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hie Development of Naturalism in German Poetry from the Hainbund to Liliencron

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the rerinrem^jntt

for the Doctor of Philosophy Degree at the Ohio State University

BY

ERWIN H. BOHM

JUNE, 1917

The Development of Naturalism in German Poetry from the Hainbund to Liliencron

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillnnent of the requirements

for the Doctor of Philosophy Degree at the Ohio State University

BY i

ERWIN H. BOHM

JUNE, 1917

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction 1

The eighteenth century before Goethe ...... 3

Goethe 11

The early nineteenth century 15

The break with romanticism 27

The silver age 42

The immediate forerunners of naturalism 53

Conclusion 60

^^cV--^

INTRODUCTION

In tracing the development of naturalism in poetry the first question to intrude into the mind of the investigator will probably be: Is na- turalism in literature, and especially in poetry, something new, the characteristic tendency of any particular age?

If naturalism is used as a synonym for realism, the answer must be "no". Popular epics and folk-poetry, close to the soil and in immediate touch with the life and soul of the people among whom they had their origin, most invariably show a strong tendency toward realism. The description of everyday life in Homer must have appeared realistic in its day; the Odyssey mentions realistic details that would evoke a smile in the average English reader of today; we need only remember the dung heap before the door of Odysseus*. This realistic tendency ap- pears especially in popular ballads and lyrics.

/ In more complex, more refined, and more developed stages of cul- ture and education this simple realism is often lacking. The poets need not go to their immediate surroundings for inspiration; they may turn to the great poets preceding them. They thus lose close contact with their own native soil, becoming refined and unrealistic. Their appeal

[ no longer is to the masses; only the aristocracy of the intellectual can

I appreciate them. Since they follow in the footsteps of earlier poets, their subject matter is limited in scope; they tend to confine themselves to a certain group of phenomena which they consider typical. Hence the art of this type often becomes highly conventional. It is well repre- sented by the classical French drama, and in German poetry by the Anacreontics. All portrayal of the individual and the specific in life has here been abandoned in favor of the typical, the conventional. If we compare the poetry of Germany with that of England or France,

/ we shall see that the former is relatively more realistic, more popular, and closer to its own native soil than the latter. Many of the leading English poets, Coleridge, Byron, Shelley, Keats, Tennyson, Mathew

*The frequent assertion that the early poetry, such as the epics of Homer, is more idealistic than the literature of a later day is not a contradiction of the statement above. Homer is idealistic in his at- titude toward the miraculous and the heroic. He has undoubtedly idealized the life of his day and passed over in silence many of its disagreeable and trivial features, but nevertheless his strongly re- alistic tendency is undeniable.

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Arnold' Rosetti, Swinburne, etc., are very remote from their native English soil, are not readily intelligible to the man of little education, and not markedly realistic. The more realistic poets, Wordsworth and Browning, stand out as exceptions, while Burns really stands aside from English literary traditions and succeeds only when he leans wholly on the traditional Scotch folk-poetry. In France some of the leading poets show strong realistic tendencies at times, but usually they appear much less realistic and much more exclusive in their appeal than the Ger- mans, notwithstanding such exceptions as B^ranger. But in Germany since 1770 we find most of the eminent poets leaning more or less strong- ly toward realism; it is the refined and aristocratic poet, such as Hol- derlin or Platen, who forms the exception here. The reasons for this may be more profitably discussed a little later.

j If naturalism were synonymous with realism, German poetry since ' 1770 would at once be seen to be more naturalistic than that of Eng- land or France. But that naturalism which was the ruling force in Ger- / man literature toward the close of the nineteenth century, and which I j was as characteristic of the lyric as it was of the drama or the novel, h is more than merely a high degree of realism. It is something decidedly > i distinctive and characteristic of its time, for it was the result of the i I spirit of an age which had never been before: the age of modern science. , ! The scientific spirit of investigation, ideal of the latter nineteenth cen- j tury, tended to a more careful analysis of reality than was attained be- f fore. As a result we have the tendency to make art coextensive with \ life. This naturally led to the treatment of subjects hitherto considered as unfit for poetry. Furthermore, a greater minuteness in regard to detail made its appearance in poetry, above all in the treatment of na- ture. These tendencies in turn led to a greater freedom of expression, since a small and limited "poetic" vocabulary would be incapable of becoming the vehicle of an art that is to become coextensive with reality.

The scientific objectivity had given rise to a drier, more matter-of- ''/ fsLct attitude toward life. The old romantic spirit, so characteristic of the early nineteenth century, had begun to fall into disrepute. The growth of scepticism and materialism, following in the wake of the de- velopment of natural science, meant the disintegration of many old beliefs and ideals. These tendencies all helped to bring about the na- turalistic era in literature.

' The scientific spirit had thus fused with the realistic tendencies in- herent in German poetry to produce naturalism. But still other fac-

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tors were to assist in the moulding of naturalism. One of these was the growing spirit of individualism. The classicists had emphasized the typical at the expense of the personal. It was relatively late when poets felt themselves at liberty to introduce their own personality into poetry, and to substitute specific experiences in place of the general themes of the classicists. Instead of simply singing about wine and love and displaying their devotion to fictitious sweethearts with Greek names, as had been customary among the Anacreontics, the modern poets be- gan to reveal their actual inner self. A greater variety of experiences was thus introduced into the lyric. The growth of individualism in literature becomes very apparent when we turn from Corneille or Mo- liere, both of whom always portrayed the typical, to Rousseau. In the lyric the change appears very evident if we compare the highly indi- vidualistic poetry of Heine with that of the Anacreontics.

The growth of democracy in the course of the 18th century also left its trace upon literature, and in the 19th century socialism began to play an increasingly prominent part in the life and thought of the world. The peasants and the middle class were well in the lyrics and epics of the latter eighteenth century, and in the nineteenth century the proletarians and the outcasts absorbed a growing portion of the poet's attention. The interest for the unfortunate members of society assumes the form of compassion, the ability to see the wrongs inflicted upon certain classes and the consequent desire to side with the lower classes against their oppressors.

It is my aim to trace the development of these tendencies, of realism, of the scientific spirit, of individualism, of democracy, and of socialism, in German poetry, and to show how the various factors have helped to bring about naturalism. The appearance of Liliencron's "Adjutanten- ritte" (1884) is commonly accepted as marking the beginning of a new era, that of naturalism. Whether this conception is correct or not can be decided later; at any rate, I shall abide by the popular conception that the year 1884 stands at the threshold of a new period, and shall not attempt to investigate the poems of any author whose first volume of poetry appeared later than 1884.

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY BEFORE GOETHE

The reason for the more pronounced leaning toward realism in Ger- man poetry as compared with that of England and France is a twofold one: 1, the Renaissance, giving rise to a more conventional and un-

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popular art, came to Germany rather late, and failed to produce a single great poet; 2, the German lyric has received much of its inspira- tion from the folk-song, the popular art of the masses. The second of these two factors is the natural result of the first, for it was the desire to break with the artificial and feeble imitators of the classics that prompted the Germans to turn to the folk-song.

The poetry of the Renaissance is represented by the first and second Silesian schools, and later a similar tendency appeared among the An- acreontics. The poetry of this type thus remained the ruling force in German literature throughout the seventeenth century and also a very large part of the eighteenth century. It was not only inspired by the classics, but to a great extent a mere imitation of the latter. The list of subjects open to poetic treatment was decidedly limited; the lang- uage was conventional. The profuse employment of mythological refer- ences made this poetry almost unintelligible to the masses. The sen- timents expressed were impersonal; only too frequently there was a wide breach between the sentiment of a poem and the ideas and ideals held by its author in private life. These are all facts so well known to anyone acquainted with German literature that illustrations would be quite superfluous.

While this inferior poetic art was ruling Germany the folk-song was ignored and despised by men of letters and had already begun to fall into oblivion. When Percy's "Reliques of Ancient English Poetry" and MacPherson's (supposedly original) "Ossian" had attracted the atten- tion of German readers many of the leading intellects began to realize the artificiality of German poetry. The conviction began to spread, in spite of opposition, that the songs of primitive people constituted poe- try at its best, and the question arose: "Have the Germans no folk- poetry?"

The honor of having been the chief champion of folk-poetry in the Germany of the eighteenth century belongs to Herder. But while Her- der defended folk-poetry in his prose writings' and collected folk-songs^, his own original poems can not be said to show the folk-song influence to any marked extent. It is probably true, furthermore, that the re- turn to the realism of the folk-song would have come without Herder through the influence of Percy, Ossian, and Homer.

The movement toward popular poetry could not fail to receive con- siderable support from the back-to-nature movement, which, championed

•See Herder's "Von deutscher Art und Kunst I"; 2Herder's "Stimmen der Volker in Liedern".

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by Rousseau, had such far-reaching influence on the minds of the latter eighteenth century. Never before had the poets been so strongly at- tracted to rural life. The peasants, hitherto despised, now became the centre of interest quite as much as the slums and proletarians 100 years later.

It is among the poets of the "Hain" where this spirit is most in evi- dence. The very circumstances under which this alliance was founded would symbolize a return to nature'. J. H. Voss, the head of this alli- ance, was also the foremost realist among its members. The fact that this poet's own grand-parents were peasants and in bondage would naturally predispose him toward the portrayal of rural and peasant life. The simplicity and realism of description which characterize his works are probably traceable in part to the influence of Homer, whom Voss translated. The realism of Voss's idyls forms a glaring contrast to the somewhat insipid idealism of the contemporary Salomon Gessner. ' A close analysis of Voss's "Luise"^ will give us an idea of the poet's realism. The first idyl very simply describes a picnic in the forest. It mentions the poultry in the back yard^, the dog growling at the cat and trying to catch flies'^, and even less agreeable details, such as the gnats^, the coughing and spitting of the old man^, and the lawn is described as being too damp to sit upon for the person susceptible to coughing and sneezing^.

' The most trivial details are introduced into "Luise": Susanna, the maid, catches flies and mice, and airs the alcove^; we read: "Ihr lauft ja so rasch wie die Hiihnlein iiber den Hof, wenn die Magd an der Haustiir Putter umherstreut"^; and again: "Hat der hassliche Kater wieder gemaut? Bin Hiihnlein beim Eierlegen gekakelt? Oder Susan- na zu laut mit dem Waffeleisen geklappert?"io. The closet containing the collars and shirts is described in the second idyl of "Luise"". The doctor's advice is also brought ini2.

While Voss is thus breaking away from the conventional list of poetic subjects, he is also introducing a minuteness of treatment which is un- surpassed by any poet before Annette von Droste-Hulshoff. Let us pro- ceed with our analysis. Sounds are introduced to a much greater ex- tent than hitherto in poetry: the chirping of the crickets'^, the humming of the beesi4, the buzzing of the flies'^, the buzzing of the beetle'^, the

'Witkop's "Die neuere deutsche Lyrik", Leipsic and Berlin, 1910, v. I, pp. 219 and 220. ^ed. used for Voss: "Hempel's Klassiker-Ausgaben", Berlin n.d. "Luise" in v. I. 3p. i, 11.13. 4p. 1^ 14.15. sp. 2, 4. 6p. 19, 23, and 26. 7p. 25, 23, and 26. »p. 4, 18-20; 9p. h, 15.17. lOp. 12, 3-5. lip. 34, 18, and 35, 1-3. i2p. 35, 6-7. i3p. 5, 21. i4p. 1, 2. i5p. 1, 16. i6p. 30, 16.

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hooting of the owl', and the ticking of the clock^. The introduction of odors (not too common in poetry) is especially remarkable: ''Dass Geiss- blatt duftet des Abends viel zu streng', und zumal mit der Lilien und der Reseda Duft vermischt"^. Other odors mentioned are that of the strawberry*, and that of the grass^.

The detailed knowledge of plant and animal life on the part of Voss appears to be considerable. Among birds, for instance, he mentions the mire-drum, lapwing, cuckoo, black-bird, finch, bunting, quail, ring-dove, and roller^. In regard to plants the poet is also highly specific in his references, mentioning, for instance, the clay-weed^, and the tendril*.

Landscapes are also described in great detaiP.

This enumeration of details regarding Voss's treatment of nature is undoubtedly very incomplete, but it will show what a tremendous dif- ference in regard to care for detail exists between the nature treatment of Voss and that of earlier poets, Brockes for example.

Like Homer, Voss also lays great stress upon the useful in nature: "links im Tal, wo der Aest' ein unendlicher Abfall lag in Laub und Gestrauch, dem Hiittener Feurung des Winters" 'o.

We may also mention at this point the great care for detail which Voss employs in describing a repast^. In "Der Abendschmauss", an- other idyl of Voss, the description of table decorations and culinary things takes up several pages' 2. The last reference is probably to one of the most detailed and realistic descriptions of a meal in poetry. Even the lackeys waiting for their tips are not overlooked.

Voss was also an innovator in as much as he treated of real peasants in his idyls, and not of the conventional shepherds and shepherdesses that were usually associated with rural life in literature previously. The peasants in "Die Heumad" or "Die Bleicherin", etc., are evidently por- trayed from life. In "Der siebzigste Geburtstag" he pictures the life of the country schoolmaster in a realistic manner, and in "Luise" that of the country parson is similarly described. Even the Low German dia- lect of the common people is employed to strengthen the illusion of re- ality, as in "De Winterawend" and "De Geldhapers". / A further characteristic of Voss is his marked trend toward socialism. /"Die Freigelassenen" is an accusation of the hard heartedness and in- justice of the landlord toward the peasants. In "Die Leibeigenen" the poet completely sides with the peasants against the landlord "der mit

ip. 30, 25. 2p. 30, 25. 3p. 2, 2-4. 4p. 7, g. 5p, 30, 12. 6p. 23, 16-19. 7p. 8, 10. 8p. 6, 5. 9p. 6, 10-21. lOp. 13, 10-11. np. 4, 2-10, and p. 21, 11-p. 22, 1. i20ther idyls (except "Luise") in part II of ed. ref. top. 76, 22-p. 81, 25.

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Diensten des Rechts und der Willkiihr uns wie die Pferde abqualet und kaum wie die Pferde bekostigf'i.

A slight tendency toward satire is occasionally noticeable in Voss: "zwolf dickbauchige Herren und zwolf breithiiftige Damen sassen ver- teilt in dem Saale mit gierigen Augen am Spieltisch"^.

Leaving the idyls of Voss and turning to his shorter poems, we may find some of this satire in "Friihlingslied eines gnadigen Frauleins"^. It satirizes the simple life mania of the latter 18th century. The young lady in the poem who does not exactly approve of the simple life, uses expressions like "desennuyiret" and "krepiret"; since foreign words of this type are otherwise uncommon in Voss, we may conclude that his purpose in introducing them here was simply to reproduce reality. The young lady in question despises the peasants and their festivals, when "Kerls mit unfrisiertem Haar, und Menschern ohne Taille" are in evi- dence; "Da stinkt es von Swizenttabak", she adds. But she rejoices at seeing the smoke of the big city: "Ach, seht doch, in der blauen Fern; wie schon der Ranch sich hebet".

Some of the shorter poems of Voss contain realistic passages of in- tense vividness. In "Herbstgang"^ we read: "dampfend zieht das Gaul- gespann". "Der Winterschmauss''^ shows that the poet is already em- ploying modern geographical knowledge: "Schneidender Ostorkan aus Sibirien saust am Doppelfenster". The illusion of reality is complete when he writes: "Bepackt mit Feurung knarrt im Frost die Lastfuhr", or "dem Barenturban dicken Ranch entatmend". The reaper at his work appears in "Heureigen"^, and we are told that he must stop to wipe the perspiration from his face. "Drescherlied"^ informs the reader about the process of thrashing; the horses and cows are heard in the barn, and sparrows, crows, and chickens come to pick up what they can get. The same concrete description of everyday occurrences is found in "Die Kartoffelernte"8. It might be of interest to note that Voss's first poem is said to have been written in praise of the cat^. / While Voss was the chief realist of his day, realism was also in evidence in the poems of some of his contemporaries, although to a less degree. The simple folks who live near the soil now come into their own. To be sure, Haller and Ewald von Kleist had praised the life of the peas- ants in the first half of the eighteenth century but they regarded the life of the peasants as spectators, their exaltation of rural life being theoretical and their language conventional. But now the poets make an attempt to be more simple in their mode of expression, to place them-

ip. 15, 6-7. 2p. 76^ 13-14. 3The shorter poems of Voss are in part III of ed. ref. to, p. 16. *p. 58. 5"Bibliothek der deutschen Klassiker", Hildburghausen 1861, v. VIII, p. 393. ^p. 27. 7p. 40. 8"Bibliothek der deutschen Klassiker", v. VIII, p. 379. 9p. 107.

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selves in the position of peasants, and to see life as the latter would see it. They try to imitate the folk-song, and their poetry becomes more specific and concrete. It is also to be observed that references to myth- ology become fewer as the influence of popular poetry increases.

To illustrate the above I shall cite only a few characteristic examples. Holty, also a member of the "Hain", has given us a realistic picture in "Das Feuer im Walde"'. It is the story of two boys sitting around a bonfire in the forest and their conversation with a lame veteran who lost his leg in the battle of Kunersdorf told in language almost ap- proaching prose in its simplicity. With considerable sense of realism the poet tells us how the boys build their fire while the horses graze in the vicinity, the story of the soldier, and how the boys share their lunch of bread and cheese with their new acquaintance. Holty 's "Friihling- lied"2 also shows the concrete, realistic sense and the simplicity of sen' timent and expression which began to make their appearance in Ger- man poetry. The tendency to get away from the old idyllic treatment of rural life, and to narrate occurrences in the life of the reapers such as reality affords, appears in "Christel und Hannchen"^.

Among the other poets associated with the "Hain", J. P. Miller has frequently put poems into the mouth of peasants, as "Beim Erntesch- maus"'*, "Der verliebte Bauer"5^ and "Lied der Bauren beim Regen"^.

