. S.). Woodicardia rad'wans.
Ch^ndla (Iiid.). See Antiaris.
Chat (HiiKl.),=ioot.
Chanicerops humilis.

Eudogen. I'alnuv. A dwarf palm.
This species abounds in Algeria, and is cultivated in southern Europe. It is the
source of the upholstery material imported into the United States from Algeria under

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 117

the names African iiber and Crin vn/i'tal. It is a species of palmetto, and is allied to
the saw or scrub palmetto of Florida and tiio Southern States.

Structural Fiber. — Samples of tlie liber were received from the Algerian section,
W. C. E., 1893, and included the twisted ropes of raw fiber, both black and white,
as imported, with sijecimens of cordage, vegetable curled hair, etc. The leaves of
the plant are shredded, and the twisting into strands crinkles the fiber so that ic
forms a substitute for curled hair pro^jer. 1,000 to 2,000 tons a year are imjiorted
into this tountry, in tlie form of "rope," worth not over $25 jier ton, though Avlieu
"jiicked" or opened, the consumer pays double this price; used as a mattrass fiber.
See Serenoa senudata, the allied American species.

* Sjyecimens. — Field Col. ]\Ins. ; U. S. Nat. Mus. ; Mus. U. S. Dept. Ag.

Chanvre (Fi'-). Cannabis sativ<(.
Charcoal tree (Ind.). See Trema oricntalis.
Cheirostemon platanoides.

A Mexican tree belonging to the Stercidiacew ; found also in Guatemala and trop-
ical South America. Its ancient Mexican name i.-? MacpalxovhitlquahuHl, and its
Peruvian name Huampo. "The fiber, from the bark, is used by the Indians for
garments'' {A. Dorca).

Chenga. (Afr.). See Brac}n/.stc(/ia.
Chiendent (Fr.). See jEJj^icflwj^cs macroura.
Chikti (Hind.). Tri u mfetfa rh o m boidea .
Chikun (Beng.). See Trema orientaJis.
Chilima (Peru).

This is the native name of a species of Bomhar, the bark of which is said by Dorca
to yield a very strong riljer.

China grass (see Boehmeria nivea).

China jute (see AbutUon avicenna').

Chinbaune (Burm.). See Hibiscus sahdariffa.

Chinela (Peru). See (Udadium.

Ch'ing Ma. China Jute. Abuiilon aricenna:

Chin pat (Ind.). See Crotalaria jnncea.

Chip.

The trade name of tliin strips or shavings of willow and po])lar used, when braided,
as millinery trimmings, or material for hats.

Chiquechique (Venez.). See AttaJea funifera.
Chitrang (lud.). See Trema orientalis.
Chlorogalum pomeridianum. Soap Plant.

Endogen Liliacea'

California, in the valleys and foothills from the upper Sacramento to Monterey and
Santa Barl)ara. The bulb is 1 to 4 inches in diameter, covered with a thick coat of
coarse dark or brownish fibers resembling the coir of the cocoanut. Kecommended
for culture in Victoria.

Structural Fihki:. — -'These fibers are light, elastic, of good strength, and durable.
They have been separated from the bulbs, especially by the Chinese, and used as hair

118 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

to fill ciisUions, mattresses, etc., coustitutiug, iu places, qnite au article of com-
merce." (Am. Jour. Ph., Doc. 18flO.) Also uotcd iu the Botany of California, and
in Spou's Encyclopiedia.

Chom (Yuc). See Bromelia pinguin.

Chonta (Peru). See Masiinazia.

Chorda filum. See under Macrocystis.

Chorisia insignis. Samohu of Argentina.

Exogen. Sterculiavecv. Small tree.
The genns includes a number of South American species, allied to Bomhax or the
silk cottons. Like other better-known producers of vegetable silk or "downs,''
they also yield in their bark a good fiber. Tlie bast of tliis species is employed in
Argentina. It is knowu in Peru as Huimbnquiro ceiho, both the down or surface fiber
and the bast being employed, the latter for cordage. See also note on the species
under Bromflia scrra.

Chorisia speciosa.

This Brazilian species is mentioned in a brochure entitled Notes on Textile Plants
of Brazil, distributed at the Phil. Int. Exh., 1876. The down or vegetable silk is
stated to be excellent for winter niattre.sses and pillows. The tree is known iu ^xiv-
z'\\ us Ariore de raina. The species is mentioned by Spou. "This i)lant yields a
fiber of which textures are made which are so luiach like silk in their luster, fineness,
and pliableness to be scarcely distinguished I'rom it" (Sarorgiia))). The tough bark
of C. crispi flora is .also used in Brazil for making native cordage.

Chouca (Antilles). See Agave mvipara.
Chrysopogon gryllus.

Kndogen. dramiiiea'. A grass.
Abounds in southern France and northern Italy. Knowu in Italy as Barhone and
PoUinia. From the fibrous roots horse brushes and other coarse l)rushes, mats, etc.,
are said to be made; also used for thatch material. Classed as a structural fiber.

Chumese (Iiul.). See CrotaJarla jnneea.

Chuncu (Peru). Caladium giganteum.

Churu, or Chord (Braz.). CourataH.

Chusan palm (lud.). TracliycariniH forinnei.

Chu-ts-ao (Cliina). Cannabis sativa.

Chrysopsis graminifolia.

Exogen. Comjjositd'. Perennial herb.
A Southern species found abundantly in the piney woods, particularly in Wash-
ington and Tangipahoa parishes of Louisiana. Attention was called to its value
as a fiber plant by Mr. J. T. Blackwell, who wrote that the blade or leaf was the
source of fiber. He cultivated the plants in his garden and secured a growth of
three feet. Estimated yield of fiber, 150 ])ounds to the acre, which would not pay
for cultivation, while the fiber itself is of doubtful value.

Cibotium barometz. ) ^ ^

. .. } Tree Ferns.
menziesu. )

Syu. IHcksonia barometz and D. memiesii,

A small genus ranging over Mexico and Central America, the Hawaiian aud
Philippine Islands, Sumatra, southern China, and India.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 119

Surface Fiber. — "The base of the leafstalks is densely covered, with a soft aud
glossj- yellowish wool, used for stuffing mattresses aud pillows, aud which, under
the name of pnlu, forms a regular article of export to California from Hawaii. The
wool of C barometz, from tropical Asia, and of Dicksoiiia culcita, from the Atlantic
islands, serves for similar purjioses and has also found a limited employment in
surgery for stanching bleeding from ulcers or wounds. The hairs consist of a single
series of flat thin-walled cells which break readily at the joints, the cells being
shortest in C. chamissoi and longest in C. meiiziesii. C. glaucuin is a rare species,
though found in most of the Hawaiian Islands. The puln, as to gloss and curl, is
intermediate between menzksii and chamissoi. {HiUehrand.)

Spon mentions ('. harometz, but ignores the other species, or confounds the four as
one, stating that each plant yields about 2 to 3 ounces of the fiber, which occupies about
four years in pvodiietiou. The gathering is a very slow aud tedious operation.
When picked the fiber is wet, and has to be laid out on the rocks or on mats to dry.
In favorable Aveather this may l)e effected in a day or two ; but in the habitat of the
plant rains prevail, so that the ilber is often brought in a wet state to market, even
after several weeks' "drying." "The application of the liber is as a substitute for
feathers and horsehair for stuffing purposes. The exports from Honolulu in 1878
were 212,740 pounds, of which Australia and New Zealand took 181,070 pounds and
the Pacific ports of the United States 31,670 pounds." (Spon.)

C. menziesii produces the best fiber. On Hawaii this species, with chamissoi and
glaucum, formed extensive thickets, which have, however, been nearly cleared away
by ihejiulit gatherers, who sacrifice whole trees to get at the fiber without difficulty.
The fallen trunks send out lateral shoots, but full-grown trees are now rare. Native
names, Hapui Hi and Heii. The ''golden moss" of the Chinese is produced by
C. chamissoi, glancinn, and JHcksonia culcifa. In Salvador aud Costa Rica the natives
make use of tlie vegetable wool of a species of Cibotium, common to all Central
America.

Cigarette bast (see Lecyiliis olJaria).

Cipo imbe of Bernardiu (Braz.). 8ee Philodendron.

Cipo means a tropical climber, though sometimes root; frequently used.

Civil (Mex.). See Malrai'iscus.
Clematis dioica. Traveler's Joy.

Exogen. Eaniinculacea'. Climber.
''Native of West Indies and tropicalAmerica. This Jamaican clematis is a climber
with teruate leaves, greenish-white flowers, and the numerous seed vessels termi-
nating in a long, feathery tail. A decoction of the root in sea water mixed with
wiue is said to act as a powerful purge in hydropic cases. Stems used as withes for
tying." (Fawceif.)

Clematis triloba.

India, mountains of the Deccan and West Konkau. Watt recognizes seven species
of Clematis in the Die. Ec. Prod, of Ind. Under this species he says: "The above
species of Clematis yield fibers which are regularly used for agricultural purposes,
and although authors allude to the medicinal properties of only one or two siiecies,
thej- are all more or less used by the natives of the hill districts."

Clinogyne dichotoma (see Maranta).

Coast Sword Rush (Anstr.). Lepidospcrma gladiainm.

Cochlospermum gossypium. White Silk Cotton Tree.

Exogen. Bixacco. A small tree.
This genus is represented in tropical India, Africa, America, aud northern Aus-
tralia. C. gossyjiium is an Indian species, yielding gum, oil, fiber, and medicine.

120 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

Surface Fibku. — TLi(>. seeds possess a short Imt very soft and elastic iloss, from
wliicli fact the phiiit has received its specific name. This floss is much too short to
be of any service as a textile, hut, Tvith the flosses of ]loml)a.r VMlabariciDii, Erloden-
dron anfractuostiin, and Calotropis (jlcjantea, it has heen classed as a "silk cottou."
In some parts of India the floss of this tree is collected and nsed ibr stnffing pillows,
for which purpose it would seem Letter suited than tlio floss from I'.omhax malabar-
ieitm, as it is not so liable to set matted. It might be found serviceable as a gun
cotton. (TVaU.)

Among South American species yielding silk cotton may bo mentioned ('. hibis-
coides, in Venezuela "called carncstolendas, i. e., Lent, the large yellow flowers
unclosing about that time" {Ernst). C. hisigne is a native of Brazil.

Cochlospermum tinctorium.

Native of Yorubaland, west Africa, where it is known as l'e-n( or Itaivaiie. " Hark
makes good rope, largely used as such by Yorubas and Ilonssas ; plentiful ; safficieut
supply for export; not cultivated.'' (Kew Bull., Aug., ISfU).

Cocoa, or Chocolate tree. (See Thcohroiua cacao.)

Cocoaniit fiber (see Cocofi nncifera).

Coco (see Cocoa nncifera).

Coco de mer (Seycbelles). See Lodoicea c<dlipyge.

Coco de mono (Veucz). See LecyihiH.

Cocos butyracea.

Kndogei!. I'alnuv.
This is a United States of Columbia and Peruvian species, chiefly useful as yield-
ing a toddy. Dorca states that a fiber is extracted from its leaves fit for rojies and
coarse textures. ('. ohrarea gives a similar fiber.

Cocos crispa.

A Cuban palm, which appears to liave been more or less confounded with .icrocomia
lasiospaiha by past writers on West Indian fiber-producing plants. Snuier describes
the Corosol, Coyol, or Corojo palm of Cuba, while Bernardin mentions the Corojo de
la tena, Cuba, as Cocos nrlspa, doubtless a misprint for crisj^a. Dr. Ernst reiers
Corozo to FAwis melanococca. In my list, published in the Ann. Rept. U. S. Dept. Ag.,
1879, p. 551, the fiber referred to under the name C. erispa has since been determined
as the ])r()duct iii Aerocom'ui hislospatha.

Cocos datil.

A palm found in Argentina and particularly in Entre Rios. According to Nieder-
lein, the fiber is "nsed by the natives for tiie fabrication of baskets, hats, etc.,"' the
leaves being employed for this purpose. The Brazilian palm, known in common
parlance as datil, is another species.

Cocos nucifera. Cocoanut.

Nat]\ K Navies. — The fiber is known to commerce as coir, kair, and cocoa fiber. The
names of the i)lant are as various as the countries in which it grows. Among the 100
or more appellations that have been used to designate it, the following may be given
as representative: In the Malay Archipelago it is called Anocr ; l>j(ti soi, in Borneo;
Kelpo, etc., Java; Jouze-liindie, Arab. ; XarloJ, Xasil, etc., Beng. ; Otcri, New Guinea;
Si))io-Kaw(i, Jap.; Xadi, Xali or Xari, Kera, Sanskrit, etc. See Karet in Catalogue.

There is liardly a tropical country on the face of the globe where the cocoa palm
docs not flourish, and it is impossible to ascertain its iiative country, though it is
thought to be indigenous in some parts of Asia, perhaps southern India. In the Coro-

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE.

121

ruaiM]el and Malalnir districts, aud in tlio adjacent islands, it <irows in the greatest
luxnriance, preferring the sandy and rocky seashores to the higher country, though
it is often found some distance inland. It is common in Africa, and abounds in Amer-
ica and the West India Islands. Dr. Parry found it plentiful on the island of Santo
Domingo, where it forms groves on the sandy Leaches at the outlet of mountain
streams, and bears fruit abundantly. It is found in southern Florida, 20,000 trees
having been planted on Long, Lignum-vit;e, and Sands keys alone, while examples
80 feet high and 50 years old are found at the mouth of the Miami River. Grows to
100 feet. Fig. 1, PI. IV, is from a pho-
tograph of a tree about 7 years old.
growing on Long Key.

Its extensive geographical distribu-
tion is accounted for by the lact that
the tree growing in such close prox-
imity to the sea the fruits falling on
the beach are washed away by the
waves and afterwards cast upon some
far distant shore, where they readily
vegetate. It is in this way that the
coral islands in the Indian Ocean have
been covered with these palms.

Structural Firkr. — Coir fiber ap-
pears in the form of large, stitf, and
very elastic filaments, each individual
of which is round, smooth, very clean,
resembling horsehair. It posesscs a
remarkable tenacity and curls easily.
Its color is a cinnamon brown. These
filaments are bundles of fibers, which,
when treated with the alkaline bath
aud ground in a mortar, arc with diffi-
culty separated by the needles for mi-
croscopic examination.

The individual fibers arc short and
stilT, their walls very thick, notwith-
standing which tliis thickness does
not equal the size of the interior canal.
The surface does not appear smooth;
it is often sinuous and the profile ap-
pears dentated. The diameter is not
very regular. The points terminate
suddenly and are not sharp. The walls
appear broken in places as if they were pierced with fibers, corresponding with the
fissures of the sections.

EcoxoMic CONSIDERATIONS. — The fiber of the cocoa i>a]m is contained in the husk
of the nut, fig. 42, which is composed of a mass of coir, as the separated fiber is called.
The husks are removed by forcing the nuts npon sharp iron or wooden spikes fixed
in the ground; one man being able to remove the husks from 1,000 nuts daily. The
proper time for cutting the fruit is in the tenth month, as the fruit must not be
allowed to get thoroughly ripe, for the fiber becomes coarser and more difficult to
.twist, and must remain longer in the soaking pits, which is a disadvantage, as the
fiber is rendered darker. These pits in some of the islands are merelv holes in the
sand, and the unts lie under the influence of salt water a year, kept from floating
away by large stones placed over them. Sometimes the nuts are soaked in fresh-
water tanks, and, as the water is not changed, it becomes in time very foul and
dark colored, which afiects the color of the coir. After soaking, the fiber is readily

Fig. 41.— ("ocoMnut trio, Cape Florida.

122

USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

extracted by beating. Fresh water is said to weaken the fiber, and, in fact, too long
soaking will produce this result in any event. The coir from the islands of Kadamat,
Kelton, and Chetlat, in the Laccadives, is said to be of the best descrii)tion, and the
manufafture into cordage is done entirely by women. After it is taken from the pit
and sufficiently beaten, the extraneous matter is separated from the fibrous portion
by rubbing between the hands. After it is thoroughly cleaned, it is arranged into a
loose roving preparatory to being twisted, which is done in a very ingenious manner
between the palms of the hands, so that it jiroduces a yarn of two strands at once.
According to the old, native system of treatment, the nuts sometimes remained in the
pits eighteen months. The best commercial coir of to-day is obtained by better meth-
ods, and the soaking is accomplished in tanks of stone, brick, iron, or wood, the
water being warmed by steam, which shortens the duration of the treatment very
materially. "Where machinery is used (in the after processes), the husks, when
sufficiently soaked, are passed through a crushing mill, which llattens and crushes
them ready for the extractor, or breaking-down machine. In the latter the libers
are completely disintegrated, and are then passed through a ' willowing ' machine, to
free them from dust and refuse. It is calculated that when treated in England

10,000 husks will ])rodnce 45 to 50 cwt. of
spinning liber and 9 to 13 cwt. of brush fiber.
In the process of separating the liber, the fol-
lowing commercial qualities are produced:
The mat, or long fibers used for spinning pur-
poses; the shorter, or more stubborn libers
(bristles), for brooms or brushes; the tow or
curled fiber for stufling cushions, and the dust
or refuse for gardening purposes. When dyed
black, the tow has been used as a substitute
for horsehair. A singular use was proposed
a short time ago for cocoanut dust or refuse.
Taken before it is quite dry. and subjected to
great pressure. It is capable of forming plates
of varying thickness, like millboard, only
much more britUe. These boards, if used as
backing for steel plates of ironclads, swell up
on Ix'lng punctured below the water line and
soon close the orilice. If really effective, such
plates could be produced at a trilling cost,
for thousands of tons of cocoanut refuse float
away annually down the rivers in India and
elsewhere." (Dr. Morris.) See also Corn-pith Cellulose for this purpose, under /ea
mays.

Three large coast cocoanuts will yield 1 pound of coir, measuring about 130 feet,
whereas 10 small inland nuts are required for 1 pound, but it will give over 200 feet.
Two pounds of such yarn, averaging from 70 to 75 fathoms, are made up into sooties,
of which there are 11 iu^a bundle, averaging about a maund (28 pounds). A Manga-
lore candy (560 pounds) will thus be the produce of 5,600 nuts, and should contain
20,000 fathoms 120,000 feet) of yarn.

Coir fiber is used by the Spaniards of the South Seas instead of oakum for calking
their vessels, and it is claimed that it will never rot. Coarse cloth is sometimes
made from the fiber which is used for sails. The principal use of coir, however, in
the commercial world is for cordage and matting. " The character of coir has long
been established in the East, and is now in Europe, as one of the best materials for
cables, on account of its lightness as well as elasticity." Ships furnished with coir
cables have been known to ride out a storm in security while the stronger made, but
less elastic, ropes of the other vessels snapped like pack thread. Coir cables were
used extensively in the Indian seas until chain cables were introduced. It is rougher

Fig. 42. — Section of a cocoanut. a, tbo
husk containing the fiber; b, the fruit,
or edible portion.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 123

to handle aud not so neat looking; as hemp rigcing, bnt it is well suited to running
rigging Avhorc lightness and elasticity arc desired, as for the more lofty sheets; it,
however, is too elastic for standing rigging. In vessels of 600 tons if is generally
used for lower rigging.

Tests of coir cordage by Dr. Wright gave the following results: JTibisciis cnnna-
' Mnus broke with 190 pounds strain, coir broke with 224 pounds, but bowstring
hemp {Siuiseriera zeylauica) required a strain of 316 pounds to break it. In another
series of experiments, made at the office of the marine l)oard of Calcutta, plain coir
stood a strain of 823 pounds, when a remarkably fine specimen of European hemp
stood 1,967 pounds. In this test the coir stood Xo. 12 in strength and No. 1 in elas-
ticity, stretching 32 inches against 9i inches for the hemp. Unfortunately the
length of rope was not given, though its size was li inches in circumference.

Economic uses of the cocoa palm.— The cocoa palm has other uses than for
fiber which are of sufficient interest, in connection with its textile uses, to briefly
mention. The cocoanuts are sometimes used for illuminating purposes, to light
roads, aud an excellent charcoal is yielded by the burnt shells. These in their entire
state are manufactured into a great variety of vessels for household use. The tree
itself is used in the manufacture of small boats, frames for houses, rafters, spear
handles, furniture, and fancy articles of difi'ereut kinds. It is exported under the
name of porcupine wood. "The Cingalese split the fronds in halves and plait the
leaves so nicely as to make excellent baskets, and they form the usual covering of
their huts, as well as the bungalows of the Europeans."' These dried fronds also
furnish fuel and are used for torches, or they are made into brooms by tying the
midribs together. The leaves furnish mats, baskets, and screens, and combs are
made of the midribs of the leaflets in the Friendly Isles. Mats are also made of the
cocoanut leaf cut out of the heart of the tree, which are described of fine ([uality
and used in the Laccadive Islands as sails for their boats. A downy fiber is also
taken from the plant which is used to stanch the blood in woiinds after the manner
of lint.

Cocoanut oil is one of the best-known products of the palm, especially as it is
employed in the manufacture of stearine candles. In the East it is employed as
lamp oil, and also for anointing the body. Fifteen cocoanuts produce about 2
quarts of oil. The drink known as toddy, or palm wine, is derived from the flower
spathes before they have expanded. It is also distilled and produces an intoxicating
liquor, or arrack. It is also made into vinegar, or, if it is not allowed to ferment,
may be made to yield jaggery, or sugar, which is brown and coarse.

The collection of the Department contains a full series of coir in the various stages
of preparation, as the husk, the loose fiber, yarn, rope, matting, brushes, and coir,
or "curled hair," used for upholstering. It is much esteemed in India for stuffing
mattresses and cushions for couches and saddles. Very little raw fiber is now
imported into the United States. An interesting fiber specimen is a network of
fibers taken from the jietiole of the leaf. As seen upon the tree at the bases of the
young fronds, it is beautifully white and transparent, bnt at maturity it becomes
tough and coarse and of the same color as coir. It may be stripped ofl' in large
pieces, and the fibers are so straight and cross each other so regularly that they are
used to strain cocoanut oil or palm wine.

It is doubtful if the production of native coir fiber will ever become an American
industry, although I am informed by T. Albee Smith, of Baltimore, that machinery
for extracting the fiber is already available. The palms grow well in southern
Florida, aud while already producing nuts the cocoanut industry has assumed no
importance, though a single company in Massachusetts, extracts the fiber from im-
ported nuts.

References. — Probably the best account of this useful plant, with a treatise upon
its cultivation, uses in the domestic and industrial economy, etc., will be found in-
Vol. II, Die. Ec. Prod. Ind.

* Specimens can be seen in the Mus. U. S. Dept. Ag.

124 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

Cocos urispa.

I iuclude this species on tlie authority of M. Bernardin. Two varieties of Corojo
are given in Beruardiii's Catalogue, tlie "Corojo dr la icna" from Cuba stated to 1)6
"Cocos urispa," nw\ tlu^ Corojo, Corozo, or Cocoyal from Central America, without
name. See C. crispa.

Cocotero (Mex.). See Cocoh nucifera.

Cocoyal (Cent. Am.)- See Acrocomia.

Cocuiza (Veiiez.). Furcrcva (jiganiea.

Cocuy (Yeuez.), See Agave americana.

Coir. Fiber of Cocos nucifera.

Cokerite palm (Braz.). See Maximiliana regia.

Colocasia antiquoruni.

A genus of Aracew, allied to Caladiim. The species named is cultivated in most
tropical countries as a food ])lant, both its leaves and tubers being eaten. It fur-
nishes the " Poi" of the Sandwich Islands. Is only interesting here from the lact
that fiber prepared from the plant in Mauritius was sent to the Vienna Exposition
of 1873, similar specimens being exhibited in the Kew Mus.

Colorado River hemp (TT. S.). See Seshania macrocarpa.

Commersonia fraseri. Tie Plant of Austealia.

Exogen. Sterculiacfa\ A small tree.

A Victoria species known in some sections as Blackfellow's hemp. It is a tall
shrub or small tree, and abounds on the banks of rivers and creeks. The bark is
used extensively by the settlers as a tying material. It yields a line fiber suitable
for matting and cordage, and a good quality of jiaper could doubtless be made from it.

Bast Fiki:r. — The museum specimen was obtained from the Victorian collection,
Phil. Int. Exh., 187(», and was prepared by Dr. Guilfoyle. The fiber is quite dark,
due probably to insufficient bleaching, but is strong and not very brittle, and
although the filaments are stitil', thcyexhibit under the magnifying glass a very
fibrous nature, some of them being fine and lustrous; is inferior to Hibiscus fiber. It
measures between 2 and 5 feet in length.

Commersonia echinata.

A sample of this bast fiber was secured from the New South Wales Exhibit, I*hil.
Int. Exh., 1870, labeled "Brown Kurrijonfj," by which name it is said to be known
to the colonists. The name has been applied by other authorities to C. plaiiiphiiJla.
"The fiber of C. echinaia is of a very tenacious nature, and is preferred to all others
by the aborigines for making nets." The fiber is quite dark and does not appear to
be quite as strong as tliat from C. fraseri.

Copernicia cerifera. Carnauha palm.

Endooen. Palnuv. Height, 40 feet.

The genus includes six species-of palms inhabiting tropical America. The Car-
nauba or wax palm is a Brazilian species about 40 feet high, with a trunk 8 inches
thick. *'It has been recommended for culture in Victoria. It resists drought to a
remarkable degree and thrives on a somewhat saline soil." (Spon.)

Structural Fiber. — The leaves are utilized in a variety of native manufactures.
The museum series includes the leaf, plaited into hats, mats, etc. ; the leaf reduced
to filaments and made into rope and small cordage; small baskets and other brie-

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 125

a-brac iiiado from dark-brown i)iassaba-]iko fibers probably Jroiii the leaf spathe, aud
other objects, includinj^ fence material from the leaf stems. The leaves are also
used as a thatching material.

Otiieu uses. — The younjjj leaves are coated with a yellow wax, which is readily
collected by jarring or shaking aud used for candles. A farina and a starch are also
prepared from the bulbous root, while the rootlets produce a medicine. The seeds
are a substitute for cofl'ee. A beverage is also yielded by this palm, and the young
branches are food for cattle aud sheep.

^ Sjjecimeiis. — Complete economic series, ]\Ius. U. !>. Dept. Ag.

Coquilla palm (Braz.). Attalea funlfera.
Coquito palm (Chili). See Juhcea.
Corchorus spp.

This genus of TUiacew numbei's between 40 and 50 species of herbaceous plants
that are found in both hemispheres, growing in subtropical and tropical climes. The
genus is particularly interesting on account of two India species that supply commer-
cial fibers to the extent of milions of dollars annually, C. ceqisularis and C. oJitoriits.
Other species indigenous or growing in India that are mentioned by Dr. Walt are C.
flc/(/aH^H?M-s, fiber coarse; C.anticliorus, fiber indifferent; C. fascicularis, fiber has been
employed for ropes; C. trldcni), locally used for rough cordage; and C. trilociilaris,
said to furnish a fair cordage filler.

The only species worthy of mention that are found in the Western Ileinisphere are
C. siUquosus, which see, aud C. (vstuans, which Savorgan, quotiug Miraglia, states "is
cultivated in equatorial America on an equality with fiax and hemp for its iine fiber."
The author does not know that this species is considered as a fiber plant; it is not
found in the United States. The commercial species are described below.

Corchorus capsularis. ) -^ ^ , ,,

,ri . ^ Jute, Jew s Mallow.

olitoniTS. j '

Exogens. Tiliacea'. Tall shrubs, 8 to 15 feet.

Found wild or in cultivation throughout the hotter parts of India, in which coun-
try the two species are supposed to be indigenous. Cultivated by tlie Malays, and
by the Chinese to a limited extent, and Lave been introduced into the United States.
C. olitoriiis has bcL^n naturalized in all jiarts of the tropics as far north as the shores
of the ^lediterrauean. It is also grown in l'vgyi)t and Syria as a pot herb, hence the
name Jew's mallow. It should be noted, however, that the commercial liber known
as China jute is n(jt jute at all, but is derived from AhutUon ariceinw, a plant knov^u as
a common American weed. (See.) The commercial species of Corcliorufi were intro-
duced into the United States b}^ the Department of Agriculture about 1870, and the
plants were found to thrive in cultivation all along the line of Gulf States and in
South Carolina and Florida, though they have not yet been grown to a commercial
extent. Passing by the vast literature of the two species as recorded in the Report
on the (Cultivation of Jute in Bengal, 187-1, by Mr. Kerr, in the Diet. Ec. Prod. Ind.,
in the Kew Bulletin, aud other British publications, the two plants will only be
considered here from an economic standpoint, and will be treated together as supply-
ing the jute of commerce.

Jute doubtless takes its name irom the Sanskrit, as the words "jhoiit,'' '^jlioi," aud
"Jhat" are all derived from tlie Sanskrit "jitat,'' meaning "to be entangled." One
form of the root i^jat, and from it are produced Ja<rt ixndjnta, both meaning '^matted
hair."' The name "jtite" was first used by Dr. Roxburgh. The Bengal name of the
plant is "j)at" or "2)aat;" the fiber, ''jute;" the cloth, " tat chotec" ami " megiJa."
The Malays call the plant "rami tsjina," aud the Chinese name is "oi-moa." The
native names, however, are legion, almost half a hundred names being recognized in
diti'ereut districts of India, where the plants are cultivated.

126

USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD,

BoTAXiCAL coxsiDERATioxs.^rorc/(or»s capsiilaris is an anuual plant, growing
from 5 to 10 feet liigli, with, a cylindrical stalk as thick as a man's finger, and seldom
brandling except near the top. The leaves, which are of a light-green color, are
about 4 to 5 inches long by lA inches broad toward the base, but tapering upward
into a long sharp point with edges cut into saw-like teeth, the two teeth next the
stalk being prolonged into bristle-like points. The flowers are small and of a whitish-
yellow color, coming out in clusters of two or three together opposite the leaves.
The seed pods are short and globular, rough and wrinkled. The second species, the
C. olifonns, is precisely similar to the last in general appearance, shape of leaves,
color of flower, and habits of growth.; but it differs entirely in the formation of the
seed i)od, which, in this species, is elongated (about 2 inches long), almost cylin-
drical, and about the thickness of a ([uill. See PI. V, fig. 1. See also figs. 43 and 44.
DiFFKREXT KIXDS OF JfTK. — Hem C'hunder Kerr, in the Report on the Cultivation
of and Trade in Jute in Bengal, 1874, states that among the many varieties of jute
the most common are known by the names (a) TJttar'uja, {}>) Ikswal, (c) Deai, (cl) Deora,
(e) Xaraiti'jiuiji, (/) Jlakrahadi, ({/) Bhntial, (/i) K(trim<janj\, (i) Mirnanji, (./) Jang-
ipurl. These are described by Mr. Kerr as follows:

{a) The first variety is by far the best.
It is called I'itarhja, or northern Jute, be-
cause it comes from the districts to the
north of Serajgungee. The districts are
Rungpore, Goalparah Bogra, parts of My-
meneing, Cooch Behar, and Julpigoori.
This .into recommends itself to the trade by
its possessing to tlie greatest extent those
properties which are essentially necessary
in fiber intended for spinning, namely,
length, color, and strength. It is some-
times, however, found to be weak, and it is
never equal to the Desi and Deswal descrip-
tions in softness. A sujierior quality of jute
is produceil, chiefly for domestic use, by the
Hajung and Koch tribes of hill people. It
comes into the market so late as November.
(b) Next in commercial value is the
Deswal jute. It goes down fairly with the
trade on account of fineness, softness, bright
color, and strength. It is stated, however,
to have deteriorated to a certain extent
within the last two or three years from the
inefficient system of drainage in the new
fields where it is grown. The fiber has become shorter and more rooty, and lately
weaker also. Its name implies that it is the native jute of Serajgungee and its
neighborhood. Such of it as is grown on beels is called Bilan. and what is raised in
churs is known by the name of Charua; but in Calcutta they i)ass under the generic
name of Dcswal. It first comes into the market in Sravana. that is, about the latter
end of July or beginning of August.

(c) The Desi jute is the produce of Hooghly, Burdwan, Jessore, and 24-Pergun^
nahs. It is of a long, fine, and soft fiber. If its defects, which are stated to be
fuzziness and bad color, were removed, it is believed by men experienced in the
trade that its market value would be very much improved.

(d) The staple known under the name of Deora comes from Furreedpore and Back-
ergunge. Its name is due to a village in Furreedpore, where formerly there was a
large mart. The village has dwindled down to insignificance now, but all the prod-
uce of the district, as also of the neighboriug district of Backergunge, is known by
its name. The bulk of the fiber of this class is strong, coarse, black, and rooty, and

Fig. 43. — Seed vessels of Corchonis cai>siil:iris.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE.

127

mucli overspread with runners. This fiber is used for tlie manufacture of rope. Its
value would rise if the dealers would refrain from pouring water on the prepared
hber, which they are said to do in order to increase the weight of their consign-
ments. Occasionally small l)atches of this jute are met with of a very superior
quality.

((') The Xaraiiif/aiiji }nte, which is brought from Aralia, Kurimguuge, and other
jute centers, locally called Mokams. of the Naraingungo mart, is mostly the produce
of tlie district of Dacca. It is very good for spinning, being strong, soft, and long;
but from some neglect in steeping, the liber, by the time it reaches Calcutta, changes
its original color into a brown or foxy tint, which detracts from its value.

(/) The finest description of Dacca jute is the Bakrahadi fiber, which is raised on
the churs of the river Megna. It excels particularly in color and softness.

{fj) The i>/mfio? jute is also the produce of the district of Dacca, and comes to Cal-
cutta from Narainguuge. It is grown on churs, and is called Bhatial because it is
imported to Naraiuguuge from the south or
tidal side (Bhati) of that place. It is very
coarse, but strong, and is to a certain extent
in demand in the British markets for the
manufacture of rope.

(/() Karimganji, in the Myniensing district,
gives its name to a very fine description of
jute which is grown there. It is usually
long, very strong, and of good color, par-
taking to some extent of the nature of the
Naraingunge of Decca jute.

(j) The produce of Kungporc, though
large, is generally of medium quality, and
the worst kind of it comes from Mirgunge,
on the Teesta, whence its name Mbujanji.

(j) The produce of a portion of the Pubna
district is known by the name oi JangipHri,
so called from a small village of that name.
It is of short fiber, weak, and of a foxy color,
most objectionable for spinning.

HisTOKiCAL. — Jute has been known and
cultivated since remote times in India, par-
ticularly in the lower provinces, but its
employment as a textile by the nations of
the earth is an industry that belongs to the
present century. It was first recognized
under a separate head in the custom-house

records of the Indian Government in 1828, though the fiber had been sent to the Euro-
liean market in trifling ((uantities during the two or three previous decades. In 1793
the East India Company sent to England 100 tons of the fiber under the name "pat."
In the warehouse committee's report on this shipment it was stated that ''some of
the most eminent dealers declare that it is not hemp, but a species of flax, superior
in quality to any known to the trade." The first exports as jute, in the year named
above, amounted to but V6 tons. In 1850-51 the total exports, including jute rope,
had reached 30,000 tons, and in 1871-72, 310,000 tons. At this time 35 districts of
India were cultivating 800,000 acres in jute, more than one-half of this area lying in
nine districts of northern Bengal.

Up to this date hemp and flax had been used to bale the cotton crop of the I'nited
States, and jute as an article of import occupied a very small place. The year 1872,
however, saw the native fibers superseded by the India product, particularly in the
West, resulting in the almost total destruction of the industries they represented.
As already shown, the present imports of the fiber into this country are enormous,

Fki. 44. — 8eed vessflsof Corchonis olitornit.

128

USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

while tho exports of raw fiber to all countries from Imlia amouuted iu 1894-95 to
nearly 649,000 tous, tbo exports of manufactures also showing large figures. The
interest iu jute cultivation in this country hud its heginniug just prior to the time
that the fiber began to bo largely imported. Tho Department of Agriculture
directed attention to the culture as early as 1869, and in 1869-70 procured from
Franco and India a quantity of tho seed for distribution. As a result, hundreds of
small cultural experiments were conducted in the South from the Carolinas to Texas,
and ample proof was secured that the ])lant was well adapted to growth iu the
United States.

IjAST Fiber. — Were it not for its fineness, silkiness, and adaptibility for spinning,
with tho easy cultivation of the plant, jute Avould not to-day hold the position it

has secured in the indus-
trial economy, for, com-
pared Avith the other
textiles, it is very infer-
ior. Several American
idants that are classed
as weeds produce better
and stronger fiber, but
their cultivation and
preparat ion are yet mat-
ters of experiment. One
defect of jute is the diffi-
culty to spin it into tho
higher numbers. Its
durability is also against
it, as the fiber can not
stand dampness, and
under the best condi-
tions rapidly deterior-
ates. The bleached fiber
also loses its whiteness
and in time oxidizes un-
til it jiresents a dingy,
yellowish-brown color.
Its strength is inferior
to most fibers, though
il is ;imi>ly strong for the
coarse uses to which it
is commonly put, such
as tho manufacture of
guuny sacks, cotton V>ag-
ging, etc., where durability is of less consequence than primary cheapness.

Samples of the fiber exposed for two hours to steam at 2 atmospheres, followed by
boiling in water for three hours, and again steamed for four hours, lost 21.39 per
cent by weight, being about three times as great a loss as that snfl'ered by hemp,
manila hemp, phormium, or coir. A similar test of jute with flax, hemp, ramie, and
other fibers showed as great a loss, while flax lost less than 4 per cent and ramie a
small fraction under 1 jier cent.

Specimens of jute grown in this country experimentally have been found for the
most part superior to the imported fiber, and with the more careful cultivation and
preparation that would be given it would no doubt connuand a better market prii-o
an 1 be employed in higher manufactures.

I'sKS or THK JuTK FiUKK. — This is employed in three forms of manufacture — weav-
ing into tine and coarse fabrics, in the making of fine twines and cordage, and in

FlCi. 45. — Tlaut of jiilc, Corchorus caimiilans.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 129

paper manufacture; the latter chiefly froji "Jute butts and rejections." In Europe
the tiber enters into a great variety of fabrics or cl-oths, such as curtains and uphol-
stery, carpets, etc., and even sheetings and imitations of silk fabrics. It has been
applied extensively as a substitute for hemp. For this purpose the fibers are ren-
dered soft and flexible by being sjirinkled with water and oil, in the proportion of 20
tons of water and 2^ tons of train oil to 100 tons of jute. Sprinkled with this the
jute is left for twenty-four to forty-eight hours, when, after Iteiug squeezed by roilers
and hackled, the tibers become beautifully soft and minutely isolated, and thereby
suited for a number of purposes unknown a few years ago. Its i:>erishable nature is
fatal to its obtaining a position much higher than it has already attained, and prob-
ably admixture of jute in certain articles, such as sailcloths, must sooner or later be
viewed as a criminal oflense.

In coarser woven goods it appears as webbing, burlap, and cotton-bagging stufl:'.
Its use in rine and coarse twines, binding twine, sash cord, etc., is very large, while
it is also used extensively in the smaller sizes of rope. Because of its fineness and
luster, coupled with its cheapness, it is frequently used to adulterate the manufac-
tures from better fibers, and on account of the tendency to rapid deterioration already
noted such use is plainly fraud. When employed in hemp twines in this manner, it
is artificially given the dark color of hemp, its natural color being a light-salmon.
Binding twine is sometimes made of this fiber, colored to resemble hemp, and sold
at a good price under a fancy trade name.

Cultivation. — The largest areas in India are found in Bengal, where there is a wide
diversity in soil and climate, and where high lands, low lands, recent alluvial for-
mations along rivers (known in India as "churs" — mud banks and islands), dry
lands, humid lands, and even cleared bamboo jungle have been all more or less culti-
vated in jute. These lands are classified in India under two general heads — first,
"Suna,"high land, which is generally reserved for the cultivation of fruit trees,
pulses, vegetables, tobacco, sugarcane, and early rice; and, second, "S;ili,"or the
lowlands upon which the late rice crop is produced.

The great bulk of jute that comes from the central and some of the eastern districts
is grown on "churs" and on inferior soil, but in the "desi,"or the littoral districts, a
larger proportion is grown inland than on the banks of the rivers. In the early days of
this cultivation, however, when jute was raised for home consumption only, it used to
be grown only on raised lauds close to the grower's homestead. On the whole, the
balance of evidence is decidedly in favor of high or "siina" lands as the best for
jute, provided all the other conditions necessary for its healthy growth be attaina-
ble, but that lowlands and "churs" are not unsuited, "churs " ranking midday
between the two. {Hem Chundcr Kerr.)

In the district of Burdwan the plant is grown on soil composed of rich clay and
sand in e(iual proportions. In Mymensiug it grows on "soil consisting of a mixture
of clay and sand, or sand combiued with alluvial deposit;" in Backergunge, "on
loam mixed with a little sand;" in Cooch Behar, "on soil with a certain admixture
of sand;" in Tipperah, "on loamy and sandy soil;" in Pubua, "on land which is
neither inundated nor dry, the soil being loam, i. e., half clay and half sand." On
the other hand, the jute plant appears not to be averse to clayey soil. It grows in
the Barripore subdivision of the Twenty-Four Pergnnnahs "on matiiil or clayey
soil;" in Hooghly, according to the district officer and Baboo Joykissen Mookerjee,
"on clayey soil," which, in their opinion, is "best suited for jute cultivation;" in
Moorshedabad, also on "clayey soil," which is considered there, too, to be "best
adapted for jute;" in Noakhally, "on high laud, the soil of which is called attali:i,"
i. e., stiff and sticky; and in Cuttack, "on high land, rich and clayey." It also
thrives in ferruginous soil, as in Bhowal, in the district of'Dacca, where jute is pretty
largely cultivat d; and the fiber jiroduced there is considered to be among the best
kinds which find their Avay to the markets of Dacca and Naraingunge. As a summary,
it may be said that in India rich alluvial lands give the best results, particularly in
12247— No. 9 9

130 USEFUL FIHER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

connection with a hot, damp atmosphere and heavy rainfall. A lijiht, sandy soil,
however, is not suited to the plant. Dr. George Watt states, briefly, that "a hot,
damp climate, in which there is not too much actual rain, especially in the early part
of the season, is the most advantageous." The most congenial conditions are alter-
nate sunshine and rain, and even excessive rain after the plant has reached a height
of several feet is not injurious if water does not lodge at the roots. The effect of
such lodgment, or from the plants standing in water, is the growth of suckers, which
causes defective liber. Drought stunts the plant and also injures the fiber. In the
preparation of the soil much depends upon its constituents, heavy or clayey lands
requiring more plowings than the lighter, sandy, or alluvial lands. The soil is
thoroughly broken up and tinely pulverized, and with heavy soils much is accom-
plished in this direction by the action of the elements — the sun particularly. The
preparation therefore commences in November or Decendjer, some authorities say
September, though it may be put off until February and March, ami even as late as
June. Four to twelve plowings are usually given, and at the last plowing all weeds
and other trash are collected, dried, and burned. Due •allowance should be made,
however, for the rude and primitive implements that are called plows in many parts
of India. The ground is also harrowed, or the clods broken with a mattock. The
soil for early sown jute is sometimes laid with manure, but this is never the case with
the later sown crops. In the Hooghly district fresh earth and cow dung are used for
manure, but the poor soils are treated to oil cake. In localities where the ryot is too
poor to own a plow and cattle the land is turued with a hoe. As a rule, the oftener
and more thoroughly the land is plowed the larger is the yield. Soil exhaustion is
remedied by manuring, rotation of crops, and fallows. The manures ordinarily used
are crow dung, ashes, house 8wee])ings. oil cake, the ashes of burnt jute roots,
the stubble of rice crops. All refuse from the plant should be returned to the
soil. Rotation of crops is practiced in almost every district where jute is exten-
sively grown, and is well understood by the cultivators, though no universal
rules arc curent. The crops most frequently selected are mustard, rice, and pulses.
Leaving the land fallow for two to three years is resorted to whenever found
necessary.

A study of the practice in India points to the choice in the United States of alluvial
lands, such as the second bottoms, so called, along rivers or other bodies of water,
and even lowlands that are not flooded. The experience of those who made trials
of the culture in the early seventies indicates that while the plants will grow on a
great variety of soils, the best results are secured where there is plenty of moisture,
or, when tlie moisture is not found in the soil, where it can be applied artiflcially,
as by irrigation. In the experiments in Florida in 1872 cultivation in a bay head,
composed of muck several feet deej). cleared oft' and lined, i)roduced stalks to the
height of 12 feet or more. On Florida cotton lands which are not uplamls the jdant
did well. In Georgia, in the same year, culture ujmn " stitt' clay lands" produced
stalks 15 feet tall. A South Carolina farmer utilized rice lands, securing stalks 7 to
10 feet tall. In Louisiana several experiments were conducted the same year upon
river lands 1 foot and 3 feet above Gulf tide. Notwithstanding that the season was
very dry, stalks 10 to 13 feet tall were produced, and the experiment was considered
in every way a success. In North Carolina moist bottom lands were chosen with
good results.

The following, from Felix Fremerey, gives a practice that has produced good
results near Galveston, Tex. :

" In February the soil is plowed to a depth of 7 inches and exposed to the influences
of sun and air. By the middle of April, when the soil has gotten fairly warm, and
by no means before, it is harrowed twice in order to thoroughly pulverize it. Fur-
rows at a distance of 8 inches are drawn by means of a drill; they should l)e about
2\ to 3 inches deep, and cotton-seed meal at the rate of a quarter to half a ton per
acre is thrown in them. The seeds are dro]>ped in these furrows at the rate of 15 to
16 pounds per acre and then covered with earth in any convenient manner. At this

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 131

time of the year the soil contiiiDS much moisture, which, comhined with the atmos-
pheric warmth, brings the seeds to germiuatiou in a few days; the young plants will
appear about the fourth or tilth day after sowing, when they will rapidly advance
in growing, requiring no care whatever. As long as there is suthcient moisture in
the soil the i>lant should be let alone, but as soon as the ground l>egins to be dry
irrigation should be resorted to. In order to insure a most regular and efi'ective
soaking of the soil, I would advise to draw furrows in both directions about 4
inches wide, and as deep, at regular distances of 10 or 12 feet. If the soil is natu-
rally rirh no fertilizing in connection with irrigation is required; in the case, how-
ever, of the soil being poor, or humus being insufliciently represented in it, addi-
tional fertilizing should be given, and for this purpose I would advise to put in
cotton-seed meal, mixed with water a few days before its use; the meal will rot and
the irrigation water will carry it where it As'ill become available for the young plants.
A jute plantation must be kept moist, avoiding an excess of irrigation in order to
keep the ground as far as possible in a temperate warmth. If the plant has attained
the age of four weeks its rank growth will prevent the sunbeams from penetrating
to the soil, so it will for a long time preserve the needed moisture and consequently
keep the soil soft and mellow, allowing the roots to absorb the needed chemical con-
stituents, and permitting organic and mineral plant food to decompose so as to render
them lit to be drunk by the plants. In case of broadcast sowing, 22 to 2.5 pounds of
seed should be used, waiting if possible until after a rain; or if natural precipitation
is lacking, after a soaking of the soil by irrig.ation. The manure in this case should
be spread as uniformly as possible before harrowing, and after sowing the soil
should be smoothed by a common held roller in order to press the seeds in the
ground, granting them in this way every chance of germination."

The quantity of seed sown per acre varies greatly in the different districts of Ben-
gal, ranging from 1 seer per bega in Hooghly to 6\ seers in Burdwan. A seer is I
pound 13 ounces. This would give in English equivalents 5i pounds to llf pounds
per acre. Twelve to 15 pounds to the acre are generally accepted as the average,
though Spon states that 22 to 28 pounds are required. The yield of seed per acre in
India is about i^ maunds, or nearly 400 pounds. The season for putting the seed
into the ground extends from February to June, though March and April are the
months usually selected. As in the case of plowing, so in the period of sowing, there
are marked difi'ereuces; but the mode of sowing is with one exception alike every-
where. The seeds are sown broadcast on a clear, sunny day, and covered with a
tbin crust of earth, either by the hand or by a '"binda," or harrow, or a "moi," or
ladder, or, as in Bhaugulpore and Julpigoree, by beams of wood drawn over the
field by oxen. Little or no after cultivation is given, and no care further than to
thin out the weaker plants where a field is overcrowded. Ordinarily, the space left
between plants is 6 inches, though in some localities more space is left, sometimes 8
to 10 inches. The plants mature in about three months, so that the harvest of a crop
sown in March or April will come in June and July, the May and June sowings
maturing in September and October.

Extraction of the Fihek. — Machinery has never been used for this purpose in
India, and the fiber is separated from the stalks l>y retting or steeping for a week or
more in water. In Mr. Kerr's report it is stated that the almost universal practice
is to ret in stagnant water, '• especially such as contains a large proportion of decom-
posing vegetation," which expedites the retting process. It is stated, further, that
the ryots go down into the pools and, standing waist deep, thrash the water with
haudfuls of the retted stalks to facilitate the separation of the fiber. In referring
to the Iiulia practice the author does not recommend it, as few American farm
laborers North or South could be found who would adopt it any more than Euro-
pean laborers will pull flax by hand after becoming residents of the United States,
if they can avoid it. Plainly, then, successful jute culture in the United States
can only be brought about by the use of machinery for extracting the fiber. See
Appendix A.

132

USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

But the maclaine alone does not prepare the fiber in marketable form. The decor-
ticated ribbons have j-et to be retted to remove the gums, wood, and other waste
matters, and give a sjiinnable product. The best combined process so far available
is to strip the stalks l)y machine and ret the liber in tanks of water. Mr. Fremerey,
who has had a large experience in this work, recommends the use of wooden vats
filled with water and kept as near a temperature of 95- to 100-' F. as possible;
or holes may be dug in the ground, as for flax retting, measuring, say, 10 feet long
hy 4 wide and i feet deep. The stripped ribbons are tied loosely in Inindles of about
50 pounds, for ease in handling, and placed in the vats or pools in such a manner as
to insure their being completely submerged until the dissolution of the gums and
waste matters has been accomplished. In the absence of the vats or pools, the India
practice of retting in pools or waterways must be Ibllowed, though it is not essential
that the farmer shall follow the Indian ryofs example, by taking a warm bath in
water fouled by decomposing vegetable matters almost to the point of putrification.

Yield, and value ov the crop. — Warden, in his work on the linen trade, 1867,
places the yield of jute fiber per acre in India at 400 to 700 pounds. George Watt
states in the report of the revenue and agricultural department of India (1888-89)
that an average crop of fiber is 15 maunds, though the range is from 3 to 36 maunds
per acre — a maund is 87f pounds. He also cites the exi^eriments performed at the
Saidapet farm in Madras, where the yield was 599 pounds of fiber if cut close to the
ground, and 703 pounds when pulled, but adds that is less than half of the average
yield in Bengal. Undoubtedly the American yield, on proper soil, will be consider-
ably higher then the yield in India and it would be perfectly safe, tlien, to count
upon crops of 3,000 pounds per acre, since this yield is exceeded in India under the
best conditions of growth.

Regarding the value of the crop, a perusal of the past literature of the subject
published in this country reveals promises of large remuneration to those who will
embark in the industry. Tables showing cost of production and profits of culture
have appeared that, however honestly they may have been stated at the time they
were prepared, are now misleading, for the reason that the prices of libers of all
kinds were never lower than at the present time (1896).

The following table showing the values of India jute on December 31, for three
years, from monthly statements of H. H. Crocker & Co., New York City, January 1,
1896, is interesting :

Tear.

Jute fiber.

Butts anil rejections.

Spot. 1 Shipment.

Spot.

Shipment.

1893

Cents.

2i fi 3i
2ia3i

Cents.
3J®4i
2 ®3i
2JS3g

Cents.

Cents.
L7®2J

1S94

1895

The Report on the Foreign Commerce and Navigation of the United States for
the year ending June 30, 1895, shows that the liber was imported in the following
quantities :

Tear.

Jute liber.

Butts and rejections.

Tons.

Value.

Tons. Value.

1894

18,154

41, 787

$935, 537
1,573,690

31, 845 $780, 821

1895

(58, 885 1, 181, 439

Total

59,941 2,509,227

100,730 i 1,962.260

These figures show that over 100,000 tons of the cheaper fiber (selling at an average
of less than 1^ cents per pound) are used in this country annually, against about

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 133

60,000 tons of the fiber, bringiDg at highest market prices 3| cents a iioimd. It is
extremely doubtful if the demand for cheap jute could be met by the Southern farm-
ers at present prices, even if the cotton crop should continue to be baled with jute
bagging, and the new inventions for compressed bales covered vrith iron suggest a
contingency worth considering. The Southern jute planter, then, could only endeavor
to till the demand for the higher-priced fiber at the best prices ho would be able to
realize in competition with the Indian product. That he would be able to secure the
full price of the foreign commodity, judging from samples of American jute I have
examined, there is little doubt; and were he to grow a superior product, which he
would be able to do with better practices in culture than are followed in India, he
can fill a limited demand for fiber at higher jirices than the Indian jiroduct, for use
in superior grades of jute manufactures. In time, special uses in manufacture might
be created that would l>e filled exclusively by American jute, but this can not T)e
assured.

*" Specimfus, in series, Mus. U. Dept. Ag.

Corchoriis siliquosiis.

This small shrub is a well-known tropical American species, said to be indigenous
in the West Indies and southward. It is a herbaceous ^ilant only 2 or 3 feet liigh,
its leaves differing from those of the two commercial species '• in not having bristles
or the two bottom teeth, and there is nsuallj^ a line of minute hairs along the stem."
It is not regarded for its fiber, its only economic uses being the making of Itesonis by
the negroes, while the inhabitants of Panama employ the leaves in an infusion which
is a substitute for ten.

Cord grass. Fresh water (see S2)aHina).
Cordia cylindristachya. Black Sage.

This genus of Jiorraginacea' contains almost two hundred species of plants fimnd
in tropical and subtropical regions of the world. They are trees or sbrubs ; the fruits
of some species are eaten, and also used in pharmacy, and some of them are valued
as timber trees.

C. cyllndnstachya is a Trinidad species, said to be " a common wayside weed, the
fiber of which is seldom seen except in museums and at exhiljitions"' {Hart). Its
fiber is fit for coarse forms of cordage. Samples of the fiber of C. macroplujlla (the
Maujack), of C. gerascatiihus (the Spanish eliu), and of C. sihesfciia all tropical
American species, were received from the Smithsonian Institution in 1869, without
data. A good ^'specimen of C. colococca appears in the Herli. Col. Univ. X. Y.,
which shows that it is unimportant economically. ,

Cordia myxa.

An Indian species (western, central, and south India). "Wild in the Himalayas,
cultivated on the plains.

FiKER. — The bark is made into ropes, and the fiber is used for caulking boats;
fuses are also made from it. " From the inner bark is obtained a fiber, from which
the coiled match of the native firearms is made'' (James). •

My notes on this species, in Ann. Rept. Dept. Ag., 1879, are as follows: Cordia
(tntjiisiifoHa, called by the natives of Mysore iiarwuli, is used in the manufacture of
lope. The bark is extracted in ril)bon-like layers, and then twisted into cordage.
It is possible some of the species might yield a useful fiber for textile purposes,
though the examples in the museum are very inferior. In its lace-liark appearance
the bast resembles Sterciilia : it is white in color, soft, and of inferior tenacity.

* Sjyeehnens. — Mus. U. S. Dept. Ag.

Cordia rothii.

The C. aiigiixtifolia of Spon. A small tree of northwest and central and south India.
The liber or inner 1)ark yields a coarse, .ijray T)ast fiber. Avhich is used bv the natives

134 USEFUL FIBER PLA>?TS OF THE WORLD.

ibr cordage. It is a small tree, 12 to 15 feet, found iu Mysore, Bombay, aud the
Deccau. A fiber prepared from the bark is made into ropes, used in Malabar for
dragging timber from the forests. It is very strong, and sami)le8 are said to have
supported more than 600 pounds. C. latifoUa aftords similar fiber; used for rope,
coarse cloth, twine, and netting.

Cordyline australis. Foestee's Pal:\i Lily.

This genus of erect-stemmed, 8hrubl)y, palm-like Liliaccw are found iu tropical
Africa, in Madagascar aud tlie Mascarene Islands, in the Malayan Archipelago and
Australia.

Gnilfoyle enumerates nine species in his Australasian list from which he has
extracted fiber, as follows: C. auatraUs, ('. aiastraJis var. lineiita, C. hauJcHii, C haiieri,
C. cookii, C. indinsa, C. strUta, C. termhmlis, and ('. reitchii.

The most common in the botanical and other gardens of Melbourne is '"Forster's
Palm Lily" (C. australis), one of the New Zealand species. Under favorable cir-
cumstances it grows to a height of 30 to 10 feet, and the leaves afford a large per-
centage of excellent, strong fiber. With proper attention this plant will yield a
good crop of leafage iu its fourth or fifth year; and, as it will grow vigorously in
laud subject to partial inundation, it can be utilized in places otlierwise compara-
tively useless. It seeds freely, and can therefore be extensively propagated, so that
a young plantation maybe always coming on to supersede the old one when the
latter becomes unprofitable. {(inUfoyle.) Fig. 1, PI. VI, shows this species. From
a small plant growing in the United States Botanical Garden.

Cordyline banksii.

C. pumila (error for jjumilio) of my rejjort, in Ann. Rept. U. S. Dept. Ag., 1879,
this name having been attached to the label accompanying the specimen of fiber
obtained from the Phil. Int. Exh., 187ti. Habitat: New Zealand. The fiber from tliis
plant is another of l>r. Guilfoyle's preparations. The native name is Ti-raiiriki.
"The leaves of this interesting species of Curdyliiie grow to a great length and yield
an abundance of fiber of long staple, suitable for ropes, mats,'' etc. It is also con-
vertible into a good quality of paper. The fiber is from 2i to 3 feet in length, straight,
white, and glossy, but very stiff, resembling fiber of Yucca or Agave, and seems' to
have been extracted in coarse bundles <>f filaments, which iiuist be hackled to be
reduced to anything like fineness. It is fully as strong as Yucca fiber, and would
make excellent rope of great tenacity.

C. haiiksii, Sir Joseph Banks's Palm Lily, attains a height of about 10 feet, aud
throws out leaves of 3 or 4 feet in length. The fiber is long in stajtle and of great
stwngth. Like the first-named si)ecies, the seeds are produced iu great abundance,
and, especially on irrigated land, it will grow riipidly in this colony, as under these
conditions two or even three strippings of the outer leaves might be made in a year.
(GHilfotjle.)

* Specimens. — Mus. U. S. Dept. Ag.

Cordyline indivisa. The Tall Palm Lily.

Fiber and tuw of this sjjecies were also received from the Victorian collection, Phil.
Int. Exh., 1876, prepared by Dr. Gnilfoyle. They are not as fine as the preceding,
however, though possessing considerable strength. A Aery rudely manufactured
rope from the last-named species accompanies the collection. ■ This fiber, however,
is darker colored, and jiossesses little of the beauty of the preceding example, which
has been carefully prepared. Neither Royle nor Vctillart makes mention of this fiber,
though it is named iu Bernardin's Catalogue.

The leaves attain a length of 4 feet, and a breadth of 4 to 5 inches, aud contain an
abundance of iiber, which diverges from the center to the edge and top of the leaf.
It is therefore shorter than the leaf, aud not of the same strength throughout; but
it is prepared Avith greater care than the New Zealand flax H'hormium tenax), and

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 135

is better for cordage purposes, as it does not eontnict in water. Tlic n.itives use it
iu the luauuCactnre of rough mats, employed as a eape to keep off the raiu, it beiug
more durable than riionniinn fiber. Though the fiber is (^oarse, it seems well adapted
for ropes and jiaper making. (8pon.)

C. ternthialis is a Hawaiian and Asiatic species (see Draavtia), and ('. rcficxa. and C.
fragfans are African species. (\ nutans is found in China, India, and .South 8ea
Islands. Bernardin records ('. Itelironia from .Jamaica. According to the Official
Guide Kew Mus., garments have been made from species of Cordyline in New Zea-
land and colored with native dyes.

* Sjiecimens. — C. indirisa, Mus. T". S. Dept. Ag.

Cork-"wood Tree, (khroma l(((jo2)us.

Corn. (Maize.)

Various fibers from leaves and husks of corn, and cellulose from cornstalks. See
Zea mails.

Coronilla emerus.

Exogen. Lc<iitniinos(i\ A bush, 5 feet.

A Mediterranean ])lant sometimes cultivated in gardens of southern Europe and
commonly known as the Scorpion senna. The leaves yield a dye and have medicinal
properties.

B.4ST FiBEK. — Savorguan mentions this species as one of the plants that has been
given the name (Hnestra, which is apjilied to several distinct species of plants yield-
ing fiber and particularly to Spartinm. It is the (Hnestra di hosco, and is of little
value as a textile.

Corosal (Cent. Aui.). See note Jroni S(|uier uuder Acrocomia.

Corozo (see Cocos crispa).

May be the same as Corojo (Cuba). See Acrocomia lasiospatha. In ^'enezuela
Corozo is Ehi'is melanococca. "Corozo is a collective name for several species of palms
with fruits having a hard kernel" {Dr. Ernst).

Cortega (Panama). See Apeiha.

Corteza (Sp.) = bark.

Corylus californica. Hazelnut Trees.

The hazels are too well known to need description here. They are small trees or
large shrubs. "The usual form of the hazel, iu its wild state, is a straggling bush
consisting of a number of long, flexil)le stems from the same root' (Treas. Botany).

Woody Fihek. — "The young flexible twigo of the California hazelnut (C. ros-
trata var. californica) are almost in as great demand by the Indians of California
and Oregon as the branches ofSaH.r scssilifoUa; these two plants making up most of the
warp of their basket work. Hazelnut twigs are also much used iu binding fish dams"
(Hr. r. Harard).

Corypha gebanga. Gebano Palm.

Endogen. Palma-.
A Javanese species of palm, from the trunk of which a kintl of sago is ol)tained.
The Kew Mus. exhibits a kadu, or sleeping mat, made from the leaves on the island of
Ceram ; also a hat made from the leaves in Java, and strips of the unexpanded leaves
used in Borneo for sewing. The leaves are also plaited into baskets.

Corypha umbraculifera. Talipot Palm.

Native of Ceylon and Malabar coast. Straight cylindrical trunk, marked by rings
and surmounted by a crown of gigantic fan-like leaves; height, 60 to 70 feet. See
fig. 1, PI. IX.

136 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

Structi r.AL FiBEU. — Tlie leaves are made into faus, mats, and umbrellas, and are
used for writing ou. They are also largely employed for tliatcliing. Roxburgh
remarks that the leaves "are used to tie the rafters" of native houses, as they are
"said to be stroug and durable.'' It seems probable that after removing the edible
pulp from the iuterior of the stem the long fibrovascular cords might be used as a
substitute for kittul, similar to the fibers extracted from the stem of Cnryota wens.
These fil)ers are reported to be softer and more pliable than those found at the bases
of the leaves. {Watt.)

Specimens of the fiber obtained from the t'eylon exhibit, AV. V. E., 1893. Princi-
pally used as a thatch or covering for tea houses. In the Official Handbook of
Ceylon (W. V. E., 1893) it is stated that this palm is never now found in the forests,
as it is a cultivated species. "This last p.ilm is one of the glories of our flora, reach-
ing, when fully grown and in flower, to 100 feet in height, of which some 20 feet are
occupicfl by Ihe great jjyramidal flower head. It belongs to that group of palms
which flower but ome; in this case after about forty-five to fifty years' growth, and
die after ripening the seed."

Spon mentions C. ausiralis as the Australian cabbage palm, but this is the same
as lAvistona. The leaves, which are of great size, yield a fiber by simply splitting
them longitudinally. This is. employed in "the manufacture of hats, baskets, net-
ting, clothing, etc.''

* Specimens. — U. S. Nat. Mus.; Mus. U.S. Dept. Ag.

Cos (Ceyl.). See Artocarims. See also Cos, p. 12.
Coscinium fenestratum. Weni-wel or Ceylon.

Exogen. Moiispermaceo . Climber.
This strong, woody, scandent species is found in great abundance in the moist
districts of Ceylon between sea level and 3, .500 feet altitude. In the Die. Ec. Prod.
Ind. there is mention of the jilant as yielding a yellow dye and medicine, but of no
other economic use. In the Handbook of'Ceylon (W. C. E., 1893) it is stated that
the freshly cut stems or vines are made into a strong rope by twisting, and largely
used by the natives for tying cattle. The S]>ecies is included in Bernardin's list.

Costus afer.

Credited to Africa. Many of the species of Costus are ornamental greenhouse
plants. Fiber, 3 feet 6 inches in length. Mentioned in lists of Beruardin and the
Flax and Hemp Commission of 1863.

Cotton. S])ecies, cultivation, etc. See Gossyjyium.

Cotton grass. Eriopliornm latifoJhim.

Cotton, Silk, or Vegetable silk. Species of.

This substauce is produced in the seed pods of many s])ecies of plants in diff"erent
parts of the world. They are variously named and in past time much confusion
has existed in regard to their nomenclature. As they are treated in this catalogue
under their botanical names, the following list of princi])al sjiecies should be referred
to for detailed description :

Asclcpias syriaca and iucarnata. milk weed, silk weed, etc. Temperate North
America.

Asclep'ias cnrassavica. I'latanillo, A'enezuela and ludia.

Bomhax ceiba. Tropical America.

Bomhux cumunensis. Lana del tumbor. "N'euezuela.

Bomhax maUiharicum. India and Burma.

Bomhax mungnha. South America.

Bomhax puhescens. South America.

Bomhax viUosum. Mexico.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 137

Calotropis fjigantea. Troiiical Africa, Persia. India, and Ceylon.

Chorifia insignix and speciosa. Argentina and P>razil.

Cochlospermum fiossijphim. India.

Erlodendvon aiifracfuosinn. The commercial ka[tok. A\'est Indies. South America,
tropical Africa, Java, India, and Ceylon.

EiiodendroH samaiima. Brazil.

Epilohium angusiifolium. Temperate North America.

Ochroma lagopus. Balao. South America.

See C'tboiiiim menziesii, Piiht of the Hawaiian Islands. This is not a "silk cotton,''
but it resembles this substance and is employed for the same uses. See also Tijpha.

Cotton-Stalk fiber. See IJast Fiber, under GosHiiphim.
Cotton"wood. FopnJus (lelioides.
Country niallo^v (see Ahniilon indicnm).
Couratari spp.

Tbo genus Coitraiari, belonging to the Miir(((cea\ embraces a dozen species or more
of South American trees, the superb examples occurring in Brazil, along the Amazon,
and its tributaries, and in countries to the northward, Peru and Guiana especially.
The flowers are largo and white, mixed with purple in color, arranged in axillary
spikes. The fruit is a woody capsule, ol>l<)Ug in form, covered by an operculum
which extends in a central axis to the base of the capsule, where the seeds are
inserted. The species of the genus Couratari and of Lecijihis are very neai'ly related,
differing especially in their fruit, which in the latter is hard and bulky, serving tlie
natives for cups and vases. A traveler in Guiana states that one of the species of
that region blossoms about the time that its leaves fall, and that it is covered with
thousands of rose-colored blossoms like the i^each tree. The timber of these trees
is prized for many uses, and the bark of several species has long been known to the
South American Indians as yielding a valuable fiber.

The trees of this genus are particularly interesting as yielding a bark fiber known
as Corteza del Damajnluito, from Avhich the natives produce a kind of cloth for the
rough clothing of the country. AVhile authorities do not agree ujion any one partic-
ular species supplying this fiber, at least three are mentioned, and it is probable that
;ill are employed to a greater or less extent economically. Prof. James Orton, in The
Andes and the Amazon, states that "the natives make a bark cloth from tlie Turnri
ov Curatarl Irgalis, called Cascaria n-p the. Madeira, and from the Z/rt;(C/ifl)»« on the
Maranon (Xapo and Huallaga). The latter tree is 20 inches in diameter and has a
white bark. From the Tururi garments 4 yards long are made of a' single piece,
resembling a coarse woolen stuff, with two layers of wavy fiber. In the manuscript
notes received from A. Dorca of Lima, Peru, the species is stated to be " Couratari
gnianensis, TJanchdma, Damaju'hato, Tatuiari ; Indians make cloth from the bark."
In a recent work on this subject " Corteza del Damajiihato," by Dr. Alberto L.
Gadea, Lima, 1894, the above .species are mentioned, together with C. iaiiari, C. estrel-
Jensis, and C. domestica, all fiber producing. The common names given by this
author to the Couratari bark cloth will be found under C. iauari below, -where, also,
the descriptions of the fiber of Pamajuhato. as well as that from allied species of
Couratari is described.

Couratari tauari. The Tauary of Brazil.

Exogen. Mjirtaceoc. A forest tree.
Xative xamks. — See descriptive matter below.
C. tauari grows to a height of bO or 60 feet. Its wood and fiber were shown in
the Brazilian exhibit, W. C. E.. 1893. from the River Amazon, though examples were
not secured by me.

Bast Fiber. — The interior barl< is extracted in thin layers, appearing somewhat

138 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD,

like iiajjer, auil in tliis form has been used for wrapping cigarettes and cigars. It is
also used for cordage, for rough clothing, and heddiug by the natives of many South
American countries. In tlie recently published pamphlet by Dr. (jiadea on the sub-
ject of the employment by natives of South America oi " Ihiinajnhato" fiber from
species of Couratari. the following account is given of the manner in which the bast
is secured.

By means of a knife or other sharji instrument they make two cuts in the bark of
the tree at different heights, surrounding the entire tree, and then another cut longi-
tudinal to the first. They then tear or strip off these sections of the bark, pound
it and wash it to separate the parenchyma from the fiber, thus obtaining a te.Ktile
substance of the quality avc have described in this report. In other cases tliey
loosen the bark l)y continued blows or be iting. At the present time in the forest
region many tribes use garments of bark. Some of the blankets appear as if made
from soft pliable leatlier, otliers look like cotton. We see, therefore, that the sav-
ages use the Llanchama, Damujuhuto, Tahiiari, etc., for bed blankets, for garments,
for cordage, and the more civilized use it for carpets, mats, and to take the place of
paper in wrapping cigarettes.

According to this authority the fiber is kncjwn among the natives of Peru as JJaina-
jididto in Gaen, Llauclmma in MaraHon and Loieto, and 7V<///uni in Loreto. In Bo-
livia and portions of Peru, the liber is called (dscara above the Madeira, and Jiihoci
in Beni, Mamor(^, Abuna, and Madre de Dios. In Brazil, Tauaii on the Amazon, and
Jiqnltiba in Matto Grosso, and Irabirussa in Bahia. In Colombia it is Talaja. and
in French Guiana it bears the name Ingipipa, Couratari, and Ouhmari, the latter
name being used by the (Jalibis Imlians. In Venezuela it is Conrimari. In the geog-
raphy of Peru a species of Couratari found in the Province of Jaen is mentioned,
which is called Damajuhato, "the bark of which is a ductile fiber that serves for
making cloth or blankets." One of these blankets is described as being two yards
long and three yards wide. Professor Raimondi, in his work on Peru, describing
the people of the Ljuitos, mentions the Llanchama, "a species of cloth made from
the bark of a tree, which serves them for beds and many other tiscs.''

The women of the tribe of the Churruyes, of Colo:nbia, use the bark of the Tataja
in the fashioning of a sort of garment called fnnpiina, which is secured to the
shoulders by strands of palm fiber, probably an Astvocarijum. "The fiber is sepa-
rated by blows and jerks into sheets, resembling cloth, which, when rubbed, washed,
and exposed to the sun and dew, becomes light in color and fiexible.'' The garment
is sometimes dyed red. Some of the Indians of Peru and Bolivia make shirts of the
fiber (/?i7>oci) ; these being dyed in red and other colors. In many other works of
travel, relating to the regions where species of Couratari are found, references to
the fiber are frequently made under one or anotlier of the native names already
recorded.

C. guianensis is also called Tauari in Guiana, and produces a textile fiber used for
many purposes. C. estrcUensls furnishes a wood used in naval construction "and
produces a coarse hemp." C. hualis, -aI&o prized for its timber, yields a fiber. This
tree is known in Brazil as jequiiiba.

Courimari (see Couratari).
Qovrania mexicana.

Exogen. Jiosacat . A small shrub.

The plants of the genus are found in Mexico and Peru, and the species named also
occurs in southwestern United States. It is an interesting shrub about 2 feet high
when mature, with alternate small narrow leaves, the edges turned down; covered
with glands on the upper surface, and on the lower, white with fine down. The
flowers are numerous and of a yellow color.

Bast Fibek. — This tree, before the advent of Europeans, was the great source from
"which the Xevada and Utah Indians obtained tlie materials for their dress goods.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 139

The outer hark is rough, but the iiuier is soft, silky, and pliablo, and of a brownish
color. It is removed in long strips, varying in Avidtli, a desirable quality in a bark
that is used iu the manufacture of clothing, sandals, and ropes. These articles were
formerly made by braiding strips of bark together, or woven with the hand loom.
Females made skirts from strips of this bark by braiding a belt, to which thej^ sus-
pended many strips of the same material, hanging down to the knees like a long
fringe ; the rest of the person was naked in summer. Mats were also made from this
bark, which were used as beds. {Dr. E. Palmer.)

* Specimens of fiber, Bot. Mus. Harv. Univ. Little better than cypress bast.

Co'w Pea (U. S.). See Vif/na catjitfUf.

Coyal (S. Am.). See Coco.s cris2)a.

Crin vegetal (Alg.). See Cluimarops linniUis.

Crotalaria juncea. The Sunn Hemp of India. -

Exogen. Leguminosiv. A tall shrub.

Nativk xames. — Chin pat and Vhnmese {1\m\.) ; .Sanskrit Jiame, Sana.

The tiber is known as Sunn, Taag, or C<mkanee hemp, Indian hemp. Brown hemp,
and Madras hemp. "~~"

Abounds in southern Asia and tropical Australasia. In the Northwest Provinces of
India it has been cultivated to the extent of .50,000 acres annually. See lig. 2, PI. V.

Bast Fiber. — Takes the place of jute in portions of India; a better liber than jute,
lighter in color, with a tensile strength that adapts it to cordage manufacture.
According to experiments by Roxburgh a dry line of jute broke with a weight of 143
pounds, aud when wet, with 146; a similar sunn line sustained 160 and 209 pounds.
Royle has shown that a cord 8 inches iu size of best Petersburg hemp broke with 14
tons 8 hundredweight and 1 quarter, Avhile a similar rope of sunn only gave Avay
with 15 tons 7 hundredweight and 1 quarter. He further demonstrated the slight
deterioration of sunn hemp as follows: A rope made in 1803 broke witha weight of
6 tons 0 hundredweight 3 (luarters, whereas, when kept till 1806, it gave way with 5
tons 17 hundredweight.

In Dr. Wight's experiments with sunn, cotton rope, hemj), and coir, they were
found to stand a strain of 407, 346, 290, and 224 pounds, respectively. The fiber is
used principany for ropes and cables, though in India it is manufactured into cord-
age, nets, sackcloth, twine, and paper. The finely dressed and most carefully ]»re-
pared tiber is nuide into canvas of great durability.

Sunn hemi> is "probably one of the earliest of the distinctly name'd libers, as we
find, in the Hindoo ' Institutes of Meml,' that the-sacrilicial thread of the Cshatriya,
or Rajpoot, is directed to be made of sana." The plant producing this fiber is a
shrub growing from 8 to 12 feet high, with branching stem marked with longi-
tudinal furrows. AVhen cultivated it is sown quite close, at the beginning of the
rainy season, in order that the plants may grow tall and thickly together — the
natives say the thicker the better, so as to prevent the air passing through it — 80 to
100 pounds of seed being used to the acre, aud some even sow a larger (juantity. In
some portions of India two kinds are cultivated, one sown in May and .June, when
the first showers fall, and the other in October, though in ciuality they are the
same. '•' That sown in .Jiine is cut in August aud Se))tember, and tlie other about
April.-'

Early in 1893 this Department imported a small quantitj- of the seed for test iu
the South. The seed was distributed to 15 localities. While the plant grew well,
the stalks seemed deficient in fiber save in extreme southern Florida, a fine sample
having been sent from Fort Lauderdale. The exiieriment is worthy of a second trial
in this country, particularly in southern Florida.

Cultivation. — In the Dictionarv of the Economic Products of India there is a

140

USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

full acfoiiut of the treatment of the i)laut in cultivatiou, from wliich extracts are
reiiroiluced:

In Kolaba it is sown in Xovember, after the rice is harvested, and the stalks are
uprooted in March. In Kolhapvir it is sown in August and harvested in December,
by being cut wlien the plants are full groAvn. In Poena it is sown in July and ripens
in Octol)er. In the central i^rovinces and the northwestern provinces it is a kharif
crop, being sown with the advent of the rains, but in Bengal it is sown a little earlier,
namely, from lotli of April to 15th of June. In i\Iadras the sowings take place still
earlier. In the exjieriments performed at the Saidapet farm. Madras, sunn was sown
on the 2d of February. In the Ain-i-Akbari the i)lant is described as l)eariug its
yellow llowers in spring, a fact at wliich I\Ir. Kerr (writing of Bengal) expresses some

astonishment, since "it now llowers in
the rainy and cold seasons.'' Roxl>urgh
says it is sown in Bengal in May and
June and flowers by August — that is to
say, toward the end of the rainy sea-
son. In the last agricultural report of
Bengal it is stated that the crop is har-
vested from liith of Aiigust to l.">th of
September.

It refjuires a 1 ight, Init not necessarily
rich, soil, and it can not be grown on
clay. It is therefore sown on the high
sandy lands, less suited for the more
important crojis. "Wisset remarks that
clay soils are injurious, but that ou a
rich soil the fiber is of a coarser quality
than that grown on dry, high situations.
The ojiinion prevails all over India
that high cultivation is not necessary
for sunn hemp. Of Kolaba it is said:
"The soil is roughly plowed twice and
the seed sown broadcast." In Bengal
'•'the seeds are sown broadcast. It is
necessary to have the jdants grown
thick, ot herwise they become bushy and
coarse and give very iulerior fibers.'"
"There is nothing more required after
sowingtillharvesttime." IntheXorth-
west Provinces "two plowings at most
are given, and the seed is sown broad-
cast and plowed in. It germinates
quicker than any other crop, the seed-
lings showing above ground within
twenty-four hours after being sown. Irrigation, even when necessary, is rarely
given, and no weeding is required.'" In the experiments made in INIadras, to which
reference has already been made, it was apparently sown in drills. "The land was
prepared for an ordinary crop by plowing and harrowing until it was reduced to
a proper state, and the seed was then sown with the drill in rows 9 inches apart
at the rate of 12 pounds per acre," but in the Northwestern Provinces about 1
maund (or 80 pounds) to the acre in general. In Bengal 20 seers (40 pounds) to
the bigha (three-fourths of an acre) is the customary amount of seed. Roxburgh
states that from 80 to 100 pounds weight to the acre were used in his time. The
plant should not be more than 2^ to B inches apart each way. and hence thick sowing
is desirable.

In most cases the plants are ]iulled uji by the roots: in others the stems are cut

Fig. 40. — I,caf :inil l>l(>ssom of Cidtnhiria juncca.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 141

■with a sickle close to the grouud. Of the Poona district, Bombay, it is stated that the
crop is "left stftudiug for about a mouth after it is ripe, that the leaves, which are
excellent ruauure, may fall on the land."' It is not clear whether the croji is left on
its roots— that is to say, not reaped — or whether it is cut and stacked on the lields;
tho latter more probably. The greatest difference of opinion prevails as to Avhether the
cut crop should be dried before being steeped, or, like jute, be carried at once to
the retting tanks. But even with jute some cultivators dry the plants sufficiently
to allow of the leaves being rapidly stripped, since these are supposed to injure the
color of the fiber if allowed to rot in the water of the tank. With regard to sunn
hemp, the general rule may be almost safely laid down that in moist regions, like
Bengal, rapid submersion is preferred, and in dry regions, like Madras, stacking the
crop is practiced. Eosburgh, from actual experiments, arrived at the opinion that
"steeping immediately after the plant is pulled is the best, at least in Bengal dur-
ing the rains, for then it is very difficult to dry it, and the fiber becomes weakened
and the color injured.''

The average yield of fiber is about 640 pounds per acre. In preparing the fiber in
the Luckuow district the stalk is cut near the root when the x^laut begins to liower,
••tied in large bundles, and immersed in water, the natives putting small weights
upon it (generally mud) to prevent it being carried away. After remaining in water
from four to eight days it is withdrawn, taken by handfuls, beaten on a piece of
wood or stone, and washed till quite clean, and the cuticle and leaves entirely
removed." The woody portion is separated by further beating and shaking when
perfectly dry. At Commercolly the plants are pulled, tied in bundles, and are then
left standing in water, on their roots, to the depth of several inches. This allows the
fiber to obtain the right degree of firmness without becoming parched and dried by
the sun. Oversteeping causes the bark to separate very easily, but weakens the fiber.
Dr. Roxburgh found "no advantage, but the reverse, by dryiug the plant after macer-
ation and before the bark is removed."' which is the mode practiced in regard to ilax
and hemp. After the fiber has been separated it is thoroughly washed by repeatedly
squeezing and wringing the water out of it, after which it is hung upon lines. When
dry the fiber is separated a little, or combed with the fingers, and then bundled for
market.

In another account it is stated that small pools of clear water, well exposed to the
suu"s beams, seem l>est suited for the steeping, because heat hastens maceration and
consequently preserves the strength of the fibers, while clean water jireserves their
color.

Having discovered that the necessary degree of retting has been attained, the cul-
tivator, standing in the water up to his knees, takes a bundle of the stems in his
hand and threshes the water with them until the tissue gives way and the long,
clean fibers separate from the central canes. According to some writers, the retted
stems, after being partially washed, are taken out of the water and placed in the
sun to drj' for some hours before beiTig beaten out in the way described. This prac-
tice, while it is followed in some parts of the country, is condemned in others as
injurious, or at least as a useless delay.

The dryiug is usually accouiplished by hanging the fiber over bamboos to be dried
and bleached by the sun. Xaturally, in this country, such primitive processes as are
described above would never be resorted to. They are interesting, however, and
some valuable points may be gained from the experience.

When the plant first begau to attract attention among Europeans it was believed
the Hiudo method of treatmeut could be improved upon with favorable results, but
much opposition was raised by the natives, who declined strenuously going out of the
beaten track of their fathers. It was found to be a much more delicate plant than
hemp, and consec[uentIy could not be prepared after the European methods without
a modification of the processes.

Other species. — The Jubbulpore hemp {Crotalaria tenui/olia) has l)eeu consid-
ered by some authors to be a variety of C.juncea, and is said to be superior to Russian

142 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

hemp (Cannabis satira), breaking approximately at a straia of 95 iioiiuds for the first
named to 80 itoumls fur the latt»;r. It is 4 to 5 feet in length, and resembles best
Petersburg hemp, compared with which Royle considers it ecpial, if not superior.
Although its cultivation is limited, it is regularly grown for its fiber, which is used
for the same purpose as sunn. The fiber of C. ntusa is sold in India as a form of suun
hemp. ('. sericea is another species which yields liber, while C. striata is grown for
fiber "by the Santals in Chntia Nagpur."

Croton gossypiifolius. Bois Sang.

A 82)ecies of Kuphorbiuceir found in Trinidad. The plants of this genus are chiefiy
valuable in pharmacy, l)ut J. H. Hart states that the above species yields a coarse
fiber.

Crowia (Br. (luiau.). Ananas satira.

E. F. im Thurn states, in his work Among the Indians of Guiana, that Croiria is
derived from a lirnmelin. Sometimes written Krona. See note nnder Jnaiias.

Cryptostegia grandiflora.

Exogen. Asclepiadaveii'. Climbing shrub.

Two species of the genus are recorded, from India and Madagascar. The plants
of this genus abound in milky juice, which, when exposed for a short time to tlu- sun,
is converted into ])ure caoutchouc.

Bast Fihei.'. — The only mention of the ])lants as producing liber is a note i'l Spon
to the effect that ('. (/roiidiftorn yields a fine, strong fil>er, resembling fiax. which may
be spun into the finest yarn.

Cuba bast (see Hibiscus elatus).

Ciibi (IIoj)! Indian). Rhus trilohala.

Cuchilixiu (Ync). Asriepias curassavica.

Culcitium canescens.

An interesting species belonging to the ('o)iiposita', the generic name having been
derived from Ciilcita, a cushion. The iilants of the genus are woolly herbs or small
bushes found in the Andes of Peru and Colombia, near the snow limit. Peruvian
name, Hiiira-huira.

Surface Fiher. — The Treasury of Botany states that all parts of the ])lants of
this genus, except the upper surface of the leaves of a few, are coVered with dense
white or rusty colored woolly hairs, which serve as beds for those travelers who may
be forced to sjiend the night in the open air at this great elevation. The manner of
making the bed is, by first amassing a quantity of the plants, and, after taking the
soft woolly pajipus from the fiowers, laying the branches, witii the leaves attached,
on the ground. On this first layer the soft warm pappus hairs are siattered, tlien a
third layer is placed of leaves only, and. lastly, another layer of pappus hairs. On
this couch the traveler reposes after the toils of the day without fear of frozen limbs.
Dorca states that the fiber of C. cauescnis is used in Peru for torches. The genus
Espeletia (which see) also belongs to this family and, growing on the high Andes,
bears much resemblance to this in the woolly clothing of the leaves and stems, but
the present is easily distinguished from it, the florets being all tubular, while in
Espeletia there is an outer row of stra])-shaped florets in the flower head.

Cumare (Venez.). See Aslrocari/uw tucuma.
Curculigo latifolia.

The species of this genus of imartjUidareo' are fouiid in Soiith Africa, Xew Holland,
and India. The sjiecies named is founil in Borneo, where its '"leaves are soaked in
water and beaten, which loosens tlie fiber, wliicli is afterwards prepared and woven
into a very elosi- cloth, known as I.amba" (Off. Guide Kew Mus.).

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 143

Curcuma longa.

IJelong.s to the Zitigibiracew. The source of turmeric, which enters into the coui-
positiou of curry powder. Savorgnan states that a fiher is extracted from the mid-
rib of the leaf.

Curratovr (P>raz.\ A)ia)i((s hraefeatiis.

Currijong, or Kurrijong (Austr.). See tSterci(li((. Brown Knrrijong
(see Commersonia eehinoia).

Curua palm (Braz.). See Aiialea spevlnhUis.

Curvijujul ( ^'ellez.). Karatas jf^nm ieri.

Cus-cus ([lid.). See Androjwgon squarrosu.s.

Custard apple (W. Ind.). See Anona.

Cutthalay-nar, of Boyle (Ind.). See Af/ave americana.

Cutting grass (Vict.). See Gahnia radula.

Cycas rumphii.

Exogen. Cycadacea'. Small trees.

The species of this genus are natives of Asia, Australia, and Polynesia. They are
popularly hut erroneously called sago palms; they furnish a kind of eago, hut it is
not known commercially. The plants are said to he intermediate hetween palms and
ferns. C. rumjyJiii is found in India and C. rerohiia in Japan.

.SruFACE Fiher. — This is somewhat similar to jj*(?«, being in the form of soft down
from the foliage. The entire leaves also serve as thatch material (structural fiber),
while from the leaf stems, according to Savorgnan, a fiber is obtained.

Cynosurus cristatus. Crested Dog's Tail Grass.

From this common British species mats and baskets are sometimes made l»y the
peasantry in county Wexford, Ireland.

Cyperus corymibosus.

Endogen. C'liperaceiv. I\eed-like grass or sedge.

A genus of plants belonging to the sedge family, being widely distributed over
the -warmer parts of the earth. "When used for textile purposes they are chiefly
woven into mats and the like, or pulped into paper. C. cori/mhosiis is found in India
and Ceylon — more commonly in wet places.

Structural Fihei:. — This is '•' the C. pangorie, referred to by many writers as one of
the chief sources of the Mddur, or so-called Calcutta grass mats. Or. Bidie writes that
several species of sedge apjicar to be used for mat making, but the one from which
the finest .sorts of mats are manufactured at Tinnevelly and P;ilghat is C. pangorie.
Tinnevelly luiits of the first quality are generally uncolored or with one or two
simple bands of red and black at each end, and they may be made so fine that a
mat sufficient for a man to lie on can be rolled up and packed into the interior of a
moderate-sized walking stick. The strips of the split sedge used in the Palghat
matting are not so fine as those employed in Tinnevelly, and the article is therefore
heavier, coarser in texture, and not so flexible." ( Watt. )

C. eftc>ile)itus,exaltatns, and irid are also used in India for mat making, and sleeiiing
mats are made in Madagascar from the flattened culms of C. alternifolitts.

Cyperus Icevigatus.

This species abounds, in or near brackish water, in the Hawaiian Islands. ''A
common plant in many tropical countries of the New and Old World, extending also

144 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

to the Cape of Good Hope and the Mediterrauean regiou. Hawaiian name^ Ehtimva.
The fine and highly prized Xiihaii mats are made of this plant.'' {HiUthrand.)

C. longa and C. elegans (W. lud.) are named in the Flax and Hemp Commission
Report of 1863.

Cyperus lucidus. Shinin^g Galingale Eusn.

Included in Dr. Guilfoyle's Australian list as a pajjer stock.

Cyperus papyrus. The Papyrus of the a:ncient.'!.

Syn. Papyrus antiqiionim, which was doubtless one of the bulrushes uieutioued
in Scripture.

Grows on the marshy banks of rivers in Abyssinia, Sicily, and Palestine. It for-
merly abounded on the Xile, but is now almost extinct in Egypt (Spon). A'arious
portions of the plant were used in Egyjit in the construction of boats, mats, baskets,
and even rough woven fabrics. Its chief use, however, was in the preparation of
writing paper, which was made from the inner bark of the stem.

The liber or bark is composed of thin laminsie or plates, and these unrolled and
placed together formed a sheet. The plates obtained near the center were the best,
and each cut diminished in value in proportion as it was distant from that part of
the stem. "When carefully peeled from the plant and dressed at the sides, that these
might join evenly, these plates were laid close together ou a hard, flat table, and
then other pieces similarly cut were laid across them at right angles. They thus
formed a sheet of many pieces, and, to promote their adhesion, the whole was mois-
tened with the water of the Xile, and, while wet, pressure was applied. The gluti-
nous matter inherent in the bark promoted adhesion. They were afterwards dried
in the sun. Bruce, the traveler, who frequently made the paper in the manner thus
described, ascertained that the saccharine juice contained in the plant and dissolved
and diffused in the water causes the immediate adhesion of the parts. In some
cases, where the plants themselves did not contain sufficient juice, or when the
water did not dissolve the juice properly, the strips of bark were joined together
with paste made of fine flour mixed with hot water and a little vinegar. After
being dried and again pressed the paper was smoothed and flattened by beating it
with a wooden nuillet. The ancient Egyptians made their sheets of prodigious
length, though narrow. One of those purchased by the Earl of Belmoro, and
unrolled by his lordship, was 14 feet long by 1 foot broad. Belzoni had a papyrus
23 feet long by Ih feet broad. The quantity of the papyrus used by the Egyptians
in their funeral operations alone must have been very great. Those pajiyri now
found in the ancient tombs and about the mummy caves in Egypt are yet in a
wonderful state of preservation. The rolls are always compressed. Sometimes their
exterior is ornamented with gilding, in which case they are looked upon as of supe-
rior value. They are generally thrust into the breast or between the knees of the
mummy, and occasionallj' they are inclosed in small wooden boxes or purses. lu
the museum of Naples there are not less than 1,700 to 1,800 manuscript papyri which
have been dug from the ruins of Ilerculaneum, and yet only a very small portion of
this ancient city has been dug out of the mass of lava hj which it was overwhelmed.
(lihind.) See Ancient Fibers, in the Introduction.

C. syridciis is mentioned by Bernardiu as the papyrus of Sicily.

Cyperus tegetiformis. Seaside Grass. Chinese Mat Eush.

Examples of cuffs and shoes made from this rush in China are shown in the
U. S. Nat. Mus. Plain and colored mattings from the culms of this species are shown
in the Kew Mus. made at Ningpo, and "very largely used at the present time for
floor coverings in this country" (Great Britain). A set of tools as used by the
the native mat makers is also exhibited, together with samples of hats made from
the same material. These were formerly imported into Great Britain and Europe in
enormous quantities and sold for a few pence each. The same material is used in
Korea for mat making.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 145

Cyperus tegetum. Calcutta Mat Eush.

Common iu 2)ortious of India; said to l>e found in Egypt and Abyssinia.

Fiber. — The Calcutta mats are cliietly made of this species. The culms are split
into two or three and then Avoven into mats upon a warp of threads previously
stretched across the floor of a room. The mat maker jiasses the culms Avith the hand
alternately over and under the successive threads of the warp and presses them
home. Iu dift'erent districts of India it is believed that two or three allied species
are used for this purpose. {Watt.) According to Hooker's Flo. Brit. India, culti-
vated iu Mauritius.

Cyperus textilis.

According to Spon this species is widely dispersed over the Australian Contiuent,
not including Tasmania and New Zealand. The C. textilis of Yon Mueller referred to
by Spon is C. vaginatus, which see below. The true C. textilis belongs to South
Africa.

Cyperus unitans. Mat Eush of Japan.

This is the Shichito-i of Japan, from which the cheaper, rougher quality of mats
are made for the common people, iu the manner that Biiujo-i or Juncus effusiis is
employed for the mats used by the higher classes. The mats exported to foreign
countries from Japan are also made of these two species, and haA'e been exported in
a single year to the value of 650,000 yen, or over $100,000. The Shichito-i mats are
chiefly produced in the Oita prefecture. Beautiful examples of both forms of these
mats, with the raw material, were secured from the Jajianesc exhibit at the W. C. E.,
1893, at Chicago, together Avith interesting information concerning them.

The Shichito-i (C. unitans) is cultivated both in upland or "Hata'' and rice field or
"T(t" (the irrigated lands). If it is grown in upland, soil of a moist nature is pref-
erable, while in paddy field, too much water is undesirable. Shichito-i is propa-
gated from roots, and for this purpose the bundles of three or four plants separated
from the mother stubbles are transplanted iu well-cultiA'ated and manured nursery
ground, in rows of 5 sun, or 6 inches, apart at a distance of same length between the
bundles. The plants raised iu 20 " Tsuho" of such nursery ground are sufficient for
transplanting in a " Tau" of the field (300 tsuto^l tau; 10 iau^l cho, and 1 cho^2
acres). For transplanting Shichito-i iu the paddy field, or " Ta," the land is deeply
cultivated soon after the harvesting of rape or wheat crops, and Avell pulverized and
manured with rape cake or ' ' Shochu-kasu, "' the quantity of which depends greatly upon
the character of soil, and then the land is irrigated. Two or three root plants together
are transplanted in th(! rows of 5 sun apart at a distance of 3 sun between the plants.
Ten days after transplanting the water is withdrawn and the land is dried to a cer-
tain degree, and weeds are eradicated, and again the laud is watered. These proc-
esses of drying, Aveeding, and Avatering the laud are repeated two or three times
during the summer months, and the second manuring is also giA'cn iu the month of
July. Shichito-i is ready for harvesting at eighty to one hundred days after trans-
planting, in fact, the reaping of the plants takes place from the end of August to the
middle of September. For harA^esting the rushes, the weather must be A'ery fine.
The rushes are torn lengthAvise into two parts with special tools and dried on sandy
ground or grass land.

The A'arieties of mats from this species represented in the collection are as follows :
Kikaiori Hana-mushiro, Damask Hana-mushiro, common Hana-mushiro, two forms;
Scidaka Hana-mushiro, manufactured at Bungo.

* S^jerimcns, Mus. U. S. Dept. Ag.

Cyperus vaginatus. Sheathed Galingale.

One of the most Avidely and most copiously distributed of the rush-like plants of
all Australia. Its fiber is extraordinarily tough, and accordingly can be formed into
a very tenacious paper, Avhich, moreoA^er, proves one of great excellence. The raw
12L»47— No. 9 — -10

146 USEFUL FIBEK PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

material is available by thousands of tons on periodically flooded river flats, swampy
depressions, and other moist localities where a continued harvest of the jilant can
not possibly exhaust the soil. {Dr. Ferd. von Mueller).

Of this plant (under the name of C. textilis) Spon says: "It is the best indigenous
fiber plant in Australia, and is likewise notable as beiug with ease converted into
pulp for good writing paper."

Cypress, of North Carolina. Taxodium distichum.

Cytisus scoparius. Broom.

A Icguniiuous species of shrub better known as yielding a dyestuff. Has been
recommended as a paper stock. The statement that it was formerly employed in
Italy and south Frauce in textile fabrics is doubted, though Savorgnan includes it
in his work under the name Ginestra da (iranate, the bark of which yields au indif-
ferent fiber. Probably has been confused Avith the (Miicstra di Spa<jna, ov Spartium
jiiuccum, wliich has been used for fabrics for ages.

Dab grass (see Erugrostis cynosur aides).

Daedalia quercina (see under Fomes).

Daemia extensa.

Exogen. Asclepiadacetc. Shrubby climber.

Hotter parts of India. Distributed to Afghanistan. Malay Peninsula. A common
weed in the Dcccan.

Ua.st Fiueu. — The stems supply a fine and strong librous nuiterial, which has been
recommended as a substitute for flax. "A very pretty liber, sometimes used for lish-
iug lines "' ( Watt). Said to have been awarded a medal at the Madras Exhibition, 1895.

Dagassa (Ind.). Elcusine coracana.

Dagger plant. Yucva spp.

Daguilla ( Span.). See Layetta.

Dais cotinifolia. African Button Flower.

Exogen. Thymelaacea. A large tree.
Cape of tJood Hope. Cultivated in Australia. " The bark is very tough. A val-
uable yellow dye has been extracted from the l)ark at the Melbourne Botanic Gar-
dens."' Other plants of the genus are fouud in the subtropical portions of Asia.
This species is referred to by Dr. Guilfoyle, who states that it produces a fiber of
tine quality.

Daniajagua (Kcuad.). See Hibiscus tiliaceus. Also written Huamaga,
DanuKjud. and Emajaijua.

Daniajuhato (Peru). See Couratari tauari.
Daphne cannabina. The >epal Paper Plant.

Syn. Daphne papyrucea.

Exogen. TInimelaacecv. Shrub, or small tree.
An India species, native of the Himalayas, w'hich is said to supply the raw material
of the well-known Nepal paper. Said to thrive only near the oak.

Bast Fibeu. — The inner bark, when prepared like hemp, afiords a very superior
paper, particularly adajited to cartridge manufacture. "The process of making
paper from this plant is thus described in the Asiatic Researches : After scraping the
outer surface of the bark, what remains is boiled in water with a small quantity of
oak ashes. After the boiling it is washed and beaten to a pulp on a stone. It is then

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 147

spread on molds or iVames made of bamboo mats. The Setburosa, or paper shrub,
says the author iu the al)ove journal, is fouud ou the most exposed parts of the
mountains, and those the most elevated and covered with snow throujjhout the prov-
ince of Kumaou. It is invariably used all over Kumaou, and is in great request in
many parts of the plains for the purjjose of writing inisuh-7tamahn or genealogical
records, deeds, etc., from its extraordinary durability. The pi>per is generally made
about one yard square, and of three difl'ereut qualities. The best sort is retailed at
the rate of 40 sheets for a rupee, and at wholesale 80 sheets. The second is retailed
at the rate of 50 sheets for a rupee, and 100 at wholesale. The third, of a much
smaller size, is retailed at 140 sheets, and wholesale 160 sheets to 170 for a rupee."
A very complete account of the plant occurs in the Die. Ec. Prod. Ind., Vol. III.

Daphne spp.

]>. (jnidium is reported iu southern Italy, where it abounds ou stony slopes au<l is
used iu the sauje manner as the Indian species. D. laureola is mentioned in Ber-
uardin's list as another Italian fiber species. This author also lists I), sinensis (odora)
from China, and T). laureola is reported by Spon as abundant iu Spain, where its fiber
is somewhat employed.

Daphnopsis leguizamonis. Bira-bira.

A genus of South Auierican Tlnjmehiaccd'. The species named was represented in
the collection of Argentina, W. C. E., 1893. The fiber Avas produced from the bast.

A beautiful example of the delicate, white, lace-like fiber of D. tinifolia, known
as burn-nose bark, has been sent me by William Fawcett, of the Jamaica Botanic
Garden. Lofgren also mentions 1). hrasilicnsis, the Embira hranca.

Darakhte-shanah (Pers.). Abutilon indicum.
Dasylirion graminifolium. Bear Grass of Texas.

Eudogeu. Liliaceiv. Aloe-like leaf cluster.

The species of this genus are chiefly Mexican plants, although the one named is
found in Texas. The plants have short stems and densely crowded linear leaves
(which furnish the fiber), drooping gracefully; and generally having a little brush-
like tuft of fibers at the point. From amidst these leaves the flower stalks rise to a
considerable height, the upper portion being crowded with a dense panicle of flowers.
Fig. 2, PI. IV, is a Dasylirion grown in the United States Botanical Garden.

Structural Fiber. — The old museum collection of the Department contained a
sample of this fiber, without data other than the name. It resembles Istle, is about
2 feet iu length, fully ec^ual to it iu strength, though in color it is darker, due very
likely to improper mode of preparation. A peculiarity of this sample is that the
filaments are filled with kinks, as though the fiber had been folded upon itself a
number of times. These do not impair the strength, however, the breaking point
coming oftener between than on the "joints," as these kinks appear to be, for the
filament has no stifl'ness at this x^oint. This should uot be confounded witli the liear
grass of the Southern States, Yucca ftlamentosa , an inferior fiber.

D. texanum and D. wheeleri of the Southwest have thick clusters of long, slender
leaves which can be split into fibers. I doubt whether these are textile, or good for
anything finer than mats and basketry. (Dr. V. Racard.) I). f/laucophi/Uum is a
Mexican species that has been introduced into Australia (Guilfoyle's List).

* Specimen. — Mus. U. S. Dept. Ag.

Date palm (lud.). See Phoenix dactylifera.
Datil (see Cocos datil).
Datilera (Peru). See Phoenix dactylifera.
Dealibanni (Guian.). Gronoma haculifera.

148 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD

Debregeasia hypoleuca.

Exogeu. Urticacea-. A large slirul).
Abounds iu the western temperate Himalayas; distributed to Afghanistan and
Abyssinia. "Watt states that the diftereut species »i Dehregeasia yield strong and useful
fibers, which are more or less extracted by the hill tribes of India. The fiber of the
species named is valued in the Panjab for net ropes on account of its resistance to
the action of water. It is not steeped, but merely dried, and when brittle is beaten,
the fiber separating readily. The liber is chiefiy used by the natives for ropes with
which to tether their cattle.

Debregeasia velutina.

Another Indian species, which is found iu the Himalayas from 2,000 to 2,500 feet
elevation, and at 7,000 on the Xilgiri hills.

In the Madras Manual of Administration {\o\. I, 318) it is mentioned as one of the
chief fiber plants of the Presidency. The manager of the (ilen Rock Fiber Company,
AVynaad, is reported to have sent a consignment, presumably of this fiber, to London.
It was valued at £70 per ton. Of the Madras Presidency it is commonly stated that
it is much used both by the natives generally and the managers of coffee estates.
Mr. J. Cameron, superintendent of the Botanic Gardens, Bangalore, states that "this
is one of the commonest and most conspicuous jdants in the AVynaad and Nilgiri
sholas. Its fiber is used for bowstrings, and it would only api>ear to reijuire to he
better known to be much appreciated."

D. wuUicliiana, Indian, also yields a fiber fit for cordage, and D. edtdis is a Japanese
species that has been recommended for cultivation in Victoria.

Deckanne or Deccan hemp (Ind.). See Hibiscus ((lunahinus.

Deishar (Arab.). AInitllon indicnm.

Dendrocalamus strictus.

An Indian species of bamboo, the crushed stems of which have been an article of
exjiort for }>ai)er making. See ISamhusa.

Deora jute (see Corchorus).
Derris scandens.

A handsome climbing shrub belonging to the LvgiDiiiuosw, met with in the eastern
Himalayas and western Ghats of ludia, the bark of which affords a coarse cordage
fiber.

Desijute (see Corchorus).

Desniodium molle.

Exogen. Leguminosa. An annual shrub.

A species of forage plant which abounds in Georgia and Florida, and which a
Georgia writer considers as good, for the locality, as clover.

Specimens of the canes were submitted to the Department as of possible utility
in fiber production. The fiber is, however, of douljtfnl utility for any purpose, with
the disadvantage of a small yield. A stem free from l)ranches and 6 feet high can
easily be grown in sandy soil if the seed is sown thickly.

Desniodium tilicefolium.

This is an Indian species that is extensively employed for rope making and is also
used for paper manufacture iu the Himalayas. It is said that the fiber is exported
to Tibet from Kumaon for jiaper stock. D. latifoliiim, India and Ceylon, is used for
the same purpose.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE,

149

Desmoncus macroacanthus. The .Iaoitara,

This siiocifs grows in the Ciitiuga lorests of the Upper Kio Negro and on the mar-
gins of small streams, climbing over trees and hanging iu festoons between them,
throwing out its armed leaves on every side to catch the unwary traveler. The stem
of this palm is very slender, weak, and
Hexible, often sixty or seventy feet long,
and climbing over bushes and trees or
trailing along the ground. It is armed
Avith scattered tubercular prickles.
The leaves grow alternately along the
stem ; they are pinnate, with from three
to tivo pairs of leatlets, beyond which
the midrib is produced and armed with
several pairs of strong spines directed
backward, and with numerous smaller
prickles. The leaflets are ovate, with
the edges waved or curled. -The bases
of the petioles are expanded into long
membranous sheaths. The spadices
grow on long stalks from the axils of
the leaves and are simply branched.
The spathes are ventricose, erect, per-
sistent, and prickly, and the fruit is
globular, of a red color, and not eata-
ble. The rind or bark of this species
is much used for making the "tipitis"
or clastic plaited cylinders used for
sciueezing the juice out of the grated
mandioca root in the manufacture of
farina. These cylinders are sometimes
made of the rind of certain water plants
and of the petioles of several palms, but
those constructed of "Jacitdra'' are said
to outlast two or three of the others,
and though they are much more diffi-
cult to make, are most gene rail j' used
among the Indian tribes. ( Wallace.)

This Brazilian palm is mentioned in the Handbook of the State of Para, W. C. E.,
1893, as producing a useful fiber'. It is there known as the jncitdra. '

DesTval jute (see Corchorus).

Devil's cotton (see Ahroma augusta).

Devil's nettle (see Laportea).

Dhak (Ii'd.). Butea frondosa.

Dhaman and Dhamru (Ind.), Grciria asiatica.

Dhunchi (lud.). See iSeshania.

Dianella tasmanica. Broad-leaved Flax Lily.

A genus of Liliacew found in Australia and southern Asia. They have fibrous roots
and grass-like leaves.

Fiber. — This species was secured at the Phila. Int. Exh., 1870, under the name
I>. Jatifolia. It was prepared by Dr. Guilfoyle, who stated on the label accompanying
the specimen that the plant grows on the banks of creeks and fern gullies in elevated

Fig. 47. —A iilant of Desmoncus macroacanthus.

150

USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

situations, where its leaves sometimes attain a length of 6 feet. He considered the
fiber good, and excellent for paper stock. The specimen preserved much of its grass-
like form, having been prepared experimentally in a simple manner. Some of the
filaments were white and brilliant, finite strong; a few fibers twisted together
rcfiuired (xiiite an effort to break them. Its name does not appear in the list of use-
ful textile fibers, from which it is to be inferred it has not hitherto been known as a
fiber-])roducing jilant of anj' value.

In Dr. Guilfoyle's recently published brochure. Fibers from Plants, Indigenous
and Introduced, four other -species are mentioned: D. ciiriilcd, 1>. elvgans, J), hrris,
and D. rerohita.

"Specimen. — Mus. V. S. IJept. Ag.

r f'f /

%

FiQ. 48. — Tree fern, Dicksonia.

Dichelachne crinata. Horsetail Grass.

A tough grass, universally diffused over extra-tropical Australia, and occurring
also in New Zealand.

According to Dr. Ferd. von Mueller, this species yields a tenacious paper, especially
fit to be usedfor thin wrapping or ])acking paper. It is not unlikely to make fair print-
ing and the less costly kinds of writing and tissue paper.

Dicksonia culcita.

This species is mentioned by Hillebrand in the Flora of Hawaii. See lander
Cihotium, where several allied species of tree ferns, supplyingthe Pulu of commerce,
are described. Fig. 48 is a species of Dicksonia in the U. S. Botanical Gardens.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 151

Dictyosperma fibrosum. Madagascar Piassaba.

J'hulogen. ralma.

A species of palm, known as Vonitra, iuhabiting the islantl of Madagascar, the
trunk of which is densely covered with brownish fibers about 18 inches long, formed
Ironi the inner sheaths and the edges of the petioles.

STniiCTiKAi. FiHKR. — Individual libers liner and more llexible than Brazilian j>ms-
.so/>rt and slightly shorter ; in other respects resemble it closely. The quantity pro-
duced was never very large, and in the early stages of the enterprise the fiber was
shipped in a very rough, uncombed stnto. Latterly the quality has much improved,
and during the period when this class of fiber commanded specially higli prices the
shipments Avere probably remunerative. Owing, however, to the discovery of west
Mvicn, piassahttf ov "bass fiber," obtained from Raphia Hnifera, the prices olitained
for Madagascar j)m8sa/>rt have apparently fallen almost as low as the cost of produc-
tion; and little has appeared lately in the London market. (Kew Bull., Oct., 1894.)

Well-combed, straight, and clean fiber is worth in England £30 to jC46 per ton.
Has almost entirely disappeared from the market.

Diplothemium littorale. Yatay-pony.

a species of palm found in Argentina (Corrientes and Misiones), from the leaves of
which a good fiber is produced {Niederlein).

Dirca palustris. Moosewood.

Exogen. Thymehracea'. A shrub.

This species is found in the northern portions of the United States and Canada.
It does not yield fiber m any sense, though its flexible twigs, which can l)e readily
tied in knots, are employed as thongs. Also called leatlierwood and wicopy. The
Department collection contains specimens of the leathery twigs.

IJ. occid en talis is a California species. Dr. Havard writes that its strong, tough,
nitrous bark was formerly much used by the Indians for ropes, nets, and baskets.

* Specimen. — Mus. U. S. Dept. Ag.

Dishcloth plant (see Luff a).
Diss (Alg.). See Ampelodesma tenax.
Djai-soi (Borneo), Cocos nucifera.
Dodo cloth (see Apocynum).
Dolichandrone falcata.

Family Bignoniacece. A small tree of central and southern India, used for timber,
and also in pharmacy, a decoction being made from its fruits.

Bast Fii!ER. — Both I), falcata and J), rhredii yield blackish, coarse bark fibers.
Specimens of the first named were sent to the Amsterdam Exhibition.

Dolichos trilobus.

Exogen. Leguminosa'. A bush.
The genus has representatives throughout the temperate and tropical regions of
America, Asia, and Africa. They are herbaceous or shrubby jilants, or beans, many
having twining stems. While chiefiy valuable as food plants, some species are valued
for their fiber. "IJ. trilobus is a very important fiber plant in China, textiles made
from it being termed grass cloth, like those from nettle fiber. It has been utilized
from earliest times, and the manufacture is extensive." (Spon.) Several species of
DoUclios grown in India are described in full by Dr. George W^att, but no mention is
made of their yielding fiber. See Pachyj'hizns angulatus, the revised name of the plant,
D. trilobus having been used in this instance as Spou's name.

152 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

Donibeya acutangula et sp. div.

Exogeus. StercuJiaced'. 8brnbs or small trees.

The sjiecies of Domheiin are African shrubs abounding in Madagascar and Manii-
tins, extending as far north as Abyssinia. The plants are often seen in hothouses.

This species is cultivated in the Island of Hourbon, where it is said to be held in
esteem for its fiber. A variety, J>. a)u/uUit(i, according to Savorgnan, " is cultivated
in the Island of Reunion for its textile fiber, from which cordage is made." This
author also mentions D. fcrruijinea, Isle of France, as yielding a strong iiber fit (or
cordage. Spon states that the fibrous bark of another Madagascan si)ecies, 7>. can-
nahina {D. riscosa), is made into strong ropes. The bark of 7>. phiUitiifoVia, according
to A. A. Black, is also used in Madagascar for the manufacture of ropes, twines, etc,
D. waUichii is mentioned by Bemardin, and in the Flax and Hemp Commission list.

Dombeya natalensis.

Filler of the above species, which is a native of Natal, was received from the Vic-
torian collection of Dr. Gulfoyle, Phil. Int. Exh., 1876. In Victoria the plant forms
a most beautiful flowering shrub or small tree and is of quick growth. Its fiber is
suitable for cordage or for paper stock. Like all the species belonging to this family,
the fiber is browni.sh in color, though lighter than " Kurrijovfj," and, judging from
the museum samples, is a little stronger. It is at best, however, a very coarse fiber
and is not to T)e comjiared with mallow liber of the commonest description, neither
is it as fibrous in texture as Commersonia.

^Specimen. — Mus. \]. S. Dept. Ag.

Doryanthes excelsa. Spear Lily.

Endogen. .{manjUidacece. Aloe-like leaf cluster.

Hahitat. — East Australia.

The plant is "a tall straight stem, 20 feet high, springing from an aloe-like tuft of
broadly ensiform-spreading basal leaves, the stt^m itself clothed with much smaller
appressed ones." The stem terminates in a bulky flower head composed of crimson
flowers. It is sometimes met with in cultivation.

Strixtiral Fiber. — Specimens were secui'ed from the New South Wales and
Victorian collections received with the Australian exhibit, Phil. Int. Exh., lS7(i.
According to Dr. Guilfoyle, who has prepared its fibers experimentally, the leaves
are a eoni])lete mass of fiber of great strength, fit for strong ropes, matting, cordage,
etc. It can also be employed in paper making with good results. It is of moder-
ately quick growth in Victoria. The specimen has not been thoroughly prepared,
as some of the filaments are quite white, while the majority are a rust red. They
are still" but fine, the white fibers being smooth and glossy. In strength the sample
examined is considerably below the average of fibers in this family.

In a recent publication Dr. Guilfoyle mentions D. palmerl, and D. guilfoylex, the
Giant Queensland Lily, as fiber producing.

* Specimens. — Mus. \]. S. Dept. Ag.

DoTvaniya (Ceyl.). See Greicia.
Doum palm. Hyphwne thebaica.
Draceena draco. Dragon's Blood Tree.

Endogen. Ltliacece.

Habitat. — TeneriflFe, Canary Islands. Cultivated in Australia. See fig. 49.

/). draco ''has a tree-like stem, simple or divided at the top, and often, when old,
becoming much branched, each T)ranch terminated by a crowded head of lanceolate,
linear, entire leaves of a glaucous-green color, which embrace the stem by their
base." The tree derives its name from a resinous secretion or exudation known to
commerce as dragoon's blood, which at one time formed an article of considerable

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE.

153

export from the Canaries. Some of the plants are gigantic in size, " the colossal
dragon tree at the town of Orotovia. in Tenerifle, being To feet high and 48 feet in
cironmference, with an antiquity which must at least bo greater than the pyramids."
Structural Fiber.- -Specimens received with the \'ictoriau collection from the Mel-
bourne Botanic Garden, where it is thoroughly established. Dr. Guilfoyle states that
"the liber is strong and flexible, but the tree is of very slow growth." It is prepared

Fig. 49. — Greenhonse plant of Drncmna draco.

from the leaves, and is white, line, and lustrous, and between 18 inches and 2 feet in
length. It IS not as strong, however, as the Cordyline fibers, though much softer.

Bernardin mentions four species: D. draco, 1>. mauriliana, J>. marginaia, from Mau-
ritius, and 7>. ierminalis. Sandwich Islands, known as Ti. llillebrand refers this
Species, however, to Cordyline, and states that the leaves are used in Hawaii as wrap-
pers for food, or for plates. Ti is the Tahitian name of the tree.

"Specimens. — Mas. U. S. Dept. Ag. ; Bot. Mas. Karv. Univ.

Dragon's blood tree (see Draccena).

154 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

Dregea volubilis.

Exogeu. .Isclepiadacca'. Tall climbiug shrnl).
An Indian species, found in Bengal, Assam, the Deccan, and Ceylon. Contains a
.strong fiber used by the natives. In Bombay the creeper is used as a cordage sub-
stitute in binding bundles of wood.

^ (Gevl.)- See Anodemlron,

Dun \ ^ •

Dunchee (Iiul.)- See Seshania acnleata.

Dwabote (Buiin.). See Kydia.

Edgeworthia gardneri.

Exogen. Th}imelaace(v. A large bush.

Found in the Himalayas between 4,000 and 9,000 feet elevation.

Bast Fiber. — The strong, tough iiber obtained from the long, straight, sparsely
branched twigs of this bush must, sooner or later, become one of the most valuable
of Indian fibers. The finest (lualities of Nepal ])aper are made from this plant, which
produces a whiter paper than that obtained from Daphne cannahina. ( JFatt.)

Edgeworthia papyrifera. Mitsumata of Japan.

One of the three species of plants employed in the paper industries of .lapan.
The fibers of Mitsumata {E. papyrifera) and (ianpi {Wikstrccmia canesccns) are not
considered strong enough to use singly for paper making, yet they are used exten
sively with other coarse raw materials "in order to give tenderness, smoothness,
and luster to paper of low (juality''

FiBKH. — The specimens in the Department collection from Japan are in the form
of raw stripped bast, and the same bleached and cleaned of ei>iderniis and woody
matter. The strips arc, 6 to 8 feet in length, very clean, and yellowish white in color.
There is also a sample of pulp, and different forms of paper.

Economic consij>krations. — Soil fit for the Mitsumata is about the same as that
for the pai>er mulberry plant, but the topograjihical conditions suitable show quite a
contrary result, the paper muiberry flourishing in exposed situations, while the Mit-
sumata succeeds in shaded places, but free from stagnant water, and conse(iuently
the best situation for the Mitsumata culture is the slope of mountains or hill sides,
the soil, gravel loam, belonging to the paleozoic or mesozoic geological formation.

It can be propagated either by seed, layering, or by cuttings; but the most exten-
sive and practical method is raising plants from the seed. The seed is sown between
the rows of barley or wheat or any other places where they are not exposed to sun-
light. When the land is poor, some liquid manure is given to the row before the
seed is sown. In March of the next year the young shoots are dug out and trans-
planted at the rate of 5,000 per tau ' on hilly places or 6,000 per tau on level land. In
planting out it is considered that a close plantation is rather better than an open
one. Plowing should be done two or three times a year, manuring at the same time
either with Chochin cake (by-product of rice spirit brewing}, oil dake, or rice bran,
or sometimes with green manure.

It yields the first crop in the second year, and afterward every other year. It is
harvested from November to March of the next spring, the yield commonly ranging
at about 300 kilograms per acre, though there are some cases of a product of over
1,000 kilograms of raw bark. The process of Vjleaching is quite the same as employed
for paper mulberry bark, Broussonetia papyrifera.

Edredon vegetal (see Ochroma lagopus).
Ehua'wa (Hawaii). Cyperus liemgatus.

' Tau, See under Cyperus unitans.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE.

155

Ejoo or Ejii (^rala>'). See Arenga.
Elseis guineensis. On. Palm.

Endoyen. Palmd'. Palin, 20 to 30 feot.

This genus iuclndes the oil palm of west Africa, which has been introduced into
the A\'est Indies, and several mostly South American and AVest Indian species.

Stuuctukal Fiber. — This is obtained from the inner leaflets of the plant, and is
described as being almost as fine and tenacious as human hair. It is extensively
nsed by the natives for lishing lines :nid other ])uri)oscs where greiit streugth is
required.

In the preparation of this fiber a considerable amount of skill is shown. The
jiinnie of the young leaves which have not been hardened by exposure are the only
ones that can be made use
of. If too old, the fiber can
not be separated from the
tissue, and if gathered
before the leaves have
opened it has not sufiicieut
strength to stand the rough
handling which it has to
undergo while in process of
manufacture. If gathered
at the right age the strip-
ping of the fiber offers no
difliculties, although the
process Is both tedious and
wasteful. So far as can be
ascertained, the only use
to which this fiber is put
is the making of fishing
lines and fine cords. It
would appear to be too
costly for native cloth, net,
or bag making. The fol-
lowing results of actual
experiments will serve to
show the tedious and ex-
pensive nature of the pro-
cess which has just been
described ; A day's hard
work is counted ■« ell spent
on the production of 6
ounces of fiber from 36
pounds of the raw mater-
ial. Estimating the value
of labor to the native at not more than 3il. a day, and leaving out of consideration
the time expended in collecting and sorting the leaves in the forest, the actual cost
of this material to the producer can not be calculated at less than £75 a ton. It is
therefore clear that it would be impossible to develop an exjiort trade in this ai-ticle
at the present rate of European prices. (Kew Bull., March, 1892.)

Spon mentions the species and says of the fiber that "it has not received the
attention it seems to merit. The filaments are fine, clean, and regular, like bun<lle8
of horsehair; and are supple and very strong." E. mdanococca, the " Corozo," is
named in Dr. Ernst's list of Venezuelan fiber palms.

Ela-we"wel (Ceyl.). See CaJnmus rotang.

KKt. 50. — The oil pahn, Elteis guineensis.

15fi USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

Eleocharis acuta. Slender Spike Eusii.

A genus of cyperaceons i)lant8 liaviiii:; a wide range from tbc torrid zone almost to
the arctic. This species is common in Australia in moist situations, and is allied to
the ( reejiing spike rush of middle Europe. It is named by Dr. Ferd. von Mueller, of
Melbourne, as a good paper stock. "The local experiments here show this and many
other cyperaceons plants exquisitely adapted for good printing and tissue paper,
and a by no means A'ery inferior writing paper. Better api)liances will necessarily
imiJrove the (j^uality of the jiaper." (Jh: Ferd. ron Mitelhr.)

The stout spike rush, E. sphucelata, a swamp land species of southeast Australia
and Tasmania, is said by the same authority to be applicable to similar uses. E. ])lan-
taginea and E. fistulosa are Ceylon species, from the culms of which sleejiing mats
are made, and examples of these are jireserved in the Kew Mus.

Eleocharis palustris.

Syn. ,^virpii.s jjalustris.
A sedge common in America, Europe, northern Asia, and southern Africa. Used
in the same manner as the common bulrush, Sriypus laciisiris, which see. Savorg-
nan states that E. jjrt/Ms/ns is especially valued in Holland for making beautiful
matting.

Elephant G-rass. T}iph(i latifolia.

Eleusine coracana. Eaoi Millet.

Endogeu. Oruniiiiiw. An erect annual grass, 2 to 4 feet.

Common namks. — African Millet; Ragi Millet. Indian names, Daganna, Kora-
kan, and Mandiia.

"Cultivated in India, southern C^hina, Japan, and in many parts of Africa for the
grain, which is used as food. It forms the principal food of many African tribes.
In spite of the bitter taste of the Hour, a kind of bread or unleavened cake is made
of it. Beer is brewed from the grain in Abyssinia. Said to yield good crops even
on verj' poor soil, and may be cultivated in the same way and for the same purjioses
as millet." {F. Lamson-Scrihner.)

Savorgnan states that fiber has been extracted from this species Avhich is useful for
rough cordage. E. indica, which has been distributed throughout the warmer coun-
tries of the globe, is particularly abundant in the Southern States, growing in culti-
vated grounds about dwellings, etc. It has somewhat wiry, flattened stems, many
springing from a single root, and rather thick leaves. It might be useful as a paper
plant; known as wire grass, crab grass, etc.

Elionurus hirsutus.

Endogeu. (iramincw. A perennial grass, 1 to 2 feet.
India. ^Vatt mentions that tlie roots are claimed to yield a fiber for use in weav-
er's brushes.

Elm (see Ulmus).

Elodea canadensis. Water Weed.

l>ernardin gives /•-'. cnnndcnsis as a paper material. ( )f doubtful utility.

Elymus arenarius. Sea Lyjie Grass.

This species, allied to the common barley, is known as a common sand-binding grass
along the shores of Great Britain, but is found also in other parts of Europe and in
America, particularly on "our North Atlantic coast and on our western shores from
Santa Cruz, Cal., northward to within the arctic zone. The seeds are used for food
by the Digger Indians of the Northwest, and as the grass springs up around their
deserted lodges it is called by the .settlers 'Raucheria' grass. This lynie grass is
usually regarded as possessing little or no forage value, but in very moist climates

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE.

157

or under certain favorable conditions it may yield a valuable fodder, for when young
tin- grass is tender and nutritious." {F. Lamson-Scribner.) See fig. 51.

Structural Fiuf^R. — This species has been employed in Labrador in the manu-
facture of table mats and baskets, and it might be worthy of consideration as a paper
stock. £. arenaritts is one of the most iiseful basket grasses of the Aleutian island-
ers, though E. mollis and A', sihiriais are also
employed. Dr. O. T. Mason states that the
material is employed not only "when macer-
ated and treated as hemp, but as a straw
plait, which is described as follows :

The ornamentation on the outside of the
mats and baskets is formed by embroidering
on the siirface Avith strips of the straw in-
stead of the macerated fiber, which forms
the body of the fabric. The embroidery
stitches in these, as in most savage basketry,
does not always pass through the fabric, but
are more frequently whipped on, the stitches
passingalwaysbetween the two woof strands,
as in aresene embroidery, showing only on
the outside. There is no Chinese or Japa-
nese basket in the National ^Museum showing
this plaited weft. The grass of these Aleutian
wallets is exceedingly fine, the plaiting done
with exquisite care, the stitches being often
as fine as 20 to the inch, and frequently bits
of colored worsted are embroidered around
the upper portion, giving a pleasing eftect.
{Dr. 0. T. Mason.)

Emajagua (Peru). See HihiscHs tili-
aveus.

Embauba (Braz.

tat a.

See Cecropia pel-

FiG. 51. — Elymvs arenar'nis.

Embira (Braz.). See Xylopia sericea.

The term has likewise been used in the sense of bark, usually with an affix, as

EmMra-ocH {see Lecytliis). Sometimes written i-'wrira. jjn/a means the black

embira. braiica, Xylojjia grandijiora, and Daiyhnopsis hrasiliensis.

Embirama. Same as the above, Xylopia.
Embirussu (Braz.). ^ee Bombax puhescens.
Enea (Venez.). Typha august if olia.
Enhalus koenigii.

A genus of Hydrocharitacew, this species being found in the Island of Celel>es,where
•'it is highly valued for its fruit and for its fiber" {Satwnjnati).

Entada scandens. Legnminosw.

A species of climbing plant native to the Tropics of both hemispheres, the tough
bark of which is elaiined to be used in Ceylon for ropes.

The pods of this species often measure 6 or 8 feet in leugth. The seeds are about
2 inches across by 4 an inch thick, and have a hard, woody, and beautiful jjolished

158

USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

shell, of a dark browu or jjurplisli color. In the Tropics the natives convert these
seeds into snuffboxes, scent bottles, spoons, etc., and in the Indian bazaars they are
used as weights. (J. Smifh.)

Entelea arborescens.

Exogeu. TiUacea: A small tree, 5 to 10 feet.

Found in New Zealand, where the light wood of the tree is used T)y the natives as
floats for their nets.

Ba.st Fiber. — "From the cortical tiber are made ropes, cords, and fishing nets"
{Savorgnan) . E. palmata is aNew Holland species, also included in the Manual Hoepli.

Envira.

This word, with an atfix, occurs many
times in a catalogue of Avoods exhibited
l)y the State of Amazon, Brazil, at the
W. C. E., 1893, Chicago, as a common
name for certain trees that yield fiber.

Examplesare: dianta, ''furnishes

a resistant fiber, though little used;"

prvta (or the black envira), "the

twigs of young plants serve for lishing
poles, also has a fiber of resistant <iual-

ity;" jiixiina and suruciicii,

the same; taia, or tjueimoza,

•'thick fibrous bark;" de iijapo,

'• inner bark holds the best known fiber
lor cords.'' See Embira.

Epicampes macroura.

lioOT.

Broom

Endogen. (iraminea\ A grass, 6 to

7 feet. (See fig. 52.)
Common and native names. —
Broom root, Mexican whisk, liaiz
deZacnton (^lex.) ; Chiendent (Fr.).
Broom root, or zacatou, is a wild plant
which grows in profusion on the high
plains included in Huamantla, San .\n-
(ires, Chalchicomula, Perote, and San
Felipe del Obraza, and other localities
of Mexico having a cold climate. It
not only was not cultivated, but until
.its export made it of commercial impor-
tance proprietors of ])lantations were at
considerable expense to rid their fields of the weed. In 1884 it was exported exclu-
sively from Vera Cruz, and in five years its exportation auiouuted to 1,763,680 pounds.
In 1889 it was stated by M. Chas. Baur that a Frenchman was producing zacatou on
a plantation upon the slojies of the Pojjocatapetl and the Yxtaeihuatl, with a pay
roll of .~)00 workmen.

Structural Fiuer. — This is the roots of the grass, which "are about 9 inches to
a foot long, possessing a wavy character, and about one-sixteeuth of an inch in diam-
eter." When cleansed they are a pale yellow." The Department ^specimens were
secured at the Paris Exp. Univ., 1889, the W. C. E., 1893, and at the C. S. I. Exp., 1895,
Atlanta, besides commercial samples from H. H. Crocker & Co., New York City.

Uses. — It is used by the Germans and French to mix with Venetian whisk, derived
from the roots of Chnjsopogon grijUus, for the manufacture of dandy brushes, clothes

Fl'j. 52 — The Mfxiuaii lirooiu root. Ejiicuiiijicis
inacrotira.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 159

brushes, carpet brushes, and velvet brushes, which are shipped to this country at
exceedingly low prices. The broom root therefore appears to be a cheap substi-
tute for Venetian whisk, aud it is said tliat when made into brushes and thoroughly
dry it is apt to become lirittle aud break off. For this reason it has never found
much favor in England. (Kew Bull., Dec, 1887.) Employed in the United States.

Epicampes rigens. Woou Eeed Gkass.

This species is found in California, Mexico, and eastward in New Mexico to west-
ern Texas. It is a tall-growing rigid grass, pale yellowish green in color, growing
in tufts in the alkaline regions. It is used by the Indians in Ijasket manufacture. See
account under Salix hisiandra.

Epilobiiim angvistifoliuni. Willow Herb. Fikewbed,

Exogen. (hiagracea'. Perennial herb.

The species of EpiloVium are mostly pereouial herbaceous plants from 2 to 7 feet
high, bearing pod-like vessels, whicli are lilled with cottony seeds.

Surface Fibj:u. — Samples of EpUohhim down, or silk cotton, were received from
Utica, N. Y., by the Flax and Hemp Commission in 1863, as specimens of a iiber that
might be used as a substitute for cotton for textile purposes. The fiber was accom-
panied by home-made samples of "thread," rope, and a piece of quilting to illustrate
the value of the fiber as a substitute for cotton batting. The fibers are not half the
length of upland cotton, or not more than three-eighths of an iuch, and consecpiently
could not be spun; and, even mixed with other fibers, would fly off in the process
of manufacture; the fiber is soft, lias a silky luster, and is of a creamy white
color. Examined microscopically, the filaments consist, like most seed liairs, of sin-
gle cells. Their walls are very thin, malve sharp bends, and seem to be brittle, Avith-
out the least wind or twist, and, while resembling the down of ./scZejj(«.s, are of less
length, with a rather strong longitudinal marking. The si)ecimens are only inter-
esting in the light of experiment, and from the fact of their having been jireseuted
by the Flax aud Hemp Commission.

Bast Fiker. — The stalks yield a bast which, according to K. H. Ballinger, of Port
Townsend, "Wash., is used by the Indians of the Northwest for fiber. The fiber is
doubtless extracted in the green state, for the bast stripped from the dry stalks was
a most unpromising source of fiber material.

Spon mentions fireweed under the name Ercchihites liieraci/oliu, ^nd says that the
plant springs up as a weed on recently cleared laud in America. "Its seed pods yield
a hber much resembling cotton, but the seeds are smaller and re((nire no ginning to
sejiarate them from the boll. This fiber may be spun and woven, and wicks, ropes,
yarn, and paper are said to have been made from it. The application to.paper mak-
ing was especially successful, the product comparing well with the silk-made papers
of China aud Japan." I can find no reference to such use of this jilant iu America
under the name fireweed.

Eragrostis cynosuroides. Dab (iRAss.

Endogen. (irumi)iea\ Perennial grass.

Northwestern Provinces of India.

Fiber. — It produces a fairly strong structural fiber used for nuikiug ropes. In
the Karuiil Settlement Report it is stated that the iiber is used for the ropes of Per-
sian wheels, and thej^ are said to last for three mouths or more. Stewart remarks
that the upper part of the stem is in some places used for making the seives employed
in paper manufacture.

Erba bianca (It.). See Artemisia vulgaris.
Erica spp. The Heathworts.

E. scoparia and E. vulgaris (now Calluna vulgaris) are stated by Savorgnan to be
manufactured into brooms, the stems being used.

160

USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

Watt states tliat tlie l»ark

Eriko (Yorubaland). Eaphia vinij'era.
Erinocarpus nimmonii.

Exogen. Tiliucew. A tree.
Found iu the Deccan and Bombay I'resideucy, India,
is said to yield an excellent fiber lor ropes.

Eriodendron anfractuosum. White Cotton Tree.

Exogen. Mulvaccoc. Tree, ."»0 to 60 i'eet.

Native and common namks.— The White Cotton Tree (Ind.); Kapok lloss tree

( Java) ; /mfewZ (Ceyl. ) ; Thlnhawh (WuTm.) ; Safed-si'inal {Wind.); Shwet simiil

(Beng.) ; Ceiba and jwchote (Mex. and Cent. Am.) ; Pemm (Maya of Yucatan).

According to the Flora of British India this species occurs iu the forests of the

hotter parts of India and Ceylon, and
lias found its way to South America, the
West Indies, and tropical Africa.

SrRiAcE Fiber. — The commercial
kapok of Java. Beautiful examples of
this substance, the most valual)le of all
the silk cottons, seed hairs, or downs,
from the commercial standpoint, were
secured from the Holland exhibit, W.
C. E., ]893. though erroneously stated to
be the product of Calotropis gh/antea.
Kapok, or the floss from the seeds of this
Eriodendron, "is, according to the pres-
ent demand, a fiber of great merit. The
modern trade in it was created by the
Dutch merchants, their supply being
drawn from Java. It is used in uphol-
stery, being too short a staple to be spun,
and. indeed, too brittle and elastic. But
these are the very properties that com-
mend the fioss to the upholsterer. In
cushions, mattresses, etc., its elasticity
and harshness prevent its becoming
matted as in the case with simal floss
from liomhax malabaricum, and it is there-
fore considerably superior to that fiber.
In<leed, it is probable that the even still
shorter stajile of ('ovhlosj)er urn would in
time command a better price than that
of the Hiina}. Like kapok it is very elas-
tic, the fiber springing up to its former
jiosition the moment the weight is re-
moved from the cushion. With Kunal, on
the other hand, a very short time suffices to make a mattress assume permanently
a compressed condition, in Avhich it occupies, perhaps, less than half its original
bulk, and at the same time becomes knotted. This necessitates the removal of the
stufling to be teased or rudely carded." ( Jratt.) While this species of silk cotton is
well known in tropical America, it does not seem to have reached commercial impor-
tance, as the only records regarding its utility refer to household uses by the natives
or country people in the localities where jjroduced. The Mexican siiecimens in the
Department collection came from the .State of Oaxaca, and are bright, soft, and lus-
trous with good elasticity. One of the native Mexican uses for tbis substance is for
candle wicks. See also Cottons (Silk Cottons) in alphabetical arrangement.

rio.53. —Cotton ftrass, Enophorum amjustifoliu in .

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE.

161

Since the Chicago Exposition kapolc has come into use commercially in this coun-
try, being employed as an ui)holstery fiber.
*' Specimens. — Mus. U. S. Dept. Ag.

Eriodendron samauma.

Flourishes along the river banks of portions of Brazil, particularly the Rio Negro.
"It is the tallest and most flourishing tree of the Amazon forests, attaining over 120
feet in height, with a diameter difticnlt to bo calculated in consequence of the
number of hard roots that in the form of a star proceed fiom the base of the trunk.
When young the tree has thorns that disappear when it attains its full growth.
These thorns are used as oi-naments among some of the Indian tribes. The Indians
of the upper Purus weave and make mats of the fiber.'' (From a Catalogue of Forest
Products of Brazil, W. C. E., 1893.) "Silky,.satin-like, and of an exceeding tenuity
and beauty are the cottons which in-
volve the seeds of the capsular fruits
oimonguha aiul samanma — Boinbar mun-
g iibo , Mart ; anil Eriodeiidron samauma.
Raw material of great abundance, and
already utilized in Brazil for the manu-
facture of costly threads and twists, it
contains an invaluable substitute for
beaver for velvety and luxurious felts."
(Notes on the State of Para. )

This fiber was also met with at the
Phil. Int. Exh., 1876. The tree was
stated to be the largest in the Amazon
region, "the fruit containing a silk
much sought after for mattresses" (De
Gama).

Eriolaena hookeriana.

It is said that the bast of this Indian
species of SfercuUacew yields a good
fiber, examples of which were sent to
the Paris Exposition, 1878, and to the
Colonial and Indian Exhibition, 1886.

Eriophorum comosum.
TON Grass.

COT-

Sedge-like

species

Fia. 54. — The lesser cotton yrass, Eriophnriim
latifidium.

Endogeu. Ci/peracecF.
perennial herb.

Common in India, allied
abound in Europe.

Structural Fiber. — A silky grass,
the fibrous leaves of which are employed
locally in India for twine, cordage, and
even for rope bridges, though such ropes
do not last over a year. "Thofiber yielded by this plant forms a small portion of what
is exported to the plains under the name hhdhur" ( Watt). The true hhdiuris Ischai-
mmn angiistifolium, which see. In the Kew Bulletin for July, 1888, is found an
article on the Iscluvvium, from which it would appear that E. comosum has been con-
founded with Andropotjon inrolutus and the true blidbiir, and that only a small part
of the bulk of grass used by the natives in rope making is lioni 7s'. eomosnm. Fig. .53
illustrates E. angnstifolium, Europe. For further accounts see Die. Ec. Prod. Ind.,
Vol. Ill; Bull. Royal (iardens, Kew, July, 1888.

12247— No, 9 11

162 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

Eriophorum latifolium. Cotton (Irass.

Another sjiecies of Cyperacetv. Common in Europe. ''The British species all
grow on wet bogs or turfy moors, wlu^re they frei^uently iVnm very conspicuous
masses of vegetation, in consecjuence of the long showy sillcy bristles of the flowers.
The English name cotton grass is very expressive, the llowers of souie of the species
appearing lil^e tufts of cotton." {Dr. Moore). The plant is known in Italy as swamp
Uax, Lino dcUa paludi. The librous substance mentioned us cotton has no value.
(See fig. 54.) The leaves of E. caunalnnum have been plaited.

E. pohjstachion, a British species found in wet bogs and turfy moors, is mentioned
iu the Official Guide Kew Mus., paper and cloth having been made from it.

Erizo (see Apeiba Ubourbon).

Erolin (see Uses of Flax, under Linum usitatissimum).

Erythrina indica. Indian Coral Tree.

Exogen. Leguminoscv. Medium-sized tree.
India. Foothills of the Himalayas ; Burma. While the plant is valued in India
as yielding dye, gum, medicine, timber, and food, its bark is also said to yield a pale-
yellow liber that is excellent for cordage. There are several American represent-
atives of the genus, but they have not been noted as producing fiber. Ji. siiherosa
is mentioned by Savorgnan as yielding a iiber used for cordage and ship cables.

Escoba (A'euez.) See ^iila rhombifolia.
Escobadura (Aig.). See Pavonia.
Escobilla (Cost. Ki.). Sec ^i^(^(^.
Esparto, aiicl Esparto grass.

The of commerce, from Spain and Algeria, Stipa tenacissima. The name is

sometimes given, also, to Lygeum spartnm ; chivo, and mulato, Mex.,

Fimbrhtylis fipadicea.

Espeletia sp, Fraile.ton.

An interesting genus of Composite inhabiting high elevations in Colombia, Ecuador,
and Venezuela, often 13,000 to 14,000 feet above sea level. Some of them are only a
foot high, though the larger number are taller.

Strfack Fiher. — The plants are furnished with long, strap-shaped root leaves
which are densely clothed with a white or rust-colored wool. Specimens of this
wool were exhibited in the Venezuelan court, W. C. E., 1893, under the common
name Frailejoii. They were collected from the highest parts of the Cordilleras of
Merida. Refer to Cidcilium.

Esponja. ) gpo^GE Cucumber. See Luffa.
Xi sti apaj a. )

Estopa (i>iaz.)=:tow.

Eta, or Ita palm (see Mauritia Jiexuosa),

Eucalyptus obliqua. The Stringy Bark. Gigantic Gum Tree.

Exogen. Alyrtacew.
The trees of this large genus abound in Australia and Tasmania, though some of
the species have been distributed to other countries. Over 100 species are recognized,
and many of the trees are gigantic in size, and are exceedingly valuable for their

DESCRIPTIV^E CATALOGUE. 163

timber. K. (jlohiilus, the bine gum, J'J. (jigantea, the stringy bark, and E. amygdalina,
tlie ])e])peniiiiit tne, yield the best quality. Eucalyptus oil has attracted some
attention in late years, particularly since the Philadelphia exliibition of 1876.
JJ. ylohiihis is well known through its having been recommended for planting in
malarial districts of this country.

Uast Fiueu. — A specimen of the tow of E. ohliqua was received from the Victorian
collection, Phil. Int. Exh., 1876, prejiared by Dr. Guilfoyle. The fiber is reddish in
color, of little strength, and has been prepared experimentally. No data accom-
panird the specimen regarding its value, either for fiber or for paper stock, though
t lie aborigiu^s of Austral ia. are known to manufacture both canvas and cordage from
tlio eucalyptus, which would indicate not only strength, but considerabh; lineness.
I'iber marked Eiicalyptuti Jissilis was also sent to the Phil. Int. Exh., 1870, prepared bj^
the director of the Melbourne Botanic Gardens, Victoria. ^Vatt. mentions that the
bark of/:/', globulus yields a substance which has been found suitable for paper mak-
ing in India. Dr. Ferd. von ]\Iueller also mentions the following species: E.gonicaljix,
white gum tree, good packing paper; E. hucosylon, iron bark of New South "Wales,
rough packing paper; E. loiigifolia, i)acking paper; E. stuartiana, packing paper and
pasteboard; E. rostrafa, blotting and filter paper.

*S])ecime)is. — jMus. IT. S. Dept. Ag.

Eugeissona insignis.

A species of palm found in Borneo. "From the roots the natives weave their
ham]>ers, baskets, and arm coverings" (>'^aro7'gnan). 8pon mentions E. tristis, a
native of Penang, the fibrous leaves of which are woven into mats.

Eupatoriuni cannabiniim. Hemp Agrimony.

A species of Compositw, native to Europe, found growing in wet meadows; called
wild hemp, or, in Italy, Canapa salratica. *'The stalk yields material for cords,"' but
of slight value. There are many representatives of the genus in North America, but
none is recognized as the source of a useful textile.

Euphorbia palustris.

Exogen. Enpliorhiacew.

Eeprosentatives of the genus are found in many parts of the world, some of the
species that are cultivated in greenhouses being remarkable for the brilliant scarlet
bracts of the involucre. Some of the species are used in pharmacy, and the milky
juice of many, after drying, can be used as a gum or resin, though exceedingly
acrid.

FiHKR. — In the Italian work of M. A. Savorgnan the species named is stated to
grow in marshy jdaces and " to furnish textile liber of very line ([uality, but difficult
to extract;" should be regarded as a curious rather than a useful fiber.

Euterpe acuminata.

Endogen. Falma'.

The palms of the genus Eiifcrpc are of '' extremely graceful habit, having slender,
almost cylindrical stems, sometimes nearly 100 feet in height, surmounted by a tuft
of pinnate leaves, the leaflets of which are narrow, very regular and close together,
and generally hang downward. The bases of the leafstalks are dilated, and form
cylindrical sheaths round a considerable portion of the upper part of the stem, giving
it a woolen appearance. Ten species are known, all natives of the forests of tropical
South America, where they grow together in large masses; some inhabiting moist,
swampy places on the banks of rivers, and others extending a considerable height up
the sides of mountains."

Stkuctur.vl Fihek. — Specimens of liher from the leaves of this palm were cata-
logued m the exhibit of Costa Kica, W. C. E., 1893, from Talmarca, under the desig-

164

USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

nation "Fihras pahniche oscirro, Enocarpns utilis" (::= (Evocarpus). In my examination
of the Costa Kican fibers for award the specimen was not found.

Euterpe oleracea et sp. div.

Dorca mentions three species that inhabit Pern, E. oleracea, E. edulis, and E. ensi-
formis, all of wliich yield a fiber nsefnl for ropes and coarse textures. Orton men-
tions E. oleracea as occurring on the Amazon, known as the Jiissareira. Agassiz refers
to a Brazilian species as the Asi^ais, and the Treasury of Botany gives, as the com-
mon name of I'J. edulis, "The Assai Palm of Para." The
))everagemanufixctured from this species is also known
as ^issai. (See fig. 55.)

Evening primrose fiber (see Gaum).

False sisal hemp (Fla.). See Agave de-
cipicns.

Falseh (Pers.). See Grewia.

Fatsia papyrifera. The Rice Paper Plant.

Syu. AraJia papyrifera.

Endogen. Araliacew. A small tree.
" This plant grows in the deep, swampy forests of the
Island of Formosa, and apparently there only, forming
a small tree, branching in the njiper part, the younger
portions of the stem, together with the leaves and inflo-
rescence, covered with copious stellate down. The stems
are filled with pith of very fine texture, and white as
snow, which, when cut, forms the artich^ known as rice
paper. Large quantities of the stems are 'taken in
native crafts from Formosa to Chinchew, where they are
cut into thin sheets for the manufacture of artificial
flowers.' A lengthened account of this interesting plant
will be found in Hooker's Journal of Botany." {Dr.
Thomas Moore.)

Fern.

Tree
Hair -

Hei'Cibotinm, sourceof Pulu fiber; Maiden

Fig. 55.— The Assai, EtUerpf
oleracea.

— {see .fdiauliim}.

Fe-ru (Afr.). Silk Cottou.

See Cochloupcr

mum tinctorium.
Jjaportea crcnulata.

Fever Nettle.
Fiber.

See Introduction. Tlie classes of fibers recognize<l in this work are Bast, Struc-
tural, Surface, AVoody, and Pseudo-fiber.

Fibras palmiche oscuro (Co.st. Ki.). See Euterpe.
Fibrilia.

A textile material made by "cottonlzing" the fibers of flax, hemp, jute, China
grass, and similar vcgetabh; substances, as a substitute for cottou. Fibrilia from
flax is a form of " flax cotton " (so called). The account of an inquiry by the United
States Government into the practicability of the establishment of a "flax-cotton"
industry will be found in the Report of the Flax and Hemp Commission of 1863
(U. S. Dept. Ag., Washington, 1865), but now (uit of ])rint. See Fibrilia, L. Burnett
& Co., Boston, 1861. See also Uses of Flax uuder Linum usHaiissimum.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE.

165

Ficus spp. The Fig, etc.

This genus of Moracar comprises over 150 species, and a vast number of cultivated
varieties, including the lig of commerce known to botanists as Ficus carica. Tlio
species of Ficus abound either wild or cultivated throiiglioutthe warmer ])ortions of
tlie globe. (See fig. 56, form of leaf of i'\ rcUgiosa.)

There is scarcely a collection of tropical fibers that does not contain specimens
labeled "i<7c/(v," though, unfortunately, it has been so difficult in many instances to
trace the botanical species that we do not know them. No less than nine species are
named in Beruardin's Catalogue of Fibrous Plants, among Avhich are F. laurifolia,
Antilles; I", macrophiilla, New South Wales, and /'". rubra, Martiiiicjue, with the spe-
cies yielding the lig, and another the caoutchouc of Assam, representing species
abounding in southern Europe, Africa, the warm parts of India, and the isles of the
Southern Ocean. Koyle allndes to the genus and says " it is probable that the bark
of some of the species, like that of the
pai)er mulberry, may be converted into
half-stuff, as the bark of one species is
used for paper making in the island of
Ceylon." The Museum of the United
States Department of Agriculture con-
tains many examples of iibcr and manu-
facture from species of Ficus that are
unidentified. In Dorca's manuscript list
of Peruvian fibers, Ficus deudroneid a, the
Mafapalo (doubtless F. dendrocida), is said
to be used by the Indians, who make gar-
ments from the bark. He also mentions
the JJuyiciov, F. r/ii/antca, from which is
made various kinds of lilaments.

In the Manual Hoei)li three species are
mentioned, as follows: /'. indica, India
and New Caledonia, the bark of which is
used for cordage; F. proJixa, "a sacred
tree among the natives of Oceanica, tlie
fiber from the bark being used for making
clothing and textures of all kinds ; highly
valued as an industrial plant," commonly
called the Sacred Fig ; the bark of F. rcVt-
giosa is used in New Caledonia for cord-
age. The fiber of several Indian species
is mentioned in the Die. Ec. Prod. Ind.,
Vol. Ill, as follows: F. cunia bark used
to tie the rafters of native houses, and
affords a strong fiber useful for ropes;
F. liispida, fiber jirepared from the bark, in Bombay, used for tying bundles; F.
infectoria, fiber used for ropes; in Burma a fiber is extracted from the bark of i^. rcH-
f/ioso, which was formerly made into paper and used in umbrellas. Liotard also
mentions this species as an India paper jilant. Ficus (irapohy) is included in the
list of siiccies of fiber plants of Argentina furnished by Dr. Niederlein.

In the collection of Brazilian fibers (Phil. Int. Exh., 1876) there was one specimen
that closely resembled the fiber of liroussonetia papurifera, which was obtained from a
specimen of " wild fig" iound growing on the Doce River, the milk of which is said to
contain India rubber. Dr. Nicolan J. Moreira, reporting on fibers from Minas Geraes,
in a little brochure of 16 pages, thus writes of the plant producing these specimens :

The trunk leaves, or stalk leaves (i. e., layers of bast), although they can not be
separated into distinct fibers, nevertheless offer an interest not less industrial. By
soaking, the leaves come out whole ; when introduced between iron cylinders, in

Fk;. 50 — Leaves of Ficus reliijiosa.

166 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

consequence of the compression suffered, they become very thin, yet preaerviug a
remarkable width and lenj^th. lu this condition, to say nothing of tlieir bein^ objects
of curiosity, it is possible to transform them into thick garments for country labor-
ers or otlier Avorkmen. * * * Without further preparation, h-tters and official
documents arc written on the precious bark of the rich tree of the Doce Kiver. JL
Leverino Costa Leitc has taken from one tree 275 cavados (206 yards) of bark sheets
three-fourths of a yard wide.

Ficus benghalensis. The Banyan Tree.

Endogen. Urtivavea'. Large spreading trci;, 70 to 100 feet.

India and tropical Africa.

Many of the species of this genus send out aerial roots from the branches, and these,
descending to the soil, form lesser trunks, so that the tree covers a large area.

FiUER. — A coarse rope is prepared froiu the bark and from the aerial roots. Paper
is also reported to have been formerly largely prepared in Assam from the bark, and
to a small extent it is still so prepared at Pakhimpore and in licllary iu Madras.
This fiber was used by the Sikhs as a slow match. The length of the ultimate fibers
has, by Cross, Hevaii, and King, been ascertained to be 1 to 3 millimeters. The fibers
obtained from the genus Firim contain from 40 to 60 per cent of cellulose, and under
hydrolysis lose from 20 to 10 per cent of their weight. Chemically they are there-
fore worthless fibers. (Jfatt.)

Fimbristylis complanata.

This species 1)el(>ngs to a genus of cyperaceous plants which embraces u]iward of
200 species, chiefiy natives of warm countries.

The culms of 7'. cowjjZaiia/a have been used iji Ceylon for making mats; the Kew
Mus. collection contains a mat and rice plate from this species, and samples of (Inme-
lotte fiber, and paper pulp and paper from the stems of F. spadicea sent from Vera
Cruz. Mexican name, E8parto chino and Esparto midato.

Fique.

In the collection of the United States Department of Agriculture there is a beau-
tiful series of ropes, sandals, etc., collected iu Ecuador, labeled with this name.
Dr. Ernst states that Fiqnr is the same as Cocuiza (Venezuela), Fiircraa yigantea,
which see.

Firevreed (U. S.). See UpiloMum anfjustifoUmn.
Fitzroya patagonica.

Exogen. Conifera'. Cone-bearlug tree, 100 feet.
This is an evergreen tree, found in South America from Chile to Patagonia. Accord-
ing to Spun, its outer bark yields a fibrous substance used for calking ships. "The
tree, which is found in the mountains of I'atagonia, bears the ordinary winters of
Britain" (Prof. J. II. Balfour).

Flachs f(Iei.) = Flax.
Flax.

Ancient (see Linum angnstifolium); for linen. Lininn vsifaiissinvim ;

False , (ameUna sativa; Lily, DlaneUa tasmaniat ; New Zealand

rhorminm tenas ; Mountain (see CordiiUne) ; Rocky Mountain . I.hiiim

letcixii ; Travancore (see C ratal aria) ; Swamp , Eriophonim latifoHiivi.

For references to "fiax cotton" and "flax wool," see Uses of Flax, under Linum
usitatissimitm.

Foetid aloe (Maiirit.). Furcnvd f/igautra.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 167

Fomes fomentarius. .Vmadou polypoke.

This is a purasitic fungus on oak, beech, birch, and ash trees, from whieh is pre-
pared the amadou or German tinder. I'ileus bracket-like, lioof-sliaped, 4 to 7 inches
across, 3 to 5 inches thick at tlio base, attenuated toward the margin, smooth, dis-
tinctly concentrically furrowed, dingy brown, becoming hoary; cutich^ thick, liard,
persistent; context rather soft, compact, spongy, foxy rust color; tubes very long —
^ to 2 inches; pores minute, subangular, ash colored.

PSEUDO FiiJKR. — While it is hardly to be placed in the category of fibrous sub-
stances, slices of the fungus have been made into caps, table mats, artificial ilowers,
etc., specimens of which are preserved in the Kew Mus.

This species and other large Foh/porew may be treated to form " Sponglo lUjnine,"
or "soft amadou," which has the appearance of a pliable leather and has been found
valuable for chest iirotectors, hat linings, and various household purposes. The large
pieces have even been sewed together for making dresses and coarse garments by some
of the poorer inhabitants of Austria and Hungary. P.adham (Esculent Funguses of
England, 1863) related that several eminent surgeons of London used it extensively
in their practice, preferring it to chamois skin on account of its greater elasticity.
In vVmerica it is largely employed by dentists as an absorbent. Salmasius describes
the process of its preparation for soft amadou. Tlio fungus is first boiled, then
beaten to pieces in a mortar, next hammered out to depri\-e it of its woody fibers,
and, after being steeped in a strong solution of 'nitrate of potash, dried in the sun.
{B. T. GaUotvaij.) F. fomentarius has been employed from remote antiquity for the
development and preservation of fire.

In the manuscript notes furnished me by Mr. Galloway mention is also made of
D(vdaliaqi(ercina,yvhich. is common on oak stumps, butwhich Hartig (Diseases of Trees)
suspects to be also parasitic. Its preparation for tinder is accomplished after being
beaten out and steeped in a solution of nitrate of potassa. F. hjuiarius, the fire
fungus, is also mentioned, prepared in the same manner as J>. qiiercina. This is the
parasitic growth most frequently met with upon dicotyledonous trees.

Mr. Galloway states that the Ehi^omorplui' have the strongest, coarsest fibers of any
growths, but no record appears of their having been utilized in any manner. It would
seem, perhaps, not impossible that the fine felt-like substance of Zasmirdium ccJ-
lare Ft., the golden fibers of Ozonium auricomum Lk., and other filamentous mycelial
growths might, under stress of necessity, be made into fabrics of some economic value.

Formio (Span.). IS'ew Zealand Flax. See Fhormium.
Forster's palm lily (Austr.). Cordyline australis.
Fraxinus nigra. IsTortheen Swamp Ash.

Exogen. Oleaccw. A tree, 75 to 90 feet.

Common names. — Black ash, hoop ash, ground ash, northern swamp ash.

Southern Newfoundland, northern shores Gulf of St. Lawrence, to DehxAvare, the
mountains of Mrginia, southern Illinois, and northwestern Arkansas. The wood is
used for interior finish, fencing, barrel hoops, cabinetmaking, etc.

Woody Fiber. — The wood is easily separated into thin layers, and on this account
is largely employed as material for basket manufacture. Splint basket material is
also made from white ash, white oak, hickory, basswood, etc. The difierent kinds
of wood are prepared in the same manner. In preparing the wood for basket mak-
ing the log is split as near the eye as possible, shaved to the proper thickness, pounded
with a heavy hammer on an anvil ; the stick is then held in such a position across the
anvil that by pounding it the grains are loosened so that they can be pulled apart;
these strips are then smoothed and braided on blocks, which, after being dried, are
tightened and are ready for the rims.

168 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

Freycinetia banksii.

Eudogeii. randanaceo,.

Tliis genus of plants is native to the Indian Arcliipelago, Norfolk Island, and New
Zealand, and is distinguished by having the haliit of growth of Pandanus.

"The fiber will probably be found valuable for paper making" (Spon). The specios
is not incladfd in the Australasian lists of Dr. (iuilfoyle, but is included on the above
authority.

Furcraea cubensis. The Cajun.

Endogeu. AmarylUdavea^. Aloe-like leaf cluster.

Natiyk and common namks. — Cajun (Cent. Am.); Silk grass (Jam.) ; Tobago
silk grass and Langue Bcriif (Trin.). (See Silk Grass in Catalogue.)

This plant is a native of tropicnl America, but has been distribr^ed to and is culti-
vated in many tropical countries.

In this species the leaves are generally armed with long spines. Dr. Parry found
the plant growing common in Santo Domingo in 1871, and brought back with him
to the Department samples of the fibers. It is also common in .Jamaica, and it is con-
sidered that there would be no difficulty in establisliing it in cultivation for its fiber.
Dr. Schott (IT. S. Ag. Rept., 1869) describes it as it grows in Yucatan, placing it in
the list of "sisal hemps." It dift'ers from its congener, F. giganiea, in having no dis-
tinct trunk. The leaves are 3 to •') feet long and ."> inches wide in the middle, bright
green in color, rigid habit, and are armed with lieavy spines. Dr. Schott says that
the leaves of Yucatan i)lant8 are I to 5 feet long. It is growing in many places in
Trinidad, being found at the Bocas Islands, the Maracas valley (where the fine
variety imrmis is found), and is cultivated at Brechin Castle estate and at the con-
vict depot of Chaguanas. Consequent upon the anticipated demand for plants, many
thousands were grown in the Botanic Garden a few years ago, some 20,000 plants
having been produced.

SxRUfTrKAL FiUEU. — This is white, strong, and bright looking, and yields at the
rate of 2.0.5 to 3.15 per cent by weight of green leaves. From experiuK-nts carried
on at Jamaica under a committee appointed by Government it was found that leaves
of l'\ cuhensis weighing 36G^ pounds yielded 28 pounds of green fiber, which, when
perfectly dry, weighed 7^ pounds. This was at the rate of 2.05 i)er cent by weight
of green leaf. Value of liber: (a) £28, good quality, but might be whiter; {i)
fairly clean, fair color, value about £28 per ton; {<■) superior to sisal and worth £27
per ton — a good iiber, not quite sufficiently white in the center. (Dr. Morris.)

Dr. Fawcett states that the fiber of this species may 8upj)ly a small part of the
sisal hemp of conmierce. In Dr. Schott's article in the Annual Report of this Depart-
ment for 1869, the " cajun," or F. ciiheims, is figured opposite to page 259. This
shows that the i)lant produces a vast number of narrow leaves, a peculiarity noted
in the plants mistaken for sisal in Florida, and at the time of my visit I believed
that it was growing abundantly in Florida, and was the species mistaken for the
true sisal hemp, both by the Bahama and Florida cultivators.

The extraction of fiber from this plant, which grows so readily in Tobago and
Trinidad, was also tried by means of the Death and Kennedy machine, and was cer-
tainly the most promising of the plants under trial, as it gave the greatest output of
fiber of first-class cjuality. From the ease with which it glows it is doubtful if any
other plant will be able to be grown in competition with it for fiber production ; and
the fiber company of Tobago are sanguine as to their ultimate success with their
indigenous plant in preference to the imported sisal, and it would appear that their
reasons are sound ; the fiber itself is first-class, the plant is easily and cheaply grown,
land is easily available, and the want of an economic machine is the only difficulty,
and one which we all hope will soon be overcome. The plant is being largely culti-
vated at the convict depot, Chaguanas, and large numbers have been planted on the
Carrera's Island prison lands, under the supervision of Lionel M. Eraser, esq., super-
intendent of prisons. (An. Rept. Roy. Bot. Garden, Trinidad, 1890.)

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 169

Furcraea gigantea. Giant Lily.

Native and commox names. — The Cahouya ov Cahuja{Cent. Am. andW. Tnd.) ;
Cocui:a aud Fiqite (Yene/..); Pita and Pita flojd {Cost. Ri.); Peleria (I>raz.);
Aloes vert aud fti'tid aloe (Maiirit.); giaut fiber lily (Austr.). The fiber is
known commertially as Mauritius hemp. Fig. 1, PI. VII, is a greenhouse plant
of this species growing in the United States Botanical Garden.

The plant is closely allied to the agaves and is found throughout tropical America.
It grows in Algeria aud Natal, and is cultivated in St. Helena and Mauritius. It has
also been introduced into India, Ceylon, and Australia. It is of moderately quick
growth and attains great perfection. Like the agaves, these plants have long-lived
massive stems, immense fleshy leaves, and produce their flowers after many years upon
tall central stems, in pyramidal, candelabra- like form.

Structural Fiber. — The fiber very closely resembles the sisal hemp of commerce,
and doubtless is often so called. Dr. Ernst, in the catalogue of the Venezuelan
department (Phil. Int. Exh., 1876), states that the fiber is very strong and is used
for cordage and gunny bags. It is prepared in the same manner as sisal hemp.
Samples of the Venezuelan specimens are dyed in* aniline to show that it will take
color.

The plant is grown largely for liber at St. Helena and Mauritius, aud in the
London market the product is known as Mauritius hemp. In the Kew Bulletin for
March, 1887, the plant grown in Africa is described as having leaves 4 to 7 feet long,
4 to 6 inches broad at the middle, unarmed, light green in color, channeled down
the face.

F. gigantea is supposed to have been introduced from South America to Mauri-
tius about 1790^ It has evidently found a congenial home there, for without any
effort on the part of mau it has covered waste lands and adandoned sugar estates to
such an extent as to lay the foundation of a considerable filjer industry. The
leaves are often 8 feet in length and from 6 to 7 inches in breadth. The pulp of the
leaves when crushed gives off" a strong pungent odor, and hence this species is some-
times called the fcvtid aloe. The juice is strongly corrosive and soon acts upon
wrought iron; it is said to produce less effect on cast iron, while it is practically
inoperative on brass and copper. The plant grows in all soils aud up to an elevation
of 1,800 feet above the level of the sea. It has. however, more generally dissem-
inated itself on the lowlands near the coast and on a few of the al)andoned sugar
estates that have become too dry for cane cultivation. A fiber industry was started
at Mauritius about 12 years ago, when the wet or retting system was tried. The cut
leaves were first passed through the rollers of a sugar mill and steeped in water for
some days. The fiber was then washed and beaten out by hand in running water.
This process was soon found unsuitable, as the fiber was discolored and rendered
"weak, and cousequently commanded comparatively low prices. Attention was then
directed to extraction by means of gratteuse or scotching machines. Many machines
have since been tried, and it is believed that the purely mechanical difficulties con-
nected witli cleaning the fiber have been for the most part overcome. The amount
of fiber obtained from leaves of the Aloes vert was at the rate of 3 per cent by
weight of green leaves. The yield of fiber was at tlie rate of about 1^ tons per acre.
A set of six machines driven by a steam engine of 8 horsepower (nominal) cleaned
1,155 pounds of fiber per day, which is at the rate of 193 pounds for each machine
per day. {Dr. Morris.)

The production of this fiber is very great, especially in Bargiusimeto, Coro, and
the State Los Audas, where it is known under the name of /((/Me. It is used prin-
cipally in the manufacture of material for bags, horse blankets, fish nets, halters,
etc. But it should be produced in even greater quantities to enable us to establish
manufactories for cordage and bags necessary for the handling of the annual crop
of grains, as these articles are exported more and more extensively every year, prin-
cipally to the United States and Germany. {Dr. A. Ernst.)

170 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

Furcraea longaeva.

"This species iiiiiabits the mountains of Guatemala and Mexico at about 1,000 feet.
It is recorded as fiber producing." (Spon.) I have not met with species in any
Central and South Amcriciin collections, or noted any mention of it in the fiber
literature of tropical America that has come under my notice.

Furcreea tuberosa. Cajbulla.

A sample of this fiber, somewhat resembling Sisal lienip, was exhibited in the
Costa Rican <olle{tion, W. C. E., 1893. It is employed as a textile.

Fucus (see under Macrocystis).

Furquina (clothing), (-olombia. See Couratari.

Gahnia beecheyi. Uki of Hawaii.

A f-enus of Cjiperacco' the species of which are fouTid in eastern tropical Asia and
Polynesia, New Zealand, Tahiti, the Hawaiian Islands, etc. G. heicheyi is a grass
found at lower elevations— from 1,000 to 3,000 feet— in Hawaii and Oahu. The stems
are used to make cords.

G-ahnia radula.

A native Australian species of Ci/peracew commonly hnown as the Black Reed.
Specimens of the fibrous material were secured at the Phil. Int. Exh., 187<i, prepared
by Dr. Guilfoyle. The label reads : " This coarse-growing sedge can be had in enor-
mous quantities throughout the colony (Victoria). It is extensively used by the
settlers as a thatching material." As a fiber it has no value, and it is doubtful if it
would make good paper. The species is noted in Dr. (aiilfoyle's Australasian list.

Galvan. Venetian name of An(1roj)ogon grylhis.

Gamalote (Veuez.). See Panicuvi myunis.

Gamalotte (Mex.) See Fimhristylis compJanata.

Gampo (Si)an.). See Hibisais cannahinufi.

Ganpi fiber (Jap.). See Wihstramia.

Gas (Ceyl.)^a tree.

Gaura parviflora.

This species, belonging to the Evening Primrose family, was sent to the Depart-
ment from Boi.se, Idaho, as a fiber plant. The stalks were examined, but the fiber
layer was found to be too thin to make the plant of any value whatever as a textile.
Stalks of the Evening Primrose have been received from other inquiring corre-
spondents. It is therefore included in this list.

Gayumba (Span.). See Spartiuni junceum.

Gebang palm (Java). Corypha gehanga.

Gelso reale (It.). Morns alba.

Genet d'Espagne (Fr.). Spart'mm junceum.

Genipa americana. Huitoc of Peru.

This species belongs to the Cinchona family, the tree being found in the American
tropics. G. americana produces the Genipap fruit, which is about the size of an
orange, and of agreeable flavor.

DESCRirTIVE CATALOGUE. 171

Fir.Ei:. — The bark of this tree, known in Peru as the Vmuayaiiua, or Huitoc,
"furnishes a fiber that is used by the Indians for makini;- rou.nh clothinj;" (Dorca).

Geonoma baculifera. The Ubim.

A genus of tropical American palms. The species occurs in British Guiana, where
it is used as a thatch material.

Where tlie iroolic {Manlcarla saccifera) does not grow the small, transparent leaves
of deal ihaiini {(1. hacuUfera) afford a thatch which is in one respect still more con-
venient than iroolic. They are gathered and fastened together by their stalks so
as to hang close together, and with their sides overlapping, from a long lath cut
from the stem of the Booba ])alm, Iriartca exorrliiza. 8uch rows of leaves, 10 or 12
feet long, and 2 or 3 deep, are arranged one above and overlapping each other.
The advantage is easy removal to tie upon a new framework. {E. F. im Tlmrn.)

Specimens of thatch material from an unidentified species of Geonoma are exhib-
ited in the Kew Mus., used by the Arawak Indians of British Guiana. Orton states
that G. hacuUfera is called Uhim in Brazil. G. mnHiftorn, see fig. 57.

Gesnouinia arborea.

An herbaceous perennial belonging to the Urtlcacew. Savorgnan states that G.
arborea, Teneriffe, yields a fiber similar to that extracted from the ramie plant. I
find no other reference to the genus as fiber producing.

Geta netul (Ceyl.). Sfreblns asper.

Ghaipat (Ind.). Yucca gloriosa.

Ghanga (Beng.). Cannabis sativa.

Ghay-mari, of Liotard. (Ind.). Agave riripara.

Ghi-kayar } ^^,^^ ^j^^ ^.^,.^,

Ghirta-kuman ) ^ '

Giant asclepias (Ind.). See Calotropis (jigantea.

Giant nettle (Anstr.). See Laportca gigas.

Gietta and Guyetta. (Arizona.) Hilaria jamesii.

Gigantic gum tree (See Eucalyptus ohliqua).

Ginestra.

A general term used in Italy to designate Spartium junceum, and similar grass-like

plants. Some of the plants recognized in Italy under this name are : di apagna,

Sparthtm junceiim ; da r/ranate, S. scoparitim : dl hosco, Coronilla emerus.

Farmo (linestrino is ginestra cloth.

The employment of the small twigs of the Ginestra for binding up vines and gath-
ering together bundles of herbs is very ancient, as is attested by I'liny, who writes:
"Gtnista quoque vinculi prnsfat." The increased use of this plant is indicated, in the
thirteenth century, by the statement, "From Ginestra can be made tow or wadding
and oakum which may be used in place of hemp or of flax." (Extract from the Trea-
tise on Agriculture, Milan, 1805.) The peasants in many places w^ore cloth woven
from the fiber of Ginestra. In Maremraa from time immemorial they have produced
fiber from this plant for the manufacture of coarse material.

Girardinia palmata. The Nilghiri Kettle.

Syn. G. heterophylla and G. zeylaniea.
Exogen. TJrticaeew. A tall herb, 4 to 6 feet.
In the Die. Ec. Prod. Ind., Vol. Ill, this important species of nettle is described
under the name G. heterophylla, the two forms known as G. palmata and G. zeylanica

172

USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

beiag regarded ;is varieties. "It abounds in tlie tenijieiate and subtropical Hima-
layas, ascending to an altitude of 5,000 icet. It is also met with in Assam, Sylhet,
and Burma, and extends from Marwar and central India to Travancore and Ceylon.
The variety 2>alni(da is a native of the Nilghiri hills and Ceylon, while zeylanica is
confined to the latter locality and parts of the Decc^an." ( Watt. )

Bast Fiber.— The above authority states that the fibers from the three forms are
perfectly distinct in numy of their characters, and should therelbre be considered
separately. From the account given in the work cited above the following extracts
are reproduced :

a.hetcrophiiJla: Stems often employed for making twine and ropes by the dry
process, but these are iu)t prized and perish ((uickly from the wet. Yields a fine,

strong fiber, used for cordage and
twine, but can not stand much moisture.
a. jxiJiiKitd : The true Nilghiri nettle;
it yields a finer and more valuable fiber
than tlif i>receding. Royle writes that
the liber is A'ery long, soft, and silky,
and has been much admired by many
of the best judges of fibers. At Dun-
dee it was thought a very good fiber,
but rather dry. Mr. Dickson, who has
passed it thtough his machine and solu-
tion, has rendered it a beautiful, soft,
silky kind of tlux and calls it a wonder-
ful liber, of which the tow would be
useful for mixing with wool as has l)een
done with China grass, and the fiber
used for the finest purposes. In Spou's
Encyclo])edia the Girardiuias are
spoken of collectively under the name
of (1. hetcropliijUu, but it seems that (1.
palmaia alone is meant. The following
extract may be found useful : "It suc-
ceeds well by cultivation. The bark
abounds in fine, white, glossy, strong
fibers which have a rougher surface
than those of Bochmeria nirea, and are
therefore more easily combined with
wool in mixed fabrics." Owing to the
high percentage of cellulose and the
small Idss from hydrolysis, the fiber is
chemically one of the best produced in
India.

(1. zeylanica : Little is knowTi regard-
ing the fiber of this variety, although it is used in the Konkan and other parts of
western and southwestern India. It woubl appear, however, that it is very similar
to that produced by the true Nilghiri nettle.

CiLTiVATiON. — Like the China grass plant, it can be cut as a perennial and con-
tinue to throw out fresh shoots and roots for three or four years. The seeds are sown
in rows 1.5 inches apart in alluvial soils, and the stalks are cut in .July and .January.
It is stated that from the .July crop an average of 450 to 500 pounds of fiber may be
expected, 120 pounds of this being of superior quality. The .January crop will yield
600 to 700 pounds of fiber; but the fiber of this crop is uniform, but of coarse quality,
owing to the shoots being matured by the setting in of the dry season in December.

Ginger grass (see Andropogon schoenanthiis).

Fig. 57.

-The ri)iiiii:iiin, Ceonoiiia iiuiltiflora.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 173

Gleichenia glauca.

A geuHs of polypodiaceoiis ferns fonntl in the. Tropics of both hemispheres and
extending to Chile and the Austrahxsian region. The species named is found in the
East. The Kew Mus. exhibits a Malay hat made from the hbrous bundles of the
plant.

Gnetum spp.

'I'hese are trees or creeping shrubs found in tropical Asiaand in Guiana. G. gnemon,
found in the Isles of Sunda, New Guinea, the Philippines, etc., yields a fiber, derived
from its bark, used for cordage smd textures of coarse quality. ('•. scundeiis is an
India species, the stems of ^yhich arc employed by the natives of the Andaman Islands
for the manufacture of lishing nets. The outer covering of the seeds of (/. iirens is
lined with stinging hairs.

God-tree (Mex.). See Bomhax ceiha.

Gomphocarpus physocarpus. Quomotanetu, of Katal.

Exogen. AHclvpiadacen'. A shrub.

The species of this genus are chiefly confined to southern and northeastern Africa
and Arabia, (r. physocarpus is found in Natal.

Fiber. — Produced from the bark. J. Medley Wood, curator of the Natal Botanic
Gardens, gives an interesting account of the fiber in tne Annual Report of the Durban
Botanic Society for 1888 (p. 13). Samples of the fiber were received in the year named
from Zululand, and from Durban, which were sent to England for report as to their
merits and value. The fiber was described as very good as to color and strength,
and if it could be produced in large quantities and be carefully cleaned, it would
bring £2.5 per ton c. i. f., London.

"The peculiarity of this hemp is its exceptional strength, and no doubt if it could
be produced in large enough quantities and the length increased, it would sell
quickly and equally well with nianila hemp, the present price for which is, say, £33
to £34 per ton."

Samples sent to Dr. Morris, Kew, were submitted to Messrs. Ide & Christie, the
London fiber brokers, who reported adversely on the iiber on account of its bad prepa-
ration. Its value was estimated at £15 per ton, but it was thought that properly
cleansed its value would be enhanced 75 or 100 per cent.

Gomphocarpus brasiliensis.

This Brazilian species is noted, in Liifgren's paper, as found on the ^)lants of Sao
Paulo called Faina dc seda. Its seed hairs are used as ujjholstery material. The
plant is cultivated and blooms in the winter mouths.

Gomuti fiber (Malacca). See Arenga sacchari/era.
Goni. Sanskrit name of Sansenitria roxhurghiana
Gonolobus maritimus.

Syn. Ihaiia mitricaia.
An asclepiadaceous climber of ^'enezuela, "which yields a milky juice said to be a
good pectoral. The seed hairs are brittle and can not be spun." {Dr. Ernst). The
fiber was exhibited in the Venezuela court, W. C. E., 1893, under the name Silk
Wool of Orozuz. It is a silk cotton, or surface fiber.

Goo-mao-mah (Austr.). See Laportca gigas.
Gorakha-amla (Bomb.). Adansonia.

174

USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

G-ossypium spx). Cotton.

Exogens. Malraceiv. Tall herbs and shrubs.

Common and native namks. — Hojii (moqui), Indian name, Piicii; Ahjodon (Span. ) ;
Tchcaxihitvitl (Yuc, or ancient Max.); Varai (Tahiti); Coton (Fr.); Cotone
(It.); BaumwoUe (Ger.); Fembeh or I'oombeh (Pers.); (latn, Kotan, or Kiitn
(Arab.); Caij Haung (Cochin China); Hoa mein (China); Watta ik or Walla
noli (Jap.); Tonfai (Siam); Nurma (Hind.); Deo Knrpas and Deo Kapan, God's
cotton (Mysore and Bomb.) ; Nn-wa (Bnrni.) ; Koliung (Mong.), and many others.
Habitat and .species. — The origin of the cotton itlant is a question not easily set-
tled, as cotton has been grown in many countries from an exceedingly remote period.
It is probable that a ])lant numbering so many species is indigenous in different
localities, though Rhind states that it may possibly have come from Persia originally,
then crossed into Egypt, thence to Asia Minor and the Indian Archii)elago. M. Ber-
nardin, curator of the Industrial Museum of Ghent, in his "Nomenclature Uselle de
Fibres Textiles," gives the origin of tlie several si)ecies named, crediting at least two

to North America, G.
harbadense from the
West Indies, and G.
/((/•sM<M/« from Mexico.
a. herhacc 1(1)1 ho re-
gards as originally an
East Indian species.
So much has been
written upon this
subject and authori-
ties differ so widely
that great confusion
has resulted. To add
to the complication,
cotton has been cul-
tivated in portions of
the earth from remote
ages, and in many
countries for cen-
turies— for a period
of over 8,000 years in
India — for we read
that when Egypt was
in tlie zenith of lier glory the delicate cotton tissues of India were famous, and Egypt
at that time had a cotton industry of her own. On our continent the Aztecs of Mex-
ico and the Incas of I'eru ages and ages ago spun and wove cotton, and the Hopi Indians
of Arizona, preserving a tradition aiul the requirements of a custom that has come
down from remote times, Avill only use in their religious ceremonials strings or cords
made from native-grown cotton, twisted by the officiating i^riests. Regarding the
countries where cotton is cultivated, see statements on the distribution of cultiva-
tion, page 178.

In a recent work on the cotton plant. Bulletin No. 33, prepared by the Office of
Experiment Stations of the I'nited States Department of Agriculture, the history,
botany, culture, chemistry, and uses of this plant are treated almost exhaustively.
From the chapter on the botanical consideration of the subject, prepared by Dr.
Walter H. Evans, the statements regarding the different species of cotton, which
follow, have been condensed: On account of their great variability the species of
Gos!ii/2)ium are diflicult of limitation, and various attempts have been made to
classify them. Linnaus described at least 3 species, and since that time the num-
ber of species and synonyms has increased euornmusly. Two monographs of tbe
genus have been published by Italian botanists, the tirst l)y Filijipo Paiiatore in

cottou i)iaiit, Ooxxyptiim.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE.

175

180(5, iu which the author recognized 7 species, with 8 others in doubt. The other
monograph was by Agostino Todaro, published in 1877, iu which are dejscribed 52
species, with 2 as uncertain. Ilauiiltou sought to avoid confusiou by dividing the
genus into 3 species, the white seeded, black seeded, and yellow linted, to which
he gave the names album, niyrum, and croceum. A recent publication, Index Kew-
ensi.s, recognizes 42 species, of which but a very few arc of economic importance,
and mentions 8H others that have been reduced to synonyms, most of them being
synonyms of species in common cultivation. The great variability and the tendency
toliybridize make it difficult to detei'uiiue to which species a given plant may belong.
No cultivated jilant responds so quickly to ameliorated conditions of soil, climate,
and cultivation as the cotton plant, and to this fact is due much of the confusion as

Fig. 59. — Sea Island cotton.

to species and varieties. Another factor entering into the confusion is the imper-
fectly known types that have been described as species. It has been stated that
some of the species now widely cultivated are wholly unknown iu a Avild state, and
some of the specimens described by Linna'us were in all probability from plants
that had long been iu cultivation. The work of establishing the origin of the cul-
tivated species has been still further complicated by the exchange of seed from coun-
try to country that has been going on for at least four centuries.

Among the species recognized to be of more or less economic importance are (;.
arhoreum, G. neglectmn, G. brasUiense, G. herbaceum, G.barbadense, and perhaps a few
others. In this country only the herbaceous cottons are cultivated to any extent.
The shrubby and arboreous are grown occasionally as curiosities, but they seldom

176 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

or never produce auylint in regions liaviug as low a mean temperature as the cotton
belt of the United States.

The deterraiaation of the species of cotton grown in this country presents some
peculiar difticulties. The authorities differ wididy regarding the specific origin of
the short-staple or ujiland cotton, while more ne;irly agreeing on that of the sea-
island cotton. The latter is gcnerallj'^ considered as having originated from G.
harhadense. Species which have been considered sj'nonynis of G. barbadense are G.fru-
ffscens Lasteyr., (r./wscHHi Rosb., G.glabrnm'La.m., G.javiaicensc'Msicfud., G.javanirnm
Blnme, G. maritimiim Todaro, G. niiirum Hamilton, G . oligospermnm Macfad., G.perenne
Blanco, G. peruvinnum Cav., G. punctatum Schum. and Thonn., G. racemostim Poir., (I.
relitjiosum Parlatore, G. vififolhim Lam., and perhaps others.

This species is indigenous to the Lesser Antilles and probably to San Salvador, the
Bahamas, Barbados, Guadalonpe, and other islands between 12'^ and 26^ north lati-
tude. By cultivation, it has been extended throughout the "West Indies, the mari-
time coast of the Southern States, Central America, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, etc.,
southern Spain, Algeria, the islands and coast of western tropical Africa, Egypt,
Island of Bourbon, East Indies, Queensland, New South Wales, etc. It nujy be cul-
tivated in any region having a hot and Iiumid atmosphere, but the results of acclima-
tization indicate that the humid atmosphere is not entirely necessary if irrigation
be employed, as this species is imdonbtedly grown extensi\ely in Egyjit. As a rule,
the([uality of the staple improves witli 1he jiroximity to the sea, but there are excep-
tions to this rule, as that grown on Jamaica and some other islands is of ratlier low
grade, while the best fiber is jtroduced along the shores of Georgia and South Carolina.

The j'ield of lint from Sea Island cotton is less than from any other kind grown in
this country, but on account of tlio leiigtli and ([uality of the fiber it is adapted to
uses to which the other kinds are not suited, and its high market value compensates
for the small yield.

G. herbaceum: While scarcely any of the authors agree in the more important
points when discussing tlie origin of upland cotton, tlie weight of opinion seems to
be that the species is either G. herbaccinn or G. hirsutum, whiih are considered
synonymous, and the former name is employed to designate the species, which
includes in its synonyms the following: G. album Hamilton, G. chuunse Fisch. &
Otto, G. vroceum Hamilton, G. egJaudulosiim Cav., G. elaium Salisl),, G. glandulosum
Steud., (/. hirsutum lAnxi., G. indicum ham., G. latifolium Murv., G. ?eo»imwm Medic.,
G. macedoniciim Murr., G, micranlhiim Cav., ^r'. moUe Mauri, <r. nanlhu/ Meyen, G.
obtusi/oliiim Roxb., G. panicuhdnm Blanco, G.punctatum Guil. it Perr , G. relitjiosum
Linn., Cr, sia m<'nse Tenore, C snfense Fisch., G. .s/j'ic<H)(i Medic, G, tricusjndatum ham.,
and G. ritifolium Roxb., together with numerous others the descriptions of which
are too indefinite or the specimens too meager to determine them positively.

The origin of this series is niucli more confused than that of the sea-island cotton.
If we should separate the upland cotton into two species, viz, G . herbaceum and G.
hirsutum, probably the (juestion would be simplified, as tlie former is generally con-
sidered of Asiatic origin, while tlie other is attributed to America. Todaro (Rel. sulla
coltura dei cotoni in Italia, 1877-78. p. 212) claims that the form called by him (r.
hirsutum originated in Mexico, whence it has been spread by cultivators throughout
the warmer portions of the world.

To this form he ascribes the Georgia upland cotton or the longstajde upland cot-
ton. Parlatore (Le specie dei cotoni, p. 13) considers it indigenous to some of the
islands of the Gulf of Jlexico as wtll as the mainland, and all green-seeded cotton,
which is cultivated so widely, as originating from this form. Ou the other hand, he
claims India, especially the shores of Coromandel, as the primitive home of (/. her-
baceum, from which jjlace it has spread as extensively as its western congener, and
is found in cultivation in nearly the same regions. Todaro says that G. herbaceum
is spontaneous in Asia and perhaps also in Egypt, and he claims G. wiffhtianum as the
primitive form of the Indian cottons. Maxwell T. Masters claims G. stovksii as the
original of all cultivated forms grouped under (1. herbaceum. Others consider G.
herbaceum as a native of Africa, and it seems impossible from the mass of confiicting
evidence to determine just where it did originate. It seems probalile that G. herba-
ceum is not a definite species, but one devcloi>ed by cultivation from, i>erhaps, sev-

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE.

177

ei"al will! species, ;iud it represeuts uot a species but a group of Lylirids aud forms
more or less closely related. The cottous called ''uaukeeu" are ouly color variatious
of the above, aud luay be fuiiud in uearly every species that is cultivated. Author-
ities agree that iu all probability the yellow liut is the wild forui of all cottons, aud
this character cau not be used to designate species.

(r. arhoretim Linn, is a shrubby perennial, but iu cultivation sometimes annual or
biennial; fiber, two forms; one white, long, overlying a dark-green or black down;
not readily separable from the seed. This species of cotton appears to be indigenous
to India and the regions bordering on the Indian Ocean. According to Watt it is
found near temples and in gardens, where it is said to be in llower most of the year.
The plant is a perennial, lasting for five or six years or longer, and is not used as a
field crop. The fiber is fine, silky, and an inch or more in length, but little of it is
produced. The cultural name gi\en it is Nurma or Ueo cotton, aud its use is said to

Fui. 60.— TTplami cotton.

be restricted to making thread for the turbans of the jiriestly class. Its value is
said to be greatly overrated. This species is sometimes known as G. rdiijiosum.