Mathias Claudius is usually regarded as one of the chief representa- tives of a more simple and popular art in the eighteenth century, as well as of the back to nature movement. This is partly due to his marrying a peasant girl and living a patriarchal life^. He makes an effort to couch his poetic sentiments in very simple language, and usually succeeds, al- though it has been pointed out that his desire to appear simple is oc- casionally artificial and results in the exact opposite, as in "Morgen- lied eines Bauermannes"8, stanzas 6 and 7. The language of Claudius, in spite of its simplicity, does not give us the illusion of reality, because there is no attempt made to imitate the speech of the peasant.

"Abendlied eines Bauermannes"^ is a praise of the simple life by a peasant. The perspiration on the peasant's forehead is again men- tioned. "Der gliickliche Bauer" lo and "Frau Rebecca mit den Kin- dern"ii again show us Claudius's interest in rural life.

In regard to specific realistic detail Claudius is not another Voss, but

lEd. used for Holty: Kurschner's "Deutsche National-Li teratur", Berlin and Stuttgart, n.d. ref. to, p. 17. 2p. 89. 3p. 19, 4^d, used for Miller: Kurschner's "Deutsche National-Literatur", Berlin and Stuttagrt, n.d. ref. to p. 164. ^p. 214. ^p. 318. ''See Witkop's "Die neuere deutsche Lyrik", Leipsic and Berlin, 1910, v. I, pp. 194-195. sEd. used for Claudius: Kurschner's "Deutsche National-Literatur", ref. to p. 268, commented on in Witkop, v. I, p. 199. 9p. 269. lOp, 307. np. 309.

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his simplicity is far remote from the Anacreontic or the classic spirit. The summit of triviality is reached in "Motetto, als der erste Zahn durch war"i.

Gottfried August Burger claimed that his highest aim was to be a folk-poet: "Mit Wort und Tat strebe ich zu zeigen, was wahre leben- dige Volkspoesie sei"2. In theory he was also a pronounced realist: "Du kannst die Greuel einer Schlacht, eines Lazaretts darstellen, dass deine Darstellung immer und ewig fiir echte Poesie gelten muss"3; "Das Nachbild der Kunst muss wenn alles ist wie es sein soil und kann, die namlichen Eindriicke machen, wie das Vorbild der Natur"*.

In practice Burger was never as great a realist as might be expected from these quotations, although many of his poems are distinguished by simplicity of thought and expression: "Spinncrlied"5, "Mollys Wert"6, "Des armen Suschens Traum"^. The last named poem mentions the dream book. That Burger regarded nature with the eye of a realist is demonstrated by his careful distinction between different plants in "Un- treue iiber alles"8, where the cornflower, the hawthorn, and the black- thorn are mentioned. "Der Hund aus der Pfennigschenke"^ narrates a realistic episode.

The personal note is rather strong in Burger: "Bei dem Grabe meines guten Grossvaters Jakob Philip Bauers"io.

The dissatisfaction with tyranny, pointing toward modern socialism, appears in "Der Bauer" ii.

Incidentally it might be pointed out that there are some resemblances between Burger and the later Heine. Burger occasionally introduces slang into his poems, as "das Weibsen"i2^ "Schnabel" and "puppert"i3.

Schubart is perhaps a more pronounced realist than Burger. He also has put simple songs into the mouth of simple folk. "Fischerlied"'*, "Winterlied eines schwabischen Bauerjungen"i5^ "Lisels Brautlied"i6^ "Schwabisches Bauernlied"!''^ "Der Bauer im Winter"i8. Without mak- ing use of dialect, Schubart introduces dialectical expressions into these poems which make them appear more realistic, as "Madels, Lisel is 'ne Braut, 's Herzle, mein Pfeifle Tobak", etc.

"Der Provisor"i9 is the song of the petty school assistant, mice and rats are mentioned in "Der Schneider" 20^ a humorous poem. "Das

Jp. 268. ^^d. used for Burger: Kiirschner's "Deutsche National-Lit- eratur", Berlin and Stuttgart, n.d. ref. to, p. XLVI. 3p, XLVIII. 4p. XLVIII. 5p. 74. 6p. 93. 7p. 169. 8p. 238. ^p. 280. lOp. 53. lip. 65. i2p. 159. i3p. 160. i4Hd. used for Schubart: Kiirschner's "Deutsche National-Literatur", Berlin and Stuttgart, n.d. ref. to p. 351. i5p. 408. i6p. 409. i7p. 410. i8p. 412. i9p. 3II. 20p. 310.

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schwangere Madchen"! is also realistic, although it must not be over- looked that if has a rather forced happy ending.

A number of Schubart's poems have reference to contemporary his- torical events: "Freiheitslied eines Kolonisten"^ was prompted by the American revolutionary war, while "Kaplied"^ and "Fiir den Trupp"* bring us face to face with occurrences in South Africa.

"Der Arme"5 displays a deep realization of the misery and suffering in the world. Similar poems by Schubart are "Der Bettelsoldat"^ and "Der Tod eines Armen"^, The latter poem especially will show that Schubart's attitude is that of a Christian rather than that of modern social democracy.

Some of this early realism of the eighteenth century may be found in Lenz also, especially in "Die Liebe auf dem Lande"8, where we find such passages as: "An ihrem Brots'chrank an der Wand er immer, im- mer vor ihr stand", or "Friih eh' er in die Kirche ging er sehr eraschert zu ihr trat und sie um ein Glas Wasser bat". "Die Geschichte auf der Aar"9 is based on a real occurrence; the cough of the old woman is mentioned.

The realistic wave that passed over German literature in the latter eighteenth century was largely prompted, as mentioned before, by Rous- seau and his back to nature movement, as well as by Percy, and Os- sian and the subsequent growth of interest in the folk-song. It must be remembered that the folk-song was largely the lyric of peasants, hunt- ers, wandering apprentices, and other people who were close to nature. Probably Homer w^ith his descriptions of the (largely rural) life of his day had also given some impetus to the new search for reality. This explains the predominatingly rural character of eighteenth century re- alism. Although socialistic tendencies appear in the eighteenth cen- tury, modern socialism had not made its appearance and hence the poet's interest in the slums and sweatshops of the large cities had not been awakened.

The result is, that while eighteenth century socialism is complete as far as rural life is concerned, urban life is scarcely taken into consider- ation. Nor do we find some of the most disagreeable features of rural life touched by these poets; e.g., there is no reference to degeneracy in the country as it is so powerfully reproduced in Hauptmann's "Before

ip. 353. 2p. 349, 3p. 430. 4p. 432. 5p. 404. 6p. 395. 7p. 337. s^d. used for Lenz: Kiirschner's "Deutsche National-Literatur", Berlin and Stuttgart, n. d. ref. to p. 231. ^p. 262.

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Dawn". The modern scientific spirit with its interest in pathology was still quite unknown to the eighteenth century as a whole. / The detailed analysis on the part of some of these poets, e.g., the / analysis of nature in Voss is quite remote from the stereotype and con- ventional manner of the Renaissance poets. Nevertheless the old pref- erence for the typical rather than the specific had not been entirely overcome. Mathias Claudius, especially, tends to portray the typical (and idealized) peasant; he does not narrate special or specific occur- rences that might have occurred in the life of some particular peasant. The absence of the personal note in these poets is also quite conspic- uous; rarely, if ever, do they bring us face to face with actual occur- rences in their own life. The personal and specific note, above all other things, distinguishes Goethe from the poets of the "Hain" and the Storm and Stress.

GOETHE

It is not my aim to give an exhaustive account of Goethe's attitude toward realism. Such an undertaking would necessitate the investiga- tion of Goethe's dramas and prose as well as of his verse, and would in- deed require a dissertation for itself. On the other hand Goethe's im- portance in German literature is so great that something ought to be said about his part in the evolution of German naturalism. / Goethe repeatedly expressed himself in favor of a realistic art that /should be more specific and all-inclusive in regard to subject matter. / Among many others to this effect we might cite his statement to Ecker- mann: "Die Wirklichkeit muss die Veranlassung und den Stoff dazu (zu Gedichten) hergeben. Allgemein und poetisch wird ein spezieller Fall eben dadurch, dass ihn der Dichter behandelf'i. Speaking of a plan for a popular lyrical anthology he writes: "Kein Stoff ware aus- zuschliessen"2. In his literary criticisms he always approved of a pop- ular and Realistic art, as in his criticisms of Voss^, Hebel*, Griibel^, "Des Knaben Wunderhorn"6, "Der Geburtstag"^.

And yet Goethe does not seem to have been in complete harmony with the rural realism of the eighteenth century when carried to extremes. "Musen und Grazien in der Mark"8 is sarcastically directed against the latter tendency. Here we read: "Wir sind bieder und natiirlich, und

/

iGoethe's "Gesprache", Leipsic, 1889, v. IV, p. 266. ^M. used for Goethe unless otherwise stated: Jubilaums-Ausgabe, Berlin and Stutt- gart, n.d. V. I (unless otherwise stated) ref. to v. XXXVII, p. 5. 3Criticisms in v. XXXVI, ref. to p. 222. ^p. 236. 5p. 152 and p. 244. 6p. 247. 7p. 271. 8p. 94.

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das ist genug getan". The dung (Mist), muddy roads, dry bread, and beer of the village tavern, as well as the clucking hen are mentioned. / Let us now turn to the examination of Goethe's lyrics at first hand. ' At first glance the poems of Goethe appear to group themselves under two headings: the more conventional, traditional, and aristocratic on the one hand, and on the other those written in a more popular and democratic vein. The latter generally tend to follow the spirit of the folk-song. The first group would include the poems that still follow the traditions of the Anacreontics and other early eighteenth century poets, as, for example, "Mit einem gemalten Band"', "Die schone Nacht"2, "Am Flusse"3, etc. The poems of Goethe's classical period, such as the Roman Elegies, would also stand close to this group.

A radically different spirit appears in poems like "Christel"'*, "Der GoldschmiedsgeseH"5, and "Schaffcrs Klagelied"^. The last named poem, especially is written in the spirit of the folk-song. "Soldatenlied zu Wallensteins Lager" ^ and "Freibeuter''^ may also be added to the poems showing folk-song influence to a marked degree.

The folk-song and its inherently realistic spirit always attracted Goethe from the Strassburg period to old age. Even the trip to Italy and the classic period were unable to exercise a lasting influence to the contrary. As Helen of Troy had but a temporary influence on Faust, so the influence of classical antiquity upon Goethe was only tem- porary. In the "Zahme Xenien" we find: "Wir sind vielleicht zu antik gewesen; Nun wollen wir es moderncr lesen"^. Many of the poems cited, such as "Der Goldschmiedsgesell", "Schafers Klagelied", and "Frei- beuter", were written after 1800.

Nevertheless, folk-song influence never gained the upper hand over Goethe as it did over some of the later romantics (Eichendorff) : "Goethe nahm auch diese Anregung (des Volksliedes) auf, nicht indem er sich ihr unterordnete, wie spater die Lyriker der Romantik, sondern indem er sie sich einordnete, sie der ruhlosen Fiille seiner neuen Bildungselemente verschmolz"io.

From the poems referred to above, as well as from "Schweizerlied"", it will be seen that Goethe has avoided that tendency which he criti- cised in Voss: "Seine Gedichte — stellen zwar mehr die Reflexion eines Dritten als das Geflihl der Gemeine selbst dar"i2.

ip. 48. 2p. 29. 3p. 40. 4p. 13. 5p. 23. 6p. 55. ^v. II, p. 227. ^v. II, p. 226. 9v. IV, p. 42. loWitkop's "Dieneuere deutsche Lyrik", Leipsic and Berlin, 1910, v. I, p. 240. np. 98. i2p. y. XXXVI, p. 225.

12

/ Sincerity, individuality, and interest in special occurrences are the outstanding qualities that distinguish Goethe from the mass of his pre- cursors in Germany. Goethe finds his sources in his own individual ex- periences or in occurrences in the world about him. Goethe himself states that individual experiences furnish the themes for his songs in "An die Giinstigen"'.

The tone of realistic truthfulness appears especially in some of the numerous love-lyrics of Goethe: in the youthful and buoyant "Chris- tel", where we find the effects of a kiss described thus, "Das lauft mir durch das Riickenmark bis in die grosse Zeli!", in "Rettung"^, and "Selbstbetrug"^. Other poems are perhaps less realistic in detail, but even more realistic in sincerity of tone and individuality of sentiment "Abschied"*, and especially the two sonnets "Die Liebende abermals''^, and "Sie kann nicht enden"6, in which the individual and specific ten- dency in Goethe had reached its highest summit.

/ Love in the life of the common people is faithfully treated with con- creteness and truthfulness: "Schafers Klagelied", and especially "Der Goldschmiedsgesell" which is thoroughly unconventional.

The spirit of concreteness and the sense of the actual pervades Goe- the's poems on nature: "Marz"^, "Wechsel"8, "Willkommen und Ab- schied"9, "Mailied"'", etc., and especially the first two odes to Behrischi'. In the second one of these odes swamps (tote Siimpfe), October fogs, nasty insects, snakes, toads, caterpillars, and spiders are mentioned. This introduction of nature in its less agreeable aspects is quite a step toward the realism of Annette von Droste-Hiilshoff.

That vague suggestion which, in contrast to blunt narration, softens the harshness and cruelty of real events, and which so often appears in folk-poetry, is characteristic of "Die Spinnerin"i2. Xhe latter poem goes back to a similar poem by Voss^^, which in turn owes its existence to a Scottish poem. But while Voss merely narrates a flirtation, Goethe's poem vaguely hints at much more serious events. But even here the realism is still of the folk-song type, while the following poem "Vor Gericht"'* is more direct, more realistic in the modern sense of the term.

The humorous "Gutmann und Gutweib"i5 must surely be ranked with Goethe's most realistic poems; it introduces us into the interior of the average man's home, and pictures the petty argument of a married

ip. 9. 2p. 16. 3p.20. 4p.4i. 5v. II, p.8. 6v. II, p.8. ^y. II, p. 214. 8p. 41. 9p. 44. lOpp. 46 and 52. ^v. Ill, pp. 52 and 54. i^p. 117. i^Hempel's Klassiker-Ausgaben, Voss, Berlin, n.d., part III, p. 45. i4p. 118. i5p. 343.

13

couple over a trivial a#air. It must not be forgotten that most of the realism of the eighteenth century has been related to the depicting of out-door life, while interiors of homes only rarely attract the attention of poets.

In passing it might also be well to point to the vividness and concrete- ' nessof Goethe's descriptions, such as that of the feeding of the poultry / in "Lilis Park"i.

The specific and concrete tendency has led to the special mention of many well-known places in the vicinity of Weimar in "Die Lustigen von Weimar"2, while it has also led the poet to refer to the Grand Duke and his own success as a poet in one of his epigrams^. In both of these poems Goethe has refrained from veiling reality with fictitious names and in- direct allusions.

Although Goethe had not described his Italian trip in poetry, some of his epigrams give strikingly realistic glimpses of the southern coun- try: the inclination of the native to outwit and dupe the stranger*, the trip in the gondola along the side of the big freight ships in the canal^, the shady resorts in the byways of Venice^, etc.

The Roman Elegies although not written in a popular vein, are, never- theless, remarkable for their frankness and strong individual tendency.

Trivial details are not wanting in some of the poems of Goethe. "An Friederike Oeser"^ mentions the teething of the child; we also find the diapers of a baby mentioned^. In one of his epistles Goethe discusses the ideal girl from the standpoint of one who believes that reading should have no part in the education of the fair sex: she reads only the cook book, raises useful vegetables, sews, mends, washes, and irons, and she always has enough to do because her long dresses raise the dust in the streets and on the dancing floor*^.

At times Goethe's language is quite unconventional: "Willst nicht Salz und Schmalz verlieren, musst — wenn die Leute willst gastieren, dich nach Schnauz' und Schnabel richten"io.

Sometimes, however, Goethe has treated of simple folks and fallen short of attaining the illusion of reality as Voss and Schubart had suc- ceeded in doing. This is due to the conventional mode of expression; i.e., in "Die gliicklichen Gatten''^: "Und hunderttausend Siegel be- kraftigten den Bund — Und Amor trug das Feuer selbst in das Rohr am

»v. II, p. 66. 2p. 97. 3No. 35. ^No. 4. sno. 5. 6No. 69 and No. 70. 7v. Ill, p. 56. 8v. II, p. 147. 9p. 203. lOy. II, p. 144. up. 73.

14

See". This portrayal of simple folk without real simplicity reminds us of Uhland and Wilhelm Muller.

• It is interesting to note that Goethe represents five different literary periods in his poetry: the Anacreontic, the Storm and Stress, the clas- sical, the romantic, and the realistic period, which was the reaction against romanticism. The entire break with romanticism is foreshadowed in "Den Vereinigten Staaten"'.

The short epic "Hermann und Dorothea" is realistic throughout, al though perhaps less so than Voss's "Luise". Goethe has here depicted the inhabitants of the small country town, Concreteness and vivid- ness of description are found here also: we see the emigrants, are told in detail about their utensils, see the wagon upset on the dusty road, hear the livestock and the dogs, as swell as the cries of women and child- ren, the complaints of the aged and the sick, and the noise of the old wagon- wheeP ; or we read: "Man horte der stamp fenden Pferde f er- nes Getose sich nahn, man horte den rollenden Wagen, der mit gewal- tiger Eile nun donnert' unter dem Torweg"^, and (in connection with the description of the fire), "Geh weg! du verbrennest die Sohlen, denn der Schutt ist heiss, er sengt mir die starkeren Stiefel"*. Among the things mentioned in "Hermann und Dorothea" are: dusty shoes^, per- spiration^, factories^, flies buzzing around glasses^, garbage in ditches and streets^, and the caterpillars on the garbage i^. ^ The idealistic Schiller never was very realistic except in a few of his dramas, which is beyond the scope of this dissertation. In Schiller's poems not only realism, but also the simplicity of the folk-song, are practically lacking. "Die Kindesmorderin"^ nevertheless, is a grim po- f etic representation of the cruelty of the world viewed through the / eyes of the unfortunate victim. In "Die beriihmte Frau"i2 reality is I turned into grotesque caricature.