G. iie'jlectiim Tod. : This species, indigenous to India, is very similar to G. arho-
rt'itm, and by some is thought to be a hybrid between that species and some other, or
it may bo only a cultural form of the first. It is a large bush, although sometimes
only 18 inches in height, aud is extensively grown in India as a field crop. It is the
Dacca cotton of Royle and Roxburgh and the China cotton of the same authors.
This species is cultivated in Bengal, the Punjab, and the Northwest Provinces, and
it constitutes to a large extent the Bengal cotton of commerce. Todaro has sepa-
rated from the species two varieties — roxhiirghiaiium and ch'mense — corresponding to
the Dacca and China cottons above mentioned. It is very probable that both the
varieties and the species are not well founded, but are cultural forms. There is
another Indian species, G. ^vighfianuix Tod., that is claimed to. be the form chiefly
12247— Xo. 9 12

178 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

cultivated in India. It greatly resembles the (r. herhaceum of India, Imt differs from
tliat species iu that the latter has broader and more rounded leaves, and broader,
thinner, and deeper-cut braeteoles. This species is said to readily hybridize with
G. nvgleetiim, and numerous species have been founded npon these cultural forms.
Among these hybrids are some of the most valuable of Indian cottons. The typical
forms of the foregoing species of cotton have their seed free from each other, but
there is another group in which the seeds of each cell are closely adherent in an oval
mass, from which appearance they are called "kidney" cottons. Most, if not all, of
these species are tropical, and their presence in this country as anything more than
curiosities is highly improbable. The most important of them is G. hrasUlense
Macfad., and in addition to the fact of the seed adhering in clusters the species is an
absorbent plant with very large, 5 to 7 divaricate-lobed leaves and A-ery deeply
laciniate iuvolucral bracts. The cottons of South America, known to the trade as
Peruand)UCO, Ceara, Santos, etc., are evidently not of this species, but belong to the
Ct. harhddoisc and G. herhaainn series.

For the botanical descriptions of the several species, w hicli have heen omitted
here, the student is referred to Dr. Walter H. Evan's complete account in The Cotton
Plant, previously mentioned, page 67.

SuiuwcK FiBEH. — The lint or fiber of cotton is the seed hairs which are found in the
fruit or boll of the plant after maturity. The value of the lint depends upon the
length of these seed hairs, and this is known in commercial parlance as the "staple.''
Naturally, the "short staples'' are less valuable than the "long staples." Upland
cotton is an example of the former; sea-island cotton of the latter. Seen longitudi-
nally, the til)ers of ct)tton appear quite independent of each other; they are Ihit and
always more or less twisted, like a corkscrew. This last i'eaturc is quite character-
istic. The length of the fibers varies from 1 to li inches for long-stapled, and from
■f to f inch for short-stapled. (See fig. 4, x>age 27, Introduction.)

The world's cultivatiox. — Cotton in its several sjiecies and many varirties is a
prodiict which belongs to all intertropical countries, for the plant has been so widely
distributed and has been in cultivation so long a time that in many of these coun-
tries it is considered indigenous. Spon gives the geographical parallels between
which cotton is usually cultivated as stretching in varying girdles between 36 noi tli
latitude and 36- south latitude, though Dr. Evans places the parallels at 40- or more
on either side of the equator, or to the isothermal line of 60^ F. In this country,
latitude 37^ north about reiiresents the limit of econonuc growth. The production
of the world's cotton has been distributed in the following countries:

The .hiiericaii Continent. — In the United States the upland-cotton belt extends Ironi
southeast Virginia to Texas, and its distribution is mainly between the tide-water
district and the foothills of the Appalachian Mountain system. The deep alluvial
soils of the ^lississijipi Valley i'avor extension of cotton growing much farther north-
ward, from the sugar district of southern Louisiana to tlie southern liorder of Mis-
souri, including most of Arkansas and western Tennessee, while the higher elevation
of central and eastern Tennessee limits culture and diverts sharply the line of limita-
tion around the foothills of northwestern Georgia. Fifty years ago Mississippi, near
the western border of cultivation, had surjiassed other States and i)roduced nearly
a fourth of the product ; now Texas, on the extreme west, yields one-third of a crop
doubled in volume. Except a very limited area in Virginia, Kentucky, Missouri, and
Oklahoma, cultivation is mainly confined to suitable and comparatively limited dis-
tricts iu North and South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Tennes-
see, Arkansas. Louisiana, and Texas.

Mexico, prior to the conquest by Cortez, produced annually 116,000,000 pounds,
l)ut the culture was abandoned iu many sections under Spanish rule. In 1><60 the
industry received a stimulus on account of the war of the rebellion; since 1882 the
culture has been still further extended, until, in 1895, the output was 25,000,000
pounds. The State of Coahuila produces the larger portion of the cotton of Mexico.
The best cotton, however, is grown in the State of (iuerrero, around Acapulco, and

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 179

the most inferior in Chiapas. The three cotton sections of this country are the east
and west coasts and in the central idateaii, in the hitter irrigation being necessary.
Mexico is a purchaser of cotton from the United States.

A little cotton, perhaps 1,000 hales, is grown in the West Indies, whence at the
beginning of the present century 25,000 bales were exjiorted, chiefly to this country.
The cotton produced was the sea island, known also as Anguilla, claimed to be
indigenous in Hondurus. In 1874 the island of Puerto Rico produced 254,000 pounds,
but the culture has declined.

Several of the South American countries cultivate considerable quanties of cotton.
In Brazil it grows in nearly every province. R. B. Handy states that while it may
be grown in almost unlimited quantities from Sao Paulo all along the coast to the
Amazon, and for that matter throughout the whole Empire, in reality, however, its
cultivation to a considerable extent is limited to the drier regions of the north,
along the valley of the River Sao Francisco and in parts of the province of Minas
Geraes. In the more southern provinces the amount of cotton grown for export is
at present insignificant. Brazil exports about 60,000,000 pounds, chiefly to England.
Ecuador is a small producer of cotton, and Dutch Guiana also produces a little,
though early in the present century the cotton export in a single year amounted to
over 3,000,000 pounds. Peru produces a peculiar natiA'e variety of "tree cotton,"
with a strong, rough, crinkly staple usually If to 11 inches long, known as "vegeta-
ble wool " and used by manufacturei's for mixing with wool, and difiicult to detect
except by chemical tests. For this reason the woolgrowers, in a new wool tariff
bill, have asked for a customs duty of 15 cents per pound on it. It is a varying
product estimated at a minimum of 10,000 to a maximum of 50,000 bales of 180
pounds. In 1885 our imports were only 14 bales; 9,500 bales in 18S0; 12,500 in 1891.

Europe. — Spou says: Of European countries Italy alone seems to possess the con-
ditions requisite for successful cotton culture. The jiresent centers are around Bari
and Barletta, on the Adriatic; in the neighborhood of Salerno, Saron, and Castella-
mare, south of Naples, and in the provinces of Caltanissetta and Girgenti, on the
south shores of Sicily. The products are known respectively as "Pugliar," "Cas-
tellamare," "Biancavilla," and ''Terrauova." Sardinia also grows a little.

The cotton of the Levant, Greece and Turkey and their provinces, amounts to not
more than 8,000,000 pounds annually, 75 per cent of which is shipped to England and
other parts of Europe, Cyprus grows in ordinary years 1,000,000 pounds, a small
part of what might be produced, as the island is adapted to the culture.

Asia. — British India, or Hindostan, the part of India where cotton is raised, em-
braces four principal cotton regions: The Vallej' of the Ganges, the Deccan, western
India, and southern India. The Ganges Valley is again divisible into .two ])arts, the
lower Bengal district and that of the Northwest Provinces, including Doab and
Bundelcund, lying on both sides of the Ganges and Jumna rivers. In lower Bengal
the cultivation of cotton is not of very great importance. In the plains of Bengal,
which are so fertile in other produce, the production of cotton is very inconsiderable,
and none is exported. The cotton raised here in former times, though short in staple,
was the finest known in the world and formed the material out of which the very
delicate and extremely Iteautiful Dacca muslin was manufactured. The border lands
of the Ganges are too low and marshy and the rainfall too great for the successful
cultivation of cotton, but the hills back from the river are suitable for this purpose,
as they are better drained. The Doab and Bundelcund districts produce almost the
entire crop of the Northwest Provinces, and furnish about 70,000,000 pounds of cotton
for exportation, which is a good "India cotton." The climatic character of these
districts is "first a flood and then a drought," with an inclination to an insufliciency
of rain, in great contrast to that of lower Bengal. {B. B. Handy.)

The Deccan, or central India, is the great cotton section of India. It occupies the
triangular area lying south of the Vindhyau Mountains, in latitude 23- north, and
extends to the valley of the Kistna, at IG-' north, with the Eastern and "Western
Ghauts on either side. It is an elevated table-land of undulating surface, having

180 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

soil of great excellence and richness . aud of a cousisteucy to retain moistiiry for a
long time. Nearly all the cotton for esjiort is raised -^vitbiu this region and linds its
market at Bombay. India, next to the United States, has l)een the largest producer
of cotton. {JL B. Handy.) During the period of civil -war in the United States
extraordinary elibrts -were made to extend cultivation, but Avith so little success that
American cotton attained the extreme price of $1 per pound, -which fell rapidly as the
breadth of cultivation was restored. It is not equal to our cotton iu length or qual-
ity of staple, and always sells at a lower price. Seed from the United States has been
used repeatedly, but deterioration from climatic influences jirevents retaining per-
manently the standard of (quality. The crop of 1895-96 is reported at 3,296,046 bales.
In the previous year it was 2,688,546, and the average for live years has been about
3,000,000 bales, averaging about 400 pounds, or e<|uivalent to 2,400,000 bales of our
cotton. It is therefore between a third and a fourth of the quantity of our crop.

The Russian cotton is grown in Asiatic territory, in Turkestan aud Transcaucasia.
In 1890, 245,000 acres of cotton were i)lanted in Turkestan, yielding more than 45,000,-
000 pounds of clean lint. American seed and American gins have been introduced
into the country, the variety of cotton known as Ozicr silk being highly regarded.

Turkish cottons are very low grade. The country around Smyrna produces the
best, however. Other districts Avliere grown, aud which give name to the market
varieties, are: Cassaba, Aidin, Deuiziii, Kirgagatch, and Dajiider. The Adana cot-
ton conies from Tarsus. Cotton has been grown in Syria for ages, and a considerable
quantity is produced about Erivau and the frontier of Persia.

Chinese cotton is largely produced in a region lying along and on both sides of the
river Yang-tze-Kiang, where the soil is very fertile. In Korea it is grown chiefly iu
the provinces of "Whang-Hai, Chul-La, and Kyng-Tanj, though to some extent in
other localities. China aud Korea, as far as can be estimated, produce at the present
time 640,000,000 pounds of cotton. The production of Japan amounted in 1891 to
109,879,383 pounds, and the quality of the cotton was good, though the staple was
short. In the East Indies, Java, Siam, etc., the plant is cultivated and there is a
small export.

Africa. — Of African cottons the Egyptian is the most prominent. It has been
grown on lands irrigated by the Nile since 1820, aud iu the upper regions of that
river from time immemorial. There are several Aarieties, most of them yielding
fiber of a brownish tint, 1 to 1^ inches long, strong and flue, anore lustrous than our
upland and commanding a higher price, but not so long or fine or valuable as the
sea-island. Ellison (the Liverpool authority) gives 680,000 bales as the export to
Europe aud America during the last year, with a surplus still available of 33,000,
or a total supply of 713,000 bales, equivalent to more than 1,000,000 bales of L^'nited
States cotton. Nearly all of the Egyptian product is exported. A large increase iu
production has been made in the past six years, the average exports of the period
being more than 50 per cent in excess of those of the preceding ten years.

In other portions of Africa, both on the cast and west coasts, as Senegambia, Libe-
ria, the Congo States, the Soudan, etc., a considerable amount of this stajile is pro-
duced, the greater part of which is consumed a-t home.

In Australia cotton culture has been attempted, and while a little fiber is grown
it can hardly be called a promising industry. Very small (quantities are also pro-
duced in many of the islands of the Pacific, and in some of them the product shows
a good stfiple. The Fiji and Tahiti cottons are exported.

Cotton industry of the United States.' — Soon after the invention of Eli Whit-
ney's satv gin in 1793 the L^nited States became the principal source of cotton supply
for the mills of the world, at a period when spinning machinery was a recent inven-
tion and the modern factory system was in its infancy. In 1860, four-fifths of the
consum])tion iu Europe aud America was of the cotton of this country. Production
was nearly suspended during the years of civil war following, but in a year or two

' Coutributed bv .T. R. Dodge.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 181

after its close the proportiou of the supply agaiu exceeded oue-half, became two-
thirds in tive years, and by l!S80 nearly regained the autewar proportion.

The only reason for this prominence "^vhicli needs to be adduced is the advantage
of climate in the production of the distinctive type of cotton of the United States,
the varieties of green-seed upland. Our cotton belt has the sunshine of Italy and a
rainfall largely in excess of the national average; and cotton is a sun plant, fond of
water, with a taproot to get it by piercing the friable and finely comminuted soil so
characteristic of its areas of densest distribution. Hence any cotton suited to preva-
lent climatic conditions naturally improves under cultivation. Unlike Egyjit and
India, this fertile belt needs no irrigation. This climatic adaptation and soil suita-
bility give a practical monopoly which cheap labor elsewhere may never hope to
overcome; at least, not until some now unexplored and untested part of the earth's
surface shall bo discovered and exploited in successful cotton culture.

The enlargement of production has been phenomenally rapid. In the last decade
of the eighteenth century it advanced from less than 10,000 bales to more than
150,000; in the first decade of the present century it had reached 300,000, and in the
second 600,000, while in a third the record of 1,000,000 was one year made, and at the
end of the fourth the 2,000,000 mark was passed. At this point Southern publicists
discovered that planters had been guilty of "overstocking the market," when the
annual Liverpool average price of middling for 1845 was reduced to 3.92d. per pound,
the lowest year!}' record ever made before, or ever made since until the great crop of
nearly 10,000,000 bales in 1894 reduced the average to 3.34d. The mid-century reduc-
tion, like the recent fall, was the result of production (juitc beyond consumption,
four of six successive ci'ops having exceeded 2,000,000 bales, an increase of 50 per cent
over the preceding period of six years. Thus 2,000,000 bales per annum caused
plethora, while 8,000,000 does not now meet the requirements of consumption.

This fact suggests the remarkable increase in mill consumption in half a century,
in Europe and the United States, from less than 3,000,000 bales to more than 10,000,-
000. It is also suggestive of possibility of further enlargement, as facilities for
transportation and intercommunication bring cheap clothing within the reach of
unclothed millions of populations developing under the influences of modern civili-
zation. This is a hopeful indication for the future of cotton growing. Butiiroduc-
tiou must not materially exceed consumption, or instant fall in price will sound a
note of warning against deliberate self-destruction. As u striking example of quick
response of price to diminished supply, in 1895 a crop reduction of one-fourth advanced
the export price 40 per cent, or from 5.8 to 8.2 cents.

A complete census of the area cultivated was never taken until 1879, when it
amounted to 14,175,270 acres. In 1889 it had reached 20,175,270. In 1891 its largest
breadth was attained, nearly 24,000,000 acres, which so reduced the i^rice that a con-
certed and heavy reduction Avas made. The extension of cultivation was continuous
up to 1860, when the breadth must have been nearly 12,000,000 acres. It was at least
ten years after the close of the war and-resumption of cultivation that the area of
1860 was restored. Increase in twenty years jiast has been very rapid. .

Two-thirds of the product is exported; formerly a somewhat larger proportion.
Increase of manufacture in the United States has more than kept pace with the
active progress of production. The exports of the last two fiscal years were 11,625,123
bales, or 68 ])er cent of the crop movement of two years of 17,055,239 bales, though
fiscal and crop years are not quite coincident in time. The largest exports ever
made were in the year ended June 30, 1895, which were 6,965,358 bales, of which
3,502,067 went to Great Britain, 1,500,362 to Germany, 778,778 to France, 985,558 to
other European countries, 105.040 to British America, 72,177 to Mexico, 280 to South
America, 21,084 to Asia and Oceanica, and 12 to other countries.

The present relation of our cotton to the factory supply of Europe and America is
shown by Ellison's computations, which for the iiresent year require 8,853,000 Scales
of our crop of 476 net pounds, 830,000 of East Indian of 400 pounds, 713,000 of
Egyptian at 741 pounds for British and 714 for Continental receipts, and 330,000

182 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE W(3RLD.

miscellaueous, in all, 10,726.000, or 10,355,000 reduced to bales of 500 net pounds.
Our proportion is, tbereforo, 81.5 per cent of the -whole. Including India, China,
Japan, Mexico, and minor consumptiou elsewhere, it is not so easy to determine
closely our proportion of the cotton annually used iu the world, as there are no very
accurate statistics of consumptiou in China and some other couutries, hut according
to accepted estimates it usually ranges from 55 to 60 per cent of it.

Our cotton is of two types. The sea-island, or hlack-seed, cotton, conliued to
islands and shores of South Carolina and Georgia, to Florida, and to an extremely
limited distribution along the Gulf coast, rarely produces more than 60,000 bales.
It has the longest and liuest stabile and commands the highest price of any commer-
cial cotton. More than 99 per cent of onr crop, however, is known as American
upland, having a green seed to which the lilameuts closely adhere, with a longer
staple aud better quality than the East Indian and most other growths, varying
somewhat by selection aud soil cultivation. It is only surpassed iu length of staple
and x)rice by the Egyptian, which, in these respects, comes between the American
upland and sea island. It is imjiorted and used by our manufacturers for specific
styles of goods, in increasing (juantities; in the fiscal year 1896 a total of 43,609,625
pounds, valued at $5,131,967. If Egyptian would thrive here, a limited production
would be desirable, but its attempted culture has not hitherto been attended with
very gratifying success.

Cotton is grown in several countries of North aud South America, Asi:i, and Africa,
aud the produce of each has its peculiar characteristics and uses, yet this country,
with only one-twentieth of the world's population, produces of a superior qinility
of cotton more than all other countries together. This could not be the case, in this
era of sharp competition by cotton manufacturing countries of great wealth and
enterprise, were not our advantages for production superior to those of any other
country. It is obviously, then, our opportunity and duty to sui>i)ly liberally the
needs of the world's consumption, without impairment of the legitimate profits of
our cotton growers by unnecessary overproduction.

CiLTiVATiox. — Climatic conditions generally favorable to the production of cotton
are found south of a line which crosses the country a little below latitude 37- . North
of this line the short season and relatively low mean temperature are uui'avorable;
also the mountain region, altitudes above 1,000 feet, south of this line.

The essential features of a climate adapted to this culture are that the season must
be satficieutly long for the crop to mature. One of the most important factors is the
probable date of the last killing frost iu the spring and the earliest frost in the
autumn, for the first killiug frost of autumn checks the active growth of the plant^
and the bolls starting at this time Avill not develop into mature fruit. The next
important consideration is the amount aud distribution of heat aud rainfall. By the
first or middle of August the plant should have attained its full vegetative growth,
aud from this time on a decreasing temperature between day aud night are favorable
to the production of a maximum crop, by checking vegetative growth aud inducing
the maturity of the bolls. During the earlier period the rain should fall iu freiiuent
showers rather than iu heavy storms, and the best seasons are when these showers
occur at night, giving, with a large and well-distributed rainfall, a large amount of
sunshine. As to the soil selection, cotton is at present cultivated with more or less
success on nearly all kinds of soils within the region in which the climatic condi-
tions are favorable to its growth and development. It is grown alike on light sandy
soils, on loams, on heavy clay soils, and on bottom lauds, l)ut not with equal success
on all these ditit'erent types of soil. On the sandy uplands the yield of cotton is usu-
ally very small; on clay uplands, especially in wet seasons, the jilants attain large
size, but yield a small amount of lint in proportion to the size of the plants. This is
also likely to be the case on bottom lands. The safest soils for the crop are mediuiu
grades of loam. On the bottom lauds in very favorable seasons the crop often pro-
duces a very large yield, but i t is not so certain, and iu unfavorable seasons the plants
are liable to disease and to insect ravages. {Prof. Milton Whitney.)

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 183

Formerly little attention was paid to the matter of fertilizers, though the mauurial
valno of soilini>- crops, such as clover and peas, of fallowing and rotation, was well
understood. "lu the main,"' says Prof. H. C. White, -'the great bulk of the cotton
crop previous to 1860 may be said to have T»een grown without artiticial fertilization
and mainly upon virgin soils." In the limits of this brief chapter it will be impos-
sible to make a comprehensive statement upon so vast a subject, or to make any
statements further than that the necessity not only of using the best fertilizers, but
of a knowledge of the chemistry of soil fertility, is now thoroughly appreciated.
Among the fertilizers employed, in A-arious combinations, are Peruvian guano, dis-
solved bones, land plaster, kainit, acid ])ho8phate, the phosphate rocks, barnyard
manures, the many forms of cottonseed fertilizer, as lotted seed, meal hulls, ash,
etc., and others. Those interested in the subject should consult the valuable litera-
ture i)ul>lished by the Deiiartment of Agriculture, and especially Professor White's
comprehensive statements on the manuring of cotton in The Cotton Plant, to which
reference has already been made.

Deep plowing and subsoiling have generally been considered essential in this cul-
ture. David Dickson, a successful Georgia grower, says that to stand a two weeks'
drought, a cotton plant must have 4 inches depth of soil, 6 inches depth of subsoil,
well broken, and for every additional week an inch more of soil with the same sub-
soiling. Spou says: In India, the limit as to the depth of plowing is commonly
about 6 inches; in America, 12 inches, and in Guiana, 18 inches. It is certain that
great benetit would arise from stirring the soil to a depth of even 30 inches, the
increased penetration of the roots rendering the plant mnch more independent of
drought, and other external intluences. ''Subsoiling and deep breaking are open
to question. There is no question that a deep, mellow soil is to be preferred, but the
efforts to obtain it are limited by the cost, by the risk of injury to some soils through
leaching, and to others by bringing sterile earth to the surface. Sandy soils may
suffer in the tirst way, and heavy clays in the second. Experiments to determine
the A-alue of these operations are coutiictiug and inconclusive."' (Harry Hammond.).

The same difference of practice and opinion prevails regarding the time of prepar-
ing the land. It commences in November and continues to March and April, though
Mr. Dickson says "the land should l)e broken as near the time for planting as prac-'
ticable."' After plowing and harrowing, the universal practice is to throw the land
into beds or ridges. The plants are usually left 2 to 3 inches above the middle of
the row, which in 4-foot rows gives a slope of an inch to the foot. This causes the
plow in cultivating to lean from the plants, to go deepest in the nuddle of the row,
and, as a consequence, to cut fewer roots. Four feet is the usually accepted distance
between the rows. The i)erfect cotton ]>]anter is not yet invented. It should drop
live or six seed in a single line at regular intervals, say a foot apart.- In very dry
seasons a narrow and deep coulter furrow, the dirt closing in behind it, is run imme-
diately in advance of the planter. It freshens up the bed and assists very much the
germination of the seed, {Harry Hammond.)

The once universal system of planting by hand, though still in vogue on areas of
scattered distrilnition, has been displaced by some form of cotton-seed planter in the
great centers of cultivation. Intelligent and enterprising cultivators are not willino-
to depend on autiiiuated methods. Formerly, after ridging and opening a shallow fur-
row, seed was scattered in it profusely, partly to secure a stand and partly as fertil-
izer for the young plants, the superliuous plants to be chopped out with a hoe to any
required distance apart. This method requires a large amount of seed. Another
plan in great favor was the marking by wheel or other device for measurement, for
such cavities made by a dibble may .seem poptilar with those who deem precision in
planting essential. So various have been these methods of seeding, combining the
idea of fertilization with germination, that the quantity of seed required per acre
has scarcely ever been calculated or considered. The time of planting ranges from
March 1 in southern Texas, to May 20 in northeast Georgia, and the tirst blooms
appear May loin southern Texas to .July 25 in northwest Tennessee. Several hoeino-s

184 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

are necessary to keep down "^eeds, and the plants are thinned nntil only two of the
stron<re.st plants remain in the stand. Each hoeing is followed hy the plow, which
throws the earth around the stalk. The particular practice varies greatly, however,
in different sections, though the same object is always kept in view to keep the soil
free from weeds and the plants growing.

The first bolls open June 15 in southern Texas, and September 1.5 in north Arkansas.
Picking commences in the two sections July 10 and October 1. respectively, and may
continue until the middle of December.

Cotton is picked by hand, notwithstanding that considerable skill and capital have
been expended in the efforts to produce a machine cotton picker. It can not be said
that any of these machines have been successful, as they gather limbs, leaves, and
hulls, necessitating the passing of the whole through a .separator. As high as 333
pounds of cotton have been picked per day by one man, though it is probable that 100
pounds is nearer the day's work of the average plantation laliorer. The picking of
the crop of 1894 was estimated to have cost .$60,000,000. ( Harnj Hammond.)

GiXNiXG Cottons. — The devices for separating the lint from the seed are of two
classes. The first class is known as roller gins, the other as .saw gins. The roller
fin is the most ancient. It was tised from the earliest times by the Hindoos. In its
simplest form it consists of a flat stone, on which the seed cotton was placed, and a
wooden roller, moved by the foot, was employed to press the .seed out. To this day
two small rollers, a foot long, one of wood and the other of iron, geared to move in
opposite directions and turned by hand, are used in India to separate the seed from
the fiber.* The task is 5 pounds of clean cotton a day, and the woman who performs
it receives a daily wage of 5 cents. In Sicily, also, two grooved cylinders, turned
by hand, are still used to pinch out the seed. In the Amoy district of China cotton
is said to be cleaned by means of a heavy wooden bow suspended from a l)ambo()
frame on the shoulders of the operator, who feeds the cotton aloug a board with his
right baud, and with his left strikes it with the string of his bow, cleaning from 50
to 100 pounds a day, at a wage of 10 cents. The combination of the roller and the bow-
string beater may be observed in certain of the modern improved roller gins used for
cleaning the long-staple Sea Island cotton. The seed cotton is fed on a tattle to a
leather roller (preferably walrus hide), the roughness of which engages the fiber,
Avhile a steel plate in close Juxtaposition to the roller prevents the passage of the
seed and a rapidly vibrating blade knocks them out. The cleaned seed fall through
interstices in the table, and the lint is delivered on the farther side of the roller.
Only cotton with naked seed has been successfully ginned in this way, the down on
ordinary upland seed causing them when agitated to adhere to each other and pre-
vents them from falling through the openiugs in the table. The construction of the
roller gin has undoubtedly been greatly improved in recent times, esjiecially as
regards the ease with which it is worked and the quantity of cotton it cleans ; but it
is doubtful if the quality of the product is any better than it was in those ancient
days when the Hindoos extracted with it the delicate fibers with which they made
the wonderful tissues called the "woven wind." The saw gin, which works on
another principle, is the machine which, in its improvements and modifications, has
separated seed from fiber almost exclusively for a hundred years of American cotton
growing. The seed cotton is held in a box, one side of which is a grate of steel bars
or ribs. Through the intervals of the grate a number of thin steel disks notched on
the edge and miscalled saws rotate rapidly. The notches or teeth of the saws
engage the fiber and pull it from the seed. The seed as they are cleaned fall to the
floor through a slit below the ribs. Behind the cylinder holding the saws is another
and a larger cylinder (the brush) filled with bristles in contact with the saws.
Both cylinders rotate in the same direction. The brush sweeps from the saws the
fibers they have detached, and the draft created by the rapid revolutions of the two
cylinders blows the lint out to a distance of 20 to 60 feet from the end of the gin,
opposite to the one into which the seed cotton is fed. The defects of both methods
of ginning are much the same. Thev fail to clean the lint thoroughly of foreign

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 185

snlistanres. such as dust, fragments of leaves, etc. Some of the seed, especially the
immature seed knowu as motes, pass through with the lint. The fibers may be
strained, weakened, or even broken, or, what is fully as bad, crimped and knotted
(termed neps or naps) by improper force used in their removal. From all these
causes a large amount of waste is always found in ginned cotton. {Harry Hammond.)

In a paper entitled "Treatise upon the cotton fiber and its improAements." sub-
mitted at a meeting of the New England Cotton ^lanufacturers" Association at Atlanta,
Ga., October, 1895, Edward Atkinson, referring to the use of the saw gin, says: "\Ye
take three-cpiarters of the life out of our cotton by our nuirderous method of treating
it. We nearly wear it oiat before we l)egiu to weave it." And asks, ''"Would it not
be better to nip these libers between two elastic rolls, to draw them away from the
seed without upsetting, tangling, and cutting them?" He argues at length in favor
of the more extended cultivation of long-staple varieties, and of more earnest efforts
to improve the roller gin, using the latter in connection with the recently introduced
cylinder press.

Baling. — The standard size of cotton bale in this country is 54 by 27 inches,
and contains about 500 pounds, inclusive of bagging and ties, or about 475 to 480
pounds of lint. Formerly weighing 300 pounds, the American bale has grown to 500
l^ouuds. The Egyptian bale averaged 245 pounds in 1855 and 714 in 1892. In Peru,
Br.azil. and Persia the bales run from 175 to 220 jiounds, and in Asiatic Russia from
250 to 325 pounds. India averages about 400 pounds, and the density of the bale is
so much greater than the American that it weighs 39 iiouiuls to the cubic foot, while
compressed cotton in American bales is less than 35 pounds.

The bales are wrapped in jnte bagging, with iron bauds, the mere covering of the
cotton adding 20 to 24 pounds to the weight of the bale. Among the other forms of
baling, the Dedrich perpetual press, formerly used to some extent, puts up the cotton
in bales of 100 pounds, and of a density nearly equal to that obtained by the com-
l^resses. The Bessonette cylindrical cotton bale is turned out by a self-feeding pre.ss,
which receives the bat of lint as it comes from the condenser upon a spool between
two heavy rollers. The friction of the rollers rotates the spool and winds the bat
upon it so tightly as to press out nearly all the air and to form the roll into a pack-
age with a density of 35 pounds to the cubic foot and of uniform size and shape
throughout. The pressure employed is only 25,000 pounds to the liale, against
5,000,000 pounds by the compress. The Bessonette cylindrical bale is of uniform
length, with a diameter of 14 inches to 16 inches. The bales are covered with cotton
cloth. The ends are capped with the same material, held in place by a small hoop
of wire. Xo ties are used, nor are they necessary, for the bale retains its shape Avith-
out them. It is claimed that the saving by the use of this bale in the expense of
compressing, handling, insurance, transportation, etc., amounts to $4.2oper bale, and
with the air completely pressed out, it is practically fireproof. See The Cotton
Plant, United States Department of Agriculture, "Washington, 1896.

CoTTOX MANUFACTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. — The manufacture of cotton goods
in the United States, exclusive of hosiery, knit goods, mixed textiles, cordage and
twine, required in 1890 2,216,000 bales of cotton, used in 905 establishments, having
221,585 employees. The value of materials used was $154,912,979, and of products
$267,981,724. The number of spindles was 14,550,323, an increase of 3,896,888 in ten
years; nearly three-fourths in the New England States, and over one-tenth in the
Southern, where the increase has of late l)eeu very rapid.

The percentages of cost of manufacture were : 43.81 for cotton, 14 for other mate-
rials, 6.24 for miscellaneous expense, 25.93 for labor, and 10.02 for depreciation and
profit. The finer grades are mostly made in the New England States, where the
quantity of cotton used per spindle, indicating degree of fineness, was 65.95 pounds,
78.46 in the Middle, 147.55 in the Western, and 161.41 in the Southern States. The
development of all branches of cotton manufacture was active until arrested by
recent depression, and equal progress may be exjiected in the future.

186 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

Bast Fiber. — Like all the species of Malracew, the stalks of the cotton plant con-
tain in their bark a fine jute-like liber. This has at different times attracted the
attention of industrialists, and various attempts have been made to hrmrr it into nse.
There is no doubt that if the plants were thrown thickly, like hemp, so as to shoot up
slender and branchless, that a j-ood tiber could be prepared from them. The experi-
ments, however, have been conducted with the old bushy stalks remaining in the
field after the lint cotton harvest.

\ In the collection of fibers sent to the Paris Exposition of 1889 was a line example
of the fiber of the cotton stalk, from a plant grown by Gov. .1. B. Gordon, of Georgia,
prepared by the American Coiisolidated Fiber Company, from a green stalk, sixty
days from date of planting. In the letter transmitting the specimen it was stated
that "the tiber is not only good for thread, but for a thousand other purposes; it is
a splendid liber for paper also, as it will not tear as easily as that made from wood
pulp or rags." There is no donbt that this liber would make an admirable twine,
though its use in "thread" is somewhat overstated. It possesses fair strength,
specimens I have examined by hand tests appearing somewhat stronger than Jute.
The fiber of old stalks that have stood iu the field is of varying shades of russet
in color, while that from fresh stalks is a yellow white.

The antagonism of the farmers of the South to the jute trust, in 1890, called
renewed attention to unutilized Southern fibers for the manufacture of bagging with
which to bale the cotton crop, the price of bagging having been advanced from 7
to 12 cents per yard. Various fibers were suggested as substitutes for the India
product, and among them the bast of cotton stalks, which, it was claimed, could be
supplied "from the 18,000,000 acres of cotton fields" in cultivation iu the South.
Among those-who exjierimented with this fiber in manufacture was William E Jack-
son, of Augusta, Ga., who gave considerable attention to the enterprise, a company
having been organized to carry on Ihe work. According to the statement made the
fiber was separated "on a machine which was patented and perfected for South
American fiber experiments," the name of the inventor not having been given. The
princiide consisted in "running the bast between a corrugated concave bed, the
charge Itetween being washed by a fiowiug stream of water to wash away the resi-
due of gum and bark."

Nothing was said as to the proposed method of harvesting the stalks, further than
that fiber shown was taken from stalks that had been gathered late in February,
after exposure to the weather for several months. The fiber luoduced from these
stalks was sent to Mr. J. C. Todd, of Paterson, N. J., for manufacture, a few yards
having been prepared experimentally. During a visit to the factory in Paterson a
few months later, I was able to secure from the loom whence it was made a small
specimen of the bagging, which is preserved in the collection of the Department.
The fiber, which showed fair strength, was reddish iu color, or a bright russet,
though the sample exhibited at Paris approached nearer to straw color.

Like many other similar enterprises, the anticipated results were not realized,
and it is doubtful if the harvesting of such rough and uneven material could be
accomplished at economical cost, even if such stalks or branches could be success-
fully decorticated. A machine constructed to operate upon straight, clean stalks,
half an inch or more in diameter, grown rapidly and close together in the field, such
as hemp stalks, could hardly be expected to work smoothly ujion the rough, irregularly
shaped branches and often crooked material that would be yielded by cotton plants
grown primarily for lint cotton.

The only further reference to the economic use of the bast of the cotton stalk for
fiber is in tht; Die. Ec. Prod. Ind., Vol. IV. "The stem yields a good fiber, which
may be separated by retting. Several writers have alluded to this subject and
reconunended its utilization, but apparently the people of India are not aware of
this fact, since no mention is made of their ])utting it to any useful purpose." As a
native use, however, should be mentioned the employment of the bark of Gosaypiuni
tomcntosum in the Sandwich Islands for rude twine.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 187

Goiin (BurDi.). See Boehmcria.
Grama China. Mulilenhergia imngens.
Grass fibers.

While librous substance is extracted from many species of Uramineiv, the family of
trne grasses, the term is frequently applied to fibers derived from plants that are
grasses in no sense of the word, and it is therefore misleading. Examples: "China
grass,"' the liber from a tall shrnb {Boehmeria); "Sisal grass,"' the fiber from a tleshy-
leaved Agave, and " Sillc grass,'" which may mean Bromelia fiber, or almost anything.

Grass tree.

Resin , Xanthorrhaa ansiralis ; dwarf , X. minor, l)oth of Dr. Guilfoyle's^

Australasian lists.

Gre"wia asiatica et sp. div.

This genus of Tiliacea' comprises shrubs or small trees that are natives of the trop-
ical and subtropical regions of Asia and Africa; also found in the Malayan Archi-
pelago. The species that have been recognized as fiber producing are as follows :

G. asiaiica (Ind. and Ceyl.). Bast fiber much employed in rope making.

G. hrvigata (Ind., Malay Is., Austr.. and tropical Afr.). The fiber is used for cord-
age in Kanara.

G. microcos (Ind.). Lisboa includes this species in his list of fibrous plants ( Wait).

G. opjjosiii folia (N. W. Himalayas, Ind.). A coarse fiber, made from the bark, is
used for ropes and nets. " It is neither very strong nor dural)le nor to be had in any
quantity"' (Trans. Agri. Hort. Soc Ind.). Has been employed in paper making.

G. occidental is (S. Afr.). Kaffir hemp. "A white fiber of great strength extracted
by retting, and much used by the Kaffirs" (Spon).

G. scahroplujlla (Ind.). Said to yield a fiber suitable for ropes.

G. tilia'folia (Ind. and Ceyl.). The bark yields a cordage fiber. Routledge
describes the fiber as "strong, harsh, Aviry, and hard." Would not pay to exjiort it
for paper making.

Gru gru; also written Groo (jroo and Gri gri (W. Ind.). SieeAcrocomia^
There is confusion in the use of these names. The Kew Mus. Guide gives Astro-
carijum acuJeatum as the Gri-gri, and Acrocomia sclerocarpa as the Gru-gru.

Guaniara (Mex.). ^qq Bromelia lyinguin.

Guano yarey (Cuba). See reference under Thrinax argentea.

Guaxinduba.

The bark of this Brazilian tree, species not identified, when beaten yields a kind
of cloth which has been used by some of the Bolivian tribes as a dress material.

Guayubera americana.

Included in Dr. Niederlein"s list of Argentina species. I have not seen the fiber.
Guayuco (clothing). Colombia. See Couratari.
Guazuma tonientosa.

Endogen. Sterculiacew. A small tree, 20 to 25 feet.

Tropical America and India.

This species is known to the French colonists of the West Indies as Orme (VAmer-
iqiie, and in India and Jamaica as bastard cedar. Dr. Roxburgh experimented with
the fiber of this species, and found it to show considerable strength, has been more
recently examined and thought, with cultivation, to afford a good cordage fiber. In

188

USEFUL, FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

Jamaica the tree is only re::aided as useful on account of foliage and frnir, which are
stock food, and for its timber.

iriiazitma iilmifolia, fiue samples of the fiber of which wore exhibited in the Mexi-
can exhibit of the AV. C. E., 1X93, is known in Mexico as HiuLsima. Mr. St. Hill, who
sent a sample of tiber to the Department in 1871, states that the species is found in
Trinidad. Samples of roufrh cinnamon-colored bast of this species are preserved in
the P>i)t. Mus. Harv. I'uiv.

Gruembipi (Aig.). See Fhilodendron.

Guilielma speciosa. The Peach
Palm.

Endogen. Palma. Tree, 60 to 80 feet.
Native of Venezuela and Guiana. The
species is chielly valued for its fruit, which
is eaten by the natives, and which is pre-
pared in several ways. Dr. Ernst includes
the species in his list of Venezuelan fiber
plants. (See tig. 61.) The revised name of
this palm is J^actris f/asipacs. See I'xictris.

Guiniauve. Frencli name for the
^Mallow, which see.

Guineo (Veiiez.
fion.

See Miisa xiipicn-

Gurnbo and Gombo. the Okra (see
Hibiscus escidentiis).

Gunda-gilla (Ind.). See Bauhinia
inacrosUa-hi/a, under B. racemosa.

Gurach, or Gurcha (Hind.). Tino-
spora cordifoJia.

Guyetta. Eilaria jdmesii.
Gymnostachys anceps.

a grasslike araceous i)lant. found in New
South Wales, calledTraveller's grass; "dis-
tinguished for its extraordinary tenacity."
{Savorcjnan.)

Gynerium argenteum. Pa3IPAs grass.

Endogen. (riamiiua. A giant grass or reed.

A native of the vast plains of South America, particularly Uruguay, Paraguay, and
La Platte. Introduced into cultivation as an ornamental plant in many countries.
The leaves have been used in paper making.

The leaves of (i. saccharoides have been made into hats in Dominica and from the
Rio Casiquiare.

Hair moss. Folytriclnim commune.

Haifa, or Alfa (Alg.). Stijxi tenacissima.

Han (Hawaii). See Hibiscus tiliaceus.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 189

Hana (Ceyl.)- Yuccd (jloriosa.

Hana-inushiro matting (Jap.). See Cypcrns unifans.

Hanf (Ger.). CannahLs ,sativa.

Hapu-Ili (Hawaii). See Cihotinm.

Harakeke. Xo. l*, common var. ^STeAV Zealand tlax. See Phorininm
tenax.

Hardwickia binata.

Exogeu. Ltgiimhiosa'. A tree, 100 feet.
.South aud central India. A forest tree related to the Copaiva balsam trees of
South America. It is recorded hy Dr. George Watt as a strong cordage liber and
used without any special preparation by the natives Trhere it abounds. Also used,
for paper. "A valuable tiber for cordage purposes" (Spon").

Hatirauka"wa. New Zealand tlax. Phontiiion tenax.

Hechima (Jap.). Sponge cucumber. See Lujfa.

Heii (Hawaii). Vihoihon menzieslL

Helianthus annuus. The Sunflowee.

Exogeu. Composltd . Tall-growing herb.

Said to be a native of Mexico and Peru. Introduced into Eurojie about the end of
the sixteenth century. Cultivated in America, Europe, and in India.

Fiber. — It has frequently been the subject of experiment in this country as a
fiber-producing i)lant, though I have seen no samjiles of its fiber that would pay for
the preparation, or that would serve any useful end when prepared, unless for paper
stock, and there are many American plants better adapted for this purpose. Never-
theless, Spon states that the plant would repay culture for the fiber yielded from its
stems. About 6 ^lounds of seed are required for an acre. In a note from Dr. Havard
it is stated that the strong fiber in the stem forms a useful material for the manufac-
ture of rough wrapijing paper. There is no longer any dotibt about the plant being
a native of the United States.

H. tiiberosus, the Jerusalem artichoke, is said by Balfour to yield fiber in its stems.

Heliconia bihai. Balizier.

The species of this genus of JfHsacetc inhabit tropical America. A specimen of the
fiber was sent to the Dejiartment from Trinidail in 1891, by Mr. St. Hill, Avho gives
the following facts concerning it:

A wild plant which grows on cool soil, and its presence indicates superior land.
The process of curing or obtaining the fiber is the same as that for the plantain or
banana. The blades, which resemble the blades of the plantain, produce the fiber,
but the blades grow from the roots of the bush like a pineapple, and they are 6 to 10
feet long. One acre will produce about 10.000 blades, and each blade will produce
half an ounce of fiber. It is a coarse fiber, not so strong as the other fibers men-
tioned, but Avould be good for door mats aud similar purposes. It may be reaped,
annually after three years. Not produced commercially.

Heliocarpus americanus.

Exogeu. Tiliacew. A tree.

The representatives of the genus are confined to Mexico, Central America, aud
Colombia.

Fiber. — Specimens of a number of these tree basts were examined by me in the
Mexican Court, W. C. E., 1893. Two fibers bearing the names of Jonoti: and Jolocin

190 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

have siuce been identified by Dr. Jose Rauiirez. of the National Institute, Mexico, as
H. ainer'tcaiiKS and H. arhoresccus, respectively. Considered as tree basts, tbey -^ere
rated about 75 points out of 100, for strength, color, care in preparation, and utility.
The uses of the fibers were not learned, though, doubtless, tliey are only valuable for
rough native cordage and mats, and as jiaper stock.

Specimens of a tree bast named Tolotzin, or Catena, and referred to H. mexicana,
■were secured by me in the Mexican court, Paris Exp. Univ., 1889, said to make line
paper, and at that time claiming special attention. The fiber was sent from Tabasco.

*»SjjfCi»ieHx. — Mus. U. S. Dept. Ag. ; a fine example of the yellowish bast of H. amcri-
caniis is preserved in the Bot. Mus. Harv. I'niv.

Hemp.

The hemp plant proper is ('(Dinahis safira, or common hemp. It has also been known
in ditierent parts of the world by the following prefixes: American, Breton, English,
Himalayan, Italian, Japanese, Kentucky. Persian, Petersburg, nnd Russian (liempl.
The many other hemps are :

Ambari , Hibiscus ccinnnbinu-s; Bengal, or Bombay , Crotuhiriu jitiicia;

Black-fellow's , Commensonia fraseri ; Bowstring , o'i XivQK^~Sun^cncria

gitineeusia ; of Indi.i, >'. roxbiirf/hiiuin and S. zeylaiiica : Florida bowstring , S.

longiliora ; Brown , Hibiscus cannahiuuf ; Calcutta (erroneously, for jute),

Co/'c/ior«s spp. ; Cebu , Musa tvxtiliis ; Colorado River , Sisbania vuicro-

carpa: Cretan , Datima caunabiiia; Cuba , Fitixraa ciibensis; Deccan

. Hibiscus cannabinus; False , American, Ixhits tiiphina, not described in

this catalogue; False sisal , Agave decipiens ; Giant , of Cbina, Cannabis^

gigantea (Bernardiu's Cat.), not described iu this catalogue ; Hayti , Agave

fatida (Bernardiu's Cat.), synonym of Fiircnva gigantea ; Ife {aev Sansevieria

cylindvica) ; Indian (see Apocyntun cannabiniim) ; Jubbulpore , <'rot(iJaria

teniiifolia; Ko , Japan (see P"<>rrtrirt) ; Koukan (see Cvotalaria); Madras

, Cvotalaria ienuifoUd; Manila , Musa textilis : New Zealand (erro-
neously for New Zealand flax) Phormium tciiax : Pangane , Sansevieria kirkii ;

Pita , Yucca spp., also Furcraa ; Pua , India, ilaoutia puga; Queens-
land . Sidareiusa et spp. ; Rangoon . Liipovtca gigas (Bernardiu's Cat.);

Eoselle , Hibiscus sabdarifa ; Sisal , Agave vigida and its varieties, sisa-

lana and itongnta; Sunn , Crotalavia juncea ; Swedish , I'viica dioicn ;

Tampieo , Agave lietevacantha; Water , Kupitiovium caunahinum and JUdens

tripavtita, the latter not described in this catalogue ; Wild (see ATaoutia puga).

Henequen.

The use of agave fiber on this eontinent goes so far back into the jiast that there
are no records to show when its use began. Among the Aztecs "maguey" fiber and
the fiber derived from iialm leaves, known as "icxotle'' and "izhuate," were woven
into coarse cloths, the maguey being also known as "nequen," the orthography of
-which is not greatly different from the word "benequen," -which is to-day the Mexi-
can name of sisal hemp. Agave vigida, which see for description and uses of the fiber.
See also Ancient Fibers in Introduction.

Hibiscus.

Avery large genus of plants, containing many important fiber-yielding species,
and belonging to the Malvacew which includes commercial cotton. The plants are
tall shrubs distinguished by their large showy fiowers, the Rose Mallow and Okra
being representative American species. The species of this genus abound in all
countries, and no fiber list may be examined that does not include from one to a
-dozen. While the fibers of some of the foreign species are classed as hemps, the
native forms yield hardly more than jute substitutes, as the fiber resembles jute
more than hemp.

It is unimportant to treat specially the many species of the genus which have been

DESCRIPTIVE CATAL0C4UE. 191

recorded as yielding fiber. The principal species are fully descriljed in the appro-
priate j)lace under their scientific names, and it vrill only be necessary to give brief
mentions to a few of the others that have been recorded in the literature of the sub-
ject. Among the earlier specimens of fiber received by the Department are those
from H. rosa-shicnsis, the Chinese rose, and H. JHlifloi-us, source unknown. Speci-
mens of the following species were received from the Australian exhibits of the
Phil. Int. Exh., 1876: H. sorhifolla, H. ieiraciis, and H. mutahilis. A Victorian species
is H. hcterophyllKs, "the bark of which is rich iu fiber of good quality." {Dr.
Gmlfoyle.) The two first named species are not found in the Kew Index, l)ut Dr.
Gnilfoyle's label names are retained on the specimens iu the museum, and so referred
"to here.

Spon mentions Indian species as follows : H. fni'catMS is found in the southern
province of India and in the interior of Eengal. The bark yields an abundance of
strong white fibers ; a line broke at 89 pounds dry and 92 pounds wet. The stems are
■cut when the plant is flowering, and steeped at once. U. Jlcuhteus, native of Bengal,
with a straight stem 6 to 14 feet high, and Aery smooth bark, thrives luxuriantly
with little or no care, yet is very little cultivated for its fiber. The seed is sown in
beds in May, and when the plants are 6 inches high they are set out in rows,
t) inches apart each way. The luxuriant growth and habits of the plant commend it
to serious attention. H. ritifolhis, common all over India, is ;i wild plant yielding a
very white, fine and strong fiber, extracted by retting. Other Indian sjiecies from
which fiber has been extracted are: H. coWunts, H. siiratfensis, and H. tricusjiis.
H. Indungii is a native of south Africa, and yields a fiber of great toughness. H. siiJ-
phureiis is a Venezuela species mentioned in Dr. Ernst's list of fibers. Many others
might be named, but the present list will suffice.

Vdtillart states that the fiber of Hihlsciifi, when minutely examined iu glycerin,
appears as a bundle, the filaments strongly united together, so much so that they are
-vfith. difficulty separated even after treatment in an alkaline solution. The fibers
are short, stiff, and brittle; of sufficient fineness, but irregular in size, even in the
same specimens. The central cavity, usually narrow, is prominent; cells generally
terminating in fringed points, sometimes having notches or siniiosities in their out-
lines; some are large, ribboned, and creased, the exterior surface striated. These
last have very slender walls, which explain the creases. Viewed transversely with
n high power the fibers are seen to be polygonal, with sharp angles and straight
sides, the polygons jiressed compactly together. The walls are thick and the central
•cavity round or oval.

Hibiscus abelmoschus. The Musk Mallow.

Exogen. Mahacew. A herbaceous bush.

Common throughout the hotter parts of India, two forms being recognized iu the
Indian Flora, A'ar. 1, viuUiformis, and var. 2, betiilifoHu.s, according to George AVatt.

Bast Fiber. — In a series of experiments made by the Agricultural Horticultural
Society of India, at the re(|iiest of the Government, it was shown that the fiber of H.
<ibelmoschiis yielded the best crop of all fiber-yielding plants under experiment. AVith
a Death and Ellwood machine a yield of 800 pounds of fiber to the acre was recorded.
The society arrived at the conclusion that the cultivation of this jilant offered no
advantages over jute.

Hibiscus arboreus. The Mahaut.

I have not been able to verify this species. Described by Squier as growing to the
height of 16 to 18 feet. He states that '• its bark is tough, and not much, if at all,
inferior to hemp for many purposes ; Avhite, soft, and apparently adapted to the man-
ufacture of paper. Uses locally for making rojies.'' "The celebrated Cuban bast-
wood, the bark of which furnishes a coarse but. strong cordage, iu universal use
wherever a rope or string is needed and which is not a bad substitute for chains;

192 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

growu iu consiilerable (|u;>utity at Samaua. (Sauto Doiuiugo) and "^as seen more
sparingly along strt-amg in the monntains" {Charles iVrcjhi). See H. elatus.

Hibiscus cannabinus. Ambari He3ip. t r, y^ v v

This is the most valuable species of the genus. The plant is a native of the East
Indies, and at i^reseut is lai-,u.ely cultivated for fiber throughout India, the product
being almost wholly utilized by the agricultural classes where grown as a substi-
tute for hemp. Its common names are Deccan hemjj and Ambari hemji, the latter
jjarticularly in western Imlia. In Madras it is called Pahiiitjoo. It is the llesta j;«f (if
Bengal, and Deccan or Ambari hemp of Bombay. The Sanskrit name is XdlHa. The
plant has a prickly stem, the leaves deeply parted, and the stem attains a height of
6 to 8 feet.

Bast Fibkr. — The tiber is described as soft, white, and silky, and by some writers
is said to be more durable than jute for the coarser textiles. "It is largely grown
by the natives of India and employed for agricultural purposes — ropes, strings, and
sacks being made from it. The length of the extracted liber varies between 5 and
10 feet. The fiber is somewhat stiff and brittle, and thouLih used as a substitute for
hemp and jnte^ it is inferior to both^ The breaking strain has been variously stated
at 115 to 190 pounds. It is bright and glossy, but coarse and harsh. It is sold with
and as .jute, and is employed in Bengal for the purposes of jute, including fishing
nets and paper. Samples of the fiber exi)osed for two hours to steam at 2 atmos-
pheres, followed by boiling iu water for three hours, and again steamed for four
hours, lost only 3.63 per cent by weight, as against llax, 3..")0; mauila hemp, 6.07;
hemp, 6.18 to 8.44; jute, 21.39." (TTcitt.)

The fibers of carefully prepared Ambari are from 5 to 6 feet long. Compared
with ordinary hemp they are paler Itrowu, harsher, adhere closer together, though
divisible into fine fibrils, jiossessed of considerable strength. Its tenacity tested
with sunn is as 115 to 130. "Fiber stiff and lirittle, has no superiority over jute,
and it is very inferior to that of India hemp or sunn" ( Vt'tiUari). A roughly jire-
pared sample of bast from this species was sent to the Department from the Alabama
Experiment Station in Jlay, 1890.

CULTiv.\Tl()X. — Though thriving at all seasons of the year, it is generally culti-
vated iu the cold season. The seeds are sown as thickly as hemp, in rich, loose soil,
and it requires about three months' growth before it is ready to be pulled for
"watering" and dressing, the mode of treatment being the same as that given the
sunn hemp, Crotalarla juncea (.see p. 139). Full-grown jilauts that have rijiened their
seed furnish stronger fiber than the plants cut while in llower, thoui;h the fibers of
this species are more remarkable for their liuoness than for strength.

In harvesting the plants are either cut close to the ground or pulled up by the
roots, as the lower portion of the stem contains the best fiber. The stalks are sub-
merged in water and allowed to remain from six to ten days, according to the
weather, when the bark can be readily peeled by the hand. Too long steeping,
while it makes white fiber, results iu a loss of strength.

The fiber is prepared by bundling the stalks, which, after a few days, are steeped
for nearly a week iu water under stones. "When sufficiently retted they are cleaned
by beating them on the ground, the fiber is stripped off, washed, and dried. Five
hundred stems about 8 feet high, as grown en masse in gardens, were recently
taken at random and the fiber removed and cleaned in the usual way. The result
was 5i iiounds clean and good fiber. The stems when carefully dried weighed
nearly 20 pounds. Assuming the acre to be 40,000 square feet after allowing for
waste patches the number of stems at 3 inches apart woitld be 640,000, hence the
yield in clean fiber at 1 pound per 100 would be 6,400 pounds, equal to 2^ tons.
The stems would yield also 11 tons of poor fuel. (From Report Rev. and Ag. Dept.
of India.)

Uses. — A coarse sackcloth is made from its fiber in India (sometimes called
gunny), though its chief employment is for ropes and cordage, it being the common

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE.

193

cordage of the country in a few districts. Coarse canvas is also made from it. lu
Bengal it is employed at the present time for all the purposes of jute and also for
making fish nets and jiaper. There is no doubt, however, that it is less cultivated
than in Iioxburgh's time, or even at a later period when Koylc's work was published,
and before jute cauie into commercial promiuence. In the catalogue of the Indian
department, Loud. Exh., 1862, it is stated that every ryot sows a small quantity
along the edges of his crop for his own use. At that time it was valued at about 2
cents iier pound, average.

"A universal practice exists in Egypt of sowing teale (//. cannabinut!) around the
cotton llelds for protection from cold, sand storms, etc. The seeds are sown the same
time as the cottou, not as a thick belt, but merely about 9 inches in width. The
plant grows fairly rapidly, aiul soon reaches a good height. At the end of Septem-
ber or in October it is cut, steeped in water, and the liber obtained used for making
ropes, etc."' (George F. Foaden.)

Hibiscus elatus. Blue or Mountain Mahoe. Cuba Bast.

Native of West Indies. A tree, 50 to 60 feet Avith roundish leaves and large
flowers of a jjurpliah-saffron color. (See fig. 62.)

Bast Fiber. — A specimen of the fiber from Demerara, sent to the Department in
1863, was described as very strong but coarse and suitable for making cordage, coffee
bags, etc. "Thefibersmake
good ropes. The lace-like
inner bark was at one time
known as Cuba bark (Cuba
bast), from its being used
as the material for tying
around bundles of Havana
cigars" (Faivcvtt). A small
quantity of fiber known
commercially as Cuba bast
or Guana comes to this
country, though latterlj' the
supply is very small owing
to the revolutionary trou-
bles in Cuba. Messrs. Flint,
Eddy &, Co., the New York
importers, have furnished
information concerning it as
follows :

The process of gathering
entails the destruction of
the tree, which is cut down,
the bark peeled off, exposing
the fiber, which is separated
from the bark and spread
out in the sun to dvj, and subsequently jiacked in bales containing 150 pounds, or
thereabouts. There are two or three grades of it, ranging in price from 25 to 75
cents per pound, the more desirable grades being the lighter and softer textures. It
is used extensively in this country and Europe for making women's hats and milli-
nery trimmings, such as braids, etc. Its porousness makes it very desirable for the
above purpose, as it readily absorbs a dye without impairing its texture. We under-
stand that it is also used to some extent in Europe for making hammock twine,
narrow strips of it twisted into the form of twine having considerable tensile
strength. In using it for millinery purposes it is slit into narrow strijis and then
"woven, twisted, braided, etc.

^Sjiechncns. — Mns. U. S. Dept. Ag.
12247— No. 9 13

Fig. 62. — Leaf and blossom of Hibiscus elatus.

194 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

Hibiscus esculentus. Okra.

Syn. Abelmonchiis esculcnfun.

Common iLNDNATi\'K NAMES. —Okni, gumbo of LouisiaiKi, i/omho (Fr.) ; qui mho mho
(Span.); bamiyah (Pers.); hamiija (Arab.); hhindi (Iliiul.); hnndaka (CcyL),
and many others. "

The plant is a native of tlie W»'St Indies, but cultivation has introduced it to all
tropical and subtropical countries. It nourishes throughout the Southern United
States. Avhere it is grown for its jtods, which form a useful article in the domestic
economy. It ia also cultivatt d in South American countries, as well as in countries of
the Old AYorld, the French estimating it highly as a food i)lant. In France it is
known as fjomho, and it is the "gumbo" of Louisiana, which is employed in a num-
ber of Creole dishes, the sliced pods often being used to thicken the soup known as
"gumbo" or "chicken gundx)." During the late civil war, when the Southern States
were cut olf from communication from the rest of the world by a rigidly enforced
blockade, coffee became Aery scarce and ditlicnlt to obtain. During this time many
of theiieople of the Southern States, and especially the poorer classes, utilized the
seed of the okra plant by either mixing with coffee or using it alone. They found
the seed thus prepared a A-ery fair sustituto for coffee.

A few years ago okra attracted considerable attention as a possible lilxr for South-
ern cultivation to re]dace .iute in the manufacture of " Cotton bagging ; " a large cor-
respondence Avith the Deiiartment resulted, and many articles on the subject appeared
in the newsiiapers of the day. As is frc(iucntly the case, however, the Aalue of the
plant and the ease of its cultivation for fil)cr Avere Acrj- much overrated, and subse-
quent experiments did not substantiate the claims made for the plant.

Bast Fihei:. — In color okra liber is as white as New Zealand tlax, much lighter
than jute as usually prei)ared for export, but more brittle and showing less strength.
The filaments are smooth and lustrous and ;ire tolerably regular. " The fiber is long
and silky and generally strong and pliant. When Avell prepared, as in portions of
India, it is adapted for the manufacture of rope, tAvine, sacking, and i)aper. In Ben-
gal its fiber is reputed harsh and britth', owing doubtless to improper trt'atment, and
it is but little manufactured there. In 1 )acca and Mymensing it is used to adulterate
jute. It resembles hemp, and under this name is exported to the amount of a few
thousand hundredweight yearly. In France the manufacture of paper from this
fiber is the subject of a patent; the liber receives onlj^ mechanical treatment and
affords a paper called banda, said to be equal to that nuide from pure rags." (Spon. )

Dr. Roxburgh exi)erimented with okra many years ago in India, and made repeated
tests of the strength of the fiber. In preparing the material for these tests, the stems
were cut Avhen the seed was ripe, and were steepid a few days before preparing.
His tests, compared Avith hemp and jute, are thus recorded: The okra liber, dry (from
India), broke with a strain of 79 pounds; wet, 95 pounds; jute {Corchoriis olitoriiis),
dry, 113 pounds; Avet, 125 pounds ; hemp (Bengal), dry, 1,58 pounds; wet, 190 pounds.
Hihiscits cdunab'miis in the same test gave, dry, 115 pounds; wet, 133 pounds. Other
species of Hibiscus gav« as follows: H. sabdarlffa, dry, 95 pounds; wet, 117 pounds,
H. strictiis (from the llollucas), dry, 104 pounds; wet, 115 pounds; and, H. fnrcatita,
dry and wet, 89 and 92 pounds, respectively. It will be seen by these tests that okra
fiber is not only inferior to that from other species of mallows, but is inferior to jute,
and not half as strong as hemp.

CULTiAATioN. — The eti'ort to bring okra into cultiAation iu the United States as a
fiber plant began about 1890. A bagging and cordage company of Fort Worth, Tex.,
became interested in the fiber, and issued a circular entitled A Word to Farmers,
which contained a lengthy account of the production of the fiber and its uses. It
was hoped to make the culture of the fiber and its manufacture into bagging a suc-
cess "in order to give a substitute for jute that would enable the farmers of the South
to avoid paying tribute to the 'jute trust.' " The company named in the circular
oftered to sell seed to the farujers at cost and i)urchase all the product " that could
be carted to the mill.'' The Department carried on a lengthy correspondence with

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. ' 195

Dr. ]M. Chambers, who was named iu the circuhir, ami was much iuterested in a
machine he was coustructiug, which, however, was never perfected. A lar^e area
was ])lanted in okra near Forth Worth, but the Department was not able, subse-
(juently, to learn how n.uch liber was secured, if any, or to obtain samjdes of either
fiber or stalks. Like many other saeh enterprises, the advantages of the culture
were A'ery muih overstated, and the ratio of cost of production to yield and value of
product doubtlcs-i appeared, in actual practice, inversely, compared with the golden
promises made at tlie outset of the experience.

" In the cultivation of this jilant the seeds are thickly sown, on any rich soil,
about the beginning of Ai)ril in the iSouth, and by the beginning of May in the
North, in drills G inches apart. The seeds can also be sown broadcast, about 20
pounds to the acre ; but here much care has to be taken to sow as uniformly as pos-
sible. In eighty or ninety days the stalks take a rosy color, and without irrigation
they will then have attained a heiglit of from 4i^ to 5i feet, while with irrigation dur-
ing dry weather tliey will grow to a length of from 6 to 8 feet and even more. The
stalks can then be cut with a mowing machine, having a dropper attached, 2 or 3
inches from the ground." (Fremcrey.)

A Florida correspondent states that " the plant will not only grow from the seed
almost without cultivation, but in this climate it will rattoon three years, the last
crop nearly equal to the first, it being very rarely injured by frost." He places tlie
yield of stalks at 1.5 tons per acre, though Dr. C. 1\ Pankniu, of Charleston, S. C,
who planted a small area in okra obtained results from his carefully conducted
experiments as follows: A half acre of stalks was produced, one-half of which,
when decorticated by his process, yielded at the rate of 180 pounds of fiber to tlie
acre, the expense being in the neighborhood of $75. The fiber has been used experi-
mentally in the manufacture of jiaper in Alabama.

From a careful consideration of the snbject in all its details, not only as relates to
our own but to other countries, and considering the weakness of the fiber compared
with jute, I conclude that the cultivation of the okra plant for its fiber can not be
made a paying industi'y in the United States. And this opinion is emjihasized by
the fact that there are several species of indigenous fiber i)]ants which could be as
easily grown and which are superior to jute in strength, while India jute itself will
do well in many of the Southern States. For further accounts see Report No. 6,
Fiberlnvestigations series, U. S. Dept; Ag. (1894); Kew Bull., Oct., 1890; Spon'sEnc,
Div. Ill; Diet. Ec. Prod. Ind., Vol. IV; U. S. Pat. Kept. (Agricult.), 1859.

^Specimens. — Field Col. Mus. ; Mus. U. S. Dept. Ag.

Hibiscus moscheutos. The Swamp Eose Mallow.

This is one of the coinmouest of the mallows, found in many parts' of the temper-
ate United States, according to Gray " inhabitating brackish marshes along the
coast, extending up rivers far beyond the influence of salt water (as above Ilarris-
bnrg, Pa.), also Onondaga Lake, New York, and westward, usually within the influ-
ence of salt springs." The jilant grows from 4 to 8 feet iu height and flowers late in
summer. It is also found in India. It is known in Trinidad as African okra or (iiimho
viisse. (See fig. 63.)

Bast Fiber. — Samples of the fiber in the museum collections are evidejitly hand
prepared, and show little strength. Those from experiments made in New .lersey in
1880 were considered "not only as good as India jute, but as secondary grades of
imported hemps." The Aalue of the fiber, however, was very much overestimated.
Experiments with plant and fiber date !)ack many years.

"Recent exiieriments with the rose mallow at Camden and Newark incline us
strongly to believe that jute of equal quality may be obtained from it, and possibly
under conditions more advantageous than from the Abutilon (J. aricenyiw). One
very important advantage the rose mallow would have over the Abutilon, in respect
to the economy of cultivation, consists in its being a perennial. Like ramie, the
plants once established, the aunual cuttings from the stands would be a perpetual

196

USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD,

source of profit to the cultivator, iu case the ([nality and cost of the, liber meet our
present expectations." (Second Re]iort of tlie Bureau t)f Statistics, J^abor, and
Industries of New Jersey, 1880.)

Although the plant is usually found, iu a wild state, iu marshes, or upon the mar-
gin of streams, or iu low, Avet jjlaces, exjjerimcuts show that it will thrive upon
uplands as well. 'l"hirty-five years ago rose uuillow roots were taken from the i)lace
of their natural growth and planted upon ui>lan(l8 on the Delaware River, with a
view to utilization of the fil)er, and ibr many years they held their own as tenaciously
as when growing iu their native swamps; and they may be growing upon these
uplands to-day, for all that is known to the contrary.

*S2)ecime)i.—Mnii. I'. S. Dept. Ag.

Fig. 03. -Leaves aud Ijloa.soms of IlibiKcits mosclwtitos.

Hibiscus mutabilis. The Changeable Hibiscus.

A native of China, but largely cultivated iu India, and distributed to other couu-
tries. It grows in Trinidad and is known as the White Mahoe. Shalaixtra is one of
the Indian names of the plant.

FiBEK. — Hart says: "An introduced tree (in Trinidad) giving a poor bast iiber."
Watt says : " The bark yields a strong fiber (in India), but from the inner layer soft
and silky, that from the outer layer hard and of a lead color." Roxburgh considered
it inferior for cordage purposes.

Hibiscus sabdariffa. Eozelle Hemp.

This is the ".Jamaica Indian Sorrel," the plant which Inrnishes the " rozeUe" (or
oiselle) hemp of the Madras territories. In India it is a small bush, cultivated in
many portions of that country, its stems yielding a strong, silky fiber by retting the

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 197

twigs when iu llower. Its llesliy calyxes, of a pleasant acitl taste, are inncli employed
for niakini;- tarts as well as jelly, and in tlie West Indies the fruit is much esteemed
for making couling drinks. Another culinary use of the plant in India is the prepa-
ration of its leaves in- salads. The species grows in southern Florida, •where it is
lilanted in March and comes to maturity in Decemher.

Bast Fiber. — A superb sample of this fiber Avas shown iu the exhibit of British
Guiana, W. C. E., 1893, which was accompanied l>y the stalks some 10 feet high, :is
straight aud clean as jute stalks.

The liber was equal, if not superior, to much of the jute which comes to this
country. In my examination for award it was given the following rating: Length,
90 points; strength, 75 points; color, 80 points; average, 81. fi. 'The stem yields a
lil)er (in .Jamaica) which is line and silky.'" (Fawcett.)

E. N. Knapp states that the jilant thrives in cultivation, but that it will not stand
much frost. It will grow on quite poor laud, thoiigh it does best on good land,
where it reaches a height of 8 to 10 feet. It can be produced from cuttings as well
as from seed. Even in Florida it is much esteemed lor its fruit, which is used soon
after the blossoms fall. It is said to make an excellent jelly, and is used :is a sauce,
much as the cranberry is used in the Northern States.

*^i)mHiens.— Field Col. Mus. ; U. S. Nat. jMus. ; Mus. U. S. Dept. Ag.

Hibiscus splendens. Hollyhock Tree.

Fiber from this species, a native of Queensland and New South AVales, Avas received
from Victoria (Phil. Int. Exh., 1876), prepared by Dr. Guilfoylc, who states that the
species is a splendi<l tree, growing to .a height of 20 feet or more. "It is very pubes-
cent, bearing Lirge pink flowers resembling hollyhocks in size and appearance. The
tiber is suitable for cordage, lish lines, paper, etc."

Hibiscus tiliaceus. The Ma.tagua.

Syn. I'nritiitm tiliuceum.

Nativk AND COMMON NAME.-^. ■^[aJa'Jna {Venez.) ; Ifuaniaija (Ecuador); Kmaja-
gttn, Damajagua, and Majagua (Peru) ; Malwc-hord-la-nur (Trin. ) ; Ifan ( Hawaii) ;
7>oZ« (Beng.) ; 7.V7//jm//; (Bomb.) ; Thinhan (Burm.); lleligobcl {('ey\.).

The species abounds in Central and South America, India, tropical Australia., and
the Pacific Islands. " It was generally cultivated in America prior to 1492."

Bast Fiuer. — The samples of fiber examined are not as good as the best jute,
though, according to Poxburgh's experiments, it gains in strength by being wet, a
point iu its favor. The following results were recorded: "A line broke when white
with a weight of 41 jjounds, after being tanned with 62 pounds, aud after having
been tarred with 61 pounds. A similar line macerated in water for 116 days Ijroke
when white with 40 pounds, tanned 55 pounds, and tarred 70 pounds. These obser-
vations are of great interest, tor, of the other fibers exi)erimented with by Roxburgh,
the majority were rotten after maceration, and no other fiber showed so marked an
improvement for cordage purposes when tarred. English hemp and Indian grown
hemp, treated iu the same manner, were found to be rotten, and sunn hemp bi-oke
with 65 pounds, and jute with 60 pounds."

Malwr-hord-hi-mer does not giow inland in Trinidad, but is found on the seashore.
The fiber, of fair quality, is obtained in lengtha*<)f 4 to 6 feet. "There are no large
numbers of the trees existing and little manufactur(>d. The bast is used for making
ropes when the native has no money to buy hemp or mauila. Ropes so made are
good and strong, but there is little i)i'Ospect of the trees being produced in quantity.
They grow 15 to 20 feet high with stems 8 to 20 inches in diameter."

In Peru, where it is known as Dar.ixjagna or Emajagua, it is largely used by the
Indians for the manufacture of ropes and cords. In Ecuador, where it is also
known as Damajagua and Huamaga, it is used iu lieu of cloth, a very fine sample
of a sheet of fiber a foot wide by 2 feet in length, and as thick as felt, is ju-eserved

198

USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

in tho Herb. (.'oL Univ., N. Y. lu Yeuc/nc^la it is used for a kind of ordinmy cordage,
and the natives of the Sandwicli Ishmds employ it for rough rope. In other
countries it is used for cordage, fisliing nets, etc. One of the native Indian methods
of preparing the fiber, Avhen a rope is wanted, is to strip the bark i'rom a branch,
and hohling one end of a strip firmly with the toes it is twisted willi lln' hands.
The plant and fiber in India is fully described in Die. Ec. Prod, liid., NOl. IN', and
by George AVatt in Selections from the Kec. Gov. Ind. Rev. and Ag. Dijit., 18S8.
l)r. Tlieo. Wolf says: A large tree, but not very thick; the bark is cut off and ]>ut
in water, where; it rots like hemp and loses its outer part, tho remainder being a

fibrous substance which is very strong
and soft, and variously used.

^Sj)echncns. — ifus. U. S. r)ei)t. Ag.

Hicoria spp. IIkkotiy Trees.

Syn. Gary a.
The species of hickory need no spe-
cial description. Tiicy do not produce
"fiber," though the subdivided wood
is used for many purposes in which
the true fibers are employed. These
are chiefiy in the manufacture of bas-
ketry and brushes, from splints or
strips of the wood.

The Chicago Fiber Company in-
forms mo that in the preparation of
hickory splints for brush niauufacture
tho material used is second-growth
timber. The log is cut up into the
lengths lequircd and put in a steam
\;\\, for the purpose of softening and
removing the bark, after which it is
convej'ed to a veneering machine,
made especially for that purpose;
llien it is conveyed in largo sheets to
a chopper, where it is cut into splints
in tho width reejuired; the splints are
then set on a rack to dry, and when
dry are pressed into bales from 100
to ."00 pounds in weight, preparatory
to sliipment to the brush factory. For
]>rei)aration of sjjlints i'or basket mak-
ing, see Fraxhiiis. Mr. Sudworth in-
forms me that a bark fiber from hickoiy is used in the South.

Hierochloe odorata. Vanilla (Irass.

Syn. llierochloi: horealis. Now known ;;s ."^(iraslaiKi odorata.

Kndogen. Cramiiuai. A sweet-scentid iicennial, 1 to 2 feet.
Inhabits moist meadows and mountains of tlie noitheastern States, extending west-
ward to Oregon, (irows also in England where it is known as holy or sacred grass,
from its having been used for strewing on church lloors. Known in this country as
vanilla grass, Seneca grass, sweet grass, etc. "This grass, remarkable for its fra-
grance, has long, creei)ing rhizomes, from which spring tho flowering culms and
numerous long-leafed sterile or flowerless shoots; woven into small mats and boxes
by the Indians. Its odor resembles that of a sweet vernal grass, but is more pow-
erful, especially when dry. In some I.uropeaa countries it is believed to have a
tendency to induce sleep, ami bunches of it ai-e hung over beds for this purpose."

Fig. 64. — Ilopi IiMli:in baskot grass, Ililaria jatnaiii

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 199

Structural Fiber.— Dr. Hav.ird statrs in (iaidt-n and Forest, 1890. p. 610. that
the New Engiaml Indians, especially the Penohseots, make an extensive nso of the
holy grass {Hiirovhloi- hornilis). Its long, radical leaves become strongly involute
in drying, forming llexible threads, which are braided into tine strips, and these are
woven into baskets ami other jiretty fancy work. He has also found braids of the
holy grass in a ramp of the Crow Indians on the Yellowstone, but did not learn how
they were used. The delicate and lasting fragrance of the dried leaves gives them
au additional and perhajjs not their least merit.

Higucion (Peru). See Ficus gigantea.
Hik-gas (IikL). See Odina trodier.
Hilaria jamesii. Black Bunch Grass.

Eudogen. (iramineiv. A stiff grass, 12 to 18 inches.

CoMMOX AND Indian names.— Black bunch grass, Guyetta, Gietta; Hopi
(Moqui) Indian, " Takachii : from /flArt, man, ch7*m, a wiry grass; the male riihii"'
(Fetckvs).
A rather coarse perennial, with creeping rootstocks, and stems 12 to 18 inches high.
It is common on the dry mesas of IS'ew Mexico and Arizona, extending eastward into
Texas and Indian Territory. Where abundant it is regarded as one of the most valu-
able native grasses and furnishes excellent pastnrage at all times when not covered
with snow, and is frequently cut for hay. {F. Lamson-Scribner.)
Structural Fiber. — The grass which the Hopi Indians assume to be the female
. ciihii or H. jamesii, is used by the women in making the coil trays described under
the title Yucca glauca, which see. These coil trays, called jyoota, are a famous
Tusayan manufacture. (See tig. 64.)

Himalayan bamboo (see Arnndinaria falcata).
Hka"w-ma of Liotard (Burm.). Linum usitaUssimnm.
Hoa-ko-chu (China). See Broussonetia.
Hoheria populnea. Ribbonwood of Otago.

Esogen Mahace(v. A tree.
A New Zealand species, resembling the Aspen. "The delicate lace-like bast from
its young branches, being strong and glossy, might be used for other purposes than
matting and string,'' (///•. (litilfoi/le.)

Hollyhock fiber (see AltJuva rosea).
Hollyhock tree. Hibiscus spJendens.
Holostemma rheedianum.

Exogen. Ascleiiiadaccd'. Climber.
A native East Indian species, said by Royle to yield a fair fiber that is in best con-
dition after the rains. Watt says, "A tiber about which very little information is
available." It has been described as ]ture and silky and adapted to cordage and
paper making.

Honckenya ficifolia. Bolo-bolo.

Exogen. TiJiavviv.

Specimens of fiber of this species were sent to the Royal Kew Gardens in 1888 from
Lagos, west coast of Africa; known as Bolo-holo in the Popo vernacular, and Agbon-
riii-Ihissa in Yarnba.

We consider this a very valuable fiber of the jute class, but distinctly superior
to the latter in many respects, and more particularly in strength. It is of good
length and well cleaned. If this fiber is capable of l)eing produced in large quanti-
ties there is a very wide Held open to it commercially. Its market value would be

200 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

regulated by that of jute, but in our opinion it would always command a higher
price. If it could be prepared of a whiter color it would prove still more accepta-
ble, but even as it is we should be very glad to see large cxuautities placed on this
market, where they would sell readily. {Ide 4' Christie.)

Honeysuckle fiber (see Lonicera).
Hoop ash. Fraxinus nif/ra.
Hop, Common (see Humuhis lupuJus).
Hordeum vulgare. Barley.

Syn. JI. sativum.

Cultivated barley, which is represented by many varieties, appears to have origi-
nated from Hordeum sjtonta'iienm of southwestern Asia.

"Six-rowed barley has been in cultivation since prehistoric times in southern
Europe ; two-rowed barley is now largely cultivated in England and Central Europe,
The four-rowed barleys are of later origin than the others, and are most generally
cultivated in nortliern Europe and in this country. Tlie barley crop of the United
States for 1895 was 87,072,744 bushels, of which amount six States produced over
73,000,000 bushels, California leading with 19,02.3,678 bushels. Barley is the most
important cereal of tlie far north, some of the varieties being cultivated in Norway
to latitude 70 . It is employed in making bread also in nortliern Asia and Japan.
Barley soup is an article of diet in central Europe. From naked barley (Hordeum
dccorticatiivi) a mucilaginous tea is ])repared, used in medicine. Tlie grain is largely
fed to horses, botli in this country and in Europe, 1)ut the chief use is for brewing
beer." (F. Lamsoji-Scribncr.)

Structukai. Fiber. — The only country making a commercial use of barley straw
for i)laiting, as far as the author has investigated the subject, is .lap.an. where the
nianulaeture of straw plait, both from rice and barley, is a gieat industry, 'i'he plait
is mostly exported to this country and to France and England for hat manufacture,
.and Jias represented in a single year a value of .3.")0,450 yen, or $228,000.

Two forms of straw are employed in .Japan, tliere being three qualities of each,
viz : Naga.wara, ])roduce of Omori-murn, and Kiriwarn, produce of Yebara-gun, Tokyo.
A large collection of the straw plait of Japan was exhibited at the W. V. E., 1893,
at Chicago, there lieiug over 20 forms in the series.

It was learned that some farmers bleach barley straw cultivated by themselves, in
the leisiirc of field work, and sell it to manufacturers of straw plaits, but generally
the farmers after harvesting and thrashing the Ijarley cut the upper part of the straw
to the length of 3 decimeters and sell it to the straw plaiters. Although the straw
for plaiting iu .Japan is not so good as that of Italy, yet it is better in quality than
that of China and other countries. In Japan several articles, especially playthings,
have been made of straw from olden times; but recently, on ac<oMnt of straw plait
being much exported to foreign countries, especially to the United States of America,
the manufacturers of the plaits have increased year by year.

'Specimens. — Mus. U. S. Dept. Ag.

Horsetail grass (see Biehelachne crinita).

Huachasso (Peru). See TiUamJsia.

Huamaga (Ecuador). Same as Damajagua. See Uihiscus Uliaceus.

Huampo (Peru). See Gheirostemon.

Huang-li-Pu (China). Fabric from Ananas sativa.

Huasima (Braz,). See Guazuma.

Huhiroa. New Zealand flax. Phormium,

Huimba (I'eru). Sec Bonihax.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE.

201

Huimbaquiro ceibo (rcru). Sec Bomhax iribx.
Huinari blanca (Mex.). 8ee Sid<( rliomhil'olia.
Huirahuira (Peru). Cnlcitiion (■(oieftcens.
Huitoc (Peru). See Genipa.
Hujed (Arab.). See Adansonia <lif/itafa.
Humulus lupulus. ( 'Ommon Hop.

Exogeii. I'rlicacetr. Perrnnial twining heii).

This spocies. known and ciiltivatctl tlie world over, wlipro there nre brewers to nse
its product, may also be enn-
merated nmonii textile plants.

Fir.ER. — The fiber is well
suited for paper making,
especially unbleached paper
and cardboard. In Sweden it
Las long been applied to tex-
tile manufactures. It is ex-
tracted from the plant by
steeping for twenty-four hours
in cold water containing r<
per cent of sulphuric acid, or
for twenty minutes in boiling
■water with 3 jier cent of the
acid. Another plan is to boil
for three-quarters of iin hour
in water containing so;i]) or
soda, then to wash, and boil
in very dilute acetic acid. The
fiber is finally washed, dried,
and combed, and then resem-
bles flax. (Spon.) Its use for
fiber has never been recorded
in this country.

Huruhuruhika. IST e w
Zenland tlax. See Phor-

miuni.

Hymeneea courbaril.

West Indian Locust.

A species of legnniinous
plant found in the West In-
dies and South America. It is tho jnliti of Brazil and Ihe simiri of (hiiaua. Useful
timber tree. Furnishes the (!um Animi. " It ix covered witli a V(>ry thick but light
bark, which is used by the Indians for making their canoes."'

Hymenodictyon excelsum.

A Ceylon species closely related to cinchona. Is mentioned l>y Tviotard .'is a lilier-
producing plant that might be considered i'or paper stock.

Hyphaene thebaica. The Doum Palm.

A palm of I^gypt, exceptional from its normally branching trunk. Savorgnan
states that fiber is derived from this palm that is adapted to various uses, esjiecially
for brush ami broom making. (See fig. 65.)

Fifi. C5. — The T>oiim pnlni, JJmilxvnr ilithaica.

202 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

Ibira (Span.) =tree, or wood.

Ibisco (It.) =IIibiseus.

i-Boonda (Xatal). Ihiuibei/a nataloifiis.

Ife hemp (see iSanserieriit ri/Ilii(lric(t).

Igi-ogura (^^^ Afr.. Yorubalaiul). Rap/iia r!iiiOri(.

Inibe (liiaz.). i:^ee I^liilodendyoji imhf.

Imbul (Ceyl.). See Eriodenilreu ((nfrdclnosiim.

Inaja palm (liraz.). See MaximUiana regia.

Indian aloes. Aloe vera.

Indian Coral tree. Erythrina indica.

Indian gut (see Caryoia iircns).

Indian hemp (IT. S.). Apocynnm c(tnnahhinm. (Tiul.) See Crofahiria.

Indian mallo-w (IT. S.). Sec AhutUon avicenna:

Indian paper birch. lUinht Ithojpaftra.

Indian sorrel, of Jamaica. IlihiscKs sdhdariffa.

Indigo plant fiber (sec fudiffofcra).

Indigofera atropurpurea.

A genus of tlio LeguminoHW. to whiih bt'loii;L;s i\\v Indigo plant, /. tinvtoria. 'I'ln^
species above named is a small Himalayan shrub, the twigs of which are said by
Watt to be used for b.asket work and bark bridges. In Kavirondo, British Cen-
tral Africa, a species of this genus, with the common name TiKsiameua, is used for
basketry.

Ingipipa (Br. Giiian). See Couratarl.

Ipomcea digitata. Caffir cotton.

Syn. liatdtas pauiculaiti.

The Ipoviwax, belonging to the Co>iro?i'H/acefr, are widely distributed over all warm
climates, with a lew species extending into Korth America, extratrojjical Africa, and
Australia. The inorning gloiy is a representati%'e of the genus.

Tliis si)ecies i ; merely referred to in Bernard's catalogue, as one of the liber jdants
of middle Africa.

Bernardin includes /. ijerrardi in his list under tlie name wihl cotton of Natal.

Irabirussu (Baliia). See Conratitri.
Iriartea deltoidea. Camona.

A rcrnvian palm, which Dorc.a states yields fiber used by the ludians.

Iriartea exorrhiza.

A Brazilian palm, useil for thatch in conneclion with (ieonoma haciiliferii, which
see. The species is known in Brazil as I'axiiibn or J'ashiiiba, while /. Hctificra is I'axiiiba-
mh-a, and /. rentricosa is r.arr'ujuda. (See Ortou, and iin Thuru.)

These three species are now placed in as many genera, the title species being
referred to Socratca; T. nefigera is Iriarfella, and rentricosa remains in Iriiiriea. (See
fig3,67 .and68.)

DESCRIPTIVP^ CATALOGUE.

203

Iris niacrosiphon.

A genus of i)ereniiial jihuits liflouniiii;' to the Iridace<r. This spct-ies is found in
California.

Structural Fiber. — Dr. Ifavard states in Garden and Forest, 1890, p. 631, that
tho leaves of this species are mnch used in northern California and in Oregon to
make ropes, fish lines, nets, and a doth hardly distinguishable from coarse canvas.
The leaves are 1 to 2 feet long and 1 to 3 lines wide, each with two strong libers,
forming the edges. These libers are dexter-
ously separated by the squaws with a sharp
zinc thumb piece, then neatly and evenly
braided into cord of variable size, or otherwise
woven into nets, cloth, etc.

I) is jjseiidacoriis is the Yellow Water Iris, a
common weed of England and Ireland. The tt/ M II , '(/^

leaves are said by Sjion to yield GO per cent of
available fiber for half stufi, which makes a
fairly good paper.

Ischnosiphon spp.

A genus of Marantacew, and allied to plants
in the (»kl genus Maranta, which see. The Kew
]Mns. collections contain examples of Carab
baskets, from Dominica, made of the sytlit stems
of /. aroiima, and a suriana for carrying bur-
dens on the back, made from the same material
in r>ritish Guiana. Indian baskets are also
made in the last-named country from the split
stems of the Mucro, T. pJurispicatus. I. ohliquits
is another British Guiana, species the liber of
whieh is used by the Indians. See MartDita.

i-Tshanyela (Xatal). Afhrixia phi/ll-

CO ides.

Ischsemvini angustifolium. Bhabur
Grass of India.

Endogen. Graminew. A perennial grass.

A grass closely approaching the esparto in
habit, and possessing the qualities requisite
for paper manufacture which was first brought
to notice by Dr. King, of the Royal Botanical
Garden of Calcutta, in 1877, though at that time confounded with F.riophonun coihoskiii.
The grass is used in paper making and in tlic manufacture of strings, ropes, and
mats. (See fig. 66.) For further description, cultivation, etc.. see Die. Ec. Prod.
Ind.. Vol. IV, p. 526; Bull. Royal Gardens. Kew, 1S88, p. ir,7.

*Sp('cime>is- — Bot. Mus. ITarv. Univ.

Isitebe mat (Natal). See KyUinya elatior.

Istle (Mex.). Commercial Tampieo. See A(i((rc lutcramntlia,

Iturite fiber (see Ischnosiphon ohliqfiKs).

Itzle, the same as Istle.

Ivory plant. Phytelephas macrocarpa.

lAvaiwa (Hawaii). See Adiantum.

ilmr p;rass, /.sr//i
tlMiinii.

204

USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

Ixtle (Mex.). See Istle.

See also Agaie tuned. On tlie authority of R. do Zayas Euritiue the name also
applies to the fiber ol' J//aiT ixtle (= rUjida) and has been applied to various Aj^aves
and Bromelias mentioned in economic fiber literature. -

• mescal, . ir/tire inslheiii.

lyo (A"()iiil)al:nul). The fiber of h'dph'm rini/rra.
Jacitara (l>raz.). See Deswonoi.s.
Jaggery palm (Oeyl.)- See Coryota nrens.
Jamaica Indian sorrel. inbi.scK.s ftahdariffa.

^^

Jl!1fe«C.J^.l^'aK:=^

Fm. 07. — Tlio Paxiuba, Iriarlea
exonhiza.

Yui. 08. — XliB Paxiiibauiini, Iriarlea
setigera.

Japanese matting rush, Bin<>o-i (Ja]).). See Junciis effusus.

Jara (Ura/..). LcopoJdinia pnlchra.

Jara assu (IJraz.), Leopoldinia major.

Jatoba (Jjiaz.). Hymencva coiirh((rU.

Jauary (Braz.). See Astrocaryum ja idtri.

Javas ami Javasa (Turk.). Linnm nuifatissimifm.

Jayanti and Jiiyunti \Beng.). See Seshforia acnhaio.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 205

Jeete, Jettee, Jiti, and Chiti (lu<l.)- Marsdenia tcnacissiiiia.

JeneqiTen. Same as Henetiueii. A(jarc I'ujida.

Jequitiba (Bra/..). ISoc ('mirdiaii.

Jev^'s mallow, -lute (see ('<>rcli<irii.s).

Jipijapa (Cent. Am.). See Carliidoricd ixdmata.

Jocuiste majahtia (Mex,). Sei' llroinclia piixju'm and Karatd.sjdiimieri.

Jolocin (Mex.).. See Mcli<><<npns <irbore.sirii,s.

Jonote (Mex.). See Held oca rjni.s ((mericanKs.

¥in. 69.—Ji<ba>a spcctabiliti, greenliouse plaut.

Jerusalem thorn. Fdylinsonia acidcata.
Jouze-hindie (Arab.). Cocos nuci/era.
Jubbulpore hemp (Iiid.). See Crotalaria tcnuifolin,
Jubcea spectabilis. The Coc^uito Palm.

Central Chile. A sweet siriq) is formed from the sap of this palm, kuown as Miel
de Fahiia. The nuts are emphjyeil by Chilian confectioners as sweetmeats, and the
natives use the leaves for thatching. (A. iSmiih.) (See fig. G9.)

Jucca (It.) = Yucca.

Juncus spp. The Eush Gkoup.

A largi^ genus of Juncacew, which for the most part are marsh ])lant8, and wliicli
are found in many countries. Their economic use is in the manufacture of mats or
matting, tliough the representatives of allied genera are also used for these purposes.

206

3EFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

Tlio rus„ mjiTtuig of Hpaiii is made fiom J. inarUiinus, and t'.:c sauie species is em-
ployed for this piiri)oso in Morocco. Savorguuu mentions tlireo species: J. anitiis,
'Trowin*' along the seaeoasts of Europe; J. canciricnsis, used iu brnsh and broom
manufacture; and ./. vonfjlomeraius, employed fur wicks of candles. See fig. 72.
The two latter, however, are now regarded as identical witli ./. cfiistis.

Juncus acutus. Ua.skkt JIitsh.

A basket and mat rush of Italy. Specimens of this rush, in the form of basket
material, has been received by the De])artment from California, used in the lluscolo
or Bruscolo )>askets said to be imported from Italy. Tlie Avord T-uscolo or Bruscolo,
meaus, iu Italian, "a slip of straw." These baskets are used chielly as receptacles

l''i(i. 70. — Juncus acuttiii.

Fio. 71.— The Japanese mat
riisli, Jvncus rffnimis.

for crushed olive pulp, wbicli is then placed under the i)res8. The word Ctnnco
means not only the species of Juncus, but is applied to similar sedge-like forms such
as the Cijperacea- generally. Mats, coverings of bottles, baskets, etc., are enumerated
amongthe manufactures from these sedges. Lygeum sparlum nndJIfa, or Slipa tenacis-
Ktma, are also used in basket manufacture, the former being made into all kinds of
baskets, which are exported from Italy to the United States, and many other countries.

Juncus eflfusus. Bingo-i Mat Rush of Japan.

Syn. Jinicux '■ommunis.

Endo.nen. Juucacew. A rush, 4 to 5 feet when under cultivation. (Seehg. 7L)
This species is distributed over a large part of the globe, being the candle rush of
Europe, and a very commou plant of wet ground in the United States.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE.

207

Matting. — -/. effusus is tbe BuKjo-i mat rush of Japan, employed in the manufacture
of the " Tataml-omoir,'' or the hanilsomest and most costly mats used Tiy Ihe higLer
classes, while Ci/penis uxitans is employed for the cheaper grades used by the com-
mon people. The pith of the Binijo-i rush is also extensively used for lamp wicks.

Cri.TiVATiox. — The soil best suited for growing Biiujo-i is of a clayey character
containing a small ]>roportion of gravel and resting ujion a rather hard subsoil. The
plants, from the stubble cut in the i)revious summer, are rooted out and dipped in a
dilute urine for twenty-four hours, and then divided into bundles of about ten such
shoots, which are transplanted in well-prepared and manured land, in the same man-
ner as rice plants are transplanted in the paddj'
field. The distance from one btiudle of the plants
transplanted to another is about 4 sun — that is
to say. a bundle of ten plants occupies 4 sun
square of ground. The transplanting usually
takes place in the month of October or Novem-
ber, but in the warmer districts it may be as late
as the beginning of January. After the trans-
plantation the land is constantly watered as in
rice fields and ordures and well-rotted farmyard
manures are applied several times at due inter-
vals, especially taking care to keep the land free
from weeds.

In the middle of July when tine, settled weather
is anticipated the rushes are harvested l)y reaping
them with a sharp sickle, and they are immedi-
ately immersed in muddy water specially prepared
in a small pond, by stirring in white clay, and
then dried by spreading on grass land. The object
of dipping the rushes into turbid water is to facil-
itate the drying by the etfect of the adhering clay,
and at the same time to protect ''Bingo-i" from
other noxious dusts. The most important point
in harvesting Biugo-i is to pay great attention to
the condition of the weather, for it is necessary
in obtaining a superior (quality to dry the reaped
rushes as quickly as possible, not exceeding more
than two days, otherwise they deiireciate greatly
in quality and value.