THE EARLY NINETEENTH CENTURY

I There were a few popular and realistic dialect poets at the dawn of / the nineteenth century who are hard to classify according to groups or f schools. The most important of these is J. P. Hebel.

Hebel's "Allemannische Gedichte" (1803) are written in dialect. Hebel has reproduced the speech of the common people with such exactness

iv. IV, p. 127. 2"Hermann und Dorothea" in v. V, of ed. ref. to pp. 161- 162. 3p. 165. 4p. 170. 5p. 158. 6p. 153. 7p. 159. Sp. 163. 9p. 175.

lop. 179. iiEd. used for Schiller: Sakular-Ausgabe, BerHn and Stutt- gart, n.d. ref. to, p. 30. J2p. 251.

15

/

that the reader can easily picture the peasant speaking in every poem. No one has been able to attain the illusion of reality more completely by accurately repeating the speech of the peasants. In "Agatha"! the funeral of the godfather, whom death has saved from long sickness and mean neighbors, is described. There the poet quotes the people at the coffin: "Er het au sini Fehler gha s'macht niit! Mer denke niimmer dra. — Gang Agethli, und halt di wohl! Di Stiindli schlacht der au ne mol".

The poems of Hebel largely deal with peasant life. The peasant go- ing home from work smoking his pipe is better off than the emperor in "Der zufriedene Landmann"2. Even nature is personified by compari- sons with peasants and peasant life. The river Wiese is a peasant girl walking through the country3, while Saturday, Sunday, and the sun are introduced as peasants in "Sonntagsfriihe"*.

The less agreeable aspects of peasant life are only lightly touched. We hear that some of the young m.en spend their time drinking, swear- ing, and gambling away their money at cards, while the wife reads in the old torn prayer book^. We see the men in the excitement of the game: "Chriitz iscli Trunipf! Und no ne mol! Und chonnet der die do? Gstoche die! und no ne Trumpf! Und gstoche das Herzli"^. "Der Jenner"7 tells of the suffering of the poor in winter.

Not only rural laborers, but also the workmen at the blast furnace receive the attention of Hebel^. It would appear that manufacturing and industry had already come into the foreground too strongly to be ignored. In the last named poem the thrifty laborer wipes the perspira- tion from his brow with the shirtsleeve^ ; the blast furnace is described, the life of the workmen is pictured; the laborer carries his money home on pay day, when wife and supper await him. The small boy who tries to smoke sees his pipe taken away from him by the workman. Fi- nally we are reminded of the great importance of the smelting industry. All this, of course, is decidedly idealized, but there is an approach to naturalism in subject matter.

The tendency to teach, already strong in "Der Schrrelzofen", is evi.n stronger in "Das Habermuss"!'^, which tells how the mother makes oat- meal mush for her children before they go to school; the mother gives a complete history of the mush, imparting to her children the knowledge of how oats are raised and finally converted to mush. The teaching ten- dency has obviously induced Hebel to treat of more specific occur-

lEd. used for Hebel: Kiirschner's Deutsche -National-Literatur, Berlin and Stuttgart, n.d. ref. to p. 119. 2p. 85. 3p. 17. 4p. 73. 5"Der Car- funkel", p. 36. ^Hnes 165-166. 7p. 91. 8"Der Schmelzofen", p. 29. 91ine 30. lOp. 69.

16

fences than the eighteenth century rcaUsts, but there is doubtless a corresponding lack of naivete in these poems. "Die Marktweiber in der Stadt"! has been criticised by Goethe because of its tendency to preach and its lack of naivete.

To offset this, Hebel has at other times written poems of great sim- plicity. "Hans und Verene"^, and "Der Schreinergesell''^, the song of the carpenter's assistant whose back aches from bending over. ! The most minute realism appears in the poems of Hebel : he mentions the fly that annoys him while he is reading about the peace treaty of Tilsit in the newspaper*. The most commonplace things inspire him to write poetry: i.e., the spider which spins its web and catches a fly in "Die Spinne"5.

Specific references to localities occur especially in "Der Schwarzwal- der im Breisgau"^. Specific references to nature are especially promin- ent in "Sonntagsfruhe"^, where the odor of cherry-blossoms, of black- thorn, as well as bees, yellow violets, tulips, asters, hyacinths, and French cowslips are mentioned.

"Das Ge witter" 8 is one of the most realistic descriptions of a thun- derstorm in poetry. The poet pictures the birds flying low, black skies, clouds of dust carrying leaves and grass with them, the wind tearing the clouds apart like the peasant who pulls wool apart, lightning ac- companied by thunder, incessant ra,in, and hail. A dismal landscape with poisonous herbs, no birds, and toads, is portrayed in "Der Car- funkel"9.*

Hebel was not the only dialect poet of his day. Goethe comments upon the poems of Griibel in the dialect of Nuremburgio. These poems even preceded the poems of Hebel, appearing in 1798, 1800, and 1801. According to Goethe these poems are strictly urban in spirit, which sig- nifies a break between realism and the treatment of rural life. Griibel himself was a humble tinsmith. His poems often tell us of the suffering caused by famine, cold weather, floods, and war. One of the poems, "Der Rauchtabak", is cited by Goethe.

Less realistic poets of the early nineteenth century still show a re- markable consciousness of reality; even when voicing the noblest sen- timents they never loose touch with real life. This is true of Arndt and Schenkendorf, the singers of the war of liberation,

»p. 44, Goethe's comment in v. XXXVI of Goethe's works, p. 236. 2p. 66. 3p. 65. 4"Beim Friedensschluss", p. 128. ^p. 95. ^p. 121. 7p. 78. 8p. 1 13. 9"Der Carfunkel", p. 36. JOsee v. XXXVI of Goethe's works, p. 244.

*It is to be noted that Hebel sometimes introduces us into the in- terior of a peasant home where the women spin and the father smokes his pipe, as in "Der Carfunkel", or in "Riedligers Tochter", p. 122.

17

Max von Scheiikendorf s religious feeling is compatible with the mention of commonplace events; the people going to church on a bright Sunday morning inspire him in a religious way'.

A similar spirit rules E. M. Arndt. "Abendlied"2, a poem giving ut- terance to religious sentiments, begins with a humble picture of the cir- cumstances under which the prayer is uttered: "Der tag ist nun ver- gangen und dunkel schlaft die Welt — ich aber, Vater, stehe in meiner Haustiir", In "Die Rheinfahrt"^ we find high-strung enthusiasm and also: "Nein, wahrlich nicht zum Stohnen, Wimmern, Weinen, schnellt heut' der Dampf uns siegreich durch die Flut".

"Spazierende Gedanken"^ shows the poet walking through the city streets and thinking of death; he says: "Wird doch seinem fiiichtigen Bleiben allhier Rappell bald zum Abmarsch geblasen". This introduc- tion of phrases connected with military recollections into fairly serious poetry reminds us somewhat of Liliencron's manner, when the latter in one of the relatively serious parts of "Poggfred"5 says: "Fern Hess zu mir empor ein Ordensschwur den Hohenfriedeberger Marsch erschallen". Later in the same poem of Arndt we hear that St. Peter examines the passes of the souls at the gate of heaven. This introduction of realism into the conception of the hereafter was not meant to be sacriligious, neither is it so regarded by the German reader.

A very large part of Arndt's poems were written in connection with real occurrences in the poet's life, as "Meiner kleinen Patin Johanne Gartner"^; or they were prompted by contemporary events, such as "An die Junglinge die Krieg schreien"^.

The attitude of the various romantic poets toward realism was by no means the same.

The poetry of the Jena romanticists, especially Novalis and Tieck, is practically devoid of realistic tendencies. Beyond all doubt these men were important forerunners of the modern symbolists, but they have nothing in common with the naturalists.

A totally different spirit prevailed among the members of the Heidel- berg school: Arnim and Brentano are important precursors of the na- turalists as well as of the symbolists. This might be expected, since they jointly edited "Des Knaben Wunderhorn" (1806), and were there- fore in close touch with folk-poetry. Eichendorff, who was associated

i"Bibliothek der deutschen Klassiker", Hildburghausen, 1861, v. XVII, p. 520. ^Jld. used for Arndt: Leipsic, n. d. Karl Pfau, ref. to p. 63. 3p. 213. 4p. 233. ^Liiiencron's "Poggfred", ed. Berlin and Leipsic, 1904, p. 117. 6p. 109. 7p. 122.

18

with the Heidelberg group, also shows a leaning toward realism. While none of these poets is so consistently realistic as some of the members of the "Hain" or the Storm and Stress, the)^ still display striking ex- amples of realistic feeling at times.

Arnim is still possessed of the old spirit of rural realism in "Der kranke Knabe"i, where such passages as this occur: "Jeder fragt nach Witterung. Die Alten, well sie ernten wollen, und weil sie lieben, die noch jung. "But in "Des Verschmahten Klage"2 there is no evidence that the person speaking the following passage is a peasant: "Der Wachter rufet seine Stunden, der Kranke jammert seine Schmerzen". Arnim is also beginning to express the cruelty, the cold lack of feeling and sympathy in nature: "Die Sterne lachen mich zum Hohne an"'. Like the modern naturalists, he voices his compassion for unfortunates; i.e., the blind beggar'^, and the innocently convicted prisoners^ But unlike many of the moderns, Arnim finds comfort in the belief in a hereafter. He has only reproach for the girl who once knitted for a bare living, and who now lives in ease and comfort as one of the fallen women^.

The supremely gifted and original Clemens Brentano was even more realistic. His language seems to be more simple than that of Arnim. But even aside from this, some of his poems appear to be more modern in spirit than any which we have examined heretofore.

Brentano, extremely many-sided as a poet, was able to imitate the folk-song with its inherent realism, as in "Der Spinnerin Lied"^. On the other hand he has represented the dark sides of life in a direct way that far surpasses the realism of the folk-song, and which is quite mod- ern. Thus "Fragment aus einem ungedruckten Roman"^ deals in a tragically realistic spirit of the girl who is forced to live as an outcast, and the poem emphasizes the tragedy of her existence.

This new realism occasionally blends with the old, as in "O lieb Ma- del, wie schlecht bist du!"^. It is the story of a lovemad man devoted to a girl of doubtful morals who has been the cause of his ruin. It has the refrain of the folk-song, but in spirit it is equally remote from the

>Arnim's poems in "Bibliothek der deutschen Klassiker", Hildburg- hausen, 1864, v. XIV, ref. to p. 460. 2p. 455. 3" Die Uhr der Liebe", p. 464. 4"i3er Blinde", p. 457. 5'%ied vor einem Gefangnisse", p. 459. 6"Die arme Schonheit", p. 463. ''Ed. used for Brentano, unless stated otherwise: Frankfort, 1852, v. II, This edition is rather rare now, so that other ed. are referred to if possible. The latter are unfortunately incomplete. "Der Spinnerin Lied" in Kurschner's Deutsche National- Literatur, Berlin and Stuttgart, n.d. p. 136. Sp. 375. 'Kiirschner, p. 148.

19

)

latter's simplicity as well as from the spirit of classicism. To be sure, this poem would remind us of the realistic impressionism of the late Frank Wedekind rather than of naturalism proper, Brentano's poem, however, lacks the crassitude, the detail of narration, and the vividness of its counterpart in Wedekind, "Die Keuschheit"'. Brentano's "Ma- cenas"2 also points to Heine and Wedekind, especially by its fusion of humor and bitterness. It narrates the experiences of a poet who tries to enter into the monarch's favor. The foul fumes of the lamp are men- tioned, and the similarity to Heine is still increased by the use of words like "soupiren" and "recolligirte",

I must now guard against conveying the impression that Brentano's realism is largely of the impressionistic and grotesque type. In "Trip- pel, trippel, trap, trab, trap"^, where the girl instructs her lover as to the way leading up the dark stairs to her room when the family is asleep , we jfind: "Stoss mir nicht die Klibel um. — Auf der Treppe in der Mitt' mache einen grossen Schritt, von vier Stufen fehlt die dritt'. In das Maul nimm deine Schuh! — ". This advice, with the warning to avoid the hired man's room and the pigeon coop, was given in fun, but leads to serious consequences, since the girl overestimates her power to resist: "Mutter nach vier Monden sang: Madel, s'wird mir angst und bang, sonst war ja dein Rockchen lang". This poem is not only one of the most realistic of the romantic period, but it also stands out as dealing with an absolutely special occurrence. It is the latter quality that sharply contrasts with the four poems of Brentano mentioned before, especially "Der Spinnerin Lied".

When following in the footsteps of the folk-song, the romanticists have always presented typical phases of human life, for the folk-song is of itself quite as conventional and impersonal as classic art. On the other hand romanticism is highly individualistic in tendency, and being a re- action against classicism, it protests against the limited number of sub- jects treated by the classic poets. Thus the romantics were naturally impelled to go beyond the typical cases treated by their predecessors, and to introduce the much more numerous individual and specific oc- currences of real life into their poems.

The realism of Brentano is practically completely divorced from the treatment of rural life. A brief picture of a street scene occurs in "Lied von eines Studenten Ankunft in Heidelberg und seinem Traum auf der Briicke"*, where the following conversation between husband and wife is also recorded: "Ans Licht swoll'n wir den Rock recht halten, so fliehn die Motten aus den Falten". "Keine sind darein, ich streut ihn dir

iWedekind's works, Munich and Leipsic, 1912, v. I, p. 65. 2p. 447. 3p. 164, Kiirschner, p. 150. ■♦p. 6.

20

;; mit PfefFer ein". Brentano has also introduced the reader into realis-

■ tic interiors to a much greater extent than previous poetic tradition would have permitted. "Und man wird Geheimerafi is a description

■ of a child's life, and in particular of the child's toys (trumpet, lead- soldiers, whistles, drum, the cuckoo, clown, music box, etc.); we hear that the child is in danger of swallowing the thimble, and later hear of his troubles at school. "Die beruhmte Kochin"2 is an exact descrip- tion of how the cook bakes a man of dough. "Zum Eingang. Riick- blick in die Jahre der Kindheit"^ leads the reader into the large room in which the poet slept with brothers and sisters during his childhood. Skirts are hung over the arm of a chair, and the cat is playing with a garter.

Brentano is the most typical romantic lyricist. He has represented all / the different phases of romanticism in his poetry: he is the forerunner / of the symbolists, the grotesque impressionists, and the real natural- ists. He has probably taken a greater step tovvard the modern spirit than any other poet discussed. But he was in advance of his day; it was Heine who continued the work of Brentano, while many of the poets to whom we shall next turn are merely realists of the folk-song type.

/ This is especially true of Eichendorff. Eichendorff's motto seems to

/ have been: "Nur des Lebens schone Runde lehret dich den Zauber-

spruch"4. It must be said to his credit that he has been able to unite

\ the utmost simplicity of expression to subtle melody of language. His

art is pronouncedly democratic.

Eichendorff's poems deal with outdoor life, especially with the life of the wandering minstrel, who has an ideal existence in summer, but a hard time in winter, in the cold weather without shoes^. Only oc- casionally brief glimpses into the interior of rooms are found, notably at night, when the clock ticks^, or when the wind howls around the housed. Eichendorff dislikes city life, the market place, referring to which he writes: "Es qualmt' der eitle Markt in Staub und Schwiile''^. City life is only very briefly treated in "In Danzig'"^, and in "In der Fremde"io.

On a whole, Eichendorff is a nature poet. Nature is usually idealized, although there are plenty of references to cold, raw, disagreeable weath-

ip. 455. 2p^ 465. 3first poem of v. I of Frankfort ed. Also in ed. of the Bibliographische Institut, Leipsic and Vienna, n.d. *Ed. used for Eichendorff': Leipsic, 1864, v. I. Quotation in "Das Bilderbuch", p. 301. 5"Der Musikant", p. 239. 6"Das Alter", p. 258. ^"Auf eines Kindes Tod", No. 8, p. 545. 8"Andenken", p. 534. 9p. 432. lOp. 260.

21

eri. But the season soon reappears of which the poet writes: "Von alien Dachern tropfelt lustig schon der Schnee"2. Sad melancholy landscapes are referred to in "Trauriger Winter"^ and "Im Herbst"*. Eichendorff is not so concrete and specific as the eighteenth century realists in re- gard to nature treatment, except in "Durcheinander"^ and "Spazier- gang"<5, where he mentions sparrows, thistles, nettles, oxen, potatoes, the corn rose, dandelion, buttercup, and the pink.

In some of his ballads Eichendorff creates an atmosphere of reality by certain clever touches: "Schon Hahne krahen in Dorfern weit"^, "Nur auf den Wiesen noch die Heimchen sangen"8, "Die Hunde bel- len, die Fenster fern erleuchtet stehen"^.

The poem "Der Auswanderer"io is filled with a contemporary spirit which must have seemed decidedly realistic in its day. The steam rail- road, the emigrants going to America and expecting to find mountains of gold, and the steamboat going up the Hudson are introduced. On the deck of the boat everyone is reading a newspaper and "Zuweilen nur ein Rauschen schallt, wenn einer's Blatt umdrehte".

Although usually considered a romanticist, Eichendorff is conscious of the tendency to break with romanticism: "Und vor Allem lass die Possen.dieman sonstgenanntromantisch"!!. "An die Dichter"i2 speaks of the arrival of a drier and more prosaic spirit.

' Justinus Kerner, the last of the really romantic poets whom we shall / discuss, is also a folk-song realist. "Der Wanderer in der Sagemuhle"i3 is characteristic of his realistic mood. Kerner is often very specific in his references, as in "Im Dezember in Munchen"i4. The railroad is re- peatedly mentioned as in "Im Eisenbahnhofe"!'' and "Das Schnellste"i<', but the poet is decidedly hostile toward the innovation, which he re- gards as a menace to romance. "Fiir Peter Brukmanns Arbeiter zur Einweihung eines neuerbauten Fabrikgebaudes"i7 also shows conscious- ness of modern innovations. But Kerner's attitude toward modern rev- olutionary tendencies is hostile, as shown by "In das Album eines jung- en Roten (1848)"i8. The last named poems will tend to show, however, that other things were gradually beginning to absorb the attention of poets outside of rural and outdoor life.

i"Ruckkehr", p. 264. 2"Der vSperling", p. 460. 3p. 439. 4p. 492. 5p. 459. ^p. 461. 7"Nachtwanderer", p. 638. ^"Der Unbekannte", p. 644. 9"Der armen Schonheit Lebenslauf", p. 695. lOp. 248. ""Ent- gegnung", p. 326. ^^p. 353. ^^lEd. used for Kerner: Leipsic, n.d. Max Hesse, re. to v. I, p. 288. i^y. II, p. 16. isy. n, p. 35. iCy. I, p. 248. i7v. II, p. 66. i8v. II, p. 29.

22

/ Chamisso has undoubtedly contributed more to the development of naturalism than Eichendorff or Kerner. Although sometimes regarded as a member of the Berlin group of romanticists, Chamisso's tempera- ment is decidedly unromantic, the predominating spirit being analytic- al, clear, objective, and free from that mysticism which is so charac- teristic of the real romantic school. He somewhat resembles B Granger, whom he adapted to the German.

Chamisso's realism is almost always urban and very frequently it even appears in describing indoor life. For example, he shows us a boy playing in a room, breaking the mirror, and facing a whipping in con- sequence i. Or we see the small girl playing with her dolP. "Recht empfindsam"3 presents an interior, and also the way in which mar- riage was brought about in days that are not too far away. An edu- cated girl is forced to marry an uneducated man against her will. The dispute between the father and his defiant daughter ends when the former exclaims: "Gut du bleibst mir heut' zu Haus, haltst dein Maul und nimmst den Bengel".

The keen eye which Chamisso possessed for human foibles is very evident in the last named poem. Very often the poet tended to exag- gerate in a humorous manner in order to satirize. He has sometimes fused the sad and the humorous and has thus become the forerunner of Heine and the Heinesque spirit. Humor and bitterness are strikingly intermingled in "Pech"'*, a poem that gains in interest if we compare it to the very similar song of Gaspard Hauser in Verlaine's "Sagesse''^. "Der Invalide im Irrenhaus"^ is also full of cruel and grim humor.

Among the more purely humorous and satyrical poems of Chamisso are: "Es ist nur so der Lauf der Welt" 7, where the henpecked husband is presented; "Massigung und Massigkeif's, showing us the drunkard on his spiral course and the scolding vixen; and "Polterabend"^, where a woman somewhat along in years prepares for the dance with rouge, false hair and teeth, and padding to perfect the figure.

Socialistic tendencies as such do not seem to appear in Chamisso to any marked extent, although he wrote two poems in praise of his wash- woman lo.

That bowling is mentioned in "Geduld"'i might be mentioned in passing.

lEd. used for Chamisso: Kiirschner's Deutsche National-Iviteratur, Stuttgart, n.d. ref. to "Lebens-Lieder und Bilder", p. 25, No. 1. 2"Leb- ens-Lieder und Bilder", p. 25, No. 2. 3p. 83. ♦p. 66. Werlaine's poems, Paris, 1911, v. I, p. 270. ^. 185. 7p. 64. Sp. 67. ^p. §4. lOp. 48 and 50. np. 65.

23

"Das Dampfross"! is a humorous poem concerning a well known sscientific fact. It also appears that Chamisso's attitude toward the team locomotive is far less hostile than that of Kerner.

In treating of nature Chamisso has not overlooked the less agreeable aspects, as can be seen in "Im Herbst"2 and "Nacht und Winter"^.

Walzel, in his preface to Chamisso's poems*, has put great stress upon the naturalistic spirit of such narrative poems as "Mateo Falcone"^ "Don Juanito"^ "Das Kruzifix"^, but it would seem that too much emphasis has been put on the purely disagreeable and repulsive as a vital element in naturalism. The subject matter of these poems is very- remote from every-day occurrences; but probably the introduction of crass and disagreeable incidents in poems like these has helped to pave the way for the depicting of the crass and disagreeable in reality. And it must be admitted that Chamisso has displayed a very concrete and vivid imagination in these poems. Note, for instance, the sense of ac- tuality displayed in the description of the crucifixion in "Das Kruzi- fix"8: "Der erste Nagel fasst; es schallt ein Schrei, er trifft kein Ohr, kein Herz; das Auge wacht allein und forscht, was Schmerzensaus- druck sei"; and later we read: "Sie warf sich dann zur Erde mit Gewalt die Stirne schlagend an des Estrichs Steine, die Wolbung hat vom Schalle wiederhallt"^. In "Der Graf und der Leibeigene''^'^ we find: "Wie trieft der Rappe von Schweiss und von Blut". This sense of reality in narrative poems and the attention payed to specific rather than to general cases again make Chamisso the precursor of Heine.

As a characteristic trait of Chamisso we might finally mention his open use of periodicals in choosing fitting subjects for poems. Thus "Des Basken Etchehons Klage"ii goes back to the "Gazette des tri- bunaux", while "Das Mordtal"i2 was inspired by the "North American Review". The poet never made any attempt to hide the source of his subject matter in these poems, even drawing the readers* attention to the event or the periodical which suggested the poem. There is there- fore nothing of the old tendency to represent the typical in the man- ner of Chamisso. This is in striking contrast to the method of Uhland, who carefully avoided the mention of anything in his ballads that might cause them to appear as being inspired by any contemporary occurrence.

»p. 74. 2p. 57. 3p. 61. 4p. ex. 5p. 366. 6p. 349. 7p. 331. sHne 55. 9line 83. JOp. 204. up. 192. i2p. 341.

24

It is noteworthy, however, that in theory Chamisso was not a pro- nounced realist. His aversion to the realism of contemporary French novels was very outspoken •.

The contributions of Uhland to the development of naturalism are but slight as compared with those of Chamisso. In fact, Uhland can scarcely be classed as a strikingly realistic poet, although he collected folk-songs and shows folk-song influence in his poems. But the folk- song spirit in Uhland only too often becomes mere mannerism. Simple folks are speaking, but their language is conventional and literary. We are not convinced of the reality of the situation when, for instance, an uneducated shepherd exclaims: "O susses Graun! geheimes Wehn!"2, and the lack of realistic sense in Uhland is further betrayed when he makes the shepherd say that he swings his sword and sings his song while extinguishing a big fire in the town: "Undschwingmein Schwert und sing mein Lied" 3,

Slight touches of realism, however, are not absent in Uhland. "Die Nachtschwarmer", No. 2^ mentions the wheel and chain of the well to which the girl goes for water. Humorous glimpses of real life are af- forded by the two following pictures of "Die Nachtschwarmer", en- titled "Der Vorsichtige" and "Der Schwankende". "Fruhlingslied des Recensenten"5 characterizes spring as the time in which a man can take a walk without contracting a cold. It is to Uhland that we owe the peculiar poetic effusion regarding sausage and sauerkraut^. "Wander- ung"7 again mentions sausage and beer. "Nachtreise" and "Winter- reise"8 are illustrative of Uhland's attitude toward nature.

The ballads of Uhland largely deal with mediaeval and chivalrous life; only rarely do we find evidence of a realistic sense. "Die Mahderin"^ is probably the most realistic among Uhland's ballads, and here we find some passages that remind us of the rural realism of Voss: "Der Mit- tag gliihet", "Noch schaffen im heissen Gefilde die summenden Bien- en", "Es duften die Mahden".

Wilhelm Miiller also has some of that love for the humbler things in life which is the heritage of the folk-song, and with him, likewise, folk- song influence has led to mannerism. The absolute realism which we find in Voss or Hebel is almost totally lacking, although in "Die Braut- nacht"io there is considerable realism in the description of the distant

ipp. CXI and CXII. 2^d. used for Uhland: Stuttgart, 1898, Quota- tion in "Schafers Sonntagslied", p. 16. ^"Bes Knaben Berglied", p. 17.

♦p. 123. 5p. 31. 6"Metzelsuppenlied", p. 53. 7p. 84. 8p. 43 9p. 174.

lopor Wilhelm Miiller I have limited myself to the poems in the "Bib- liothek der deutschen Klassiker", Hildburghausen, 1862, v. XVIII, ref. to p. 570.

25

thunder and lightning on a hot summer night and the arrival of the warm shower with its large rain-drops. And in "Morgenlied"i we even find evidence of a more accurate observation of nature: "Horst du die Kafer summen nicht, horst du das Glas nicht klirren, wenn sie be- taubt von Duft und Licht hart an die Scheiben schwirren?"

The prolific poet Riickert abounds in realism. He was deeply inter- ested in the events and occurrences of his own day. The Napoleonic period is recalled in "Der deutsche Grossvater"^ which shows the grand- father and grandchild looking through the window and seeing the troops marching by. Riickert severely satirizes the lethargy of his country- men in "Lied eines frankischen Madchens"^.

Riickert is induced to write a poem by a pebble in "Auf einen Kicsel- stein"4, a severe tooth-ache in "Der hohle Zahn"5, a pump which is hard to manage while drinking in "Der Pumpbrunnen"^, a ragged coat which is worn in the house in "Der Halbrock"'', the fact that he has lost his hair in "Der Haarverlusfs, a fly that has drowned in the ink in "Kleines Denkmal einer kleinen Fliege"^, a piece of blotter that makes the blot worse in "Das schlechteste von allem"'o. He writes a poem in which he advocates rubbers as a protection against mudii, or one in which he instructs his boys in climbing a tree^^; on another occasion he tells how one of his boys put on the other's breeches by mistake to find a coin in the pocket^^. Riickert creates a myth out of a very trivial incident in "Der Friihling an der Grenze"'*, or he uses the cheese that is covered with mites as a simile in a political poem^^.

Of more importance is Riickert's care in the presentation of indoor scenes, as in "Die nickende Mutter" i6. "Einfiihrung in die Speisekam- mer"!'' was written for a wedding, and introduces the bride to her house- hold duties, especially in the pantry. The scene of "Das Hafensch- lagen"i8is in the spinning room. "Die Winterschule"i9 tells how the small boy is taught in his home by the parson in winter; the parson is seated on an upholstered chair with his cap over his ears, while the girls are spinning near the stove; the little girl brings in the soup to her father and an apple to the boy. "Winterleben"20 contains repeated references to the comforts of indoor life and the stove when winter has come.

ip. 570. ^Ud. used for Riickert: Frankfort, 1882. v. II. unless otherwise stated, "Der deutsche Grossvater", v. I, p. 63. ^v. I, p. 232. 4p. 86. 5p. 152. 6p. 146. 7p. 175. 8p. 186. 9p. 201. lOp. 208. ii"Empfehl- ung der Ueberschuhe", p. 546. >2"Kletter-Unterricht", p. 21. i3"Ver- lust und Gewinn", p. 39. i^v. I, p. 134. i5"Der Schweizerkas von 1814", V. I, p. 214. »6p. 26. i7p. 132. isp. 264. i^p. 271. 20pp. 593, 595, 589, 590.

26

It would be impossible to read Riickert's poems without being im- pressed by his detailed knowledge of plant and animal life. He men- tions the windfloweri, primrose2, the purging buckthorn^, the forget- me-not*, maidenhair^, the bleeding hearts, the monthly rose^, the French cowslips, the asp^, and the ash^O; he refers to the parrot-finch^, the quail^^, the thrushi3, the sparrow-hawk i*, the siskin^s, the plover^^, the fire taiP^, chaffinch's, the jayi^, the swallow^o, the finch2i, the rhinoceros beetle22, the cabbage butterfly 23, etc. We must also consider the simple and real- istic attitude toward nature in such poems as "Spaziergans-Unterhal- tungen"24, where the poets reflects on the birds, the weather, and the cocoons of caterpillars. The same spirit prevails in "Fussreise-Erinne- rungen"25, "DerunbequemeSchnee"26,and "Winterleben"27. "Fussreise- Erinnerungen" allows a woman who sells butter to voice her senti- ments of getting wet feet. The following passage occurs in one of the short poems in the series "V/interleben" : "Auf die nass' und kot'ge Strass' ist auf Polizeigebot trockner Kot geworfen, dass abgeholfen sei der Not".

Among the other poems of Ruckert we must not overlook "Spazier- gangsmiide"28, picturing the tired children accompanying their father home from a long walk, and "Die Sonnenfiecken"29^ which mentions the sun spots, thus introducing modern astronomical knowledge inta poetry.

THE BREAK WITH ROMANTICISM

No other poet, not even Brentano, made such tremendous strides toward the modern spirit as Heine. And since Heine is quite an im- portant figure in the history of the German lyric and remarkably many- sided, a closer and more detailed examination of his work is impera- tive.

This examination must lead to the conclusion that Heine not only possesses many of the realistic qualities of his precursors developed to a high degree, but that he also introduced a considerable number of

ip. 227. 2p. 227. 3p. 238. ^p. 370. sp. 339. 6p. 431. 7p. 436. 8p. 600 9p. 240. lOp. 502. Up. 241. i2p. 258. i3p. 370. i4p. 540.

15p. 392. 16p. 453. 17p. 457. 18p. 480. 19p. 557. 20p. 457. 21p. 457. 22p. 487. 23p. 604. 24p. 535. 25p. 538. 26p. 583. 27p, 535. 28p. 40.

29p 474.

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innovations into German poetry. He, more than any other poet, is the landmark separating the age of realism from the age of romanti- cism'.

The language of Heine is not only characterized by simplicity, but also by the introduction of every-day words and expressions. The poet does not hesitate to use the polite form "Sie"2, nor does he shrink from using French expressions extensively employed by the great mass of Germans before the crusade against the "Fremdwort" set in, such as "spendabel, kapabel, ennuyiert, passabel, aimabel''^. He has the au- dacity to introduce vulgar phrases: "Es lachten selbst die Mumien, dass sie schier zu bersten dachten", or "hoben wieder ihre Lache"*. In "Erleuchtung"5 he uses "Maul, wegstibitzen, Wanst laben". Still other examples are to be found in "Der Kaiser von China" 6, where we find "Duckmauser, trockner Taps, den Raps haben", or in "An den, Nachtwachter"7. where the play on v/ords "Maulheld-Maul halt" oc- curs. At times it cannot be denied, Heine's phrases are not merely profane, but obscene.

A glance at only a few poems of Heine will give us an idea of his realism. In "Heimkehr 3"^ it is the detailed account of the landscape with the whistling boy, the oxen, the maids bleaching the wash, and the sentinel walking up and down, which attracts our interest. For contrast we may regard his realistic picturing of interiors, as in "Die Heimkehr 28"9, where love of excitement, poverty, and bad associ- ates are shown to be the cause of the downfall of many young people. The following poem, "Die Heimkehr" lo, is no less remarkable for its realism. It is raining, snowing, and stormy on the streets: the aged mother brings flour, eggs, and butter from the store in order to bake a cake for her lazy, grown up daughter ("Die liegt zu Haus im Lehn- stuhl und b.linzelt schlafrig ins Licht"). Among Heine's most realistic poems is the one in which he tells of his visit to the family of his former sweetheart! 1; they greet him in a friendly way, ask about his health, tell him that he has not changed, although his face has grown paler. He inquires about the relatives, the little dog, and his former sweet- heart, who, as he heard, is just recovering from childbirth. He gives his best regards and reflects how much the little girl in the family re-

'See Theobald Ziegler's "Die geistigen und socialen Stromungen des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts", Berlin, 1901, pp. 189-194. ^Ud. used for Heine: Leipsic and Vienna, n.d. Bibliographisches Institut., v. I, unless otherwise stated. First reference to "Traumbilder 3", p. 16. ^"i^y- risches Intermezzo 28", p. 76. ^"Rhampsenit", p. 329. ^p. 313. 6p. 313. 7p. 315. 8p. 96. 9p. 108. lOp. 109. (No. 29). ii"Die Heim- kehr 6", p. 98.

28

sembles her elder sister, his former sweetheart. In "Die Heimker 38" i we see the children playing with the neighbor's cat in the chicken coop. The children talk like their elders, about the growing wickedness of the world and the high cost of living ("Wie Lieb' und Treu' und Glauben verschwunden aus der Welt, und wie so teuer der KafFee, und wie so rar das Geld!"), "Gotterdammerung"^ again gives us an example of outdoor, although urban, realism. People are flocking to the environs of the town on a fine afternoon in May: "Die Manner ziehn die Nan- kinghosen an und Sonntagsrock' mit goldnen Spiegelknopfen ; die Frauen kleiden sich in Unschuldweiss ; Jiinglinge krauseln sich den Friihlings- schnurrbart; Jungfrauen lassen ihre Busen wallen; die Stadtpoeten stecken in die Tasche Papier und Bleistift und Lorgnett' ". In "Heim- kehr 5"^ a story is suggested by the description of an interior. "Auto- da-fe"* tells how the poet watches wilted violets, dusty locks of hair, a faded ribbon, and half-torn letters, souvenirs of a former love, burn in the grate. "Meeresstille"^ shows the boatman sleeping near the rudder of the ship, the boy with the clothes soiled by tar is mending the sail. "Hinterm Schmutze seiner Wangen spriiht es rot, wehmiitig zuckt es um das breite Maul". The poem "Zwei Ritter"^ brings in the wash- woman: "Audi dieselbe Henriette wascht fur beide edle Polen; trallernd kommt sie jeden Monat, — um die Wasche abzuholen". A little later we read: "Sitzen heute am Kamine, wo die Flammen traulich flackern; draussen Nacht und Schneegestober und das Rollen von Fiakern". In "Alte Rose" 7 the realism of Heine receives a cruel touch when a woman, who has grown old enough to show signs of age, is told: "Allzu hart die Borsten sind, die des Kinnes Warzchen zieren — geh ins Kloster, liebes Kind, oder lasse dich rasieren".