Thelargestimporter of these mats is the United
States, England, Austria, and Germany following
in the order named. The qualities made are named
as follows: Kinkwanyen, manufactured at Oka-
yama. First (luality Aya-musbiro, second qualitj^

Aya-mushiro, Damasli Aya-raushiro. common Aya-mufLhiro, manufactured at Bittifi.
First quality Somewake-mushiro, common Somewake-mushiro, Damask Hana-
mushiro, common Hana-mushiro, manufactured at Bingo. Ordinary Hana-mushiro
(_best quality) manufactured at Chikugo.

Juncus pauciflorus. The Sheathed Hush.

Syn. Jiiuciis raf/iiiati<s.

Quite common in Victoria, where there are two forms, "One variety does not
exceed 2 feet, while the other often attains a height of 5 feet." {Chrisfi/.)

Structuual Fiber. — Two specimens from this rush were received from the Vic-
torian collection, and are among the many libers collected and prepared by Dr.
Guilfoyle. The plant is a native of Victoria and grows abundantly. It is regarded
as a good tiber plant as well as an excellent paper stock, and the tiber is said to

Fig

72. — Jviicus comjloineratus.

208 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

make a good substitute for liuuiau hair. It is a strong growing plant and is found
extensively on the margins of lagoons and water courses. It is claimed that by
boiling, this water rush yields a strong fine fiber. The museum specimens showed no
such strength, however, ;is a twisted strand of the Victorian fibers was as easily
broken as mauila x>aper twine.

Dr. Guilfoyle's Australasian liber list contains several other species of this genus:
J. communis, the coniniou candlerush (see Jiiiicus cffusiia) ; J. maritimiis, tiie sea or
coast rush, which, under Eknian's jirocess, is said to yield a jtromising fiT)er; J.
pallidits, which can be obtained in vast <iuantities in the Australian colonies, is also
named as a valuable paper stock with ./. prhmatocuri)ns.

* Specimens. — Mus. U. S. Dept. Ag.

Jungli (Belli;'.). See Af/arc ((mcrUtma.
Juniperus occidentalis. Juniper.

Exogeu. Conifcrw. A tree, 18 to 40 feet.

Eastern Washington and Oregon to California, and south, along the high lidges of
the Sierra Nevada, between 7,000 and 10,000 feet elevatiou, to the San Bernardino
Mountains.

Bast Fibku. — Dr. Fewkes informs the Department that this species is found on
the mesas, and tluit the b.irk is used by the llopi Indians, without weaving, for
breeirh clouts. There is little doubt that in olden times garments were made from
this liber by these people that Avere used in theii' religious c<'remonials.

Dr. Palmer states that the filuous bark of ./. c<ilif<>rni<tt var. iitalioisis, a tree L'O or
25 feet in height, is made into saddles, breech clouts, shirts, and sleeping mats, by
the Pai-Ute Indians.

Jupati (Braz.). See i2oj>///V( vinifera.

Jussareira (Braz.) hhderpe olcracca.

Juta (It.) Jute.

Jute of India. See GorvJionis olltorius •Andrnpsidari.s; of China.

See Ahutiloii arivenmv.

Kabong (Malay). See Aren^/d smcharifcra.

Kadi (Pers.). See Pandatms.

Kadia (see Si da rctusa).

Kadsura japonica.

This species belongs to a genus of dicotyledonous jjlants of the Marjnoliacen',
■which are climbing mucilaginous shrubs, indigenous to tropical Asia. K. japonica
from Japan and the East Iiulies yields a liber, derived from the bark, which is said
by Savorguan to be held in high esteem for its tenacity and whiteness.

Kajang, mats of (see J^ipa frnticans).

Kakarally (Br. Guiaii.). Lecythu ollaria.

Kali (Timor). See ]><nassus.

Kalnan {\ud.)=A(/ave.

Kania-kher (Beug.). xindropogon nardus.

Kan (Yuc, Maya). Agarc rigida.

Kanghi (Hind.). See Ahutilon indicum.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 209

Kankhura (Beng.). See Boehmeria nioea.
Kapa (PiiL'if. Is.). See Br oussonetia papyri/era.
Kapas and Kaipas (Iiid., Java, etc. ) = Cotton. See Gossypium.
Kapok and Kapok floss tree (Java). See Erioilendron anfractuosum.
Karatas pluniieri.

Syu. XUhdnrium (Bromelia) Jcaraias.

Endogeii. Bromeliacea'. Aloe-like leaf cluster.

Common names. — Mexican fiber, silk grass, and silk grass of Honduras (also given
to other species), wild pineapple.
Common throughout tropical America, though has not been detected in Trinidad.
Leaves 8 to 10 feet long, armed with recurved teeth or spines. Abundant in Jamaica,
but the fiber used sparingly. This is one of the three or four species of Bromelia,
the fiber of which has doubtless been confused with that of Bromelia sylvestris in
collections made twenty-five or thirty years ago. This may be the species that J.
McLeod Murphy sent to this Department in 1869, under the name Bromelia sylvestris
(which see), as his economic descriptions in j)art may apply to the Karatas.

Botanical description.— A', plnmieri E. Morren in Belg. Hort., 1872, 131; Antoine
Brom. 35, t. 21-22 (M.D.). Bromelia luratas Linn. (Plum. Amer. Gen., t. 33); Jacq.
Amer. Pict., t. 260, fig. 24; Hort. Vind. i, t. 32-33, III, t. 74. Nidulariiun karatas

Lemaire. Acaulescent. Leaves 30 to 40 in a dense rosette, rigid, spreading,

ensiform, 4 to 8 feet long, li to 2 inches broad low down, narrowed gradually to the
tip, green and glabrous on the face, persistently white-lepidote and finely lineate on
the back, armed with large pungent hooked marginal prickles. Flowers about 50
in a dense sessile central capitulum, at first 3 to 4 incLes finally 6 to 8 inches diameter,
surrounded by reduced ensiform inner leaves tinged with red ; flower- bracts scariose,
oblanceolate, 2J to 3 inches long. Ovary cylindrical-trigonous, li inches long,
clothed, like, the bracts and sepals, with loose brown tomentum; sepals linear, per-
manently erect, an inch long. Petals reddish, glabrous, exserted one-fourth to one-
third inch beyond the tip of the sepals, united in a tube toward the base. Fruit 3
to 4 inches long, 1 inch diameter, pale yellow, with an eatable white pulp, tapering
from the middle to both ends. Seeds globose, dull brown, vertically compressed,
one-sixth inch diameter.

Structural Fiber.— Dr. Morris says of this species : "A well-known and valuable
fiber plant, said to be used by the Indians in making the fiuest liammocks in Central
America, Guiana, and Brazil." In the young leaves the fiber is said" to be fine and
white, though growing coarser with increasing maturity.

Locally the fiber is used for bowstrings, nets, fishing lines, ropes, mats, sacking,
and clothing. After being passed over the comb or hackles of a flax mill it has been
l^ronounced greatly superior to Russian flax and equal to the best Belgian for appli-
cation to the fiuest textile fabrics. Fiber which was useless for spinning or rope-
making would probably yield very superior paper stock. The plants are of a most
prolific nature, growing spontaneously in almost all Icinds of soil and climate. Cul-
tivation in its native laud is therefore extremely simple, and it is surprising that the
plant has not recieved more attention from planters in America and our colonies. The
Indians cultivate the i)]ant to some extent in Mexico, 1,221 gardens being recorded
in 1830. They generally select forest for this purpose, removing the undergrowth by
cutting and burning. The roots of old jilants are then set out at 5 to 6 feet ajjart,
and at the end of a year yield leaves fit for cutting. The leaves vary in size from
6 to 8 feet long and from 1^ to 4 inches wide, and are thin in proportion. In a wild
state the leaves are edged with thorns, but these are diminished in size and number
by cultivation. The fiber contained in the leaves varies in rpiality, according to age;
in young leaves the fiber is fine and white; with increasing age it becomes longer and
12247— No. 9 U

210 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

coarser. The native implements for extracting tlie fiber an^ exceedingly rude — a flat
board and a heavy iion knife. Xo special machine seems to have been invented for
the iiveparation of this fiber; but its close resemblance to the fibers of the agaves
and that of the edible pineapple (see Ananas saliva) wonld indicate the applica-
bility of existing leaf fiber machines. See Appendix A. After the first crop the leaves
grow again, but the fiber subsequently produced is short and of bad color. (Spon.)
K. humiUs, according to J. H. Hart, grows plentifully in Trinidad, but the fiber is
not employed.

Karimgunji Jute (Intl.). See Corchorus.

Karpasi (Sausc). Cotton. Gossypium.

Kat-kati (Tnd.). See Grewia viUosa.

Kattan (Arab.). Linum usitatissimum.

Kattu-una (Ceyl.). See Bamhusa.

Kattu-kapet (Afr.). tSanserieria lanuginosa.

Kehal (Ceyl.). Musa sapientuiti.

Kel and Kela (Bouib.). Idem.

Kelpo (Java.). Cocos nucifera.

Kenab (Arab.). See Cannabis sativa.

Kendong (Java). Broussonctia jiapyrij'era.

Kenda (lionib.). See Pandanus.

Kenna (lud.). Crotalaria retusa.

Keratto (Jam.). See Afjare morristi.

The Kcralto of the Leeward Islands is Agarc pohjaniha, according to Dr. Morris.

Bleya and Ketki-keya (Beug.). Pandanus odoratissimus.

Khan (lud.). ^Saccliarnm sponianeum.

Khas(TTmd.) and Khasakhasa (lioinb.). ^eo Androjwgon st/uairosus.

Khatmi, Kanji, Khubazi, etc., (Ind.). Malva sylvcstris.

In reviewing the many vernacular names of this plant, in India, Dr. Watt says
that all the provincial names have been derived from the Persian Kangai or Kaugoi
and probably refer to AhuiUon.

Khirva (Arab.), llicimis.

Khujar (Pers.). Luffa (vgyptica.

Kian pak-kian.

"Body cloth made of very fine shreds of bamboo, passed between the teeth, and Int-
tcn until they become quite soft and fit for weaving. It is the ouly article of dress
worn by the inhabitants of Celebes." (Oif. Guide, Kew Mus.) A specimen is shown
iu the Kew Mus. that was made especially for the Rajah.

Kie-kie (Xew Zea.). Freycinetia banJcsii.

Kiki (Egypt). Ricimis.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 211

Killut ( Ilina. j. Saccli aru))! fuscum.
King-ma (Gliiua). Sida ret ma.
Kinkivanyen mats, of flapaii. Ci/perus unitans.
Kinnab (Arab.). VdunablH satirn.
Kirindi-wel (Oeyl.). liourea santaloidcs.
Kitaibelia vitifolia.

A uialvMceoiis plant, 2>eciili;ir to Hungary and .sometimes fonml in Eunlish gardens.

FiiiKii. — Derived from the bark, and sometimes called Ilungariau liemp. ''From
the fiber cloth is made not inferior to that from llax." {Savorfjnan.) I cau find no
other reference lo the nse of liber from this jjlant.

Kittool, Kittul (Ceyl.). !See Variiota iirens.

Kleinhovia liospita.

Exogen. iStcrculiacea'. A tree.

The species is a low branching tree, a native of the Malay Archipelago, extending
eastward to the .Solomon Isles. Its bruised leaves arc said to exhale a perfume simi-
lar to that of the violet. The genus consists of but the one species.

Fiber. — A specimen of the fiber was received through the Smithsonian Institution
in 1869, without data. It is similar in appearance to Ochroma, and of so slight
tenacity that it can only be mentioned as fibrous material.

In the islands of the Indian Ocean the bark is used for making cordage and fish-
ing nets. It is customary for the i^'oplo to plant this si)ecics near their rural habi-
tations for use in their agricultural pursuits, as it is adapted to all sorts of tying and
))inding and to uses re(iuiring long, pliant twigs. They are quite superior to Salix
for tying. (Manual Iloepli.)

Klooi (Siaiii.). See liochmerla nivea.

Kniphofia spi). (See Tritoin<t).

Kodzu, EZozo (Ja}),). TirouHsonetiapupiirlfera.

Ko hemp (Jap.). See Pueraria.

I^onapli (Rus.). Gannahis sativa.

Kongangu (Aiistr.). See ripturns.

Konje (Zambesi), t^ansevicria f/tmueimis.
The fiber is known as h'onjc hemp.

Konkan hemp (Iiid.). See Crotdluria.
Konope (Pol.). Cannabis sativa.
Koosa (Iiul.). Andro]jo(jon squarrosus.
Korako. New Zealand llax. See rhonitiidn.
Koug-kuombi (Iiid.). l>Lra orellana.
Ko"wl, of Liotard (Ind.). Careya arhorea.
Kozo (Jap.). BroHssonetia jyapyrifera.
Krowa (Br. Guiau.). See Crowia.

212 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

Kuda (lud.). See Hymenodictyon.

Kuhila (Intl.). '^ee JEschynomene.

Kiikul-wel (Ceyl.). See Calamus radiatns.

Kumbi, Kumbya, Kumbha, etc., (lud.). Coreya arborea.

Thu iiaiiic huiidii is hIsd employed for Coehlonpermum ffosnijpiuiii in several prov-
iuces of India, in connection witli others.

Kurakkan (lud.). Eleiisinc corncanit.

Kurrijong (X. S. W.). Vommersonia frasrri.

Kuitam tissul (Arab.). Gossypium.

Kuta (I'^iji Is.). IJleoclidrls interstinctit.

Kutan, or tukhme-katan (I'ers.). LIukih ii.sitatis.siiiinm.

Kydia calycina.

Exoijcn. Mdlvaictr. IJiisli or small tree.

Siibtroi>ical India and Hiirnia. The Himalayas up to 2,000 feet elevation.

FiBEU. — "The inner hark yields a hast fiber, used lor coarse ropes, etc. In point
of cidlulose, and in power of resi.stance to hydrolysis, Kydia fiher is fairly useful,
heinji ahont twentieth in order of merit of a list of some 300 fibers met with in India."
( JVatt. ) Th<' fiber, known as Warang bast, resembles the b.ist of the European lime
tree. Tilid europwa. Savorjinan states that the bark, used in strips, can be ajjplied
to all purposes for which Tilia anicricana is employed.

Kyllinga elatior.

A cyperaceous plant found in Natal. There are nearly .')0 species in the <j;enn8,
natives of Brazil, South Africa, and Australia.

SriiucTrK.vL FiBKH. — Like all plants of this <;roup the culms ar<^ employed in mat
inakiuti. The mats of Natal, from this species, are called /sitebe.

Lace. See Appendix C.

Lace bark, of W. lud., Lagetta lintearia: of New Zea., Plagi-

a nth IIS hrfiiJiyius. See also Daphnopsls.

Lagetta lintearia. Lace Bark Tree.

Exogen. rhtjmiUvaceiv. A tree, 27> to 30 feet.

This is the well-known lace-bark tree of Jamaica, llie bark of which is found in
all liber collections. The plant is said to be cultivated in Great Britain, in green-
houses, though only as a curiosity.

l-lBEi;. — Derived from the inner l)ark, which can be readily detached in sheets or
layers, like the layers of bark from the pa]>er birch. It is snit-d to the most deli-
cate textile purposes. 'When carefully drawn out or stretched bj- the hands a
l)entagonal and hexagonal mesh is formed, in every respect like lace, and many
ornamental things are made from it." (Fawcctt.)

" It is reported that Charles II received as a present from the governor of Jamaica,
a cravat, frill, and pair of rufiles, made of this material; and to this day it is used
for bonnets, collars, and other articles of apparel, specimens of which may be seen
at the Kew Mus., etc. The uses to which this natural lace is applied are not always
so unobjectionable as those .just mentioned, for it is likewise used in the manufacture
of thongs and whips, with which, in former times at least, the negroes were beaten
by their cruel taskmasters."' (Dr. Masters.)

Savorguau names /-. fmiifera, now Fiinifera ittilis as a South American species
known as Mahot-pincet. This author states that cordage of great resistance is made
from the bark.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 213

Lagiinai'ia patersonii. Norfolk Island Cow-itch Tree.

Exogen. Malvacecc. Allied to Hibiscus.
This beautiful shrubby tree is iudigeuous in Queensland and Norfolk Island, aud
is closely related to Hibiscus. The fiber sample was prepared by Dr. Guilfoyle
(Victoria, Phil. Int. Exh., 1870), who accompanied it with a statement that it was
suitable for manufacturing paper of a superior <|uality, samples of Avhich were also
presented, and for ropes, strong cordage, fine matting, and basket work. The liber
is iine, strong, and glossy, although the specimen can hardly be said to compare
with Sidd rhombifolia in any one of these i)articulars.

Lal-ambari (Bomb.). Hibiscus sabdariffn.

Lal-iniirga (l>eiig.). Celosia crisfata.

Laniba (Borneo). Cloth fioin CiireuUgo JntifoUa

Lana de Enea (Veiiez.). Typhamigustifolia.

Lana del Tambor (Veuez.). See Bomba.v oimanensis.

Langue Boeuf (Trin.). Furcrwa enhensis.

Lantern flo^ver ( Austr.). Fiber of. See AhutUon molle.

Laportea canadensis.

This species of l'riic<ice(v, f(nind in many localities of the United States, iS one of
the stinging nettles, and furnishes a fiber of average quality-. Specimens of the
stalks and fiber have been received by the Department from time to time, but with
better native fiber species it only deserves a passing mention. It is sometimes called
Indian hemp, as it has doubtless been used for cordage and thread by the North
American Indians, but this is a misnomer. True Indian hemp is an Apoctjnum.
This species is mentioned by S^ion, under the name L. pustulata, who also says it is
the only foreign nettle that will withstand the cold of the European winter.

The fiber from this species, before the introduction of cotton, had an application
more extensive than at present in Europe, where (particularly in Germany and in
more northern countries) they manufactured the cloth called ortica (German, Xessel-
tuch), or nettle cloth (Manual Hoepli).

^Specimens. — Field Col. Mus. ; Mus. IJ. S. Dept. Ag.

Laportea crenulata. Fever, or Devil's Nettle.

An evergreen arborescent shrub found in Australia and ludia. "Contact with its
powerful stinging hairs causes excessive burning pains, which last for several days.

Fiber. — This jilant yields a strong useful fiber, nsed by the hill tribes of Assam
for cordage and in the manufacture of a coarse cloth. Major Hannay, who was one
of the first to bring the fiber to the notice of Europeans, stated that it was fine,
white, apparently of no great strength, and by report not very lasting. Messrs. Cross,
I5evan, and King, however, in their recent report on Indian fibers, appear to hold a
more favorable opinion, stating that the fiber "is good, is more or less allied to
rhea, and, like that iiber, is very strong."

Laportea gigas. Gigantic Nettle Tree of Australia.

Native name. — (!oo-mao-mah .
It is a native of New South Wales, and is very abundant on the McLeay and other
northern rivers. In Bennett's " Wanderings of a Naturalist in Australia,'' the author
states that the tree, when in full vigor, rises from its base by a series of buttresses
of singularly regular outline, gradually tapering without a branch, to the height of
120 to 140 feet; the trunk then divides into a regularly formed, wide-spreading head,
which excites admiration bv its extraordinarv size. The ordinarv elevation of the

214 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

tree is 25 to 50 feet. "The poisouoiis Huid secreted from the foliage is very power-
ful, particularly iu the younger leaves, and their stiug is exceedingly virulent, pro-
ducing great suffering." The tree is also indigenous in Queensland, and Dr. Guilfoylc
sends S2»ecinieus of fiher from Victoria.

Bast Fiukr. — The fiher is very strong and fine, and suitable fur iishing lines, etc.
In New South Wales its fiht-r is made into cordag(> of considerahle tenacity. Tlie
specimens were accompanied hy a dilly hag made by an Australian aboriginal. The
wood of this tree is soft and fi))rous, and might be pulped up for fiber. It is claimed
that the best and strongest t'lht^r is obtained from tlie bark of the roots. The filier
is e.asily ]>repaTpd and can be obtaiiuid in (|nantity.

Larch (see Lari.v larlcina).
Lasiandra (see Tihouchhut).

Lardizabala biternata.

Kxogen. Jlcrbcridaveo . Twining shrubs.

Resemble the Mcnispermacew, and are natives of the coohn- regions of South
America and China. The species named is from Chile.

W<)oi>v FiiiKK. — "The stems, of enormous length, in Chih? are dried and used as
rojtes. It would ])robably yield good, tough cordage fiber." (Spon.)

Lai'ix laricina. Larch.

Syn. I.arl.r nmerieana.

Ivxogen. Coni/(T(i'. A tree, 75 to 90 feet.

(JoMMON NAMF-s. — Tamarack, hackmatack, hacmac, swam]> J»in<^ larch, red larch,
black larch; N. Y. Indian name, Ka-nch-tens.
"Northern Newfoundland, Labrador, Hudson Bay, northern shores of the (Ircat
Bear Lake and valley of the McKenzio River, within the Arctic Circle. Through
Northern States to northern Pennsylvania, Indiana and Illinois, and central Missouri.
Found (ui moist uplands and intervales, or southward in cold, Avet swamps." (C. >S.
Sargent.) Used for ship timber, railway ties, fence posts, telegraph poles, etc.

Woody Fiukii. — Dr. Havard states that the roots of this tree when sjilit into long
threads are a valuable material with the Chipiieways, who make use of it for sewing
the seams of their birch canoes. lie also informs the writer that the roots of //. occi-
dentaliii, a I'acilic States 8i)ecies, are employed by the Indians of the Yukon River
for "l)asket kettles," which are woven very neatly, and ornamented with hair and
with dyed ])orcupine quills. J.. f/ri(lithii is an India s])ecies.

Lasiosiphon eriocephalus.

A small tree of Judia belonging to the TInjmehvacco', known as Xaha, the b.ark of
which has been recommended as a paper-making material. L. speciosus, found in the
Deccan (Ind.), and which furnishes the Remeta bast, is the same as L. eriocephalus.
"The fibers are very strong and almost colorless." (Spon.)

Latania aiirea.

This is a sm.ill genus of African palms growing to a height of 20 or .30 feet. L.aiiira
is found in Mauritius, where the leaves have been employed for brushes and Itrooms.

L. commerftonn is iound in the IMascareue Islands, where the leaves are employed
in the manufacture of hats. Its fruit is about the size of an ajiple and is eaten by
the negroes.

Lavatera arborea. Tree Mallow.

Kxogen. Malvacefv. Large slirub, .3 to 4 feet.
The sjiecies of this genus for the most part are found in Etirope, western Asia, and
Australia. L. arhorea is common in southwestern Europe, growing on the rocks on

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 215

seacoast. Is grown iu Madeira, and found in a wild state on the coasts of England
and Ireland. Naturalized around Melbourne.

Fiber. — "The inner bark yields a strong liber, somewhat coarse, l>ut capable of
manufacture into cords, ropes, and mats" (Spon). "Has lately been recommended
for culture as a fiber plant, but the (juality of the fiber is not good." (A. SinUh.) Dr.
(Juilfoylo states that the fiber is highly reconunended for paper stock. The tree
attains n height of 8 to 10 feet in cultivation.

/.. maritima, the sea mallow, another south European species similar to the above,
has been introduced into Australia. Of its value Thonuis Christy says : " Worthy of
cultivation on a largo scale for the verj* beautiful and excellent (juality of its fiber."
"A line fiber 3 to l feet long." (//;•. Giiilfoi/lc.) Savorguan states that it is sjionta-
neous in the environs of " Nice, in western Liguria, in Sardinia," etc. Cortical fiber,
tenacious, used for cordage. Abundant, and the fiber does not deteriorate in salt
water. Adapted to coai'se hemp cables and marine uses.

X. cretica according to the same authority, is found on the Tuscan seacoast, where
it is known as Malra di Candia. Its coarse, strong fiber has also been used for mak-
ing cordage. L. flara is found in Sicily and northern Africa, and the fiber is fully
ecjual to the preceding. L. pnvctatu is another Eui'opean species from which Cazz-
nola extracted excellent liber in 1875.

Lavatera plebeia. Australian Mallow.

South Australia, "S'ictoria, and New South Wales. "Successfully tried for rope
and paper making." S. L. Swaab states that the species was brought into notice by
Mr. Alex. Talmer of south Australia, who sent a qnantitj^ of the fiber to England,
where it was made into a good paper. Appears in Spon as L. jdeheja. "Is employed
by the natives (of Australia) for baskets and fishing lines."

Another Australian species, a perennial evergreen, also found in south Europe, is
L. trimcsfris, known as the velvet mallow. "It su])plies from its bark a substance
not unlike white horsehair and quite as useful for many purposes."' (Guilfoijle.)
Christy says the fiber can not be distinguished from that of L. arhorea.

Layu (Peru) = Ficus.
Leaf fiber.

The structural fibers extracted from fleshy-leaved ])lants such as the AgaA'es, etc.
The same as "structural" fiber, in the classification. See page 25.

Leather plant (New Zea.). Gelmisia corlacca.
Leather-wood (U. S.). Dirca paliistris.
Lechuguilla (Mex.). vSee Agave Jirteraeantha.
Lecythis ollaria. Monkey Pot.

Endogen. Mijrtacecv. Large tree.

This genus is chiefly confined to Venezuela, British Guiana, and Brazil, and
embraces 30 or 40 species. Mauj^ of them are large trees growing to a height of 80
feet or more. They bear a hard, woody fruit, some of the seeds or nuts being edible,
such as the Sapucaia nuts, from Para. The inner bark of the species is composed of
paper-like layers, which can be removed in strips.

FirjER. — Specimens of the bast of L. ollaria were received from the exhibit of
British Guiana (W. C. E., 1893), known as Ealarally. As many as 100 layers of this
bast have been taken from a piece of the bark of this species, the operation being-
hastened by beating. The ribbons of bast are used by the Indians of Brazil for
cigarette wrappers, and in British Guiana, for cordage and basket work. An
unnamed species, from the British Guiana exhibit, labeled "JJlna,'' is used for the
same ]iurposes. Another specimen of this fiber, named JVadadiiri, and used for
paper making was submitted to Dr. Ernst, who states in his manuscript notes that

216

USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

it is ohtaiued from /.. (jramllfiora, and likewise from L. crassinoda. In Yeneznela,
L. coriacca is known as Marima colorada. The fiber of a Brazilian species witliont
name is said by Saldauha da Gama to be nsed for calking vessels. The bark of
another species growing abundantly throngliont the Amazon region, and known as
2Ialii-malii, yields an oaknm that is excellent for calking canoes, according to a cata-
logue of Woods of Amazon, W. C. E., 189B.

Leopoldinia piassaba. Monkey Bass.

Endogeu. I'ahtuv. I'alm, 15 to 40 feet.
This tree grows abundantly near the AVhito River, which flows into the Barra de

Rio Negro, as well as on some of
the tributaries of the Orinoco;
it is also found in the Amazon
basin; but the bulk of its fiber
comes from the Barra de Rio
Negro. Its habitat is low,
sandy flats, where water may
stand a little in rainy weather;
but it avoids swamps. (Spon.)
One of the Brazilian palms
•which snpjdies the commercial
Piassaha, or Piacaha fiber now
exported in such quantities.
Two species furnish the com-
mercial prodnct, L. lyiassaha,
the Para fiber, and Attaleafmn-
fera, the Bahia fiber, though in
recent years another form has
been sent from the west coast of
Africa, known as West African
Bass, Jlaplila rinifera. See also
BorassH8 flaheUifrr and Dictyo-
spervia fihrosum.

STnucTURAi. Fiber. — Leopol-
dinia inassaha. "The dilate
margins of the ])etiole8, where
they clasp the stem, are produced into long ribbon-like strips, which afterwards
split into fine, somewhat round fibers, about 5 to G feet long, entirely concealing
the stem. These fibers, cleaned and combed by hand, form the piassaha of com-
merce." {Dr. Morris.)

The commercial fiber is nsed for Virush making, and for brooms, though the natives
employ it for cables, ropes, baskets, hats, as a tie material, and for other purposes.
* Specimens of heavy cordage from this species were received from the Brazilian
exhibit of the Phil. Int. Exh., 1876, which are now in the mu-seum of the Depart-
ment. The Para "Bass" is said to absorb more water than the Bahia. The Para
fiber now forms less than 5 per cent of the piassaba of commerce, and commands a
high price,

Lepidosperma flexuosum. The Slender Sword Eush.

E ndogen . Cyperacea-.

Found in Victoria and Tasmania. Several species of this genus have been enu-
merated as fiber-producing plants, fiber having been prepared from them.

STiacTUUAL FiiJEU. — A specimen of the fiber of L. Jlcxuosum was secured from the
Victorian collection, Phil. Int. Exh., 1870. It is exceedingly brittle, and can only
be nsed in mats or similar articles, where it can be coarsely plaited. According to
Dr. Guilfoylc, the material can be had in large quantities, and is extensively used
by the aborigines for baskets, mats, etc. He states that "under proper treatment

Fig. 73.— Tlio T.^ra Pi.issabapaliii, Leopoldinia jnasiaha.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. " 217

it yields a fiber of good quality," though the present saiujile would hardly verify the
statement. It might, however, he used in paper making, though at l)cst it is a poor
"fiber."

At the same time an example of X. elaiius was received, both specimens having
been prepared by Dr. Guill'oyle. This is a much better aud stronger fiber than
the preceding, and would prove xiseful for making many kinds of coarse cordage.
The leaves and llower stalks of the plant grow to a height of 9 feet in Victoria, aud
the plant is found in great abundance, and can be had iu large quantities. It fur-
nishes a pulp for paper making, aud is used in various ways by the natives. This
specimen is also from the Victorian collection (Phil. Int. Exh., 1876), and was pre-
pared by Dr. Guilfoyle. Christy says it is an excellent paper plant. It yields its
fiber by boiling.

Lepidosperma gladiatum. Coast Sword Rush.

Native of Australia aud Tasmauia, where it grows in great abundance on the coast
lands. Will supply an annual crop, the roots throwing out fresh shoots. Spon says
it is used by the natives for baskets and fishing lines, and suggests that its only
industrial use will probably be paper making, "for which purpose it is considered
equal to esparto."

L. sqiiamati(7n is another Australian species, used for mats by the natives of the
Wimmera, southeast Australia. L. filiforme is also employed by these people for
basket manufacture.

Lepironia niucronata.

A cyperaceous plant found in Madagascar, tropical Asia, and Polynesia. One of
the mat fibers of China. Such mats are made by the Chinese boatmen to cover their
cargoes; also used for bags. A mat of line workmanship, probably from this species,
is preserved in the Kew Mus., made in Korea ; obtained from the King's palace.

*S2)eci'mens. — U. 8. Nat. Mus.; Bot. Mus. Harv. I'niv.

Leptadenia spartum.

Exogen. Asclepiadacca'. A glabrous shrub.

Paujab and Sind, in India. Arabia, Egypt, and Senegarabia. An imported fodder
plant, also used for thatching. The species, are "erect leafiess shrubs or twiners
furnished with leaves, all having a grayish tonientum covering stems and leaves."
(Treas. Botany.)

Bast Fiber. — Mentioned iu Die. Ec. Prod. lud.. Vol. IV, as "much used in Sind for
making ropes to bring up water from wells, as water does not rot it."

Liabum ignarium.

An exogeuous plant, a native of Quito, which Spon states has aftbrded a good
fiber. (Spon Enc, pt. 3. p. 919.)

Liane a cordes (Fr.). Blgnonia riminalis.

Ligustrum vulgare. Privet.

Of this genus there are about twenty representatives, in Euro]te, northern India,
China, and Japan. Belongs to the Oleacew.

"A .shrub used for hedges. In ilarch it produces white, fragrant blossoms, similar
to those of tlie olive. The leaves produce a yellow or green tint for dyeing. The
branches are used for constructing cages for birds where fowlers set their traps."

Lime tree of Europe. Tilia europwa-, of South America,

Apeiha tibourbou.

Lin (Fr.). Flax. See Liniim.

Linden (see Tilia).

218

USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

Lino (Si)au.)=Flax.

Lino d'India (It.).

nnni majiis.

Asclepias fnitico.sa.

(lei Muri. Antirrhi-

Linuni spp.

Exogeus. JAnaccd'. Siii;ill licrhs or sbrul)s.

The representiiitives of llic gcnns JAnum nre distributed over hotli licinisplusres,

thougli tlioy nro cliicily natives of tcniperato cruiiates. While /.. iisitalls.simum is

coiisideroil the cultivated liber species, l)otanists recognize upward of 100 species in

tliis genus, D(^ Caudolle dcscribingni in the first volume of his Prodromus. In nianj'

instances the distinctions between these
species are so slight that tlie agriculturist or
tlie industrialist would scarcely recognize
thcni, and th(>v are therelbre of botanical
rather than economic interest. Eeuouard,
in Etudes snr le Culture du, Lin., refers to the
fact that our gardens sometimes contain three
varieties Avhich dilVer greatly: Two species
with yellow llowers, the Liiium tri/jjiuum
(Ucinwardlia trh/yna), originating in India;
and the lAnnm cahqxinulatiim, which conies
from southern Europe and from Egypt; also
one willi red (lowers, the L'uium firaudijloruvi.
And jdants Avith Avhite llowers and llesh-
colored llowers are sometimes seen. There
are still others known by name only, as the
species is very rare ; such is the Livum cathar-
ticnm tlio leaves of which have a Ijitter taste
anci are sometimes employed as a purgative.
But amongall these varieties the blue flower-
ing, still designated by the name of Lin com-
miiu, or the L. usitalinsimum of the naturalists,
is the only industrial si)ecies and the only
one really cultivat<'d. In the grouping of
species two general divisions have been made :
Those having yellow llowers and those "with
flowers blue, flesh-color, pink or white,
though a special distinction is made in regard
to Ij. ealharticum, " with flowers always white
an<l leaves o]>posite." L. usitatissimum comes
into the group having blue, white, pink, or
flesh-colored flowers, though as far as the cul-
tivation of these plants for conmiereial fiber
is concerned it is the only species th a t interests
us. Regarding the distinctions which separate the sitecies of Linum, Renonard says:
But these are so subtle that they evidently have no bearing upon the industiial uses of
the flax and are of no value to agriculture. Often the most oxj)erienced operator and
the countryman most familiar with this culture have had much trouble to classify
the jjlants as above indicated. Moreover all these species may be obtained from one
sort of seed. What has given rise to these distinctions is that when the flax does
not appear all in one growth of stem, slender at the top and without branches, bear-
ing one flower, it may remain short and ramify its stalk into a number of branches
having several flowers and considcralde seed. It is under this aspect that we see the
plant designated as " tetard'' (pollard or branched ;> also called lutit Un (small or low

Fig. 74. — Tho ancient flax plant, Linum
aiiffustifnlium.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 219

flax) in contrast with the ordinary flax called grand I'm (tall flax). Besides the above
facts we may say that there have never been seen either entire lields or eveu parts of
fields growing only the tetard, or the low flax. We therefore hold it to he inoppor-
tune to make such classification of the common flax into industrial species.

Some Avriters recognize L. crvpUans as a cultivated si)ecies, this form growing less
tall than iisUalissimnm, with much thicker stems which have the tendency of branch-
ing, and more abundant flowei"s, and therefore producing more seed. In a re])ort
from Consul T. E. Ileenan at Odessa, it is stated that " Lhiiini iisHatinsimicm, L.
rulgare, and L. crepitans, .are being cultivated in Russia in several varieties of both
kinds, but the difference in these varieties is so slight and tlu^y so easily blend that
even those initiated in the tr.ade of the article often fail to perceive it.''

Several other forms of flax are mentioned by industrial authorities, but they are
of little importance. L. perenne, which is known conmionly as perennial flax, has
been the subject of experiment, but beyond the fact that it is ni<>ntioned doubtfully
as an oil plant in India, it does not concern us.

The most ancient cultivated species of flax is thouglit to bo L. angn.iti/ol'nim, a
form found growing wild from the Canary Isles to Palestine and the Caucasus.
This is the species said to have been grown by the Swiss Lake dwellers and the
ancient inhabitants of the north of Italy, while L. KsilatiKsinniin was the ancient
flax of Mesopotamia, Assyria, and Egypt.

"These two principal forms or conditions of flax exist in cultivation and ha^'e
probably been wild in their modern areas for the last five thousand years at least.
It is not possible to guess at their previous condition. Their transitions and vari-
eties are so numerous that they may be considered as one species comprising two or
three hereditarj^ varieties, which are each again divided into subvarieties."' (Die.
Ec. Prod. Ind., Vol. V.)

In the United States two species of flax are used for fiber, /.. hwisii by the North
American Indians, and L. iisifatissimnm, in commercial cultivation largely for seed,
but to some extent for fiber. There are other American species of Lhuim, but they
have no economic interest.

Linum angustifolium. Flax of the Stone Age.

The species of flax cultivated in Europe in prehistoric ages. See this species in
the chaiiter on ancient fibers, page 11. See .also second ami third par.agraphs above
and first paragraph under L. iisltatissimuvi. (See fig. 74.)

Linum lewisii. Rocky Mountain Flax.

This species has a wide range in aubarid westeni North America, extending from
southern Alaska and the plains of western British America southwaixl through the
Rocky Moinitains and Sierra Nevada region to the higher ]ilateaus of southern Cali-
fornia, western Texas, and northern Mexico. The plant dift'crs from the common
cultiv.ated flax, in producing usually two or three stems from its stout perennial root
and in having a capsule two or three times as long as the calyx. The Indians of the
Oregon plains make it into a remarkaldy strong twisted cord, used in the manufac-
ture of fish nets, in the binding of grass mats and basket frames, and for other pur-
jioses. ( F. r. Covillc.)

Linum usitatissimum. Cultivated Flax,

Common axd native names.— Flax (Eng.) ; Lin (Fr.) ; Flachs (Ger.) ; Zmo(Span.

audit.); Tisi (Hind, and Beng.); Jlsi (Hind.); Javas, Javasa, Ziijgar (Turk.);

Kaitan (Arab.); Zaghu and zaghir, and Kutan or tukhnir-lcalin (Pers. ), etc.

Supposed to have originated in Eastern countries. "Thus the first Egyptian

white race may have imported the cultivation of flax, or their immediate successors

may have received it from Asia before the epoch of the Phoenician colonies in Greece,

and before direct communication was established between Greece and Egj-pt under

the fourteenth dynasty. A very early introduction of the plant into Egypt from

220

USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

Asia does not i)revent us from adniitting that it was at diff'ereut times taken from the
East to the West at a later epoch than that of the first Egj'ptian dynasties. Thus
the western Aryans and the Phujniciaiis may have introduced into Europe a flax
more advantageous thau L. anfiustifolium during the period from 2,500 to 1,200 years
before our era.'' {J)r CandoUe.) (See fig. 75.)

Tlie flax jdant is now Avidcly distributed tliroughout the world. It is cultivated
in temperate North America, to a slight extent in portions of South America, espe-
cially in Argentina (though more for seed thau for fiber). It is produced commer-
cially to a greater or less extent in Great Britain, Ireland, especially Sweden, Den-
mark, Holland, Belgium, France, Russia, Germany, Austria, Sjiain, and Portugal. It
has been introduced into Algeria and into Natal, and its cultivation was old in Egj'pt

at the dawn of the Christian era. In India
large tracts are under cultivation, though
more for tlie seed crops than for fiber. Japan
has introduced its cultivation commercially,
and it lias been experimented with iu the
Australian colonies, where there is a wide
range of soil anil climate suited to its growth.

HiSTOHY or ILAX CTLTtRE IN AmEKICA. —

A perusal of the historical records in this coun-
try shows that llax culture was one of the ear-
liest of colonial industries, and wc may be sure
tliat the Puritan maidens, like the Greek maids
of old, were familiar with the si)inuing and
weaving of flax, if not with the sjiindle and
distafl' of Homeric times, for until compara-
tively recent years the culture and manufac-
ture of flax in America have l)een household
industries. ^

The American colonists brought with them
the art of raising flax and of preparing and
spinning it by hand, and even fifty years ago
the custom prevailed among farmers of grow-
ing flax and having it retted, scutched, hac-
kled, and spun by members of their household.
In thi' history of Lynn, Mass., it is stated that
about the year IfiSO "they raised considerable
quantities of flax, which was retted in one of
the ponds, thence called Flax Pond." As early
as ir)()2 the State of Virginia enacted that each
poll district should raise annually and man-
ufacture G pounds of linen thre.ad. All the
records of New England likewise give evidence
of an earnest desire to promote the cultivation
of flax and its manufacture. "About 1718 a number of colonists arrived from Lon-
donderry, bringing with them manufacture of linen and other implements tised in
Ireland. The matter was earnestly taken Tip by the ]5ostoiiians, and a vote passed
to establish a sjiinning school on the waste laud in front of Cai)tain Southack's,
about where Scollay's buildings were." About 1721, at Newport, R. I., "hemp or
flax used to be received in payment of interest, the former at 8(1. and the latter at
lOd. per p<mnd." Pennsylvania ofi'ered premiums for several grades of linen thread
in 1753, and the Society for the Promotion of Arts, Agriculture, and Economy, of New
York, after adopting resolutions to arrest the importation of British goods, offered
premiums for linen thread. The early records of Rhode Island develop further inter-
esting facts concerning an association of jdantation maidens al)oiit 1706. The order
was known .as the Daughters of Libertv. Its origin is ascribed to Dr. Brown, at

Fig. 75. — Coinniou tiax, LinxDii iisi atissi-

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 221

whose house eighteen young ladies belouging to prominent families in Providence
assenilded by invitation and employed the time from sunrise to evening in spin-
ning." (d. B. Turner, jr.)

The statistical records show that sixty-odd years ago almost thrce-(£narters of a
million pounds of llax fiber were produced in the United States, and flax was sent
to market from Connecticut sixty years ago that was strong, clean, and as good as
any raised in the United States at the present time. Very strong and flexibh' (hix
also came from northern New York and Vermont, but it was not clean. Tlie poorest
flax of those days came from New .Jersey, though tlio State has been capable of
growing Ihix ecjual to Archangel. In past time "North River" flax was regularly
sent to market from New York State, it being very strong, but poorly cleaned.

The figures for flax liber in the year 1869 sliow a product of over 13,000 tons, but
this docs not mean fine line, but the coarser fiber, or tow, used in the manufacture of
bagging, for this period marks the higliest point reached in fiber product before the
collapse of the industry a year or two later, owing to the free introduction of jute
for cotton-bagging manufacture.

At the present time flax is largely grown in the United States for seed, the straw,
of inferior quality, when used at all, going to the tow luills or the paper mills, and
worth from $1 to $8 a ton, the average in different sections being not more than $2.50
to $4. In the older States the area under present cultivation is very small and
steadily decreasing; in the newer States, or States where agriculture is being pushed
steadily westward from year to year, the area under cultivation al)out holds its own
one season with another. Cultivation for fiber is beginning to attract attention, and
good commercial fiber has been produced in verj' small (juantities in Michigan, Wis-
consin, and Minnesota. The Puget Sound region of the State of Washington has
shown its ability to produce a fine grade of straw, the iiber from which, according
to recent experiments made by the Barbour Cojupany, in Lisburu, Ireland, is worth
$350 per ton.

Bast kibeh. — -Flax may bo considered the most useful and valuable of all com-
mercial fibers next to cotton, having, however, a wider range of uses. The fiber
occurs in the greatest variety in regard to strength, length of filaments, color, and
adajitabiiity to manufacture, and, compared with cotton in fabrics, is the fiber of
luxury, while the latter is the textile of the masses.

The dimensions of the fibers are as follows: Length, 0.157 to 2.598 inches; mean,
about 1 inch; diameter, 0.0006 to 0.00148 inch; mean, about 0.001 inch. The chief
characteristics of flax are its length, fineness, solidity, and suppleness. Its remark-
able tenacity is duo to the fibrous texture and the thickness of the walls; its sup-
pleness permits it to be bent sharply; its length is invaluable in spinning, and the
nature of the surface prevents the fibers from slipping on each other Mul contributes
to the durability of fabrics made with them. Flax may be made lustrous, like silk,
by wasliing in warm water, slightly acidulated with sulphuric acid, then passing
through bichromate of ])otash vapor and gentlj^ washing in cold water. Samples of
flax exposed for two hours to steam at 2 atmospheres, boiled in water for three hours,
and again steamed for four hours, lost only 3.5 per cent of their weight, while nianila
hemp lost 6.07; hemp, 6.18 to 8.44; jute, 21.39. The conversion of flax into textile
fabrics is a large and distinct industry. (Spon's Enc.)

Uses of flax. — Some of the uses of flax fiber are the manufacture of lace (see
Appendix C), fine linens, cloth for shirtings, sheetings, etc.; handkerchiefs, dress
goods and suitings, canvas and duck; for embroidery, flosses, ''flax thread," and
twine, from shoemakers' and harness thread to salmon twine and the rougher pack-
age twines; for warp in carpets, for the bo<ly of oilcloth, and even for rope and
cordage. The rougher fiber is applicable to the manufacture of binding twine and
paper, though little used for either purpose.

During the first years of the war of the rebellion an attempt was made to replace
cotton in the manufacture of fabrics by a textile substance produced chemic-
ally from flax, hemp, and other textiles that would give a fiber claimed by those

222 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

interested in the processes to be "strongiT than cottoi} or wool and <-aj)able of taking
better color than either; and be spnn and woven on the existing cotton and woolen
luachiucry at a cost below cotton or wool at any time, there being less waste." In
the Report of the Flax and Hemp Connnission of 1<S()3 is an acconnt of the Aarious
processes under experiment for this purpose, the substances produced being vari-
ously known as "librllin,"' "llax cotton," "clansenized Jlax" (and hemp), and
"erolin" or "llax wool."' The series of specimens that were received during this
inquiry was deposited in the Mus. U. S. Dept. Ag., and formed a valuable and iuter-
estin"- historical exhibit. They are not in the present museum, however, nor is the
writer aware of their existence.

Vaijietiks ok imported ix.\x. — The following statement concerning the kinds
of llax imported into the United States, with the names and marks of grades, has
been prepared for the Department by Robert ]». Storer & Co., Boston, Massachusetts:
Eitssia: Russian llax is known as Slaiietz (or dew retted) and Motchenet:; {water
retted), and the shipments from St. Petersburg arc largely of Sirelz, or ungraded
kinds of the several districts. The llax from these tlistricts is known under the
name of Bejedsk, Krasnoholm, Twer, Kashin, (Jospodsky, Nerechta, Wologda, Jara-
slav, Graesowet/, Kostronni — all Slanetz. The MoUheiielz sorts are Pochoclion, Oug-
litz, Rjctf, Jaropol, and Stepurin. From Archangel are shipped Slanelz sorts, known
as First Crown, Second Crown, Third Crown, Fourth Crown, First Zabrack, and
Second Zabrack. From KMga shi]>meuts are entirely of Afolclitiietz .sorts and the
marks are graded from the standard mark K, the others being IIK, Pi\, HPK. SPK,
HSPK, ZK, GZK, and HZK.

Holland: Dutch liax is graded by the marks ^, ", VI, All, VILI, IX.
Belgium: Flemish llax (or blue llax) includes Bruges, Thissalt, Client, I>okereu,
St. Nicolas, and is graded ,\', \.^ ", VI, VII, VIII, IX. Courtrai liax is graded
J " -'- " ' " VI. Femes and Bergues liax is graded A, B, C, 1). Walloon
flax is graded II, III, IV. Zealand llax is graded IX, VIII, VII, VI. Fricshmd (lax
is graded D, E, Ex, F, Fx, Fxx, G, Gx, Gxx, CJxxx.

France: French llax is known by the districts of Waviin, Klines, Douai, Ilaze-
brouck, Picardy, and Harnes.

Inland: Irish llax comes as scutched and mill sentched, and is known by the
names of the counties where raised.

Canada: Has no standard of marks or (iimlities.

Growth for .seed .\xd eiiser. — It has been said that good seed and salable liber
can not be produced from the same plant, and this statement has been reiterated
again and again. Experience in other countries, as well as our own. disproves th<'
assertion.

The huest liax produced in Europe is grown in Belgium, where the seed is not only
saved, but is used in some cases to produce the next year's cro]) of llax. The usual
practice in that country is to import the seed annually, though in some localities a
diflercnt custom i)revails, as in the Brabant. Imported seed (Dutch or Russian) is
planted the first year and the seed produced by this crop is planted the second year,
giving, it is claimed, a better ([uality of llax than the first year; but for the next,
or third, year's sowing new seed is again secured.

"About the fiber being coarse if the seed is saved, this will not be the case if the
liax straAV is pulled before being too ripe and hard. In France and Belgium our
spinners get the finest fiber, and the growers there save the seed." {John Orr If'al-
lace. )

"The crop nuist be grown with a view toward getting from the land the highest
yield of straw that will produce the finest quality of fiber. The seed, which ought
to be a large factor in profit, should be saved, etc." (Irish Textile Journal.)

Irish experiments have shown that an acre of land has produced 5 tons 9 huudred-
wei"ht of green flax one week pulled, and 22 bushels prime seed. Experts in the

DESCRIPTIV.E CATALOGUE. 223

country Jiave shown that good lilier and good seed can he secured from the same
croj), as set forth in the Reports of the Fiber Investigation Series of this Department.

Soil inlection. — Too much care can not he exercised in the selection of the soil for
this crop. The Belguxn flax farmer selects a deep and well-cultivated soil that is
not too heavy, experience proving that in a dry, calcareous soil the stalk remains
short, while in a heavy, clayey soil it gives greater length, though at the expense of
fine fiher. In Ireland any clean land in good state of fertility that will produce a
good cro]) of wheat, oats, or barley is considered suitable for flax. On heavy soils
the lUitch seed is thought to give best results, while Kiga- seed is sown upon the
light or medium soils. Recent experiments in our own country have demonstrated
that the heavier soils, when well drained and of proper fertility, are preferable to
the lighter soils, known as sandy loams. In general terms, a moist, deep, strong
loam upon upland will give liest results. Barley lauds in the Middle States and new
prairie lands or old turf in the Western States are frequently chosen. Some former
New York flax growers inclined to a heavy clay for the production of fi1)er and seed,
though a wet soil will be fatal to success. A soil full of the seeds of weeds is to be
avoided above all things, and weeds should be eliminated by })revious cultivation as
far as possible.

Soil preparation. — In this country too little attention is paid to the importance of
deep plowing and reducing the seed bed to the proper tilth. Many foreign flax grow-
ers urge that the laud should be fall plowed, though there are some who are of a dif-
ferent opinion, but it is recognized by all that tbe land should be brought almost to
the condition of garden soil before the seed is sown. On small tracts of a few acres
in Europe this is accomplished by spading over the land, although such laborious
methods can not be adopted in the United States. Deep fall plowing with a cross
plowing in the spring is a good practice to ibllow. Where there are heavy clay loams
two plowings in the spring will give better results than one. The number of har-
rowings will depend wholly upon the ]um])iness of the soil, as all clods must be broken
up and the soil made line and even. The roller should be used to make the ground
as smooth and level as j)ossihlo and to press into the soil any small stones that may
be upon the surface. Heavy lands that from their situation are liable to to be more
or less covered with surface water during the winter should be avoided. On account
of the extra labor necessitated upon heavy land it is better, therefore, to choose the
medium soils that will yield readily to the action of the elements and to the plow
and harrow.

Fertilizimj . — On the new lands of the West good crops may be grown for a number
of years without manures, tliough in time fertility must be exhausted and poor crops
will inevitably follow. Tlie flax crop, of all crops, makes heavy demands upon the
soil, and for this reason it is frequently called an exhaustive crop. Tlio stem of the
flax plant is tall and slender, growing rapidly, and the long roots, as they push down
deeply, must have something to feed upon to make vigorous growth and good straw.
It is on account of this habit of tlie jilant to extend its roots to such depth in the
earth that plowing and line tilth are so esseiitial ; and the roots must lind food or the
plant will be of slow growtli, woody, and deficient in fiber, and the product inferior
both as to quality and quantity. Any crop is exhaustive to the soil that is grown
year after year on the same land, where everything is taken away and nothing
returned. In Belgium and other (lax-growing countries, where land has been under
cultivation for generations, stable nmnure is applied to the laud befoie winter sets
in. Then in spring, before sowing time, the ground is heavily treated with fer-
tilizers, or niglit soil in solution is poured over it. A great deal of the material is
brought from the towns and kept in closed receptacles or reservoirs until the time
for using it on the ground. Stable manures are used in connection with chemical
fertilizers. Of the latter it is common to employ from GOO to 800 kilograms per hec-
tare, or, roughly, from 500 to 750 pounds per acre, aud to go over the ground with
the li(|uid night soil in addition. Stable manures should l)e well rotted to avoid foul-
ing the crop with weeds, which germinate and grow with the flax. Dr. Ure formerly

224 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

recommended ii mixture of 30 pounds of potasli, 28 of common salt, 34 of burnt gyp-
sum, 54 of bone dust, and 56 of magnesia, ^vbich it was claimed would replace the
constituents of an average acre of flax. Dr. Hodges, of Ireland, many years ago pro-
posed tbe following, which he concluded by analysis would replace the inorganic
matter renu)ved from the soil by 2 tons of flax straw: Muriate of potash, 30 pounds;
common salt, 25 pounds ; burnt gypsum, 34 pounds ; bone dust, 54 jjouuds, and sulphate
of magnesia, 50 pounds. This is very similar to the formula given by Dr. Uro above.

notation of crops. — A systematic rotation of crops is considered essential in all
flax-growing countries, though little practiced in the United States. A rotation
formerly followed in New York, covering three years, was Indian corn, barley, oats,
winter and spring wheat, and red clover, the corn being planted on land plowed
from clover sod. The cleaning process, to rid the soil from weeds, began with the
first crop which followed the clover sod. The Helgiau farmers are particularly
careful in this matter. In the Courtrai region the occupancy of the laud with flax
varies from five to ten years, the average being about eight years. In eastern Flan-
ders it is five to nine, and in the Brabant five to eight. In some other sections a
much longer time elapses between two crops of flax, and several generations back
fifteen and even eighteen years were sometimes allowed to intervene. A common
rotation is clover, oats, rye, wheat, and in some cases hemp. Crops of rape, tobacco,
beans, and vegetables (these latter crops on farms contiguous to towns), or even
onions and salsify, are grown as in middle Belgium. Clover is considered one of the
best crops to precede a crop of flax, as its nunuirous roots go deep into the soil, and
from their decomposition not only furnish nutriment to the growing flax roots, but
enable them more easily to push down into the subsoil.

SoiviiKj the need. — An old rule in this country was to sow when the soil had
settled and was warmed by tbe influence of the sun, and weeds and grass had begun
to spring up and the leaves of trees to unfold. In fact, no definite rule can be laid
down, experience being the best teacher, as the seeding must be largely governed by
atmospheric conditions. Too early sowing may result in injury to the growing
plants. A practice followed by some farmers, especially where the soil is at all
weedy, is to allow the land, after it is put in condition, to lie until the ^V'eeds appear;
then, just before sowing, give tbe surface a light harrowing, when the greater part
will be killed.

In regard to the manner of seeding the crop, it is usually put in by hand, broad-
cast; in foreign countries, tbe experts at the business going from farm to farm, as
their services are required. The seeding is accomplished in this country both by
hand broadcasting and by means of the drill, though the latter method can not be
recommended. The work should be done with great regularity to secure an even
growth of straw and the same standard of fineness for difl'erent portions of the field.
The objection to drilling in the crop is that the outside straw will always be coarser
than that straw in the center of the drill row, and also will have a tendency to branch.
The practice in Flanders is to sow in the morning and harrow the seed in with a
dose-set harrow; and after the seed has germinated, the land is rolled. When flax
is grown for seed without regard to fil>er, it is sown thin, at the rate of 2 to 3 pecks
of seed per acre, in order that the plants shall branch and produce as large a crop as
possible. A large seed is also desirable. When the production of fine fiber is the
object, a thicker sowing is necessary, say, from li to 3 bushels per acre. This pre-
vents branching, the plants are shaded, and a crop of clean, slender, straight straw
is the result. In Belgium, where the finest fiber is produced, the amount of seed
sown varies ordinarily from 21 to 3 bushels per acre, though in one district (Hai-
naut) it is claimed that the quantity sown is sometimes double this amount. Prob-
ably 3 bushels per acre comes nearer the general practice. Some growers hold that
more should be used when the sowing is late than when early; at any rate, when
planted too thickly, as is sometimes the case, it is atterwards thinned, though such
a practice, of course, adds just so much to the cost of ])roduction.

Good fiber can not bo grown from the average seed of the oil mills. Imported seed

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE.

225

gives the best results, but if this can uot be obtained seed must be sown that has
been produced from plants grown for their fiber, also from selected seed. A proper
llaxseed should be pure, free from the seeds of weeds and from all odors which would
indicate mustiness and bad condition that would alieet its germinating power. The
foreign grower in purchasing his seed is subjected to a dozen forms of fraud, and
the only safe plan pursued is to buy of reputable dealers exclusively. In all cases
the heaviest, brightest, and plumpest seed should be preferred. J. E. Proctor, of
Kentucky, writing upon this subject many years ago, advocated the white-blossom
Dutch as the best seed for American flax growers. Eugene Bosse, a j^ractical flax
grower, states that his preference, based upon several years' experience, is for (1)
*'Eiga seed, once sown in Belgium"' — that is to say, imported seed grown on Belgian
soil from seed procured in Kiga; (2) seed imported direct from Riga, but it must be
Riga and not Finland seed;
(3) Dutch (Rotterdam) seed,
and (-I) American seed, whicli
he reports "as good as Nos.
2 and 3 when well cultivated,
though it will not stand the
drought as well."' No. 1 will
produce about 8 bushels of
seed to the acre, Xo. 2 10
Imshels, and Xo. 3 between 8
and 10 bushels.

WecdiiKj the crop.— In for-
eign countries this work is
done priucijially by women
and boys, who go over the
ground on their knees, pick-
ing out the weeds by hand.
This work is done usually
when the plants are from 1 to
2 inches high, though a sec-
ond and sometiuies a third
weeding is found necessary.
The American flax grower must
avoid the lalxir of weeding by
having clean land, made as
nearly clean as possible by
careful culture. Wliere weed-
ing becomes necessary it is
performed when the plants
are less than 5 inches high. I'l^- 7G.— Methoil oflurmiug stooks.

Harvest hig.— In Flanders and other portions of Belgium where the seed is of sec-
ondary importance, and the main object is to obtain asstrongand fine fiber as possible,
the flax is pulled before it is fully ripe, or when it is just beginning to turn yellow,
coarse flax ripening earlier than fine. The work is done (or begins usually) the last
week in June, sometimes a little earlier, for, according to one of the old proverbs,
"June makes the flax." An Irish rule is to pull at once when the straw begins to
turn yellow and the foliage within 6 inches of the ground is drooping. For the best
results, when the desired end is fine fiber, the straw must be pulled. This is not the
usual practice of the Western flax grower, wlio cultivates for seed, however, and it
has been urged that it is absolutely essential, where the object is to produce both
fiber and seed, or, to state it more precisely, when the object is to produce a comnum
grade of fiber and at the same time save the seed. If the laud surface is made very
smooth, so that the knives of the reaper may be set low, cutting by machine (rather
12247— Xo. 1> 15

226 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

than pulling) may answer. Several inches of the best portion of the stem will be
lost and the sqnare ends of the fiber ^yill not work into tlie "silver" as smoothly as
pulled liax when tlie fiber is being manipulated in the iirst stages of manufacture.
A flax -pulling machine is a desideratum, and for the past two or three years inventors
have attempted to worlv out the problem. Wliere flax is pulled by manual labor, the
course is to draw the handful of straw out of the ground, and by striking the roots
againbt the boot the earth is dislodged. The straw is then laid in handfuls, crossing
each other, so as to be readily made into bundles. In Belgium the ilax is laid in
handfuls upon the ground, a line of straw being first laid down, which serves to
bind these handfuls when a sufficient quantity has been pulled to tie. When pat
into stooks to dry, the seed ends being tied together, the bottom euds are opened
out, giving to the stook the appearance of an A tent. (See fig. 76.) After drying iu
tlie stook, the handfuls of straw are tlien tied into small V)unches, or "beets,'' and
piled sometliing as cordwood is piled in this country, two poles being first laid
upon the ground to prevent injury to the bottom layer by damjiuess, and two poles
driven at each end of the jtile to keep the "hedges"' iu form.

In th<^ matter of saving the seed the common American practice has been to drive
the straw through an ordinary thrashing machine, securing the seed, but rendering the
straw utterly worthless in its tangled and broken condition. Some attempts have
been made to save the straw even with the ordinary thrasher by opening the con-
cave. This is done so that the teeth will just come together; then with one man to
open and pass in the bundles, another takes them bj^ the butt ends, and, spreading
them fan shape, presents the seed end to the machine. The straw is not released,
but is withdrawn as soon as the seed is torn off, when the bundles are again tied.
The operation is not fully satisfactory, and the necessity of a rapid flax thrasher
has stimulated invention, and several machines have been presented which will do
the work more or less etfectually, though an absolutely successful machine for this
purpose is yet a desideratum. In the old days of flax cultivation in Aew York
whipping the seed capsules against a sharp rock set at an angle of 45' was the
method resort»'d to. In foreign countries various methods are resorted to from hand
thrashing to jiassing the bundles through powerful machines with iron cylinders so
constructed that only the heads are crushed, the straw remaining iu the hands of
the operator during tlie entire operation.

Jiettiiig the straw. — Three natural modes of steeping, or retting, are rticoguized —
dew retting, po(d retting, and retting in running water. There are also inany proc-
esses for quick retting, srherft th£ temperature of the water is controlled, and also
when chemicals are used, but few of these have given good results, and the flax of
the world is largely retted by natural methods rather tlian by "processes," so called.
For dew retting a moist meadow is the projjcr ])laee, the fiber l)eing spread o\er the
ground in straight rows at the rate of a ton to an acre. If laid about the 1st of
October, and the weather is good, a couple of weeks will siiflice for the proper
separation of the fiber and woody matter. When the retting is progressing unevenly
the rows are opened with a lork or turned with a long ])ole. For pool retting the
softest water gives the l>est results, and where a natural ])Ool is not available, such
as the "bog holes" iu Ireland, "steej) pools" will have to be built. A pool 30 feet
long, 10 feet wide, and 4 feet deep will suffice for an acre of flax. Spring water
should be avoided, or, if used, the pool should be filled some weeks before the flax is
ready for it, in order to soften the water. It should l)e kept free frcuu all mineral
or vegetable impurities. The sheaves are packed loosely in the pool, sloping so as
to rest lightly on their butt ends, if at all, for it is considered best to keep the
8hea*Fes entirely under water without allowing them to come in contact with the
bottom. Irish growers cover with long wheat straw or sods, grass side down, the
whole kept under water by means of stones or other weights. Fermentation is
shown by the turbidity of the water and by bubbles of gas, and as this goes on
more weights are required, for the flax swells and rises. If ]>ossible, the thick scum
which now forms on the surface should be removed by allowing a slight stream of

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 227

water to fiow over the pool. The fiber sinks when decomposition has been carried
to the proper point, thongli this is not always a sure indication that it is just right
to take out. In Holland the plan is to take a number of stalks of average fineness,
which are broken in two places a few inches apart. If the woody portion or core
pulls out easily, leaving the fiber intact, it is ready to come out. The ojieration
usually re(|uires from five to ten days.

The finest fiax in the world — the famous fiax of the Courtrai region of Belgium — is
retted in the sluggish waters of the river Leys. This is called by the French
roiiissage an courarit, which was described as follows in the writer's report on Belgian
Flax Culture, 1890:

"Crates or frames of wood are used, having solid floors of boards, the sides being
open. These measure about 12 feet square and perhaps a meter in height, or a little
over a yard. First a strip of jute burlap is carried around the four sides on the
inside, coming well to the top rail of the crate. This is to strain the water, or to
keep out floating particles or dirt which would injure the flax by contact with it.
The bundles, which measures to 10 inches through, are composed of ''beets" laid
alternately end for end, so that the bundle is of uniform size throughout. They are
stood on end and packed so tightly into i)lace that they can not move, each crate
holding about 2,000 to 3,000 pounds of straw. A^'hen a crate is filled the entire top
is covered with clean rye straw and launched and floated iuto position in the stream.
It is then weighted with large paving blocks or other stones until it has sunk to the
top rail, when it is left for the forces of nature to do the reuuiinder. The time of
immersion is from four to fifteen days, dependent upon temperature of the water
and of the air, quality of flax, and other influences. There are several delicate
tests which indicate when the flax should come out, although the near approach of
the time is made known by the self-raising of the crate out of the water (often a
foot or more), caused by the gases of decomposition. When ready to remove, the
crate is floated opposite a windlass — and there are many along the shoie — the chain
attached, and the aflair pulled halfway up the bank, when the bundles are at once
removed. The big bundles are taken back to the field, and are now broken up and
again put into the form of the little "A"' tents already described. This work is done
by l)oys, who show great dexterity not only in spreading and standing up the little
bundle when it is first opened for drying, but in the subsec^uent operation of turning
the tent completely inside out, so that the straw that was shaded in the interior may
be subjected to the air and sunshine and the drying be accomplished evenly. After
this drying process is completed, the flax again goes into the big bundles for a second
immersion, and I was told sometimes a third, though rarely. This work begins in
September and continues imtil too cool to ret the flax advantageously. Then it
begins again in March and continues until all the flax has been retted. Much of
the unretted flax is carried aver to the next year in this manner. Not only is it
thought to improve the flax in quality, but is better for the producers, enabling
them to hold their product for good prices when the fall prices are low." (Report
No. 1, Fiber Investigation Series, U. S. Dept. Ag.)

For an account of the practice followed in the cultivation of flax for household
linen, see Report No. 4 of the above series, page 37.

EcoNOAiic c<»xsiiJEi!ATioxs.^Flax culture for fiber can not be established in the
United States on the lines of practice in foreign countries. As the case stands, the
farmer is hardly in position to grow flax, save in an experimental way, until he is
sure of a market, and the manufacturer— that is, the spinner — is not in a position to
make otters of purchase or to name price, because he is not sure that the farmer can
grow flax of the proper stau<l;ird, or that he can afi'ord to purchase at any price, for
his ])articular manufacture, such flax as the farmer may produce. This simply
means that what isolated farmers can not accomplish alone must be accom])lished
by the establishment of little local industries. To borrow a foreign term, the future
flax industry of the riiited States must hn communal; that is to say, capital must
establish scutch mills in localities where flax may be profitably grown, farmers of the

228 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

neighborhood agreeing to produce 5, 10, or 20 acres of straw each, under tlie direc-
tion, if need be, of the managers of the mills, to insure the growth of a quality of
straw that will give the proper standard of fiber. This relieves the farmers from
any responsibility in the matter further than to i)roduce a proper crop of straw.
The scutch mills or tow mills attend to the retting and cleaning of tlie liber, which
in turn is sold to the spinner. One good scutch mill Mill jirepare the llax grown on
a score or more of farms, and as the work is accomplished under one direction, the
product will be far inore even as to standards than would be possilde were it pre-
pared by twenty different men. In Canada and in northern Michigan (in the neigh-
borhood of Yale, where there are successful scutch mills) the practice is to sell the
seed to the farmers, at the mills, at a fixed price per bushel, the farmers agreeing to
sow a certain number of acres to Jlax, the straw from which the managers of the
scutch mills agree to take at a fixed price per ton, in some cases $10 being named.

The farmers of the United States use imiiroved implements and machines in all
farm operations, and American farm imidements are recognized as the finest in the
world. What invention has done for other rural industries is possible for the ilax
industry, and by the use of improved machines in every stage of (iax culture the
<lifference in wages between this country and the Old World will be more than
equalized. The ".Vmerican practice," means simply an intelligent i)ractice, for the
growth of both fiber and seed, achieving economical production by the employment
of labor-saving machinery, even in the pulling of the fiax straw. Fine ilax can be
grown in the United States, providing the farmers grow it intelligently and perse-
veringly — not one year, or two, or three, but year after year, growing each year a
little, and growing it well.

Statistical kecouds. — Reference has been made to the large crops of fiax grown
in this country in X)revious years. The following figures of yield of seed and fiber,
for five i)eriods, from 1849 to 1889, are reproduced from rejtorts of the Eleventh Censiia :

Tear.

1849.
1859.
18C9-
1879.

BusbeLs.

Pounds of

fiber.

562,312 i

7, 709, 676

.506,867 '

4, 72(1, 145

l,7:iO, 444 ,

27, 13:{, 034

7, 170, 951

1, 565, 546

10, 250, 410

241, 389

For tlie figures of yield by States, sec Hullt;tin No. 177, Eleventh Census, by John
Hyde.

The States producing fiber, largely coarse toAV for upholsterers" use, in 1889, in the
order of importance are lUimiis. Kansas, Michigan, * Virginia, Ohio, New York,
*Kentucky, Minnesota, Iowa, Wisconsin, Indiana, * West Virginia, * North Carolina,
South Dakota, "Tennessee, Maine, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, Pennsylvania,
and Arkansas, the first with a record of 57,776 pounds, and the last named, 11 pounds.
The figures for States denoted with an asterisk (*) doubtless represent in part the
remnant of the old household linen industry, for in 1890 flax was still grown for
homespun in the mountain regions of the States named. The total figures for the
States thus indicated are 49,737 pounds. Virginia and Kentucky supply over 30,000
pounds of this quantity, and showing a mixed commercial and household industry.

Livistona australis.

One of the few palms iound in Australia, attaining a height of 100 feet, its trunk
being a foot in diameter. The species of this genus are fouml from upper Assam
and southern China through Malacca and the islands of the Indian Archijxdago, as
well as Australia.

FiiiKii. — The uuexjianded leaves of L. aiintralis are ]irepared by scalding, and dry-
ing in the shade, when the material is used for, making hats.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 229

/.. cliineiisifi is used to iiiako coarse Caliiics for I'aj^s, otc,., and also for cordage. L.
jcnldiixhoia is the Toko /'((/of Assam, and is used for niakin.i;- the peculiar nmlirella
hats of the natives.

Llanchama (Peru). Sec CoiinitarL

Locust (W. Iiul.). Hymoiaa roiirhitril.

Lodoicea callipyge. Double Cocoanut Palm.

CoMJiox NAMKS. — Coco (Je Miv, Coco (les Maldires.

This species of palm was unknowu prior to the discovery of the Seychelles Islands
in 1743, but its immense " double cocoaunts " were often I'onnd Hoating upon the
waters of the Indian Ocean.

The tree has a nearly cylindrical trunk, scarcely exceedinij a foot iu diameter, and
bearing a crown of fan-shaped leaves, some of which are upward of 20 feet long
and 12 feet wide. They are of two sexes, both of Avhich have three sepals and three
petals to the flowers, those of the females being large, thick, and lleshy. The fruits
externally are covered with a thick, tibrous hnsk, and contain iisually one, but some-
times two or even three immense stones or nuts with excessively hard and thick
black shells, each being divided half Avay down into two lobes, whence the popular
name. In olden times important medicinal virtues were attributed to these nuts,
water drunk out of vessels made of them being supposed to preserve people from all
complaints, and extravagant prices were c<msequently jiaid for them. At the present
day they are converted into various domesti^i utensils, while the wood serves many
useful purposes." (Treas. Botany.)

Fiber. — From th(> dried leaves of this palm many useful or ornamental articles
are manufactured, such as hats, fans, baskets, cigar cases, etc., and the leaves are
also used for thatching.

Lonicera quinqiielocularis. ITimalayan Honeysuckle.

An Indian plant, also found in southern Afghanistan. It is worthy of only passing
mention, as its bast, which is shed iu long fibrous strips, is only suitable for ujihol-
stery purposes.

Loof. The fiber of Luffa (vgyptwa.

Loto (It.). Celt is (iHsiralis.

Lotus, the sacred (Egypt). See Xelnmhinm.

Luff (Arab.). Hi^e lAifa.

Luffa aegyptica. The Sponge Cucumbek. Snake Gourd.

Syn. Luffa eylindrica, etc.

Exogeu. Citcurhitacew. A climbing vine.
The species of the genus are said to be natives of ti'opical Asia and Africa, though
L. ce.yiiptica is grown in many parts of the world. Some of its names are as follows:
Sponge cucumber or Dish cloth plant, Papinjay, southern United States; Estrdpajo,
Venezuela; Eaponga vegetal, Argentina; Diin-dul, Bengal; Khujar, Persia; Luff,
Arabia; Hechima, Japan; etc. Fig. 2, PI. VIII, is a sponge circumber grown by
the author, together with a specimen of the commercial sponge imported from
Japan.

FiHER. — The dried fruit, after frost, is a network of interlacing fibers that can be
used without further preparation .as a substitute i'or the sponge, for bath purposes;
sometimes used as a fiesh Itrush in the Turkish bath. Some very fine examples of
these vegetable sponges were secured from the Japan exhibit, W. C. E., 1893 (under
the name L. pefola), the iiber being used by the .lapanese "for the heart of hats, the
sole of sacks, or 'Tabi' for stutfiug^ saddles, in place of sponges for washing, etc."

230 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

In the United States ornamental baskets are sometimes made from the sponge
cucumber, and among tlie curious objects of the museum the visitor is shown a l)on-
net, Avorn in the South during the hite war, made entirely of this fiber. To prepare
it, the cucumbers were cut through lengthwise ui)on one side only, and opened out
flat, the fibrous Avails of the tul)es before mentioned forming longitudinal ridges
Avhieh appeared on the outside of the bonnet. Several cucumbers Avere required to
make tliis dainty head covering, which Avas seAved together and afterwards shaped
with scissors, and lined on the inside and trimmed with pink cambric. The fruit is
from 6 inches to 1 foot in length, the interior being formed of a dense tissue of Aviry
fibers and containing three longitudinal tubes, in Avhich are found the numerous
black seeds.

The commkucial iTvODUCt. — The vegetable sponge does not appear to bean arti-
cle of trade and export in any country but .Japan, whicli exports over 1,000,000
sponges a year. They are chiefly ex])orted from Yokohama, and some from the ports
of Kobe and Nagasaki; and tlie principal destinations of exportatioii are London,
Havre, Hamburg, San Francisco, Ncav York, Shanghai, and Hongkong.

It is grown in every part of .Ia]»an, there being two Aarieties in common cultiva-
tion— one long and slender, being used for food, and the other more plump, as a
fiber plant. The method of cultiA'ation in Japan is to soav the seed in March, in a
seed bed, transjdanting to the cultiAated fields as soon as the plants show four or
five leaA'es. A horizontal network of bamboo poles is constructed above the plants,
upon which the A'ines twine and spread. Four or ti\ e " cucuni1)er8 " are groAvn on a
l>laut, and 21,000 may be grown to the acre. Ilic hiirvest is in September.

Lupis. A form of inanila hemi>. See Miisa textilis.

Lupulo (Peril). Hnmulns lujjvlvs.

Lycopodium clavatum. Running Pine.

LijcopodiaceiV. A club moss.

The club mosses are found in cold, temperate, and tropical countries, some being
prostrate in their hal)it of groAvth, Avliile others are erect, the latter frequently of
large size.

L. clavatum abounds in this country in woods from Labrador to Alaska, south to
North Carolina, Michigan, and ^yashington.' Also found in Central America and in
Europe. Tlie species can scarcely be called a textile plant, though in Sweden it is
used in the manufacture of door mats.

Lygeum spartum.

Endogen. Graminece. A perennial grass.

Native names. — Sennoc and Alhnrdine (Afr.); known in Italy as Lacrhne salva-
iiche, the weeping sylvan.
Mediterranean regions; northern Spain and nprthern Africa. The jdant is often
confounded Avitli the true esparto, Stipa tenaris-iima, which abounds in the same
regions, and A\'hich is the commercial esparto so largely used for the manufacttue of
paper. L. spartum is an evergreen, its culm solid and cylindrical, from 1 to Ih feet
in height, having generally only one node, from Avhich ccmies forth the last leaf.
The leaves are Aery narrow and from 40 to 70 centimeters in length, smooth and
nearly cylindrical, sea green in color, A-ery tenacious, and similar to those of Stipa
tenacisitima.

Stri'ctuhal Fibek. — Both si)ecies are used in Italy in basket numufacture and as
covering for the protection of bottles, these articles being exported to the United
States and other countries. Savorgnan states that while the term Giunco marino (or
sea reed) is applied to scA'eral species, Lijf/eum spartum is usually understood. Proba-
bly used, in connection with other species, in the manufacture of Buscola baskets.
See Juncus acutus.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 231

Lygoclium scandens.

Filices. A climbing feru.
The species of this geims arc widely distributed over the warmer parts of the
world, extending to New Holland, Japan, and North America. Most commonly met
with in our greenhouses. The Kew collection contains a broom made in Ceylon
from the stipes of the species named, while the stijjes of another species, found ou
the Island of Luzon, sup])ly material for hats.

Lyme grass. Elt/mna arenarius.

Lyonsia reticulata.

A specimen of so-called liber from the seed vessels of this plant was received from
the Queensland collection (Phil. Int. Exh., 1^76). It is worthless as a "liber" and
can only be classed with " silk cotton " from the Bombax, and with " vegetable silk"
from pods of Asclejrias. The plant is a creeper belonging to the dogbane family,
having cucumber shaped pods, which are the source of the liber. The plant is a
native of Australia.

Maana (Ceyl.). Aiuh-opixjon )iardus of Diet. Ec. Prod., lud. See
A. schcenanthus.

Macanilla (Yeiiez.). See Guilidma sjDeciosa.

Macauba and Maca^v palm (Braz.). See Acroeomia sclcrocarjm and
A. l((,sio,spatha.

Machinery for extracting- fibers. See Appendix A.

Macpalxochitlquahuitl (Yne.). Cheirosfemon platanoides.

Macrochloa tenacissima (see Stip<i teitacissima).

Macrocystis pyrifera. Giant Seaweed.

This is a remarkable genus of dark-spored Ahjw, belonging to the order Lami-
nariacew. " Many species have been proposed by authors, but all are reducible to
one, M. pyrifera, which girds the southern temperate zone and stretches up from
thence along the Pacific to the Arctic regions, through 120 degrees of latitude.
This plant, like the Sargassum, has been celebrated by all voyagers, to whom it is
of great service in indicating the presence of rocks, acting, as it does, like a great
buoy. Vast masses are thrown up on exposed coasts, where it is rolled by the waves
till it forms cables as thick as a man's body. Single plants have been, estimated on
reasonable grounds as attaining a length of 700 feet. It is apparently iudifterent to
cold, if not extreme, but inasmuch as like its near allies it is a deep-sea Alga it
requires a depth of at least 6 fathoms for its growth." {Rev. M. J. Berkeley.)

PSEUDO Fiber. — This is not strictly speaking a fiber plant, though it affords useful
nuiterial that may be employed in the j)lace of a fiber as a "cordage" material. No
references can be given, but I have been informed that the Macrocyslis is exten-
sively employed in Alaska for the manufacture of fishing lines, which are strong and
durable.

Other species of Algw are used in a similar manner. W. H. Harvey, in Nereis
Boreali-Americana (Sm. Inst., 1858), ou the authority of Lightfoot, refers to the use
of the stems of Chorda filmn, which often attain the length of 30 or 40 feet and which
are popularly known as Lucky Miuny's lines. These are skinned when half dry, aiul
twisted acquire so considerable a degree of strength and toughness that the high-
landers somi'times use them as fishing lines.

Dr. H. Mertens, in Hooker's Bot. Misc., refers to a similar use of a species oi Fxicus
by the Aleutians. It is said that these fishing lines from Ahja- are not afiected by
freezing, and therefore can be used at low temperatures without danger of breaking.

232

USEFUL FlBEli PLAKTS OF THE WOULD.

Macrozamia spiralis.

This species, belougiug to the Cyeadacc(v, occurs in New South Wales, the repre-
sentatives of the }?euus being f(»und chieliy in Australia. * Specimens of the pulu-
like surface fiber are preserved in the Bot. Mus. Harv. Univ. Fig. 77 is a leaf of
M. (lrniso7iii in the Department conservatory.

Madar fiber or Mudar (lud.). See Calotropis (/iffantca.

Madras hemp (Iiul,). See Crotalnria.

Maggio piccolo (It.). Sec CoroniUa cmenis.

Maguey (Mex.), See Agare mexicana

and A. amcHcana ; hlando, A.

Halmiana; dc tequila, A. ameri-

cana, A. irislizeiii, etc.

The term M(t()iiey, with anil without an aflix,
has been used as a general term to tlesignate
numy species of Agaves. Ignacio Blazcjuez
enumerates 3S species and varieties of Mafjneiis
whicli grow or are cultivated on the plains of
Apam, and names 16 species and varieties
growing or cultivated in the district of
Cholnla which yield pnhine. See also Agave
poiulornm.

Mah-line or Malaing (P>urm.). See

lUo itssitnetia papyri/era.

Mahoe. Also written Mahaut.

This name is applied to several West Indian
and South American s])ecies of iiialvaceous
plants; sometimes written Mahaut. The species
named in this work are: hord la-vier, Hib-
iscus tiliacviin; cousin , Triumfelta aemi-

triloha; blue or mountain , JfihiscKselatiis;

red , Sterciiliarariboa; Congo , Hibis-
cus clypeaius; seaside , Thcspesiaponuhiea;

wild , Malvaviscus arboreiis, etc.;

pin cet, JP« J) i/era ntilis, see Lagetta. "Mahoe is
a collective name for the bast fibers of Paritium,
Ochroma, Thespesia, Hibiscus, etc. The word is
the same as Majaf/un used in Venezuela, Colom-
bia, and other countries." (Dr. Ernst.)

The name Mahoe is applied in Trinidad
indiscriminate!}- to the genera Paritium, Thespesia, J)aphnopsis, Ochroma, Aptiha,
Heliocarpux, and many others producing liast tissue or fibrous 1)arks. {J. IT.
Hart.)

Maholtine (Trin.). Ahutil on periplocifofi a di {no^v Wis.sadula).

Mahauli and Marvil (Ind.). See BmiMnia raccmosa.

Maicha (Peru). See MamiUaria.

Maidenhair fern (see Adiantum).

Mayo or Maioh (Burm.). Calotropis t/if/atitca.

Tig. 77. — A leaf of Macrozamia
(tenisonii.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 233

Maize, or Indian Corn (see Zea mays).
Majagiia.

A collective name emi)loye<l in Spanish-speakinsf conutries for the bast fibers of
malvaceous and similar plants (see A/^a/ujt) ; often used with an affix, as MajiKjua
clarelUna (see Pachini). Two nnidentified fibers from the :\Iexii-an exliibit, W. C. E.,

1893, were named de iomlUo, and de rejuco. The term is applied in Costa

Rica to Hibiscus tiliaceiis.

Majaguillo (Veiiez.). See MunUngia.

Maka^v palm (Braz.). Acrommia scJerocarpa. The Great Makaw
Palm is A. lasiospatha.

Makkah, Makkai, Makkajari, etc. (Pers. and Iiid.) Zc(( mays.
Malachra capitata. Wild ( )kra.

A malvaceous shrub occurring in tropical America. India, and other countries;
probably a native of South America.

FiBEii. — A fine example of its bast was secured from the exhibit of British Guiana,
W. C. E., 1893, which, with a specimen from Trinidad, is shown in the museum col-
lection. The first named was 8 or 9 feet long, jute like in appearance, though more
yellow, and ratlier coarse. This, or an allied species, is found in Trinidad where the
plant grows wild in damp situations. It is found in Venezuela. Spon states that
when Avell cleaned it is almost as soft as silk, having a silvery luster, and is 8 to 9
feet in length.

In India it is supposed to be an introduced plant, native of the Congo basin of
tropical Africa, and is regarded by Dr. Watt as a jnte substitute. The fiber has
been much admired in India, but ett'orts to introduce it into cultivation (in Bombay)
resulted in failure. A very full account of the experimental cultivation of M. capitata
in India appears in the Die. Ec. Prod. Ind,, Vol. V.

In Bernardin's list AT. radiata {Faronia sessilijlora) is mentioned from Trinidad, and
M. urens from Jamaica, while the " diiimaure," a species with yellow dowers, found
in the Antilles, is called M. orata.

Malaguete (Braz.). Xylopia scricea.

Ma-lo (Pigi). See BrouKSoneiia.

Maloo climber (Ind.). See llaxldnia racemosa.

Mallo-w.

The common mallow of India, Malva sylvestris. The musk , Hihiscus ahelmos-

chus ; the swamp rose , U. moschciitos : the Indian , Ahuiilon aricenuo';

marsh , Alfhaa o^ciuulis; velvet , Laratera inaritima. Mallow is also

a collective name applied to the family of malvaceous plants.

Malva sylvestris.

Exogen. Malracea'. Erect glabrous herb.

Native names. — Klmhaz (Bomb, and Arab.); llndmi (Beng.) etc.; maitre (Fr.).
Western temperate Himalayas; distributed to Europe, Siberia, and northern
Africa.

Bast Fiber. — Snon states that the fiber of M. sylvestris, M. rulundifolia, and jU.
crispa are widely utilized. M. peruviana is credited to Peru, and .1/. si/Ireslris to
Spain, Portugal, and Italy, as well as to India. Royle states that M. sylcestris abounds
in tiber.

Malvalisco (Braz.). See t^pharalcea.

234

USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

Malvaviscus arboieus. Wild ^VFahoe.

A genus of malvaceous shrulis native ot" tropical America and Mexico. Said to be
found in Mauritius.

Fiber. — A coarse Last, labeled Ciiil, secured from tbe Mexican ex;liibit, W. C. E.,
1893, was referred by Dr. Ernst to this species. Employed for native uses. Fiber 6
to 7 feet in length. Savorgnan states that it is an excellent textile material.

" Sprrimi'ii of the liber, Herb. Col. Univ.. N. Y.

Maniaki (Hawiiiiu See I'i2)fun(s.
Maiuillaria senilis.

A genus of Cactuecir for the most itart coniiued to Mexico. M.-senilis is also found

in I'eru, known as Maicha. Dorca
states that it produces a svirface
fiber, a kind of yellowish wool.
The revised name of this genus is
Cdclus.

Tbe genus is, in most instances,
readily distinguished I'rom its
allies by the lleshy stem, of which
tbe jilants solely consist, being
entirely covered with tubercles of
a teat-like form, giving rise to the
generic name, from uiamilla, a lit-
tle teat. These are disposed in a
series of spirals, each teat being
furnished at the top with a tuft of
radiating spines ])roceeding from
a kind of cusliion. ^f.puHiUa is a
very ])retty little spe<ies, growing
in crowded tufts usually of a hemi-
spherical shape. The mamilLe,
which are about the size of grains
of wheat, have little tufts of white
hairs between them and bear bun-
dles of spines, consisting of from
four to six straiglit stiff inner
ones and from twelve to twenty
outer ones like white hairs. {A.
Smith.)

M. coronaria, reaching 5 feet in
height, and M. clara. both Mexican
species, produce a ''white wool."
The filjer is more curious than
useful.

Mandgay (Bomb.), ^ee Bamhusa anoidindcea.
Mandua (lutl.). Eleusine conuana.
Manicaria saccifera. Tkoolie Palm.

Native xame. — Itussii.

A Brazilian palm inhabiting the tidal swamps of the lower Amazon, the individual
leaves of which often measure 30 feet in length. (See lig. 78.)

Each gigantic leaf of the Troolie palm, Manicaria saccifera, is really a shelter in
itself; and a few of these laid, without further preparation, so as to overlap like
tiles, make a perfect roof. Before corrugated zinc was introduce*! a large trade was

Flo. 78. — The Bussn piihii, Manicaria saccifera.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 235

carried, on between the Indians and tlie planters on the coast in those leaves, with
which to thatch bnildings on the sugar estates. {E. F. im ThurH.)

Structukal FirjER. — The tibrous spathes of this jialm are well adapted for use in
the manufacture of caps, mats, etc. They are also converted into bags, by simply
cutting round them near the bottom and pulling them off entire, afterward stretch-
ing them open as wide as possible without tearing. When cut down one side and
opened they supply a coarse but strong fabric, or kind of cloth.

J/, plnkviietii is a Guatemala species, represented, with the aliove, in the Kew Mus.
collection — not now, however, considered as distinct from the above.

Manila hemp (Phil. Is.). See Miiiia te.rtUis.

Manorrin. Chippewa Indians. Zizania (((/iiafiia.

Mao. In Jap., Cluua grass, lioehmeria ; in Hawaii, Gossypium tomen-
tosKin,

Maoutia puya. Wild hemp ; Pua hemp.

Syn. lioehmeria puya, and B. fniie.seen-s.
Exogen. Urticacea'. A shrub.

Native of tropical Himalayas, Assam Valley, Burma, Straits Settlements, and
Japan. Known iia poi, pooali, piiya, kyUiki, etc.

Bast Fiber. — Closely resembles the fiber of the Boehmerias and is prepared in
the same manner. ■'Fooah is principally used for fishing nets, for which it is admira-
bly adapted on account of the great strength of the fiber and its extraordinary
power of long resisting the effects of water. It is also used for making game bags,
twine, and ropes. It is considered well adapted for making cloth, but is not much
used in this way." (Foyle.) For further accounts see Royle, Fibrous Plants of
India; Watt, Die. Ec. Prod. Ind., Vol. V; Spon's Enc, Div. III.

Maraja (liraz.). See Bactris.

Marram, or Marum IIoll. (see AmmopMla).

Maranta.

Many species of the genus Maranta have been referred to other genera, but as their
fibers are unimportant the few to which I Hud references will be mentioned under
this genus. The species are chiefly natives of tropical America, though AT. arundi-
iiacea, which supplies the arrowroot of commerce, has been distributed to other coun-
tries. M. sanguinea (now Stromanthe sanguinea) is mentioned both in Bernardin's
Catalogue and in the Flax and Hemp Commission list, the fiber being (lescribed as 2\
feet in length. Fiber has also been produced from M. arundinacea. The split stems
and leaves of M. dichotoma (now CUnogyne dichotoma), an India species, are made into
mats to use as awnings. Maranta ohliqna (now Inchnosiphon obliqnus) is a native of
British Guiana. Spon states that the fiber is used by the Indians for making their
pegalls. See Ischnosiphon. Fig. 79 is M. aruHdinacca.

Marima colorada (Venez.), See Lecythis coriacea.

Marool (Ind.). See Sansevieria.

Marsdenia tenacissima. Rajmahal Creeper.

Exogen. Asclepiadacea' . Small climber.

Common and native names.— Rajmahal hemp (Ind.); Jiti and Chili (Beng.);
Muriird-dtil (Ceyl.); Tongtis (Hind). The Jetee fiber of Royle's Indian Fibers;
sometimes called the bowstring creeper.
India, throughout the lower Himalayas, Assam, and Burmah; Lower hills of
Bengal.

236

USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

Bast Finrij. — The J(fe(^ fiber of liidiii. The ])laiit is aluiiulaut in tlio Riijiii;iliiil
bills of India in dry and liarren places, and the fibers of the bark are employed for
making bowstrings by the mountaineers. "The fibers arc not only beautiful in
appearance, bnt strong and durable." In Dr. Roxburgh's tests of twine made from
jetec, he found that in the dry and wet states it bore a strain of 218 and 343 pounds,
when hemi> in the same states bore 1.58 and 190 pounds. More recent tests, however,
l)lace it below hemp in strength, but above it in elasticity. The fiber is ninch used
for making nets, and is not liable to injury by being kept in water.

Marsh grass, or salt iiiarsli j4i'iiss. Sparthm JH)i(e((.

Fig. l^.—Maianta anmdinacca.

Martynia louisiana. Devil's Horns.

8yn. Mto-ti/itia prubosciden .
Exogen. I'ldaliacew. Herbaceous shrub.

Nativk names. — Testa di Quaglia (It.). An allied species is known in Mexico
as Unguhis Dlaboli.
A Mexican plant, but found in the western United States. The species of this
genus are natives of tropical America. A starch is obtained from their tubers.

FiHKU. — The pods of Mariyiiia loidftidiia at maturity shed their fragile outer coat,
leaving an inner part of an exceedingly tougn, fibrous nature, black on the outside,
and with two slender, divergent hooked horns, commonly 4 to .5 inches, or rarely 12
inches, in length. These horns are easily split into thinner strands, and in this form
are used by several tribes of Indians in the southwestern United States to make the

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 237

black ornamental figures of tlieir finely woven baskets. (/'. I'. CnriUe.) See nniler
SaVtx Iimiandra.

Marul and Murva (Hind.). Sdusevierhi zci/Ianica.

Marzuolo (straw plait) (It.). See Trit'u-um.

Massette (Fr.). Typha anf/K.stif'olid.

Mastinazia spp.

I tind no reference to this geuns other than in the manuscript notes supplied by
Mr. Porca, of Lima, Pern. The Cdmona, M. cariotifolia, and the Chonia, M. cilinta,
are said to yield fibrous bark. Camona also given to an Iriartea.

Mata-mata (Braz.). Lecythis corlacea.
Matapalo (Peru). Ficun dendrocida.
Matondo (Afr.). See Brachystcyio.
Mats and matting.

For table of fibrous substances used for, see Economic Classification, page 32.
Mati (Viti). Wilstrdemiafcetida.
Matting, commercial.

Chinese and Korean, refer to Ci/perus tegetiformis ; Indian, Ci/perus eori/mbosus, C.
esciilentiis, C. tef/etitin ; Japanese, Ciiperus unUa)if> and Jnnciis effasus. The Tinnevelly
mattings of India are made from C. coryjnhosiis and <'. fcgcfinii, the former species
Ijeing tised in the finer kinds. Other species of rushes and sedges are also employed
in matting manufacture, but the above sjiecies are most commonly used.

Maiiritia flexuosa. The Eta or Ita Palm.