In subject matter, no less than in expression, Heine has been the "enfant terrible" of German poetry, and in many cases the introduc- tion of disagreeable things has not taken place because of a love for reality, but rather to shock or amuse the reader. It would be entirely wrong, however, to carry this assertion too far. "Wahrhaftig"^ takes issue with the conventional list of poetic subjects, declaring them to be too limited in scope to cover real life: "Doch Lieder und Sterne und Blumelein, und Aeuglein und Mondglanz und Sonnenschein, wie sehr das Zeug auch gefallt, so macht's doch noch lang' keine Welt". And whatever the intentions of Heine may have been, there can be little

ip. 113. 2p. 135. 3p.97, 4p.394. sp. 174, 6p. 353. 7p. 414. sp. 55.

29

doubt that his audacity in regard to subject and expression has accom- plished much in freeing German poetry from the fetters of convention- alism; only the complete abandonment of the latter has made natural- ism possible. Among the striking things mentioned in the poems of Heine are: tight shoes and cornsi, the evil effects of the "morning after"^, colics, urinary troubles, hemorrhoids, cramps, salivation^, a girl who has not washed her neck^, a stable wench smelling of manure^, chewing to- bacco and sea-sickness^, a dog which has the mange'', people blowing their noses^, women snoring in bed^, the duel with a bed-bug^o, the can- canii, licei2, stars reflected in the mud puddles of Paris^^, syringesi*, bad odorsi5; a negro putting out his tongue'^. The poet goes so far as to say that the streets of Hamburg are offensive to the sense of smell • 7. In "Erinnerung an Hammonia"'8 we read: "Frauen, die gefiihlvoll sind, kiissen manchem armen Kind sein Rotznaschen", and "SchutzgSttin Hammonia folgt dem Zug inkognita, stolz bewegt sie die enormen Mas- sen ihrer hintern Formen". In "Das Kind''^^ ^e find the passage: "Es windet sich ein Blibelein von deiner Nabelschnur".

Heine has created an atmosphere of intense realism in many of his ballads, especially in the later ones. This is often accomplished by skillful insertion of realistic details. In "Der arme Peter"20 the poor re- jected suitor bites his finger nails in despair; "Das Schlachtfeld bei Hastings" 21 depicts the mutilated bodies of the slain warriors; among these the king is discovered by the marks left by the teeth of his be- loved one upon his neck. "Walkuren"22 thus describes the entry of the victor into a city: "Hei! da bollert's von den Wallen, Zinken und Trom- peten gellen, Glockenklang erfiillt die Luft, und der Pobel Vivat! ruft". Heine also compares the unknown with the known in order to create a realistic atmosphere: in "Vitzliputzli"23 the edifices of the Aztecs are compared to "Kollossale Bauwerk-Monstren, die wir schauen auf den Bildern unseres Britten Henry Martin". The birds of the tropics are compared to chatting and coffee-drinking women.

i"Der Ex-Nachtwachter", p. 404. 2"K-Jammer", p. 411. 3"Vermach- niss", p. 429. ^"Liebeslieder 34", v. II, p. 19. 5"Kpilog", v. II, p. 110. 6"Unsere Marine", v. II, p. 175. ^"Unstern", p. 270. 8"Neuer Friihl- ing 44", p. 222. ^"Yolante und Marie 3", p. 242. io"Atta Troll", v. II, p. 373. Hid., V. II, p. 355. i2id., v. II, p. 356. i^id., v. II, p. 359. i4id., V. II, p. 365. i5id., V. II, p. 370. i6id., v. II, p. 372. i7"Der Tannhauser", p. 251. isv. II, p. 215. i9p. 311. 20p. 37. 2ip. 339. 22p. 338. 23p. 380.

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The ballads of Goethe, Schiller, and Heine display certain funda- mental contrasts in spirit that invite attention. Goethe's ballads em- body delicate lyrical sentiment ("Der Fischer", Erlkonig") or give po- etic expression to some thought ("Der Schatzgraber", "Der Gott und die Bajadere"). Schiller seems to have aimed at dramatic effects in his ballads ("Die Kraniche des Ibykus", "Die Biirgschaft", etc.). But the later Heine appears to be chiefly bent upon creating an intensely realistic impression. It will be seen that some of the maturer ballads of Heine are told with great care for detail and at great length'.

Frequently Heine has chosen to reproduce life in a grotesque, exag- gerated way. This is very evident in the description of the primary school and the teacher in "Citronia"2. The latter tendency is closely connected with his love of satirizing. Among his most realistic satirical poems are probably those directed against higher society: "Hoffart"^, "Der Philanthrop"*. He has also successfully satirized the aesthetical tea parties of his day 5. His most bitter satires are those directed against certain conditions in Germany: "Klagelied eines altdeutschen Jiing- lings"6, "Die Menge tut es"^, etc. The poem "Zwei Ritter"8 must also be accepted as a satire. Other poems of this order are less concrete, and attack certain aspects of life in general^.

The German lyric probably owes much of the sincerity and openness with which erotic subject are handled to Heine. Here is the source of the "Dirnenlyrik", which again appears in Eduard Grisebach and some of the more recent poets. Poems like 12 and 15 of the "Lyrische In- termezzo"'o, are addressed to prostitutes. The later Heine has occasion- ally introduced questionable elements of society into his poems". As yet, however, there is no attempt on the part of the poet to put himself into the place of the fallen girl and to see life through her eyes as Wede- kind has done in "Use" '2,

The personal note is much stronger in Heine than in many of the poets preceding him, for a large part of his poetry deals with his own personal experiences. He is very specific in his references. Note, for instance, in "Der weisse Elefant"i3 the "Kreditbrief auf Rothschild fr^res in der Rue Lafitte". This specific tendency is also very marked in

'Especially "Vitzliputzli", p. 373, "Bimini", p. 125; "Jehuda ben Ha.- evy", p. 437. 2v; II, p. 82. 3p. 293. ^y. II, p. 121. 5" Lyrisches In- termezzo 50", p. 84. 6p. 281. 7v. II, p. 198. »j>. 353. ^'Xumpen- tum", p. 418. lopp. 70 and 71. ""Pomare", p. 345. i2see Wedekind's "Die vier Jahreszeiten" . '^p. 331.

31

"Gedachtnissfeier"!, where persons and places are specifically mentioned. The "Zeitgedichte"2 naturally abound in references to contemporary events.

The reaction against romanticism is characteristic of the whole mid- dle of the nineteenth century, but while most of Heine's contemporaries are poets who have broken away from that cult, totally or partially, Heine appears as a poet engaged in rudely awakening himself from his own romantic dreams. The most popular example of this sudden change of mood is probably "Seegespenst"^, where the captain exclaims to the romantic poet: "Doktor, sind Sie des Teufela?" In "Der Apollogott"* the beautiful antique vision of Apollo and the Muses, which the nun in the convent has, is explained in a most prosaic way; instead of the Olympian deity and his following, the boat going down the Rhine is carrying a young good-for-nothing from the ghetto of Amsterdam, who has organized a number of girls of questionable character into a travel- ing theatrical troop, which the poor nun has mistaken for Apollo and the Muses. In "Die Naclit auf dem Drachenfels"^ we read: "Wir sahn den Burggeist auf dem Turme lauern, viel dunkle Ritterschatten uns umschauern, viel Nebelfraun bei uns voriiberfiiegen" ; but the poet ends: "doch leider bracht ich den Schnupfen und den Husten mit nach Hause". He makes fun of his own love poetry in "Die Heimkehr 42 "6, where he says to himself: "Was soil es niitzen, stets das alte Lied zu leiern? Willst du ewig briitend sitzen auf den alten Liebes-Eiern?" The highly romantic chapters XVIII, XIX, and XX of "Atta Troll" are followed by the disillusioning chapter XXI, where Heine tells how he was drenched to the skin in a cloudburst. In another passage of the same poem the author laments over the waning of romantic idealism, but realizes that the loss is irretrievable, since times have changed-'.

The break with romanticism has led to a humorous treatment of romantic subjects and to the caricaturing of the mythological interpre- tation of nature. Heine has absolutely burlesqued a mediaeval legend in "Der Tannhauser''^. The Christian heaven is repeatedly ridiculed^. In "Unser Grab erwarmt der Ruhm"io he really pokes fun at all heroic idealism. In "Die Heimkehr 39"ii we read: "Doch jetzt ist alles wie verschoben, das ist ein Drangen! eine Not! gestorben ist der Herrgott oben, und unten ist der Teufel tot. Und alles schaut so gramlich triibe,

ip. 423. 2p. p301-319. 3p. 175. 4p. 343. Sy. II, p. 64. 6p. 116. 7chapter XXVII. Sp. 245. 9"Fromme Warnung", p. 420,; 'Himmel- fahrt", V. II, p. 217; "Die Heimkehr 66", p. 125. lOy. II, p. HO. np. 114.

32

so krausverwirrt und morsch und kalt, und ware nicht das bisschen Liebe, so gab' es nirgends einen Halt".

Going hand in hand with the break with the old idealism, we have an increased importance attached to material well-being, eating, drink- ing, etc. Among many other examples we might refer to chapter XXIII of "Deutschland" as especially striking. In "Lyrisches Intermezzo 27"! we find: "Du gabest mir Trank und Speise, und hast mir Geld ge- borget, und hast mich mit Wasche versorget, und mit dem Pass fiir die Reise".

The objective serenity of mind, which the poet acquired through his heroic struggle with disappointments, prejudices, and long sickness, has led to that humor which accompanied Heine's despair to the bitter end. Consequently the poet has risen above the conventional distinc- tion between comic and tragic, and has faced reality as it is^.

From the ashes of the old idealism, which sought something "higher" or "loftier" than the real world, there arose like a phoenix the new spirit, which seeks to unite the poetic and the fanciful with the real and commonplace. For the real and deep-seated idealism can not be ex- tinguished. In "Gesprach auf der Paderborner Heide"^, after awaken- ing himself from a number of his own romantic fancies, the poet ends: "Nun, mein Freund, so magst du lachen iiber des Phantasten Frage! Wirst du auch zur Tauschung machen, was ich fest im Busen trage?" In chapter VI of "Deutschland" Heine has been able to introduce the imaginative into a realistic setting. Even the (supposed) introduction of the syphilitic scourge from the New World to the Old is rendered poetic in "Vitzliputzli"*.

Heine's myth-creating ability also moves along realistic and humor- ous lines. "Frau Sorge"5 is pictured as an ugly old woman who uses snuff and blows her nose. The rough sea is likened to a sailor who is putting on his trousers^; the north wind is a disgruntled person (stor- riger Griesgram) who is lying flat on his stomach^; the clouds are the gray daughters of the air,, who laboriously haul water in buckets of mists ; the glowing, setting sun is the red nose of the drunken world spirit^. The most striking poems of this kind are "Sonnenuntergang"io, where the simile of an unhappy marriage and divorce is applied to the sun and moon, and "Untergang der Sonne" n, where the sun, a gayly dressed and handsome young woman, has entered into a loveless and

ip. 75. 2"Misere", v. II, p. 89.; 'Vermachtniss", p. 429. 3p. 53. 4p. 373. 5p. 424. 6"Die Heimkehr 10", p. 100. 7"Die Nacht am Strande", p. 166. 8"Der Schiffbriichige", p. 181. 9"ini Hafen", p. 191. lop. 164. lip. 183.

33

unhappy marriage with the sea, the latter being represented as an old man. The quarrels of the latter couple are the cause of the storms. In "Die Nacht am Strande"i, an extremely realistic poem, the poet likens himself to the gods of pagan antiquity.

On the whole, nature does not play a very important part in the poetry of Heine, although it would be impossible to ignore his extreme- ly realistic description of a boat ride at sea during the night in "Nacht- liche Fahrt"2. He also describes sad and rainy landscapes in the late fall3, and rainy, disagreeable weather in the city*.

In Heine's "Die schlesischen Weber" ^ we have marked socialistic tendencies; the misery of the weavers is referred to, and the rich and powerful are blamed for the state of affairs. The stupid carelessness and indifference of the classes of society that are better off toward the starving poor is satirized in "Jammertal''^. "Pferd und Esel"^ is a re- flection on the changing times and the substitution of the steam en- gine for horse power.

In connection with Heine it might be well to note that at least one other member of the young German movement was a pronounced realist: Franz Dingelstedt^.

Like Heine, Lenau also laments the passing away of the old romantic spirit, but while the former regards the changing trend of the times with the eyes of a humorist, Lenau is plunged into profound sadness which approaches melancholy. "Reise-Empfindung"^ is typical in show- ing how the sweet dreams of the imagination are rudely destroyed by reality. The poet repeatedly laments the loss of youthful idealism; what once appeared idealistic and romantic has now given away to a colorless, matter-of-fact way of regarding life. This is expressed in at least three poems: "Einst und Jetzfio, Die Jugendtraume"Ji, and "Die Felsenplatte"i2. "Doch weh! ihm (dem Jungling) naht mit eisern schwer- em Gange die Wirklichkeit", we read in "Die Jugendtraume". The idea of the transitoriness of all things also has a firm hold on the poet's mindi3. The poet has broken with the old faith in immortality J*; he

ip. 166. 2p. 369. 3"Neuer Friihling 42-43", p. 221. ^"Neuer Friihl- ing 44", p. 222. V. II, p. 177. ^v. II, p. 124. 7v. II, p. 156. Sed. used for Dingelstedt: Berlin, 1877, v. VIII. "Droben ist Tee, droben ist Ball", p. 14; "Themsefahrt", p. 179; "Auf dem Morgengang, Hyde- park entlang", p. 228; " Nacht wachters Weltgang" and "Nachtwachters Stilleben" are generally speaking, realistic, ^ed. used for Lenau: Kiirschner's Deutsche National-Literatur, Berlin and Stuttgart, n.d "Reise-Empfindung", p. 40. JOp. 64. np. 65. »2p. 66. i3"Vergang- lichkeit", p. 90. H"Veranderte Welt", p. 376.

34

also emphasizes the cruelty of nature in "Aus!"' and "Die nachtliche Fahrt"2, and is thus far away from the old idealistic conception of na- ture which is still characteristic of Eichendorff.

And Lenau is a strikingly realistic nature poet. To be sure, he doies not analyze nature into its minute details like Annette von Droste- Hiilshoff, and it is therefore difficult to point to any striking innova- tion which he has introduced into his descriptions of nature, unless it is to his mention of the moon appearing between the horns of an ox^. But his descriptions of nature are far more concrete than those of any poet preceding him. Nearly all of his nature poetry would bring out this fact, and especially such poems as "Abendheimkehr",* "Herbstge- fuhl"5, "Stimme des Regens"^, "Auf eine hollandische Landschaft"^, etc. Poems like 'An die Biologen''^ and "Niichterner Blick"^ will serve to show that Lenau' s mind has been directed to modem science.

The comparisons which the poet draws between nature and real life are sometimes quite new. In "Himmelstrauer"io the bush swaying back and forth is likened to the restle s sick person who tosses back and forth on his bed. The beech forest in autumn is compared to the sick person who is preparing to die, in "Herbstgefiihl"!'.

The language of Lenau is not so simple as that of some other poets, but it is far from being conventionally poetic. The real folk-song spirit with its simplicity is foreign to him, and when he tries to attain the latter he failsi2. But it is to be noted that he sings to his guitar, and not to his lyrei3.

Like all great realists, Lenau can portray the background for his ly- rical moods with great vividness: "Es kracht der Schnee von meinen Tritten, es dampft mein Hauch, es klirrt mein Bart"'*, or "An der mor- schen Diele nur reget sich der kleine Nager, und es pickt die Pendel- uhr"J5. He also introduces minor realistic details: in "Der ewige Jude"'^ the slain buck which is carried home by the hunter still holds some herbs between its teeth.

Occasionally we find Lenau inspired by trivial, every-day objects which remind us somewhat of Riickert. He writes a poem about the question whether the children or some domestic animal has robbed the

ip. 125. 2p. 230. 3"Das Dilemma", p. 372. 4p. 26. 5p. 68. 6p. 274. 7p. 373. 8p. 285. 9p. 370. lOp. 147. iip. 249. i2"Der Jager", p. 300. 13" An meine Guitarre", p. 69. J4"Winternacht", p. 53. i5"in der Krankheit", p. 88. i^p. 207.

35

pantry of its contents i; he also writes poems about a lost thimble^, an old leaf which is blown in through the open window^, his pipe*, a skull in his rooms, a man giving his horse the spurs'^, but he never becomes trivial to the same extent that Riickert does.

In several instances Lenau has shown himself to be a realistic por- trayer of interiors, especially in "Der ewige Jude"^; here we see a low room, an old man, the son cleaning the gun, the woman cooking, and the children impatiently sitting at the table and waiting for supper. The decorations of the walls are described, and later in the same poem the illusion of reality is strengthened when we read: "vorbei war Sturm und Regen, nur draussen hort' ich noch die Tannen triefen''^. "Der offene Schrank"^ is an extremely realistic poem dealing with interior life; the condition of the room as it was left by the departure of the mother is carefully described, the open prayer-book as well as the rest of her breakfast, which she was unable to eat, are named. The poem "Der Hagestolz"io also introduces us to an interior.

Lenau is not as openly hostile to the steam railroad as Kerner, but he is only half reconciled to it^. He does not emphasize the romance of traveling by rail as Anastasius Griin does in "Poesie des Dampfes"'^. "Am Rhein"i3 mentions the steamboat.

In spite of his aristocratic blood, Lenau is interested in simple folk. Like Wordsworth he believes that the ideal existence is that of the simple folk near the soil; in "Weib und Kind"i4 he tells about meeting a peasant woman and her daughter in the mountains and says: "Lang blickt' ich ihnen nach, bis sie verschwunden. Und dass ein Leben schon und gliicklich nur, wenn es sich schmiegt an Gott und die Natur, hab' ich auf jenem Berge tief empfunden". Among other poems dealing with humbler members of the human race are "Der Postilion" i^, "DerSchifTs- junge"i^"DerUnhold"'7^ "Diedrei Zigeuner"i8^ and"Der arme Jude"''.

Socialistic tendencies also come to the surface in Lenau' s poetry 20. "Am Grabe eines Ministers" 21 and "Des Teufels Lied vom Aristokra- ten"22 are sharp attacks on the ruling classes.

The poem "Das Lied vom armen Finken"23 treats of the cruel prac- tice of putting out the eyes of song birds in order to improve their

i"Poetisches Votum", p. 419. 2"Der Fingerhut", p. 421. 3"Das diirre Blatt", p. 267. 4"Mein Tiirkenknopf", p. 302. 5"Der Hagestolz", p. 303. 6"Z6gerung",p. 92. 7p, 203. Sp. 206. 9p.3i3. lOp. 303. 'i"An den Friihling 1838", p. 305. i2ed. of Anastasius Griin, Berlin, 1907, V. I, p. 218. i3p. 255. i4p. 223. i5p. igo. i6p. 195. i7p. 431. isp. 229. i9p. 379. 20"Begrabniss einer alten Bettlerin", p. 35. 2ip. 95. 22p. 409. 23p. 307.

36

song. "Marie imd Wilhelm"i appears to be a picture taken from real- ity. In concluding our treatment of Lenau we may mention "Der Rekrut"2, dealing with the Hfe of the soldier, and the realistic poem "Das Kind geboren, die Mutter tot"3.

The analytical and objective mind of the scientist, with all its care for minute detail, would be sure to recognize a kindred spirit in the poetess Annette von Droste-Hiilshoff, who will now be discussed be- cause of the difficulty in classifying her according to groups or schools of poetry. Naturally near-sighted, this original poetess has outdone all previous poets in regard to minute observation of plant and animal life, and her keen sensibiHty to sounds in nature that would escape the notice of the average person.

Annette's knowledge of botany and zoology was very unusual, some of her poems containing so much detailed mention of species that it is hard for one to appreciate them to their full extent if not acquainted with plant and animal life. "Die Lerche"^ mentions the gentian, the daisy, the sword-flag, dodder-grass; in other poems we find mention of the dragon-fly, the diving-spider, the iris, the river-weed, the bearded loach, the carp, the trefoil, the pike^, the orange speckled toad, the hedgehog, the broom, the juniper, hair-grass^, the phalaena^, the mignon- nettes, the elder, the meadow-saffron^, etc.

Going hand in hand with this specific tendency, Annette possesses an oversensitiveness to outside stimuli which is almost hysterical. She no- tices the shadow of a bird flying over the water lo, she hears the fly strug- gling in the net, the berry falling to the ground from the bush, the beetle crawling in the herbage'^, the caterpillar feasting on grassi2, the fly walking on trembling paper '3, she feels the dust of a destroyed toad- stool settling on her cheek, also darkness touching her cheeks like fine rainO)'^ the approaching thunderstorm'^, the compressed air around her face and chest'^. Odors are also taken into consideration; the poetess not

ip. 32. 2p. 429. 3p. 391. 4ed. used for Annette von Droste-Hiilshoff: Ferdinand Schoningh, unless otherwise stated, v. Ill; Miinster and Paderborn, 1885, v. II; Paderborn, 1906, v. I, part II; Paderborn, 1901, ' Die Lerche", p. 41. 5"Der Weilier", p. 58. 6"Das Hirtenfeuer", p. 83. 7" Der Haidemann", p. 87. s"Ein Sommertagstraum", p. 203. 9"Durchwachte Nacht", p. 316. io"Der Weiher II"., 59 ii"Die Jagd", p. 45. i2"Im Moose", p. 113. '3"Ein Sommertagstraum", p. 203. >*"Durchwachte Nacht", p. 316; "Doppelganger", p. 328. ^^"Wm Sommertagstraum", p. 203. '^"Des Arztes Vermachtniss", v. II, p.

227.

37

only mentions the odor of the grass', but also that of the dust on the leaves of trees2, of turpentine^, and of the moor*.

No poet before Annette has probably ever employed such a varying vocabulary in order to describe sounds: "Da krimmelt, wimmelt es im Haidgezweige", "der Kafer schnurrt", "die Fliege surrt"5, "ich hor' des Stahles Picken, ein Knistern", "das rieselnde Rohr", "wie die Aeste knattern"6, "Ira Grasse knistert' es, als ob die Grille hiipfte, im Strauche fliistert' es, als ob das Mauslein schlupfte"^, "an seiner SohleNadelnrau- schen"8, "Horst du ein Rieseln, wie die Luft der Steppe zarten Staub entfiihret? Und ein Gesausel, wie im Glas gefangner Bremse Fliigel wis- pelt? Vielleicht 'ne Sanduhr, die verrinnt? ein Mauschen, das im Kalke rispelt?"9.

V

-- ' If we accept the popular opinion that naturalism is essentially a pref- erence for the less agreeable things ih life, then Annette is often a na- turalist, for she sometimes describes things that hitherto would not only have been regarded as commonplace, but even as ugly. In "Das ode Haus" she mentions the headless body of a dead insect hanging in a spider's web, rotten substances overgrown by fungi, and various sorts of rubbish, as a piece of an old dog-collar'o. Foul smelling morasses are described in detail on a number of occasions' ' and especially in "Der Spiritus familiaris des Rosstauschers"i2, where we read among other similar passages: "Da seitwarts durch Gerohres Speer erglanzt des Koi- kes Tintenbecken : ein wiister Kiibel, wie getrankt mit schwefligen As- phaltes Jauche, langbeinig fiisselnd Larvenvolk regt sich in Faden- schlamm und Lauche, und faule Spiegel, blau und griin, wie Regen- bogen driiber ziehn", or, preceeding this: "Hier wuchern Kress' und Binsenwust, Gewiirme klebt an jedem Halme, Insektenwirbel wimmelt auf und nieder in des Mooses Qualme", and again: "Dort steigt die Wasserlilj' empor, dem Fusstritt lauschend durch die Stille; wen sie verlockt mit ihrem Schein, der hat sein letztes Lied gesungen; drei Tage suchte man das Kind umsonst in Kraut und Wasserbungen, wo Egel sich und Kanker jetzt an seinen bleichen GUedchen letzt". In "Der Tod des Erzbischofs Hngelbert von Coln"'^ the poetess does not

i"Im Grase", p. 330. 2"Der Santis", p. 121. 3"Der Spiritus familiaris des Rosstaucherss", IV, v. II, p. 378. 4"Der Fundator", v. II, p. 442. 5"Die Lerche", p. 41. 6"Das Hirtenfeuer", p. 83. 7"Die Verbannten", p. 12. 8''Der Spiritus familiaris des Rosstauschers", v. II, p. 377, 9id., V. li, p. 382. lOp. 110. ""Mein Beruf", p. 131; "Der Fundator", v. II, p. 442. i2v. II, p. 379. i3v. II, p. 421.

38

hesitate to mention the crow and the worm feasting on a dead body. She repeatedly refers to people as clearing their throaty and also to people coughing and spitting^.

Commonplace things are, of course, also taken into consideration; among other objects we find mention of rubber shoes in "Dichters Naturgefuhl"3 and of scorched soup in "Das Hospiz auf dem grossen vSankt Bernhard"4. But Annette's attitude toward every-day things will become more apparent when we analyze some of her more realistic poems. Let us note, in the meanwhile, that modern inventions are re- ferred to: in "Die Stadt und der Dom"5 we read about the shrill whistle of the steam boat, and the turning of the boat's wheel, and in "Das Haus in der Haide"6 about the distant saw-mill, the noise of the hammer, the plane, saw, etc. The poetess also uses geological terms on several occasions; thus we find "gewalt'ge Blocke, rohe Porphyrbrode" in "Der Hiinenstein"'', while "Die Mergelgrube"8 abounds in terms like "Gneis, Spat, Glimmer, Porphyr, Okerdruse, Feuerstein, Mergel, etc."

Through this minuteness of observation, the introduction of new ex- pressions as well as of less agreeable and more commonplace things in- to her poems, Annette has become one of the foremost realists of Ger- man poetry. "Der Prediger" describes the church service in a most re- alistic way9. The bell is rung so that the belfry shakes, and the birds in the vicinity are driven from their nests. Elderly men slowly make their way through the crowds with canes, spectacles, and mass books, while carriages are already standing in line at the entrance. A young woman yawns during the service, a young man inattentively turns the leaves of his book, but in the evening he remarks upon the fine sermon in the theatre. "Die Vogelhutte"io realistically narrates how the poetess was marooned in a small shed during a terrific shower which prevented her from attending a tea-party where one of her poems was to be read. In "Der Hiinenstein" 1 1 we find a striking and realistic comparison: "So traumt' ich fort, und wie ein schlechtes Buch, ein Pfennigs- Magazin uns auf der Reise von Station zu Stationen plagt, hab' zehnmal Weg- geworfnes ich benagt und fortgeleiert iiberdruss'ge Weise". This poem ends with a pronounced romantic disillusionment. The spectre of the gigantic primitive man changes into a rainstorm: "Ein Ruf, ein hiipfend

»"Die Mergelgrube", p. 69.; "Das Hirtenfeuer", p. 83. 2" Die Krahen",

p. 75. 3p. 251. 4v. II, p. 192. 5p. 6. 6p. 90. 7p. 63. sp. 69. 9p. 17. lOp. 50. up. 63.

39

Licht — es schwankt herbei, und — 'Herr, es regnet' — sagte mein Lakai, der ruhig iibers Haupt den Schirm mir streckte".

There is no more realistic description of a hot, oppressive summer af- ternoon preceding a thimdershower than "Ein Sommertagstraum" i : "Im tiefen West der Schwaden grollte, es stand die Luft, ein siedend Meer; an meines Fensters Vorhang rollte die Sonnenkugel, gliih und schwer". The headache, drowsiness, the ringing in the head, and the indifference and indolence of mind which causes a person to study the folds in the curtain or listen to the blood coursing through one's veins, all these effects of the summer heat are described in the unassuming and realis- tically simple style of Annette; mention is made of casual noises ("es schlich am Hag ein Rieseln und ein Surren, wie flatternder Libelle Strich"), of the fragrance of the mignonette, the presentiment of the approaching thunderstorm, and a slight breeze which sets a piece of paper in motion.

A similar realism prevails in "Durchwachte Nacht"2. Especially note- worthy is the care with which auditory impressions are introduced: dis- tant footsteps, the squeaking of bed-room doors, the snorting of the horse in the barn, unexplainable nocturnal noises, the nightingale, the owl, part of the crumbling wall which drops to the ground, a breeze, the early chirping of the swallow, the crowing of the rooster, the barn- door early in the morning, and the striking of the clock at all times of the night serve to give us a realistic impression. All the sensations of semi-slumber are portrayed with utmost realism: "das Geriist des Vor- hangs scheint sich schaukelnd zu bewegen, und dort das Wappen an der Decke Gips schwimmt sachte mit dem Schlangeln des Polyps".

"Neujahrsnacht"3 describes a street-scene in mid- winter. The forms of street lamps and other objects are dimmed by the falling snow, "und leise knistert es im Flaum", the breath of the pedestrians is visible, the snow is crushed under the feet of the passers by ("Die Decke kracht vom schweren Tritt"), carriages in the snow storm appear like gigantic fireflies; a number of types are pointed out, as the coughing man who trims and lights the lamps, the hussars with hoary beards, the peasants, etc. In "Die Schwestern"* another street scene is described.

"Des alten Pfarrers Woche''^ describes the life of the Catholic coun- try clerg3^man in great detail, telling exactly what constitutes his work and interest during seven days of the week. The detailed and vivid description of the blacksmith and his shop in "Die Schmiede"^ and

ip. 201. 2p. 316, 3p. 239. 4v. II, p. 482. sp. 272. 6p. 270.

40

"Feuer (Die Elemente)"i is remarkable. The first-named poem men- tions the apple tree which bears fruit on one side but stretches its branch on the other side into the blacksmith's shop: "Die eine Seite voll Ges- pinns, Wurmfrass und Flockenharchen, langt mit der andern, iippig rot, er in die Funkenreigen, die knatternd aus der Schmiede Schlot wie Sternraketen steigen — und drunten geht es Pink und Pank, man hort die Flamme pfeifen, es keucht der Balg aus hohler Flank' und bildet Aschenstreif en ; die Kohle knallt, und driiber dicht — beugt sich das grimmige Gesicht des russigen Cyklopen. Er halt das Eisen in die Glut — es knackt und spritzet Funkenblut und dunstet blaue Schwehle".

The same vivid and concrete realism which is easy to illustrate by examples but hard to describe, is found again and again in the poems of Annette. In "Der Spiritus familiaris des Rosstauschers"2 the death of the horse is thus described: "Der Tauscher kniet am Pflastergrund, er streicht des Rosses heisse Flanken, von des Gebalkes Sparren lasst die Leuchte irre Schatten wanken; bei Gott, es lebt! — im Aug' ein Blitz! — es schaudert, zittert, hiiben, driiben, dann streckt es sich, die Niistern stehn, vom wilden Schreie aufgetrieben, und aus den Gliedern wirbelt Dampf, der Lebenswarme letzter Kampf. Der Tauscher kniet und streichelt fort — sacht langt die Decke er herbei und schlagt sie um des Tieres Weichen, dann lasst er der Laterne Schein ob den gespann- ten Sehnen streichen; es ist vorbei, kein Odemhauch, und schon ver- schwimmt der Flanken Ranch". Later in the same poem the dark hori- zon is compared to a coalsieve^. The description of the fire is also ex- tremely realistic and concrete*.

"Die beschrankte Frau"^, which tells how the wife who has been despised by her husband because of her simplicity of mind keeps her husband from bankruptcy by sacrificing her savings, is a picture of real life.

Annette has also introduced this realism into the poems dealing with times that are now in the past. We must guard against overlooking the extremely vivid picture of Christ in Gethsemane in the poem "Geth- semane"6. "Die Liifte schienen Seufzer nur zu saugen, und eine Quelle murmelte ihr Weh"; then we have the passage where the Savior sees himself crucified: "Und vor dem Heiland stieg das Kreuz empor; dar- an sah seinen eignen Leib er hangen, zerrissen, ausgespannt; wie Stricke drangen die Sehnen an den Gliedern ihm hervbr. Die Nagel sah er

ip. 103. 2v. II, p. 365. 3v. II, p. 381. ^v. II, p. 385. Sp. 262. 6v. I, part II, p. 54.

41

ragen und die Krone auf seinem Haupte, wo an jedem Dorn ein Blutes- tropfen hing — und aus alien Poren drang ihm der Schweiss".

War has also been stripped of some of its glamor by the realistic sense of Annette. In "Walter" • the soldiers in the tired army are bathed in perspiration, the horses covered with dust. In "Die Schlacht im Lohner Bruch"2 the arrival of a small troop of warriors is thus des- scribed: "Es stampft und knackt, es schnaubt und klirrt, dazwischen es wie Sensen schwirrt— Nun sind sie da, ein starker Tross, in Eisen starrend Mann und Ross. Die Riistung wohl des Glanzes bar und manche Klinge schartig war, bevor sie kamen hier zur Stell'. Sie spren- gen an den Weiher schnell, dann miihsam beugend iibern Rand das Wasser schopfen mit der Hand. Und tief die heissen Niistern tauchen die Rosse, Gras und Binsen rauchen, man hort in heisren Tonen her- vor die miide Seele stohnen. Dort einer klirrt den Rain entlang, — ein andrer halt sein schnaubend Tier, an seinen Hut ein Handschuh steckt, — die Federn hangen driiber her, geknickt, von roten Tropfen schwer".

In Annette's ballads this realism often goes hand in hand with a love of the uncanny. "Der Graue"^ mentions the steam engine in the paper factory, champagne bottles, wax dripping from the burning tallow candle, the wind howling in the huge chimney of the factory, etc., and in the midst of all this realistic setting the supernatural is introduced very effectively.

Commonplace expressions are not so often employed by Annette, al- though in "Der Strand wachter am deutschen Meere und sein Neffe vom Lande"4 we find "Geisterjanhagel". We may finally note Annette's compassion with the poor in "Bettellied"^, and her attempt to satirize the modern method of bringing up children by contrasting the irrev- erent attitude of modern children toward their parents with the old patriarchal family tone which once prevailed, in "Alte und neue Kin- derzucht"6

THE SILVER AGE

It might be questioned whether dialect poets such as Groth or Hebel should be discussed in a dissertation like this, since dialect poetry is really supposed to be somewhat apart and more popular, more natural and more realistic than the poetry of the written language. It must be observed, for instance, that Groth' s High German poems are much less realistic than those in the Low German.

iv. II, p. 53. 2v. II, p. 284. 3v. II, p. 455. 4p. 292. ^v. IV, p. 365. 6p. 33.

42

The Low German dialect poet Groth was the son of a farmer and miller. His father was not in favor of his reading books, but laid great emphasis upon observation of nature and outdoor work.