Endogen. rahnn-. Palm tree. 80 to 100 feet.

Native of Brazil, but found in British Guiana and other regions of South America.
Abundant on the banks of the Amazon, Rio Negro, and Orinoco rivers. Kuo^vn in
Venezuela as the Moriclie palm. The Aijuajv of Peru. The sap yields a palm wine,
the leaves supply another beverage, and a sago is prepared from the soft inner por-
tion of the stem. The tree often inhabits swampy ground liable to inundation.
(See fig. 80.)

STRUCxrRAL Fiber. — This is prepared from the outer skin of the young leaves,
the strips from which dry in a thread-like form. It is known as Tihisiri fiber iu
British Guiana, where it is used by the natives for hammocks and general cordage
purposes. According to E. F. im Thurn, "the leaf when fully developed is fan-
shaped, but it first appears folded in a spike, which springs from the very center of
the plant. It is from this spike that the fiber is obtained. Fiber taken from the
spikes of old idants is not nearly as strong as that taken from young plants. Each
leaf or spike is taken ofi' singly; a sharp, dextrous rub at the top se])arates the outer
skin, and the whole is then torn ofi". This is the fiber, the rest is waste. It is fur-
ther prepared by boiling, drying in the sun, and twisting into strings. The fiber
from a dozen long spikes is sufficient to make a large hammock. Both Tihisiri and
Croiria fiber are twisted into string in a very simple and ingenuous way, but one
which would be impossible to all except people such as these Indians. A proper
number of parallel fibers are held firmly by one end in the left hand, the remainder
of the fibers resting across the naked right thigh. The palm of the right hand is
laid across the fibers, and therefore parallel to the thigh. By a very rapid downward
and sideward motion of the right hand, followed by a slight backward motion, the
fibers are rolled downward along the thigh and become spirally twisted. The single
straw is used for hammocks, three strands for bowlines, and three of the triple cords
(sometimes nine strands) for making hammock ropes."

23S

USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

In Venezuela the fiber of tlais palm, known as Morichc, is used for making reins
and cordage. "In fineness, strength, and durability tlie fiber is surpassed by that
obtained from Astrocaryum vuJgare'' (8pou). Among the products of this palm
exhibited in the Kew Mns. are fans and baskets and a lauoe sail from British
Guiana, the latter made from central portions of the leaf stalk; also sandals made
from the leaf stalk by the Wascari Indians. "The most useful fiber to the natives
of British Guiana." {(/iiclch.)

* Specimim.—\J. S. Nat. Mus.

Mauritia vinifera. The Muriti 1»alm.

A Brazilian species, known also as th<^ win<^ pahn of Para. It is a tall, graceful
species with a cylindrical trunk. The wine or juice "is obtained by cutting down

^^^t^m^^^^'

Fig. 80.— The Ita i>aliu, Mauritia
fh'xuosa.

Fk;. 81. —Tilt' Carana palm, Mauritia
actileala.

the tree and cuttiug into the trunk several holes about 6 inches square, three inches
deep, and about G feet apart. In a short time these Indes become filled with a red-
dish colored li([uid which forms a very agreeable drink. On the Rio Negro the hard
outside portions of the trunk are used for building purposes." (Off. Guide Kew Mus.)
It also produces a pulp which, when boiled with sugar, is made into a sweetmesit.
The young leaves and cuticle of the leaves form the ra'w material for the manufac-
ture of hammocks and mats. In the handbook Notes of the State of Para, W. 0. E.,
1893, the fiber is called huriiy, and is said to be used for hats, baskets, .nnd cordage.
Another species is noted in Brazil. M. aculeaia, which 'produces fibers of admirable
fineness, resistance, and brilliancy." (See fig. 81.)

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 239

Mauritius hemp (see Fnrcraa gigantea).
Maurvi (Iiid.). Tliiead of Sansevieria zeylanica.
Mauve. French name for Malra sylretitris.
Ma-'we'wel (Ceyl,). See Cahonxs rudi'iitum.
Maximiliana regia. The Ixa.ta Palm.

Kmlogen. I'almn . I'nhn tree, 100 feet.
One of the noble palms of the Amazon, which is crowned with leaves 30 to 40 feet
long. The woody spathes are so hard they will stand iire when filled with water,

^ijMX^ —

Fig. 82. — The liiajii palm, MaxiiniUnna ri'tjia.

and are sometimes employed as cooking utensils. Tliey are also used for transport-
ing mandioca. There are many other nses of the tree in the domestic economy.

.Structural Fibf:i:. — Extracted from the leaves by the natives and used in the
manufacture of all kinds of native cordage, hats, etc.

Mazool (Iiul.). See Sansevieria roxhiirghiana.

Mbocaya (Arg. Ivep.), See Acroconiia tolai.

Mecomba. (Apr.). See Jiracfiystegia.

Megasse (see Bagasse).

240 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

Meibomia. See Desmodium.

Melic grass, purple. MoUnia c(vruJen.

Melaleuca armillaris. Swamp Tea Tree.

Exogen. Miirtareir. Small tree or shrub.

The genus is reiuesented by several species, for tlie most jiart iiativ«'s of Australia
and the Indian Ocean. The above species abound in Tasuuinia.

Bast I'ihkr. — The friable lamellar bark can be converted into an excellent blot-
ting paper — perhaps, also, filtering paper. It is Avorthy of record that many species
of this genus yield a very similar bark, formed of innuuierable membranous layers.
The most gigantic species of the genus, Melaleuca leucadendroii, which is common in
south Asia and tropical Australia, exhibits such a bark, which thus may be turned
to account. {Dr. Ferd. von Mueller.)

Melilotus alba. White Sweet Clover.

COAIMOX NA.MKS. — Also Called white melilot and bokliiira clover.

Of Eastern origin, it is now found in Asia, Europe, and North America ; comnum in
many portions of the United States, where it may be recognized by its sweet odor,
particularly when cut.

SritucTURAi^ FiBKK. — This can scarcely be called a fiber ]>]aut, though specimens
of fibrous substance, extracted from its dead stalks, liave been sent to the Depart-
ment. As the stalks souietimes grow to a height of 6 or 7 feet (in Alabama) the
fiber on the old stalks in the field blowing in the wind are sure to attract attention.
It might answer for paper stock, though there are many better i)lauTs for the purpose.
Bernardin also enumerates the species in his list.

Melocanna bambusoides.

A species of bamboo found in India. Its stems are sometimes beaten into liber for
various uses. I'or some of the uses of bamboo see Jiambii^a.

Melochia arborea.

Syu. M. reliitiiKi.

Exogeu. Stcrculiacetv. Shrub or small tree.
Andaman Islands, Malay Archipelago, and Burmah, hotter })arts of India, etc.
Fiber.— Tliis is known as hethm-da. It is a bast fiber, which when twisted into a
stout cord is Avoven into the turtle nets used by the fishermen of the Andaman
Islauds. yU'att.)

Melodinus monogynus.

A species oi' A pocijnaeetr found in Sylhet, which according to Roxburgh, produces
a strong, tough fiber. He notes that iu steeping the stems in a stream it killed the
fish. Watt says the fiber is used as a substitute for hemp.

Merulius lachrymans (see under Volyporus).
Mesta pat (Iliiid.). See Hihiscns cannabinus.
Metl ( Yuc). Maya uame for the Agaves.
Metroxylon sagu. The Sago Palm.

Syn. SdgitH rnmjyhii.
This genus of palms comprises six species, natives of the Malay Archipelago, New
Guinea, aud Figi. M. Kagii, a native of the Moluccas, Suuiatra, and Borneo, supplies
a ])art of the s.igo of commerce, which is extracted from the jiith. It has been called
"a plant between a fern and a palm." (See fig. 83.)

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE.

241

Structural Fiukr. — Savorgiiau states tLiit tbo 2)laiit "is much sought lor the
beauty of its fiber, from which is manufactured chith as well as very iiuo luattings.
A delicate texture is uiadc I'roui the fdaiueuts drawn from the youug, undeveloped
leaves.

Mexican fiber. Aijare Jietcracantha.

Mexican grass, l^ame sometimes given to sisal liemj).

Mexican whisk. Epicampes macrourn.

Miyanioe (Buriu.). See Andropoyon .sqKarronK.s.

Fk;. 83.— TIio Sago palm, Metroxylon smju.

Milk ■weed. The Swamp, Asclepias incarnata. See also Asclepias
syriaca, the common .

Minbaw (Burm.), Canjota urens.

Mirganji jute (see Corchorus).

Miriti palm. Same as Mnriti. See Mauritia.

Mitsumata (Jap.). See Edf/ctcorthia.

Mocou-niocou. Galadhim f/iganteiim.

Mod, Mad, and Mdda. (Iiul.). Coco.s nvri/era.

Mohii (Hopi). Yucca gJauca.
12i>47— No. 0 16

242

USEFUL P^IBER PLA^;TS OF THE WORLD.

Molinia Ccerulea. Purple Melic Grass.

Also known in England, of wbicli country it is a native, as lilue moor grass. Has
been proposed for pajjcr making, and samples of paper stock niKl finished jiajier made
from it are shown in the Kew Mns. It was shown in the Belgian section of the
Vienna Exposition as a wrapping for Limburger cheese.

Monguba (Braz.). tSee Bontbax iHi(u(/uba.

Fl(i. S4.— T,o;if of Monslera ihliriota.

Monkey bass (Braz.). Leopold iiiia pi<iss<iha.
Monkey bread tree. (See Ado ii so it to.)
Monkey pot. Lecythis oJlorio.
Monstera deliciosa.

Dorca includes this in his manuscript list of the fibers of Peru, the roots having
been used in that country for lopes. The plant is better known, however, for its
fruit. I'requently found in greenhouses in this country. (See fig. 84.)

Moonja (Ind.). See Socchartim munjo.
Moorva, or Moorgavee (Ind.) See JSanserieria.
MooseTvood (IJ. S.). See ]>irca poluntris.
Mora hair. Tillondsio.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 243

Moraea robinsoniana.

Au Iris-like plant, knowu as the wedding llower of Lord Howe's Island. Christy
mentions that its leaves, which are 5 feet long and 3 inches broad, yield a line liber
by boiling.

Moriche fiber (Yeiiez.). Maiiritia Jiexuosa.
Morning glory fiber. (See Tpomcea.)
Mororo (Braz.). See Banhinia.
Morus alba. White Mulberry.

Exogen. Moracea'. A tree, 40 to 50 feet.

Said to bo a native of China and the north of India. Its leaves are used as food
for silkworms, together with M. indica. M. mulHcaidis is the variety of M. alha
Avhich was planted so largely in this country luany years ago at the time of the
"multicaulis fever," when an attempt was made to introduce silk culture into the
United States.

Bast Fiber.— The bark from twigs of M. alha and M. iiidira haxe been emi^loyed
for pai)er stock in China, and the twigs without maceration have been used in India
as a tie material. Savorgnan says that the plaut has become naturalized in south-
ern Europe, where it is kuown as Gelso reale, or royal mulberry, and is suitable for
paper as well as cordage. M. nigra, cultivated chiefly for its fruit, gives a good fiber,
said to have been used for cordage.

Morus rubra. Eed Mulberry.

CoM.MON NAMES. — Red mulberry, black mulberry, Virginia mulberry, Miirier
sauvage. (Fr.)

Western Xew England and Long Island, New York, west through southern Ontario
and central Michigan to Dakota, eastern Xebraska and Kansas, south to Biscayne
Bay, Florida, and the A'alley of the Colorado Eiver, Texas. Wood used in fencing,
for cooperage, etc., and in the South for boat and ship building.

Bast Fiber, — The fiber of this species is much used by the Indians for the manu-
facture of ropes, mat&, and baskets. A good cloth is made from the liber of the
young shoots. Specimens of the bark and fiber of this species were sent to the
Department from Missouri, prepared experimentally by Henry Koenig, Both twigs
and sprouts were used., the former giving the best fiber. Only interesting from the
botanical standpoint.

Mound lily (Austr.). Yucca f/loriosa.

MoTvana (Afr.). Adunsonia dujitata.

Mucuja (Braz.). ^qq. Acrocomia la.siosjxiflta.

Mucuna (I>raz.). Common uauie of 2Iucnn<i urciiH.

Mucuna urens.

A genus of leguminous plants found chiefiy in tropical Asia and America, though
represented in Africa and the Fiji Islands. "The plants of this genus are well
knowu to travelers in tropical countries from the exceedingly annoying character
of the seed pods, which are thickly covered with stinging hairs easily detached by
the slightest shake, and causing great irritation if they happen to fall upon ex])osed
parts of the body" (Treas. Botany, Y. 2). The species named, known as the
Mucuna in Brazil, furnishes a fiber for very strong ropes.

Mudar (see Calotropis aiyanien).

244 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

Muhlenbergia pungens.

Eudogcn. Graminew. A perennial grass, 12 to 18 inches high.
Common XAMES. — Black grama, Grama China; Native Hopi Indian name, Wiigsi,
from wiigti, "woman, sihii, flower, a satiric name.
Grows abnndantly in Nebraska, southward to New Mexico and Arizona, and along
the Colorado River above Fort Yuma. ''A rather rigid perennial, with lirm, sharp-
pointed leaves and open panicles. It has strong, creeping roots, and often does good
service as a sand binder. In the sand hills region of Nebraska it grows abundantly
around the borders of the so-called 'blow-outs,' preventing their extension and
assisting materially in restoring the turf. In some parts of Arizona Avhere it occurs
it is a valuable forage plant." (Scrihner.)

Structural Fiker. — "The Hopi women of Arizona use this grass as a brush, the
same bunch of grass serving a double purpose — with the stiff end they brush the
hair and with the more llexible tip end they sweep the lloor." (./. Walter Fewkvs.)

Muhuba-branca.

Native name of an uuidcntilied species of timber tree, .SO to 40 feet high, growing
on the banks of the Amazon. The bark is used for calking canoes. A reddish dye
is also obtained from the bark, used for coloring fishing lines.

Muka.

According to Roylc, a native name of New Zealand Hax fiber.

Mulberry.

The white , Morns alba ; the Indian , M.indica; the black , M.

n'ujra : the red , M. rubra; paper , Broussonetia papyrifera ; A'irginia ,

M. rubra.

Mummy cloth.

The linen of ancient Egyjit, employed as "winding sheets" for the deiid, hundreds
of yards sometimes being used to wrap a single body. Made from flax.

Munj grass or Munja (lud.). See Saccharum.

Muntingia calabura.

Exogcn. Tiliacew.

Habitat, tropical America. It abounds in the West Indies and South America,
where its wood is valuable for many purposes, and especially for making staves.
In Venezuela it is known as Majaguillo.

Bast Fiber. — Specimens were received from the Venezuelan exhibit, I'hil. lut.
Exh., 1876, prepared by Dr. Ernst, who state<l that its bark was sometimes used for
coarse ropes and cordage. Its bast is very soft and pliable, twists easily, and if used
in this manner, without attempting to separate or clean the fibers, is possessed of
ordinary strength. The fibrils are exceedingly fine and silky, so much so that the
bast, when broken, exhibits at the point of rupture the flo.ssy appearance always
seen at the raw ends of skein or embroidery silk. Separating the fiber would
undoubtedly diminish its strength. It is employed slightly in Santo Domingo for
cordage.

Muraro (Braz.). See BanJiinia splendens.

Murier. French for mulberry. See Morun.

Muriti palm (Braz.). See Manritia vinifera.

Muru-murii (Braz.). See Astrocaryum murumuru,

Muriiruni (see Mnriii, above).

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 245

Muruva-dul (Ceyl.). Marsdcnia ienacixshnn.
Musa basjoo. The Baxana of Japan.

Exogeu. ^fusavea'.

The species of this geuus abouml in the tropical and snhtropical regions of both
hemispheres, and supply the fruits known as the hanana and the plantain. The
genus includes one of the most important commercial fibers, the manila hem]*, J/.
iextilis, which is described in its appropriate place. M. hasjoo is cultivated iu Japan
where its filler is also produced connnercially.

Structural Fiber. — Beautiful examples were received from the Japan court, AV.
C. E., 1893, together with specimens of the native cloths made from it. The liber is
a light salmon iu color ; is 4 to 5 feet long, bright and lustrous, and possesses fair
strength. Regarding the specimens of cloth, I learn that the forms labeled " Yec-
higo cliijimi (a) and Olinaica jydfu (&) are used for summer dresses of the higher
classes of Japanese. Bashofn (c) is not used for cloth, but for ornamental bordering
of " Kdlemo," and in place of wall paper, etc."

Economic coxsidkratioxs. — In the descriptive catalogue of the exhibit it is
stated that the banana is only grown commercially in Okinawa prefecture, "though
it is widely distributed in the districts in the temperate zone where they are planted
for ornamenting gardens only, accordingly, the annual produce of the fiber is not so
great. The fiber is white in color and coarse to the touch. It is woven into cloth
known by the name " Hashlfu," which is highly esteemed for undershirts for sum-
mer, as it is lighter by about three-fourths to three-fifths of the weight of hemp and
flax, and does not stick to the skin when perspiring.''

Musa sapientum. The Common Banana.

This species and 2f. paradisiaca are, respectively, the banana and plantain of trop-
ical America, Asia, and Africa, in which countries they have been cultivated from
remote times, and where they are especially prized for their fruit. This article of
food is so well known, however, both in its fresh state and as plantain meal, that
its importance to the natives of the tropics need not he dilated upon here. These
species abound everywhere in tropical America, from Florida, in the United States,
through Central America and the West Indies to subtropical South America. "While
some writers have considered the banana and plantain as distinct species, the later
botanical authorities as a rule have accepted the species J/. sa2)ictitiim as eml)raciug
both forms. The number of cultivated races, however, which bear fruits differing
widely in appearance and quality is veiy large.

Structural Fiber. — The Department collection is rich in specimens of banana
fiber received in the i>ast few years from many localities, though I dd not know that
the fiber is at present produced in commercial (juantity anywhere in the three Amer-
icas. The fiber from the stalks of Florida-grown plants that I have extracted by
machinery is very weak. Specimens from farther southward are better, though still
do not apiiroach in strength the fiber of manila hemp. In Mexico and Costa Rica,
M. sapientum is known as pJatano, but in Venezuela, according to Dr. Ernst, M. para-
disiaca is known as the pJatano and M. sapientum as the guineo. In the New South
Wales Catalogue (Phil. Int. Exh., 1876), it is stated that "Musa sapientum, so gen-
erally planted in New South AVales for its fruit, yields a fiber second only iu value
of its kind to that of the manila hemp, which is obtained from Musa textHix."

Speaking of M. paradisiaca, Forltes Royle says there is no doubt that the large cul-
tivated plantain of India contaius a considerable quantity of strong fiber, in the
same way "that the yellow plantain does in Jamaica," and it seems worthy of inquiry
whether the wild and useless plantain growing at the foot of the Himalayas "may
not yield a stronger fiber than any of the cultivated kinds." A very full and com-
plete account of this industry is given in Simmonds's Commercial Products of the
Vegetable Kingdom by a corresiiondent iu Jamaica. The plantain may be considered
a valuable plant for i>aper making, and its fiber might possibly be extracted for this

246

USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

pnri)Ose alone at a considerable profit. Dr. Royle suggested utilizing the plant for
this purpose in India nearly forty years ago.

As to the strength of plantain fiber, experiments by Dr. Royle gave most satisl'ac-
tory re.sults. Fiber from ^ladras bore a weight of 190 pounds, while a specimeu
from Singajiore stood a strain of 360 pounds, and Russian hemp bore 190 pounds.
"A twelve-thread rope of (India) jdantain liber broke with 861 pounds, when a
single rope of pintiapiile broke with 924 pounds." Compared with lOnglish hemp and
manila (see experiments in tenacity, under head of Musn tejiilis), a rope 3^ inches
in circumference and 2 fathoms long, made in Madras in 1850, gave the follow-
ing results: The plantain, dry, broke at 2,330 pounds after immersion in water

twenty-four hours; tested seven
days after, 2,387; and after ten
days' immersion, 2,050. Manila
rope and English hemp dry, gave
■1,669 and 3,885 pounds, respec-
tively. Though common plan-
tain fiber is not possessed of the
strength of manila hemp, yet it
is fitted for many purposes of
cordage and canvas, and some of
the finer kinds for textile fabrics
"of fine quality and luster."

Economic considerations. —
The correspondence with the De-
partment regarding the utiliza-
tion of banana iiber in Florida
has been (juite large, many speci-
mens have been sent in, and inter-
esting statements regarding the
possible production of the fiber
have been made that I regret can
not be produced in this limited
space. In 1891 Mr. St. Hill, of
Trinidad, sent sjiecimens of both
forms of fiber to the Department,
and states that irom 5 to 6 iiounds
can Ite ])roduced from each stalk.
The stalks grow 8 to 9 feet high,
and 800 of them may l>e produced
on an acre of ground. Mtisa
parndiniaca grows 4 to 5 feet high,
produces 2 to 3 pounds of liber to
the stalk, 800 stalks to the acre.
It is the same as the plantain, except that it is loss in size and quantity, and is pre-
pared in the same way.

J. H. Hart, director of the Trinidad l>otanical Gardens, says that the fiber can be
prei)ared from the stems by any of the ordinary scra))ing machines now in use. The
chief difficulty with the extracting is the large percentage of water in the stem.

Extraction of the fiber. — Forty years ago or more the production of banana
and plantain fiber«must have been a considerable industry in .Jamaica. In the Com-
mercial Products of the Vegetable Kingdom, by P. L. Simmonds (London, 1854), is
given an exhaustive account of the cultivation, harvesting, and extraction of banana
fiber, furnished by a .Jamaican correspondent, from which it is gleaned that 100
pounds of stalk will give about 15 pounds of fiber, net weight, and wlum a whole
tree furnishes 4 pounds of fil)er one-fourth of the quantity is derived from the stalks.
One hundred i)lautain trees can be crushed in twenty minu.tes with one horse, allow-

ri(i. 85. — The bauaua, or plantain, Mii.a sajiiriilinii,

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 247

iug live minutes for rest. After iTusliiiii;-, tlic filier was boiled to s(!])arate the <;luti'U
aud coloring matter, carbonate of soda and (juicklime being nsed as cliemical agents.
To make 3 tons of fiber a day it was necessary to have four boilers of 800 gallons
each, and to give 5 boilings in a day, which amounted to 1,650 pounds of net fiber
for each boiler, or 6,650 jiounds for the four l)oilers. About 300 pounds of soda were
required and a proportionate aniouut of quicklime. As the difiereut gr;ides of fiber
were i)ressed separately they were also kept separate in the process of boiling, the
lighter fibers requiring about six hours to bleach, Avhile the darkest retjuired fully
eighteen. A capital of $25,000 was required for carrying on the cultivation of the
plantain on au extensive scale, 18 tons of liber being produced on 5^ acres at a cost
of $870, or a little more than $48 per ton. From oflicial statements it would seem
that uo sucli industry has existed in Jamaica in late years, as it is said that 2,000,000
banana stems are cut down annually, after the fruit harvest, "without any attempt
being made to utilize the fiber they contain."

The Bulletin of the Royal Kew Gardens, for August, 1894, contains a valuable
summary of information relating to bananas and plantains, from which the brief
extracts'which follow have been taken:

"In Jamaica a series of experiments, undertaken by Mr. Morris in 1884, showed the
plantain fiber (Miisa sa})ie)ilum var. paradisiaca) was whiter and iiner thau ordinary
banana filier aud that it approached more nearly to the fine glossy character of ma-
nila hemp. A banana stem weighing 108 pounds yielded 25 ounces of cleaned fiber,
or at the rate of 1.44 per cent of the gross weight. A jilantain stem weighing 25
pounds yielded 7^ ounces of cleaned fiber. This was at the rate of 1.81 per cent on
the gross weight. A sample of fiber prepared from a red banana at Trinidad in 1886
was valued in London at £24 to £25 per ton. Usually, however, banana fibers are
not worth more than £12 to £15 per ton. They would only fetch even these prices
when there is a high demand for ' white-hemp fibers,' and there happens to be a short
supply of manila and sisal hemps.

"Mr. A. D. van Gon Netscher, when proprietor of plantation Klein Pouderoyen, on
the west bank of the River Demerara, in 1855, furnished the following interesting
particulars relative to fiber from the plantain : The experience of ten years on a
cultivation of from 400 to 480 acres in plantains has shown that: 1. On every acre
from 700 to 800 stems are cut per anntim, either for the fruit, or in consequence of
having been blown down by high winds, or from disease or other reasons. 2. The
planting of the suckers at distances of 8 feet apart has never been tried, but I am of
ojiiuion that if so planted and cut down every eight mouths, for the stem alone, an
acre would give from 1,400 to 1,500 good stems every cutting, or about 4,500 in two
years. 3. On plantation Klein Pouderoyen, after repeated trials, the plantain stem
on an average has been found to give 2^ pounds clean, and 1^ pounds vliscolored and
broken fiber, the latter only iit for coarse paper. This result, however, has been
obtained by very imperfect machinery. 4. The average weight of the plantain stem
is 80 pounds. 5. The stems can be transported from the field to the buildings for $1
per 100."

Banana fibers from Musa sapientum are shown in the Kew Mus. from the Anda-
man Islands, Jamaica, Mauritius, Ceylon, British Guiana, Madras, Australia. The
Jamaica samples cleaned by the late Nathaniel AVilson are of excellent (pi.ality. - A
sample from British (iuiaua was valued in 1892 at £25 per ton, butusnally the price
is much lower, and when other fibers, such as manila aud sisal hemps, are low, banana
fiber is practically unsalable.

Fiber extracted from the Abyssinian banana {Musa enscte) at Jamaica by Mr.
Morris yielded at the rate of 1.16 per cent of the gross weight. The fiber was some-
what weak aud dull lookiug ; it had none of the luster of the best plantain fiber, aud
it was valued in London at £12 to £14 per ton.

* Specimens of fiber and cloth, Mus. U. S. Dept. Ag. ; U. S. Nat. Mus.

Musa paradisiaca (see Musa sapientum).

248 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

Musa textilis. Manila Hemp. Wild Plantain.

Native of the Philippine Islands, where there are about 12 ditterent varieties of the
plant under cultivation. Spon states that the largest areas are grown in the provinces
of Camarincs Hud Albay, in the south of Luzon. Smaller areas are on the islands of
Samar Leytc, 'Jehu, and Mindaneo. Plants are said to he found in Borneo and Java.

Native and common names. — Ahaca (Phil. Is.); rissaiKjulan. (MalayJ; Manila
and Cebu hemps (English and commercial).

The Department made an effort to introduce this plant into Florida about 1890_
The seed was well distributed, but no reports were received further than that it
failed to germinate. Attempts to introduce the plant into the "West Indies have also
proved unsuccessful.

Structiral riBER. — The fiber is Avhitc and lustrous, easily separated, stiff and
very tenacious, and also very light, which is a great advantage when the fiber is
used for the rigging and running ropes of ships. Viewed microscopically the bun-
dles of fibers are A'ery large, but are readily separated into smooth fibers of even
diameter after the alkaline bath. The central cavity is large and very apparent,
the walls being of uniform thickness. The ends grow slender gradually and regu-
larly. The detached sections (cross sections) appear irregularly round or oval in
shape, and the central cavity is very open and prominent. As to tenacity, compared
with English hemp, it stands as follows: A rope of manila 3J inches in circumfer-
ence and 2 fathoms long stood a strain of 4,669 pounds before giving way, while a
similar rope of English hemp broke with 3,885 pounds. A second test of ropti If
inches in circumference, and the same length, gave 1,490 pounds for the manila and
1,184 pounds for the English hemp.

A large and valuable collection of abaca or manila hemp was received at the
Phil. Int. Exh., 1876, comprising a large portion of the fiber exhibit of the Philij)-
pine Isles. The (il)er is exhibited in difi'erent stages, as well as samples of abaca
cloth and the manufactures from it. Other samples were received from the Queens-
land exhibit, prepared by Alexander McPherson, as well as from the other interna-
tional exhibitions held since that time.

"While the hemp is called ahaca by the natives of the Philippine Isles, other names
are given to the different qualities of fiber, as handala, which appears to be the
harder and stronger outer fiber, which is used for cordage. The finer fibers of
the inner layer are called lujns, and are employed in weaving delicate fabrics, Avhile
the intermediate layers furnish the anpo:, which enters into the manufacture of the
web cloths and gauzes. The natives distinguish the several varieties of the plant
as follows: Ahacn hrara, or the wild ahaca, called by the Bicoles ayotai; the moun-
tain ahaca, which is used for making ropes, called agotar/ and amotjiiid; the xagnfj
of the Bisayas; the laqiiiH of the Bisayas, by whom the fibers of the original ahaca
are called lamot.

Uses of the Fiber. — The manufacture of manila hemp in this country is for the
most part confined to binding twine and cordage, ilr. Joseph Chisholm, a veteran
manufacturer of Salem, Mass., states that manila hemp began to be used exten-
sively in this country, in Salein and Bostou, in 1824 to 1827. In 1820 a sample was
brought to the first-mentioned city by John White, a lieutenant in the United States
Navy, on the brig Klicaheth.

The fiber is imported in bales of 270 pounds, costing at present about 4i cents per
pound; January, 1890, 7^ cents per pound. One New York manufactory used in
1879 41,366,710 pounds of this fiber, equivalent to 153,173 bales. While American-
manufactured manila goes into the rigging of vessels or is used on shipboard, it also
finds use for every purpose for which rope is employed. In regard to the capability
of the ahaca for the manufacture of fine fabrics, M. Perrouttel, a French botanist, in
the Anuales Maritimes et Coloniales du France, states that from the finer sorts of the
fiber tissues or muslins are made of great beauty, which are very dear, even in Manila.
He says: I had a number of shirts made from the muslin, which lasted me a very

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOCxUE. 240

long time, autl were cool mikI agreeable in the use. IJiit it is ospet-ially in Franco
that tissues of this material are best made and of the greatest beauty. They receive
all colors with equal perfection. Yells, crapes, neckerchiefs, robes, and women's
bats — all of great beauty and bigb cost, as well as of wonderful durability — are
among the manufactures from the fiber of ahaca. Besides these are Aarious articles
of men's wear, such as shirts, vests, pantaloons, etc.

CuLTiv.vTiox. — The cultivation of the plant is simple. In Alb.-.'y and Camarines
the finest growth is obtained on tbe slopes of the volcanic mountains, in open glades
of tlie forest, wliere shade falls from the neighboring trees. On exposed level land
tbe plants do not thrive so well, and in marshy ground not at all. The necessary
conditions seem to be shade and abundant moisture, with good drainage. Too rich
a soil tends to jiroduce luxuriant leaves with a diminution of tiber. In laying out a
new plantation use is generally made of the young shoots, which very qiiickly throw
up suckers from the roots. In favorable situations 10 feet is the usual distance
between the plants; in poor soil, 6 feet. During the first season weeds and under-
growth must be kept down ; afterwards the vitality of the plants serves to exter-
minate other growths. The forest shade also is no longer necessary, the leaves pro-
tecting the buds from the sun. In excei)tional instances the plants are raised from
seed. The ripe (but not overripe) fruit is cut otf and dried. Two days before sow-
ing the kernels are removed and steeped in water over night. Next day they are
dried in a shady place, and on the following day are sown in holes 1 inch deep in
fresh, unbroken, and well-shaded forest land, allowing 6 inches between the plants
and between the rows. After a year, the seedlings, then about 2 feet high, are
planted out and tended in the same way as suckers, care being taken to keep the
soil heaped up around the stem. The plants raised from suckers require four years
before producing fiber of any value; those raised from year-old seedlings need at
least two years. (Spon's Enc).

Extracting the Fiber. — The ahica is cut when 2 to 4 years old, just before its
flowering or fructification is likely to appear. If cut earlier, the fibers are said to
be shorter but finer. It is cut near the roots, and the leaA-es cut oft" just below their
expansion. It is then slit open longitudinally and the central peduncle separated
from the sheathing layers of fibers, which, in short, are the petioles of the leaves.

The iibrous coats, when stripped otf, are left for a day or two in the shade to dry,
and are then divided lengthwise into strips 3 inches wide. They are then scraped
with an instrument made of bamboo until only the fibers remain. When sulficiently
scraped, tlie bundles of fibers may be shaken into separate threads, after which they
are sometimes v.-ashed. then dried and picked, the finest being separated by women,
with great dexterity. After the fiber has been cleaned in this manner, it is ready for
the manufacture of cordage and for all purposes where a coarse fiber is employed.
The fine fiber, however, which is to be used for weaving, undergoes a still further
operation of beating, which is performed with a wooden mallet, which renders the
fiber soft and pliable, it having first been made up into bundles. The separate fila-
ments are then fastened together at their ends by gumming, it is wound into balls, and
is then ready for the loom. Sometimes it is dressed like flax, on a kind of hackle,
and afterwards washed many times in running water until perfectly free from all
extraneous matter, after which it is hung over poles or ropes to dry. Two men will
cut and scrape about 2."> pounds of the fiber in a day, the man that cuts the trees
transporting them, stripping the layers, and cleaning the scraped fiber, though it is
thought this is above the average. "From 1.50 to 200 trees are required to ])roduce
1 picul, or 140 pounds of fiber, or 3,200 trees for a ton of 2,240 j^ounds." Thus an
Indian prejjares only about 12 pounds of fiber per day, for which he receives his half
share, 18 cents, which is the value of 6 pounds of the hemp, "yet this insignificant
pittance suffices for the wants of himself and family." Spon states that a ])]antation
of mature shrubs will yield about 30 hundredweight of fiber per acre annually. For
further information relating to the fiber of this and other species of plantains and
bananas, see summary in the Kew Bulletin for August, 1894, previously referred to.

250 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

Musk mallcw (see ITihiscits abcbno.sclm.s).
iVIusk ochra. Hibi.scits nioncheutos.
Nai (Pers.). See Bamhusa arundinavea.
Naha (Ceyl.). See Lasiosiphon criocephaliis.
Nali and Nalela (Intl.). IlibLsciis canndbinns.
Nalika (Hijid.). Hibiscus vannabinus.
Nalita pat (Ind.). See Corchorns.
Nangka (Java). AriocarpKS.
Nangsi (Java). Boehmeria.
Nanat (Buvm.). Annnax saiiva.
Nannorhops ritchieana.

Endogeii. ralinii . Stemless gregarious sbrub.
ludia aiitl portions of Asia, where the phint is about 11 feet high. Dr. Watt iiieu-
tions that uiattings, fans, baskets, hats, ami slioes or sandals are made from the
leaves and leaf stalks. It \va8 once used as a material for a rope bridge across the
Jhelum, in place of miinj (Sacchanim), but ])roved an inferior sulistitute. "Scurf
from the bases of the leaves (surface fiber) is used as tinder for matchlocks."

Nape (Taliiti). Cocas nucifern.

Nar (Ind.)=Fragrant.

Nara-woel (Ceyl.). Nararelia.

Narainganji jute ( see ( 'ordi or us ) .

Naravali and Narvilli (liid.). See Cordia.

Naravelia zeylanica.

Exogen. lUinunctilacea .

Ascandent shrub of India, Ceylon, and otherregious, the stems of which are roughly
twisted into useful ropes.

Narel, naryal, etc. (Ind.). Cocos nucifera.

The Die. Ec. Prod. Ind. gives over 100 vernacular names of the cocoanut, among
which are ndriel (Hind.); ndrilcd (Beng.); naliyer and naryal (Guj.); naril, naural
(Bomb.); ndralmddandinnhadiMnT.); narikadam (Tel.) \ narjil (Avah.); nargil CPevs.);
nur (Mysore) ; ndri-kera (Sans.) ; etc. ; others are formed from totally different roots.

Narnuli (Ind.). See Cordia angnsti folia.

Neigella cloth. Fabric from sunn liemp, Crotalaria Jitncca.

Nelumbium speciosum. The Sacred Lotus.

This aquatic herb, with rosy, red, or white flowers, abounds in Africa and Asia.
It Is found in all parts of India.

Bast Fiher. — The long stalks of the lotus yield a sort of yellowish-white fiber,
which is used principally for the wicks of sacred lamps in Hiiidi'i temples; and the
Hindu doctors are of the opinion that the cloth prej>ared from this fiber acts medic-
inally as a febrifuge. (Die. Ec. Prod. Ind., Vol. V.)

Nepal paper plant. Daphne cannabina.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUEc 251

Nepenthes distillatoria. riTCiiKR Plant.

Exogeu. Xcpenthacea: Evergreeu xmdersbrub.

There are iil)out 20 species of this geims, natives of Borneo, Sumatra, and the
Indian Archipelago, X. dintillatoria being found in Ceylon. The pitchers of this
species are partly tilled with water before they open ; hence the specific name. In
Ceylon it grows in great abundance in wet low country, particularly where the Avet
ground has a sandy bottom. The plants trail over trees and bushes.

Woody Fiber. — This is called ''one of the most useful cordage plants of Ceylon."
The trailing stems afford cords known by the native name handura-wel. "It is used
very largely in building fences, walls, and sometimes in fixing the rafters of native
cottages. In the manufacture of basltets it plays an important part, its pliability
rendering it extremely easy to manipulate.'" (Handbook of Ceylon, W. C. E., 1893.)

Nesselhanf. German name for Urtica spj).
Nettle.

The nettles may be separated into the stinging and stingless forms ; Urtica is an
example of the former, BoehmcrUi of the latter. Other genera of nettles are Girard-

inia, Laportea, Urera, etc. The fever , Laportca crenulata ; gigantic of

Australia, L. (jhjas ; of India, Celtis caucaska or aatitraUs ; The Nilghiri , (ilrard-

inia palmata ; the stinging of Europe, Urtica dioca ; of the United .States, U.

grcuilis ; the stingless , common name of the China grass and ramie plants,

Boelimeria nivea and teiiacissima.

New Orleans moss (see Tillandsia).
Ne^w Zealand flax (see Phormium tenax).
Neyanda fiber (Ceyl.). See Sansevieria guineensis.
Ngutunui (ISTew Zea.). See Fhormium.
Nidularium (see Karatas).
Niggi (Ind.). Daphne cannabina.
Nilghiri nettle (see Glrardinia palmata).
Nin (Hawaii). Cocos nucifera.
Nipa fruticans. The Nipah Palm.

Eudogen. I'almw. .

Portions of India and the Andaman Islands, in the river estuaries and tide lands.
Dr. Watt states that the leaves are used for thatching houses and for mattings.
Hats and cigar cases are made of the fronds. The palm has other economic uses, as
for food, spirits, etc. Cigarette wrappers are made of the leaves, and commonly
used in Malacca.

Nipah palm (see the preceding).
Niyanda (Ceyl.). See Sansevieria guineensis.
Noix d'Areca (see Areca catechu.)
Nolina spp.

The plants of this genus resemble those o{ Dasi/Urion, the leaves being long and
narrow, and finely serrated on the edges. They aliound in the Southwestern United
States where the Yuccas are found most common.

Structural Fiber. — ''X. terana, X. lindheimerlana, and X. microcarpa, of the South-
west, all have abundant narrow leaves, strong and flexible, much used by Mexicans

252

USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

for thatching, hasketry, mattiug, and brooms; I <lo not know that the separated
fiber hasevcr ))eeu examiued" (Dr. llavard). In the Dejiartnient collection the genns
is represented 1>y a single species, N. microcarpa, the leaven being verj^ slender and
fibrous.

See Anona reticulata.
Sec Stercxlia rillosa.

Nona (Beng.
Oadal (Iiid.).
Ochroma lagopus. Corkwood Tree.

Exogeu. SterculiaccAV. Tree, 40 feet.
West Indies, Central and South America. Is known as liaha in Spanish-speaking
countries. The soft, spongy wood of this species is used in .lamaica as a substitute

for corks, and as lloats for fish-
ing nets.

Surface Fiheu. — The fruit,
or seed pod, whicb is about a
foot in length, contains a A'ege-
table silk, or silk cotton, that
may be used in stuffing pil-
lows and the like. Five speci-
mens of this substance were
exhibited in the Venezuelan
and Costa Rican courts, W. C.
E., 1893. The fiber is an ocher
red in color, is very coarse and
of little strength, though it
might, if easily obtained, be
useful for mattings and cord-
age reiiuiring little strain.

Ocimum basilicum.
SwiiKT Basil.

A common herb of India,
grown for its seeds. " It is cul-
tivated to a small extent in the
western portion of the Hoogiily
district on account of the strong
fiber it yields for ro])e mak-
ing." (Spon.) Doubted by Dr,
Watt.

Ocotea sieberi.

A genus of Lauracew, chiefly
large trees inhabiting tropical
America. This species, former-
ly Ori'odaphnc cerniia, is found in Mexico and portions of South America. In Trini-
dad it is known as Hois ceip. "The iiber is very strong, stands water well, and
would be good for twine making. A tree will produce 2 to ;{ pounds of fiber 4 to G
feet long." {St. mil.)

Odina ^vodier.

A species o( Aiiacardiacew, a tree 40 to 50 feet, which grows in the hotter jjortions
of India. The bark yields a coarse cordage fiber.
* Sjiechncn. — ]>ot. Mus. Harv. Univ.

Fig. 1

-The Jiacciibii, (Kiiuciiipits hacaba.

Oelta kamal (Iiid.). See Ahroma augusta.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE.

253

OSnocarpus bacaba. The Turu Palm, or Baccaba.

There are six or se\en 8i)ecie8 of this gcuus of Brazilian palms, the plants ahouud-
iny chielly on the banks of the Amazon and Orinoco rivers. They are lofty trees,
with smooth, straight stems, crowned witli a cluster of pinnate leaves. The above
species yields a Piassaba-like fiber. In some i^arts of British Guiana, where the tree
is known as the Turu palm, the leaves are used for thatching. (E. hataua is found in
the State of Para, where it is said '"to furnish the strongest ropes for the navy."'
(E. distichus is an allied species, mentioned by Orton, and Kitlerpe {(KiiDcdrpns) acu-
minata is the Anouillo of Costa Rica.
Several of the species yield a color-
less oil, wliich is nsed to adulterate
sweet oil in Para. See figs. 86 and 87.

Oetan (Malay) = wild, or per
taining to forests.

Oil Palm of Africa. El wis
guineensis.

Oi-moi (Cliiua). Jute. See
CorchorUs.

Oiselle hemp (see Hihucus
sabdariffa).

Okra and Okrho (see Hibiscus
esctdentK.s).

Olona fiber (Hawaii). See
Toiichardia.

Op-nai (Burin.). Strcblus
asper.

Opuhe (Hawaii), See Urera
sandivicensis,

Opuntiaspp. Prickly Pear.

The prickly pears form a large
genus, confined to the American
continent, though distributed to
manj' other countries. O. iwlijcan-
tha is the species most common in
western United States, while 0. linmifnsa is found in Florida. O. dUlenii, a South
American species, has been noted as a possible fil)er i)lant in India, but "the sam-
ples of fiber shown at the Colonial and Indian exhibitions were pronounced worthless
by the paper makers who examined them." {Dr. Watt.) The experience of the writer
with the pricklj' pear cactus in Florida leads to the suggestion that the mere gather-
ing of the material would be a costly operation.

Oreodoxa regia. Eoyal Palm.

Fndogen. Palma;. A noble palm, GO to 90 feet.

The magnificent palm is met with in certain localities in Florida, chiefly "Little
and Big I'alm Hummocks," 1.5 and 25 miles east of Cape Romano, and also on Elliott's
Key. Grows in the West Indies, where it is known as Palma Real. The genus
Oreodoxa includes six species of graceful palms indigenous to tropical America.

Stkucturax. Fibek. — Not used in Florida for any purjiose; (juite rare. Dr. Parry,

^^iiif^tX/t*^*

The Patdwa, CEnoearpim bataita.
old trt-fs.

Touug and

254 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

who hrought the museum specimens from Santo Domingo, says the large sheaths of
the leaves supply material for thatching and lining the sides of houses. It is also
used for lloor matting and coarse Itaskets. The external ring of hard woody liljers
on the main stem is i>re8sed out into thin sheathing boards. The fruit of the species
is in common nse on the island for feeding hogs and cattle. Dr. Smith, in the Treas-
ury of Botany, mentions 0. ohracm, the West Indian cabbage palm, which some-
times attains a height of 100 feet. The semicylindrical portion of the leaf stalks are
formed into cradles for negro children, and the inside skin peeled off while green
produces a kind of vellum, which will take ink.

Orme d'Amerique (Jam.). See Guazuma.

Orthanthera viminea.

Exogen. Aselepiadacew. A shrub.
This plant, belonging to the milk-weed fannly, grows near the foot of the Hima-
layan Mountains, its long, slender, leafless, wand-like stems, 10 feet or more in length,
furnishing a bast fiber of remarkable tenacity, suitable for rope making. "In Sind
the uusteeped stalks are made into ropes for Persian wheels, a iiur]>()se for which
they are admirably adapted as they do not rot readily Irom moisture." {Dr. Watt.)

Ortie blanch, etc, (see Boehmcria iiirea).
Oryza sativa. Common Kice.

Endogen. Craminea', A grass.

The rice plant of commerce is supposed to be of Asiatic origin, though it is said to
have been found, apparently in a wild state, in Soutli America, As is well known,
rice is the principal food of the laboring classes of China, India, and the Indian
Archipelago, and forms the entire food of many people. As it is a marsh plant, it
requires flooding with water, when under cultivation, to produce the best results.
In this country it is grown as a food plant, chiefly in the lower pine belt, extending
from 80 to 100 miles inland from the coast, from Virginia down along the Atlantic
and Gulf coasts. "Tlie plant was proliably introduced into the United States about
the year 1693, by Thomas Smith. It is said to have been grown successfully in Eng-
land, Germany, and even in the colder parts of Siberia.'' (Prof. Milton TVliiiiicy.)

FiHEii. — Its straw is chiefly used as a fiber product in Eastern countries. In the
Japan exhibit, W. C. E., 1893, there was a very full series of samples of rice straw,
rice-straw pulp and paper, and rice-straw plait, the latter made by inmates of the
prison at Yamaguchi. It is worthy of note that this l)y-product in .Japan amounts
to not less than 15,270,000 tons annually. It is utilized in various ways, such as in
bags for keeping and transporting cereals, root crop.s, etc., for nuiking various kinds
of ropes and cordage, mats, '' Mino" or rain coats, sandals known as " Zori" and
"TVaraji," thatching roofs, making summer hats and other straw work. It is also
largely used both as fodder and litter for horses and cattle.

"It has recently been chiefly consumed in manufacturing straw pulp, which,
mixed with other kinds of fibers, is largely used for manufacturing i)rinting paper.
Until a few years ago, nearly all printing paper used for newspapers, journals, etc.,
was imported from foreign countries, but at present almost all demands are sup-
plied with the homcnuule article, and there is every ho])e that in future, it may be
exported to foreign countries, on account of its clieajiness and the case of obtaining
the materials." Str.'iw plait is also made in .Tapan f)om l)arley straw (see Hordrnm).

Rice straw does not appear to be used iu India, and little progress has been made
toward its employment for any purpose in that country. Indeed, Dr. Watt states
that the straw and roots are too valuable to the cultivators to offer for sale, as they
are generally left to enrich the soil for the next crop.

Osiers (see Salix).

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 255

Oteri (New Guiu.). Coeos micifcra.
Oulemari (Fr. (xuiau.). See Covratori.
Ovao (Taliiti). Wilcstroemia fcetida.
Ozoniuni auricomum (see under Fames).
Paat, and Pat (Iiid.). Jute. See CorcJiorus.
Fachira alba.

This plant is the best known representative of a troiiical American genus of Sier-
cuViacen', allied to Adansoiiia, the baobab tree of Africa. The fniit is an oval, woody
single-celled capsule, with a number of divisions and containing numerous seeds,
covered more or less with down or seed hairs, forming a head of vegetable wool.

FiHKR. — These plants yield both bast and surface libers, the former in the bark,
the latter in their seed Aessels. P. alba is a Xew Granada species that is said to
"furnish the entire country watli cordage, both strong and durable."

Among other species may be mentioned P. harrigon, Panama, the seed hairs of
which are used to stuff pillows and cushions. P. insigvis is a small West Indian form
mentioned as a fiber plant in the Flax and Hemp Commission list. Savorgnan enu-
merates P. aquatica from Martinique. "Fiber from the bark used for fishing nets
and ship cables, and wadding is made from the down of the seeds."

The Mexican fiber known as Majagua clavellina is said by Dr. Ernst to be produced
from P. fastuosa, referred to by Oliva in La Naturaleza, v. 89, as Carolinea fastuosa.
The genus Carolinea was erected by the younger Linu;eus, but, l)y the law of jiriority,
botanists usually accept Pachira.

Pachyrhizus angulatus. Short-Podded Yam Bean.

This valuable economic plant is widely cultivated in the Tropics of both hemi-
spheres, and yields tuberous edible roots as well as pods. Like many other sjiecies
of the Leguminosi?, its stems are fibrous. The plant is known on the Fiji Islands as
Yaka or Wayalca, and from its twining stems a tough fiber is produced that is used
in making fishing nets. See Kew Bull., May, 1889. Compare DoJichos trUobus.

Facoa (Is. Reunion). Pandanus utilis.
Pcederia fcetida.

An Indian climbing plant, of the Bubiacen', which has recently attracted considera-
ble attention, as it yields a strong flexible fiT)er, silk-like in appearance. Indian
name, Bedolee siitta.

The plant could doubtless be cultivated; moreover the supply of wild plants
would not readily he exhausted, as on the plains, where they thrive best, the grass
is burned down aunually, and, during the rains, the roots throw up fresh shoots. The
proper time for collecting the plant is the cold or dry season ; during the rains the
fiber comes off" dirty and discolored. The stem is divided into sections, a joint occur-
ring at every 12 to 21 inches. The cut stems, while still greeu, are divided at the
joints, and the fiber is removed in the following way: The operator takes each sec-
tion in both hands, and twists it as much as possible, to disengage the fibers, having
first carefully stripped oft' all the bark of the stem. He then disengages at one end
enough of the fiber to take hold of, and gradually strips it entirely away. The proc-
ess would be too slow, laborious, and costly for commercial purposes. Machinery
has not yet been applied to it. Probabljr a pair of crushing rollers and a simple
scutching apparatus would snfiioe. (Spon.)

Paglia di capelli (It.) (Straw-plait). See Triticum.

Faina (Braz.) = Silk Cotton. See Bombax and Eriodendron,

25G USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

Palm fiber.

The princii)<'il palms from which fibt.T, or fil)rous material, has heeu obtained are

as follows: Assai , Euterpe editlis; Bamboo , Rapliia rinifera ; Betel-

uut , Areca catechu ; Booba {see Iriartea) ; Broom , AitaJea funif-

cra and Thrinax argetitca ; Bnsu , Mauicaria saccifera; Cabbage , Euteipe

oleracea; Cabbage of Australia, Livistona anstralis ; Carana , Maiiritia

carana; Carnauba, or Brazilian wax , Copernicia cerifera; Catechu ,

A>'cca catechu; Chusan , Trachycarpus fortunei ; Cocoauut , Vocoh nucif-

cra; Cokerite, or Kokerite , Maximiliana regia; Coquito , Juhaa specta-

hilis; Curua , Attalea spectaMViH ; Date , I'hanix dactijlifera; Doom, or

Doum , Hypliane thcbaica; Double cocoauut , Lodoicea calliiiyge;

Dragon's Blood , Dracana draco ; Fan , ChamaTops humUis, (see also Pal-
metto); Gebang , Corypha gehanga ; Goumti, or Gomuto , Arenga saccha-

rifera; Hemp . or Indian , Trachycarpus cxcelsus ; Eta, or Ita ,

Mauriiia flexuosa ; In , Astrocaryum acaule; Ivory ;— , Phylelephas macro-

carpa; Jamaica , Sabal hiaclhuriiiaua ; Jara , Leopoldinia j^'ilclira;

Jnpati , Eaphia tadigera; Macaw and Great Macaw , Acrocomia laaio-

sjiaiJia ai\d A. sclei'ocarpa ; Miriti , Mauriiia flexuosa ; Murumurii , Astro-

caryuvi mururmirii ; Nipah , Xipa frnticans ; Oil , Elwis gnineeusis ; Pal-
metto (see Sabal and Serenoa) ; Palmyra , Borassua flaheUifer;

Pashiiiba, or Paxiuba , Iriartea exorrliiza; Bataila , (Enocarpus ; Peach

, Guilielma apecioaa; Piassaba , Attalea fuuifera and Leopoldinia ptiassaha

(see Piassaba in Catal.) ; Pinang , Areca catechu; Raffia , Baphia ruffia;

Rattan , Calamus rotaug, C. rudeuium, and other species; Royal , Orco-

doxa regia; Sago , Metroxylon sagu (see also Sago in Catalogue); Silver

thatch , Thritiax argentea ; Talii)ot , Coryphanmhraciilifera ; Thatch ,

Sabal blaclburniana ; Tecnma , Astrocaryum iucuma; Tucum , J. rulgare;

"Wiue , Cocos biityracea aud Caryota urvns ; Wine , of Para, Mauritia

vinifera ; Zauora , Iriartea exorrhiza.

Palm lily, The tall (see Cordyline indivisa).

Palma real (W. Ind.). See Oreodo.ra rcf/ia.

Palmea (Mex.) Collective name for the Yucca group.

Palmet (see Prionium).

Palmetto.

The saw , Sereuoa serrulata ; the cabbage . SahaJ pahiidto : the African,

or Grin vegetal, (liamccrops humilis ; royal, Sabal umhraculi/cra ; silver

top , Thrinax argentea.

Palmite (Afr.). See Prionium.

Palmyra bass fiber, and Palmyra palm (see liornssus flahellifcr).

Palo de Balso (Peru). See Ochroma.

Palungoo (Tarn.). Hibiscus cannahinus.

Pameta. Florida vernacular for Palmetto.

Pampas grass (see Gynerium).

Pandanus utilis, et sp. div.

The genus Pandauus, or screw pines, embraces some 30 species or more, which
abound on the islands oi" the Indian Archipelago, the Mascarene Islands, India, China,
etc., and arc distributed to other countries. In the economic literature of American

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 257

fiber plants I liud no reference to the uses of these phints for fiher, though M. I?er-
nardin j;ives /'. sjj/ra/i's as a Jamaiean species, f^crew pines, however, are common in
conservatories.

Structural Fiuer. — P. ntilis, known in Mauritius as tlio Yacona, or Bacona, is
cultivated for the sake of its leaves, which are made into sacks for coftee, sugar,
and grain. The leaves are not cut till the thir<l year, and are regularly cropped
every second year afterwards. A plant will yield leaves enough for two large hags.
The leaves are prepared as soon as taken from the tree; the operation consisting
merely in splitting the leaves into fillets, which are three-fourths to 1 inch broad at
the base, but taper to a point. They are 3 to 4 feet in length. "One of them will
support the weight of a bag of sugar, or 140 p(mnds, without breaking." A jiiant
yields material for two sacks. In the South Sea Islands "the leaves are also made
into matting, baskets, hats, and thatch, and are used for cordage and other purposes.
The root fibers are much stronger than those from the leaves, and are occasionally
used for making cordage, and for admixture with jute in gunny bags." (Sjion.)

1'. odoratissimus : This species is found in India, the Straits Settlements, China,
Australia, and the South Sea Islands, known as the Caldera bush. Some of its
native names are Cadlii, Arab.; Kadi, Pers. ; Kendu, Bomlt. ; Faiidaiig, Malay; Keyd
and Kciki-leija, Beng. ; IVaeia leyiva, Ceyl., etc. Eegardiug the fibei', Dr. Watt
states that the leaves are composed of tough longitudinal, white, glossy fibers which
are employed for covering huts, making mattings, cordage, and in South India the
larger kinds of hunting nets, and the drag ropes of fishing nets. The roots also
are fibrous and are used by basket makers for binding. When cut into lengths
and beaten out they are very commonly used as brushes' for painting and white-
wa.^liing. "It is possible that this root fiber might l)c found suitable for brush
making as a substitute for bristles, a form of fiber which is now in great demand."
Both roots and leaves may be used as paper stock. (See fig. 2, PI. IX.)

The Kew Mus. contains specimens from several species of Pandanus found in
Eastern countries and the isles of the Pacific. P. carivosus, Fiji, is represented by
baskets, fans, mats, etc., made from the leaves. The fibrous portions of the dru^jes
of /'. hram, an India species, are combed out into a kind of brush which is used
for removing dust from the feet. P. amarylUfoliiis, Java, supplies, in its leaves,
material for sleejiing mats; in Ceylon chair mats are made from P. hitmilis, and the
leaves of P. houUetii, Siam, are made into other forms of mats. Other species fur-
nish material for scrubl>ing Itrushes in Burnuih, and a native dress is shown from
Polynesia made from the leaves of an unnamed species. The most notable species
are named above

Pangane hemp. See Sansevieria hirlcii.

Pangara (Ind.). See Erythrina indica.

Pani grass, or Panni (Pauj.) (see Andropoijon squarrosm).

Panicled acacia (see Acacia leucophUva).

Panicuni myurus. Camelote.

Endogen. Graminciv. A grass.

The genus Panicttm, which includes many of the fodder grasses .-ind millets, num-
bers over 800 species, some of which are well known in the United States. Some of
them are coarse forms. Their common names are legion. They are not fibrous in the
sense of yielding a textile, but many of the species have been employed by natives
in the manufacture of objects of domestic economy.

Panicum mi/iino^ is found in Venezuela, known as Gamelote, or, more properlj', Came-
lotc, growing in extraordinary abundance on all the plains of the country. The fiber
is considered a useful grass for paper stock. In the Venezuelan Exhibition of 1883,
according to Dr. Ernst, specimens of the grass and pulp made from it Avere exhibited,

12247— No. 9 17

258

USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

and it was proposed to utilize the product of tlie vast Canielote lields iu paper iiiau-
iifacture. "NVliilo tlie. ]iaper made from this grass is not of fine <iuality, it is strong
and suitable for wrai)iiiug paper.

A grass fiber exhibited in the ^lexican Court, W. C E., 1893, under the name Zacala
dc Jlaiiati, is referred by Dr. Ramirez to P. rnts-aaUi (i\g. SS). "Zflca^f is a name given
to various speci. s of Panicnm: in an at i donbf less refers to its growing on the river banks

where the manatee can feed upon

it." (Lruxt.) The species is a
common weed iu this country.

The flowering panicles of i'oHi-
ciim acarij'crum (now Thyxauohrua
(((/yostix) are made into brooms,
which are much used throughout
portions of India for sweeping
houses. J'. majiuiKin, Guinea
grass, is an American introduced
rpecies, the fruiting spikes of
which are used for brooms in the
Seychelles, etc. See also rasjiahnn.

Paper.

The value of a paper juaterial
depends largely, next to supply,
upon the i)ercentage of pure cellu-
lose it contains. Esparto grass is
one of the best substances ibr paper
because of the high ]»ercentag(' of
line iibrousor cellular tissue which
can be obtained from it. Five
grou])s of pajx'r nuiterials are
recognized in this work : 1. The
spinning libers — («) in the form of
waste Ironi textile industries, or
as secon<l ([ualities; (h) the same
iu the form of rags. 2. The soft
liasts. 3. Palm-leaf fiber, etc.
•1. The grasses. .">. Woody fiber, or
the natural wood of trees reduced
to cellulose. SceLinHm,(!ossyj)him,
Corchorus, Edgcirorthia, Pronssonctia, Serciioa, Stipa, Pamhiisa, Zea, and the (h-aminea;
generally, Pinus, Pirca, Abies, Popidun, and other genera in this work. See, par-
ticularly, Picea manana, under which statements are made regarding the Avood pulp
industry.

Paper, Ancient (sec Cyperxs papi/rtis).

Paper birch (see Betula).

Paper mulberry (see Bronssonctid impyrifera).

Papinjay (see Luffa a'ffi/ptiaca).

Fig. 88. — Barnyard grass, Panicum crus-ijnlli.

Papyrus, of the ancients (sec ('upeyus pupiirus; —
sxjriavus).

Paritane-wha. Xew Zealand flax of tlieliigli regions.

Paritiuni elatunx (see Hibiscus clatits).

of Sicily, C.

See Fhormiiim.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 259

Parkinsonia aciileata. Jerusalem Thorn.

Exogen. Leguminosw. Spiny shrub.
This species is found in the West India Islands; introduced into all tropical coun-
tries, and in the hotter regions of India emjiloyed as a hedge plant. Its fiber is
white, but short and brittle. JNIight be grown as a i)aper plant.

Parrotia jacqueniontiana.

A sliriib of the llamamclidaayr, ibund in northwest Himalayan district of India, the
strong fibrous twigs of which are "used in the Pan) a b for binding loads, nuxking
baskets, and very largely for constructing the rope or twig bridges of the Himalayan
rivers." (Ih: Wat}.)

Parsid (Bomb.). See Hardwickia hinata.
Paspalum si)p.

A genus of grasses which includes a considerable number of species of well-known
])asture grasses, such as knot grass, Louisiana grass, purple paspalum, etc. Like
the species of Panicum previously enumerated, some of the species are employed iu
industrial economy by natives iu the countries where tliey grow. Notable examples
are the wire grass of Jamaica, raspahim fiUforme, Avhich lias been made into hal-
ters, and P. rirgatiim, which supplies a rough material for ropes in Antigua.

Pat (Ind.). See Corchorus. The word in Siug-halese also meaus leaf.

Pata (Ceyl.). Equivalent to fibrous bark.

Pati-kori (Beug.). See SacehanDn fimvum.

Patsan and Pitwa (N.W. Piov. lud.). See Hihisof.s cannahinns.

Patta-appele (Ceyl.). Urena lobata.

PauUinia grandiflora.

Belongs to the Suintnhueiv. The representatives of the genus are nearly all climb-
ing shrubs confined to tropical America. The above sjiecies is knowu in Peru as the
Titriii, and, according to Dorca, its bark is used for bands, tie material, etc. The seeds
of some of the species yield an active i)rincipal identical with theine of tea, and this
is employed iu a beverage as a nervous stimulant.

Paukpan (Burm.), See ^Esehi/nonienc.

Pavonia .spinifex. Escobadura of Argentina.

This genus of Malvavew is chiefly confined to tropical America, though a few spe-
cies are found in Asia. They are small shrubs. Fiber of this species was shown in the
Argentine Court, AV. C. E., 1893. The species is very common in the northern half
of Argentina . P. odoratn and /*. zeylanica are Indian species ( West I'ror., Lurm. and
Ceyl.) and "yield fiber of excellent quality." "It is, if anything, of a finer texture,
softer, and whiti'r than Hibiscus, and stands a good chance of coming into commercial
use as a substitute for Hibiscus, and even jute." (Dr. Wait.)

Paxiuba (Braz.). Socratca c.rorrhiza. See Triartca.

Paxiuba-miri (Braz.). IriarteUa selUjcra. See Ir'uirtea.

Pemm (Yuc.). Maya name for Ceiha pentaHdrct.

Pendang (Malay). See Fandanns.

Pendha (Ind.) ^= Rice straw.

Pengh-wai jambi (Java). Cibotitun harometz.

260 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

Pennisetum alopecuros.

A coarse perennial grass of central India, with strong, tougli leaves, from which
ropes are made on Mount Abu.

Perezia \vrrightii.

8yn. r. arizonica.

Exogen. (omposiUv. Perennial herb 1 to 3 feet.
Southwestern Texas to soutliern Arizona.

Surface Fiber. — Xi tlio junction of the brandies with the roots, and covering
the greater part of the former, is a soft, silky substance, wliicli is used by f be Apache
Indians in gunshot and other wounds to stop hemorrhages, for which it is well
adapted. {Dr. 7s'. Palmer.^

Periploca aphylla.

An asclepiadaceous shrub of India, Persia, Arabia, and Nubia. The liber resists
water, and for this reason "is employed in Sind, with that of Leptndenia sparium, for
making into ropes and bands used for wells." ( I>r. Stocks. ) Savorgnan also mentions
F. larigaia, the peluria, or down, from the fruit of which is utilized as quilts for beds.

Peteria (Braz.). See Furcrcea gifjantea.

Phalsa and Phalsi (Intl.)? Pharsa and Phulsa (Hind.). See Grewia.

Philodendron sp. Guembipi of Argentina.

A genus of air plants found in tropical America, described as having scrambling
stems wbich attach themselves to trunks of trees. "An epipbyt with long aerial
roots. Fiber is prejiared from the leaves, and the bark of the roots is used for ro])es
tliat are indestructible in Avater." {Xiederlein.) Examples were shown, Argentina
exhibit, W.C.E. ,1811.3.

Philodendron iinhc, known as the Imhe in Brazil, is also enumerated in the list of
useful iibers in the State of Para.

Phoenix dactylifera. The Date Palm,

This palm, the cultivatiou of which goes back into the ages, is found in all tropical
eastern countries, and has been distributed to other lands. It has been introduced
into cultivation in Florida, in the United States, though wholly for its fruit. Its
native names are legion, but as it is more regarded for its fruit than its fiber, and
many of its names refer to the fruit, it is not important to enumerate them.

Structural Fiber. — According to Royle, the natives of Arabia and the north of
Africa have long used the leaves for mats, baskets, etc., and the foot stalks of the
leaves for cordage. In the Die. Ec. Prod. Ind. the following account is given
regaiding the uses of the plant as fiber by the natives of that country.

In the Panjiib, mats, fans, baskets, and ropes are made from the leaves, whicli are
known as hhutni, pattra, and Ihuxhah. The petioles (chlmri) make excellent light
walking sticks, and, when split up, furnish material for making crates and baskets.
The fibrous network which forms the sheathing base of the petioles, called kabdl,
khajiir ka hokia, or khajiir munj, is used for making pack saddles for oxen, and the fiber
separated from it for cordage. The bunch of fruit stalks, hiihnrd, is said to make a
good broom, and is employed for that purpose in the Panjiib. See chapter on "Uses
of Fibers," Introduction.

The huts of the poorer classes are entirely constructed of its leaves; the fiber (/i/)
surrounding the bases of their stalks is used for making ropes and coarse cloth, the
stalks themselves for crates, baskets, brooms, walking sticks, etc., and the wood for
building substantial houses. (See fig. 89.)

Other species. — P. acaulis is the dwarf date palm. Rope is made from its broad
leaves, and it also supplies thatch material for native huts. The leaves of P.farin-
ifera are made into coarse sleeping mats in India, while the split petioles are fash-

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE.

261

ioned into baskets. lu t'liina the liber is used for brushes. The leaves of F. paJiiCoaa
suiiplies material for roii^h ropes in the Suiularbaus. which are iised for securiujjj
boats, logs, etc., aud its leaves are also employed for thatching. /'. syhestris, the
wild date, is an India aud Ceylon specjes. In Bengal its leaves are used for baskets,
mats, aud bags, aud in Bombay lor brooms, brushes, aud fans. The fiber is also
adajited for paper making.

Phormium tenax. New Zealand Flax. -

Kudogeu. LUiac.a . A liliaceous jilaut growing in bunches.

Native xames. — Nearly sixty native names are enumerated by Dr. Hector.
Among these may be mentioned: .Hiraulawa or Hatiraitkaua, used for finest
mats; Harakeke, naniie of all but the irharariki form; Huhiioa, long fiber, mats,
fishing lines, etc.; Bunihunikika, for rough gariueuts; Korako, for best gar-
ments; Xfiittunui, for best garments, quick grower; One, narrow leaf, fine fiber,
next to Tapoto: Pan-
taniwha, strong libor
for fishing Hues,
nets, etc. ; liaiaron,
from East Cape, and
the strongest of all.
Taihore, light green
leaf,with wide black
edge ; Tapoto, leaves
narrow, deep purple
margin; Tarciriki ,
fine aud soft; Tihorc,
plant of any varie-
ty, in Waikato best
var. cultivated.
TVIiarariki, Aveak fi-
ber; etc. The fiber
is known as 2Inka.
Haraktke is the com-
mon variety of the
lowlands; I'aritane-
wha, the yellow var.
of the high regions
or hills, and Taihore
the best quality.
Native of New Zealand,
aud found on Norfolk Is-
land aud in other portions
ofAustralia. Distributed
to the Azores, St. Helena,
Algiers, South France, and
introduced in 1798 into tlic south of Ireland. Thrives on the Taciiic Coast (California)
where it is cultivated as a tie plant. In its native countries it is never fouud far from
the sea. Captain Cook first brought this fiber to the notice of Europeans, he having
found it in common use by the natives of New Zealand, as he speaks of "a grass
l)]ant like flags, the nature of flax or hemp, but superior in quality to either, of
which the natives make clothing, lines, etc." It also flourishes on the west coast of
Scotland, though the winters have occasionally been too severe for it. The leaves
of the plant in Ireland grow to 5, 6, 7, and 8 feet high, and it is propagated by oftsets
which are not removed until the parent is 4 years old. Fig. 2, PI. YH, is a o-reeu-
heuse ]dant of New Zealand flax.
SxKUCIUKAi Fiber.— New Zealand flax fiber is almost white in color, flexible, soft.

ImIui, I'lutiiix dactiiUj'era

2G2 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

and of a silky Inster. The bundles of fibers form filaments of unequal size, wliich are
easily separated by friction. It has considerable elasticity, but readily cuts with
the nail. Microscopically examined, according to Yetillart, the fibers are reuuirka-
ble for their slight adherence. The individual fibers seem very reguhir, having a
uniform thickness, and the surface is smooth ; they are stiff, straight, and very fine,
and the central cavity is A^ery apparent.

The Department of Agriculture was able to secure from the New Zealand exhibit,
Phil. Int. Exh., 187G, a collection of over ICO specimens of this fiber and its manufac-
ture, the series well illustrating the many uses of this valuable textile, the methods
of preparation, and the native manner of dyeing it. The niachiuo-prepared series
was very full, and the samples of manufacture includiid nearly everything that can
be made of fiber. In cordage there were H-inch cables and ropes of all sizes, liorse
halters, small cordage, lead linos, fish liues (for sea fishing), and twine of the finest
finish. The series of mattings illustrated the many ways th.at the fiber may be used
in the househohl, as door m.its, parlor and bedroom mats (in colors), and hearth
rugs, while the iiner kinds of fiber wore made into clotli not unlike linen duck, into
satchels, t.ible mats, shoes (a kind of sandal), sacks, etc. Floor matting, carriage
and railway mats were exliil)ited in variety, plain and iu colors. The nets, of which
there were many samjiles, could hardly be told from linen, botli in color and finish.
It is hardly necessary to state tliat these were not of native manufacture, as much of
the fiber was exported, made up into the various .articles enumerated. This was
due to the I'act that the English ropomakers did not pay for flax fiber a price
proportionate to that given for manila hemp, and it was, therefore, found more
profitable to manufacture at home and export the rope rather than the baled fiber.
Some of the spcscimens were, to the touch, as soft as the finest flax, and such fiV)er is
doubtless well adapted to fine fabrics. Varying (juautities of the fiber liave been
imported into the United .States for the manufiicturo of cordage and binding twine,
though at the present time the imports are small. There was a sudden increase in
the quantity, however, about 1892, and it was subsequently learned that the fiber
was largely used in the construction of the " staff," or outer covering of the principal
World's Fair buildings at Chicago. It v.a8 used to toughen and hold together the
plaster and other materials, Avhich, wlien combined, formed this building material.
As to tenacity, Royle gives the breaking i)oint of New Zealand flax, comp.ared
with flax and hemp, as 2:^.7 to 11.75 and 16.7.5, respectively. In the otficial Hand-
book of New Zealand it is stated that "during a late severe gale at Auckland it was
found that flax rope, wlien subjected to the same strain as manila hemp (Mum Ux-
UHk), remained unbroken, while the other gave way." Exi>erimeuts by Professor
Hutton with leaf strips one-eighth inch iu bre.adth from middle jiart of young full-
grown leaves showed the following lireakage strain for four varieties: Tihore, 48
pounds; Ha rakcle, i2 ]iounds; raretatiiwha, 42 pounds; Wharariki, Si pounds. He
concluded that Tihore is the most valuable variety for all purposes; but the kinds
that should be cultivated would depend upon the nature of tlie soil, for swamp flax
of excellent (piality could be grown in ]daces where the superior Tihore could hardly
live. But all the varieties of /'. colensoi (now 7*. cooldannm) should be carefully
avoided, or, if manufactured into fiber, should not be sent into the market under
the same r.ame as fiber from P. tenux, or the latter will fall in the estimation of the
]iub]ic, from the inferior strength of the former.

PuoDrcTiox. — On the best lands an acre m,ay contain 2,000 bunches of the plant,
or 100,000 leaves. These leaves, after cutting ofi' the gnmmy and useless butts and
drying iu the sun, weigli about five to the pound, so that an .acre may give nearly
10 terns of sun-dried leaves. When the outer leaves only are taken the quantity will
be reduced to 4 tons. Assuming a yield of 15 i)er cent of clean fiber upon these 1
tons, the return should bo 12 hundredweight an acre, to which may be added about
8 hundredweight of tow. The weight of green leaf required to produce 1 ton of fiber
is stated by different authorities as fcdlows: 5J tons, 6 tons, Oi tons, G| tons, 7 tons,
7 to 8 tons. To obtain 2,000 bunches to the acre, however, tlie planting must be vei-y
close. (Spon.)

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 263

Nkw Zealand Fi.ax ix Caotohnia. — The plant lias been grown in California
for several years, ami thrives in many localities. I have endeavored to learn the
history of its introdnction, l)nt am nnable to make positive statements at this writ-
ing. Professor llilgard, the director of the State agricnltural experiment station at
Berkeley, has grown it at the station for some time, sending plants to snbstations
and to farmers to be grown for leaves that are used instead of rope for tying vines.
He informs me that the area on Avhich it can be snccessfuUy grown is very large, as
it seems to require mnch less water than is currently supposed. A tall variety is
common as an ornamental plant in the gardens about the bay; the one he has been
growing and distributing for years is of lower habit, but its fiber seems to be
stronger and finer. Once started, it will do without irrigation almost anywhere in
the Coast Range where frosts are not too heavy. In the Great Valley it seems to be
limited to over 8 to 10 inches of rainfall, unless irrigated, but with irrigation it will
grow fairly anywhere within the valley, and up to 2,000 feet in the Sierra foothills.

Small lots of leaves received by the Department from California were cleaned by
W. T. Forbes, and a strong, valuable fiber was obtained from them. An efibrt was
also made to secure leaves in sufiicient quantity to obtain enough fiber for practical
test, but as the leaves do not stand transportation, and would necessarily be several
weeks on the way, the attempt was abandoned.

About 1890 the Department received (through the State Department) a quantity
of seed sufficient for experimental purjioses, which was distributed in Florida and
other Southern States. The seed must have been injured, however, as it failed to
germinate, even in the conservatories of the Department. In future experiments
plants should be distributed instead of seeds, as the supply can easily be secured
from the Pacific Coast, and it is claimed that seedlings do not inherit the character-
istics of the plants from which tlie seed is derived. Besides, the early growth of
plants from seeds is very slow. As Kew Zealand fiax culture is possible in the
United States, a full account of the practice in New Zeahmd is given.

Cultivation. — Phormium ienax will grow in almost any soil, but the more suita-
ble the soil tlie finer the quality. It grows best on light, rich soil, by the sides of
rivers and brooks, Avhero sheltered from the wind. A rich, dry, but not deep, clay
soil having yellow clay subsoil, with plenty of light and air, is very suitable, but
the greatest crops are reared on deep volcanic soil. A well-drained swamp gives
large returns, this fact having been verified by observation in the Upper Waikato
and elsewhere.

Stagnant marshes are prejudicial to the growth of fiax, but as soon as they are
drained and the water sweetened the same fiax will grow rapidly. The drains
should be open, and the water therein slioukl flow about V2 inches below the surface.
If practicable, swamp land should be plowed as soon as it is dry enough for the
purpose, and allowed to remain all summer, or till March, when it should be again
plowed, and planted immediately thereafter. The soil will be well pulverized by
that time. Should the land become verj' dry in summer, the drains might lie stopped,
so as to irrigate the soil; any land fchab is jieriodically inundated is very suitable for
promoting rapid growth. Alluvial soil should also be plowed in winter or spring,
and allowed to dry until autumn, when it should again be plowed and planted —
that is, in March or Aiiril, or as soon as the autumn rains arrive; in fact, the earlier
the better, for the plants make roots all winter, and are ready to come away with a
vigorous growth in spring.

The plants should bo sown in rows, and in the same way as trees are planted; but
opinions dift'er as to the distance from row to row, and from plant to plant in a row.
It seems to bo overlooked that planted Phormium will not l>e allowed to grow into
large bushes, as it does in the uncultivated state. On the contrary, the constant
cutting which will be earned on will confine it within a comparatively limited
space. The roots thrown out by the first plants will undoubtedly spread around it,
but still it will always be practicable to keep the bunches within small areas.
With this view, the rows might be only 1 feet apart, and ouly 3 feet between plants

2G4 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

ill the row. At all CA-ents, the quantity of soil that would he saved in this way
would justify the experiment on a small scale. In this case the roots should be
planted across the lines in rows. Six feet is generally recoinnieuded to be between
rows and between plants, because closer planting might impoverish the soil; but it
should be kept in view that llax needs shelter, and the proximity of the plants to
each other would alVord this, and assist in drawing up the leaves and ihaking finer
fiber. If suitable land is chosen, it is thought that impoverishment of soil Avill not
result from tlie close ])lanting.

AVith the view of still further economizing space, it has been suggested that about
10 or 12 rows should be planted, then a break of 10 or 12 feet should be left for drays
to pass along and collect the leaves when cut. Then other 10 or 12 rows should be
planted, then another break, and so on. The extent of the ground to be planted must,
however, regulate this. About one thousand roots, ])lanted 6 feet apart each way,
will cover an acre of land; but if the land is planted 4 by 3 feet, as recommended
above, about one-third more will be required for an acre. In one ])lant of Fhonniitin
there will be from 20 to 50 roots for transplanting. Opinions diti'er also as to the
number of roots that should be ]>lanted together; one, two, ami three are variously
recommended. If two or three are planted together, a large space of ground would
be required to ho left around. Care should be taken to avoid planting the roots from
which a seed stem has been thrown out, or planting the center i)ortit>n of an old
plant, which is not so productive as young shoots, having a tendency to run to
flower, when it requires more nourishment than all the leaves do. The flower stalk
should therefore be cut down as early as possible; and when this is done the cut
part should be rubbed over with a little earth to prevent " Ideeding," or, better still,
twisted off. But if the close planting be adopted, only one root should be planted
at one place. {Dr. Hector.)

Pkkpauation of the Fibki!. — The maturity of the leaf is ascertained by its texture
and firmness, or by its being s])lit at the point, or b}'^ the recurving of the blades from
the central midribs. The leaf of the best I'hormium should be over ."> feet in length,
excluding the butt. The top of the leaf should feel soft to the touch, and droop a
little; this occurs in winter.

The habit of the plant is to form large tufts, its sword-shaped leaves growing in
opposite rows and clasping each other at the base.

One variety forms leaves 5 and 6 feet long, while another is not more than half the
length, ilr. Salesbury, of the botanic garden, Chelsea, found that plants three
years old will produce on an average 30 leaves, besides a number of off"set8. Six
leaves have produced 1 ounce of dry, available fiber after having been scutched and
cleaned, at which rate an acre of land cropped' with the.se plants, growing 3 feet
apart, would yield more than 600 pounds of dressed fiber. The leaves being cut in
the autumn, others spring up anew the following summer. It is said that the ]dant
may be shorn of its leaves in the morning and before the sun has set they will be
ready for weaving into cloth.

The principal operation is scraping and then separating the fibers with the thumb
nail, after which combs are employed for a more minute separation. The fibers ar»^
subse(£uently dried in the sun, and are perfectly white— some short and strong,
others fine and silky. According to the reports published by the New Zealand com-
missioner at the exhibition of 1876, the Maoris (or natives) only use a portion of
the fiber upon one side of the leaf, the leaves being selected with great care. They
scrape the leaf with a mussel shell, or piece of hoop iron, on the thigh, after which
it is soaked in water and then dried. Their finest samples are obtained from partic-
ular varieties of tlje plant, only the youngest and best leaves being used, and careful
attention being paid to the maniiiulation. "This native-dressed fiber, however,
constitutes but a small portion of the fiber actually prepared on the island, as large
manufactories have been erected, where the fiber is stripped by machinery." Two
modes of dressing the fiber are practiced, known as the "cold'' and the "warm"
water dressing. The leaves of the flax are fed to a machine called a stripper at the

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE.

2G5

rate of 100 to 120 feet per miniito. . The drnnis of these stripping machines are
driven at the rate of 1,000 to 2,000 revolutions per minute, tlieir diameter being from
14 to 20 inches. After passing through the strippers, the partially cleaned fiber is
hand washed in bundles of about 20 leaves; these bundles are suspended in water
and are allowed to soak for about two hours, the fiber is then spread out on the
bleaching ground for a time, which varies according to tlie weather, and then hung /
on lines to dry. It is then either scutched or hackl«t^, or j^oth; packed in bales, and /
pressed for shipment. When the stripper is' iu good order, and the fiber has been
fairly cleaned, the loss in scutching amounts to from 3 to 5 hundredweight per ton,
and in hackling from 2 to 3 hundredweight. In the warm-water dressing the same
operations are gone through with, with the exception that the fiber is washed and
placed to soak from six to twenty-four hours
in tanks filled with warm water, which is
kept heated by means of either fire or a
steam pipe.

In a report to the State Department by
United States Consul Connolly the ibllow-
ing note occurs:

"To imperfect machinery and careless-
ness in the selection of green plants may be
ascribed the apparent coarseness and the
inferiority so oftcu complained of in the
flax exported from certain portions of New
Zealand. But with improved fiax-dressing
machinery and proper care exercised in the
selection of the raw material, a very superior
article can be produced. The fiber of Phor-
mium tenax is susceptible of a much higher
degree of preparation than has been be-
stowed upon it up to the ])r('sent. This,
however, is not altogether the fault of those
who are engaged in its manufacture; it is
for want of the necessary machinery. The
hand-dressed article jjioparedby the natives
is as fine as silk as compared with the mod-
em machine-dressed fiax of to-day. This
only demonstrates the fact that the fiber
may be reduced to a much finer quality, and
all that is necessary to do this is an improved
machine. If New Zealanders can not pro-
duce the re([iiisite machinery, I trust the
inventive genius of America will come to
the rescue. There is certainly a splendid
opportunity and a fortune for any mau who

will invent a machine that will successfully and economically reduce New Zealand
flax to a proper degree of fineness."

For further accounts see following authorities: Phormium tenax, a Fibrous Plant,
edited by Sir James Hector, New Zealand, 1889; The Leaf Fibers of tlie United Stat-cs,
Eeport No. 5, Fib Inv Series, U. S. Dept. Ag., 1893; U. S. Consular Report, May,
1890; Spon's Enc, Div. III.

* Specimens. — U S. Nat. Mus. ; Mus. U. S. Dept Ag. ; Field Col. Mus.

Phragmites communis. Common Heed or Eeed- grass.

One of the largest of our native grasses, growing to the height of 12 feet, the
rather stout culms bearing numerous broad, spreading, and sharply pointed leaves
1 to 2 feet long. It has deeply penetrating and extensively creeping rootstocks,

Fig. 90.— Keed grass, Phrwrmitfs cnmmnnis.

2(16 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

making it one of tlie most valuable grasses for binding tlie banks of rivers subject
to periodical floods. It is occasionally found along the coast in brackisli marshes
and sometimes upon sandy soils, and possibly may be employed with advantage for
binding drifting sands or those liable to be shifted by high tides. The young shoots
are liked by cattle and the mature stenis make the best of tliatch. It is very widely
distributed throughout the temperate regions of both hemispheres, growing along
river banks, borders of lakes, etc. (/'. Lamson-Scribinr.)

The revised name of this species is I'hragmitcs pin-agmifes.

Fiber. — In Mexico, where the plant grows 20 to 2;") feet high (near to water), the
stems are used for various purposes by the natives, according to statements made by
Dr. E. Palmer, who says that they cut it 1o certain lengths and having split it, beat
it flat and then weave it in and out, making a large s([uare mat, with which they
form the ends of their houses. They place it over the rafters before the tnle thatch
is put on. It 18 also used to cover verandas, and as screens for doors. (See fig *10).

The species is very common in Europe, where it is sometimes utilized in industrial
economy. It has been emjdoyed in Italy for the manufacture of grass whisks.

' Specimens are shown in the U S. Nat. Mus.

Phryniuni dichotoma. Syuoiiym of Clyuofiy7ie, see under Maranta.

Phul shola (IJeng.)- ^ee ^I'JsrJnjnomene.

Phiilahi (Iiid.). Acacia modeata.

Phytelephas macrocarpa. The Ivoky Plant.

A curious South Americnn plant allied to the palms, which jjroduces the vegetable
ivory nut of commerce. It is known in Peru as the Piilipiintu, and its leaves are
sometimes employed in the manufacture of articles of domestic ecouomj', besides as
a thatch material for native huts.

Piassaba and Piassava; also written Piacaba.

of I'ara {see Lcopohlinia 2)ia8xaba); of liahia (see Attaha funifvra).

(See also Dhtiiosperma fibrosnm, Borassiis fiabellifer, liaphia ritiifera, etc., which are
piassaba-like fibers. Both piasmba and piassara are used in the economic literature
of the bass fibers. I prefer, however, the spelling of the specific name of the Para
form — p ill s s« ba .

Picea canadensis. White Spruce.

Exogen. Coniferfr. A tree, .50 to 1.50 feet.

Common" xamks. — White spruce, single spruce, skunk spruce, cat spruce, etc.

This tree is ibund in low and rather wet soils, or borders of ponds .ind swamps,
and is mo>t comuu)n along the northern boundary of the United States; also New-
foundland, British Columbia, and Alaska. A valuable timber tree.

Woody Fiber. — "The tough and flexible root was formerly made into rope and
twine by the Indians, and used to stitch together their birch-bark canoes." ( Dr. l'.
Harnrd.)
. The Indians and woodmen in New Brunswick make use of spruce roots to tie up
small packages, moose calls, etc., and the Micmacs of Nova Scotia also make use
of the root for ihe same |)urpose. The root is used most commonly just as it comes
from the grouud, and is then quite pliable and very tough; less often — an<l then
only when it is desired to make a somewhat long string — the root is pounded under
water between two stones, care being taken to bruise and mash the wood cells with-
out breaking the bark. In this condition it is possible to knot and tie the roots with
nearly the sam<^ ease as that of a fiber yiroper, and the roots retain considerable of
their original toughness, {Dr. Wirt Taasm.)

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE.

■2r,7

Picea mariana.

Syn. Picea nigra.

COM.MOX xa:\IES. — lilaek spruce, donl)!*! spiMice, liluc spriu^e. ycwpiiu', ami many
others; Epineite jaune, Quebec.

l?auges from Newfoundland and Labrador to Hudson Bay, northwest t<> north of
Mackenzie Kiver, eastern slopo of Rocky Mountains, south through nortliern States
to l\Minsylvania, central Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and along the Alleghany
Mountains to high peaks of North Carolina.

A soft wood, used for timber, fences, posts, and otlier purposes; largely einiiloyed
as a material for wood pulp in paper nianufactnr(\

Woody Finicu. — The product of forest trees, known as wood pulp, is included in
tho second grouj) of the classiiication of liber substances. Ahout ~>0 yiw cent of the
substance of wood consists of cellulose, the percentage of cellulose in a i>aper product
fixing the economic value of the plant as a source of paper material. A larger per-
centage of cellulose occurs in soft woods than in hard woods, and hence the soft
Avoods are the more useful for tho manufacture of wood pulp. The following table
from "Cellulose," by Cross and lievaii, will serve to illustrate this ])oint:

Wood.

Birch

Beech

Box

Ebony

Oak.'.

Alder

Lignum vit*

Lime

Cliestnut

Fir

Maliogany...

Poplar

Pine

Teak

Willow

12.48
12.57
]2. 90
9.4(1
li. 12
10.70
10.88
10.10
12. 03
12.87
12.39
12.10
13.87
11.05
11. (iC

Cellulose,

yj. o-
45. 47
48.14
29.90
39.47
54.02
32. 22
53.09

52. C4

53. 27
49.07
02.77
56. !I9
43.12
55.72

Aq. ex-
tract.

2.G5
2.41

2. 63
9. 90

12. 20
2.48
COG
3.50
5.41
4.05
9.91
2.88
1.26

3. 93
2. 65

1.14
0.41
0.63
2.54
0.91
0.87
15. 63
3. 93
1.10
1.63
1.02
1.37
0.97
3.74
1.23

Noncellu-
loso.

28.21
39. 14
35. 70
48.08
34.30
31.33
35.21
29.33
28.82
28.18
27.61
20.88
26.91
38.16
28.74

Cellulose is the preponderating constituent of all vegetable tissues. In addition
to tlie cellulose there are present in the wood nitrogenous substances, resins, gums,
anil (mineral) ash, wliicli are to be removed, more or less, in order to produce the
fiber or pul]). To do this economically and in such a manner tliat the fiber may
remain long, pure, and white, and the mass preserve its "felting'' ((ualities as much
as possible, is the aim of the various processes.

Eco.voMic CONSIDERATIONS. — While many species of trees are used in the manu-
facture of wood pulp, the larger amount is jirepared from spruce, a frequent practice
being to add scnne poplar or aspen pulp to whiten tlie spruce pulp. Among other
woods that are employed are cottonwood, bass wood, birch, buckeye, gum, balsam
fir, hemlock, jack pine, cedar, etc., wliile in tlie South, pine. cyi)ress, and other woods
are used.

The kinds of wood employed in this industry depend upon three things: (1) The
resulting product as to (juality and yield; (2) the cheapness and convenience of the
necessary plant and chemicals; (3) the application to various woods.

Coming to the practical matter of th*; preparation of wood pulp, or wood liber, Dr.
Samuel P. Sadtler states that two Navieties of pulj) for paper making may bo obtained
from wood, viz, mechanically and chemically prepared iiulji. Of these, the mechan-
ical wood pulp obtained by shredding tho wood serves for the inferior grades of
paper only, as its libers are too short and do not "felt" or interlace sufficiently. It
can. therefore, be used only as a filling material. Moreover, the resin present resists
strongly the action of bleaching agents, and the paper becomes yellowish after a
time. On the other hand, what is termed chemical wood pulp has met with great

208 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

favor as a very pure and easily obtainalile form of cellulose. Two main processes
for its production are now in use, the caustic soda i)rocess and the bisulphite
process. In the former, the wood chopped up and crushed is boiled under pressure
with caustic soda. This is either done in cylindrical boilers at pressures varying
from i atmospheres (60 pounds), as first used by Watt and Burgess, to 14 atmospheres
(210 pounds), as used by Sinclair, or by Ungerer's graduated method in a series of
nine c(mnected vessels, using low pressure and partly saturated lyes upon the fresh
■wood and increasing the pressure aud using fresher lyes upon the partly converted
wood. Somewhat more than 50 jter cent of the soda used is recovered again from
the washings. The alkali process is, however, being graduallj' displaced by the
bisulphite i>rocess. As first ])roposed by Jlitscherlich, acid c;ilciuni sulphite was
used. The temiierature is brought gradually to 118'^ C, which is not exceeded, the
pressure being from 2 to 3 atmospheres. In Kkman's process, acid magnesium sulphite
is used, aud a pressure of from 5.V to G atmospheres is attained. Still another process
is that of Franke, which uses bisui])hite of lime again. Cross and Bevau explain
the efficacy of the bisulphite processes by saying:

"The chief agency is the liydrolytic action of sulphurous acid, aided by the con-
ditions of high temperature and pressure; and the»8ubsidiary agencies are: (1) The
prevention of oxidation; (2) the removal from the sphere of action of the soluble
products of resolution in combination with the sulphite as a double compound, for
it is to the class of aldehytes that we have shown that the noncellulosic constituents
of wood belong, and (3) the removal of a portion of the constituents in combination
■with the base, i. e., with expulsion of sulphurous acid."

The several bisulphite processes, as compared with the ones mentioned previously,
yield a larger amou7it of pure fiber. They ]ireser\e its original strtmgth, which is
not done when caustic soda acts upon the loosened liber under ])ressure, and there is
a greater economy of chemicals.

In Dr. Fernow's account of the wood-pul]) industry the following classes are rec-
ognized : (1) The mechanical or ground jiulp is produced by grinding the wood after
proper preparation on rapidly rotating stones under constant fiow of water (Yoelter
process). (2) Brown wood pulp, mainly a mechanical pulp, except that the wood is
steamed before grinding, under a pressure of 2 to G atmospheres. (3) Chemical wood
pulp, or cellulose proper (in this country called "chemical fiber "), is produced by treat-
ing fini'ly divided wood or wood shavings with various chemicals, which dissolse or
render solulde the incrusting substances, leaving the fiber as long, elastic, and pure
as the raw material will furnish it, while the al)ove mechanical processes naturally
shorten and deteriorate the fiber mechanically. The chemical processes can be again
classified into alkaline and acid processes, according to the kind of chemicals used.

By the alkaline jtrocesses are obtained soda p id j) and sulphate puJp. The acid proc-
esses are more numerous. Electro pulp is derived from a more recent process, in
which the wood is digested in a solution of common salt, at 250'^ to 260"^ constantly
electrolyzed. For detailed accounts of these processes, see Report of the Division
of Forestry, Annual Report of the United States Department of Agriculture for 189);
Cellulose, by Cross and Bevan ; and Sadtler's IIandl)Ook of Industrial and Organic
Chemistry. The Avood-pulp industry in 1890 represented 183 mills, located in 22
States, and with a total daily capacity as follows: ^Mechanical or ground pulp,
407,000 pounds; chemical soda fiber, 149,000 pounds; chemical sulphite fiber, 105,000
pounds. The average yield jier cord is 1.700 pounds for ground pul]), 1,000 for sul-
phite, aud 800 for soda jmlji. By the different processes the value of a cord of wood
may be brought to $24..50 to $30.

"In 1888 the stumpage consumed for pulp was valued at $2,235,000. The product,
225,000 tons ground and 112,500 tons chemical pulp, wasvaluedtogetherat $12,375,000,
the cajiital employed being estimated at $20,000,000. The consumption, in round
numbers, was indicated in 1890 to amount to 1,000,000 cords of wood per annum.
When it is considered that about 1,000,000,000 pounds of book and news paper arc

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 269

consumed annually in this country, two-thirds of which might he made of wood
fiher, there is still a considerable margin for this use alone to he supplied hy wood
pulp." (i>. E. Fernow.)

Picea sitchensis. Tidelanu Spruce.

COMMOX NAMES. — Tidclaud spruce, Sitka spruce, Menzics spruce, etc.
Alaska, south to Mendocino County, Cal., not extending more than 50 miles inland
from the coast. "A large tree of great economic value, largely manufactured into
lumber used for construction, interior finish, boat building, dunnage of vessels,
cooperage, wooden ware, etc." {C. S. Sargent). J. G. Cooper states that the long,
tough, fibrous roots are used by the Alaska Indians to make very strong baskets and
bags. "P. engelmanni, the white spruce, or Arizona spruce, a Rocky jMountain and
Pacific States species, has similar fibrous roots, which are used as basket material."
{Dr. V. Havard.)

Pigna cloth (Phil. Is.). Same as piua. Ananas sativa.
Pilea scripta.

Exogen. Vrticacecv. Large-leaved herb.
An Indian plant, growing in the temperate Himalayas, 3,500 to 6,000 elevation.
Referred to by Royle as a libror.s plant. P. smilavifoHa is also mentioned by Dr.
Watt, though no de<init(! infornuition is to be obtained regarding its fibers.

P'i-ma (China). See Ixicinus.

Pimelea axiflora.

Exogen. Thijmehvaceiv. Slender, branching shrulj.

Habitat, Australia. The genus I'imeha comprises some 70 species, natives of Aus-
tralia, New Zealand, Tasmania, etc. "The curryljong of the aborigines is a tall,
glabrous shrub, with smooth bark, of exceeding toughness. It is found jjlentifully
in the forests and gullies in alpine and subalpine situations." {Dr. Guilfoijle.)

Bast Fiber. — A specimen was secured at the Phil. Int. Exh., 1876, prejjared by
Dr. Guilfoyle, who states that all the species of the genus have more or less tough,
stringy bark, suitable for textile purposes. It is made into fishing lines, whipcord,
etc., and is adapted to paper making. The seeds of 1'. axiflora yield an oil from
which the genus — derived from the Greek jj///;e/e, a fat — received its name. P. cla-
vata is a shrub, 8 or 9 feet, native to western Australia, which also produces fiber.

Pina (Phil. Is.). Pineapple, and pineapjile cloth. See Ananas sativa.

Pindayba, or Pindahyba (Braz.). Xylopia sericea.

Pine, "Wood of (see I'inus).

Pineapple (see Ananas sativa).

Pine fiber and Pine -wool (see Pinus jmlustris and sylvestris).

Pinguin (W. Ind.). See Bromelia pinguin.

Pinuella (W. Ind.). See Karatas plumieri.

Pinus palustris. Long-leaf Pine.

Exogen. Couifenv. A large tree, 80 feet.

In the United States, from Norfolk, Va., southward to Texas, and as far north in
the middle section as Tennessee. The turpentine pine of th(> Southern States.

Structural Fiber. — One of the most interesting series in the fiber collection of
the Department is that of the pine-fiber specimens furnisluid by the Acme Manu-
facturing Company, of Wilmington, N. C. The raw material is the leaves or needles

270 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

of the loug-leaved piue, wliich also produces the turpentine of commerce. The par-
ticular process is said to he the invention of A. F. Scott. The exhihit includes a
branch of pine, the gathered needles, and sami)les illustrating processes of cooking,
rubbing, and carding. These are followed by the various products obtained, r.s
pine hair, surgical dressing lint, pine oil, burlap, matting, and finally bagging.
When the jute trust i)ut up the jirice of bagging lor baling the cotton crop, about
1890, as high as 1,000,000 yards of jiino-fibcr cotton bagging was produced, and the
industry gave promise of being extended. A'ery little, if any, of this bagging is
manufactured, however, at the jiresent time.

A physician of Wilmington has stated that the fiber made of jiine straw is a most
valuable agent in the treatment of simple and compound fracture, surgical dressing
after operations, and suppuration of wounds. It is superior to cotton-batting, lint, or
oakum. Its aromntic odor drives away Hies and prevents maggots from burrowing
in wounds, and I think it is a disinfectant of the first order.

PiJEPAitATiox. — The green pine straw or leaves, galhored in the surrounding for-
ests, is brought to the nulls, where the company purchases it at 15 cents perhundreil
pounds. After having been weighed, the straw is carried into a shed 100 by 27) feet,
and is spread upon the floor to be cleaned and to prevent it from becoming heated.
An elevator takes it to the second floor of the building, where it is placed in two
iron cylinders set uj> on end and surrounded by steam pipes. These extractors are
10 feet deep and about 4 feet in width. In these the pine leaves are thoroughly
steamed, the vapor going tlirough pipes into the ordinary distillery worm in an
adjoining house. Here it is condensed. The; result is the pine-leaf oil, the leaves
yielding about one-half a gallcm of oil to 100 ])ounds of straw. The oil is a valuable
product, and is destined to take an important ])lace in the advanced pharmacopceia.
It is very highly antiseptic, possesses the advantage of being useful for internal as
well as external application, and is valuable for many surgical and medicinal pur-
poses. The liquid which is condensedfrom the vapor with the oils is useful for various
purposes in the manufacture of other fabrics.

After the oil has been extracted, the pine straw, which has become a very rich
black in color, is i)Iaced in six large iron vats, 7 feet wide, 8 feet long, and 5 feet
deep, and Avith a capacity of holding .3,000 to 4.000 pounds each. It is here mixed
with water and alkali and thoroughly boiled, the jirocess being necessary to remove
the silica which forms the outside covering of the leaf. This is a difficult operation,
requiring great skill and care. The silica which is removed is used for tanning and
other purposes. During all this process of cooking the pine still retains its aroma.
The last boiling process continues for twelve Jiours, alter which the straw is soaked
forty-eight hours more, and then it is ready for the machinery for rubbing uj) the
leaves.

The straw taken from the vats, and still damp, is first put into a "rubber," as it
is called, and which consists of a numl)er of cylindrical screws working together
with both rotary and lateral motions. The machine is quite complicated, and iurther
description need not be given in this condensed account. Suffice it to say that the
straw being fed into it comes out of the other side a jjure fiber of a rich dark-brown
color and of a soft texture. During all these processes it is kept saturated with
water, but it is next taken to the wringing and bleaching machine, where the water
is squeezed out and the curing process is begun. It is then carried to the carding
machine, through which it passes, and thence to the drying machine, where every
particle of moisture is evaporated, and thence to the press, where it is pnt up in
bales ready for market. The fiber is packed in burlap bales, 225 pounds to a bale.

Finns sylveatris, Scotch Piue, is the European species, which is used in the same
manner in Silesia, Thiiriiiger Wald, Sweden, Holland, etc. This textile material is
employed in underclothing as a substitute for flannel, and accredited with valuable
medicinal properties. The leaf needles are first distilled with water, for the extrac-
tion of the oil contained in them. The waters are tised in medicinal baths. The
remaining material is treated with boiling soda solution, for the removal of the vege-

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 271

table matters. The resulting tibrr, ecjiuil to about 13;^ per cent of the fresh needles,
is spun into yarn and then woven. The material is largely used in Vienna and Bres-
lau for hospital and military blankets. The fiber is also emjiloyed as a substitute
for horsehair in stuffing.

Pinus sabiniana. Digger Pine.

CoMMox XAMEs. — Bull pine, digger pine, Sal)ine's pine, gfay leaf ])ine, etc.
California, Shasta County, along the foothills of the C^oast h'ang«) and the western
slope of the Sierra Nevada, below 4,000 feet elevation. The wood is light, soft, and
strong, brittle, compact, but not durable. The edible nuts supply the Indians with
food, and "the big iibrous roots are used by them for weaving into many domestic
articles." A tree, 75 to 100 feet.

Pinus strobus. White Pine.

The common white pine needs no description. Sargent says of it: "More largely
mannfactnred into lumber, shingles, laths, etc., than any other North American tree."

Woody Fiber. — The species is only introduced in this catalogue on account of its
being one of the woods commonly used for the jjacking material knawn as "excelsior,"
which is to that extent a liber substitute, used also for upholstery and for filling
cheap mattresses. Other woods used for this purpose are poplar and spruce.

There are a dozen different kinds of machines in use for reducing lumber to the
sort of fine shavings which form excelsior. After cutting the lumber to right
lengths and properly seasoning it, it is run through the machine, which practically
cuts it first into thin ribbons and then into threads of fiber by means of closely set
parallel cutters. Second-growth timber and clean body wood is usually employed
in the manufacture.

Pipturus argenteus.

Exogen. Urticacecr. Tall shrub or tree, 50 to 60 feet.
A North American plant, also found in Australia and the islands of the Pacific. In
Queensland it is known as the Queensland grass-cloth plant, or native mulberry, and
is called in the vernacular Kowjanfiii. Met with on the banks of rivers and smaller
streams. Dr. Christy states that it aftbrds a fiber of fine texture and great strength,
but difficult of preparation. The bark also yields a brown dye. P. asper is a Cuban
species. P. gaudichaudicoiiis is a Sandwich Island species, cited by Hillebrand as
P. alhida, "the Mamake of the n tives of Hawaii; one of the two principal Kapa
plants, not known from elsewhere."'

Pissang utan (Malay). See Musa fextilis.
Pita.

The term "jn^a" has been given to the fiber of several distinct species of fleshy
leaved plants, and is, on this account, confusing as a name to distinguish any partic-
ular kind of fiber. It is used oftentimes as a prefix, jrita de corojo being an example,
meaning corojo "Jlber," or corojo "hemi)," from Acrocomia la^iiospalha. It has also been
given as a distinctive name to the fiber of A(jarc umcricana, Fitrcraa (j'ujaniea, Karatas
j)1innieri, and BromcUa sijlrcstris. I think the name should either be abandoned alto-
gether or used exclusively to designate the fiber of Jr/ace amcricana, to which it has
been most commonly applied. In additiou to the above might be mentioned several
compound names such n^ p'tla Jioja, from Fiircraa (j'ujantea, etc.

Pite (Pr.). Agave americana.

Plagianthus betulinus. Eibbon Tree of JTew Zealand.

This species belongs to a small genus of StercuUacccv, confined to South Australia,
Tasmania, and New Zealand, and when full grown is a tree 70 to 80 feet high, though
often seen as a straggling bush. It is sometimes called the lace bark tree.

272 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

Bast Fiber. — Its bark is of a beautiful lace-like texture, tearing into shreds with
greatest ease, but flexible and strong. According to the Treasur3' of Botany, the tree
is called Akaroa by the New Zealanders, who extract a fibrous material from the
young branches, known as Now Zealand cotton, which is not only fine, but exceed-
ingly strong, though resembling flax or liemp rather than cotton. The fiber of the
ribbon tree is utilized in the manufacture of fishing lines and nets, and to some
extent of cordage and paper.

Plagiantliiis piilchellKs, the Victorian lienip bush, is an allied species. It is a ((uick
grower and reaches a height of 6 to 12 feet, resembling a birch in appearance. It
is invarial>ly found growing ou the banks of rivers and creeks, and is said to be plen-
tiful on the Varra River, near to Melhourne. It is siirprising that as a fiber ])]ant of
great value this should be so long overlooked. It is fnlly e([nal to the (i>ueensland
hemp {Sida rctiisa), which has already become an article of commercial importance
in that colony. The J'layiatithits possesses the advantage of being much longer in
staple. The fiber is very soft and glossy, and should form a good warp yarn, either
by itself or as admixture with some other material. This and the ])recediiig species
were secured with the Australasian collection at the Phil. Int. Exh., 1876, prepared
by Dr. Gnilfoyle. °

Plagianthus sidoides.

Native of Australia. Another ]dant of this region to which has been given the
name cnrrijoiig. It grows to a height of 10 to 12 IVet, and according to Spon is found
on the Strzelecki Range, on the Gi]ipsland gold fields, aixl on the Dandcnong Range,
and occurs in Tasmania.

The fiber is jirized by the miners for cordage purposes, iind niiglit be a])plied to
the manufactnre of hats, textiles, and paper. The bark is readily removed fnmi the
trunk and lirauches.

Plantain (see Musa spp.).
Platanillo (Veuez.). AnvlcpiaH cura,ssavica.
Platano f Venez.). See .^/^»^s•« sapientiim.
Poa abyssinica. Teff.

This is another extensive genus of grasses which includes many cultivated Ameri-
can species of fodder grasses.

F. abyssinica is particularly interesting, as it was cultivated by the ancient Egyp-
tians, and was used by them for ''straw"' in brickmaking. It has been found in
ancient clay bricks. At the present time it is largely cultivated in Abyssinia as a
cereal.

P. ca'spitosa, Wire grass or Australian Meadow grass, is a native grass of ^■ictoria,
from which the natives make mats. "Our Victorian Wire grass, which grows to a
height of 4 feet, might, with proper appliances, even rival the celebrated Esparto of
south Europe" (Guilfoiile). P. cyitosuroides is found in northern .Vfrica and southern
Asia. In northwest India it is said to be used for cordage ami for mats. Would
prove a serviceable paper stock.

Poa pratensis. Blue Grass.

C< )MMOx NAMES. — Kentucky blue grass ; blue grass (in Kentucky and Tennessee) ;
green grass; June grass (in New England); smooth meadow grass; common
spear grass; spear grass; English grass ; smooth-stalked meadow grass (fig. 91).
This is ai)parently native throughout the temperate regions of the Northern Hemi-
sphere. It ranges from Labrador to South Carolina, westward to the Pacific Coast,
and northward to Alaska. In the limestone regions of Kentucky and Tennessee it
attains its greatest perfection, and is there regarded as the king of pasture grasses.
It requires a good soil containing some lime in order to yield profitable crops. It is

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE.

273

largely employed in the Eiisteni and Middle States as a lawn grass, for which use it
is well adapted. There are several varieties, which differ chielly in the breadth and
length of the leaves, particularly those at the base of the .stem. It is not so well
adapted for the production of hay as it is for pasturage. (F. Lamson-Scribner.)

Stkuctcral Fiber. — Useful for tine straw plait. In 1822 a silver medal and 20
guineas were awarded to Miss So-
phia Woodhouse, of Connecticut,
for a new material for straw plait,
this species having been employed. ™«,

It was then supposed to be ecjual ^i^Jt

to the Italian straw for the finer
kinds of braids.

Poah (Nepal). See Boehmeria.

Pochote (Mex.). See Ceiba
pentandra and Eriodendron
anfractuosum.

P6i (Ind.). See Maouiiapuya.

Polechi (Malay). Hibiscus
sabdariffa.

PoUinia (It.). Chrysopotjon
gryllus.

Po-lo-ma (China). See Ana-
nas satira.

Polyalthia longifolia. In-
dian Fir.

Exogen. Anonacew.

A tree of the hotter parts of In-
dia; "commonly planted on ave-
nues along roads in Bengal and
south India."

Fiber. — Said to produce a good
bast fiber, samples of which were
sent to the Amsterdam Exhibition,
and Ceylon, yields a cordage fiber in the western Ghats, according to Dr. Watt.

Polygonatum multiflorum. Solomon's Seal.

A moderate genus of LUidcew, distributed over the temperate parts of the northern
hemisphere. The familiar s]>ecies arc graceful woodhnul herbs. A curious example
of the utility of the above species as a textile is a parasol cover from Ireland pre-
served in the Kew Mus.

Polyporus betulinus. The Razor-si rop Fungus.

Found upon both living and dead birch trees. Pileus from 3 to 6 inches broad,
smooth, corky, elastic, hoof-shaped, at first pale, then becomes brownish gray; mar-
gin incurved; pileus covered with a thin epidermis, which easily peels off; pores
white or tinged with brown. The wliole plant when dry is very light; the lower
surface is frequently rough, with numerous needle-like projections, making it resem-
ble a Hydnum when viewed horizontally.

Pseudo-fiber. — While the substance prepared from this fungus more nearly
resembles leather than a textile fabric, it is similar in structure to Fames fomentarius,
12247— Xo. 9 18

91. — Kentucky blue grass, Poa pratensis.

P. coffeoides, found in the forests of AVynaad

274 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WOKLD.

and is therefore included. " The preparation of the fungus for razor strops re(iuires
that it be cut iu the autumn, when its substance has become dry and firm, suljjected
to pressure for twenty -four hours, carefully rubbed with pumice stoue, sliced longi-
tudinally, and pieces entirely free from the erosion of insects glued upon a wooden
stretcher. The excellence of this material is probably due to the minute crystals it
contains being sufficiently hard to act upon the steel. Cesalpinus mentions this use
of fungous growths, and the barbers of that period were familiar with it It seems
strange that so valuable a material should have been ovei'looked in modern times."
{B. T. Galloway.)

P. squamosns, theDrjad'a Saddle, maybe mentioned iu the same category. MeruliuH
lacrynunis, the dry-rot fungus, the mj'celinm of which assumes varions forms when
spread out in thick, skiu-like sheets, serves also for razor strops. See also Xi/Iostroma
(jujaiiteuvi and Fomes fomciitarius.

Polytrichuni commune. Hair Moss.

An interesting example of the economic use of this moss is a hammock preserved
in the Kew Mus. from Yorkshire; also "brooms from Sussex and from P)erne in
Switzerland, where they are used by weavers under the name of TVeber-Biirste, or
Wii7-::eI-Biirste."

Pooah (Ind.). Mxontia piiya.

Populus deltoides. Cottonwood,

Syn. /'. monilifera.

Esogen. SaJicacea'. A tree, 75 to 150 feet.

Common names. — Cottonwood, cotton tree, Carolina poi)lar, necklace pojdar, etc.
Shores of Lake Champlain, Vermont, through southwestern Kew England to west-
ern Florida; west along northern shores of Lake Ontario to eastern bases of the
Rocky Mountains of Montana, Colorado, and New Mexico. Wood used largely in
the manufacture of light ])acking cases, fence boards, wood pulp, and for fuel. (C S.
Sargent.)

Bast Fiber. — The tree yields an abundance of long, soft, fibrous bark, used by the
Indians along the Colorado Ri\er for ropes, twines, sandals, mats, etc. "Whoever
has seen the jietticoats made of the inner bark of the cotton wood {!'. frcmonti),
worn by the squaws along the Colorado River, must have realized the possibility of
utilizing the same material as well as that of the allied species." (Dr. V. Harard.)
P. trichocarpa, the black or balsam cottonwood of the Northwest, is much used by
the northern California Indians for the brown work of the woof of their hats and
baskets.

Potari (I>eng.). AhntUon inilicum.

Pothos violaceus.

A genus of Aracew, natives of India, China, Madagascar, New Holland, etc.
They usually have cord-like stems, and send out false roots, which attach themselves
to trees. P. violaceus, the wild cocoa, is named in the Flax and Hemp Commission list
as " a substitute for straw plait." The revised name of this species h Antlnirium
scan dens.

Pouk (Bmm.). Butea frondosa.

Pouzolzia spp.

The plants of this genus of Vrticacew are allied to the Bochmcrias, and are natives
of the Tropics of both hemispheres. P. pcntandra, P. vimhua, and I', indica yield use-
ful cordage fibers in India.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 275

Prairie grass (see Spartina cynosuroidoi: also Sporobolus cryptindus).

Prickly pear (see Opuntia).

Prionium palmita. The Palmet, or Palmite.

Endogen. Ji(vcaci(e.

Habitat. — South Africa, where it grows in tlie beds of rivers, often choking the
stream. It resembles in appearance a bromeliaceous plant, with its trunk 5 to 10
feet in length and its tuft of sword-shaped leaves.

Stkuctural Fiber. — "The leaf sheaths contain a network of strong, black iiber,
suitable for brush making, or, when curled, as a substitute for horsehair. The leaves
themselves are useful for plaiting and thatching, and also yield a very good fiber."
(.1. Smifh.) Its leaves are used for making hats, liaskets, etc., and the fiber might
be employed in textile uses, such as for cordage, brushes, and upholstery.

Prosopis pubescens. Screw Bean.

Exogen. Lcyuminosw. A bushy shrub.

This species abounds in the southwestern United States and Mexico. Representa-
tives of the genus are also found on the plains of Buenos Ayres and Patagonia, known
as IietorgiiiUo.

The pods of this species are twisted like a corkscrew. The fruit or l>ean is employed
largely for food by the Indians .along the Colorado Kiver. in Arizona, and l)y the Utahs,
who collect large cpiantities to store for winter food. (Sec Ann. Rei)t. U. S. Dept. Ag.,
1870, p. 412.)

Bast Fibei;. — The bark of this plant, torn off in strips, is used by the Mohave
Indians of Arizona for binding pottery. Better prepared, it would make a fair cord-
age liber, although when produced in the form of ribbons, as in the siiecimens col-
lected by Dr. E. Palmer, it can only be regarded as a tie material.

Pseudo-fibers (see Classification of Fibers, ]). 25).
Pteris decipiens (see note under Adiantitnt).
Pterocarpus santalinus.

Exogen. Le(jHminus<v. A large tree.

There are 15 or more species in the genus, and all are plants of large size, scattered
over tropical Asia, Africa, and America. The plant yields a deep red dye, known to
commerce as "red sanders," large quantities of which are exported from India
annually. Gum kino is obtained from two species of i'/eroca>7J(ts, one growing in
India and the other in Africa. Some of the barks are also used for tanning.

Bast Fiber. — The fiber is reddish in color, composed of quite fine filaments of
moderate strength. From the size and appearance of this specimen, which is quite
old, I judge it has only been extracted experimentally. A twisted cord of the fiber,
about the size of common manila-paper twine, would^show about the same tenacity.
It would doubtless make a good paper stock, if it could be cheaply exfracted and in
large quantities.

Pua hemp (lud.). Mnoutia pnya.

Pueraria thunbergiana. Ko Hemp.

Exogen. Leguminosw. A twining plant.

Habitat. — China and .Japan.

Bast Fiber. — Dr. Morris states that the fiber of this trailing vine, long known in
China and .Tapan, is obtained from the succulent green stems, and is used, but less
than formerly, for summer clothing. It is said to be more durable than China grass
cloth.

276 USEFUL FIBER PLAKTS OF THE WORLD.

Fulipunta (Peru). See Phytelephas.

Fulu (Hawaii). See Cibotium spp. See under Woochvardia.

Punj (Intl.). Sterculia guttata.

Puta and Puttiya (N. W. Prov. lud.). See Kydia.

Quahitl (Yuc, Maya) == a tree.

Quasb (Arab.). Bamhusa arundinacea.

Queensland hemp. Mda rhomhifoUa.

Queimora (Braz.). Gouratari.

Quimbombo. Spanish for Hibiscus eftculenfus.

Raffia.

The uiinie giveu to :i surface fiber which is 2)ro(lu(e<l Wy stripping the epidermis of
the leaves of species of palms of the genus RapMa, which see. Epidermal strijis
similar to rafiBa may also be produced from the leaves of many other species of palm
such as Cocos nucifera, the cocoanut, Uorassna, the I'almyra palm, etc., specimens of
which are preserved in economic museums.

Ragi (Ind.). Elennine coracana.

Rag^veed. Ambrosia trifida.

Rain-coats, Fiber for. Ja,]}.,Oryzasafiva; China, Trachycarp us excels us.

Raiz de Zacaton (Mex.). Epicampes macroura.

Rajmahal hemp (Ind.). See Marsdenia.

Rameta bast (see Lasiosiphon eriocephalus).

Rami (Peru). Boehmeria.

Rami-tsjina (^lalay). See (Uirchorus.

Ramie and Ramee. Boehmeria tenacissima. See also B. nivea.

Ramio (Span.). Pamie, or species of Boehmeria.

Ran or Ban-bhendi (Bomb.). Malachra capitata.

Ran-she-\vra (Bomb.). Sesbania.

Raphia ruffia. Kaffia Palm.

Endogen. ruhinc.

There are several species of this geuus, natives of Africa, where they abound in
low, swamjiy lands upon river banks or near the sea ujion both the east and west
coasts. One species, however, is found in similar situations in Brazil. They produce
gigantic pinnate leaves often 50 feet in length, trees frequently being found 70 feet
in height. The immense fruit spikes often weigh 200 or 300 pounds, and bear a large
number of one-seeded fruits larger than eggs. The genus is a prominent one, as it
contains three species yielding important commercial fibers.

E. ruffia is a Mailagascar species, growing abundantly on the coast and inland,
reaching an altitude of 4,000 feet. The leaves average 25 feet in length and are made
up of a series of long grass-like pinnate fronds. (See fig. 92.)

The revised name of this species is li. pcdimculata.

Surface Fiber. — This fiber is derived from the cuticle of the leaves, whicJi are

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE.

277

taken befon^ fully expanded and iteeled upon both sides. Tlie thin strips of librons
material thns obtained are afterwards divided into narrower strips by a kind of
comb, according to the pnrpose for whicli tliey are to be nsed.

It api>ears as llat, straw-colored strips, abont half to tlireo-<iuarters inch wide
and from 3 to 4 feet long. It is caixiblo of being divided into iine threads. In Mad-
agascar it is used for delicately i)laited goods, hats, mats for covering lloors, and
"wrajiping np goods. The loose ; trips are extensively nsed in this country^ in place of
Rnssian bast or tie bands
by gardeners and nursery-
men. More recently it has
been woven into superior
matting, tastefully col-
ored, and used instead of
tapestry for covering
walls in London houses.
Eaiha usually reaches this
country (England) loose-
ly plaited in hanks weigh-
ing from 11 to 3 pounds
each. These are made up
into bales weighing 1^ to
5J hundredweight. The
preparation of raftia is one
of the most extensive in-
dustries in Madagascar,
The men cut the palm
k'aves in the forests and
bring them home for the
women to complete the
work. The liber is cured
the same day i t is stripped.
(Dr. 2Torns.)

The Kew Mus. contains
examples of coarse cloth
made by the natives of the
ujiper Congo. This cloth
is the universal clothing
of the Malagasy slaves.
The fiber is exported to the United States in the hanks described above, its only
use being as a tie material in nurseries, etc,

Raphia taedigera. The Jupati Palm.

F(»uud on the banks of the lower Amazon and Para rivers in Brazil, but unknown
in the interior. The cylindrical leiifstalks, often 12 feet or more in length, are em-
ployed by the natives for walls or partitions of their houses, and used in other
waj-8.

Fiber. — The fiber is similar in every respect to the preceding and is useil for the
same purposes, some of the strips being exported to England for use as tie mate-
rial, especially in hop fields. Among its native nses may bo mentioned cordage and
fishing nets.

This species is now regarded by botanists as identical with the next.

Raphia vinifera. Bamboo Palm.

Common and native names.— Wine palm of West Africa. (The Palm) Lji-
ofjura, Eriko, and Akpako, Yorubaland; (the fiber) Ii/o.
Abundant on the borders of rivers intersecting tlie countries near the sea, in

Fig. 92. — Tlie llaftia palm, lUiphia ruffia.

278

USEFUL FIBEE PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

the kingdoms of Owarc and P.euin, west Africa. The tree is of medium height, the
Jcaves measuring 6 or 7 feet in length. The stems are used for the frameworlc of
native dwellings, and the leaves, bound with lines, are used fur thatching. From
the trunk an intoxicating beverage called Bourdon is obtained.

The governor of Lagos, in a report to the Kew authorities in 1891, states that it
would be impossible to calculate the area occupied by these forests, but it may be
accepted "without doubt that they extend throughout the length of the colony,
and to a distance of at least 15 miles from the seacoast, and that over this area of
about 5,000 square miles they form a considerable proportion of the vegetation, next
only in numbers to the oil palm and the mangrove." (See tig. 93.)

Structukal Fibeu. — This is the "African bass" of commerce. It is in appear-
ance a stiff and wiry liber, varying
in color from dark brown to light
red, dependent for its shades on
duration of soaking. It is most
readily obtained in lengths of from
3 to 4 feet, beyond which length it
is inconvenient to pack and diffi-
cult to procure without injury to
thetree. ludiameter itvaries from
one-sixteenth to one-thirtietli of
an inch, the latter of which may be
accepted as the limit of linencss to
be admitted in a commercial sam-
ple for the European markf't.

The liber is obtained from the
fibrous sheathing at the base of
the petioles, in lengths of 3 to 4
feet. It has been a regular article
of commcrcesincc 1890, though the
prices are eomowhat lower than
those quoted for Para and Hahia
piassaba, which are employed for
the same uses, that is, for hard
brushes. Epidermal strijis are
also secured from the leaves of this
species, though shipments of the
fiber made in 18D5 Avere reported
upon as badly prepared, the strips
being too short, and curled up,
resembling fine twine.

Everybody iu the colony is aware
of the manifold uses of the Ilaphia
palm; how, from its leaves, hats,
cloth, and cordage are made; from
its leaf stems, rafters, fences, and walls, and from its crown of young unopened leaves
palm wine of excellent quality. Of one part only the use seemsnot generally known,
and it would appear that this particular portion of the tree, though hitherto treated as
useless, is in reality of nu)re value than all the rest. When the "Bamboo" cutter
clears away the leaves from the lower stem of the palms the trees present a very ragged
and uneven appearance owing to the practice of leaving a portion of the leafstalk
adhering to the parent stem. These base stalks i>artially incase the bole of the tree
and project upward and outward forming the scaly covering which gives so strange
an appearance to a grove of Baphia palms. From these stumps of the leafstalks the
native fishing lines arc made. The fiber is extracted by a process of soaking and
scraping, which is exceedingly sim-ple and is fully understood by every bamboo cut-

Fio. 9J. — Tlic Jupali pului, L'aplda vinifcra.

DESCniPTIVE rATALOOITE.

270

ter and line maker. It is this liber wliicli is known in tlie Enropcan market as
"African bass," ami there is no apparent reason why, with a i>opulation who are in
the habit of prepaiing it, and a source of supply which may be regarded as practi-
cally imlin;ited, we should not be able to compete on even terms with the sources of
supply which at j)resent monopolize the market. {Alfred Moloinj, f/orcrnnr of Lngos.)
Othkr SI'KCIES. — R. liooleri is the I'kut of Old Calabar, where it is cultivated as a
wine palm. The natives also manufacture cloth from the eijidcrmis of the leaflets.
Oa the Sherboro, in Sierra Leone, they make hammocks from it, as well as all sorts
of basket work, mats, etc. This is one of the largest of the Baphlan, the whole plant
often attaininj^ a height of 70 feet. The fronds are 40 feet long, with leatlets 1 to 5
feet long. If in other respects suitable, this should yield Baffin ilber as long as the

Tig. 94.— a plant of Muiciiala.

best from Madagascar. (Kew Bull., 1895.) B. ivelwitschii is a new species from
Angola. The natives manufacture the epidermis from the leadets into cloths, etc.
B. textilis, a closely allied species, also yields textile filaments.

Rat (Ceyl.) = red.

Rataroa. New Zealand flax. See Phormiiini.
Rattan cane (Ceyl.). See Calamus rotang.
Ravenala guyanensis.

Endogen. Mnnacco'. Giant wild plantain. (Fig. 04.)
Known by the French as Traveler's tree, as it stores uj) water in the large cnp-llke

280 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

sheatbs of the leafstalks. Found in Britisli Guiana and a second species, Il.mada-
gascdrleiisig, in Madagascar, the gigantic leaves l>eiug used hy the natives of hoth
countries as athatch material. "The blades of the leaves are oldong in form and are
larger in size than those of any known plant except the Victoria regia." {Dr. Masters.)

Ra"waye (W. Afr.). CocMospermum tinctorium.

Razor strop, fibrous.

In Florida and the West Indies a very serviceable razor stro]) is made from the
soft inner part of the Hower stalks of "poling" species of Agave. They are about
15 inches in length and IJ inches square, one end being made round for a handle.
See also Forties fomcntarius.

* Specimeii. — Mus. K. S. Dep. Ag., from Jgave sisalana.

Red mulberry. Monis riihra.

Red silk cotton. Ilomhax muluhnricnm.

Reed mace. Typha awiuntifoUa.

Reed, Scriptural (see Arumlo donax).

Retama (Peru). Spartiumjuneeum,

Rhea (Ind.). See Boehmeria tenacissima.

Rhus trilobata. Aromatic SuMAr, or SqI'Aw Berry.

Exogen. Jnaeardiacete. A shrub, 5 to 8 feet.

Xative IxDiAX NAME. — Hopi or Moqul, Ciibi; from Ciikii, pungent, alluding to
its acid berries, which are called sirwi})8i; a syncopated form of Ciibisiadfa ;
Ciibi, its seeds. (Feivkes.)

Found in the Rocky Mountains, at least as far north as C(dorado, in California,
and southward to Mexico. "The dry shrub is one of the four prescribed fuels for
the kivas. The buds are regarded as medicinal, and the seeds are eagerly eaten by
young people. Its twigs are used for many ceremonial jturposes, and also for coarse
basketry." (Fewkes.)

In T'tah, Arizona, southern California, and New Mexico the Indians depend solely
upon this 2)lant for material out of which to make their baskets. It is far more
durable and tougher than the willow, which is not used by these Indians. The mode
of preparation is as follows: The twigs are soaked in water to soften them, and to
loosen the bark, which is scraped oft" by the females. The twigs are then split by
the use of the mouth and both hands. Their baskets are built up by a succession
of small rolls of grass stems over which these twigs are firmly and closely bound,
A bone awl is used to make the holes under the rims of grass for the split twigs.
Baskets thus made are very durable, will hold water, and are often vised to cook in,
hot stones being dropped in from time to time until the food is doJie. ( Dr. E. Palmer,
Am. Nat. 1878. )

Ribbon-wood (of Otago) (New Zea.). See Hoheria.

Rice,

Chinese paper (see Fatsia papyrifera); — — straw, for straw jilait i^see

Oryza); wild (see Zizania aqnatica).

Ricinus communis. Castor Oil Plant.

Common names. — Falma Christi, Huile dc Castor (the oil) (Fr.); Kiki (Egypt);
j P'i-ma (China); Etidaru (Ceyl.); Kyeksii (Burm.); Khirvd (Arab.); Bedanjir

(Pers.), and many others.
. Supposed to be a native of Africa, from whence the plant was introduced into

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 2<S1

India, imd hns spread to many ]»aits of tlic world. Cultivated largely for its oil
derived from tlio seeds, (irowu in ilie United .States as an oruanieutal jdant.

Woody Fiber. - I can not learn that this j)lant has ever hcen used for liber save
in India. "While Jlicinus communis does not itself yield fiber, it is largely enltivated
in Assam to feed the eri silkworm. An excellent paper pulp is, however, said to be
made from the stems with their bark, the latter containing a liber though not of suf-
licient value to justify its separation. As some 500 mauuds of stems are obtained
from an acre of land, it seems ])robable that where grown in the vicinity of paper
mills it would be more protitablo to dispose of the stems to the paper maker than to
>ise them as fuel or thatching as is the present custom." (Die. Ec. Prod. lud.)

Robinia pseudacacia.

Exogen. Letjuiiiinosa'. A tree.
An ornamental tree with hard wood, known as the false acacia, or North American
locust. Native of the Southern United States. Savorgnan mentions that liber has
been produced from it, though it can hardly he enumerated as a useful til>er species.
Bernardin, however, gives the species place in the list of 550 useful libers, for manu-
facturing stuffs and paper.

Rocoii (see liiia oreJlana),

Rooee Ru and Rui (Iiid.). Gossypium lierhaceum.

Rourea santaloides. The Kirindi-wel of Ceylon.

A creejjer, belonging to the family Connaracca'. Allied to the bean family. The
genus comprises 40 or more species, distributed over tro})ical Asia, though represent,
atives are found in Africa and America. They are trees and shrubs, a few of them-
as 7i. santaloides, being scandent.

Woody Fibeij. — The twining stems of this species are used in Ceylon for a pow-
erful cordage, which is produced hy twisting them together. These ropes are
employed in constructing strong fences or stockades; and in jxgriculture "where
fascines have to he erected for the support of temporary earthwork, etc." The
cordage is also used for tethering cattle.

"Specimens were exhibited in the Ceylon court, W. C. E., 189.3.

Rozelle hemp. HibiscMf^ salxho-ifa.
Rusa grass (see Andropixjon schoenanthus).
Rush.

The different species of rushes are used in the mnuufacture of mats, mattings,
rough cordage, and for paper stock. Some of the rushes described in tliis work will
lie found under Cyjxriis. See also Juncus.

Rye straw (see Hccale).

Sabal palmetto. The Cabbage Palmetto of Florida.

Endogen. I'almw. A tall palm, 25 to 50 feet.

One of the most northerly palms. Found in South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida,
in the latter State often appearing in large groves. The species of Sabal are all
natives of tropical America, chiefly the West Indies, and the southern United States.
The trunks of old examples of S. pahnetlo are smooth, hut the young trees are cov-
ered with a lattice of the dead leafstalks, arranged with geometrical regularity.
They are used for piles, and are said to be more enduring than the ordinary timber
species for this purpose. Seminole Indian name, Tah-lah-lciil-l^ee Fig. 1, PI. X, is
a group of cabbage palmetto at Jupiter Inlet, Florida.

Structural Fiber. — The manufacture of brush liber from the cabbage jialmetto

282 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

forms a considerable industry in Florida, this material beinjjf produced in tLe works
located at Jacksonville. The source of the liber is tbe "boots,' or spathes of the
leaf stems, which surround the "bud," or cabbage, and in securing these buds, with
the leaf stems, the tree is sacrificed. The buds are cut out in the localities to the
southward, where large groves are to be found, and are shipped to the central fac-
tory. Here they are steamed, to soften and loosen the mass, when the boots are
removed and are immediately crushed by passing under a scries of stamps similar to
the device formerly employed in crushing gold ore in C(dorado. The softened and
crushed boots are then subjected to an automatic combing machine, which takes out
the soft liber, leaving about 25 per cent of the original fibrous material, in the form
of stiff reddish fibers, considerably finer than ])iassaba, and averaging 15 to 18 inches
in length. Tliese fibers are then sorted, or "drafted," and are made up in bundles
of dift'ereut lengths, to be oiled and polished. The ends are then cut sijuare, and tlie
fiber, in the form of small bundles, is ready for the brush maker. The different
lengths are known as " long draft," " sliort draft," etc. The brushes produced are
made in many forms and are useful for many ])urposes.

The soft or tangled fiber has not been largely utilized, otherwise than to strew over
the streets of Jack.sonville, possibly as a kind of "sand-bind" material. It has been
used to slight extent as the filirons portion of artificial board, though not to the
extent of making it an industry. It might be used as a cheap substitute for coir.'
The selected leaves of the cabbage ])almctto are capable of manufacture into hats
for summer wear, of great beauty and finish. In the bazaars of Florida cities that are
winter resorts ladies' hats made of this material arc regularly sold, and men's hats
are also made from this species. For hat manufacture the leaves are whitened by
brushing with a solution of oxalic acid once or twice, alter which they are bleached
by exposing to the fumes of burning sulphur. The leaves are also plaited into orna-
mental basket work, and are also used, when torn into strips, in the manufacture of
fly brushes, which are regularly sold in the local bazaars and house-furnishing estab-
lishments.

The bud, or "cabbage," of 5. paJmctto is prized by the Seminole Indians as an article
of food; after cutting out and trimming the bud it is boiled. .S'. adansoni is the
dwarf jialm of Georgia and Florida. The stem is short or entirely under ground.
Its leaves are used for plaiting into hats. S. blaclbnrniaiium is known as the Ber-
muda palm, and its leaves are manufactured into hats, baskets, fans, and other useful
articles. S. vicxicanum is a Mexican species, which is said to be cultivated. Like the
preceding species its leaves are utilized, being made into mats and other articles.
S. nmhracnlif mtm, the imlmetto royal, is a form ofS. hhtckhurnianum, which is utilized
in Jamaica, the outside portions of the trunk being employed for boarding up native
huts and forming partitions. Savorguan states that hats and sandals are made from
this palm, the fiber being very strong and indestrnctible. See also Screnoa, the saw
palmetto.

* Specimens of Sabal palmetto brush fiber in series, and various articles from the
leaves, iire preserved in the Mus. U. S. Dept. Ag. ; the U. S. Nat. Mus., and the Field
Col. Mus.

Saccharum officinarum. Sugar Cane.

This species belongs to a genus of grasses of the ixihe Andropogonew. Over 60
species have been described, covering a wide geographical range, though for the
most part natives of tropical and subtropical countries. S. officinarum was probably
first cultivated in India, although its varieties are now spread over the world. It
has been cultivated in tropical America since 1610.

Structural Fiber. — The fiber from this species is derived from the refuse after
the cane has passed through the crushing mills. In India it was recommended as a
useful paper material by Liotard. A further use in manufacture in a small way,
according to the Die. Ec. Prod. Ind.. Vol. VI, pt. 2, is for well ropes, and on the
Chenab it is twisted into rough cordage used for tying logs into rafts. The destruc-

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 283

tion of the fiber is one of the lensons why tlio natives of niniiy ports of India ohieet
to the improved iron rollers now very jieuerally employed in the expression of tiie
juice. It is noted that the dried material is not used as fuel or manure.

Kefer also to " Bagasse " in the alphabetical index, where this subject is furtlier
treated.

* Specimens of Bagasse, Mus. U. S. Dept. Ag.

Saccharum sara.

Syn. .S'. riliaye and N. iniinja.

Native names. — Sarapai, Sarpatta, and Miivja (Hind.); Sara (HLiid and Beng).

Northwest Provinces of India, especially the Panjstb, where it is sometimes planted
as a boundary hedge.

Structural Fiber.— The Munj, or fiber, from this species is much valued on account
of its strength, elasticity, and power of resisting moisture, and is extensively employed
in t\w manufacture of rope, string, mats, baskets, and paper. Mm\j matting is said
to be proof against the attack of white ants, * * "* iSirfci is the light thatch used
in covering carts in wet weather, and is composed of the /«/, or upper portion, of the
fiowering st(>m; the lower and thicker parts, called kdna, are used in the manufac-
ture of chairs, tables, baskets, and screens; also for roofing, for lining Kachha wells,
and lor covering stores or gi'ain. (Oeorf/e Watt.)

The Kew Mus. collection contains many interesting objects made from the fibrous
]tortions of this and other species of Saccharum. Among these may be mentioned
ropes and twines, the fil)er being valued for such uses on account of its elasticity,
strength, and power of resisting moisture. Mats are also shown, including a Sirkar
mat from Calcutta; also a necklace made from the straw, and half stufi' for paper,
made from the culms.

S. spontaneum is another Indian species that is employed for cordage, while S.fus-
cum is recorded as a Himalayan species, known in Hindoo as Killut or Tilliik, and
Pati-khort in Bengal. Of this species, George Watt states that the culms are used in
the manufacture of pens, screens, and light fences, the leaves and reeds for thatch,
and the leaf-sheaths, like those of most wild species of the genus, may be used to
supply the fiber from which the sacrificial thread'is i>repared.

Saci, Sacci, or Sacqui= White agave.

The form of sisal hemp which has its center of production in the northwestern
portion, or the district of Meriila —Ar/are rUjlda clongata. This form fui'nishes the
principal bulk of the sisal hemp exported from Yucatan. See also Yaxci.

Safed-babul and Safed kikar (Beng. and Hind.). Acaciq leucophlwa.
Safed-semal (Hind.). Uriodendron anfracUiosum.
Sago palm. Metroxylon sagu.

Sago is also derived from Cari/ota iircns, ritocnix farinifcra, Corypha gchaiiga, and
other palms that are valued for their fiber.

Sagu (Peru). Areca cutecliu.
Sala (It.). See Carex paludosa.
Sala minore (It.). Typha angustifolia.
Salacia diandi'a.

A genus of Hippocralcacea% containing some 60 or more tropical species, for the most
l)art abounding in India and the Asiatic islands, though found in other parts of the
world. They are erect or trailing evergreen shrubs, and are sometimes cultivated in
greenhouses. S. diandra is an East Indian species said to have been employed for
the native manufacture of ropes and cordage of great strength.

284 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

Salcio.

This word, used with affixes, forms the common Italian names of different species

of. osiers, or willows, used in the industrial economy. da rinclii is the osier,

or water willow ; rifrice, the brittle willow ; riminaU, the pliant willow ;

legare, the binding willow, and many others. >See Salix.

Salix spp.

Exogens. Salicacea^ Willow trees.

The willow family is so well known that a description of the trees is unnecessary.
There are many sjiecies, distributed over the northern hemisphere, and they are
more nnmeroiis in the Old World than the New.

Bast Fibek. — While tbe largest use of the willow is in the manufacture of
basketry, etc., some of the western Indians make use of willow bark, specimens
of which are exhibited in the U. S. Nat. Mus. Dr. Palmer states in the American
Naturalist ibr October, 187><, that the willow trees along the Colorado Kiver, Arizona,
yield abundance of long, soft bast, from which the Indians on this stream make
ropes and twine for domestic purposes, as well as sandals and mats. The females Vi'^'J
generally dress scantily, only that part of the body from the waste to the knees is ^
hidden from view. This custom is observed by most of the Indian females living "* "-'
along the Colorado River. They strip off the bark from these trees and bury it in
blue mud for a few days, after which it is taken out, washed clean, and dried. It is
now soft, jdiable, and easily handled. Being cut into recinisite lengths, they are
fastened very thickly to a belt of the wearer.

Woody Fiuer. — Several si»ecit'8 of Sulix, more commonly known as osiers, are
employed in the manufacture of willow ware, which includes baskets, furniture,
perambulators, ami a varicjty of other useful articles. While this manufacture is
more largely carried on in lOuropean countries, the twigs of a few of our own species,
are so employed in this country, such as Salir pnrintna, the rose, or whii)Cord wil-
low, which ismentif>ned in Gray's Manual, sixth edition, as "growing in low grounds,
and cultivated for basket rods."' Other sjiecies are doubtless employed occasionally,
or in small local industries.

There is hardly a tribe of Indians in North America that is not familiar with the
rude plaiting or weaving of withes, reeds, grasses, etc., into articles of domestic
economy, and several species of willow are employed by them for wickerwork, such
as S. cot (lata, S. serieea, S. petiolaris in the Eastern and Middle States, the last two of
real value; S. hmiandra, S. lasiolepiit and S. hirujata in the Western and Pacific
States. Of the last named only the roots are used by the Hooi)a and Klamath
Indians.

In the study of the subject, one first thinks of oziers or willows as the ordinary
and proper material, but it is well known that our willows do not possess the soft-
ness and pliability which make several species of so much economic im]>ortance in
Euroi)e. Even when cultivated in this country these species become woody and
hard. From all the information within my reach, 1 am led to believe that the native
willow most used in this country, at least west of the Rocky Mountains, is ISaVix
scssilifolia. From the region of the Hoopa and Klamath Indians of northern Cali-
fornia and southern Oregon to that of the Papagos of southern Arizona, this plant
furnishes one of the best materials for the warp of basket work. Young shoots, 2 or
3 feet long, are cut in the spring or early 8un:mer, strip])ed of their bark, and dried.
They are soft and remarkably flexible, sometimes (|uite tenuous, alnmst filiform.
This species deserves attention as one most wortiiy of cultivation for the production
of valuable ozier. In order to keep it well pruned down and provoke new growths
of young, tender shoots, the Indians of northern California set lire to the woods, an
operation likewise intended to improve the hazelnut, another highly esteemed basket
plant." {Dr. V. Harard.)

The woody fiber of S. lasiandru is largely used with other materials by the Pai Utes
and Shoshouee at Ash Meadows^ Nevada, in the construction of pack baskets, water

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 285

and j)ot baskets, aud a kind of flat-bottoined bowl, a few inches deep and sometiraes
18 inches across. The Panaiuiut Indians of California also make loosely woven bird
canes of these withes. Frederick V. Coville gives the following interesting account
of this mannfacture in a paper on the Panamiut Indians of California in the American
Anthropologist, October, 1892, which will serve to illnstrate the methods employed
by North American Indians in the mannfacture of "willow ware" or baskets, etc.,
from withes of Salix and other species :

All these wickerwork utensils are woven by the squaws at the cost of a great deal
of time, care, and slvill. The materials are very simple. They consist of the year-
old shoots of some species of toiigli willow, commonly SaJix hislandra; the year-old
shoots of the aromatic sumac, llhiis frilobafa; the h>ng, Itlack, slender, flexible horns
on the mature pods of the unicorn plant, Martynia louisiana, locally known as devil
horns, and the long, red roots of the tree yucca, Yucca hrerifolia. These materials
give three types of color — the white of the willow and sumac, the black of the devil
horns, and the red of the yncca roots. This last material, although it has a strong
fiber and a pretty red color, is rarely used, for it is too thick to plat closely aud the
resulting fabric is full of interstices. Sumac and willow are j)repared for use in the
same way. The bark is removed froni the fresh shoots Ity biting it loose at the end
and tearing it oft\ The woody portion is scraped to remove bud protuberances aud
other inequalities of the surface, and is then allowed to dry. These slender pieces
of wood, that they may be distinguished from the other elements of basket materials,
will be called withes. The second element is prepared from the same plants. A
S(|uaw selects a fresh shoot, breaks off the too slender upjter portion, and bites one
end so that it starts to split into three nearly equal parts. Holding one of these
parts in her teeth and one in either hand, she pulls them aiiart, guiding the split
with her fingers so dexterously that the whole shoot is divided into three equal even
])ortions. Taking one of these, by a similar process she splits off the pith and the
adjtTifcut less flexible tissue from the inner face, and the bark from the outer, leaving
a pliant, strong, flat strip of young willow or sumac wood. This is here designated
I, strand. Both withes aud strantls may be dried and kept for months and probably
even for several years, l)ut before being used they are always soaked in water. The
pack baskets and some, at least, of the water baskets are made of these strands and
withes. They begin at the bottom with two layers of withes superimposed and
fastened by their middles at right angles. The free ends are bent upward, and in
aud out l)etween them the strands are woven, new withes being inserted as the basket
widens. An attempt at ornamentation is frequently made by retaining the bark on
some of the strands or by staining them, and by slightly varying the "weave." A
squaw commonly occupies an entire month constructing one such basket. The plan
of the pot baskets and plates is very difterent from that of the pack b'askets. The
materials are all carefully selected aud prepared. They consist of willow or sumac
strands like those described above, but narrower and of the finest quality, similar
black strands from the devil h(u-ns, aud the long-Jointed, slender stems of a native
grass, Epicampes ricjcns. The strands of devil horns arc exceedingly tough, of a coal-
black, very persistent color, and attain a length of from 4 to 10 inches. The grass
is particularly adapted to this use from its firm texture and the fact that the portion
above the uppermost joint, which alone is used, is very long, often 18 inches. Start-
ing from a central point a bundle of two or three grass stems and one very slender
withe is sewed by a willow strand To th'^ part already finished. The ])rocess is very
similar to the crocheting of a circular-lamp mat. At the ])roper point the bundle is
drawn more tightly, so that the remainder of the 8])iral forms tlie sides of the basket.
The wall has the thickness, therefore, of one of these bundles, and is composed of a
continuous spiral of them. The willow withe furnishes a strong hold for the stitches,
and the punctures are made by an iron awl. When such an instrument can not be
obtained an admirable equivalent is substituted in the form of a stout, horny-cactus
spine from the devil's pincushion, Echinocactus pohjcvphalns, set in a head of hard

286 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

pitch. The grass stems, whea the stitches are ilra\pn tightly, mal^e a perfect ])ack-
iug, and the basket when linished is water-tight. Curious patterns in black are
woven into the basket by the occasional substitution of strands of devil horns for
those of Avillow.

Osiers for wickerwork are cultivated in Europe and in Eastern countries, and the
manufactures from them are often large industries. Among the European basket
willows, S. triandra is doubtless the best species for purposes of manufacture, its
twigs being light, flexible, and white. This is the Vetrtce de cestc of Italy, com-
monly used for hampers, children's carriages, etc. S. purpurea is said to be cultivated
in France, Germany, and England for ornamental basket work and fine manufac-
tures. S.fra(jiUs is a coarser species, also employed for baskets and the like. S.
alba (the binding willow, ,Sa1flo da legare of the Italians), is the species employed
in making the celebrated charivari chairs. ,S'. vimlnalia, the species most commonly
referred to as the osier, is " more distinguished for the quantity than the (piality of
its twigs." It is also known as the water willow. (Dianihera amerkana is also
called water willow.)

Among the species of Salix used for wickerwork, etc., in Eastern countries are S.
acmophylla for binding; S. alba, or common white willow, used in Kashmir for basket
work ; S. babylouica for baskets, wattles, weirs, fences, etc. ; S. telranperma, basket
work; and >S^. walUchiana baskets, the smaller twigs being used for toothbrushes.

Salt marsh grass. Spartinajuncca.

Saniahuma (Braz.). ErUxJcndron sainauma.

Sambal (Java). See ^l^Jschi/noitiene.

Samoa (Hoiii). Yucca h<iccata.

Samohii (Arg\). Cliori.sia sprviond.

San, Sana, Sani (Hind.). (JroUduria juncea.

San kokra and Sankokla (Iiul.). Hibiscus (■anuahinus.

Sanabu (Iiid.). Croiidarin jniicen.

Sansevieria. The Uowstking Hemps.

An important genus of IJliacav, with representatives in tropical regions of
both hemispheres. They are found on the coast of Guinea, around Ceylon, and
along the Bay of Bengal, extending to Java and the coasts of China. They are
f^ stemless, perennial plants, throwing out runners, and having only root leaves, which
^_are thick and fleshy, and usually sword or lance shaped, with sheathing bases.
They flower from January to May, and the plants grow wild in the jungles. They
are easily propagated on almost every soil from the slips which issue in great abun-
dance from the roots, reipiiring little or no care, and not requiring to be renewed
often, if at all.

The best known species are S. guincensis, S. roxhnnihiana, S. zeylanua, S cf/Iiudyiea,
and ^. lougi flora, the latter species abounding in southern Florida, where beautiful
• examples of its fiber, Gl feet in length, have been extracted. S. kirkii is an African
species, found on the east coast, the liber of which has been prepared experimentally.
S. ehreuhergii is another African species known as Somali-land fil)er, and S, Kulcata
gives a fiber similar to .S'. cylindrica, thoiigh not so valuable. S. lanuf/iiwsa, called
Eatu-Kaptt, is found on the Malabar coast. This plant, upon experiment, according
to Royle, has produced fiber as fine and soft as human hair, and possessing extra-
ordinary strength and tenacity. Very superior examples have been likened to raw
silk, and the firmness of the fiber " induced the Rev. J. Garrow to have it woven

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 287

into clotli, which he declared was as line a piece of cloth as ho had ever scon."
Sansevieria liber was formerly considered a valuable paper stock at Trichinopoly,
where the tow was used, while the fiber served as packing for steam engines.

Sansevieria cylindrica. Ife IIemp.

Endogen. Liliacew. Stcniless, lance-leaved plant.

South Africa from Zanzibar to Angola. Dift'crs from other species of the genus in
that the leaves are cylindrical, or round in horizontal section; when fullj' developed
3 to 4 feet long, and abont an inch thick.

STKUCrrUAL Fibek. — Specimens of liber i)repared from jdauts growing at Kew
and 8ur)mitted to Ide A: Christie, London, were estimated to be worth £28 ])er ton.
"Except that it does not appear quite as strong, it is almost ecpial to .S'. loiir/iftora."
Samples are exhibited in the Kew Mus. from Mauritius and from Sierra Leone. "The
cordage and rope made of this plant appear to the eye of excellent qualitj^, whatever
experience may prove them to be." Experiments recently made with this cordage
have shown it to be the strongest and best fitted for deep-sea sounding of any fiber
known: indeed this is the less surprising, seeing that other species of Sansei-ieria
(the well-known S. ze'/Janica and [/uineensis, for example) arc cultivated in almost all
tropical countries on account of the strength and durability of the liber, under the
name of bowstring hemp.

Sansevieria gnineensis. African Bowstring Hemp.

Nati\'e xame. — h'onji, Zambesi; the fiber, iToiye hemp.

Native of Guinea; found in Central America, Abyssinia, and Mauritius, distrib-
uted to tropical America, particularly the West Indies. Cultivated in greenhouses
with S. zetjJaniva and other sjiecies.

This is the best known form of i)lant producing bowstring hemp, and is one of the
oldest species. It has hoary, erect lanceolate leaves, .3 to 4 feet long, 3 inches broa<l
at the middle, narrowed gradually to an acute apex, not distinctly bordered with
red, copiously mottled on both sides with broad, irregular bands of white.

STRrCTURAL FiBER. — The fiber of this species has been said to resemble manila
hemp, and it is applicable for cordage manufacture. Specimens of the fiber from
Trinidad s^ibmitted to Ide &, Christie, London, were reported upon as follows:
"In point of cleanness and softness of fiber it seems well prepared; but to compete
successfully with manila hemp it would require to be of a better color and of equal
if not superior strength. We value it for rope-making purposes at £20 per ton in
Loudon. Another example of machine prepared was valued at £23 i)er ton. In our
experimental trial carried on at .lamaica, 1,185 pounds of green leaves of S. (jintuen-
s'ls yielded 29 pounds 10 ounces of dry fiber. ^^

CULTURR AND TREPARATiON. — The following Statements regarding- the growth of •
this and allied species of Sansevuria, in Jamaica, are reproduced from the Kew ISul- "
letin for May, 1887.

In the first instance plants may be set out at 3 feet by 3 feet, which, allowing for
roads and paths, would give about 3,000 to the acre. If the soil is kept well broken
and moist, the plants by the extension of root suckers will spread in all directions,
so that ultimately the whole ground, with the exception of certain paths, which
should be kept permanently open, will be covered with plants. As regards the time
which must elapse between planting out and Ihe first yield of leaves suitable for
fiber there would appear to be a great difierence of opinion. Plants which I saw at
St. Thomas at 3 years old were only just ready to be cut ; and Baron Eggers, who
had planted them and kept them under close observation during the whole of that
time, was of opinion that Sansevieria could not be depended upon to yield a crop
before three or three and a half years.

Refer to the account of S. longiflora, the species common in Florida.'

288 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

Sansevieria kirkii. Pangane Hemp.

This species grows abnndautly near Paiignne on tlie mainland opposite the island
of Zanzibar; discovered by 8ir John Kirk.

Structural Fibki;. — The robust habit and large size of the leaf of this jilant
render it valuablo for hl)er pnrposes. Under exceptional circumstances a leaf will
attain a height of J) feet. The liber from plants growing at Kew was valued in 1887
at £27 per ton. It ia nsed by the natives, and yields a long and useful fiber. (Dr.
Morris.)

Sansevieria longiflora. Florida Bowstring Hemp.

Native of e<iuatoriiil Africa, but distributed to tropical America; occurs in Trini-
dad and is common in garden cultivation in southern Florida, or in localities or on
some of tlie Icej's, in a semiwild state wheie introduced plants have been neglected.
The Florida species was at one time thought to be guincensis, but on receipt of
plants of both f/iiineensis and lotujijiora from the royal Botanic Gardens of Trinidad
the form growing in Florida was properly identitied. The leaves are similar to those
of S. (jnineeuxis, but larger, longer, and Hatter, not so firm in texture, and not inva-
riably blotched, the spots being more irregular and tin- entire plant (in Floritla) often
a lighter green. The Howers are 3.J to 4 inches long, while those of ^. guimeuaia are
2 inches. (See fig. 8, I'l. VIII.)

Structural Fibkr. — A specimen of fiber from plants grown at the Royal Kew
Gardens in 1887, and submitted to London fiber brokers, was described as very bright,
clean, and strong; in every Avay a most desirable ctmimercial article, and was valued
at £30 per ton. Fiber extracted by the Department, in 1892, at its experimental fac-
tory on Biscayne Bay, Florida, from nearly a ton of leaves grown on Boca Chica I'fey,
was in every way superior to sisal hemp. Souse of it was produced from a hundred
pounds of selected leaves that averaged GA feet in length, and fiber even 7 feet long
was secured, while the shortest was 2i feet.

Careful estimates based on the quality of Sansevieria fiber produced in these experi-
ments would fix the yield at about 40 pounds of fiber to the ton of leaves. The
Saiisorieria waste was not weighed, but it is very safe to state that with only reason
able wastage (cut liber and liber drawn out with the pulp) the yield of fiber per ton
would come nearer to .50 i>ounds. Even if this is con8i<lerably lower than the yield
of sisal hemp, the quick growth of tho plant, the ease with which it can be harvested,
and the liigher price of the fiber will probably more than make up for the difference
in the yield of cleaned fiber.

The material is too good for cordage in the usual acceptance of the term. It is so
much finer and better than the cordage fibers, so called, that it would doubtless
find a use in the manufacture of fine twines, and with pro]>er pre])aration might be
made into a fair spinning fiber, and possiblj' be emj)loyed on some new form of manu-
facture. The fiber is fine, white, and lustrous, the leaves yielding readily to treat-
ment in the machine in the fresh state.

History ix the United States. — During the investigations of the writer, in
Florida, in the winter of lMtO-91, this plant was found growing at several points,
principally .it Key West, on Boca Chica Key, and at Miami on the east coast. Noth-
ing was accomplished, however, further than to demonstrate that it would thrive
out of doors, in southern Florida, though a brief mention was given to tlie plant in
Bulletin No. 3, on sisal hemp culture (Fib. In v. series), and a reference made to the
value of the Florida-grown fiber, several samples having been secured. As early
as the spring of 1890 several letters were received relating to this ]daut, one of the
first being from Dr. J. V. Harris, of Key West, who spoke higiily of the value of
this plant for fiber cultivation. Letters were also received from ^Ir. George H. Bier,
of Key West, upon the subject, in one of which the statement was made that tlie
plant after introduction into the British West India Islands, found its way to Cuba as
an ornamental plant, and in 1866 was brought as an ornamental plant from Cuba

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 289

to the keys, aud that the people, though ignorant of its value as a fiber plant sub-
seijueutly became alarmed at its rapid extension, and endeavored to eradicate it.
A little later Dr. Harris became interested in the growth of the plant with a view-
to embarking iu its cultivation as an industry. Beyond establishing a small planta-
tion, however, I have been unable to learn that any practical results followed.

Prepakatiox and crLTiVATioN. — In 1892, when the writer visited Key West, he
was able to secure from Dr. Harris interesting information regarding the best manner
of multiplying the young plants, which were photographed in different stages of
growth. In propagating the jilant, for convenience the leaves are cut into sections
about 4 inches long aud inserted into boxes of earth to the depth of about 2 inches.
The soil must be moderately dry, as too much moisture will cause the leaves to rot.
The boxes must be placed in a moderately shady place, and in a few weeks' time the
slips will put out numerous fibrous roots, which will soon be followed by suckers.
Tlie plant can also be readily propagated by sections of its rhizomes or roots, which
grow without any difficulty. It was stated that the plant requires good, rich soil to
succeed well, and will under favorable circumstances ac(]^uire its full growth in about
twelve months" time; ordinarily, however, it will not ac(|uire its full growth until
sometime in the second year. In the reports of experiments with another species, in
Jamaica (Kew Bull., May, 1887), the time of growth to maturity is placed at three and
a half years. (See remarks ou culture, under S. guineensls.) Dr. Harris, nevertheless,
states that wben once the land is stocked with its growth it will always, when cut,
give a full growth from the roots inside of twelve months ; so that it is perfectly safe,
after the second year, to count on a full crop every year, the growth of each year
becoming denser, and iu a few years becoming so thick that it would appear to
be impossible to cultivate it ; which, however, appears to be needless, as when once
fully established it takes entire possession of the soil, entirely eradicating everything
else. It does not appear to materially exhaust the soil, as it will grow for a number
of years in the same place and continue to make vigorous growth.

As to yield, it was stated that after a plantation is well established it is j)ossible to
secure a crop of 5 tons of clean fiber per acre. The experiments of Dr. Roxburgh,
however, do not give such figures of yield, as 1,613 pounds of fiber at a gathering
was estimated, or, at the rate of two crops a year, a little less than 2i tons of fiber.

''Specimens of the plants are growing in the conservatory of this Department, and
of the fiber, in series, are preserved in the Mus. U. S. Dept. Ag. See Report No, 5,
Fiber Investigations series, Dept. Ag., chapter on Sansevieria.

Sansevieria roxburghiana. Moorva.

This species has been knowu and prized iu India from remote antiqujity under the
name of Moorva or Miirra. In the catalogue of Indian fibers, London (Exhibition,
1862), it is called Moorga, Moorgavee, or Moorgalxvee. It is also known under the ver-
nacular names oi Murgavl, Murga, and MazooJ. Its Sanskrit synonym is Goni. The
plant "was long confused with S. zcylanica, but Sir Joseph Hooker (Flora of British
India, YI, p. 271) has shown it to be quite distinct. The leaves reach 4 feet iu
height, narrow and semicircular in transverse section, faintly clouded with black.
The plant is cultivated for the sake of its fiber, aud is the original bowstring hemp
l>lant. The many uses to which the fiber is applied in India are fully described in
Watt's Dictionary of the Economic Products of India, VI, pt. 2, p. 460." {Dr. Morris.)
From this it would appear that the following statements by Dr. George Watt refer
to .S'. roxhiirghUina the true Indian species, and not to the Ceylon species S. seylanlca.

Structural Fiber. — From the succulent leaves is extracted a fiber held in high
esteem by the natives on account of its elasticity and consequent suitableness for
bowstrings, Sir W. Jones says: "From the leaves of this plant the ancient Hindus
extracted a very long thread called Maurvi of which they made bowstrings, and
which for that reason was ordered by Menu to form the sacrificial zone of the mili-
tary classes." Roxburgh, iu his detailed account of this fiber, makes the following
12247— i^o. 9 19

290 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

somewhat iuterestiug remark: "I am incliued to think that the fine line called
China grass, which is employed for lishing lines, tiddle strings, etc., is made of these
fibers." (Roxburgh thus would seem to have regarded China grass and Rhea as two
widel}^ distinct fibers.) In his experiments 80 pounds of the fresh leaves yielded 1
pound of clean, dry fiber. He therefore concluded that the plant might be cultivated
with advantage on account of its fiber. (George Wait.) It is, in fact, easily cul-
tivated. The fiber is used for the iireparation of cordage and matting in the regions
where it occurs, and is much valued in Europe for ropes used in deep-sea dredgings.
Has been used for jiaper but is too expensive a fiber for this use. The fiber is pliant,
soft, and silky, and much resembles that of the pineapple. It is usually prepared by
taking the fresh leaves andjdacing one of them on a smooth board which is raised
at one end. The lower end of the leaf is then pressed down by the toe of the work-
man, who squats on the plank, and with a blunt knife, or piece of iron plate scrapes
upward along the surface of the leaf and thus dojirives it of its fleshy pulp by suc-
cessive scrapings, turning the leaf over and over, as may be necessary. When the
pulp is thorougly removed, the fiber is washed for three or four minutes, and dried
in the shade. Washing in brackish or salt water, or continuous soaking in water is
said to destroy the glossy white appearance of this fiber.

Sansevieria zeylanica. The Neyanda.

Another Indian species cultivated in Ceylon. Commonly cultivated in greenhouses,
in the United •States, and readily known by its shorter, dnrker leaves, heavily mot-
tled or banded with white. The leaves are semicircular in transverse section, 1 to 2
feet long, dull green with a red margin, and copiously banded with white. The Sin-
ghalese use the fiber in numerous ways for string, ropes, mats, and a coarse kiud of
cloth. Generally the fiber is prepared by retting or by simply beating and washing.
The small size of the leaves, and the difficulty of handling them in largo quantities,
would render this species of less value commercially than any of the preceding.
In the Handbook of Ceylon, W. C. E., 1893. it is said that the plant grows in a Avild
state in the dry, drought-stricken districts of the country. It is usually found grow-
ing among rocks, and aff'ords a magnificeut fiber of great .strength. It is largely
made up into ornamental ropes by an outcast race of Singhalese called the Rhodias,
who do a small trade in this product.

Sapindus saponaria. Soap Berry.

Exogeu. Sapindacea\

This genus consists of trees and shrubs found in the Tropics of both hemispheres.
The outer shell or covering of the fruit of the above species contains a saponaceous
principle that gives it its name. Found in tropical America. The ])laut is given in
Dr. Ernst's catalogue, with the common name Parapara.

Fiber. — The bast of this species yields a coarse fiber, suitable for native cordage.
It is said to be cultivated in India.

Sapucaya (Braz.). See Lecythis oJlaria.

Sara, Sarapat, and Sarpatta (Hind, and Beng.). See SaccMrum sara.

Sarali (Ind.). See Abms nitida.

Sarcochlamys pulcherrima.

Syn. Urtica pulcherrima.
This urticaceous species is described by the Die. Ec. Prod. Ind. as a bush or largo
shrub, with a stem often as thick as a man's leg. It is found in Assam, the Khasia
Hills, Sylhet, Chittagong, and Bnrmah; distributed to Sumatra. Yields a dye, and
the bark gives a good fiber for ropes.

Saw palmetto (Fla.). See Serenoa serrulata.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE.

291

Sarkara, Sanscrit name for sugar.

Schcenus nigricans.

Au Europeau species of sedge grass tliat is used in Italy for rough ropes. S.
vtelanostachys is a Queenslaud species, the culuis oi" which are used iu basket manu-
facture.

Scirpus lacustris. The Bulrush. Mat Ku^h.

A tall sedge ahoundiug in ponds and swamps throughout North America; com-
mon iu Europe, northern Asia, Australia, and some of the Pacitic islands. Known
in Italy as Giiinco da siuoie; in Hawaii as Akaakai. (See tig. 95.)

Structural Fiber. — The entire stem is used in manj' parts of the world for mats
and mattings. Among the curious aud interesting objects manufactured from this
sedge grass are baskets, beehives, horse collars, etc. ; in England, shoes, used in
Denmark wheu thrashing buckwheat to prevent
crushing the grain; packsaddles, in Gucrusey,
for conveying "wrack" from the seashore. The
Kew Mus. exhibits a great coat made from this
rush, in Portugal. A variety of the species,
occidenialis, is the Tule of the Pacitic Coast.
Used in California as cases for the protection of
wine bottles packed for shipment, .just as straw
covers are used for the same purpose in Europe.
See also Eleocharis palustris.

The Yokuts of the Tulare Lake region of Cali-
fornia construct A^ery rude, frail punts, or mere
tronghs of Tule, about 10 feet long, in which
they cruise timidly about the Tulare Lake, near
the shore. {Stephen I'oicers.)

* Sjiecimens of Tule, Mus. U. S. Dept. Ag.

Scre^v pine (see Fandanus).

Scriptural fibers (see Introduction,
Ancient Uses of Fibers).

Sea rush (or coast rush). Juncus mari-
timxs.

Sea mallcw. Lavatera maritima.

Sea mat grass. Sea reed and sea-sand
grass. See AmmopMla.

Seaside grass. Cyperus tegetmn.

Seaweeds.

While these marine plants are not strictly speaking fibrous, several species are
employed in place of fibers, such as the Macrocystis, from which fish lines are obtained.
In southern Europe the leaves of another form of marine or aquatic weed (see Zos-
tera) is employed as a packing material. These plants belong, however, to the grass
wrack order, aud are in no way related to the true seaweeds or Ahja.

Sea wrack. Grass wrack, etc. Zostera marina.
Secale cereale. Eye.

Endogen. Graminece. A cereal grass.
An annual, 4 to 6 feet high, with flat leaves and a terminal, somewhat flattened.

Fig. 95.— The Buh-ush, Sciiyits
lacustris.

292 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

bearded spike 4 to 6 inches long. The rye crop of the United States in 1895 was
27,210,070 bushels, nearly half of which was produced in the States of Pennsylvania,
New York, and Wisconsin. Rye is more largely cultivated in central and northern
Europe than in America, and the grain is there very largely used for making bread.
Rye straw is little valued for fodder, but when green it is esteemed as a forage plant,
and is sometimes sown for this purpose in the Southern States, cattle being allowed
to graze it during the fall and winter months.

Structiral Fiber. — Rye straw is used as a straw-plait material, particularly in
Italy, where the straw of both wheat and rye are employed in this industry. As the
Italian use of the straw is interesting, the following condensed account, from the
work of M. A. Savorgnan, is presented: The stem of the rye reaches a greater height
than that of the wheat sown in March, and when this plant is cultivated with especial
care for its utilization as straw it becomes iiner and whiter than that of the wheat,
in many cases therefore this is selected, although it may be less durable. This straw
is especially suited to the thatching of cottages, for the making of beehives, of large
baskets for the transportation of dry figs, beans, and similar products, also various
uses about gardens. It is, besides, used in plaiting very fine braids for making hats
of sujierior Aalue. It is to be noted, however, that the stems should be cut before
the maturity of the grain and that the straw of the segale is diflicult to manufacture,
and that it splits easily. There are still found in the markets some hats, although
they have almost gone out of use, said to be made from rice straw ( PuijJia di riso), but
they are such only in name, for they are made from the fiber of a kind of .salcc (wil-
low) or from exceedingly line strips of wood in which case they would more justly be
called chip-hats, or hats made from shavings.

Securidaca longepedunculata.

The genus Secnridaca belongs to the Jscle2)iadacea' and is composed of trailing
shrubs, many of which arc natives of tropical America. S. Jongipednnndatu is a South
African species, which grows in great abundance along the lakes and rivers of Cape
Colony, South Africa.

Bast Fiber. — The material employed for making the beautiful fish nets used by
the Makouba tribe on Lake Ngami. "'Two kinds of fiber appear to be furnished by
the plant; one from the bark of the twigs is very strong and durable, and would
seem to be the fiber from which the nets are made, known in Zambesiland as Budse
fiber; the other from the stem, cross sections of which show layers of fibrous bark
between layers of wood." Bud:e fiber seems to have been first introduced to notice
by Dr. Livingstone in 18.57. In his Missionary Travels and Researches in Sonth
Africa, published in that year, he says (p. 645) that he submitted a small (quantity of
the fiber to Messrs. Pye Bros, of London, who reported that "The Budze evidently
possesses a very strong and fine fiber, assimilating to flax in its character, Itut we
believe when treated in quantity by our process it a\ ould show both a stronger and
finer fiber than flax ; but being unable to applj' the rolling or pressing processes with
efficiency to so very small a quantity, the gums are not yet so perfectly extracted aa
they would be nor the fiber opened out to so fine a quality as it would then exhibit."
The opinion obtained by Messrs Pye Bros, from Messrs. Marshall, of Leeds, was
as follows: "The Budze fiber appears to resemble flax, and as prepared by you will
be equal to flax worth £50 or £60 per ton, but we could hardly speak positivelj' to
the value unless we had 1 or 2 hundredweight to try on our machinery. However,
we think the result is promising, and we hope further inquiry will be nuule as to the
probable supply of the material." Dr. Livingstone adds that the plant is stated to
grow in large quantities in the "Maravi country, north of the Zambesi, but it is not
cultivated, and that the only known use it has been put to is in making threads on
which the natives string their beads. Elsewhere the split tendons of animals are
employed for this purpose. This seems to be of equal strength, for a firm thread of
it feels like catgut in the hand, and would rather cut the fingers ttan break." (Kew
BuU., Sept., 1889.)

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 293

Notwithstanding the comparatively favorable report ou this fiber, received so far
back as 1857, nothing has since been done to further its utilization.

Semenzuolo (It.). Straw-plait from wheat. See Triticum.

Sennoc (Alg.). L\j(jCAim spartum.

Serenoa serrulata. The Saw Palmetto.

Eudogen. ralnuv. A trunkless palm.

This is sometimes called the scrub palmetto, as it forms the undergrowth of vast
areas of pine lands, and is found in other uncultivated tracts iu Georgia and Florida,
and is also found in Alabama and Louisiana. The supply of the plants is almost
inexhaustible, for the palmetto grows everywhere, and its big roots, often as thick
as a man's leg — and which are produced at the rate of 20 cords to the acre — will
send forth an entire new crop of leaves within a year after clearing. The species is
allied to Cliamarops humilis of northern Africa, the leaves of which supply the Crin
vegetal of commerce. Fig. 2, PI. X, illustrates the manner of growth of the saw
palmetto, in the pine barrens of the South ; hence its name scrub palmetto.

Structural, Fiber. — The fiber secured from the leaf stems is used commercially
in the manufacture of a substitute for cows' hair, used in mixing mortar for plaster-
ing houses, a product both cheap and durable, as lime does not destroy it. It is
known as Nassau plastering fiber. The stiffer fiber when combed out is also tised in
the manufacture of a coarse kind of whisk broom. A coarse cordage might also be
made from it, but it would lack in softness and strength compared with the com-
mercial fibers. The leaves can be shredded to make a good upholstery material,
and they also form a most valuable paper stock. Unless the cost of production
should prove an obstacle, there is no reason why a valuable Florida industry should
not be created by shredding the leaves of this palmetto for mattress fiber, as 1,000 to
2,000 tons of such fiber is brought from Africa to this country annually. (See Cha-
mwrops humilis.) Even if it did not pay to ship to the northern fiber markets, local
industries could be established that would make a home demand for the fiber. A
difiiculty, heretofore, in preparing this fiber, has been to give it the '"curl" that is
found in imported Crin vegetal, and which adds so much to the elasticity or springi-
ness of the fiber in a mattress. This curl is given to Crin vegetal by twisting the
shredded fiber into coarse ropes for compactness iu shipping.

Attempts have been made at various times to establish this industry, and while a
number of satisfactory machines have been constructed for shredding the leaves, the
industry has never attracted attention. It has 1)een claimed that to sell the mattress
material at $25 per ton, in oi-der to compete with Crin vegetal, would pintail a loss to
the manufacturers. In a statement from the manager of a company that was formed
seven or eight years ago, to manufacture this fiber, it was said that the raw material
was purchased at $3 to $5 per ton, aud that there was about 70 per cent loss by waste
and evaporation.

The fresh roots of S. serrulata which are 3 to 5 inches iu diameter, are made into
cheap brushes. They are sawed into disks an inch or more in thickness, the pulp
scraped oub to the depth of two-thirds of an inch by means of toothed scraping
wheels, when the longitudinal fibers, thus exposed, form the bristles of the brush,
the untouched portion of the disk forming the back. This takes a fine polish, and
when the sides are shaped and polished the brush is completed.

Both roots and leaves of the palmetto contain a large percentage of tannin, and
the extraction of the tannin from palmetto leaves has already become an industry.
Leather is said to be tanned with this product in twelve days, and it is claimed that it
can be more economically produced than the leather tanned with oak or hemlock
bark. The residue forms a valuable paper stock, which is also utilized. After the
tannin has been extracted the palmetto is steamed in a chemical solution, which
removes the silicate contained in the palmetto and changes the glossy shield to a
gummy mass, which can be removed without injury to the fiber. In making imitation

294 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

horsehair this gummy mass is allowed to dry, as it adds to the elasticity of the
fiher. There are several combinatious in which the production of tanuiu and fiber
can be advantageously operated. Tanneries situated in the vicinity of paper mills
can grind the palmetto in the same manner as bark; the residue, after bleaching, is
in the proper shape for the paper mill. In this way palmetto can be profitably
shipped and used at long distances. Showing the cheapness of the supply of raw
material, it Is stated that the cost of cutting and gathering the palmetto will no
exceed $2 per ton ; hauling and baling will cost about $1 per ton, and if 50 cents l>e
paid for stnrapage to the landowner it is claimed that palmetto ought to be delivered
at the cars from $3 to $i per ton, f. o. b.

C. B. Warrand, who established a palmetto tannery at Savannah, Ga., stated that
palmetto fiber, not chemically treated, sold at wholesale at $80 per ton and retailed
at 8 cents per pound ; $70 per ton for a better article ought to be readily obtained at
the works. In this process there is less loss than in spinning fiber, and GaO pounds
of bedding fiber and l.")0 pounds of plastering fiber to the ton of palmetto can be
safely relied on.

The leaves of the saw palmetto are a favorite thatch material with the new "home-
steader," whose first house is a palmetto hut, and very comfortable and picturesque
dwellings they make. The Indians also know the value of the plant as a thatch
material.

* Specimens, in complete series, are preserved in U. S. Nat. Mus.. Field Col. Mus.,
and Mus. V. 8. Dept. Ag., all prepared by the writer.

Sesbania aculeata. Dhunchee.

Exogeu. Leguminosa'. An annual shrub.

Native xa.mes. — Dhunchee. Dhanicha (Beng.); Jayanii (Ceyl. and Hind.); Ban-
ehc-wra (Bomb.).

The xdants of this genus are slender, shrubby annuals, found in the warmer parts
of both hemispheres. S. aculeata is an erect, slightly branched species that is culti-
vated on the plains of Indi;i, from the western Himalayas to Ceylon and Siam, and
has a cosmopolitan distribution in the Tropics.

Bast Fiber. — This is the well-known Dunchec of India, which is highly esteemed
for the manufacture of ropes and cordage, and is regarded as a coarse substitute for
hemp. The plant is a native of the Malabar coast, and also grows in China. The
plant grows to a height of 6 to 10 feet : the fiber is long, but much coarser and harsher
than hemp. Bengalese fishermen make the drag ropes of their nets of this sub-
stance on account of its strength and durability. It is generally grown in wet soil,
requiring little preparation, as the plant is hardy and of rapid growth. It is sown
at the rate of 30 pounds of seed to the acre. In northwest India, during the rainy
season, it springs up in rice fields and other wet, cultivated lands. A peculiarity of
the fiber is its remarkable contractability, as from contraction alone ropes made of
it are said to be able to carry away the mainmast of a ship.

A biga of land — which is one-third of an acre in Bengal— will produce 173 pounds
of fiber and 92 pounds of seed. A woman will dress 1 pounds a day. Royle states
that the product of an acre is 100 to 1,000 pounds of ill-cleaned fiber. At the Int.
Exh., 18.51, the fiber was valued at £30 to £35 per ton. It is priepared in the same
manner as sunn hemp, Crotalariajuncea, which see for further information regarding
the extraction and cleaning of the fiber.

S. {cgijptiaca is another Indian species, the fiber of which has been used for cord-
age. .S'. grandijiora, the agust, aguaia, agasti, and agati of southern and eastern India
and Burmah, is a soft- wooded tree 20 to 30 feet, "the inner bark of which appears
likely to yield a good fiber." {Dr. Wait.) It jtroduces, also, a gum, medicine, food,
and fodder for cattle.

Sesbania macrocarpa. Colorado TJiver Hemp.

Seshania is the only genus in the family Leguminoxo' that has attracted attention

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 295

iu tbis couutrj' as liber producing. Specimens of the straight, stift' canes of S.
macrocarpa, or the wild hemp of the Colorado River region, have been sent to the
Department at different times in the past years, the best samples of stalks and iiber
having been received from the veteran collector, Dr. E. Palmer. Dr. Parry, for-
merly botanist of this Department, noted many years ago the abundance of the
species on the alluvial banks of the Colorado, and also that it grew in South Caro-
lina, Arkansas, and Texas.

Bast Fiuer. — Early specimens of the til)er, received by the Department, and now
loaned to the Field Col. Mus., were 4 feet in length. Siiecimens twice or three times
as long might be secured, however, as stalks 12 feet in height are common. The
filaments as extracted are exceedingly coarse, and resemble flat ribbons of fiber,
uncommonly white and lustrous, and clear and smooth to a remarkable degree.
Single filaments are quite strong, but when several are twisted together they lose a
part of tlieir strength, a defect sometimes observed in better fibers. It is somewhat
elastic, but its smoothness and elasticity are not in its favor where tenacity is
required, as the filaments will not cling when worked together. It is sufficiently
strong for small cordage for ordinary use, though too coarse for fish line or twine, as
roughly prepared. Among the manufactures for which it has been claimed that this
fiber is fitted are wrapping, writing and bond papers, twine and cordage, "^sacking,
overall stuff", Irish linens," and a faliric '^better than the best Japanese i^ongee silk."
The museum samples of fiber, collected by Dr. Palmer and known to be Sesbania
macrocarpa are hardly capable of manufacture into ''Irish linens" or "Japanese
pongee silk," although the filaments can be very finely divided. A specimen recently
submitted to Dr. Taylor was subdivided down to one ten-thousandth of an inch.

Efforts to utilization. — At different times, iu past years, efforts have been
made to bring the plant into prominence. In an early letter from (). F. Towusend,
of Yuma, Ariz., statements were made as follows:

An indigenous plant commonly known here as wild hemp, producing a fiber of
great excellence, grows profusely on both sides of the Colorado River from Yuma to
tide water at the Gulf of California. The large fields lie in Mexican territory and
cover nearly 100 square miles of area. Numerous experiments have been made with
difterent kinds of machinery to utilize the valuable plant. The old hand-brake
system produces 20 per cent of fiber. The Indians work it into nets and fish lines.

From statements by D. K. Allen, of Yuma, Ariz., some interesting facts regarding
the species have been gleaned. The wild hemp ripens from the 1st to the 3d of July,
as a rule, and still in many places it holds green until September 1, and the late
growth until October 1. It grows on the clean, clear soils or lands lying along the
sloughs or branches of the Colorado and New rivers, which are dry during the fall
and winter months. The first rise in the Colorado comes in February and lasts into
March. The second comes in May and June and runs from that time on till the next
February. The seed of the Avild hemp sprouts and begins to grow in April and May,
running np and appearing exactly like wild or overgrown mustard stalks — in fact,
one could hardly tell one from the other except for the difierence of taste in the seeds.
When young they are not at all alike. As soon as the water recedes in August, and
from that on, one can go almost anywhere through the hemp lands, although some
of the sloughs, or branches of them, contain a little water which would have to be
bridged. But they are very narrow, only 10 to 20 feet wide and only 21 to 5 feet
deep, with plenty of wood, brush, and timber with which to build the bridges.
Some of the hemp can be cut with a machine, but much of it will have to be cut by
hand. In April there are stalks of the hemp which, a foot above the ground, will
measure 10 inches in circumference, or more than 3 inches in diameter. One of the
McCormick reapers, rigged with guards of the proper size and with a sickle to corre-
spond, can be arranged so as to cut easily where they are not larger than a man's
finger. The hemp can be dried and pressed into l)ales on the ground Avhere it grows.
It now grows all along the river, and back from it for 10 to 12 miles, to a distance,
uji and down, of 100 miles. Many of the sloughs where water remains throughout the

296 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WOELD.

year can be iised. Flat boats that cau carry 10 to 15 tons can be loaded and towed
witb liorses or mules, poled or towed liy Indians when the banks are too soft. Sails
can also be nsed to take the hemp to the river, where it can be loaded on steamers
and brought to the railroad, or dosvn the river to the gulf, where it can be loaded
upon vessels for any part of the world.

It has been estimated that at the very least there are 50,000 acres of it, and that in
the poorest years it will yield 500 pounds of the dressed filier per acre. This makes
25,000,000 2)ouuds — 12,500 tons, or 1.250 carloads (tf 10 tons each. Repeated efforts
have been made by the Department to secure several hundred pounds of the fiber for
test, but even the offer to purchase it at a fair jirice has not brought any practical
results. Even considering the coarseness of the fiber, should it be found quite inferior
to the commercial cordage libers, the fact that it grows over such vast areas Avithout
cultivation, and with such large yield, commends it to our attention, for if it cau be
cleaned cheaply it has a value for some purpose, and when subdivided bj- after chem-
ical treatment there is no doubt that the fiber might be nsed for higher purposes of
manufacture.

Seshania j}Jatycarp(i: A few years ago P. S. Clark, of Hempstead, Tex., stated that
this species had suddenly made its appearance in his neighborhood. He described
the fiber as very strong, and thought that it would make a good bagging fiber for
baling the cotton crop.

Seubbara (Arab.). Agave americann.

Shacapa (Peru). Attalea spectahilis.

Sheathed galingale rush. Cyperxs vaginatus.

Sheathed rush (Vict.). Juhchs ])aucifloriis.

Sheniolo (Fnd.). Bomhax malaharUiim.

Sheoak (Anstr.). See Casuarina.

Shichito-i mattings (Jap.). Cyperus unltans.

Shining galingale rush (Met.). Cyperus lucid us.

Shivan and She-wun (Ind.). (hnelina»arhorca.

Shoe-string grass (U. S.). fSporoholus cryidmulrus.

Short-podded yam bean. See Pdrhyrhizus.

Shral (lud.). Alnus nitida.

Sh"wet-simul (Beiig.). Eriodcndron.

Sida rhombifolia.

Syn. Stda rhomhoidea, S. reiusa.
Exogeu. Malvacew. A perennial shrub,

COMMOX ANi> NATIVE NAMKS.— Sida, and Tea-plant (U. S.); Queensland hemp

(Australian colonies); Atabula (Sane); Swet Bariala and Sufet Bariala (Ind.);

Escoha (Yenez.),

Abounds in the tropical regions of India; distributed to Australia and to North

and South America. According to the Des. Ec. Prod. Ind., the Linnean varieties

accepted by botanists are as follows: scahrida, reiusa, rhomhoidea, ohovata, and

rhombifolia. It seems probable that the sida fiber experimented with in Bengal has

been chiefly obtained from ,S'. rhombifolia or S. romhoidea. S. rhombifolia abounds in

many portions of South America. 1)t. ICrust states that it is verv common in Xene-

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 297

zuela, growing wild in alllocalities, the fiber being readily extracted, and fine and
strong.

As far back as 1889 the Office of Fiber Investigations received from South Caro-
lina statements regarding S. rliomhifolia, which, on the authority of J. P. Porcher,
of Eutawville, in that State, had been known as a weed throughout that region for
many years, at least since 1880. Later, when visiting Charleston, the attention of
the writer was called to the plant bj^ Dr. Pankuin, who states that it had made its
appearance in comparatively recent years, and was now a common roadside weed.
As it was early in June, the stalks liad not sufficiently matured to give particular
evidence of value as a fiber plant, although later some good hand-prepared samples
of the fiber were secured. It has also been grown in Alabama.

Bast Fiber. — Chemists say that although closely similar to jute in structure and
general chemical characteristics, it is in appearance a superior fiber, being softer to
the touch and in all respects more uniform.

A beautiful example of the fiber labeled Sida reiusa, and known as "Queensland
hemp," was received by the Department in 1876 from the Queensland collection
(Phil. Int. Exh., 1876), accompanied by another specimen from Victoria labeled Sida
rhomhifolia. The first named was prepared by Dr. Guilfoyle, who stated that the
plant had established itself in Melbourne, and was of very quick growth, seeding
freely. He regarded the fiber as suitable for fine paper and for the manufacture of
cordage. The sample of S. rhomhifolia is very white and lustrous, the filaments fine
and even. In a portion of the museum sample the ribbon-like character of the bark
is retained, filled with delicate indentations, giving it a lace-like appearance. These
ribbons of fiber break easilj", but a twisted cord of the finer prepared fiber, the size
of cotton wrapping twine of the shops, broke only after repeated trials with the
hands. The fiber was prepared by Alexander McPherson. In India the bark yields
"abundance of very delicate fiax-like fibers," which Dr. Eoxburgh thought might be
advantageously used for many purposes. Forbes Watson, in the Descriptive Cata-
logue of the East Indian Department, International Exhibition, 1862, pronounces
the tiber similar to jute in appearance, "but considered to be intrinsically so supe-
rior that it is worth from ^5 to ^G more per ton, and he places it next that fiber" in
order to attract to it the attention which it deserves. Experiments with the fiber
of S. rhomhifolia demonstrated the fact that a cord one-half inch in circumference
would sustain a weight of 400 pounds. In speaking of Dr. Roxburgh's sjiecimens,
Royle says "the fibers are from 4 to 5 feet in length, and display a fine, soft, and
silky fiber, as well adapted for spinning as jute, but infinitely superior." Fur-
ther experiments in India have demonstrated that sida fiber is also superior to jute
from the fact that under hydrolysis, or bleaching and cleaning with alkali, "it loses
a very much smaller proportion of its weight, is therefore less easily disintegrated
by the action of water, and is consequently more durable." The fact that its stalks
are not more than half the length (or size) of jute is ii disadvantage compared with
jute, as indicating a much smaller yield. George Watt, of the revenue and agricul-
tural department of India, was of the opinion, regarding the Indian experiments,
that the properties of the sida fiber recommended it. as worthy all the time an
expenditure necessary to ascertain whether or not all its advantages are counterbal-
anced, from the money standpoint, by a less acreage in yield. Thirty years ago the
fiber of "Stifel hariala" (S. rhomhoidea), as produced in India, was considered worth
from $25 to $30 more per ton than jute.