Groth possesses many realistic qualities which we have already ob- served in Hebel. Like Hebel he reproduces e very-day speech with great exactness: "Gau to, Jung! stick de Fork hier in de Eer! Man diichtig deep! sieh so! — un dar de anner! Un hier de Kniippel daer de Tinn! — De Harken — Das recht — man so schreeg aewer an den Torf- klot!"i. The natural simplicity of language and expression in some of the shorter poems is also really remarkable2. His care in describing gestures goes beyond Hebel: "Un darbi trock he an sin breden Hot un schov em inne Nack un krau den Griskopp un rich den olen krummen Riigg toh6ch"3, or "De Ole rich sik langsam inne Hoch un wisch den Sweet vun Nass un Pockennarben"*.

Like Hebel, Groth is interested in all sorts of types belonging to the humbler strata of society. This is shown by poems like "Orgeldreier"5, "Kaneeljud"6, "De Kischer"7, "De M6ller"8, "De Melkdiern"?, "De Krautfru"io, "De ole Harfenistin"!'. Remarkable are Groth' s character sketches and his description of certain types, as of the dairy maid in "De Melkdiern" and of the old man in "Dat Gewitter"i2. Among his character sketches we may refer to "Schitkraet"i3, which describes a peculiar conceited individual who smokes his pipe and spits from the corner of his crooked mouth, also to the description of "de Kaethners Saen" in "Dat Schicksal"!*. Groth is probably one of the first to refer to smallpox scars (Pockennarben) in the faces of individuals'^. There is surely no more realistic description of the actions of a dog than that in "De Fischtog na Fiel"i6.

In regard to nature treatment, Groth also is specific in his references to various plant .and animal species. He mentions many plants and birds by name, thus the marsh marigold 1 7, the nettle's, the common

led. used for Groth: "Quickborn", Hamburg, 1864. In case of longer poems the page to which the reference actually refers is added in paren- thesis, while the page on which the respective poem begins is given with- out parenthesis. Quotation from "Dat Gewitter", p. 154. 2"Min An- nameder", p. 3, child poetry pp. 9-11. 3"Dat Gewitter", p. 154. 4"Ut Lenken ward en Ked", p. 181.(182). sp. 5. 6p. 17. 7p. 20. sp. 21. 9p. 22. lOp. 25. Hp. 27. i2p. 154. i3p. 95. Hp. 257(258). i5"Va- dershus", p. 179(181), "Ut Lenken ward en Ked", p. 181(182). i6p. 204(206). i7"Heinri", p. 172(173). i8"Ut Lenken ward en Ked", p. 181(182).

43

daphne', the alder2, the ash^, etc. As a rule, however, he has not the care for detail of Annette von Droste-Hiilshoff. "Abendfreden"* tells us of the soft rustling sounds of nature that often escape the attention of the casual observer: "Se snackt man mank de Blaeder, as snack en Kind in Slap, dat siind de Wegenleder vaer Koh un stille Schap. Nu liggt dat Dorp in Dunkeln un Newel hangt dervaer, man hort man eben munkeln as keem't vun Minschen her". The description of the ap- proaching thunderstorm in "Dat Gewitter"5 js probably supreme in its realism: "dat ward je diistre Nacht — wa weer dat swul un briiddi, un wa de Flegen steken daer de Striimp — Bi Moldorp un int Westen ist noch hell — in Hasted is de Thorn man kum to sehn — Dar geit't al los! — Un wa dat sus't! Aha! dat siind al Hagel! Wa se der danzt! — 01 Na- wer Springer loppt ok al in Draf; wat makt he Been! sieh an! he kann nich raewer — ". This is but a striking example of the realistic descrip- tion which is then continued. For realism in nature see also: "De Spinnwipp glinsten mank de Stoppeln, de Ossen briillen vun de Koppeln, dat weer so still, man kunn se horn noch lisen ut de widste Feern; de Wagens klaetern langs den Weg, un Stuff un Newel steeg to hoch"^. The marsh is most realistically described in "Unnermeel"^, especially its quietude and silence which is only interrupted by humming bees, the ticking clock in the house, and an occasional wagon rattling through the country,

Groth seems to have been fond of hunting. In "Drees"8 he tells how he likes to stroll around the country in winter with a gun, mittens on his hands, and the cap over his ears; "denn knackert dat Is", he says. He stops at the tavern of "Frenz Buhmann", where he drinks egg-flip, and sits near the cockle stove, while the sun is shining into the window over white snow-covered fields. He prefers this pleasure to that of the people who read the newspaper, drink tea and grog, talk politics, and play L'hombre and whist. "De Floth"^, in which the seashore is real- istically described, also starts out from a hunting trip.

Interiors are not neglected by Groth, "An de Maan"io shows us the man sitting in a dark room about to light his pipe. The moon shines through the window, and the apples are baking on the stove ("un hor min braten Appeln griistern"). "Wihnachtabnd"»' shows us the winter

ip, 181(182). 2"Heinri", p. 172(173). 3"Peter Kunrad", p. 68(75). *p, 185. 5p. 154. 6"Rumpelkamer", p. 105(118). 7p. 245. sp. 99. 9p. 100. lOp. 28. J2p. 31.

44

night, when it is hard to keep the room warm with the cockle stove; the old man is referred to the arm chair, the girl told to look after the stove and to put sand on the clean floor. The cold weather is indicated by: "Wa knarrt de Snee". This poem also refers to the suffering of the poor in winter. "Grotmoder"' is also very realistic in language and coloring: "Grotmoder niilt inn Laihnstohl un hollt de Huspostill. Ik weet ni wat de Olsche nu jummer lesen will", and "Vunmorgens is se ganzli verbistert un verbas't". The most detailed and naturalistic of Groth's descriptions of interiors is the description of the garret in "Rum- pelkamer"2, where we find mention of rats, mice, soot, and smoke from the chimney, spiders, millipeds, the insect known as the "Totenham- mer"3, dead flies, an old doll without arms and legs, saws with some of their teeth lacking, broken chairs, and mucor. Later* he also adds the chest with an old-fashioned rusty lock, and a worm-eaten bottom. By contrast he introduces the street with the church, carriages, houses, its lamps which are lit at night, and its characteristic types (the butcher, the huckster, miller, and also the coffee can inside of the houses).

The foregoing poem is a striking example of Groth's ability to create a realistic atmosphere. This is also brought out in "Peter Kunrad''^, where the pastor steps outside to light his clay pipe; we see the tired peasants going by with shovels on their shoulders, the dairy maid whose back is tired from her load, the voice inside the house, and the arrival of the panting old man.

Other noteworthy poems of Groth are: "En Breef"*, which treats of the trivial contents of a letter, and might be compared to Liliencron's "Aus der Kinderzeit"^. "De Welf's is a reaHstic description of war- fare; the unknown is always compared to the known: "as de eerste Bossel op uns tokeem langs de Chaussee as op en Kegelbahn", and "Am slimmsten is dat Jammern un Geschrigg vun Minsch un Veh, un denn dat Wort dertwischen, as drev man'n Koppel Ossen rop na Hamborg".

Eduard Morike, undoubtedly the greatest lyric poet of the age be- tween Heine and Liliencron, was also an important realist. He also has a tendency to introduce realistic detail, although in a manner different from that of Annette; he mentions the rusty, squeaking garden gate^,

'p. 32. 2p. 105. 3Anobium pertinax. ^p. i08. sp. 68. 6p, 7. 7ed. of Liliencron, Berlin and Leipsic, 1904, v. VIII, p. 193. sp. 176(177). 9ed. used for Morike: Stuttgart, 1890. Reference to "Ach nur einmal noch im Leben", p. 224.

45

dusty shoes after a stroll in the summer', the gnats in the forest2, the icicle resembling rock-candy^, the wasps which have eaten the inside out of a fallen pear*, thin beer and over-salty pork, as well as the man who incessantly uses his napkin at the tabled, and a nightmare^. In "Alles mit Maas"^ he complains because his hostess always prepares pigs feet for dinner. His observation is at times fairly exact: he notices the shadow of an umbrella on a rainy dayS, and the peculiar effect of the light of a carriage on a dark country road when thrown against a housed. In "Abreise"'o he mentions the dry spot left by the carriage standing on the road while all the rest of the ground got wet during the shower. In "An Philomele"'' the song of the nightingale is likened to the noise made when a bottle is filled and runs over, but the simile makes the poet thirsty; he stops his poem in order to go where they bowl and drink beer, saying in excuse,- "ich versprach es halb dem Ober- amtsgerichtsverweser, auch dem Notar und dem Oberf orster" .

The poem "Meines Vetters Brautfahrt"i2 is perhaps the most pro- nouncedly realistic among the poems of Morike: "Freut er sich denn auch ein wenig, die kiinftige Braut zu begriissen? Aber wo bleibt er so lang? Sagt ihm, die Kutsche sei da! — Droben im Bett noch liegt er, verdriesslich, und lieset in Schellers Lexikon! Als ich ihn schalt, rief er halb grimmig: 'Nun ja, gebt mir andere Striimpf! die haben Locher — ach freilich eine Frau muss ins Haus, die mich von Fuss auf kuriert!' ".

Being a country parson, Morike is naturally interested in country life, although indoor life is taken into account much more than in the rural realists preceding Morike. Thus in "Landliche Kurzweil"i3 we are introduced into the parson's dining room; the table has been cleared, but the table-cloth is still on the table. The women sort poppy seeds, while the parson reads the "Haller Jahreshefte".

"Der alte Turmhahn"'* is a parallel to Annette von Droste-HiilshofT's "Des alten Pfarrers Woche"; only here it is the Protestant country clergyman whose life is described. It is really the story of a weather cock, which has been taken down from the steeple and put in front of the village smithy, where chickens cackle around it. It is rescued by the parson, who takes it to his study. "Sogleich empfing mich sondre

»"Erbauliche Betrachtung", p. 228. 2"Waldplage", p. 236. 3"An einen Iviebenden", p. 295. ^"Epistel", p. 147. 5"Besuch in der Karthause", p. 240. 6p. 318. 7p. 317. 8"Erinnerung", p. 5. ^"Nachtliche Fahrt", p. 8. lOp. 124. lip. 295. i2p. 154. i3p. 208. ^p. 194.

46

Luft, Biicher — und Gelahrtenduft, Gerani — und Resedaschmack, auch ein Riichlein Rauchtabak", the weather cock says. The study and es- pecially the stove in the study are described in detail. The most in- teresting of the descriptions is that of the pastor at his work, which he occasionally interrupts to take snuff or to trim the lamp, the descrip- tion of the night with its nocturnal noises and the fear of burglars which these engender, and the description of the quiet Sunday morning, when everybody has gone to church and when the house is abandoned to the mouse, the sun shining through the window, and the spider spinning its web. "Hausliche Szene"' shows us the schoolmaster scolding his wife before going to bed for taking the wrong vinegar in order to preserve cucumbers. The schoolmaster's hobby has been to experiment with the making of vinegar, and the neighbors have already begun to talk about this peculiarity. This poem again illustrates the simple realism of Morike language.

Another poem characteristic of Morike's realism is "An meinen Vet- ter"2. Here he tells of having dinner with a type of man which he char- acterizes thus: "Haben manchmal hiibsche Bauche, und ihr Vaterland ist Schwaben". He tells that the dinner consisted of soup with red crabs, beef with mustard arid radishes, that they talked about the lat- est news and the thunderstorm on the day preceding, and that the other man used a tooth-pick, filled his pipe when the coffee was served, and arose once in a while to look after the horses. This type of indi- vidual is called "Sommerweste" by the poet. Its opposite is perhaps the "Sehrmann", who is portrayed in "An Longus"^. This poem also introduces us to the landing place, where laborers are swearing while they tend to the barrels, chests, bales, and other baggage; the street urchin looks on with his hands in his pockets, while a conceited, well- dressed "vSehrmann" promenades on the quais in company of a lady.

"Ludwig Richters Kinder-Symphonie"* tells about children playing on the street and pretending to give a symphony concert. The simple narrative tone of Morike again becomes evident : ' ' Denn ich selber, mit einem Dresdner Freunde, der verwichenen Herbst sich gern, als Maler, unsere Schwaben einmal beschauen wollte, war zufalliger Zeuge dieser Szene, als wir beide, von Friedrichshafen kommend, vor dem Stadtchen im Risstal, das Ihr kennet, in Erwartung des Vier-Uhr-Zuges miissig hin und her um die alten Mauern strichen. Leider waren des Herrn Dekans Hochwiirden damals eben verreist, er hatte sonst wohl uns im

>p. 304. 2p. 289. 3p. 230. *p. 249.

47

kuhligen Haus bei sich ein Fasslein angestochen des edlen Kraftge- braudes, das sein heimatlich Ulm ihm zollt alljahlich". Later the shrill whistle of the railroad is brought in.

In "Besuch in der Karthause"' where Morike uses the expression "auf den Striimpfen sein", we read: "Am Abend, wo es unten schwarz mit Bauern sitzt, behagt' er sich beim Deckelglas, die Dose und das blaue Sacktuch neben sich, im Dunst und Schwul der Zechgesellschaft, plauderte, las die Zeitung vor, sprach Politik und Landwirtschaft".

We can not leave Morike without mentioning the love poetry which he has put into the mouth of girls in the humbler paths of life2. These poems are characterized by simplicity of language, realism in the por- trayal of background, and truth of sentiment; there is none of the ro- mantic idealism characteristic of the poems of Chamisso or Riickert that deal with woman's love. "Det Jager"3 is a male parallel to the poems just referred to. The sentiment of "Lied eines Verliebten"* is also notable for its truth and realism. But Morike's longer epic poem, "Idylle vom Bodensee"5 does not go beyond Goethe's "Hermann und Dorothea" in its realism.

Freiligrath, not a realistic poet on the whole, has shown marked so- cialistic tendencies in "Vom Harze''^, "Aus dem schlesischen Gebirge"^, and in the song of the machinist on the steamer on the Rhine^. He has also written a poem on the passing of the old romantic spirit'.

The poetry of the great dramatist and thinker Hebbel does not abound in realistic detail to the same extent as that of Annette or Moerike. Hebbel's poetry is more philosophical, more abstract. And when Hebbel does treat of real life his impressionable and oversensi- tive temperament tends toward gloomy exaggeration 'o. He is keenly aware, however, of the tragic sides of real life, as is shown by such poems as "Die junge Mutter" •'. "Der Bettler weintumseinenSohn"i2, "Gross- mutter" i3, "Die Kindesm6rderin"i4, etc. Among his most realistic

ip. 240. 2"Agnes", p. 61.; 'Das verlassene Magdlein", p. 61; "Die Soldatenbraut", p. 65. ^p. 16. 4p. 120. 5p. 325. 6ed. used for Freil- igrath: New York, F. Gerhard, v. VI, 1859. "Vom Harze", p. 104. 7p. 118. squoted in Theobald Ziegler's "Die geistigen und socialen Stromungen des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts", Berlin, 1901, p. 269. 9"Ein Flecken am Rheine", p. 24. lOed. used for Hebbel: Berlin, 1904, V. VI, unless otherwise stated. Reference to "Traum", v. VII, p. 166; "Rauber und Henker", v. VII, p. 181; "Eine Hinrichtung", v. VII, p. 184. lip. 179. i2v. VII, p. 179. i3p. 240. ^v. VII, p. 68.

48

poems are the ones which treat of episodes of childhood life, like the one which tells of the small boy's pet cati, or of his dog2. In a few cases Hebbel has given us fairly concrete pictures of nature^. "Das Haus am Meer"'* is rather exceptionally realistic for a poem by Hebbel. It tells how a house is being built by the seashore and here we read: "Mach- tige Hammerschlage erdrohnen schwer und voll; die Sagen knarren und zischen, verworren hort man dazwischen der Wogen dumpf GeroU". The poem "Nachtgefiihr's starts: "Wenn ich mich Abends entkleide, gemachsam, Stiick fiir Stuck, so tragen die miiden Gedanken mich vor- warts Oder zuriick". The poet thinks of the boyhood days when his mother used to undress him. The poem "Der Knabe" is based upon a boy being called away from his playmates and told to come home by his mother much to his dissatisfaction^.

But the real contribution of Hebbel to the development of naturalism is not to be found in his shorter poems, but rather in his epic "Mutter und Kind"7. Here we find the life of the lower classes depicted, we have the study of a "milieu" in the slums of the big city, and a distinctly re- alistic atmosphere throughout. The poet leads us into the foul-smelling subterranean habitation of the slums: "Die (die Wande) dunsten, dass, wer herein tritt, fast erstickt, doch die Miete ist billig, auch jagt sie der Hausherr nicht so leicht heraus, es fehlt am zweiten Bewerber, darum bleiben sie sitzen. Sie soUen vom Fieber genesen, wo's ein Gesunder bekommt"8. We also hear of the high cost of living^; we see the maid who reads her dream-book'o and the mistress who studies the fashions!' ; we read of the harlots who pick pockets 12, and of the bold masher of the big city '3. We find the most concrete and realistic descriptions in this poem, such as that of the youth leaning against a street-lamp on a dark and frosty winter morning 1 4, or the description of how the coachman is awakened by the grinding of the coffee-mill early in the morning; we are told that the latter never appears before breakfast is ready: "Jetzt sogar bleibt ilim noch Zeit, den Thermometer am Fenster um den Grad zu befragen, doch ist's ihm freilich nicht moglich, auch nach der Uhr zu seh'n, die ihm zu Haupten am Bett hangt"i5. The poet describes urban as well as rural life, the dwellings of the well-to-do as well as of

i"Aus der Kindheit", p. 194. 2"Schau ich in die tiefste Feme", p. 408. 3"Vorfruhling", p. 228; "Herbstbild", p. 232. 4p. 279. 5p. 227. ^v. VII, p. 116. 7v. VIII. The following references are to lines. 8IO6- 110. 9167-169. 10270. ii663. 121151. 13924-981. 1422-33. 15261-268.