Growth in the United States. — The species has been cultivated in parts of the
South as a forage plant. Statements received from Hon. G. D. Tillman, of South
Carolina, in 1890, throw some light on the habits of the species :

"I do not remember seeing a sprig of S. rhomhifolia until about four years ago (1886),
when a small patch of it first appeared in the back yard of my residence, whence
it has spread over the yard, covering an acre or more of laud, and scattering sprigs
of it are appearing here and there at numerous localities over the large plantation.
Last summer I saved 3 or 4 bushels of seed, and in the fall scattered them in waste

298 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

places and in ray pasture. In traveling about the State last year I discovered the
plant flourishing in the waste places of the streets in nearly every village and town.
I also found it thriving in the lanes and aloug the roadside of the forest lands in the
Tertiary formation or 'low country' of South Carolina, where a clay subsoil pre-
vails, and wherever there was moisture as well as clay (in a shallow ditch, for in-
stance), each separate sprig of thick-growing sida was 3, 4, and sometimes 5 or 6 feet
high. One striking peculiarity of the plant is that a single sprig growing by itself
will bunch, or rather branch out from the stem just above ground, so as to resemble
a squatty thicket of many short-limbed shrubs, with only one root, however; but
when the sprig grows thickly, each from its own root, the plants are straight and
without limbs or knots on the stems, except at the very top, and as tough as hick-
ory, boxwood, or perhaps any other wood. I have several acres of this plant growing
for pasture only. It is neither fit for hay nor for soiling, but it is a good pasture
plant for cattle, sheep, and hogs. Horses do nor seem to relish it much, while cattle
in particular appear to like it and thrive on it almost as well as upon Japan clover
{Lespedeza striata). The plant has a wonderful tap root and a large leaf, besides the
habit, where left to reseed itself, of standing very thick on the land and shading almost
every inch of the surface of the soil. For these reasons I have thought it must be
an excellent greeu manure plant, and am trying some experiments to test it as such.
I am glad to hear from you now that my mucilaginous jiet, sida, ' when planted thickly
and allowed to mature, produces a finer fiber,' a virtue I did not dream it possessed,
although I had often observed the great toughness and strength of its bark."

The stalks of sida that have been sent to the Department for examination, as well
as those seen by the writer in the field, from South Carolina are too small to be of
value for the extraction of the fiber. Some .stalks grown in Alabama, however,
from India seed (marked S, relusa), reached a height of 5 feet. The conclusions of
the writer regarding the cultivation of the plant on American soil — based upon the
results of limited experiment, it is true, and from examining stalks from difi'erent
localities — would lead to the statement that the plant is too slow in growth, and the
stalks too small when grown, to make it of commercial value as a fiber plant. And
it is doubtful if the bast will yield as readily to treatment as jute, for when steeped
in water it is said to re([uire almost double the time necessary to properly macerate
the jute bast.

* Specimens. — Mus. U. S. Dept. Ag. ; Field Col. Mus.

Other species. — S. carpinifoJia is found in the hotter parts of India, its stems
yielding a good fiber which is employed in native uses. It is also found in Brazil
where it is employed for making brooms Avith which to sweep the huts of the
natives. This species is now regarded as identical with .S'. rhombifolia.

S. cordifolia (Sjn. S. rotiindifolia) is a small perennial weed generally distributed
over tropical and subtropical India. " The plant yields a fine white fiber." (George
Watt.) A good example of the fiber of S. panicidata is preserved in the Bot. Mus.
Harv. Univ.

Silk, Artificial (see Artificial silk).

Silk cotton.

See this name under cotton — silk cottons, in alphabetical arrangement.

Silk grass.

This term is applied indiscriminately to many structural fibers, derived from
foliaceous plants, and as a distinctive name it is worthless. Some of the species of
fibers that have been called silk grass, silk grass of Honduras, etc., are Ananas
sativa, Karatas plumieri, Brotnelia syJvestris. Furcrwa cubensis, and other similar forms,
while the name has even been applied to the liber of some of the Agaves. Its use,
therefore, without the botanical name of the species can only add to the confusion
which already exists.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 299

Silk, Vegetable (see Silk cotton).

Silk ■wool, of Orozuz. Gonolohus maritimus and Ihatia muricata, of
Dr. Ernst's list.

Simal tree, of India. Bomhax malaharicmn.

Sincara (Peru). See Maranta.

Sinlo-kawa (Jap.). Cocos micifera.

Sinu-mataiavi (Fiji). WiTtstroemia viridiflora.

Sisal hemp (see Agave rigida, varieties).

Slender spike rush. Eleocharis acuta.

Slender s"wordrush. Lepidosperma flexuonum.

Slough grass (used for binding twine). See Garex vulpinoidea.

Snake gourd (see Luffa (vgyptiaca).

Soap berry. Sapindus saponaria.

Soap plants. Chloragah(m pomeridianum, Sapindus saponaria, Yucca
baccata.

Sola, or Shola (Beng.). ^^schyoniene aspera.

Solidago canadensis. Canada Golden Rod.

Exogeu. Compos\t(v. A jierennial herb.
The golden rods are so familiar that they need no description. They can hardly
be called fiber plants, but Dr. Havard informs me (on the authority of V. L. Porcher)
that the stalks of the above species, which are numerous, straight, and almost 5 feet
in height, aft'ord very strong fiber -when treated in the same manner as hemp.

Some^vake-Mushiro. Japan matting. Cyperns unitans.

Sosquil. One of the Mexican names ot sisal hemp. See Agave rigida.

Soymida febrifuga. Indian Bastard Cedar.

Exogeu. Meliacea'. A lofty tree.
Northwestern, central, and southern India, extending to Ceylon.' Known as
liolum, Hind., Rohan, Beng., etc. The reddish fiber, derived from the bark, is used
in Chutea Nagpiir for strong ropes.

Spanish bayonet (U. S.). Yucca aloifolia and other species.
Spanish needle (Trin.), Yucca aloifolia.
Sparmannia africana.

Exogen. Tiliaceo'. Shrubs, 3 to 12 feet.

Native of Africa. Common in greenhouses, aud thus introduced into many coun-
tries; flourishes in Victoria, where its growth is rapid.

Bast Fiber— The museum specimens of this fiber were received from the Phil.
Int. Exh., 1876, and were jirepared in Victoria by Dr. Guilfoyle. The fiber is of a
beautiful silvery-gray color wheu it has been properly prepared. Some of the fila-
ments are brilliant and lustrous, aud it possesses considerable strength ; in fact, seems
almost equal to China grass in tenacity. "The fiber, which is produced in large
quantities (in Victoria), is of a very fine texture. For many purposes it is equal, if
not superior, to the Chinese grass cloth plant." (Dr. GuUfoyle.)

300 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

The advantages •whicli S2)annannia lias over all other fiber plants, and -which ele-
vates it to the highest rank of agricultural products, are, that it is perennial; it is
one of the very best forage plants in existence; its enormous yield, both of fodder
and fiber, the great strength and dazzling whiteness of the fiber, the facility with
which it takes dyes, and the extremely low prices at which it can be produced
making it accessible even to the paper manufacturer. (Jean Ilofh.)

Economic considerations. — In 1890 the Department received from Dr. Harris, of
Key West, an interesting account of the culture and preparation of this fiber plant
from notes from the South African authority <iuoted above. From these notes it is
learned that Sparmannia grows in almost any except a brackish soil. It requires
deep jilowing and is much benefited by manuring, although it grows luxuriantly in
South Africa in soils where no other crop will grow without fertilization. The seeds
should be sown in drills 28 inches apart, and the plants thinned out to the distance
of 14 or 16 inches in the drill as soon as all danger from frost has ])assed. The plants
taken up in thinning transplant as easily as mangel-wurzel. It has no inseit enemies
of consequence.

As soon as the plants are from 12 to 18 inches high they should be nipped, or bud-
ded, if they do not branch out freely. From 12 to 18 stalks should grow from each
plant the first year. After the first cutting upward of .")0 stalks will spring out ; the
greater the number the slenderer the growth and the stronger the fiber. Reaping may
begin about six months from the time of sowing and continue six months. In climates
where the orange tree grows four crops would be certain, which would amount to 12
tons per acre during the year. The stalks for fiber should be cut abont 6 inches above
the soil and may l)e treated to extract the fiber at once. They should not be cut, how-
ever, more than twelve hours in advance. For this purpose any of the various hemp or
flax machines will answer. A jet of water, however, must always flow over the place
of friction. Before the fiber is dried it should be sulphured similarly to straw goods.
Another way of extracting the fiber is by retting the stalks in water, which is the
cheaper and easier way. This is done in vats, which should be so constructed as to be
easily eniiiticd, and should not be more than 1 feet deep. A vat 20 by 40 feet, and 4 feet
deep, will hold enough stalks to produce a ton of cleaned fiber. To secure a uniform
whiteness of the fiber water should be gently running from one vat to another all
the while, and never at a temjierature lower than 18^ C. in the daytime. When a vat
is packed with stalks narrow inch boards should be placed across it on the stalks, so
that tubs or casks filled with water can be put upon them so as to hold the stalks
constantly under water at least 2 inches, where they should be allowed to remain
ten or fifteen days, wlien they will be found ready lor washing. The washer now
takes his station alongside of the A-at, and taking a handful of the stalks in Jiis hand,
catching them in the middle, he turns the toji ends toward the surface of the water
at an inclination of about 45 and pokes the thin ends three or four times into the
water, when, if the stalks are sufficiently retted, the fiber at the upper end hangs
down in a lock of which the washer takes hold and lets loose the middle, bo that
the whole handful hangs \\\\o\\ the lock or loose fiber. He then gives two or three
jerks with the hand, liolding the fiber lock upward, and all the stalks free from fiber
drop out. This is repeated until he has a good handful separated from the stalk.
He again takes them at the end and lowers the hand until about 6 inches from the
water, so that the fiber nearly floats upon the surface. He then moves the hand
quickly from right to left several times and the fiber is washed as white as snow.
Then taking the clean end in his hand, he repeats the operation with the other end;
the whole operation is done quickly. Half an hour's practice will make a skilled
washer of any person of ordinary intelligence. One perstm can wash out 100 pounds
of clean fiber in ten hours. This shows how easily the fiber is extracted and cleaned,
and how simple the machiue must be to supplant hand decortication. The syndicate
used ordinary scutchers with water jets, after the i)lan of the W. E. Death patent.
They found out that the retting and hand decortication was the best and cheapest,
as there was no waste.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE.

501

Spartina cynosuroides. Fkesh Water Coed Grass.

Eudogeu. Graminea'. Au erect grass, 2 to 9 feet. (Fig. 96.)
Common NAMES. — Cord grass; iresli water cord grass ; marsh grass; bull grass;
thatch grass ; slough grass.

The species of this genus are chietly natives of America; there are British repre-
sentatives, but they are rare. ''The above species is' a native, common along our
oceau iind lake shores, borders of rivers, etc., ranging from Maine to the Carolinas,
and westward to the Pacific. It makes a fair but rather coarse hay when cut early,
and has been successfully employed in the manufacture of paper. The strong, creep-
ing, scaly rootstocks of this grass adapt it for binding loose sands and river embank-
ments." {F. Lamson-Scribner.)

Stkuotural Fibkr. — T w e n t y
years ago or more this grass was
utilized in paper manufacture at
Quiucy, 111., where it was found in
vast quantities. It cost at the mill
about $5 i^er ton, and made a very
lirm, better class of browu wrap-
ping paper — superior to straw —
samples of which can be seeu in the
museum of the Department of Ag-
riculture. The bruised stalks pre-
sent quite a iibrous appearance.

S. gracilis is another possible pa-
per-making species, found on the
plains and in the Rocky Mountain
regions.

Spartina juncea.

Common names. — Fox grass;

white rush; marsh grass;

salt grass; sea salt grass; salt

marsh grass; rush marsh

grass.
A rather slender species, 1 to 2
(rarely 3 to 4) feet high with two
or four slender, erect, or widely
spreading spikes. This is common
iipon the salt marshes, and is one
of the most valued sjiecies which
go to form the salt hay that these

marshes produce. It ranges from i lo. 96.— Coul j;i,i

Maine southward to Florida and

al»ug the Gulf coast to Texas. It is usefulfor packing glassware, crockery, etc., and in
the larger towns along the coast is much used for this purpose. (F. Lamson-Scrihner. )
S. stricta, the creek sedge, branch grass, etc., grows along the Atlantic and Pacific
coasts, and is also found in Europe. It is sometimes used as a thatch material.

Spartium jiinceum. Spanish Broom.

Common names. — The (Hiiestrn di Spagna of the Italians; the Gen^l d^Fspagiie oi
the French; Gayttmha, Spanish.

A native Mediterranean sjiecies of broom, widely cultivated as an ornamental
plant, and as a forage plant, and formerly for its fiber. Found in southern France,
Spain, and Italy. One of the ancient fibers known to the Greeks and Romans, its
generic name being derived from sparton, meaning cordage.

Structural Fiber. — This is obtained from the voung Bhoots by maceration and

HI cynosuroides.

302 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

subsequent separation of the woody portions of the stem somewhat as flax is pre-
pared, after which the fiber is combed and cleaned ready for spinning. It has been
employed in paper manufacture, as upholstery material, as a tie material, for cord-
age manufacture, and, lastly, for weaving into fabrics. At Casciana, in Italy, on the
Leo-horn and Florence Railway, hot-spring water is used for the rettiug; and a com-
pany was some years since formed for growing the plant and manufacturing the
fiber on a large scale. Specimens of the fiber were exhibited at the Vienna Exhibi-
tion of 1873 from Florence, Italy, with a memorandum as follows: Taking note of
the exjjense necessary to render this filament flexible and fit lor weaving, we find
that it is considerably less than that for flax and hemp and that the fabric obtained
is more tenacious and also lighter, since from 11 kilos of flax Ave obtain 60 meters of
cloth, Avhile the same measure avoacu from ginestra weighs only 7 kilos, and the cost
of the first is 72 lire, while that of the second, according to the experiments made,
cost only 45 lire.

In Spain very fine tissues are made from this species, and even lace, which is
hi<^hly prized. In southern France likewise, ordinary fabrics are made from the
plant, which are Avorn by the peasants in tlie mountainous regions, and said to be
very durable.

The ancient use of this fiber is very interesting. The Greeks, Romans, and Car-
thagenians employed it for cordage of all descriptions, nets, bags, and even sails.
Pliny writes of the Ginestra, and in the thirteenth century the fiber was employed
for wadding and in tow "that may be used in place of hemp and flax.'' The Italian
peasants from time immemorial have ns<d this fiber for the manufacture of the coarse
Parmo Ginestro or Ginestra cloth, though the factories have never employed it in spin-
ning and weaving.

CrLTiA'ATiON. — The seed is sown in Avinter, with some other croi>. For three years
the plant receives only an occasional thinning out. The young spring shoots are cut
in February-March, or sometimes not till after harvest, the former being preferable.
Toward the end of August, they are collected in small handfuls, and laid on the
ground to dry, after which they are made up into large bundles, of 25 to 30 handfuls
each, and stored. On a damp day they are beaten with a mallet, so as to flatten
them without breaking them, and toward the end of September they are put under
stones in a river for half a day. In the evening they are taken out and arranged in
rows on a specially prepared plot of ground, near the stream, ready for watering.
For this purpose a bed of fern, straw, or chopped box is prepared, and in this the
bundles of broom are placed one over another, the whole heap being finally covered
with another layer of straw or box, on the top of which stones are placed, so as to
keep the whole secure, and exclude sun and air. Thus placed, it is watered every
night for eight days, allowing about 1 hectoliter water for each bundle of 50 handfuls.
On the ninth day the retting is complete. The bundles are then alternately Avashed
in running water, and beaten on a flat stone, till the fiber is separated from the
woody portion. The bundles are next spread fan- wise on the ground to dry and
bleach, when they are again collected and put away till winter. (Spou.)

Spatholobus roxburghii.

Syu. Buten })arvifior((.
A gigantic climber, belonging to the Leguminosir, found in the "forests of the sub-
Himalayan tract from the Jumna eastward to Bengal and Burmah. The plant yields
a gum, the seeds an oil, an<l the bark a fiber that is twisted into ropes and bow-
strings." (Die. Ec. Prod. Ind.)

Spathodea rheedii.

A tall tree belonging to the Bignoniaceo', found in portions of India and Malabar.
The species of this genus are natives of Asia and Africa. "A fiber is extracted from
both the branches and roots, used for making nets." (Spon.) The revised name of
this species is DoUchandrone rheedii.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE.

303

Spear Lily (Yict.). I>oryantlie.s exceha.
Sphaeralcea cisplatina.

This genus oi^ Malracea: is closely allied to Malva, aud iiuliides a number of trop-
ical American species. S. cisjilathia, the fiber of Malnilisco, is used in Brazil to a
slight extent. iS'. umbellaia is a Mexican species, known iu Australia as the Globe
mallow. Guilfoyle states that its bast yields silky fiber, useful for cordage.

Sphagnum spp.

A genus of inosses, essentially aquatic plants, or plants requiring a great deal of
moisture. They do not yield fiber, but on account of the softness and elasticity of
the plants iu mass they make an admira-
ble i>aekiug material. The plants form
turf beds rapidly, but unless mixed with
other plants the turf is spongy aud un-
fitted for use. S. cymhifoliuin, bog moss,
is used in Norway, iu house construction,
for stuffing between the timbers to ren-
der the house water-tight. "S. vulgare
is a German species, "which has been used
for paper." {Bernardin.) Some of the
American si^ecies are employed iu nur-
series as a packiug material for living
plants. In other countries the material
has been used in a dry state for packiug
fine glassware.

Spike rush (see Eleochark).

Sponge cucumber (see Luffa).

Sponia (see Trema).

Sporobolus cryptandrus.

Prairie Grass.

A strongly rooted perennial grass 2 to
3 feet high, common on the "Western
plains and in the Rocky Mountain re-
gion. It is well liked by stock, and
where it occurs abundantly is very gen-
erally regarded as an important forage
plant. (See fig. 97.)

Structural Fujer.— In 1891 a speci-
men of this grass was sent to the Depart-
ment from Kansas by a coi-respondeut, who stated that its superior strength recom-
mended it as a useful fiber plant, and that it was worthy of cultivation as a raw
material for paper stock, aud possibly for cordage manufacture. The grass first
makes its appearance on ground that has been plowed, and that has lain fallow for
one or two years. The farmers have given it various names such as "tow grass,"
"leather grass," "shoe-string grass," etc.

The fibrous portion of the plant appears to be the leaf sheaths of the blossom
stalk, and some of these are very strong, but of too short length to utilize in manu-
facture. The average of several tests of these leaf sheaths, twisted together, showed
a breaking strain of G5 pounds, while the lower stem portion of the plant broke at
20 xiounds. The length of the sheath is from 12 to 15 inches. The grass would make
a very strong paper, of better i^uality than ordinary wrapping paper, aud no doubt

Fig. 97. — Prairie grass, Si'oroholus cr>ji)tandriis.

304 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

■RTitiug jiaper could be made from it. As before stated, the iiber is too slioit, how-
ever, to be spun iuto cordage or yarns, though when rubbed out in the hand it is fine,
but brittle and harsh to the touch.

"Where the old growth is thick on the ground the fiber is so tough and strong
that it can not be cut with a common mowing machine." {J. W. Coojier.) The leaves
of the inflorescence, which are the fibrous part of the plant, are too short, however,
for employment as a fiber.

Sporoboliis indicus. Swei:t Grass.

CoMMOX NAMES. — Carpet grass; droi)-seed grass; Parramatta, or tussock grass
(ill Australia). The Brazilian name is Capim viaiirdo.

A tufted, wiry, erect perennial, 1 to 3 feet high, with narrow, densely flowered,
spike-like jtanicles 4 to 12 inches long. This grass is widclj'^ distributed throughout
the warmer temperate regions of the world, and has become quite common in many
parts of the Southern States, growing in scattered tufts or patches about dwellings
and in dry, open fields. Occurs in Brazil.

Structural FiBEU. — While the plant is not used industrially in this country, it
is employed in southern Brazil as a straw })lait material. "The stalks from the
flower to the last knot serve for the manufacture of straw plait used for hats and
other articles made of straw, which nre softened by means of sulphur. It grows
easily but jirospers best in liumid places. Blooms late in winter and in spring.

Spruce (see Picca spp).

Spurge laurel. Ikqilinc rannahina.

Stenosiphon virgatuni.

An uncultivated ])lant, belonging to the Onagracca-, found in Texas, where it grows
to a height of 6 feet. A correspondent sent stalks to the ])ci)artment, several years
ago, as a possible fiber plant, as the fiber, being fine and silky, Avas thought to be of
value. Like many fibers of this class the si)ecic8 is more interesting than useful.

Sterculia.

Nearly all the species of this genus are trees, many of them of large size, and
most abundant in Asia and the Asiatic islands. They are also found sparingly
in America, Africa, and Australia, and for the most part inhabit tropical countries.
The inner bark of the SterciiUas is composed of tough fiber which is not affected by
wet. Some of the species are as follows :

Sterculia acerifolia. The Flame Tree.

Exogen. t^terculiacccr. A very large tree.

This species is a native of New South Wales, and is a lofty tree. Dr. Ciuilfoyle
states that the bark is fully '2 inches thick when the tree is full grown, and furnishes
bast for a most beautiful lace-hke texture. The fiber is very simply prepared by
steeping, and is suitable for cordage and nets, ropes, mats, baskets, etc., and is use-
ful as a paper material. The tow ia of a very elastic nature, and is suitable for
upholstering purposes, such as stuffing mattresses or pillows. The specimens wore
received from Victoria (Phil. Int. Exh., 1876), and were prepared by Dr. Guilfoyle.
The sjiecies is found in many portions of the globe. Other Australian species follow.

SterciiVia diver sifoUa, the Victorian bottle tree, also known as Currijonfj, is a native
of Victoria, and is a stout, glabrous tree, having a peculiar bottle-shaped trunk.
The bast is similar to that of S. acerifolia, but coarser in texture. The fiber is suit-
able for coarse ropes and cordage. It would also make fine matting, and could be
used as a paper material. Specimens from Dr. Guilfoyle's Victoriiiu <olIection.

Stereulia riipestris, the Queensland bottle tree, is a native of (i)ueenslaud, where
the tree attains a considerable height, and has an enormous bottle-shaped trunk,

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 305

from which it derives its name. Its baric is tliick aud strong, and can he nscd for
the same purposes as the other species. (Dr. Gmlfoijle. Victorian collection.)

Sterciilia Jurida is the ''sycamore'' of the colonists. This species is a native of
New South Wales. The tree is of large size, resembling acerij'olia in appearance.
''Its bark is a valuable fiber-yielding material." In New South Wales it is made up
into a variety of fancy articles by the colonists. The fiber is the inner bark of the
tree, and when freshly stripped has a lace-like character which adapts it for fancy
work. {Dr. GiiilfoyJe. Victorian collection.)

Sferculia foiida : This species, a native of New South Wales, is also indigenous in
the East Indies and the Malayan Peninsula. The fiber is similar to the preceding,
and is manufactured into mats, bags, cordage, and paper. 8. quadrifida is another
New South Wales species, also represented in Dr. Guilfoyle's collection. ^Specimens
of the above are in the Mus. U. S. Dept. Ag.

Sterculia caribaea. Red Mahoe.

Found in Trinidad and New Caledonia. A large tree, 40 to 50 feet in height.

Bast Fibek. — The fiber is of considerable strength, but it requires retting to
get out the mucilage which is so common in SterciiUacecr, Tiliacecv, and Malvaccw.
It could not l)e treated commercially unless large areas were planted, as the trees,
though common in places, are by no means numerous.

Sterculia guttata.

Native of ^Malabar. Found in India, Eastern and Western Peninsulas, Ceylon, and
the Andaman Islands.

The bark of trees, of the tenth year, is employed by the natives on the western
coast of India for making coarse clothing and cordage. The tree is felled, its
branches are lopped, the trunk is cut into pieces 6 feet long, a longitudinal incision
is made in each piece, aikl the bark is opened, taken off entire, chopped, washed,
and sun dried. In this state, it is very pliable and tough, and is used for clothing
without further preparation. (Spou.)

Sterculia villosa. The Udal.

Northwestern India, Bengal, and Malabar; tropical Himalayas.

Fiber. — Royle states that the bast, or rather all the layers, can be stripped from
the bottom to the top of the tree with. the greatest facility, and fine, pliable rope is
made from the inner layers, while the outer ones yield a coarse rope, which is strong
and durable aud little injured by water.

A A'aluable fiber is obtained from the liber, Avhich is made into ropes and l)ags. It
is very strong, aud in southern India and Bui'mah is much esteemed for the purjiose
of making elephant ropes. In northern India the ropes from this fiber are chiefly
used in making cattle halters. The rope is said to l)ecomc stronger for a time from
being frequently wetted, and if constantly exposed to moisture it seldom lasts more
than eighteen months. A good paper is said to havt^ been made from it in India, but
the samples of fiber sent to Europe were not favorably rei->orted on as paper-making
materials. (See Kew Bull., 1879.)

Compared with jute, according to Dr. Roxburgh's experiments, Sterculia fil)er (.S'. vil-
losa) stood a strain of 53 pounds, against 68 pounds for jute, Corchorus oUtorius — ('. cap-
sidaris sustaining 1 pound less. Among other Indian species may be mentioned S. colo-
rata, inferior fiber, harsh and wiry. Reported as a worthless fiber by Hemp and Flax
Com. of Agri. Hort. Soc. of India. .S'. Uincenfolia, fiber made from it in the Panjab. ^S*.
iirtns yields a good fiber, samples of which were sent to the Paris Expos. 1878, employed
for paper. <S'. tomentosa is an Angola species which is said to aiford excellent fiber.

Stinging nettles.

These plants belong to the genus Urlica, Laportea, etc., the stingless nettles, or
cultivated species, being the Boehmerias, etc. (see Nettle). Urtica dioica is the com-
mon stinging nettle of Eurojie.
12247— :N^o. 9 20

306 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

Stipa tenacissima. Esparto Grass.

Syn. Macrochloa tenacissima.

Endogen. Graminew. A wild and cultivated grass.

Native and common names. — Alfa or Haifa (Alj;.); Esparto, Spanish and
(commercial) Englisli; Sparte, Frencli.
Native of north Africa, Spain, and Portugal, and is said to bo found in Greece. A
plant occupying a large area in northern Africa and the southern Mediterranean
provinces. In Algeria, in tlie provinces of Oran Algiers and Constantine. In Spain
it covers an area of iilateau land conijirised within a triangle including Malaga, Va-
lencia, and Madrid. It is ahundant in the ])rovinces of Mercia and Alineira. Intlie
south of Portugal, in the Iberian i)eniiisula. In Morocco it borders the seacoast as
far as Tangiers, on thehigh Daharian plateau wliich succeeds that of Oranais. This
cultivation has extended into south France. The plant is said to have been seen in
Greece, but this is contradicted by Algerian authorities.

It thrives in varied situations in the regions where it grows, from the level of the
seacoast to elevations of 6,000 feet, frequently crossing the foothills, Avhere it forms
their only vegetation. It is also found in deep forests, and abounds in such desert
regions as lie to the southeast of Laghaout and Tripoli. The plant is frequently
confounded with Lygeum sparium, under the name Sparte {" Seniioc" or Alb((rdine
Alg.), and also with Ampclodrsnios Iruax. or the Diss, these three species being the
abundant grasses of the north of Africa. Haifa or esparto is a perennial plant with
branching roots, which form first a homogeneous stump Avhich becomes a tuft when
the center roots perish. The exterior branches, which also form a tuft, separate as
tliey become further removeil from each other and their center and become the
nucleus of new clusters, which likewise form tufts, which are hollowed out at the
center and send out branches, which in their turn form other tufts if the soil i)ermit.
The leaf, which Aaries Avith the age and condition of the plant, is from 25 to 120
centimeters in length, but has a mean length of from .")0 to 80 centimeters. During
growth it spreads out in .an even, ribbon-shaped blade. Its upper surface is relieved
by seven large veins, which are separated by deep furrows and entirely covered by
down or hair. The under surface, which, by torsional movement in the length of the
leaf, is turned upward, is smooth, glossy, and without salient veins. Under the
influence of drought the two halves of the leaf meet and form a tough, dry, and rush-
like blade. The point of the leaf is sharp, rough, prickly, and slightly yellow.
Upon healthy, strong plants, and during the wet season, the leaves are of a fine
dark green. Under the inllucnce of drought this green becomes cancscent. The
leaves of the esparto are persistent, remaining at least two years upon the plant.
When old they become a prey to cryptogams. Disintegration commences at the
point of the blade and finally covers the whole. These darkened leaves cumber the
stalk and form a veritable gray felt, through which the young leaves emerge. Usu-
ally the old leaves turn yellow and are disarticulated from the sheatli at the point
at which they join. An early attack made upon the points of the leaves by cryp-
togams depreciates the esparto, and it is distinguished in accordance with these
attacks and their eft'ects, first, as the green point; second, sharp, dry point, jxxHte
cTori'e (golden point) ; third, gray point and disintegrated by cryptogams. (L'Halfa.
Pamphlet, Paris Exp., 1889,— Extraits d'une Etude sur I'Halfa, par L. Trabut, 1888.)
Structural Fiber. — The fibers arc extremely fine, uniform, transparent, and
from the purity of the cellulose the substance is admirablj' adapted for paper mak-
ing. The commercial product varies from 1.^ inches to 2 feet or more in length, is
greenish yellow in color, presenting the appearance of a smooth, stiff, taiieriug stem.
While its commercial use is in paper making, it has been employed in the countries
where grown for the manufacture of cordage, sandals, basket work, etc. It has also
been used, after crimping, as a mattress material, and it is said that the fiber has
been employed in the Scotch carpet trade in Kidderminster and Brussels goods.
The chemical constituents of the fiber are said to be yellow coloring matter, 12; red
matter, 6; gum and resin, 7; salts forming the ash, 1.5; pajier stock, 73.5.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 307

P^xi'EUiMENTs IN THE UNITED St.vtk.s. — Au eHort wit.s uiadc ill 1868 to iutroduco
the c'tilture of Esparto into this country. Seed was obtained from Paris seedsmen,
which was distributed in the South for phxutiug on the hill lands and mountain
slopes, but uothiny practical was accomplished. Yiewiu!;' the culture in this coun-
try from the agricultural standpoint, there is no doubt it will thrive in many locali-
ties, but from the economic standpoint it can never become an American industry.

Soil, climate, and culture. — The plant does not thrive in clay, on marsh lands,
or in a pebbly soil. Soils impregnated Avith oxide of iron are favorable, and cal-
careous soils produce strong liber. On argillaceous soils (decomposed shale, etc.)
the grass is shorter but the tiber stronger. It requires a decidedly hot and some-
what dry climate. Spon states that the plant succeeds best at moderate elevations
on the seacoast, none comparing with those where the plant is nnder the immediate
influence of the sea air. Here the fiber is fine, short, and even. At the same time,
much finer Esparto, with longer leaf, is found inland, but instead of being all of
uniformly sujierior kind the prime will form only one-half or one-fifth even of the
whole, the remainder being coarse and rank. Sunshine is eminently beneficial, if
not essential. The coast grass is preferred by pax>er makers, Avhile the longer growth
from the interior is sought after for making sieves, baskets, etc.

The plant is propagated by seed, by transplanting old plants, and by burning over
the tracts. ''The surface portions are alone affected l)y the fire, the stalks sending
up a vigorous growth, producing in five years a lialfa much sought after, the haJfa
hlanc, the flexible leaves of which are used in manufactures." (Trabitt.) When
transplanted, in autumn, the roots are divided into several j)ieces and set out in rows
2 feet apart and about 8 inches in the row. Spoil states that transplanted plants
are productive in six to eight years, while from the seed no return may be expected
before twelve years.

HARVE.STING. — The leaf of the halfa, when thorcjughly developed, is conqjosed of
two parts, the Ijlade or lamina and the sheaf, which are united by articulation. The
tissues arc not continuous; the innumerable fibers, which give the blade its remark-
able solidity, cease suddenly on a line with this articulation. By a slight thrust the
blade is separated from the sheath. This ease of disarticulation is the starting point
of all the processes of stripping or extraction. The blades can be gathered by hand
if a stout pair of gloves be worn, and in this way the more carefully selected. This
is by far the best method if we Avould preserve the plant, but it is not always prac-
ticed. A laborer does not accomplish so much in this waj' as by the old way of beat-
ing them with a small stick, which is followed entirely in factories, and has been
from the most remote periods. The laborer, having in his left hand a stick 40 centi-
meters in size, with a leather strap at the handle, seizes a handful of leaves with his
right hand, wraps them around the stick, which is held obliquely, and then pulls
strongly with both his hands. Numberless blades become disarticulated, and two
or three roots of the stock break and come with them. The laborer passes his right
hand under the lower edges up the blade and encounters the pendant rootlets, which
he throws away with the leaves that adhere to them, keeping, if possible, only the
disarticulated blades, of which he makes a bunch or " manoqiie'' by putting together
the product of several bunches. Notwithstanding this first sorting, the halfd carries
with it to the factory many sheafs. The ends of the stalk and the sheaths are nsed
as forage, and are gathered with the plants that are used for this pur[)08e. Horses
and camels are very fond of the base of the sheath. When halfd has been dried,
assorted, and classified, it is weighed, baled, and subjected to hydrostatic pressure;
then it is taken to the seaboard and exported. ^

An industrious laborer will average from 300 to 400 kilograms of green halfa in a
day, a native from 150 to 200, a woman or old man 100, children 12 or 15 years old
from 35 to 50 kilograms. The same method of gathering lialfa is practiced through-
out the halfa region, and there seems to have been no change in it since the time of
Pliny. This gathering by means of the batonnet or stick will not be given up until
a machine shall have been invented which will yield a larger return. (Trabut.)

308 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

CoMMEiiCiAL ASPECTS. — Atcordiug to Ido »& Christie's Lontlon Circular for July
1, 1896, over 200,000 tons of Esparto was imported into the Uuited Kiugdoin during
the year, worth froui £3 to£5 per ton. No largo (luantities, however, are brought to
this couutry, as the value of Esjiarto aud other grasses imported for paper stock for
the year ending June, 1895, reached only about$l,500. For further accounts, see Rept.
U. S. Dept. Ag., 1868: Spon's Euc, Div. III.

Stipa spp.

>S. semiharhata is a native of Tasmania. Spon states that "after the seed has
ripened the upper part of the stem breaks into the iiber, which curls loosely aud
hangs down. The quality of fiber in this state must be inferior to what it would
become under proper treatment.''

S. (jiganiea is a closely allied but taller species, conlined to Spain aud I'ortugal.
In Australia occur S. setacea, S. j)ubesceiis, and S. viicrantha; in Argentina several other
species are found, but they are not especially regarded for their fiber.

Stout spike-rush. Elcocharin sphacelata.

Stramanthe sanguinea (see Maranta).

Stra-w plait, Commercial.

The art of plaiting straw, the stems of grasses, aud the leaves of i)alms and simi-
lar plants is almost aa old as the human race, for plaiting was practiced before
■weaving, and became knowu when primitive mau laid off the skins of animals for
clothing and adopted tissues made from animal and vegetable fibers. Commercial
straw plait, however, is understood to mean material produced by braiding the split
stems of wheat, rye, barley, and rice, these l)raids or plaits being employed, in the
manufacture of hats.

The finest straw plait is the Italian or Tuscan, aiul is largely jiroduccd i'rom wheat
straw. Bohemian straAv plait is also made from wheat straw. InJajian and China,
rice straw is largely used for this purjiose, though considerable barley straw is also
utilized. In our own country the braiding of straw has been an industry in past
time, though chietly prepared by the women of the household; and as late as thirty
or forty years ago it was quite an industry in ^Massachusetts. The large manufac-
turers of straw goods in this couutry, however, rely upon the imported article for
their plait. The principal countries iiroducing commercial straw plait are Italy,
France, Germany, Austria, China, and Japan. For further information see Triti-
cum vuhjarc, Hordeiim disiichiun, Secale cereale, and Oryza saliva in this work. See
also Poa prafensis and Sporobohis indiciis, among grasses used for the same purpose.

* Specimens of straw plait, in series, are shown in the museum of the Dejiartment
of Agriculture.

Streaked lantei-n flo-wer. AlmtiUm s/ridttan.

Streblus asper.

Exogen. I'lticucea-. A rigid shrub, or gnarled tree.

Native names. — Op-nai (Burm.); Geia-neiul (Ceyl.); Ton Khoi (Siam).

Widely distributed throughout India, Ceylon, and tropical Asia, and knowu under
many native names.

Bast Fihei:. — From the bark is obtained a fiber similar to that from Bronasouetia
papyriftra, from which pajjcr is made in Siam. The process of manufacture is sim-
ple. The smaller branches of the tree are cut, and steeped in water for two or three
days. The Ijark is then stripjied oti', and l)rought in bundles and sold to persons who
make the paper. The bunches of bark are put in water for two or three days by the
paper maker, and, having been cleansed from dirt, are taken out and steamed over a
slow fire for two days, a little clean stone lime being sprinkled through the bark.
It is then steeped in water in earthen jars, aud more lime is added. After a few

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE.

309

days it is taken out of tlae jars, and having been ■well washed to free it from the
lime, it isl^eateuAvith a wooden mallet (for about two hours) until it becomes a mass
of ijulp. A frame of netting about 6^ feet long, and of width varying from 18 to 5
inches, is set afloat in water, and the pulp, having first been again mixed up in
water, is skillfully poured out outo the frame so as to be equally distributed over it.
The frame is then lifted out of the Avater, and a small wooden roller is run over the
surface of the pulp. By this process the water is squeezed out and the pulp jiressed
together. The frame with the pulp on it is then set to dry in the sun. In the course
of some ten hours it is quite dry, and the sheet of paper can then be lifted oft" the
frame. It now only remains to smooth the surface. This is done by applying a thin
paste of I'ice flour to the sur-
face, and then rubbing it down
with a smooth stone. (Kew
Bull., March, 1888.)

Stringy bark, The. Eu-

calyptnx ohJiqua.

Structural fiber (see
Classification of Fibers,
page 25).

Sufet bariala (Iiul.).
Si da rho )nh ifo I la .

Sugar cane fiber (see

Saccharum officinarmn).

Sujjado (Pers.)
cus cannabinus.

Ilibis-

Fig. 98. — Tacca piiinatijida, young plant.

Sumauma ( B r az . ) . Erio-
(lendron samauma.

Sunflower fiber (see Re-
lianthus).

Sunn hemp. Crotalaria
juncea.

Surface fiber (see Classi-
fication of Fibers, page

25).

Swamp rose mallow^.

Hibiscus in oscheutos.

S'wet bariala (Ind,). tSida rhombifolia.

Sword rush (see Lepidospcrma).

Taag ( Ind. ). Crotalaria Juncea,

Tabago silk grass (Trin.). Furcra-a cubcnsis.

Tacca pinnatifida.

A genus of pereunial herbs found in tropical America, Asia, Africa, the Indian
Archipelago, and the Pacific Islands. T. pinnatifida is an East Indian and New Hol-
land species, growing in open places near the sea. (See fig. 98.)

Structural Fiber. — The leafstalks are emjiloyed as a plaiting material for hats,
and ia used by the Societv Islanders for bonnets. Also made into brooms.

310 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

Tah-lah-kul-kel (Seminole). Sahal palmetio.

Tahuari (Peru). See Couratari tmiari.

Takachii (Hopi). Hilaria jamesii.

Talhuari (Peru). See Couratari tauari.

Tal, Tari (Hind.), and Tal-gas (Ceyl.). BoraHsus JiaheUifer.

Talipot palm (Ceyl.). See Corypha nmhracuUfera.

Tampico fiber (see Agave heteracantha).

Tan and Htan (Burm.). Borassus flahellifer.

Tang-tiau (China). Cala)niis rotaiu/.

Tanner's cassia. Cassia auriculata.

Tapoto (New Zea.). ^ee Phormiinn.

Tappa cloth. Also written Tapa and Kapa. See Bronssonetia.

Refer also to tlivision C. Natural Textures, Economic classification of uses, p. 31,
Introduction. .See Brachijsiegia, Couratari, Daphne, Hibiscus, Lagetta, etc., for otlier
cloth .substitutes.

Tarapota (Peru). Iriariea veniricosa.

Tarariki. I^ew Zealand llax. See Bhormium.

Tataja (( 'Olunibia). See Couratari.

Tauary (Braz.). See Couratari,

Taxodiuni distichum.

The cypress of North Carolina, which has a range from Virginia southward to
Florida and westward to Texas. A specimen of its fibrous inner bark was sent to the
Department for the W. C. E., 1893. Itmight be twisted into coarse cordage for local
nses, but is not utilized as far as can be learned.

Tchou (China). T.s-o, so, shoo, a plant or tree.

Tchou-ma (China). Boehmeria nivea.

Teale (Egypt). Hibiscus eannahiniis.

Tea plant (Fla.). Sida rhomhifolia.

Tecoma viniinalis.

Formerly Icuowu as Bignonia riminalii, the most commonly used name, whicli see.

Tecum (Braz.). See Bactris setosa and Astrocaryum tucuma.

TefF (see Boa ahyssinica).

Tekapu (New Zea.). Cehnisia coriacea.

Tha-ma-chok (Burm.). Ahutilon indicum.

Theobroma cacao. Cocoa or Chocolate Tree.

Exogen. BiiUnvracco'. A tree, 16 to 18 feet.
Native of tropical America, and in cultivation spread over the West Indies and the
more northern countries of South America. Source of the cocoa and chocolate of
coiamerce.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 311

Fiber. — The bast yields ft, good fiber, samples of which are preserved iu the Mu-
seum of the Department. J. H. Hart, of Triuidad, says, however, that the tree is
too valuable ever to be cut for its fiber.

Theonietl (Yuc). Agave vivipara.

Thespesia populnea.

Exogcn. Malcavea. A tree, 40 to 50 feet.

The species is comuion on the sea shores of many tropical countries, as the West
Indies and South America, the Pacific Islands, western Africa, and India. In the lat-
ter country it is largely cultivated along roadsides. It yields iu India a gum, a dye,
and an oil, and is valued iu phannaoy. The leaves are employed in Hindoo religious
ceremouials. In Tahiti it is also a sacred tree, and its leaves used in ceremonials as
in India. The wood, which is almost iudestructil)le iiuder water, has been much
used in boat building; also used for cabinet work, aud iu Ceylon for gunstocks.

Fiber. — There are many references to the use of its bark for fiber, but it does not
appear to have been specially valued as a fiber plant save in Demerara, where for-
merly its bast was employed in the manufacture of coftee bags. In India a strong
fiber is derived from its bark, which is used in the rough state for coarse cordage for
tying bundles of wood, etc. It is also used for cordage in Burma. The fiber, Avhich
resembles the better mallow fibers, is very resistant. As the species is a large tree,
its cultivation for fiber could never become an industry.

Thinban and Thengben (Barm.). Hibiscus tiliaceus.

Thinbawle (Biii-m.). Eriodendron anfractuosum.

Thrinax argentea. The Silver-Top Palmetto.

Endogen. ralma . A low-growing fan palm, 20 to 40 feet.

This is a well-known West Indian species, found in Cuba and Jamaica especially,
but also abunelant in scmitropical Florida. Found on the Florda keys as follows:
Elliotts, Largo, Piney, Gordon, Boca C'hica, Key West, etc. The species of the
genus are known as thatch jialms, and none of them exceeds 20 feet in height. A
common name of T. argentea, in Jamaica, is the Silver Thatch palm. Known in this
country also as the Brickley Thatch, aud Brittle Thatch. T. parviflora is the Sil-
ver-top palmetto, found on Florida keys from Bahia Honda to Long Key. The trunk
is used in making sponge and turtle •'crawls." (See fig. 99.)

Structui'.al Fiber. — Both in Cuba and Jamaica the leaves of this species are
employed in the manufacture of palm hats, baskets, and fancy articles in the same
manner as the leaves of Florida palmettos. It has been suggested, however, that
these articles are also made from other species which abound in the West Indies.
The tough leaf stalks are also employed iu manufacture by weaving into baskets
and other objects. When employed as thatch material, the entire leaves are used.
In Panama, where the palm is known as Fahna de escoha, its leaves are made into
brooms.

A few years ago a correspondent of the Department in Cuba submitted samples of
palmetto fiber said to have been derived from Cbamwrops humiUs (which is the African
species yielding the Criti vegetal of connuerce), but this is doubtless an error. From
the fact that the plant, known in Cuba as Guano yavey, grows wild, and its leaves
have long been employed for making fancy hats, hampers, etc., it is more than likely
a species of Thrinax. The stem of the loaf of the Guano yarey v.'^as experimented
with, and the fiber extracted was made into good cordage. It is doubtful, however,
if fiber from the tough leaf stalks can be extracted at sufficiently low cost to compete
with the commercial leaf fibers for which there is already adequate machinery and
a commercial demand. The leaf stems of the saw palmetto are now treated for their
fiber in Florida, but at best it is a coarse and imperfect cordage material.

In the Kew Mus. mats are shown from T. morrisii made iu Auguilla, together with
a series of baskets, fancy articles, etc., from T. argentea, Cuba aud Jamaica.

312

USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

Thuja gigantea. Eed Cedae. Canoe Cedar.

Exogen. Conifera-. A very large tree, 90 to 120 feet.

Native xajies.— Eed cedar, gigantic red cedar, Pacific red cedar, gigantic cedar,

sbinglewood, arbor vita^ of California.

Alaska, south, along the coast ranges and islands of British Columbia, through

"svestern "Washington and Oregon, and the coast ranges of northern California to

Mendocino County, extending to western slopes of the Rocky Mountains and north

'II

umi^.

Fig. 93.— Plant of Thrinax parvijtora.

Montana. "Largely used for interior finish, fencing, cabinetmaking, and cooperage,
and exclusively used by the Indians of the northwest coast in the manufacture of
their canoes." (C. S. Sargent.)

Bast Fiber. — The inner bark is a heavy layer of soft bast which the Indians of
the North Pacific Coast make use of in all of their industries. In their houses it
frequently forms the roof; the mats made of it serve for doors, for hangings, for
beds, for coverings of boxes, and for ornamental purposes. In their costumes it is

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 313

used for headdresses and liats, and an immense number and variety of ceremonial
headdresses are made from the material shi-edded. It also serves for covering of the
body, for kilts or skirts, for cradles or cradle linings, and the soft pads that are
placed on the heads of infants in llatteuing them. In their canoes the mat forms the
covering of the seat and the soft piece on which the rower or paddler kneels. In
fact, there is scai'cely a common industry among these Indians into which this sub-
stance does not intrude itself. (Coulributed hy Dr. 0. T. Mason.)

Ti. New Zealand, Gordyline indivisa. lu Tahiti, C. terminaUs.

Tibisiri fiber (Br. Guian.). MauriUa flcxuosa,

Tibouchina papyrifera.

Exogen. Melastomacea\ A tree.

Thin, paper-like strips of bast from this specie are preserved in the Bot. Mus. Ilarv.
Univ., under the name Lasiandra pajjyrus. They are creamy in color, and very fragile.

Tiglio {li.). = Tilia.

Tilia americana. Linden. Basswood.

Exogen. Tiliaccce. A large tree, 60 to 125 feet.

CoMiMON NAMES. — Basswood, Am. linden, linn, lime tree, bee tree, white lind,
wicknp, lein.

Found in New Brunswick, west to the eastern shore of Lake Superior, and north
and west to Lake Winnipeg and the valley of the Assinuiboine Eiver, southward
through the Atlantic States to Virginia and the Alleghany Mountains, to Alabama
and Georgia, west and eastern Dakota, Nebraska, and Kansas, the Indian Territory,
aud eastern Texas.

"One of the most common trees in the northern forests. Largely sawn into lum-
ber, and under the name of whitewood, is used in manufacfnre of woodenware,
cheap furniture, the panels and bodies of carriages, and the inner soles of shoes.
One of the principal woods used for paper pulp, but unfit for white paper." (C. S.
Sargent.)

Fiber. — The inner bark can be readily peeled into long strips of bast, which in
this country have found occasional use as rough cordage, and for coarse woven
mattings for nurserymen and florists with which to protect hotbeds. See T. cor-
data, etc.

Tilia cordata, T. platyphyllos, and T. vulgaris.

Syn. Tilia europaxi. '

Common names.— Lime, linden (English); Tilo (Span.); Tiglio (It.); Tilleu.
(Fr.).

The above species, all of which have been known as T. enropwa, are common in
different portions of Europe. The small leaved form is indigenous to Britain, but
the large-leaved variety is common in the south of Europe. The wood is used by
carvers and turners, and is prized by instrument makers for sounding-boards.

Fiber.— Like the preceding species, the bast of European lindens is readily
extracted. It is used in Russia in the manufacture of an exceedingly coarse kind
of rope; for making the matted shoes worn by the peasantry, and also for the man-
ufacture of the mats which are used to a considerable extent by furniture dealers
for packing. They are also used by gardeners as a covering or protection to glass
frames. For the larger and better kinds of mats, trees 8 to 16 years old are used,
wliich are cut when full of sap and the bark immediately separated from trunk and
branches. It is then stretched upon the ground to dry, two or more strips being
placed together. When required for use simple soaking in water separates the cor-
tical layers, the best of which are in the interior and the coarsest on the outside.
As many as 14,000,000 pieces of matting have been produced in Russia alone in a

314 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

single year, as these mats are a considerable article of export. Their manufacture
is largely confined to Russia; Sweden, however, has furnished a portion of the mats
exported. The Swedish fishermen use the inner fiber or hast for the manufacture of
fishing nets. Among the uses of lime-tree hast given by Savorgnan and not above
recorded, are baskets and hampers, the prepared fiber being used for nets, hats, and
fine cordage, coarse packing cloth, and a paper said to be remarlcably smooth. The
Japanese form, T. cordata, is much esteemed in .Tapan for its iiber or bast, which
is used for strings and ropes, and sometimes for making a very coarse cloth. An
important branch of industry is the manufacture of mosquito nets, tlie bark of this
species being used for the purpose. No Indian species is recorded.

Tillandsia usneoides. Southern Moss.

Eudogen. Iiromeliacea\

Common names. — Spanish moss. New Orleans moss, Old man's beard, vegetable
hair; Barha de Palo (Venez.); Igan (Arg.).

Abounds in the Gulf States from Soutli Carolina and Florida to Louisiana, where
it is seen hanging in dense gray masses from the branches of the trees, upon which
it is epiphytal. Common in the West Indies, Central America, and portions of South
America, as far south as Argentina.

STRrcTUHAL FiBER. — This is the whole plant after the epidermis has been removed.
It is used as a substitute for curled hair, and its production is a recognized Ameri-
can industry. Manufactured at present chiefly in Charleston, S. C, and New
Orleans, La. The moss was formerly buried for a short time, or thrown up in a heap
partially covered, to destroy the epidermis. Cleaning machines are now used, how
ever, to remove the ei)idermis, after which the fiber goes through a dusting machine
and is subsequently dyed a rich black. The fiber is used iu this country for genera
upholstery purposes. It is used in Venezuela and in Brazil for the same purposes,
though iu the latter country the imprepared moss is also employed as packing
material for glassware and porcelain. The plant is allied to the pineapple.

Tilleul (Fr.) = Tilia.

Tilo (Spaii.) = T//m.

Tilluk (liul.). SaceJiarvm spontaneiim.

Tinnivelley matting (Iiid.). Cyperus corymbosus and C. tegetum.

Tinospora cordifolia.

A climbing shrub belonging to the Menispcrmacew, found throughout trojiical
India, the aerial roots of which are used for tying bundles. The priucipal value of
the plant is in pharmacy, stems, roots, and leaves being used. Its Hindoo name is
(1 uracil, or Giircha, though there are nearly a hundred Indian names of the plant and
of parts of the plant.

Ti-raurika (Austr.). Cordyline atistralis.

Tisi (Hind, and Beng.). Linum usitatissimum.

Tobago silk grass. Furcum. eubensis.

Toi; also Ti (Austr.). Cord y fine indivisa.

Tolotzin, or Catena (Mex.). Heliocarpus.

Ton khoi. Strehlus asper.

Toothe-nai (Ind.). Ahutilon indicum. See slIso Tuthi nar.

Totora (Peru). See Typha augustifolia.

Totte de maguay fino (Mex.). Agave americana.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 315

Touchardia latifolia. The Olona of Hawaii.

Exogen. Urticaccw. A shrub, 4 to 8 feet.

This species, allied to the Boehmcria.'i, is found in deep ravines on all the islands
of the Sandwich Island group, but is not common.

Fiber. — " This is the oJona of the natives, which yields a bast fiber highly prized
for its tenacity and durability, and is chiefly employed ff)r making fishing nets."
(Hillehrand.)

The nets (of the Hawaiians) made of twine spun from the strong and durable fiber
of the olona (T. latifolia) were of many diff^erent patterns and sizes, which may bo
divided into two classes — long nets, sometimes over one hundred fathoms in length,
and bag nets. The long nets were often drawn into large circles, so as to inclose
shoals of fish, and sometimes ropes hundreds of fathoms in length, having dry ki
leaves braided to them by the stems and hanging down in the water, were used to
sweep around and drive the fish into the net, thus inclosing thousands at one haul.
{W. J). Alexander.)

Samples of the unprepared bast forwarded to the Department show a fiber of great
strength and fineness. Specimens subsequently further prepared show a fiber#re8em-
bling China grass and capable of being spun into fine yarns.

Toung-chi. Eice paper. See Aralia.

Toung-ong aud Taung-ong (Barm.). Arenga saceharifera.

Trachycarpus excelsus. Chinese Coir.

Endogen. Falmw. A small fan palm.

Said to be a native of Japan, but found in China and other parts of Asia. Culti-
vated in the province of Chekiang. Introduced into other countries as an orna-
mental plant.

FiBKR. — In China " the fibers of the leaves are locally used in the manufacture of
sandals, brushes, hats, matting, and cordage, aud occasionally for textile fabrics."
(.Spon.) The Kew Mus. exhibits a rain coat and hat made from the fiber of this palm
as worn by the Chinese ; also brushes, cordage, aud other articles made from the fiber
obtained from the bases of the leafstalks.

* Specimens of fine chocolate-colored cordage, small ropes, etc., Bot. Mus. Harr.
Univ.

Trachycarpus fortune!. Ohusan Palm.

Similar to the preceding, credited to China, but according to the Indian Agricul-
turist introduced on the Nilghiris, India. Can be grown to any extent on the Nilghiris
at elevations ranging from 4,000 to 6,000 feet. Height, 10 to 15 feet. (See fig. 2,
PI. VI.)

Fiber. — The whole of the trunk from the ground upward is clothed with a thick
moss of structural fiber which can be easily removed by hand, and only needs to be
combed out and bundled in lengths to be a most valuable article. Introduced for
brush makiug. (Indian Agriculturist, Feb., 1893.)

Traveler's grass (Austr.). See Gymnostacliys anceps.

Treccia (It.) (straw plait). See Triticum.

Tree mallo^v. Lavatera arhorea.

Trema orientalis. Indian jSTettle Tree.

Syn. Sponia orientalis.

Exogen. Urticaeew. A small evergreen tree.

CoMMOX AND NATIVE NAMES.— Charcoal tree; Chikun (Bang.); Sap-sha-pen
(Burm.).
South India, Bengal, southward to Travancore and Singapore; common in Ceylon,
Coromandel coast. "The inner bark consists of numerous reticulated fibers used

316 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

for clothing by some of the native races." (Spou. ) George Watt states that the inner
bark yields a liber used for tying rafters or native houses, for binding loads, and in
Assam for coarse cloth.

Trema wighlii, regarded as a synonym, is included in Sjion's list nnder the name
Sjyonia w'ujhili. and known commonly as Chitrung. "This plant is a native of India,
being especially abundant in the Concans. The iibrons bark, or bast, occurs in strips
12 to 30 inches long, 3 to 15 feet wide, and 0.0039 to 0.03 inch thick. It is used not
only as bast, but also in the manufacture of cordage. This liber is said to be ntil
izedin Mauritius and Venezuela."' (Spon.) A species of Trejjirt isAalued for its fibrous
bast in Argentina. (See Ccllis orientalis.)

Triodia irritans.

An Australian species, known as porcupine grass, that has been recommended as
a paper plant. It is not noted, however, in Guilfoyle's list.

Tristachya leiostachya. ^

Endogeu. (h-amhico-.
Liifgren states that this is considered in Sao Paulo, Brazil, an excellent foragclfor
all sorts of animals and is eaten with avidity. At the summit of the stalk, as I'ar as
the flower, it contains a quantity of pure cellulose. Grows in fields; flowers in May
to August; might be useful for paper.

Trithrinax brasiliensis.

A Brazilian low-growing palui, native of the province of Rio Grande; found also
in Entre Kios and Gorrientes, Argentina, where liber from the leaves is made into
brooms, fans, and other articles.

T. campestris, which is grown in San Luis and Cordoba, Argentina, is used for basket
work, fans, etc. T. mdurilidfonuis is a New Granada sjiecies.

Triticum sativum. Ciltiyated Wheat.

This with its many Aarieties which have been produced by cultivation is one of the
most, if not the most, important of the true grasses. It is one of the oldest of the
cultivated cereals, the grains having been found in very ancient Egyptian monu-
ments, dating back to 2,500 to 3,000 B. C. (F. Lamson-Scribner.)

Structukai, Fiber. — The straw of several varieties of wheat, including the
variety a'slivum, is used in many countries for the manufacture of braids, or straw
jjlait. The finest braids, which come from Italy, and which include the celebrated
Tuscan plait, from Florence, are produced from varieties of wheat cultivated
especially for the straw and without regard to the grain. Wheat straw is likewise
used for braids in other countries of southern Europe and in Germany, the Bohe-
mian liraids also being well known. Some wheat straw braid is also produced in
China. The straw-plait industry of Europe gives employment to thousands of
people, not only in the countries where the straw is produced, but in England,
Switzerland, and other countries which purchase the ])roduct for manufacture into
hats.

Tuscany formerly sent abroad the finished hats, but now the export is largely in
the form of braid. The first fine Tuscan hats sent to England were those worn by
the peasants, aud they are still in common use in Tuscany. The work of braid-
ing is largely done by women and children and is, to that extent, a household
industry. It is easilj- accomplished, though practice from childhood has produced
some very expert braid makers In the Manual Hoepli, M. A. Savorgnan gives a
most interesting account of the Italian straw-plait industry, from which extracts are
reproduced.

The variety of grain which is employed is the so-called Marzuolo (Triliciim saiintm
rar. trimestre), of which there are two subvarieties. The one is very prolific in seed,
and is adapted for rather meager soil; the other has less and smaller seed, but it is
very fertile. They are, however, rather changeable types, as they easily merge into

DESCRIPTVIE CATALOGUE 317

each other if sown near ami thickly together. We tiud two qualities of seed; the
Marzuolo, which is furnished from Modena, also from the mountains of Tuscany, and
especially from Monte-Amiata, it being from the latter place that the seed most
adapted to a fine quality of straw is procured, and the Semenzuolo, a very small grain,
which is used for hats and grows to perfection only in the district of Pisa. The
Alarziiolo (meaning sown in March) wheat straw is not a plant which differs much
from the other varieties of grains having small seeds, and if cultivated under condi-
tions favorable to the development of the seed would make good bread grain. With
us, however, the aim is to lessen the production of seed and cause the stem to acquire
length, iineness, and consistency, thus rendering it valuable. It is the effort to
make each seed produce one stem, which shall be llexible and as long as possible.
Very little care is required for the grain, especially if sown very thick. The harvest
is never delayed until the grain is perfectly matured, but the stems are drawn out
about the last of May or the first of June.

^ This uprooting process is generally given out by contract to the operators. The
straw is then tied in bundles and left to dry under shelter. If the weather is dry,
the straw may be si)read for three or four days on the ground, on an open threshing
floor or the dry bed of a stream, so that the sun and dew will alternate and effect a
bleaching. After this the separating and arranging of the straw takes place. The
operator holding the stem in one hand, takes hold of the husk which contains the
barley seed with the other and draws off the top straw which is attached to it and
which serves ibr making fine hats. These are selected and tied in bundles again,
weighing 100 grams each, which are afterwards combined into packages of 6 to 8
kilos. The straw remaining after this operation is useless for the industries, but is
used for animals.

The production of straw for hats reaches 7,000 or 8,000 kilos per hectare, weighed
when just taken from the earth, but when fully dried, bleached, and separated the
real straw for plaiting weighs about 1,000 kilos. It usually sells for 5 or 6 lire per
100 bundles. For 30,000 to 35,000 bundles 1,.500 to 2,000 lire should be received. Other-
wise selling by weight, it brings 1.50 lire to 2 lire per kilo, equivalent to 1,500 or 2,000
lire. [A lire is about 25 cents.] After Tuscany the Province of Vicenza ranks high
in this product. Switzerland at present exports the greater number of straw hats.
England produces an immense quantity of these hats. From 60,000 to 70,000 per-
sons are engaged in this manufacture.

The Chinese wheat straw plait industry is located in the provinces of Chihli,
Shansi, Honan, and Shantung, and gives employment to many of the poorer classes
of women and children, who are al)le to produce from 35 to 40 yards of braid per
day, worth 14 to 20 cents. The principal varieties are known as white and black
Shiugkee, Shansi, Shantung mottled, and Honan mottled. The first sh'ipment of 35
bales of braid to the United States was in 1873. In 1886, 6,000 bales were shipped,
a bale representing 240 bundles of 165 feet each.

The cultivation of wheat straw from which the braid is worked, and the manufac-
ture of straw hats for water use, has been a special industry in the northern pro-
vinces of China for more than a century. It was not until after Tientsin was opened
to foreign trade that the farmer began to pay much attention to the cultivation and
curing of the straw so as to secure greater uniformity of color as well as fineness of
quality. The great desideratum is to obtain as perfect a white straw as possible by
means of bleaching in the sun. The iirocess is to pull up the plants by hand when
the grain is in the milk and only about half developed. Great care must be taken
to prevent exposure to rain. After bleaching, the straw is cut at the first joint from
the top, all below that joint being useless for making braid. ( U. S. Consul E, J.
Smilhers.)

Tritoma spp. Torch Lily.

Endogens. Liliaccw. Aloe-like leaf cluster.
The torch lilies are natives of the Cape of Good Hope, but distributed to other

318 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

portions of the globe, their elongated spikes of brilliant scarlet or yellow flowers
making them favorite ornamental garden jjlants.

The revised name of this genus is Enipliofia.

Structural Fiber. — It is said that T. recurvata and T. uvaria are utilized as liber
plants at the Cape of Good Hope. The leaves are crushed and macerated in hot
water, when the fibers readily separate. "As fiber plants they were first brought
under notice by me in 1875, samjiles of five kinds having been prepared in the
Botanical Gardens, and since forwarded to several exhibitions. It will be seen that
the present specimens are of fair strength and quality, and possibly they are capable
of being Avovon into fine textile fabrics. The plants are all quick-growing peren-
niaks, producing a wealth of long leafage, and are readily increased Tty root division
and seeds. With good cultivation they would yield two crops per year, and the fiber
can be obtained within a few liours by boiling or steaming the leaves. The great-
flowered Torch Lily {Kniphofia grand'ijlora) and the 'Recurved Torch Lily' {Kniphofia
recurvata) are probably tlie strongest and best iu quality, and these give the greatest
jiercentage of fiber. A letter front a London firm of manufacturers states the value
of this iiber and that of Sparmannia africaim to be from £17 to £17 10s per ton."
{Dr. Guilfoyle.) The fiber of T. uraria, known as the Queen's torch lily, furnishes
a strong fiber of a chocolate color. The uses of these libers in manufacture are not
stated in any of the works examined bj' the compiler.

Triumfetta rhomboidea.

Endogen. Tiliacva:. A shrub.

Indian names, — Chikti (Hind.); Bim-ochra (Beng.).

The plants of the genus are both numerous and widely distributed, abounding in
tropical countries in many parts of the world. T. rliomhoulea is found in tropical
India and Ceylon. "The plant yields a soft, glossy fiber which is said to be consider-
ably utilized in Madras." (Watt.) This is a jute-like liber, the genus being very
closely allied to Corchorus.

Specimens of the fil)er of T, semitriloha Avere received from the Smithsonian Insti-
tution in 1869, without data save the name. The fiber very closely resembles jute
in color, strength, and general characteristics. This species is grown in Trinidad,
where it is known as Cousine Mahoe, but it is regarded more for its medicinal prop-
erties than for its fiber. T, longicoma is a useful Brazilian species, reported by
Lofgreu.

Tronadora (Mex.). Abutilon incanum.

Troolie paim (Guian.). Mani carta saccifera.

Trumpet tree. Cecropia peltata.

Tsai-lai and Hsele (Burm.). Daphne cannabinum.

Tsjo (Jap.). See Boelimeria nivea.

Tucum aud Tecuma (S. Am.). See Astrocaryum spp.

Tukhme-katan (Pers.) Linum usitatissiimim.

Tule (California). Scirpus lacustris.

Tulhtula (Pers. and Arab.). Musa sapientiim.

Turu palm (Br. Guian.). (Enocarpus.

Tururi (Peru). PaulUnia grandijiora.

Tuthi-nar or Tutti (Ind.). Abutilon asiaticum and indicum.

Tye plant of Australia. Gommersonia fraseri.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE.

319

Typha spp. Cat-tail Flag.

Eudogeu. Typhacew. A reed or rnsli.

COMMOX NAMES. — The bulrusli (erroueoiis) ; cat tail, reed mace, elephant grass
(Eug.); Massctte (Fr.); Bohrkolbe (Ger.); ,Sala miuorc (It.); Lana de Enea
(Yenez.); Totora {Vgvw).

A geuus of tall aquatic plants with long, tlat leaves found over a large part of the
world, T. laiifolia and 1'. aiifjuMfolid are the North American species, common also
in Europe, while T. depliantina and other
species are found iu Asia. In this country
its chief use is in cooperage, its leaves
being employed to fill open seams in the
heads and between the staves of barrels.
Its fruit stems, crowned with the brown-
ish, velvetymassof fiber which clothes the
female spadix, are also nsed for household
decorative purposes. The down is some-
times used for stuffing, and at one time a
cousiderablequantity of it (the fiber) was
secured commercially in New Jersey.

Structchal Fiber. — There are so many
references to the uses of the plant as fiber
that a few general statements will suffice.
A very soft and lino fiber has been prepared
from the loaves in this country, experi-
mentally, but it is of little value compared
with many other fibers which can be pre-
pared from native weeds. "The tough
leaves, dried and sjjlit, are extensively
used to make chair bottoms, also woven
into baskets and mats, and even twisted
into strings and ropes." {Dr. Havard.)
The plant is noted in Venezuela, where
the fibrous material borne on the spadix
is employed for stuffing pillows. A species
reported as T. dominooisis is noted as a
fiber plant in Peru, where it is called the
Totora. T. latifolia and T. angusiifolla
abound in Europe, where both the fiber of
the leaves and the fibrous substance of the
spadix have been employed, the first as a
material for making hats, baskets, chair
bottoms, etc., and the latter for uphol-
stery. A sample of its fiber prepared in
Victoria was sent to the Amsterdam Ex-
hibition of 1876, at which time it was
stated that a French company had been
formed to utilize the fiber in commerce.
The uses of the plant in India are even

more varied; used for making sieves in Kashmir; for thatching huts and house
boats in the Punjab; for soft mattings, ropes, and baskets iu Kuln and Kiimaon;
for the same purposes in .Sind, and also for building rude wicker boats, emi)loyed
for crossing the Indus during floods. Used for paper making with success. "The
fiber has been examined in Europe, and is said to be of fine texture, tolerably strong,
and capable, with the aid of machinery, of being converted into textile fabrics."
{Geortje fVatt.) Savorgnan states that the leaves of T. laUfoUu, are employed in

Flii. 100.— Cat-tail tiaj;-. Tiipha aii<ivsti/oUa.

320 USEFUL FIBEK PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

Italy for making mats, hand baskets, and also to cover chair seats, bottles, and flasks ;
and, liually, the leaves are employed for calking vessels, aed lilliug the seams in casks
and barrels.

Uaisima.

In Orton's Andes and the Amazon this name is given to a light- wooded, slender
tree of the lower Amazon, the inner bark of which is said to contain a strong, silky
liber. If the name was written phonetically it may refer either to Urcna lobata, or
to Guazuma idmifolia, as it is very similar to the Brazilian names of these species,
which follow.

Uaixyma aud Guaxima (Braz.). Urena lohata.

Uauassii palm (Braz.). See Attcdea.

Uaycinia (Venez.). Guazuma ulmifolia.

Ubim (Braz.). See Gconoma.

Udal (Ind.j. Sterculia villosu.

Uki (Hawaii). See Gahnia hcecheyU.

Ukot. Ii<iphk{ liooJxeri.

Ulat-kaniball (Ind.). Abromn <(U(jusfa.

Ulmus alata. The Waiioo.

Common names. — Winged elm, wahoo, Avahoo dm, witch elm, cork elm, moun-
tain elm, water elm.
The elm belongs to the family Uhnacea', which for the most part are large trees. U.
alata is a species which abounds in the hummock lands of middle G'eorgia. The bark
is very tough, and when stripped from the trees and steeped in water for several
weeks becomes quite pliant, and is said to make excellent horse collars, U.puhescens
(formerly r.fnlva) is the slippery elm, its fibrous and mucilaginous bark being well
known. Fiber from "Eed elm'' bark lias been received from Missouri.

Ulmus campestris.

This is the common Elm of Europe, thought to have been introduced into Britain
by the crusaders. Savorgnan states that the bark of the young branches is adapted
to making a common kind of cordage.

The bark of r. walUchii, a species occuring in India, contains a strong fiber used
for cordage aud for making l^edstrings and sandals. Fiber is also said to have been
made from the scape of the flower stalks.

Umbauba (Braz.). Gecropia pcltata.

Umbogozembe (Natal). Urera tenax.

um-Vemvani (Natal). Sida rhombifolia.

Uniola racemiflora.

A West Indian grass, the stems of which have been made into ropes. Also pro-
posed for paper stock.

Upas tree (Java). AnUaris toxicaria.

Uram (Malay). Ahutilon indicum.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE.

321

Urena lobata. O^i^sak Weed.

Exogen. Maliacecv. A small shrub.

Common AND NATIVE names. — Ciesar weed (Fla.); Carf(7Z(>, (Venez.) ; Guaxima, or

Uaixyma (Braz.) ; Bun-ochra (Ind.) ; Patta-appele (Ceyl.) ; JAv-m ( Yorubaland).

This species is almost cosmopolitan, as it is found in both temiierate and tropical

countries in many parts of the world. It is a very common species in many portions

Flo. 101.— Tlic Oii-><:ir weed, Vrena lobata.

of the United States, but has been particularly remarked as a liber plant in Florida,
where uninformed persons have taken it for ramie. It occurs in South America,
India, Africa, and other tropical countries. (See tig. 101.)

Bast J'iher. — Resembles many of the mallow fibers, both as to color and strength,

and would make a good jute substitute, though the stalks are short and small. The

museum contains many specimens of this fiber, several from Brazil and Venezuela.

Dr. Ernst describes the fiber as a meter in length, very tine and white, very strong,

12247— No. 9 21

322 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

t;ikiii<f dyes readily. Some very fiue samples of the Braziliau fiber were received
tlirony,h the Phil. Int. Exh., 1876, Avith the statemeut that it is extracted readily
aud makes A'ery strong cordage; "takes color Avell, aud the dyes ai'e lasting." In
the East Indies it has been used for the manufacture of i>aper. Spon states that
slips of sized paper Aveighing o9 grains made from this fiber sustained 75 ]>ounds,
against Hank of England note i>ulp 47 pounds. Used in India for the manufacture of
sacking and twine, and is consiilered a fair substitute forllax; is easily extracted.
It is a common shrub in poitions of Africa, and in Yorubaland is used for rope, and
as a tic material in house l)uil<ling. An allied form found in India, U. niiiuala, yields
a similar liber that is employed for the same uses. This is known as the Hin appele
in t'eylon, and h'inijhi in Bengal.

Urera subpeltata. OiiTKiAo.

Exogcu. rrliracco'. A shrub.

A genus allied to Vriica or the nettles. The species named occurs in southern
Brazil, Avhero it is found in briary copses. It is nu'dicinal, being often cm]>loyed in
forms of tea made from the bark as a remedy for ])ulnionary diseases. It forms an
excellent food ibr horses.

Bast Fihku. — It contains a strong liber, from which the Indians make nets, their
short hip clothing, and other articles. It should be one of the best of the vegetable
productions for tlic manufacture of paper. Also called Cdnsauciilo. {Alberto IJifflren.)

Urera tenax. Umbogozembe.

Exogcu. rrlicaceo: A shrub, 8 to 10 feet.

This siiccies abounds in Xatal, aiul was brought to notice as a fiber plant at the
Colonial and Indian Exhibition, London, 1886. "The shrub is of moderately (piick
growth and is easily propagated. Plants have been reared for distribution, but no
one seems to care to give it a trial. One reason for this may be ])robably found in the
more or less complete failure of all machines yet invented for profitable extraction of
the fiber. Should such a machine be perfected, I believe the plant under notice
would be found easier to work than the 'Chiuagrass.'" {J. Medley JVood.) (Seefig. 102.)

FiBEK. — This is described as strong and of good color. Is used by the natives for
making sleeping mats. The stripped bast resembles China grass, but is more brittle
and is not so lustrous. The plant is figured in the Kew Bullctiu for March, 1894.

Urera sandwicensis. Opuhe.

Abundant in the Sandwich Islands. Ilillebrand describes this species in the
Flora of the Hawaiian Islands, and states that the ]dant yields a most valuable
fiber, especially esteemed by the natives, and used in the same manner as the olona,
Touchardia laHfoUa, which see. U. aJceafoUa is a Tahiti species.

Urtica spp.

This genus gives its name to a large family of fiber-producing plants, the Vrfi-
cacen; the representatives of which are found in every country. The Uriicas are
commonly known as stinging nettles. The species of Hoclimeria, such as ramie, China
grass, etc., which are closely related, differ in that they are deficient in the stinging
hairs which characterize many of the Urticas, and hence the name stingless nettle^
one of the common names of the China grass plant. Bcrnardin names fourteen
species of Urtird as fiber yielding, though many of them have l)een referred to other
genera. Among the less important species are F. j>i7M7iATrt and C cotniahiua,
Oriental, and V. urens, European.

In the Ignited States several species are recognized, one of which, U.dioifa, has
been introduced from Europe. Another species has been recognized as a valuable
fiber plant and is treated under the title T. grorUis. U. iireiix and U. chamcdryoUles,
the former a Southern form, the latter more widely distributed, are of small impor-
tance as fiber jdauts. Urtica holosericeu, of the southern Pacific States, yields a very

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE.

323

strong fiber, used by Indiaus to make bowstriugs, twine, rope, etc. (Represented in
the Bot. Mas. Harv. Univ. by one sanii)le of very good fiber.) T'. hreivcri probably
yields the same kind of fiber. (Dr. U. llarard.)

The Treasury of Botany mentions many species of Urtica that have been prized
for their liber, iu different countries, but in the modern nomenclature these have
been referred to other genera, such as Jioehnifria, Giravdit'ia, Dehregeasia, Laportea,
MaoiiiUt, I'Uea, I'oiizol:i(t, Tonchardia, Villehrunea, Urera, and others, which see.
The principal species still retained in the genus are described b(dow\

ITrtica dioica. The Common STiNaiNd Nettle of Europe.

Common n.\me^. — The stinging or great nettle. In India it has been given such
names as lUclui, Chicru, etc., meaning the scorpion or stinger.

Fig. 102.— Plant of Vrcra tenax.

Common in the United States in waste places, Nova Scotia to Ontario and Minne-
sota; southward to South Carolina and Missouri. Introduced from Europe where it
is a common species. Found also in India, in the Himalayas, at altitudes of 8,000 to
12,000 feet.

Bast Fiher. — Has not been reported as a fiber plant iu the United States, but is said
to have been prepared in Germany, the 'Miljer made to becouie as fine as silk." Is also
used in Europe for fish Hues and, it is claimed, has been manufactured into fabrics.
Savorgnan states that it is known as Swedish hemp, and that the plant is cultivated
in Sweden, and its fiber used for cordage and cloth. In India the "stems yield a
Avell-known fiber, Avhich is said to rival in tenacity the best hemp." {(ieorge Watt.)

324 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

U. parrijiora is an Indian 8i)ecie8 found in the temperate Himalayas. It yields a
fiber, though little is known about it ; like the allied sjiecies, is doubtless used in
cordage, etc.

Urtica gracilis. The Slender Nettle.

Nova Scotia to British Columbia; southward to North Carolina, Louisiana;
Kansas. A native species, abounding throuj^hout the United States and Canada.
As it is related to the ramie plant it naturally possesses a good tiber in its bark,
though the stinging hairs Avhich clothe its stalks and leaves m",ke it unpleasant to
handle.

Bast FinKH. — Many specimens have been received by the Department of Agricul-
ture gathered from weather-beaten stalks found standing in the fields, though the
special agent in charge of fiber iuvestigations has ue\er seen a properly prepared
sample of tlie liber from fresh stalks, and is unable to describe its characteristics. A
few years ago it attracted attention in Minnesota, and an attempt was made to
reduce the fiber, though the experiment was interrupted before eomiiletiou, and no
report could be made. From a communication to the Department by .J. Carmichael
Allen, in 1891, the following extract is pro()uced:

I have about a half ton of the straw of Urtica gracilis retting, and will furnish
you with samples of the fiber as soon as readj'. It seems a close relative of the
Boehmeria fiber, though whether dew retting will prove a successful system or not
for this plant I shall not be prepaied to say until I scutch some of it. I inclose a
sample of tow I made from a few stems this afternoon. You will see it is not sufii-
ciently retted and the fiber though soft does not api)ear to be over strong. From the
nature and feel of it I expect it will be better adapted to mix with wool than as a
substitute for tlax, and this comes more under the Khea class.

In thiscouueotion, it luay be stated that the tiber of Girardiuia imlmata{l'. heiero-
phylla) , which is found in Coromandel, Nepal, Buruiah, Assam, etc., is known as vege-
table wool, and it is claiuied that the filaments of this species, "having a rougher
surface than those of Boehmeria nirea (China grass), are, therefore, more easily com-
bined -with wool in mixed fabrics.'" Another species which may be mentioned la
U. caracasana, a Tahiti form, from which a good tiber is obtained.

Uruca (Braz.). Bixa orellana.

Urucuri palm (Braz.). Attalea excelsa.

Usir (Arab.). Andropogon squarrosu.s.

Uttariya jute (Ind.). See Corvhonis.

Vacona (also Bacona) (Maurit). Pandanus utilis.

Vanilla grass. Hierochloi' odorata.

Vasha and Vellacoi (Malay). Musa sapientum.

Vegetable silk (see cottou — silk cottons; refer also to artificial silk).

Vegetable wool (see Girardinia palmata; see also Urtica gracilis).

Velvet mallo-w. Lavatera maritima.

Vendi, or Venda-kaya (lud.). Hibiscus esculentus.

Vetivert. Andropogon squarrosiis.

Viburnum spp.

An extensive genus of shruVis, natives of the temperate regions of North America,
Asia, and Africa. The wood of several species is used for turnery, etc. Another

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE 325

yields ;i fruit from which ink its made, and still another yields a dye. The ancients
used the word viburna to signify a pliant, branched plant that could be iised in
tying, r. canadnisix is noted in Manual Hoepli. "Has very flexible and tenacious
branches, which are utilized, either split or entire, as bands for binding bales and
large packages.'' This name is unknown to botanists; probably V. cassiiioiden, AA'ithe-
rod, is meant.

Vigna catjang. The Oowpea.

Syn. DoUchos >iinei>Kix.

Exogen. Le(jumitio>nv. Annual ft)rage plant.

CoMMOX XAAiES. — Southern cowpea. field pea, stock pea, cherry l>ean, Chinese
vetch.

Of unknown origin. Cultivated in the United States and in Oriental and other
warm countries. Economic value, as a forage plant, as an article of liuman food,
and as a fertilizer when the crop is plowed under.

There are )nany named forms or cultural varieties, all of which, however, are con-
sidered by botanists to be derived from one species. It so readily adapts itself to
difterent soils and changes its characters so readily under cultivation, that there has
been much difficulty in determining the limits of the various named forms. The
cowpeas are of three general classes, according to theirhabit of growth, consisting of
"bunch" varieties, which grow erect and compact; "runners,"' which start oft" erect
and then throw out running branches; and "trailers," which grow Hat upon the
ground with long stems sometimes 1.5 to 20 feet in length. Tliere is also mirch varia-
tion in size, shajie, and color markings of the seeds, and in the manner in which
the seeds are borne in the pod, the seeds of some being closely crowded together,
called " crowders,"' and others with the seeds wide apart and the pods constricted
between each seed, called "kidney " peas. . The bunch varieties are the ones which are
best adapted to growing for hay or ensilage, while the runners and trailers are val-
uable for soiling purposes or for turning under as green manure. Tlie length of
season required for maturity also varies greatly, the bunch varieties, as a rule,
requiring only a short season. {F. Lamson-Scrilnier.)

Bast fiber. — A field sample of the fiber of this plant has recently been received
from Dr. W. J. Mason, of Activity, Ala. Weather retted, by exposure to the ele-
ments, its characters can not be defined. In the matter of strength, however, it is
interesting to note th.at a cord about half the size of binding twine showed a
breakage strain of 38 pounds, Kentucky hemp binding twine averaging about 100
pounds.

Dr. Mason writes as follows: "As you are aware, the pea is to the South what
clover is to other sections in restoring fertility to the soil ; then it is one of the finest
food and forage crops for both man and beast. Now, if the fiber could be manu-
factured into twine and baling stuffs, I do not see why it would not open anew field
for manufactures and add a new source of profit to the Southern farmers. The
sample forwarded has lain in the open fields all the winter, and you will notice that
it is stainless and possessed of great strength." While the fiber is strong and good
it would be difiicult to extract it commercially at jiaying cost, in competition with
such a fiber as hemp, which is produced in straight, slender, rigid stalks, which can
be handled with ease in the harvesting, curing, and breaking, to clean the fiber.
No doubt the fiber could be used for some purpose if it could be secured at econom-
ical cost.

Villebrunea integrifolia.

Exogen. UrticacKV. A small tree.

Abounds in many parts of India and Ceylon, together with an allied species,
V. fniteecenx.

Bast Fiber. — "One of the stromgest of India fibers" (Sjion) The fiber in Sikkim
and Assam has been made into ropes, nets, and cloth. The Ban-rhea of the Assamese.

326 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

In Dr. George \¥:itt'3 Khea and allied Rhea libers (selectioub from the records of the
Governmeut of ludLa, revenue and agricultural department) there is an exhaustive
account of the fiber of both /'. iniegr'ifoVm and V. frulescens. See also Die. Ec. Prod.
Ind., Vol. VI, Part IV.

Vismia cayennensis.

The rism/rts are mostly tropical American plants, though several species are found
in Africa. Some of the species, such as T. cayennensis, from Guiana, yield a resin
known as American gamboge. This species is found in Trinidad, known as Bois Samj.
Mr. J. H. Hart states that it yields a coarse bast fiber.

Vitis adnata.

Belongs to the lltacea , a slender climbing plant met with in the hotter parts of
India, Ceylon, Java, Philippine Islands, etc., and allied to the common grape, V. vin-
ifera. It is reported that the Santals prepare a good cordage fiber from the stems.

Voivoi (Fiji Is.). Pandanus caricoKUfi. See under P. utilis.

Volandera (Cent. Am.). Cuvanillesia plantanifoUa.

Vonitra (Madagascar). See Dictyosperma fibrosuni .

Wadara (Br. Giiiaii.). See Couruitiri.

Waduri (Java). Calotropis gigantea.

Waduri bast (Br. Guian.). See Leci/this.

Waeta keyiva (Ceyl.). PandanKs odoratisshuHS.

Wahoo elm (see C7m«.s' alata).

Wal(Ceyl.) = V\'ild.

"Wal-kaihil (Ceyl.). Mu.sa napientmn.

"Walola (New Guiii.). See Polyponi.s.

Warang bast. Kyd ia en Ijic i n a .

Washingtonia filifera.

A California palm— southern California to western Arizona — found in rocky locali-
ties in dry, sheltered canyons. Fibrous material is said to have been produced from
it by the Indians. Mentioned by Romyn Hitchcock in list of fibers published by
tbeU. S. Nat. Mus., 1884.

The revist d name of this species is Xeotctishintjtonia Jilamentosa.

Water iris, Yellow (see Fris).

Water ■weed. Elodea caiuulensis.

Wawla bast. Holoptelea integrifoUa.

Wax palm (Braz.). Copernicia cerifera.

Wayaka (Fiji Is.). See PachyrJiiziis angulatus.

Wedding flovrer, Lord Ho"we's (Austr.). Mormi rohimoniana.

Wei (<'eyl.)=Cliuiber. A corainon affix in Ceylon names.

Weni-wel (Ceyl.). Coscinium feneatruiHin.

West Indian locust. Hymencea courharil.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 327

Wharariki (Xew Zca.). riionitiHiii tcuH.v.

Wheat straw (see Triticioit).

White cotton tree, of India. Eriodendrou anfractnosum.

White nielilot. McIiJofKs aJha.

White mulberry. Morns nlba.

White silk cotton tree. Corhlo.spenitKm (jossypium.

White s'weet clover. Mrlilotiis ulha.

Wicopy {V . S.). ]>'n-ca pidnstriH.

Wikstroemia canescens. (tAnpi. of Japan.

Exogen. Tlnjmelwaceir.

This gouiis is distributed over the ^viu•lller parts of Asia, Australia, and the Pacilic
islands, some of them heiug shrubs and others trees. The genus is related to Daphne.
TV. cduesans is employed to a commercial extent in .Japan for paper making.

Bast Fiber. — Beautiful e»iniples of the raw and prepared baric, and a large s( ries
of samples of paper made from it, were received from the .Japanese exhibit, W. C.
E., 1893.

This plant is very rarely cultivated, the bark being gathered chielly from "wild
growth. Soil tit for the plants is clay, of red or yellow color, in an exposed situa-
tion, such as mountain or hillside facing south. Seed is sown at the end of March
or beginning of April and covered slightly with earth. After germination weeding
should be performed, manuring with some liquid manure and drawing the earth
around the iilant. lu the dry summer of the tirst j'ear litter from horse or cow
stables is spread around the plants and watering is repeated as required. In the
succeeding years hoeing au<l weeding are done during the summer, weeds being col-
lected around the plant and allowed to decay there. Harvesting time varies, accord-
ing to circumstances, from the third to the seventh year from the time of sowing.
It is harvested by pulling instead of cutting, and new shoots come up from the old
roots left in the ground; moreover, seed dropped germinates naturally, and plants
do not need to be transplanted again. The product from 1 acre of land is estimated
at about 500 or at most 700 kilograms of the raw liark. The bark is at once stripped
on the farm, for if the stems become dry the tibers are difficult to get out, and
scraping the coarse outer bark should be done while the stems contain some moisture.
In performing the latter operation, the raw bark is steeped in water and sciaped
carefully with a knife, and then washed thoroughly with water to free it from
adhering matters, and dried perfectlj' by h.iuging on bamboo poles, (('at. Agl. Prod-
ucts of Japan, W. C. E.. 1893.)

Wikstroemia viridiflora.

Native Names. — The AJda of Hawaii ; Orao of the 'fahitians ; ^fa^i of the Vitians ;
the Sinn inakiivi of the Fiji Islanders.

A treelike shrub, 2 to 1 feet, found in the valleys of all the Hawaiian group, and
also in the Fiji, Society, and Vlti islands, eastern Australia.

Bast Fiber. — Derived frcm the bark. The bark is extremely tough, but is easily
separated. The iilicr obtained is used ibr making rough native cordage, nets, lish
lines, etc. Hillebrand does not mention the si)ecies economically, but the I^. S. Nat.
Mus. contains specimens of rope and twine prepared by the Hawaiians from its
bark under the name TV. J'oetida. (Kept. Nat. Mus., 1890.)

Wild cotton of Natal. Ipomcea gerrardi (according to Bernardin).
Wild hemp. Maontin puya.

328 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

Wild Ipecacuanha. Asclepias curassavica.

Wild mahoe. Malraviscus arhoreus.

Wild okra. Malachra cnpitata.

Wild pineapple (W. Ind.). BromvVta pinffuln.

Wild rice. Zizania aquaiica.

Willo-w, Species of (see Halix).

Willo^v herb. EpilohUim august if olium.

Wina (Br. Guiaii.). Probably Lecythis (Ernst), which see.

Wine palm of Para (Bra/..). Manritia rmifern.

Wissadula rostrata (see Ahutilon peripJocifolinm.)

Wistaria chinensis.

A irenns of Icj^iuiiinons ])lauts found in Japan, China, and North Anxcrica. W.
frutescen-i is a well-known cliniher with conspicuous tirtwevs. Cultivated on trellises
and walls in this country. JV. chinennix is stated, on the authority of Savorgnan, to
yield a liber, in Italy, which is very white and line, and which may servo for light
textures.

The revised name of this genua is Krantihiit.

Wood reed grass. Kpivampes rujens.
Woodwardia radicans. The Chain Fern.

A genus of I'ilicts rei)resented in uianj- ])ortions of the globe, the above sjiecies
occurring on the Pacific Coast.

Stkuctikal Fibek. — This fern has two long stalks, each containing two fibro-
A-ascular bundles, in the shape of large, Hattened brown threads, tough and flexible.
While still fresh the stalks are bruised and pounded so as to liberate the threads,
which are then cleaned and stained in an infusion of alder bark. These threads
become brittle in drying and must be used moist. (Dr. V. Huvard.)

An allied species. Sndleria ciiaiheoides. which is common on all the Hawaiian Islands,
is another fiber fern. "'The soft, cuily, hair-like scales are gathered for the same
l^nrpose as the hairs of Cihoiiiim. and are lalbd puhi amaviaii. In former times the
stipites, macerated in water, were beaten together with the bast of 'mamake' or
'waukt/ to serve as a sizing, jjerhaps also to impart a reddish dye, in the manufac-
ture of ' kapa ' or native cloth.'' ( UUhhrand. i See also Adiaiifmii.

Woody fiber (see Classification in the Introduction, page 25).
Wrack grass (T". S. and Europe). Zontcra Jiiarina.
Wuckoo (Ind.). Crotidaria juncea.
Wiigsi (Hopi.). Mnhlenherfjia pungens.
Xanthorrhoea australis. Resin (iRASS Tree.

Endogen. Liliaceo'. Palm-like tree.

The species of Xanfhorrhaa are known to the natives of Australia as black boy or
grass gum trees. Most of the species have thick trunks, though iu some the trunk
is quite short. Two species yield forms of resin.

Structural Fiber. — A', australis is mentioned by Dr. Giiilfoyle as a fiber plant.
"A small percentage of silky fiber can be extracted, which jirobably is of little
value, although the trunk yields a fragrant resin, which has been used as a varnish,

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE 329

for dyeing purposes, and iu tlie luauufactnre of lacquer for tinware. It also affords
a largo percentage of wood spirit." .Y. longifolia is the dwarf grass tree of Victoria,
native tussock grass or mat rush of l>r. Guilfoyle's list.

Xerophylluni tenax.

Kndogen. LiVniveif.

Coast Range, Monterey to British Columbia ; also Sierra Nevadas. Tliis liliaceous
plant has very stiff, slender leaves, that are admirably adapted for jilaiting.

STi!rcTUR.A.L Fiber. — '-Theplant is useful to the natives. Out of its very tenacious
leaves they weave the water-tight haskets which they use for cooking their victuals
in."' {F. Piirah.) '-Its slender leaves, 2 to 3 feet long, are strong, tough, and flexible;
they do not contain scparalde textile fibers, but are largely used by Indians for the
finer grades of their basketwork." (Dr. V. Earard). An allied species is found on
the Atlantic Coast, but it is not known to have been used economically.

Xerotes longifolia.

Endogen. .Jiincdcar. A perennial rush.
Common names. — Tussock grass; Australian mat rush.
Coast of Australia; especially common in Victoria in dry, open sand localities,
where it covers miles of country.

Structural Fiber. — "It is reckoned as the best indigenous substitute for Esparto
for paper making" (Spon). The culms are used by the Yarra tribe of southeastern
Australia for manufacturing baskets. The Kew Museum Guide notes a dilly bag
made from the culms of the lioomhi ( Y. multifioro) in Now South Wales.

Xtuc (Mex.). Fiber of Yucca.

Xylopia sericea. The Pindayua or Malaguete.

Exogen. Anonacea-. A tree.

The species included iu this genus are South American trees or shrubs, several of
which are found in Brazil and a few in the West Indies. They are noted for the
bitterness of the wood and for the aromatic properties of their fruit and seed.

1?.\ST Fiber. — The fiber of the species named, if so it may be called, is of the
coarsest description and consists only of the cortical layers of bark, which are torn
from the trees in ribbon-like strips. These have no use that can bo dignified by the
name of manufacture, and are only rudely twisted or plaited by the natives into a
kind of coarse cordage, which is used to tie fences and sometimes to secure cattle.
A sample of this coarsely twisted rope was received from Brazil (Phil. Int. Exh.,
1876). and is a little more than half an inch iu diameter, composed of three strands,
each of which contains about nine or ten of these ribbons or strips of bast, the
interior ones being quite harsh and woody. Doubtless, in skilled hands, finer speci-
mens of cordage might be produced, though, .strictly speaking, it does not possess
fibrous material. It would be available for mats.

* Specimens. — Mus. U. S. Dept. Ag., and Bot. Mus. Harv. I'niv. ; labeled Emhirama.

Xylopia friitescens is another Brazilian .species, which furnishes a fiber that lias been
used for similar rough cordage. It is a native of Cayenne. A', (jrandiflora, also found
in Brazil, is known in Sao Paulo as Emhira hranca. "The wood of this tree is highly
esteemed, and from its bark is drawn a fiber which is strong and from which nets are
made." It is also called the Piridahi/ha or thorn tree.

Xylostroma giganteum.

This is the sterile mi/ceUum of some nijmenomycele. It is found in trunks of trees or
logs, where it may form large masses, and sometimes between boards in lumber piles,
where it forms sheets perhaps a foot in breadth and several feet long. It is very simi-
lar to white or soiled kid leather, and makes excellent razor-strop material, probably
reijuiriug no preparation beyond care in the selection of suitably soft pieces. {B. T.
Galloumy.)

330 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

Yachan (Arg,). Chorisia sxyeciona.

Yagua-yagua or Huitoc (Peru). Genipa amerieana. (Dorca's list.)

< )rtou yives Yagna as the common uamc of a species of Attalea.
Yaka fiber (Fiji Is.). Pachyrhizus anyulatiiH.
Yashqui and Yaxci (Mex.). See A(jarr rifiida.
Yatay-pony (Arg.) 8ee I>ii)loth('miHm.
Yaxche (Mex.). Bomhax ceiha.
Yercum (Ind.). (UOoiropis (jUjioitea.
Yolba (Aiidani. Is.). See Anadendrum.
Youn-padi-si (Burin.). Hibiscus csculentus.

Ysote (Mex.). Yucca.

Tliis name lias lieeu iriveii liotli to Yucca (tloifolid aiul Y. Jilameniosa.

Yucca spp.

Endogens. LlViacea'. Sbrults witli clnstereil ensiform leaves.
The species of this genus are chieHy natives of the southern United States and
Mexico, though many of them have been distributed to Europe, Africa, India, and
Australia, and several are found in the West Indies, Central and South America.
Some are familiar ornamental i)lants, and are quite hardy. One species, 3. //7r/»(e)i-
tosa, finds its Avay into our gardens even in more northern sections of the country,
and is conspicuous in the blooming season for its large, white, lily-like flowers, as
well as for its long, sword-shaped leaves, cacli terminating in a sharp ]ioint. The
species of Yucca flourish on the poorest soils. Probably no other leaf iiber has so
often been the subject of correspondence Avith the Department, and but for the
short length of the fiber it would doubtless have come into commercial use long ago.
The important species of Yucca growing in the United States are Yucca aloifoUa,
Y. boccaUi, Y.filamentosa, Y. (jJauca, and )'. gloriosa. These are variously known as
dagger plants, Adam's needle, bear grass, Spanish bayonet, dwarf palmetto, etc., the
Mexican general name for the group being Pahitea.

There are no records to show that these structural libers have ever been emjiloyed
otherwise than experimentally in this country, if we except the limited use made of
the liber by Indians and Mexicans of Arizona or Sonora, in manufactures, at the pres-
ent day ; and there are no records, save the relics from the mounds of burial plaeesof
the ancient inhabitants of North America, to show bow long the fiber of Yucca has
been used in the rude domestic economy of these peojile. Sandals, mats, etc., from
the burial mounds show flber or leaves which undoubtedly have been derived from
Yucca, and possibly J', glauca, Y. elata, or allied narrow-leaved forms. We know
that Yucca (jlauca is largely used by the Arizona Indians in basketry, etc., and 1'.
baccata and similar species have been eaiployed by dirtereut tribes for ropes and
cordage. The uses of these fibers by our farmers, and the records of their experi-
mental apjdication to the useful arts, are noted under the names of botanical species,
which follow in alphabetical order.

A few of the less important species, which should be mentioned, are : YuccaarhoreKCctis
(see Plate XI), the tree-like California desert form, regarding which Spou states
that "existing supplies of the plant are being rapidly consumed for paper making,"
though no American citation can be given showing that this unwieldly source of
fiber is utilized commercially, excepting the statement by William Trealease that,
some years since, the proprietors of an English newspaper established a mill in the
home of one of the three Yuccax, intending to make paper pulp from its wood, but

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 331

the enterprise was shortly abatidoned. Kew has examples of its fiber taken from the
trunk. 1'. trecuUana shoiiUl also bo mentioned, the species having been sent to
the Department from Texas and New Mexico, the large leaves of which would work
readily on the sisal hemp m.ichines. Dr. Havard states thnt it yields a good liber,
somewhat similar to that from 1'. haccata. Among other species of Yucca, William
Treleaso names Y. guatemalensis, Y. australis, and Y. nipicohi, a Texan species, besides
several varieties of common species which need not be referred to in this catalogue.

The economic literature of the Yuccas of Mexico is badly confused, as far as the
botanical nomenclature is concerned. It is learned, however, that several species,
such as I', aloifolia, Y. Jilamentosa, Y. gloriosa, Y. glanca, and 1'. treciileaiia, are
regarded as fiber plants in the interior, and iu some instances the attempt has been
made to produce fiber from them commercially. In preparing the fiber the leaves
are thrown into barrels of hot water, brought to the boiling point, after which they
are crushed between two cylinders to remove extraneous uuitters. The crushed mass
is then placed upon hurdles, in such manner that the fibers may be kept straight and
separate. The hurdles are then let down into an alkaline bath heated to the boiling
point. This is composed of ashes and water, 45 pounds of the I'ormer to 121 gallons
of the latter. The leaves remain in this solution four hours, though good judgment
is necessaiy that the leaves may be neither over nor underheated. After taking out
of the bath the fibers are washed, dried, and combed, the result being a delicate,
strong, lustrous, and white fiber, which is known as Xtiic. (Condensed from La
Revista Agricola, A'ol. V, p. 194.)

Yucca fiber possesses a moderate tenacity, but is somewhat brittle, and can not be
made to lose its harshness. Tho filaments of Yucca are described as white in color,
brilliant, and stiff, composed of irregular bundles, the most of which are large. By
rubbing briskly between the fingers the bundles break up into finer fibers, but
always preserving a great deal of stiffness. The walls are usually thick and the
central cavity very apparent. The ends grow slender regularly, and are rounded at
the extremit}'.

Yucca aloifolia.

CoM-MOX NAMES. — Aloe-leaved Adam's needle (Victoria) ; Spanish needle (Trin.) ;
dagger plant (W. Ind.) ; Spanish bayonet (Fla.). Ysote (Mex.).

This species abounds in southern Florida, in thickets of wild vegetation near the
coast. Found in many portions of tropical America, southern Europe (as an orna-
mental plant), North and South America, Australia, etc.

Stuuctural Fiber. — From tho Australian collections (Phil. Int. Exh., 1876) the
Department secured examples of Y. alolfolio, tho aloe-leaved Adam's needle, pre-
pared by Dr. Guilfoyle, who stated that, though a native of South America, it suc-
ceeds admirably iu Victoria, and is of moderately ([uick growth.

A. aloifolia abounds in Florida wherever the false sisal is found. Sometimes the
tracts of this species extend for miles along the coast in broken patches or clumps,
the masses of bud leaves often rearing aloft their spiked crowns a dozen feet from
the ground. The leaves of this species are loo difficult to secure, and too short when
secured, to ever prove valuable for fiber production. It produces a fair (|uality of
fiber, however. About 40 pounds of leaves cut on Sands Key and passed through
the machine gave a product of about 1 pound of dry fiber, not over 12 to 15 inches
long, or the equivalent of 56 pounds to the ton of leaves. This would not pay com-
mercially, as the yield is low for an inferior fiber. Pineapple fiber with the same
yield would be three or four times as valuable, while the leaves could be gathered
for one-fourth the cost.

'Specimens. — Mus. U. S. Dept. Ag. ; Field Col. Mus.

Yucca baccata.

High table-lands between the Rio Grande and the Gila, New Mexico, also Cali-
fornia, Nevada, Utah; western Texas to southern Colorado. (See tig. 2, PI. Xll. an
allied species.)

332 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.'

Employed by the Hopi Indians of Arizona for l>asketry, the name of the plant
being Samoa, the edible fruit, sahii, and the soapy root Samomohi. (Fewkes.)

Structuhal Fiber. — Both the leaves .iiid the root of this species yield fiber
that has been employed by the Indians. The Museum collection contains several
examples of tlie fibrous root and prepared fiber from it ; also cordage, the most
interesting example being a coil of half-inch rope from New Mexico. The liber is
coarse and wiry, but shows great strength. "The leaves yield an excellent fiber,
long, white, glo.ssy, strong and very durable, but stiff. Were it possible to prepare
it economically, almost an inexhaustible sup))ly could be obtained from this and the
allied T. macrocarpa in the arid regions of the southwest. Specially useful for
brushes, mats, bagging, hammocks, saddle blankets, paper, etc. The parenchyma
or pith obtained in the process of separating fibers is highly valued for washing
purposes, probably containing saponin (as in root) and having marked detergent
qualities," {Dr. T. Httvard.)

The fiber of the leaves being strong, long, and durable, are adapted for Indian
manufactures, and the savages of southern California make therefrom excellent
horse blankets. All the tribes living in the country where this plant is found use
it to make ropes, twine, nets, hair brushes, shoes, and mattresses. The Diegeno
Indians of southern California have brought the n.ses of this plant to notice by the
various articles they make from its fibers and sell to white settlers. In preparing a
warp for the manufacture of saddle blankets it is first loosely twisted then, wlieu
wanted, it receives a firmer twist. If the blanket is to be ornamented a part of the
warp during the first process is dyed a claret brown, oak bark being u.sed for that
purpose. The loom in use am<mg the Indians of to-day is original with themselves,
and not borrowed, as some suppose, from the Spaniards. It is a sim])le affair, con-
sisting of two round, strong, short poles, one suspended and the other fastened to
the ground. Upon these is arranged the warj). Two long wooden needles with eyes
are threaded with the filling, which is more loosely twisted than the warp, in order to
give substance or body to the blanket. Each time that the filling is thrust between
the threads of the warp by one hand the Indian female, with a long, wide, wooden
implement in the other hand, beats it into place. This tool resembles a carving
knife, but is much larger and longer. One edge is thin, and in this is made a number
of teeth or notches not so sharp as to cut. This plant, so fibrous and so abundant on
land utterly worthless for the growth of anything more valuable, can be had for the
gathering; and as paper materials are scarce, either alone or mixed with straw,
would be valuable in the manufacture of that article. {Dr. E. Palmer.)

Yucca filamentosa. Bear Grass.

CoM.Mox NAMKS. — Adam's needle; Eve's thread; silk grass (erroneously); bear
grass; thi-eady Adam's needle of Australia.

This is the common sjiecies of Yucca of the Southern States. Hardy as far north
as New England, It has also been di,stributed to other portions of the world. Fig.
1, PI. XII, is the bear grass of the Southern States, photographed from a plant in the
grounds of the United States Department of Agriculture,

Structural Fiber. — The name bear gras.s should belong distinctively to the fiber
of this species. Bear grass is used all over the Soxith in a rude way as a " tie plant,"
the twisted leaves being enijiloyed for hanging hams and in other similar uses.

Bear grass grows on our poorest sand hills, and is considered quite a pest when the
land on which it is found is cultivated for any of our crops. It is hard to destroy;
is propagated either by seed or by the roots. The roots when cut will sprout and
put up new plants, so an attempt to destroy it often increases the growth and causes
it to spread. It is evidently benefited by the eflort to destroy it in cultivating other
crops. It is used by farmers for strings to hang up bacon, and sometimes for other
purposes. It is prepared for this use by scalding in hot water. It is very strong
and durable and has been u.sed to make cords, and would be used more if some proc-
ess could be invented to convert it into rope without the aid of machinery, and cheap
enough to be in reach of the ordinary farmer. (E. X. Eoheaon.)

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 3o3

Economic considkkatioxs. — Twenty years ago this liber had attracted Ncrioiis
atteution iu the South, and at that time tine specimens and a rough fabric resem-
bling matting were sent to the Department from Mr. Stouer, of Stonypoiut, La.,
who patented a machine for the extraction of Yucca liber. After passing tlirough
the machine tlie "mashed" leaves -were aiibjected to "a thorough system of wash-
ing," which left the liber "as white as Irish linen." Notwithstanding the efforts of
Mr. Stouer, the industry did not succeed.

Further experiments were made by Walter T. Forbes in 1>>90, and it was claimed
that 85 per cent of pure liber could be secured at very low cost. In 1893 a quantity
of the leaves of this plant were secured by the Department iu Georgia and sent to
J. C. Todd, Paterson, N. J., to be cleaned on the Todd sisal hemp machine. The
cleaning was successfully accomplished, and a supply of the liber was thus obtained
sufficient for examination and for testing. This fiber was very dark, yellowish in
color, harsh, and somewhat brittle. The result of a number of tests with this fiber,
twisted by hand to the size of binding twine, showed a breakage strain varying from
45 to 55 i^ounds, which is about half the strength of Kentucky hemp. This should
not be rej,arded, however, as an authoritative test, as such a trial should be nuide
with machine-manufactured twine to be comparative. However, the liber will doubt-
less bo found inferior in slrength to any of the commercial cordage fibers now in
use, and ([uite iul'erior to manila and common hemp.

If the plant could be grown over an area sufficiently large to supply the amount
of fiber needed to cover or wrap our cotton, it might be used to make a l)etter wrap-
ping than jute. Bear grass might be given a trial for this purpose. While it has
been accepted that fiber under 2^ feet in length can not be advantageously used by
manufacturers, Mr. Todd states that a shorter cordage liber can be worked, though
possibly not on all forms of machinery. The ([uestiou of the cost of gathering the
leaves and of extracting the fiber may need to be investigated before an attempt is
made to establish a bear grass fiber industry. Regarding the extent of supply of
leaves, it would seem to bo almost inexhaustible, as large wild tracts of the plants
are found in many of the Southern and Western States, and special cultivation would
not be necessary, as the leaves are reproduced rapidly after cutting. The Georgia
leaves cleaned by Mr. Todd iu December, 1892, were received from John T. Haunsou,
Longview, Ga., who states that they had grown since July of that year.

In Bernardin's list I find Yucca fdamentosa is also called hencquen (Agare rigida,
etc.), from which it may be iuferred that the Yucca has been regarded to a certain
extent a commercial fiber, probably exported with the sisal liber under the one name,
hene(j[uen, just as Cunnah'is sativu is sometimes exported from Intlia with Crotalaria
juiicea, under the name sunn. "It seems certain that iu the cargoes of Pita which
arrive at the markets of Europe there is found a proportion, more or less considerable,
of Yucca fiber. It is difificultto distinguish the one from the other, and it is adaptable
to the same uses." (Fe'tiJlart.) The species referred to is not known, but it is not Y.
filamcntoaa, for the color of this fiber and of "Pita," doubtless Agave americana, are
so unlike that the fraud would have been detected at a glance.

"" Specinien-s. — Mus. U. S. Dept. Ag. ; Field Col. Mus. ; U. S. Nat. Mus.

Yucca gloriosa.

Common' XAMKS. — Adam's needle (U. S.) ; mound lily (Austr.) ; Pc/re hemp (Sp.)
(the latter name valueless).
The species is common in the Carolinas, Georgia, Florida, and the southeastern
coast to Texas; not noted by the author in southern Florida. Introduced in other
countries, as Africa and India. Fiber similar to that from Y. Jilanicniosa.

Yucca glauca.

Syn. 1'. (UigustifoUa.

HoPi Indian namk, iJohii. Its soapy root mohu-mobi. {Feickes.)
Southwestern United States, Arizona, and Mexico, extending northward to
Montana.

334 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

Stkuctuhal Fiber. — Dr. Palmer says of this species, " The leaves yield the softest
fiber of all the Yuccas.' A very good fiber is extracted from this species -which is
capable of employment in general cordage. The specimens in the Museum came
from San Diego, Cal. The Kew Mus. shows a series of the fibers of both T. glauca
and Y. f/loriona. "All the Yucca plants aroused for basketry and other purposes."
(Fewkes.) This species is largely used by the Indians of the regions where it groAvs,
and particularly by the Moquis, Zuuis, etc., for l)asketrv of all kinds, horse bridles
and halters, and rude cordage. In basket manufacture the leaves are either used
entire or are split, sometimes even to the fineuess of grass fiber, and woven in con-
nection with the peeled twigs of other plants, grasses, etc. In the manufacture of
coil baskets by the Ilopi Indians, which liavt; the appearance that would be pre-
sented by coiling a half-inch rope into the form of a shallow tray, a common grass
Hilariajanusil (see) is used for the center of the "rope," this being wrapped round
and round, as the coil is being made, with narrow strips of the leaves of this Yucca,
the whole when knit together forming a strong and very ornamental basket, as the
leaf strips are dyed in dilfcrent colors. Simpler forms of bowls, trays, and baskets
are made from the entire leaves by plain weaving, mat fashion, using the broad bases
of the leaves, which are turned over the edge of the basket, for a finish. The
natural yelhow color of the leaves, showing white where the leaf is split, makes an
attractive article. The U. S. Nat. Mus. has a large series of basketry from T. ylauca,
as well as many other ol)ject8.

-Specimens. — Fiber, Mus. V . S. Dept. Ag. ; V. S. Nat. Mus.

Yucca cTata is another narrow-leaved species, found in New Mexico and along the
more northerly range of )'. glaiica, the leaves of which closely resemble that species,
though they are Avhiter in color and more brittle. The edges of the leaves are also
lilamentous. No reference to its use as a fiber plant can bo cited.

Yucca -whipplei.

This is another Californian species of Yucca, samples of fiber and cordage of which
have been received, collected by Dr. E. Palmer, who states that the leaves yield a
very soft white fiber, which is capable of being made into very nice thread. Indians
use this fiber to form a padding for their hor.se blankets, the outer part of which,
being made of the fiber from the Yiiccu hacvata, is very rough. A wooden needle is
threaded with twine niad«! from the same fiber, and the lining is firmly quilted to
the saddle blanket, forming a soft covering, without which it would injure the
animal's back.

Yute ( Peru) = Jute. Corchoriis.

Zaghu and Zaghir (Pers.). Ziggar (Turk,). Limtm nsitatissimum.

Zasmidium cellare (see under Fames).

Zea mays. Indian Corn.

Endogen. dramineiv. A giant grass.

Common and nativk names. — Indian corn, corn, maize (Eng.); Mais (Fr.);
Mais and Turkischliorn (Ger.) ; Trigo de Indas, etc. (Sp.) ; Durah-shdmi (Arab.) ;
GuadHmenialckah (Pers.) ; ChoJam (Malay) ; Bulla, Junri, Makka, Makkajdri, etc.
(Ind.). {Makkai, = "Mecca," or " Mecca corn.")
Native America; cultivated from a remote antiquity by the Peruvians and. Mexi-
cans ; unknown to Europe prior to the discovery of America. Cultivated throughout
the world, chiefly as food for both man and animals.

The many Aarieties diftVr much in the form, size, color, and hardness of the grain,
and in the time required for ripening. Husk maize, in which the kernels are sepa-
rately cnveloi)ed in broad, herbaceous glumes, may approach the native Ibrm, Avhich
doubtless had its origin in tropical America. Mais de coyote, regarded by some as

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 335

a (listiuct species, is said to jirow wild iu some parts of Mexico. Aside from its great
value as a cereal, ordinary field corn is the best of the annual forage ])lants for soil-
iug. and is also valne<l and used by many farmers for ensilage, being cut for this
purpose Avheu the kernels commence to glaze. (F. Lamsov-Scribtier.)

STKrCTiRAL FiBEU. — The husks or spailus inclosing the ears of maize have been
used in various ways iu many countries: (1) As a liber for yarns, for crash; (2) for
])laiting, like many of the reeds; (3) for tilling mattresses and iu upholstery, and,
lastly, (4) for making paper. " There is a record of two maize-paper establishments
existing iu Italy iu the eighteenth century."' (J. li. Dodge.)

Economic considekatioxs. — The commercial industry belougs chiefly to Ger-
many, Austria, and Hungary, though a patent for a maize-paper process was issi:ed
by the United States in the beginning of the present century to .lohu Harkins, of
New Jersey, iu 1802; another was issued in 1838 to Homer Holland, of Massachu-
setts, and iu 1860 a patent was issued for making paper pulp of corncobs. Among
the first serious experiments in manufacturing paper from maize were those made
just prior to 1860 by Moritz Diamaut, a Bohemian, who suggested to Baron Bruck,
Austrian minister of finances, a process for making paper from maize. The imperial
]>aper mill at Schhigelmuhl, near Gloggnitz. undertook the manufacture, xinder Dia-
mant's direction; the product was not quite satisfactory either in quality or cost of
manufacture. His first application for Government aid was iu 1856. After the
unsuccessful experiment, followed by ert'ectual eftorts to induce jirivate individuals
to continue the work, he made a second request of the minister of finance, fortified
with recommendations from judicious, practical men, and the experiments were
continued, but were not yet fully successful. To reduce the cost, a "half-stuft' fac-
tory " was erected in*a maize district, designed to cut off the heavy expense of trans-
portation of the crude material. The product was so inferior that Diamaut became
disheartened, absented hiiuself, and was released from his position, leaving the ques-
tion unsolved. The cost of this experiment was about $13,000, which had been
advanced by the imperial paper mill. The direction of the Schliigelmnhl paper mill,
not disposed to discontinue the effort to make a good and cheap paper, continued the
experiments, aiming first to reduce the cost of production, and, secondly, to investi-
gate the cost of using only the finest husks inclosing the ear, rather than the leaves
of the stalk entire. The result was, if not a material for paper cheap as rag.s, the
discovery of a new fiber capable of being spun and woven, and I'urnishiug, in its
waste, a cheap paper. Specimens resulting from these Austrian experiments were
sent to the United States Department of Agriculture. Among them were yarns, to
be u.sed as a substitute for flax iu crash, and oilcloth made I'rom it, with a variety
of papers, including " Royal Chancery," letter paper, fiower paper, cigarette paper,
silk ])aper, and drawing paper, ranging in price from $1.60 to $4.80 per ream.

The progress made iu perfecting the manufacture of paper has of late been very
satisfactory. Evidence of this is abundantly afforded in the specimens recently
received at the Department from Dr. Chevalier Auer de Welsbach. director of the
imperial printing establishment at Vienna and su.perintendent of the imperial paper
mills at Schlngelmuhl, who had been unremitting in his efforts, which have been
crowned with a large measure of .success. Among these papers are foi\ud parchment
and document papers of great strength and durability; tracing paper of superior
tenacity and transparency, an effect of the natural gluten of the husks, rendering
unnecessary the present expensive process of its manufacture and supplying
draftsmen with the cheapest material known; letter paper in various styles and
in several colors, with a smooth and polished but soft surface, which takes the ink
kindly; "chancery papers'' of great variety in size, very heavy and durable;
beautiful silk paper of several colors, of wonderful delicacy iu structure and finish;
paper for the manufacture of artificial flowers, in lilac, rose, blue, green, and
brown, gossamer-like yet strong, weighing but 6 pounds to the ream'; and cigarette
l)aper, but little heavier, weighing but 7 pounds to the ream. Of most varieties
both machine and hand papers are produced. A peculiarity of this paper, due to

336 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

the large proportion of gluten it contains, is worthy of mention. Placed with com-
mon paper in water, and left to soak nntil the latter will fall to pieces by its own
weight, the maize paper on trial seems nearly or quite as tenacious as ever. The
process of manufacture is claimed to be simple; the humblest laborer can readily
understand it with little instruction and practice it with success. The cost of the
husks (and it seems that leaves are to some extent included) is from 32 to 56 cents
per 125 English pounds (per centner), or ^d per ton at the higher price, which repre-
sents more the labor of gathering than the value of the material. This is, of ccmrse,
in the locality of their production. The cost of extracting the fiber from 100,000
centners (6,250 tons) is estimated: For coal and other material, $15,705; labor, $6,400;
interest and loss, $4,296; raw material, including local freight, $80,000; total,
$106,401. To this add for laborers and repairs to swell the total to $100,496. The
product is 10 per cent of spinning fiber, 19 per cent of paper stuft', and 11 per cent
of feed stufi', or 40 per cent in all, leaviug a loss of 60 per cent. The spinning stufi' is
worth $64,000; paper material, $72,200; feed stuff, $15,400; total, $151,600. De luct-
ing the expenses of manufacturing, a profit of $42,104 is shown. (J. i?. Dodge.)

The use of mai/e husks in the United States is largely as ujiholstory material in
the manufacture of mattresses, and for similar uses. Horse collars are made of the
husks or "shucks" in the South; door mats arc also made in some of the Northern
States, these being very serviceable. The husks split into strips are also em]>loyed
in Florida in the manufacture of "chip-hats'" which, when properly trimmed, are
both stylish and pretty. These are sold in the Florida bazaars.

Some of the Indian tribes of the West, according to Dr. Fewkes, use the maize
husks for plaiting into food trays. The Moqui tribes are expert weavers of these
trays or utensils.

The Kew Mus. maize collections contain a South African door mat made from husks,
and a hat from Jamaica from the same material.

The prepared pith of the stalk of corn is also made into many forms of pottery,
which sell for high prices in the Florida bazaars. Some of these, tinted in delicate
colors— greens and grays — are ex<|uisite decoiative novelties for the drawing room.

Celulosk. — An interesting use of the cellulose of maize stalks, or corn pith, is
recorded in a recent paper by H. W. Cramp, read before the American Society of
Naval Architects and Mining Engineers, December 11, 1896. The corn-pith c-ellulose
is employed as a ^lacking material in the cofferdams in connection with the armor
plating of United States war vessels. The corn pith is suitably cleaned and pressed
into blocks when it is ready to use. "A cellulose belt of 3 feet may be said to be as
efficient as 6 inches of best steel.'' Experiments have shown that there is no danger
of the substance being washed out through shot holes by the action of the sea, and it
is considered better in many ways than other substances, such as cocoa fiber, which
have also been used. Coir fiber, employed as packing, has been ignited, while corn
pith has proved incombustible. A special advantage results from its great absorb-
tion of water, whereby a shot hole is soon filled up through the swelling of the
corn pitli packing.

While this work is going through the press, the following statement regarding
the preparation and uses of cellulose has been received from Mr. Henry C. Watts, of
the Marsden Company, Philadelphia, accompanied by a series of specimens. These
form a part of the exhibit of this Department in the (Jovernment Building at the
Tennessee Centennial Exposition of 1897.

The stalk, when taken from the field in October, or later, is delivered to the cen-
tral factories, where it is submitted to a continuous process, yielding two distinct
products, one of value to the purchaser of live stock, the other indispensable to the
applied arts. The first product, "live stock food," is the result of the complete
separation of the outside shell or envelojie from the inner ])ithy portion of the plant.
This separatiotr is made by a machine that performs its work perfectly, cheaply, and
with a yield of about 10 tons per day. Tlie product from this process consists of
particles varying in size from one-half to 3 inches in length. This is automatically

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 337

delivered to a grinding mill and there reduced to a meal. This meal is the finished
food, free — by reason of its having been subjected during the manufacture to a com-
jiaratively high temperature — from moisture and all bacillic impurities, and showing,
both by analysis aud actual feeding tests, a higher percentage of Hesh-producing
ingredients than auy other fodder. This product alone gives a value to the corn-
stalk that at once removes it from the list of waste products. The other product,
from the central pithy portions of the plant, is separated in the same machine as the
above in the form of granules of varying sizes. This j^roduct is an agglomeration ol'
cellular tissue free from saji and other impurities. This gives a natural pure cellu-
lose, easily aud cheaply produced from an inexhaustible supply. This cellulose
contains the same elements that cotton or wood cellulose contains, but to a higher
degree of perfection, as in a natural product there are no extraneous matters to be
eliminated. The application of cellulose in the arts and manufactures has been lim-
ited to a few substances, snch as paper, celluloid, etc. The newer uses are as yet
mostly in the experimental stage, but enough has already been demonstrated to
warrant the statement that this source of cellulose will make possible the practical
production of many articles that have heretofore been only laboratory experiments.
That the field is large will be apxireciated when it is stated that 200 practical
aitplications of cellulose have already been enumerated. Celluloi-e irom this source,
by reason of its <iuantity and quality, broadens the field of a])plication and^daces on
the raw cornstalk an incalculaljle value.

The following applications of coru-pith cellulose have already been uiade and are
now in active use: Packing for battle ships, use in the manufacture of a tloor cov-
ering superior to linoleum, paper pulp, mattresses, horse collars, viscose, nitrates,
insulation for refrigerator ears, steam pipe and Loiler covering, dry cells for electric
storage batteries, and Marsden's New Corn Product (cattle food) — the refuse aud epi-
dermis.

'Specimens. — Mus. U. S. Dept. Ag. Large series of maize products.

Zebra plant. (See Calathea zebrina).
Ziggar (Turk.). Linnm usitaUssimum.
Zizania aquatica.

Eudogeu. Gramineiv. An annual aquatic grass.

CoJi.MOx NAMES. — Indian rice, wild rice, water rice, tuscarora rice, water oats,
reed.
This tall, erect, annual, 3 to 10 feet high, grows in shallow water along rivers aud
lakes from Canada southward to Florida and westward to Texas. It grows very
rapidlj' in 1 to 8 feet of water, aud matures its seeds in August or early in September.
This grass is abundant in the tide waters of the rivers of the Middle States, notably
in the Delaware below Philadelphia, where it is always designated as "the reeds."
The stems are used by coopers for making the joints of barrels intended to hold
whisky or petroleum perfectly tight. This grass is the Manorrin of the Chippewa
Indians, who gather the grain for food. (F. Lamson-Scribner.)

Zostera marina. Grass Wrack, or Sea Wrack.

This is an a([uatic or marine herb, belonging to the Naiadaceo'. "They are sub-
merged fresh or salt water plants, found in most parts of the world; they are of
little economic value'' (Guide Kew Mus.). Two species of the genus are indigenous
to Britain but occur in other parts of the world, from Ireland south to the Cape of
Good Hope, Tasmania, and New Zealand. It is also found in the United States.

PsEiDO-FinEK. — The common sea wrack has leaves varying from 1 to several feet
in length, and rarely more than a quarter of an inch broad. These are commonly
used for packing, aud by upholsterers for stuffing mattresses and cushiofis, beiug
sold for that purpose under the names of I'ha marina or Jlra marina. They contain
a small amount of iodine, and a considerable quantity of potash. {A. Smith.)
12247— No. 9 22

AUTHORITIES CITED AND CONSULTED.

The following list embraces the principal works, rejwrts, check lists,
and other publications which have been examined as sources of infor-
mation in the i^reparation of this work. In a majority of instances the
name of the author accompanies the extract which appears in the body
of the Descriptive Catalogue of World's Fibers. See also list of con-
tributors which follows :

Agassiz, Louis, .Tourney iu Brazil.

Alexander, W. D., A Brief History of the Hawaiian I'eople, New York, Am. Book

Co. (1891).
Allison, S. B., Kamie Culture: Circular of the I'erseverance Fiber Co., New Orleans,

1895.
American Fiber Co., Cane Fiber, New York (date not given).

Araniburu, Don Fernando, Tecnologia Microscopica de Fibras Textiles, Madrid, 1891.
Arnould, M. C, Concours International de Machines a Decortiquer La Ramie, 1888,

Paris, 1889.
Bacon, Edgar M., On Sisal Hemp, American Agriculturist.
Badliaui, Charles David, A Treatise on the Esculent Funguses of England, ed. l)y

Frederick Currey, London, 1863.
Baker, Dr. .T. G., Description of Agave decipiens, in Bulletin Ivoyal Kew Gardens,

1892.

Handbook of The Bromeliaceic, London, 1889.

Bastin, Edson S., Laboratory Exercises in Botany, Philadelphia, Pa., 1895.
Berkeley, Rev. M. J., Contributor, Treasury of Botany, a Popular Dictionary of the

Vegetable Kingdom, London, 18b6.
Beruardin, M., Nomenclature Usuelle de 550 Fibres Textiles, etc., Gand, 1872.
Bially, Paul, Transl. by Cecil Charles, Costa Rica and her Future, Washington,

1889.
Biancoui, F., La Mexii|ue, a la Porte des Industriels, etc., Paris, 1889 (Exposition

Report).
Blazguez, Ignatio, The Maguays; In Revista Cientifica Mexicana, Vol. I, No. 1,

1879.
Bowman, F. H., Structure of the Wool Fiber, Manchester, England, Palmer and

Howe, 18a5.

Structure of Cotton Fiber, Manchester, England, Palmer and Howe, 1882.

Brown, Samuel C, First Annual Report of the Bureau of Statistics, Labor and

Industries of New Jersey, 1878.
Ceylon Commission, Official Handbook of the Ceylon Courts, W. C. E., 1893,

Colombo, 1893.
Chardonnet, Count M. de, Sur un Sole Artiticielle, Paris, 1889.
Charley, William, Flax and Its Products, London, 1862.
Christy, Dr. Thomas, Culture of Flax, Reprinted from the Irish Textile .Journal,

Belfast (no date).
Crookes, William, A Handbook of Dyeing .and Calico Printing, London, 1874.
Contributed Article: Fibers used for Brushmaking, the Indian Agriculturist, Feb.,

1893.
338

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 339

Coville, Frederick V., Indian Basketry, iu American Anthropologist, Oct., lSf)2.
Crawford, U. S. Consul Gen'l St. Petersburg-. Flax Culture, Sitecial Consular Kept.,

Washington, 1891.
Cross, C. F., Miscellaneous Fibers: In Reports on the Colonial Sections of the Colonial

and Indian Exhibition of 188(5, London, 1887.
Cross, Bevan, and King, in association with K. .Joynsou, Kept, on Indian Fibers an<l

Fibrous Substances. Col. and Ind. Exh., 188n, Loudon, 1887.
Cross and Bevan, Cellulose, Lfuidon, 1895.
Cubas, Antonio, Garcia, Trans, by ^Yillianl Thompson, Mexico, its Trade, Industries

and Resources. Mexico, 1893.
Damnier, Otto, Illustriertes I^exikon der Verfalschungen, pub. by J. .1. \\'eber,

Leipzig, 1887.
De Gama, .Jose de Saldanha, M. D., Notes on Textile Plants of Brazil, Phil. Int. Exh.,

1876.
De Moor, V. P. (4., Traite de la Culture du Lin, Bruxelles, 1855.
Department of Agriculture, On .lute Culture. Monthly Reports, V. S. Department

of Agriculture. (Various repts. 1870-1875.)
Dodge, Charles Richards, A Report on the Vegetaltle Fibers in the Collection of the

Department of Agriculture, Annual Rept. Dept. Ag., 1879.
De8cri])tive Catalogue of Manufactures from Native AVoods, Worhl's Ind. and

Cotton Exp., New Orleans, 1885, Washington, 1886.
Reports on Fibers, etc., Reports U. S. Commission to Universal Exp. Paris, 1889,

Vols. II and V, Washington, 1891.
Dodge, .1. Richards, Maize Paper, Annual Rept. U. S. Dept. Agr., 1863.
Elliott, G. F. Scott, A Naturalist in Mid Africa, London, 1896.
Enriguez, R. de Zayas, Les Estados l^nidos Mexicanos sus condiciones naturales y

sus Elements de Prosperidad, Mexico, 1893.
Ernst, Dr. Adolphns, Fibers: A Descriptive Catalogue of the Venezuelan Depart-
ment, Phil. Int. Exh., 1876.
Fibers: The United States of Venezuela in 1893, World's Columbian Exposi-
tion, 1893.

La Exposicion Nacional de Venezuela en 1883, Caracas, 1886.

Evans, Walter H., Botany of Cotton: The Cotton Plant, Bull. No. 33, Off. Exp.

Stations, U. S. Dept. Agr., Washington, 1896.
Favier, P. L., Nouvelle Industrie de La Ramie, Paris, 1886.
Fawcett, Wm., An Index to the Economic Plants of the Vegetable Kingdom in

.Jamaica, 1891.

Bulletins of the Botanical Department of .Jamaica (series).

Fernow, B. F., Wood Pulp Industries, Report, Forestry Division, Annual Report

U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1890.
Fewkes, ,T. Walter, A Contribution to Ethnobotany, American Anthropologist, .Jan-
uary, 1896.
Fibrilia, A Substitute for Cotton, Boston. 1861.
Foaden, George P., Cotton Culture in Egypt, Bull. 42. Office Expt. Sta., Dept. .\gri-

culture, Washington, 1897.
Forbes, Walter T., Ramie, New York, 1886.
Fremy, E., Chimie Vegetale, La Ramie, Paris, 1886.

Gadea, Dr. Alberto L., Cortezade Damajuhato, Soc. Geog. de Lima, Lima, Peru, 1894.
Gilroy, Clinton G., The Art of Weaving, New York, 1844.
Gordils, .J. V., Cultuo de La Ramie en Venezuela, Caracas, 1886.
Gray, Dr. Asa, Introduction to Structural ami Systematic Botany, New York, 1864.

The Elements of Botany, New York, 1887.

Griffin, R. B., and A. D. Little, The Chemistry of Paper Making, New York, Howard

Lockwood and Co., 1894.
Guilfoyle, Dr. William R., Fibers from Plants, Eligible for Industrial Culture and

Experiments in Victoria (pamphlet), Melbourne, 1894.

340 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

Guzmau, David J., Catalogo General de los Objetos que la Kei)iiblica de Costa Rica

envia a la Expos. Univ. de Chicago, San Jose, 1892.
Hammond, Harry, Contributor, The Cotton Plant. (See Evans.)
Handy, R. B., Contributor, The Cotton Plant. (See Evans.)
Hart, J. H., Annual Report on the Royal Botanical Gardens of Trinidad.
Hartig, Robert, Textbook of Diseases of Trees, Transl. William Somerville, London,

1894.
Hartshorn, Edwin A., American Hemp Culture, Address read before the N. Y. State

Ag'l Soc, Nov., 1889.
Harvey, W. H., Fish Hues froiu Algae: In Nereis Boreali-Americaua. Smithsonian

Institution, 1858.
Hassack, Dr. Karl, Monatsschrift fur den Orient (.January, 1891).
Havard, Dr. V. (U.S.A.), Basket work of North Am. Indians: (iardeu and Forest,

Vol. Ill, New York, 1890.
Hector, Sir .James, Phorraiuni tcnax as a Fibrous Plant, New Zealand, 1889.
Hilgard, Dr. E. W., Composition of tlie Rainie Plant, Bull. No. 94, California Ag'l

Exp. Station.

Fiber Plants for California, Bull. No. 90, California Ag'l. Exp. Station.

Hillebrand, Dr. William, Flora of the Hawaiian Islands, London, New York, and

Heidelberg, 1888.
Hitchcock, Romyn, Textile Fibers: Preliminary List, in National Museum, Proc.

U. S. National .Museum, 1884.
Hooker, Jos. D., and B. Dayden Jackson, Index Kewensis, an Enumeration of the

Genera and Species of Flowering Plants, etc., Oxford, 1893-1895.
Hyde, John, Flax Production: Bull. No. 177, Eleventh Census of the United States,

1892.
Ide & Christie, Fiber Brokers, London, Monthly Quotations of the Fiber Market.

Various reports on the value of tibers, in Bulletins of the Royal Kew Gardens.

Im Thurn, Everard F., Among the Indians of Guiana, London, 1883.

Indian Commission, Handbook of Exhibits, Forest Dept. of the Gov't of India,

World's Columbian Exposition, 1893, C^alcutta, 1893.
Kauffman, C. C, Ramie: (Culture and Manufacture), New Orleans (no date).
Keller, Ferdinand, The Lake Dwellings of Switzerland and other parts of Europe,

translated and arranged by .John E<lward Lee, London, Longmans, Green & Co.,

1866, 97 plates.
Kerr, Hem Cbunder, Rejjort on the Cultivation of, and Trade in, .Jute in Bengal, and

on Indian Fibers, Calcutta, 1874.
Kew, Royal (hardens. Official Guide to the Museum of Economic Botany, London,

1895.

Monthly Bulletins, 1887 to 1896.

Knecht Rawson and Loewenthal, A Manual of Dyeing, two vols., London, 1893.
Landtsheer, Norbert de. La Verito sur La Ramie, Bruxelles, 1891.
La Revista, Agricola, publicado baio los auspices de la Secretaria de fomcnto, Mex-
ico. (Current serial.)
Le Franc, "The Ramie," New Orleans, 1889 (pamidilet).

Liotard, L., Material in India Suitable for the Manufacture of Paper, Calcutta, 1880.
Liifgren, Alberto, Boletim da Commissfio Geographica E Geologica de sao Paulo, N.

10, 1895.
Lugger, Otto, A Treatise on Flax Culture, Bull. 13, Miini. Ag'l Exp. Sta.
Mason, Dr. Otis T., Basket Work of the North American Aborigines, Rept. Smith-
sonian Institution, 1883-84.

Cradles of the American Aborigines, Report National Museum, 1886-87.

Masters, Dr. M. T., Contributor, Treasury of Botany. (See Berkeley. )
Mertens, Dr. H., Fish lines from Algie, In Hooker's Bot. Misc.

Michotte, Felicien, La Ramie, La decortication et son Dcgommage, Extrait du Bul-
letin de la Soc. des. Ag. do France, Paris, 1889.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 341

IVficIiotte, Felicien, Traitfi ScientiH(me et ludnstriel, Des Plants Textiles, Paris, 1893.

Mil]si)angli, Charles Frederick, Contributions to the Flora of Yncatan, Bot. Series,
Field Columbian Museum, Vol. I, No. 1, Chicago, 1895.

Moorhead, J. K., with Dr. John A. Warder and Charles .Jackson, committee: Report,
Flax and Hemp Commission of 1863, Washington, 1865.

Moreira, Nicolan ,1., M. D., Historical Notes Concerning Vegetable Fibers (of Brazil),
Phil. Int. Exh., 1876.

^[orris, Dr. D., Cantor Lectures: On Commercial Fibers, London, 1895.

Mueller, Dr. Ferd. von, Report on the V«'getable Products exhibited in the Intercolo-
nial Exhibition of 1866-67, Melbourne, 1867.

Mil Lord, A. Isabel, The Agaves of the United States, Seventh Annual Report Mis-
souri Botanical G.arden, 1896.

Murphy, J. McLeod, Monthly Reports U. S. Dept. of Agriculture for 1869-70.

McLain, U. S. Consul, Thomas J., Sisal Hemp in the Bahamas, Consular Report 103,
]March, 1889.

Norlhrup, John J., Cultivation of Sisal Hemp in the Bahamas, Popular Science
Monthly, March, 1891.

Oliva, F., La Naturaliza (Sclent, serial published by Soc. Mex. de Hist. Nat., since
1870 — seven volumes).

Orton, Prof. James, The Andes and the Amazon, New York, 1876.

Palmer, Dr. Edward, Contributions from the National Herbarium, Vol. I, Wash-
ington.

Plants Used by Indians in the United States: American Naturalists, 1878.

Perrine, Dr. Henry, Report on Tropical Fiber Plants, Senate Document No. 300,
Twenty-fifth Congress, third session, Wasbington, 18.38.

Powers, Stephen, Contributions to American Ethnology.

Preston, G., Bahamian Commissioner, Report to Gov. Shea on the Sisal Hemp Indus-
try of Yucatan, 1889.

Procter, John R., Culture of Flax and Hemj), Geological Survey of Kentucky (about
1880).

Pursli, F., Flora Americie Septentrionalis, London, 1814.

Rae, .Tames M., Report on the Fiber Industry in the Bahamas, Nassau, 1891.

RawliTison, George, The Seven Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World, N. Y.,
1.^ 8 1 .

Reiss ( W.) and Stiiljel (A.), The Necropolis of Ancon in Peru, a contribution to our
kuiiwledge of the culture and industries of the Empire of the Incas, being the
results of excavations made on the spot, translated by Prof. A. H. Keane, with
the aid of the General Administration of the Royal Museums of Berlin, Berlin,
A. Asher & Co., 1880-1887, fol. 15 volumes.

Renouard, Alfred, Fils, Etudes sur La Culture le Rouissage et le Teillage du Lin,
Lille (no date).

Rliiud, William, A History of the Vegetable Kingdom, London, 1855.

Robays, A. J. Van, Practische Verhandeling over de Vlasteelt, Ghent, 1887.
-Roezl, Dr. Benito, The Ramie Plant, its Propagation, Culture, and Cleaning Process,
New Orleans, 1868.

Roux, Charles, Notice sur La Ramie, Paris (no date; about 1892).

Royle, .1. Forbes, The Fibrous Plants of India, fitted for Cordage, Clothing, and
Paper, London, 1855.

Ryan, .John, Claussen-Processes : The Preparation of Long-line flax-cotton, etc., Lon-
don, 1852.

Sachs, .Julius, Text-Book of Botany, Translated by S. H. Vines, Oxford, England,
CIaren<lon Press.

Sadtlcr, Dr. Samuel P., A Handbook of Industrial Organic Chemistry, Philadelphia,
1891.

Sargent, Prof. Charles S., Report on the Forests of North America: vol. 9, Tenth
Census of the i:. S., Wash., 1884.

342 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

Sargent, Prof. Charles S., The Silva of North America (12 vols.), Boston au<l New

York, 1891.
Savorgnan, M. A., Manual Hoepli: Coltirazione eil Industria delle Piante Tessili,

etc., Milan, 1891.
Schaeffer, Dr. George 0.. Vegetable Fiber: Patent Office (Agricultural) Rejtort for

1859.
Schott, Dr., the .Jenequeu, or Sisal Hemp : Annual Kept. U. S. Dept. Agriculture, 1^!69.
Scribner, F. Lamson-, Useful and Ornamental Grasses: Bull. 3, Div. of Agrostology,

U. S. Dept. Ag., Washington, 1896.
Simonds, P. D., The Commercial Products of the Vegetable Kingdom, London, 1854.
Smith, A., Contributor, Treasury of Botany. (See Berkeley.)
Smithers, U. S. Consul, E. .J.. Chines^e Straw-braid Industry, Consular Rept. No. 93,

May, 1888.
Sodre, Dr. Lauro, Textile Fibers: The State of Para, Notes for the World's Colum-
bian Exposition, 1893, New York, 1893.
Spon's Encyclopedia of the Industrial Arts, Manufactures, and Commercial Prod-
ucts, London and New York, 1879.
Squier, E. G., Tropical Fibers, and their Economic Extraction, New York, 1861.
St. Hill, T. J., Fibers of Trinidad, U. S. Consular Report No. 125, Washington, 1891.

(In report of U. S. Consul Pierce.)
Statistics, Bureau of, U. S. Treasury Dept., Recent Reports on the Foreign Commerce

and Navigation of the United States.
Stuart, E. Jerome, The Sisal Hemp Industry in Yucatan, Bulletin, Koyal (iardens,

Kew, November, 1892,
Stubbs, Prof. W. C, Ramie: Bull. 32, Exp. Stations of Louisiana, Baton Rouge, 1895.
Sudworth, George B., Nomenclature of the Arborescent Flora of the United States,

8v., pp, 419: Bull. No. 14, Div. of Forestry, Washington, 1897.
Swaab, S. L., Fibrous Substances, Indigenous and Exotic, London, 1864.
Tobin, John J., Fourth Biennial Report, Bureau of Labor Statistics of the State of

California, 1889-90, Sacramento, 1890.
Todd, S. Edwards, Flax Culture: lu Manual of Flax Culture (Prize Essays),

Orange, Judd Company, New York, 1884,
Toobe, H. B., Ramie: Notes on its Culture, New York,
Trabut, L., Extraits d'une fitude sur IHalfa, Gouvernement General, 1888, Alger,

1889.
Trealease, William, Notes and Observations on Yucca, Third Anuual ]\e])ort, Missouri

Botanical Garden, 1892.
Turner, Alfred R., jr.. Spinning the Threads, Jubilee number Dry Goods Economist,

New York, 1896.
Varney, Capt. A. L., U. S. A., Bristle Fibers: Rejiort of the Chief of Ordnance,

Washington, 1883.
Vasey, Dr. George, the Agricultural Grasses and Forage Plants of the U. S., Sjtecial

Bulletin Div. of Botany, U. S. Dept. Agriculture, Washington, 1889; (illustra-
tions of grasses used).
Vetillart, M., Etudes sur les fibres v<^g^tales employees dans Tindustrie, Paris, Fir-

min, Dodot et Cie., 1876.
Vignon, Ldo, La Sole, Paris, J. B. Bailliere et Fils, 1890.

Wallace, Alfred Russel, Palm Trees of the Amazon, London, John Van Voorst, 1853.
Warden, Alex. J., The Linen Trade, Ancient and Modern, London, 1864.
Warraud, C. B., The Palmetto and Its Products (pamphlet), Savannah, Ga. (no date).
Waterhouse, Prof. S., Report on Jute Culture, Sp'l Rept. U. S. Dept. Ag., 1883.
AVatson, J. Forbes, Desc. Catalogue of the Indian Department: The International

Exhibition of 1862, London, 1862.

On the Fiber Plants of India, Journal Society of Arts, May, 1860.

Report on the Preparation and Use of Rhea Fiber, London, 1875.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 343

Watt, Dr. George, A Dictionary of the Economic Products of India, in six volumes,
Calcutta, 1889.

Watt, Dr. George, Selections from the Records of the Goveriunent of India, Revenue
and Agricultural Dejit. (series).

Weber, Dr., and Felicien Micliotte, L'Utilizatiou de Agave, Revue des Sciences
Xaturelles Appliquces, Paris, 1894.

White, Prof. H. C, Contributor, The Cotton Plant. (See Evans.)

Whitney, Prof. Milton, Contributor, The Cotton Plant. (See Evans.)

Rice Culture, Paris Exp. Report, Vol. V., 1891.

Wolf, Theodore, Ecuador. Velasco Historia del Reino de C^uito, (Ed. of 1844),
Vol. I.

Wood, J. Medley, Durban Botanic Society, Reports on Natal Botanic Gardens, Dur-
ban, 1884-1894.

Wright, Charles. Report of the Commission of Inquiry to Santo Domingo, Wash-
ington, 1871 (subreport XIX).

Zerras, Josef, The Cultivation of Ramie, MS., Report Brussels Exh., 1888.

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS.

The following is a partial list of the names of those ■who have siqtplied the author

with direct information in the form of original notes, correspondence, lists of fiber

plants, or contributed articles. In a few instances extracts have been made from

letters and commnnieations to the Otilice of Fiber Investigations received in its regu-
lar w ork :

Allen, D. K., Yuma, Arizona, correspondence.

Allison, Samuel B., Mechanical Engineer and Fiber l^x))ert, notes and corresi>ondence.

Andrews, U. S. Consul II. W., Hankow, China, correspondence.

l>all, A. E., Rushford, Minn., notes nnd correspondence.

Bier, George H., Key West, Fla., correspondence.

Bosse, Eugene, Incourt. l?elginm (formerly of Minnesota), notes of experience in
Hax culture.

Boyce, Silas S., Fiber Expert, New York City (formerly ladling Fork, Miss.), corre-
spondence.

Cooper, J. W., Ashland, Kans., correspondence.

Coville, Frederick Y., Botanist U. S. Dept. Ag., notes and contributions.

Damseaux, Prof. Adolphe, State Exp't Station, Gemblonx, Belgium, notes on tiax.

Uewey, Lyster H., Asst. Bot. Div. U. S. Dept. of Ag., notes and assistance.

Dodge, .1. Richards, Washington, D. C, contribution on Cotton in the United States.

Dorca, A., Lima, Pern, MS. lists of the fibers of Peru.

Du Vuyst, Paul, Agronome de I'Etat, Belgium, correspondence and specimens.

Ernst, Dr. Adolphus, Director Nat. Mus., Caracas, Yene/., notes on the fibers of
Mex. and S. Am. (botanical and economic).

Escobar, Romulo, City of Mexico, collections and notes, fibers of Mexico.

Favier, P. A., Paris, France, notes and specimens.

Fawcett, William, Director Botanical 1 )ei)artnient of .Jamaica, notes and correspond-
ence.

Fewkes, J. Walter, Bureau of Ethnology, notes on Hopi Indian fibers.

Flint, Eddy & Co., New York City, statements regarding Cuba bast.

Fremerey, Felix, Bakerstield, Cal., notes on cultivation of fil)er plants.

Galloway, B. T., Chief, Div. Yeg. Physiology IT. S. Dept. Agr., contribution.

Guilfoyle, Dr. William R., Director Botanic Gardens, Yictoria, MS. notes accomp.
Yict. Coll., Phil. Int. Exh., 1876, etc.

Hall, R. J. (President Minn. State Alliance), correspondence.

Harris, Dr. J. Y., Key AVest, Fla , notes of exjierience in fiber culture.

Hart, J. H., Directm-, Roy. Bot. Gardens, Trinidad, notes and correspondence.

Havard, Dr. Y., U. S. A., Fort Slocum, New Rochelle, N. Y., notes on N. Am. Indian
fibers.

Hough, Walter, U. S. Nat. Mns., notes.

Irish, Charles W., notes on Asclepias fiber.

Janvier, Pere et Fils., Le Mans, France, correspondence.

Knapp, E. N., Tarpon Springs, Fla., correspondence.

Koenig, Henry, Schluersburg, Mo., corresi>ondence.

Landtsheer, Norbert de, Brussels, Belgium, correspondence.

Latimer, William, Wilmington, N. C, notes and specimen of pine fiber, in series.
344

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. 345

Livingston, James, Yale, Midi., notes of experience in flax indnstry; speoimcns.

Mason, Dr. O. T., Curator, Dept. of Ethnology, U. 8. Nat. Mas., notes.

Monroe, Kalpb M., Cocoanut (irove, Fla., report and correspondence.

Morris, Dr. D., Asst. Director, Royal Gardens, Kew, notes, correspondence, and
botanical references.

Kiederlein, Gustav, Philadelphia, Pa., notes relating to the fibers of Argentina.

Paniuiel, Prof. L. H., B(ttauist, Iowa, State Ag'l Exp. Station, correspondence.

Panknin, Dr. C. F., Charleston, S. C, notes and specimens.

Quelch, J. J., mannscript notes accompanying exhibit of British Guiana, W. 0. E.,
1893.

Ramirez, Dr. ,Tos^, Botanical Dept., Inst. Medico. Nac'l Mexico, botanical notes on
the fibers of Mexico.

Ranson, Robert, Titnsville, Fla., correspondence.

Robinson, John, Peabody Inst., .Salem, Mass., notes.

Roth, Jean, Storms River Fiber Works, South Africa, notes and correspondence
through Dr. Harris.

Saunders, William, Dept. of Agriculture, notes.

Seaman, Prof. William H., U. S. Patent Office, Washington, D. C, contribution of
article On the Identification of Fibers.

Smith, T. Albee, Inventor, Baltimore, ISId., notes and correspondence.

Steele, E. S., Asst. Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agriculture, notes and editoiial assist-
ance on the l)otanical nomenclature.

Storer & Co., Robert B., Boston, Mass., notes on the marks of imjiorted varieties of
flax.

Snd worth, George B., Botanist, Forestry Div. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, notes.

Tassin, Dr. Wirt, U. S. National Museum, notes.

Tawara, K., Agricultural Bureau, Tokyo, Japan, notes and collections, fibersof Japan.

Townsend, O. F., Yuma, Arizona, corrc^spondence.

Wallace & Co., F. E., Fiber Brokers, New York City, notes and specimens of com-
mercial fibers.

Warden, F. H., Minneapolis, Minn. (Flax Culture), notes, correspondence, and
specimens.

Watts, Henry C, Marsden Co., Philadelphia, Pa., notes on corn pith cellulose.

Wilson, Dr. Thomas, Curator Prehistoric Anti(iuities, U. S. National Museum, contri-
bution of article on Ijace.

APPENDIX A.

BRIEF STATEMENTS REGARDING FIBER MACHINERY.

In countries like the United States, wliere the rates of wages are on
so dift'erent a i)huie from the prices paid for hxbor in countries like
China and India, the success of neAV liber industries is largely depend-
ent upon mechanical means for extracting the raw product after the
crop has been grown.

Cotton cultivation in the United States only began to be extended
after the invention of the Whitney cotton gin, and in like manner the
establishment of the sisal hemp industry outside of Yucatan has only
been possible since two or three improved automatic machines for
separating the fiber have been placed on the market.

The production of China grass or ramie in many countries is so
dependent upon the settlement of the machine question that not a
pound of commercial fiber is produced in these countries, although, as
in the American Gulf States, the jdant thrives in the i)ro])er soils, and
the machine question has been before the j)eople for thirty years.
What is true of the cotton, the sisal hemp, and the ramie industries is
true of other possible American fiber industries, not excepting the pro-
duction of hemp and flax, the fiber of which the perfecting of several
special machines would largely aid in extracting.

In China the fiber of Boehmeria is extracted by hand, and the par-
tially degummed "grass" can be laid down in jSTew York City at 0 cents
per pound. In India the bast of jute is thrashed oft" by tbe ryot who
stands waist deep in a pool of stagnant water, and it can be sold in
New York at 3 cents per pound. American farmers, who are used to
the finest agricultural implements that can be j)rocured will never resort
to Old World primitive methods — nor can they afford to do so — and the
machine becomes the most important factor in the i^roblem.

On these pages it is not j^ossible to give a detailed account of the
vast number of fiber machines tbat have been brought to public notice
during the past fiftj' years, or even to enumerate them, and, therefore,
general statements only can be made.

FLAX MACHINERY.

It is a little surprising in this age of invention that the machine used
for scutching flax in many countries to-day, if machine it may be called,
is older than the invention of the steam engine by Watt. The scutch-
ing mills in Belgium, visited by the writer, were supplied with this
3-16

FLAX MACHINERY.

347

appliance. Through the rooms, iroiu end to end, runs a wrought-iron
shaft to which are attached, at iutervals of a few feet, systems of
wooden beater bhides, which revolve rapidly.

The workmen stand in small compartments partitioned off from the
room, but open on one side, the flax being presented to the action of
the wooden blades through a bevel-edged slit in the side of the parti-
tion. The blades as they revolve strike the already broken flax, held
flrmly in the hand, knocking out the shive or waste matter, when the
opposite end is cleaned in the same manner. The accompanying illus-
tration, from Spon, will explain the device. See fig. 103; a is the shaft;
h the supi)orting pillars of iron or wood; c the wiper ring, to which the
blades d are attached; e is the partition; /the bracket at top, by which
it is stayed to the beam g^ which connects the line of pillars; h is the
opening through which the flax is presented
to the blades. These blades are sometimes
long and narrow, somewhat resembling the
blade of an oar.

The fiber of flax surrounds a slender stem,
straw-like or sometimes woodj', which, by
retting, is easily broken, and the filaments
j)artially separating from the crushed bits
are readily freed from them by the oi)eia-
tiou of beating. A perfect machine, there-
fore, would be one that would break the
straw or wood into fragments without inju
ry to the fiber, separate the long filaments
from all waste matters perfectly, doing
away with hand labor, and accomplishing
the work without waste of fiber and at eco-
nomical cost. It would seem a simple prop-
osition, but from the fact that none of the
many improved machines that have been

brought to public notice have been largely adopted by mill men, and
the old-fashioned berth scutching described above is still practiced even
in this country, we may infer that the machine scutchers are not fully
practicable. These difler in form and the manner in which they operate
as well as in the quality and quantity of flax produced, but they need
not be described here. Machines that the Department has taken cog-
nizance of are described in Fiber Investigations Series, Report No. 1,
pages 21 to 20; Report No. 4, same series, page 70; Annual Report,
United States Department of Agriculture, 1893, page 578. See also
Spon's Encyclopedia, pages 970-975.

An improved scutching machine to prepare the fiber for market is a
desideratum, but two other machines are needed in establishing the
flax industry in the United States — an economical thrasher to save
the seed without injury to the straw, and a flax-pulling machine to do

Fig. 103.— Flax scutching device.

348 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

away with the laborious and costly operation of band pulling. Several
machines have been invented in the latter classes, but there is room
for imijrovement in tlax thrashers, and the tiax-pulling machines are
still in the experimental stage (see Annual Report, United States
Department of Agriculture, 1803. p. 578, and Eeport 4, Fiber Investi-
gations Series, Department of Agriculture, pp. 29, 31).

RAMIE DECORTICATION.

It is not important in the limits of this paper to record here the (;on-
secutive history of ramie-machine invention in America, particularly as
it would necessitate describing almost a score of raachijies that, one
after another, were brought to the attention of the public for a time,
only to be practically abandoned when it was i)roved they were unable
to fulfill the claims of their inventors. Since 18G7 the persevering
effort to produce a satisfactory machine has luiturallj' resulted in a
gradual improvement in mechanical construction and substantial pro-
gress has been made, though at this date (189G) the question has not
been practically settled. IJamie nuichines may be divided into two
classes — (1) delignators, or simj)h' baik strippers, and (2) decorticators,
wiiich not only remove the bark but make some ])retense of removing
the outer pellicle or epidermis and the layer of <-ellular matter cover-
ing the tibcr layer proi)er. The bark strii)pers produce the fiber in the
form of tiat ribbons, only the wood of the stalk being eliminated, and
they are usually constructed with some form of knife or knives, with
which the stalks are split before being subjected to the action of the
breakers and beaters. The decorticators usually first crush the stalk
Ity means of metal rollers, presenting the flattened mass to the action
of the breaking or beating devices, and frequently there is .a system of
mechanisms for combing the fiber before it is finally delivered to the
aprons. The product of the delignators is always the same, a flat ribbon
of bark Avhether the dry or green systems of decortication have been
employed. Tiie product of the decorticators, on the other hand, is
almost as variable as the machines which turn out the fiber. In some
of the poorer machines this i)roduct is little more than a mangled strip
of bark, neither a delignated ribbon nor decorticated fiber, but some-
thing more fit for the trash heap. In the best of them, individual fila-
ments, by the green system, somewhat resemble China gi-ass, though
darker and less clean, while by the dry system the fiber is already
soft enough to spin into coarse cordage without further manipulation.
Between these two extremes every quality of ''ribbon" is represented.
Taking China grass, or commercial ramie, as the highest form of the
fiber, since it is degummed with a loss in weight of only 15 to 30 per
cent, it will readily be seen that the value of the machine-cleaned rib-
b(ms to the manufacturers must be in exact ratio to the degree to which
tlie cleaning and freeing from gum have been carried.

HEMP AND JUTE MACHINERY. 349

We have considered that these varied products, or grades of prod-
uct, differ ouly in the degree to whicli the eliuiiiiation of the gum and
waste matters have been carried, and that the proportion of gum, cel-
lular matter, and epidermis is the only consideration. In point of fact,
the product of many machines whicli otherwise might be called '•'■ good
tiber" has been so tilled with fragments of the woody portion of the
stalks, or so "chewed up'' by harsh treatment, or, finally, so snarled
and tangled in the delivery that it has had little value for any purpose.
Tlie product should be delivered straight, unsnarled and untangled,
free from chips, and without breaks, cuts, or bruises, whether in the
form of stripped bark or semicleaned fiber, and its value will be deter-
mined by the percentage of pure fiber it contains. It may be fairly
assumed, then, that the nearer a machine approaches in its product the
ramie of commerce, Chinese hand-cleaned fiber, the higher the price of
its product and the more desirable the device producing it as an eco-
nomic agricultural implement.

For an account of the machines that have been officially tested by
the United States Government, see appendices to Report Xo. 7, Fiber
Investigations Series of the United States Dei)artment of Agriculture.
See also the work of Felicien Michotte, Paris, in which the principal
French and American inventions are described, as well as the chapter
on French machines in Report No. 1, Fiber Investigations Series of this
Department. Since the publication of Report Ko. 7 several new Amer-
ican and foreign machines have appeared, but as these have not been
tested by the Governmentsof France, Great Britain, the United States,
or other countries no authoritative statements can be made concerning
them.

HEMP AND JUTE MACHINERY.

These machines may be classed together, as a successful bast-fiber
machine might with slight moditication be made to extract either fiber.
It has been shown also, in ramie nmchine trials, that an umsuccessful
ramie machine may prove a fair jute machine, and two machines tlie
Department has tested have worked on the three fibers, hemp, jute,
and ramie.

It is claimed that nearly 300 patents have been issued in the United
States for machines for breaking hemp, many of which have proved
absolute failures, while none of them filled the requirements of an
economically successful hemp-cleaning device, the Kentucky hemp
grower of to-day relying upon the rude and clumsy five-slatted hand
brake of his grandfather's time, a device similar in all respects to that
used for the same purpose at the present day by the hemp farmers of
Brittany. The French brake is only a slight advance upon that used
in this country, being smaller, composed of both wood and metal, and
having seven instead of five slats. While a less clumsy aftair than
the American device, a French workman can not clean with it more

350 U8EFUL FIBER PLANT? OF THE WORLD.

thau half the quantity of hemp in a day that an average Kentucky
negro operator produces on the American brake. Thirty to 35 kilo-
grams of fiber per day is the limit of production for a single brake on
a Sarthe farm — equal to Go or 75 pounds of fiber. It is more carefully
prepared, however, teing twisted into small "streaks" or loose ropes,
a number of these making up a bundle of several kilograms in weight,
this being the form in which French hemp goes to market. In Ken-
tucky breaking is an expensive operation, costing $1 to $1.25 i)er hun-
dred pounds of fiber. The work is performed in the winter by negroes,
and the best workers will not average more than 150 pounds in a day.
A number of i^atented machines, possessing more or less merit, have
been brought to public notice in the past four or five years, several of
which have been examined by the Oftice of Fiber Investigations. The
fact remains, however, that while several of the more recent inventions
that have been looked into are "promising,'' the hemp growers of Ken-
tucky do not consider that a perfectly satisfactory machine is available
at the present time. See Report No. 1, Fiber Investigations Series,
page 73, and Report No. 8, same series, page 18. See statements also
on jute machinery, same report, page 39. The Kentucky hemp brake
is figured on page 109 of this work.

LEAF FIBER MACHINES.

Probably a greater degree of success has been achieved in the inven-
tion of machines for extracting of the fiber from such fleshy leaved
plants as the Agave, etc., than for any other classes of fiber plants.
Since the establishment of the Office of Fiber Investigations, several
successful machines have been i)laced on the market which will enable
a sisal-hemp grower to market his crops without recourse to the clumsy
raspadore used so many years in Yucatan. It is not necessary to enu-
merate these machines, as they have been fully described in the special
reports of the Otfice of Fiber Investigations, particularly in Nos. 3 and 5.
The makers of some of the best of the American machines in this class
have, since those reports were published, constructed other machines
that are said to clean the leaves of such i>lants as the pineapple, yucca,
etc. A good machine for extracting the fiber from the husk of the
cocoanut is included in the category.

COTTON MACHINERY.

The Department has made no special study of the various gins,
presses, etc., for baling the crops that are available. Brief statements
are made under the title Gossypium, in the body of this work, and ref-
erence is also made to The Cotton Plant recently published by the
Department of Agriculture. See also Spoil's Encyclopedia, noted in
list of authorities.

Many other forms of fiber machinery have been devised for employ-
ment in the Old World; they liave not been studied by the Department,

COTTON MACHINERY. 351

as the fibers are not utilized in tliis country. Some of tliem are
described in tlie bulletins of the Koyal (lardens, Kew, and in Spon's
Encyclopiedia, while many are noted in special reports and bulletins
that are not readily available to the general public, so that special ref-
erence will not be made to them. The Department will always be glad
to answer any questions regarding this phase of the fiber subject, as
far as possible, upon application for information by letter, and will feel
under obligations to correspondents who will send accounts of new
machines, confidentially or otherwise.

APPENDIX B.

ON THE IDENTIFICATION OF FIBERS.

By William JI. .Sea.max, M. I).

It is frtMiueutly desirable to be able to ascertain tlie nature of fibers
composing' textile goods, to detect mixtures, or for some other reason.
The fibers employed in the commercial industries naturally separate
tliemselves into tliree great classes, of wliicli two, silk and wool, are
derived from the animal kingdom, while the vegetable kingdom fur-
nishes an immense variety, as the pages of this work testify.

The means by which fibers may be identified are also grouped under
two heads — chemical and microscopical. For many purposes, the
methods are combined together, the chemical reactions being carried
out and studied on the stage of the microscope. We will first indicate
some of the more obvious reactions by which these classes of fibers may
be recognized, and then discuss more particularly the microscopical
characters of the vegetable fibers by which the}' may be distinguished
from each other.

As all animal fibers contain nitrogen, which on burning evolves
ammonia, recognizable by its smell, a strong smell from a burning fiber
not saturated with any nitrogenous substance clearly reveals its animal
origin, because vegetable fibers contain so little nitrogen that its pres-
ence is not easily made out and they give no ammoniacal odor on
combustion. The vegetable fibers also do not leave any residue, if well
burned, while the animal fibers leave a crispy coal.

Both silk and wool are soluble in strong hydrochloric acid, the solu-
tion being hastened by heat, but in dilute acid silk is soluble and wool
is not. Vegetable fibers in the same reagent are disintegrated but not
dissolved. Numerous processes have been invented for separating
vegetable fibers, burs, etc., from wool, in order to clean the wool from
seeds and other foreign vegetable matters that would be injurious to its
manufacture, and also to permit the reuse of woolen rags, et-c., which
have cotton sewing threads in them or that have been made partially of
cotton. These processes depend usually upon the destruction of the
vegetable matter by acting on the mass with chlorin, or some compound
352

IDENTIFICATION OF FIBERS. 353

of clilorin, or witli dilute acids, siudi as liydrocbloiic or sulphuric, of
suitable streugtb. By the action of these reagents the vegetable mat-
ter is rendered brittle so as to easily break in pieces like dust when the
mixed mass is subje(;ted to the action of a shaking machine known as
a willow, and this dust is blown away, leaving the wool substantially
intact. Mungo and shoddy are thus obtained. AVhen hydrochloric
acid has been used as the disintegrating agent, if after its action the
fiber is steamed, the silk, if any is present, will also be partially dis-
solved so that it can be removed and a i)ure wool liber obtained.

lu strong, cold sulphuric acid silk quickly turns yellow and dissolves;
cotton disintegrates slowly without color; Hax and hemp make a black
mixture, and wool is scarcely affected. Both silk and wool turn yellow
and are soluble in nitric acid, the first more speedily, while vegetable
libers are slightly affected. Vegetalffe fibers are composed almost wholly
of cellulose, whi(;h dissolves readily in Schweitzer's reagent, which is a
solution of copper oxid in ammonia. Vegetable fibers are also callable
of being nitrated in different degrees by the action of a mixtnre of sul-
l)huric and nitric acids, forming soluble cotton, gun cotton, etc., impor-
tant products in the manufacture of photographic collodion, celluloid,
and explosives."

Fibers may be presented for examination in the form of raw material
or as manufactured goods. In the first case it often happens that some
preliminary treatment is required to remove the incrasting or coating
material which would otherwise jjrevent the direct action of chemical
reagents ux)on the fiber. Animal fibers are covered with oil; cotton with
a vegetable fat, iind bast fibers, like flax and hemp, have more or less
resinous cementing matter attached to them. This will usually be
removed by a preliminary soaking in ether or benzine, and, if desirable,
the weight of such adventitious matter can be determined by the dif-
ference in the weight of the material before and after treatment. In
the case of cotton a i)reliminary weak alkaline bath is often used.

If the material is in a manufactured state, as spun or woven, the
warp and weft should be carefully separated, as they often consist of
different fibers, and the threads should be untwisted so as to give the
reagents free access to the entire surface of the fibers. They may then
l)e examined according to the tables on page 354, adapted from Dam-
mer's '-Illustriertes Lexicon der Verfalschuugen."

' For further information on these subjects, con.sult Allen's Commercial Analysis,
Vol. II.

IL'L'47— ^■o. 0 L'3

354

USEFUL FIBER PLANT.S OF THE WORLD.

Taijle a. — For the examiuatiun ofjihcrs, nhowiii;/ Ihtirhtliarior tvlicii Ircatcd witli (iifiieoiis
solutions of the reagents s})ecijied.

Caustic

alkali as

caustic

soda.

En t inly _
solitide.

Zinc clilorid.

Coiiipletelvsol

iil)le.
railiall.v

uble.

Lciid acetate.

Silk.

IMixid silk iiiiil

Wliol.

Alkali solution

(Iocs not lilackcn.

The soliil.lc |H)r- j

tion (1 o cs not
lilackcn. tliciu-
sohihlo does.

Blackens "Wool.

A ]iart blackens . . Tlie part insolnlile in zinc chlorid Ujj^,.,] sill,
partly ilissolvcs ill ciin.stic potash ; | , J^t ^ V

the icniaiiiilcr is soluble :ii cii- ( .',"''
piaiiiiiioniiiiii. I

Docs not blacken . On tri'atiiient with picric acid, pai-t \^-.-,y. .,,,,1 , ,,| t,,i]
colors yellow, p.irt rciiiaiiis wliitc. J' ^'
On treatment with nitric aiid. jiarl (Mixed tl:i\ and

turns yellow, part reiii;iiiis white. ( cotton.
Chlorin, water, oraiiiiiioni.icidorsthe fMew Ze;ilaiid
libers red brown, iiitrii- acid red. \ llax.
Alcoh(dic liuh- ( ■)

sin(l-JO) -rives Jr and II-.fl^f>4 l|i,.,„,,
a permanent) };ive yellow. ( ''

color. I ■ J

Potash siduhlo (I and n2S()4l,,.,
dyes yellow. t {?ive blue. J ' ' '

Pot.isli does not

c<ilor and fiich ) Cotton

sin washes out

It will be seen that the first step is to treat with caustic alkali, 10
to 20 per cent, whereby animal fiber is dissolved, and vci;etable fiber
not. If, now. lead acetate be added to the mi.xtnre it darkens imme-
diately from the formation of lead sulphid if wool is present. Or, if silk
be suspected, warm in strong sulphuric acid, when the silk will darken
rapidly and the wool more slowly. A solution of basic zinc chlorid
may be made by taking a solution of 1.70 sp. gr. and dissolving therein
an excess of zinc oxid. In this fluid silk dissolves readily in the cold,
but wool a'.id vegetable fibers remain unaffected. By heating a Aveighed
l)ortion of the material in this bath for five minutes, then drying and
weighing, the amount of silk is determined by loss. On heating the
remainder in a 10 per cent solution of caustic soda, drying and weigh-
ing as before, the amount of wool is found; the rest is vegetable fiber.
The more common vegetable fibers may be distinguished from each
other by means of the following table:

'J'.\i;lk B. — Showiny the reactions of thr more important vigetahle fibers.

Fiber.

lodin and zinc
chlorid.

lodin and sul-
phuric acid.

Cupranimo-
nium.

Aniliu sulpliate.

Phloroglucin.

Cotton

Violet

do

do

]?rown yellow ..
Dull violet

Blue

Bine solution.
do

Flax

do

Hemp

Jute

do

do

Bale yellow

Golden yellow

do

Deep red.

Kamie

Dull blue .

do .

Yellow

Yellowish

do

Ilri-ht yelhiw ....

Red.

New Zealand

flax.
Aloe

Coi'oa

Golden yellow . .
Yellow to brown
do

Green blue . . .
Yellow

Bluish

Swells uji
Idnish.

Palo red.
Pink.

Purplish.

IDENTIFICATION OF FIBERS. 3I')5

The solutiou of iodiii in zinc. (;lilori(l is prc[>;irt'(l by taking 100 i)arts
of zinc cliloiid solution of 1.8 sp. <>t., adding lU jmrts of water, andi6
parts of potassium iodid, then add iodin till the vapors thereof begin
to form. The brown li([uid slionld be kejtt protected froni light.

The s(dution of cupramnmnium is made by adding sodium carbonate
to a solution of co])[)er sulphate, by which a mixture of copper hydrate
and carbonate is formed; this is well washed and treated with just
sufficient ammonia of 0.J>1 sp. gr. to dissolve it. It should be Avell
shaken, liltered, and is then ready for use. Anilin sulphate in 1 per
cent solution dyes woody fiber cells pale to deep yellow according to
the amount of woody deposit.

The phloroglucin reagent reijuires two li(iuids which are kept sep-
arate, first a 5 per cent solution of phloroglucin in 95 per cent alcohol,
and sec(md strong hydrochloric acid. Apply to the section under
examination first a drop or two of phloroglucin solution, and then in
like manner the hydrochloric acid. Lignified cells will be stained red,
those not lignified will remain colorless. This reagent is mucli used
+br determining the presence of wood pulp in i)aper claiming to be
made of rags. A 5 per cent solution of anilin chlorid may be substi-
tuted for the phloroglucin and applied in the same way, but the liguin
will be stained yellow instead of red.

For the application of iodiii and suli)huric acid, a little iodin is dis-
sohed in alcohol, and diluted with water till a j)ale wine-colored liquid
is obtained. The sulphuric acid used should be diluted with two parts
of water, and the sample treated with the reagents alternately till the
fnll effect is proiluced. Fuchsin is employe<l in a o ])er cent alcoholic
solution. Lead acetate in ,") per cent water solution. Picric acid, a
saturated water solution.

Vegetable fibers are composed of long (;ells, which may be attached
in a single row, end to end as in cotton, or, in bast fibers like linen and
hemp they are spindle sliaped with very tapering ends, which lie side
by side and are united to each other by a kind of cementing or inter-
cellular substance. Something of the strength of the fiber depends on
the strength and the resistance which this cement offers to the action
of ordinary solvents, like water and soap; if it dissolves readily, as in
the case of jute, goods made of such a fiber will not stand washing. In
any case the fibers which are to be examined should be separated into
their ultinmte cells by soaking in alkali, then rubbing between the
fingers or teasing out with needles, or recourse must sometimes be had
to boiling in a 10 per cent soda lye or labarraque solution, and fraying
in a mortar.

When the ultimate cells are obtained, they should be stretched on a
slide moistened with a little glycerol for microscopical examination.
The glj cerol will prevent any tendency to crisp or curl when they are
stretched out, and a cover glass laid on, and the whole slide is placed
upon ai micrometer scale to measure the length. Transparent glass
scales may now be obtained, wiiich are very convenient for this work.

356 USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

After flndiug the length, sections of the fibers must be made to deter-
mine the diameter of the cells. For this purpose the writer has some-
times rolled a little bundle of the fibers in a piece of sheet wax made
warm enough to be pliable. The wax is allowed to cool, and the sec-
tions cut in any section cutter, of which there are now a great many
forms in use by microscopists. If the fibers are hard, the wax is not
suflicientlj^ resistant, and an embedding mass must be used that may
be prepared by dissolving 70 grams of clean gum arabic in an equal
weight of distilled water. Then digest 4 grams isinglass in 10 grams
cold water till swollen, then heat to complete solution.

Strain one-half through a piece of fine muslin and mix with the solu-
tion of gum arabic, throwing the rest away, and add 10 or l!3 cubic
centimeters of glycerol, warm and mix thoroughly, and in each bottle
jjut a small ])iece of camphor. It is best to put it up in small bottles,
as it solidifies on cooling. When it is to bo used, warm the bottle, and
taking a little bundle of the fibers, about the size of a slate pencil, tie
a thread around one end and saturating the bundle with the glue,
stroke the fibers till they are straight and i)arallel, then hang the bun-
dle up to dry for about twelve hours, when it will be hard enough to
cut. The slices are placed on the slide, and wet with iodin solution,
which is in turn absorbed by strips of blotting paper till all the glue is
dissolved and removed. When the .sections are made in wax, benzine
or turpentine may be used for this removal, and the iodin applied sub-
sequently. When the sections are clean, a dro^) of the dilute sul[)huric
acid is put on tliem, the cover glass is placed in position, and they are
ready for examination on the stage of the microscope. Or the cover
glass may be i)ut on before the addition of the sulidiuric acid, and the
acid then placed on the slide at the edge of the cover glass, when it
will slowly creep under, and its progressive action can be watched as
it penetrates the sections. Pure (cellulose takes a blue color, lignin a
yellow, and intermediate tints will be produced in proportion as the
cells are more or less lignified. When the saturation is complete, the
outline of the sections will be sharply made out, and their diameter,
shape of outline, and character of the interior canal should be iu)ted.
As the relative proportion of lignin and cellulose differs much in the
cells of different plants, but is tolerably constant for the same species,
it is i)0ssible to classify fibers according to their reactions, which taken
in connection with the size of their ultimate fiber cells, ofler us the
most certain means of identification, and these characters will be found
synoptically arranged in the table following. By a careful use of strips
of blotting paper to take up any excess of reagents, all injury to the
microscope may be avoided and much better results obtained than by a
sloppy, careless method of work. For measuring the diameter of the
cells a Jackson eyepiece micrometer is to l)e ])referred. The gross
appearance of the fibers should be noted in most cases. If the ends
are frayed and worn it indicates shoddy in wool and paper stock in
cotton. In the United States, where iiuk-Ii paj)er stock is of wood,

IDENTIFICATION OF FIBERS.

357

diderent kiiid.s of wood iiie employed not iiientioued in the following'
table, such as poplar, which in some parts of the country is the common
name of species of Fopulus, but in Xew York and elsewhere is often
api)lied to the Liriodendron tuli])i/h-a, also known as whitewood, while
the THi<( iimcrivdna goes under the name of basswood. As all woody
libers are more or less lignified, they give the yellow reactions of the
Dicotyledons with the linden and willow as in the table following.

The reaction between iodni and sulphuric acid is sometimes a little
slow and the color is temporary, only lasting* a few hours. Bent or
creased libers color deeply in the flexures, and stri;e, either longitudi-
nal or radial in sections, will show more plainly as the coloration pro-
gresses. In many of the coarser fibers particularly, pieces of ])aren-
chyma will be seen that always color yellow, and may readily be known
by their irregular shape.

]\lost of the fiber cells used in the textile industries, such as fiax and
hemp, are parts of the inner layer or bark of Dicotyledonous plants
often known as bast cells.

In Monocotyledons the fiber cells are often scattered irregularly
through the stem, and are white, coarse, light, and often brittle. (See
Study of Fibers, in the Introduction.) There are, however, many excep-
tions to the latter statement, especially auioug the palms, which are
Monocotyledons. The blue reaction in this class is not so definite as in
the other classes, quite a jyroportion of the cells of alfa or esparto turning
yellow, there being apparently two kinds of cells in this plant, which
are not mixed indiscriminately in the stem, but form separate layers,
each of which maintains its characteristic reaction, but becomes inter-
mixed in processes of manufacture. The following table is a summary
of the distinguishing characters of the principal vegetable fibers. The
mean length and diameter are derived from a comparison of many
measurements, and hence do not in all cases represent the mean of the
extremes given

Taulk C. — Siinopiical tulile for the (leterminatioii of fillers of regetahlr origin.

[All measures in iiiillinietcrs. The reactions are understood to be with iodiu and

anlpliuric acid.]

DICOTVLKDONS GIVING BLUE KEACTION.

Hotaiiical name.

Length of fiber
cells.

Diameter of
fiber cells.

Coiiiuioii name.

(O

o

m

a
o
i-I

_2

a

OS

Remarks.

Flax

Hfiiip

Linnm naitatis.iimnra...

('iiiiiialiis sati\ a

Hiiiimliis liiimln.s

rrti( a 8)1

r.oelniifria nivea

Uriiii.s.si>nitiai>apyrifei-a
Ciotalaria jiincea

Cytiaiia scoparin.s

Spartiiim jiinceum

Mc-lilotnsalba

4
5
4
4

fill
li
4

5
10

10

27

120

15

7.8

6

Id

111

fifi
55
19
55
200
25
12

9
10

18
411

0.150
.016
.012
.02
.05
. 025

0.022
.u22
.016
.05
.08
.030

0. 037
. 050
.018
.07

.035

Cavity tiue, yellow linn.

Ho))

Nettle

Chiiia gra.ss

Paiiermullit'Try.
Sumi

Caual scarcely api)ar-

ent.
Yellow envelope.

Sinniisli liiiiiiiu .
Melilut

Colt.pii

558

USEFUL FIBER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

Tahi.K ('. — Sytioptical tahJe for Ihe <letenniiniiioii <>/ fibers of rff/etahir orujin — (Jdiil.'il.
DICOTYLEDONS GIVING A YELLOW REACTION.

Leiij{th of fiber

Diameter of

Biitaiiical iiaini'.

celLs.

liber cells.

l;.iiiail>

CoiiiiiKin iiauie.

o
m

i
•a

3

6

1
0. 014

0. 021

m
bl)

s.

Hibiscus

Hibiscus ST» -. -

2

5

0. 0:53

Coloriimre in

ti-n-scou

Hlll'lace.

Linden

Tilia ap

1.25

2

5

.014

.niG

. 020

Canal very n

!ial"..

.Jute

Corchoni.s, sp

L5

2

5

. 020

.020

.025

Stiff; canal

jtronii-

Liictibark

Lagettii liiituaria

:<

5

6

.01

.015

.02

neut.

Willow

Salixalba

3

3

.017

.022

.030

'

MONOCOTYLKDONS (;iVIN(r A r.H'K KK.VCTIOX.

Esparfo I LysP"'" spartiiin.

Spaui.sh grass ( Stip;i tenacissinia.

Pineapple ! Ananas sativa

1.3

2.5

4.5

.012

.ok;

.020

0.5

1.5

3.5

.007

. 0125

.018

Curly; cavity small.

3

5

9

.004

.000

.008

Cavity line: colora-
tion sliglit.

MONOCOTYLEDONS cniXc; \ YKLLoW UEACTION.

New Zealanil flax. . Pliorinium tenax

Ailam's needle Yncca sp

Bow.string hemp, ..' San.se vieri a sp

Centura iilant( Pita) AK;iveaniericiina

Manila li< in ]) Mnsa tex tills

Palnu-tt<i.:ind]ialnis Chanutrops liiiiiiilis, etc.
in Keneral.

0
4

3

2.5

U

.01

.015

.02

.01

.015

.02

.015

.02

.026

.020

.024

.032

.010

.024

.032

Coloration intense.

It is wortli iiotiufi' tliat iutilicial silk, made l)y Cliaidoniiet and others,
now often torins a part of some kinds of silk j^oods. A conipany is l)einf>'
formed in tliis eonntry to manufacture artificial silk under the Cliardon-
iiet patents, the mill to he erected at Paterson, X. .1. (See under Arti
ficial silk ill this work.)

Ill closiiij;. 1 may refer to a few works containiii<;- descriptiotis of the
fibers commonly em])loy('d in commeri'ial industries. Very few books
have been piiblislnMl relatinjj;- exclusively to libers, and especially in
this country. In most books on dyeing, some descriptiou of the mate-
rials empioye«l is prefixed, usually of a very superficial character; but
there are no special tVmerican i)ublicatioiis on the techn()lo<;y of fiber
work. This list must be understood as including only the more impor-
tant pul)licatioiis on this subject. See in list of authorities William
Crookes, Kneclit liawson and Loewenthal, V»''tillart, Thomas Christy,
Leo Viiinou, F. II. P.owman, Julius Sachs, Gritlin and Little, Edson
S. Bastiii, and Cross and Bevan. Vetillart's work is the most thorough
that has been published, uj) to the present time, as regards the identi-
fication of fibers by means of microchemical reactions. Some of the
matter, together with information on a large number of new fibers, is
incorporated in the work by Thoin;is Christy. The Text-Book of
Botany by Julius Sachs is one of the highest authorities on the
structure of i)lants.

APPENDIX C.

DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF LACE.

r>y ])r. Thomas Wilson.

Lace is an onianiciital open work labri(; made witli tlireads by sew-
ing, knottini;', or twistiiiy. It is not a textile, is not woven, is not
embroidery. Its ]»rincipal difference from these, wlierein consists its
pecnliarity, is tliat it is made niesli or loop at a time, each one being
complete in itselt and not made on any previonsly jtrepared fonnda-
tion, as in weaving or embroidery. There are many fabrics which liave
intimate relation with lace and are called by that name wherein there
may be a mixture of both weaving and embroidery. There are other
fabrics which, made purely by lace making process, still are not lace
because of a failure of their ornamental charactei". It is only by employ-
ing the word "ornament" in the definition that one can exclude the fine
sardine nets in use on the western coast of France. They are netted as
is lace; they are not made by any previously prepared foundation; they
are of fine linen thread, but they are utilitarian and are not ornamental,
and so are not lace.

The making and use of thread and the art of weaving are of great age,
being well known in prehistoric times in the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
Examples of both have been found in the Neolithic stations of the Lake
Dwellers of Switzerland and Italy. The more advanced arts of sewing,
weaving, an<l embroidery were in a high state of development at the
beginning of all historic periods in almost every known country. The
Bible is full of descriptions of objects of high art in these regards.
Modern discoveries in Egypt and Assyria carry these arts much further
into antiquity. There is every reason to believe that all or most of these
arts antedated the culture manifested by written characters and by the
higher orders of architecture.

Lace is, however, entirely a modern product. There were in early
times, to be sure, knitted fabrics, and some of them may have been
darned or embroidered in such way as to produce a fabric which now
passes as antique lace; but the art of lace nuiking, according to the
foregoing definition, by sewing with the needle as in the manufacture
of point lace, or by twisting as in the manufacture of bobbin lace, is
not pretended by anyone to have existed earlier than the last half of the

359

360 USEFUL FUiER PLANTS OF THE WORLD.

fifteeiitli century, and it is extremely doubtful if any particular speci-
men can be identified as having been made i)rior to the middle of the
sixteenth century, at uhich time lace hrst api)eared as a perfected fabric.
The country entitled to the honor of the invention of lace making is
unknown. It has been claimed by Italy, Belgium, France, and CJer-
many, with a considerable show of evidence in favor of each.

It is remarkable that lace making should have sprung uj) or been
invented at about the same period of time l)y two entirely distinct pnx;-
esses without relationship or evolution between them, and that the
people of the countries wherein either of the inventions was made
were not only uidvnown to each other, but apparently neither had any
knowledge of the process of lace nuiking invent<'d or employed in the
other country. One of these processes is by the employment of the
needle and a single thread, wherein the work was perfected mesh by
mesh, each mesh being completed as the work progressed. The other
process was by the use of many threads at once, each one attached to
bobbins for the purpose only of separating them, the meshes being
made by twisting the threads a greater or less number of times. When
each mesh is only partially completed, the thread is carried on to the
next, and so on from side to side the entire width of the fabric. While
the countries in which these processes were invented are unknown, the
evidence points to Venice as the seat of the former and to Belgium as
the seat of the latter.

By these two totally distinct processes fabrics are produced so nearly
alike as often to require an expert to distinguish the difference, which,
though many times easily determined, yet not infrequently requires
the aid of an expert.

During the first two centuries of lace making it may be assumed that
it was always made with linen thread, but during the nineteenth cen-
tury the im[»rovements in making cotton thread have been so extensive
that the latter fiber has been considerably employed. Practically all
machine-made lace is of cotton fiber. Lace making has in later days
been carried by the principal I'kiropean nations into their colonies, and
lace is thus oftentimes made by i^eoples who are barbarous, or at best
not more than half civilized. The native population of many of the
South American states carry on lace making, which was taught them
in early times by pioneer jnissionaries, and the art has become special-
ized and localized, and is taught and continued from generation to gen-
eration, and now furnishes a staple industry. Under the tuition of the
French the natives of Madagascar make a fair representation of antique
lace which, however, unlike the South American, is not for their own
use, is not used by them, but is intended as a source of revenue and is
for sale or export.

Eegarding Nanduty {Nanduti) lace, William Eleroy Curtis writes me
that the material used is the j>/to hber, and that it is the same used by
the people of Ecuador and northern Peru for the very tine Panama

DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY OF LACE. 361

hats, which are all made on the west coast of South America between
Buenaventura and Callao. "They are called Panama hats because
Panama is the market of distribution."

In "The Capitals of Spanish America," by Mr. Curtis, who is recog-
nized as the highest authority upon all subjects referred to therein,
statements are made on page G38, as follows :

The men are very skillful in the use of tools and in the manufacture of gold and
silver ornaments, and the women make a very tine lace which is called Nauduty.
The lace-making art was taught the women hy the Spanish nuns. They do not use
cotton thread, but the very fine fibers of a native tree, which arc as soft and lustrous
as silk. Some of their designs are very beautiful, and the fabric is indestructible.
Lopez had his chamber walls hung with this lace, on a background of crimson satin,
and the pattern was an imitation of the finest cobweb. It is said to have required the
work of 200 women for several years to cover the walls, and that every one of those
women was a discarded mistress of the despot. The lace is fastened to the wall by
clamps of solid gold of the most unique workmanship. There are 400 of the clamps,
each worth from $12 to $15."

In regard to the above reference to Panama hats, it should be noted
that the true Panama hats are made from the sj)lit leaves of Carlndovica
palmata. It is to be regretted that the name of the botanical sjiecies
of plant used in the manufacture of this lace could not be given, as the
mime pita is used tor so many different fibers. [See Pit<( in catalogue,
Ed,] The Nanduty lace differs from some other laces in being made in
small squares and joined together.

In addition to the fibers above mentioned the writer possesses some
specimens of lace made of the fiber of the aloe from Corfu and Zante.
Keference may also be made to the aloe lace wrought by the women of
Payal, and referred to in this work under Agave americana.

White lace may be made of flax, cotton, silk, wool, ramie, and pos-
sibly other fibers; flax and cotton are rarely colored. Almost all black
lace is silk or wool, or possibly ramie, though as yet this fiber has not
come into general use.

Report No. 9, Office of Fiber Investigations.

Plate I.

Report No. 9, Office of Fiber Investigations.

Plate II.

•SVIIBwJ

Report No. 9, Office of Fiber Investigations

Plate III.

'H'?'''''*^*

1. An unidentified Florida Agave.

2. Pineapple Plant, Ananas sativa.

Report No. 9, Office of Fibei Invesligations.

Plate IV.

r>f Fiber Investigations

Plate V.

Report No. 9, Office of Fiber Investigations.

Plate VI.

Report No. 9, Office of Fiber Investigations,

Plate VII.

Reoorl No 9, Office of Filxr Invpstieatt.

Plate VIII.

O

o

Report No, 9, Office of Fiber Investigations

Plate IX.

?rt Mo 9, O'fice o' Fiber Inveslifrations

Plate X.

Report No. 9. Office of Fiber Investigations.

Plate XI.

The Tree Yucca, Yucca areorescens.

I

Report No. 9, Office of Fiber Investigations.

Plate XII.