49

the slums. He refers to the telegraphi, the steam-boat2, the locomotive^, and does not forget the contemporary gold fever in California* and the modern anarchistic agitation^. In short we could say that we have com- plete naturalism in "Mutter und Kind", if it were not for Hebbel's language, which is always conventional, and for the rather unusual plot, which is very characteristic of Hebbel.

The contributions of Gottfried Keller to the development of modern naturalism are also considerable. "Unter Sternen" is completely based on modern astronomical knowledge^. The modern age with its rail- road and its plans for aerial navigation no longer troubles this poet^. Keller claims: "die Poesie ist angeboren, und sie erkennt kein Dort und Hier!"8.

Realistic details are more abundant in Keller than in Hebbel. Keller mentions the rubbish heap^, elderly men coughing and spitting'^, dirty snow'i, washwomen carrying home the starched and ironed clothes 12, and the red nose of a lackey '3; he writes a poem about a barmaid i*, uses a trivial simile like the squeezing out of a lemon '-^ and does not hesitate to refer even to fleas and bed-bugs i^. Commonplace expressions are in- troduced occasionally, such as "auf die Striimpfe helfen" in "Nacht im Zeughaus VIF'i^ or "sich sputen" in "Die Thronfolger"i8.

Concrete and realistic descriptions are numerous in Keller. Among the most vivid is the description of the pastor in the garden in "Wochen- predigt">9; "Hier hat er Ranken angebunden, ein nagendes Raupchen abgelesen, dort aufgehoben einen Besen und an das Gartenhaus ge- lehnt — hateine Schmetterling gefangen, wirft einen Socken iiber den Hag, der mitten in einem Beete lag". "Stilleben"20 describes a quiet little town on the Rhine where the silence is only interrupted by a scolding old woman or by the noise of the bowling alley. "In der Stadt"2i in-

11835-1842. 2223. 21535. ^202-214. 51884-1895. ^ed. used for Keller: Berlin, 1898 and 1900, v. I, unless otherwise stated. "Unter Sternen", p. 20. 7"An Justinus Kerner", v. II, p. 128. "Zeitlandschaft", v. II, p. 152. Compare "Eisenbahnlied" by Hoffman von Fallersleben (ed. Berlin, 1891, v. II, p. 294). »v. II, p. 129. 9"Schlechte Jahreszeit", p. 279. io"Wochenpredigt", p. 189. ii"Der Taugenichts", v. II, p. 84. i2"Berliner Pfingsten", v. II, p. 95. i3"Weihnachtsmarkt", v. II, p. 96. i4"Biermamsell", v. II, p. 98. i5"Gasel", v. II, p. 11. i6"Auf Maler Distelis Tod", p. 278; "Jesuitenzug", p. 281, verse 6. i^p. 139. isy. II, p. 45. i9p. 189. 20p, 177, 2ip. 107.

50

troduces us to the noise of city streets: "Was ist das fiir ein Schrei'n und Peitschenknallen ? Die Fenster zittern von der Hufe Klang, zwolf Rosse keuchen an dem straffen Strang, und Fuhrmannsfliiche durch die Gasse schallen". "Feuer-Idylle"i describes a big fire; "Schiitz im Stichfieber"2 introduces us to a fair. A tendency to satirize occasionally appears: "Frau R6sel"3 is a picture of the king- worship so common in monarchical countries and a picture showing human nature from some of its less pleasant sides. The polished upper society is portrayed in "Polkakirche"*. The hard, cruel aspects of life are brought out in "Der Taugenichts"5 where it is shown that the world is no place for the ideal- istic dreamer.

Socialistic tendencies are very pronounced in Keller. In "Zur Ernte- zeit"6 the desire of the laborers in the harvest field for a great revolu- tion is emphasized; the second part of the poem ends with the words: "Das Menschenelend krabbelt mich wie eine Wolfsspinne an". The mis- fortunes of the servant class are touched upon in "Klage der Magd"^, and there is a reproach for those who turn a deaf ear toward the suf- ferings of the world in "Der Schongeisf's. The future revolution is again visualized in "Winterspiel"^, and socialistic teachings referred to in "Rote Lehre"io. "Das grosse Schillerfesfn shows us the women of the lower classes who have a hard time in supporting their many chil- dren when the husband is dead or a good-for-nothing. "Wochenpredigt"i2 shows us the inadequacy of the church ; while the people are working in the fields, the minister, who does not know what to do with all his spare time, preaches to elderly men and women who have done more than he in bearing the burdens of life.

Keller's attitude toward nature is also extremely realistic. He likes to picture rainy, chilly, and disagreeable weather, dusty roads, poor crops, etc. 13, In "Triibes Wetter" i* he writes: "Die Lebenslust, die To- despein sie ziehn auf meinem Herzen Schach", and in "Gasel"i5 we read: "Herbstnachtliche Wolken, sie wanken und zieh'n gleich fieberisch traumenden Kranken dahin".

Keller has evidently approved of a poet looking for subject-matter in the columns of a newspaper 1 6. Perhaps he has received his own in-

ip. 151. 2p. 213. 3v. II, p. 46. 4v. II, p. 98. Sy. II, p. 84. 6p. 151. 7v. II, p. 74. 8v. II, p. 90. 9p. 72. lOy. n, p. 26. ny. II, p. 153. i2p. 189. i3"Regen-Sommer", p. 59; "Land im Herbste", p. 68; "Das grosse Schillerfest", v. II, p. 153. i^p. 65. i^p. 61. ^^"'Ein Schwur- gericht", v. II, p. 148.

51

spiration in that manner when he pictured the French foreign legion in the midst of glowing deserts'. The poem "Clemens Brentano, Kerner und Genossen"2 shows that Keller has completely broken with ro- manticism,

Theodor Storm's small volume of poetry proves him to be a decided forerunner of the naturalistic period. In describing nature his chief characteristics are: care for detail (mention of numerous plant species in "Waldweg"3, the mention of the less agreeable aspects of nature, such as the gray and barren seashore, the shrill voice of the wild goose in "Die Stadt"4, or of the scum of the sea in "Meeresstrand"5, the intro- duction of odors, such as that of the hay in "Sommermittag"6, and of autumn leaves and pines in "Waldweg"^, and finally a care for nature sounds in "Waldweg" : "Und vorwarts, schreitend storte bald mein Tritt die Biene auf, die um die Distel schwarmte, bald horte ich, wie durch die Graser glitt die Schlange, die am Sonnenstrahl sich warmte". The heat of the sun's rays is mentioned in "Waldweg" and in "Abseits"8. With this care for detail the nature pictures of Storm are wonderfully vivid and concrete. The cruel and unfeeling side of nature is emphasized in "Einer Todten II"9, where the poet complains that nature does not share his grief over the death of his friend. In "Aus der Marsch"io, we find him philosophizing about the oxen in the pasture.

The old folk-song realism again appears in Storm's " Elisabeth" n.

The poem "Stossseufzer"i2 is characteristic of Storm's realism: "Am Weihnachtssonntag kam er zu mir, in Jack und Schurzfell, und roch nach Bier und sprach zwei Stunden zu meiner Oual von Zinsen und von Capital; ein Kerl, vor dem mich Gott bewahr; Hat keinen Festtag im ganzen Jahr." "Engel-Ehe"i3 introduces us to the woman who keeps her house neat, but neglects her personal appearance; she talks to her hus- band in a cross, indifferent way as if she were throwing a bone to a dog, for she blames him for everything, for the impertinence of the servants, for the big washing, for the day's work and the sleepless nights, not to forget the dirty poodle and the children . ' ' Eine Friihlingsnacht' ' i * vividly pictures the feverish patient lying on his warm bed: "Im Zimmer drin- nen ist's so schwiil; der Kranke liegt auf dem heissen Pfiihl. Im Fieber hat er die Nacht verbracht; sein Herz ist miide, sein Auge verwacht,

i"Schlafwandel", v. II, p. 72. 2p. 122. 3ed. used for Storm: Braun- schweig, 1900. "Waldweg", p. 227. 4p. 194. Sp. 194. 6p. 193. 7p. 227. 8p. 192. 9p. 211. lOp. 225. up. 195. i2p. 225. i3p. 224. i4p. 229.

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— Er halt die Uhr in der weissen Hand. Er zahlt die Schlage, die sie pickt, er forscliet, wie der Weiser riickt". The poem ends with the death of the patient. "Ein Sterbender"i again shows us a dying person; the old man is drumming on the window pane and watching the blood flow- ing through the veins of his hand, while the clock is ticking; the mem- ories of his past life appear, and then he writes his wish that no minister should be allowed to officiate at his burial.

This realism of Storm often becomes uncanny, although there is no resort to the supernatural. In no other poem has the uncanny and hor- rifying mystery of death been expressed with a more terrible vividness and power than in "Geh nicht hinein"2; this absolutely reahstic poem is truly supreme in its way: "Im Fliigcl oben hinterm Corridor, wo es so jahlings einsam worden ist, — nicht in dem ersten Zimmer, wo man sonst ihn finden mochte, in die blasse Hand das junge Haupt gestijtzt, die Augen traumend entlang den Wanden streifend, wo im Laub von Tropenpflanzen ausgebalgt Getier die Fliigel spreizte und die Tatzen reckte, halb Wunder noch, halb Wissensratsel ihm, — nicht dort; der Stuhl ist leer, die Pflanzen lassen verdiirstend ihre schonen Blatter hang- en; Staub sinkt herab; — nein, nebenan die Tiir. in jenem hohen damm- rigen Gemach, — beklommne Schwiile ist drin eingeschlossen — dort hin- term Wandschirm auf dem Bette liegt etwas — geh nicht hinein! Es schaut dich fremd und furchtbar an". The poem goes on to tell how the young man died. Some of this uncanniness is also found in "Sturm- nacht"3.

Unconventional expressions also occur in Storm's poetry; thus we have "alte Schatullen" and "schmeisst" in "Sturmnacht". The spirit of compassion appears in "Weihnachtsabend"*. It would thus appear that most of the realistic tendencies of the German lyric are united in Storm.

THE IMMEDIATE FORERUNNERS OF NATURALISM

Eduard Grisebach, going back to the "Dirnenlyrik" of Heine, has given us the modern version of a mediaeval legend in "Der neuc Tann- hauser"5. Mediaeval myths and the puffing railroad of today occur side by side in "Es war um Ostern"^. A cruel sense of reality is found in

ip. 259. 2p. 274. 3p. 226. ^p. 244. ^Because of the war in Europe I was unable to get a copy of "Der neue Tannhauser". The poems re- ferred to are to be found in Bethge's "Deutsche Lyrik seit Liliencron." 6p. 95.

53

"Fell hat sie Rettich"', which was suggested by an incident in a street scene and shows us the fate of the prostitute when youth and fair looks have left her.

Anzengruber, the naturalistic dramatist of Austria, has also put some of his realism into his poems. In "Des Bettlers Lied" 2 the world is seen through the eyes of a beggar. "Modernes Fruhlingslied"^, a rather con- ventional spring-song, suddenly ends with the words: "Du nimmst doch deinen Reisepelz und auch den Fuss-sack mit?". "Stimmungsbild"* gives us a gloomy picture of nature. "Die Naherin"5 is one of the best pictures of real life which Anzengruber has given us. Anzengruber' s poems are only few and were not published collectively before 1884. It is also doubtful if he has influenced the naturalistic lyric since 1884 to any great extent, since modern naturalism in poetry is chiefly to be found in North German poets, if we make allowances for exceptions,^ such as Ferdinand von Saar.

In approaching Fontane and Ferdinand von Saar we are already deal- ing with the generation of Liliencron. Many of the later poems of these two poets have been written after 1884.

The language of Theodor Fontane is characterized by its simplicity and unconventionality, which place Fontane very close to Liliencron as a naturalistic poet. Any of Fontane's poems would serve as an illustra- tion.

Fontane is especially a realistic painter of middle class life in Berlin. "Unsere deutsche Frau"^ introduces the average woman of the middle class in Berlin, who talks about the kitchen, the washing, the house, and her husband, who plays skat every Wednesday. Her views on the theater, on Sudermann and Schiller, are voiced ; her favorite amusement seems to be to see the Kaiser, or to listen to the concert in the zoological garden. "Wurzels"^ gives us another insight into Berlin life. During the dialogue between the wife and her somewhat stubborn husband we hear the wife must make jelly, the hired girl must look after the fuel, and that the son goes to the Gymnasium on the horse-car.

In "Wiird' es mir fehlen, wiird' ich's vermissen?"8, P'ontane reflects on the benefits of warm coffee, fresh rolls, and the morning paper at the breakfast table; he sees the apron hanging over the chair at the

'p. 96. 2ed. used for Anzengruber: Stuttgart, n.d.Cotta. "Des Bettlers Lied", p. 253. 3p. 325. ^p. 280. 5p. 290. ^gd. used for Fontane: Stuttgart and Berlin, 1908. "Unsere deutsche Frau", p. 51. 7p, 78, 8p 28,

54

butcher's across the street, and the small girls going to school. The ex- change of words in the Tiergarten in *Xebenswege"i is also extremely realistic. "Fritz Katzfuss"^ leads us into the grocery store; various articles sold are mentioned, such as soda, wash-bluing, etc., and we find the poet using expressions like "nolen" and "wie verbiestert" . "Ja, das mocht' ich noch erleben"^ is a reflection on the grand-son going to the elementary school with his books in a bag (Mappe), and the blotters pasted into his note book.

Outside of middle-class urban life, Fontane has also given us some realistic pictures of society farther up, although these tend to be some- what satirical. The stiff, cold formality prevalent in the higher Prussian society is represented in "Hoffest"* and "Auf dem Matthaikirchhof"^; here people must limit their conversation to a few conventional and set phrases in order to avoid undue familiarity. The importance which the subordinate official attaches to decorations from the emperor is brought out in "Der Subalterne"^ and "Wie man's machen muss"^, and the modern worship of mammon is touched in "Erfolganbeter"8 and "Such nicht, wie's eigentlich gewesen"^. Fontane has given us glimpses of society in the large watering places lo and on the seashore^. "Arm oder reich"i2, which incidentally mentions the telephone, names cer- tain parvenu types of society: "Der Griinkramhandler, der Weissbier- budiker, der Tantenbecourer, der Erbschaftsschlieker, der Ziichter von Southdownhammelherden, Hoppegartenbarone mit Rennstallpf erden" . The poet does not like these people, he prefers the very wealthy, such as the Goulds, the Astors, the Vanderbilts, etc. "Bin Ball in Paris" '^ is also one of the realistic poems dealing with the higher class of society. The first two stanzas give us a very vivid and concrete picture of how the carriages and vehicles convey the ladies to the ball room. We read: "hin durch der Gassen Enge braust rasselnd der Karossen bunte Menge, — Hallo, die Peitsche knallt, die Rosse dampfen, — und jetzt ein kurzes 'Halt' — hell glanzt das Ziel, der pracht'ge Ballsaal des Hotel de Ville. Rings Fackelglanz; die Nacht ist lichter Tag, betresste Diener springen an den Schlag, leis knistert auf der steingehaunen Treppe der Atlas- schuh, es rauscht die Seidenschleppe, der Mantel fallt, und jetzt in luft'gem Schal, selbst luftig, schwebt die Schonheit in den Saal".

>p. 30. 2p. 61. 3p. 59. 4p. 36. 5p. 38. 6p. 37. 7p. 40. sp. 41. 9p. 45. 'o"Brunnenpromenade", p. 52. "^Der Sommer and Winter- Geheimrat", p. 37. >2p. 82. i3p. 300.

55

Fontane's "Die Geschichte vom kleinen Ei"^ appears to be a picture taken from real life. The reader can vividly imagine how the countess with her two grown-up daughters and her consumptive son is depart- ing for Italy amidst trunks and servants; how the young student, who has remained behind, spends his time in the "Krug", in playing whist, and in talking about oleomargarine, butter, the stock show, the wool market, and the grain crop. The language of the innkeeper's wife is very realistically reproduced: "Die Jungen wachsen 'ran, die richt'gen Rangen, mit unserm Willem is nichts anzufangen: Der Jung' is faul, fiir gar nichts hat er Sinn — ganz wie sein Vater drohmt er bloss so liin — und's Rechnen wird ihm alle Tage schwerer".

Some more of Fontane's realism in language and subject matter is to be found in "Siegesbotschaft"2, where a public dance is described. "Oben, auf rotgestrichner Empore, sitzt die Musik in voUem Chore f Klarinette, Geigen, Contrebass, und vor jedem ein Pult und ein Weiss- bierglas. Und unten drehn sich, in Schott'schem und Walzer, die Paare, dazwischen ein Juchzer, ein vSchnalzer, und Zug und Hitze und blak- ende Lichter, am Fenster neugierige Kindergesichter, ein Rempeln und Rennen, ein Stosscn und vStemmen, und mit eins: 'Da komnit ja der Neumann aus Cremmen, der Laatsche-Neumann. — Ich wett', er bringt ein Telegram".

The very realistic poem "Hubert in Hof"3 should also be discussed at this point. It tells how a railroad train had to stop at a small station because the tracks were covered with snow. The small railroad depot with its disagreeable odors and various sights is most vividly described. Even the crusts of snow that cling to people's boots, break off, and melt, are brought in.

Among the other poems of Fontane, we must not overlook "Land Gosen"4, which reviews the surroundings of Berlin and their products. "Unser Friede"^ refers to stagnant water alive with insects and giving rise to pestilential odors. "Afrikareisender"6 criticizes the unsanitary conditions in a big city. "Dolor Tyrannus"^ mentions opium, morphine, cocaine, chloral, ether, chloroform, bromine, iodine, etc. In "Contenti estote"8 the physician inquires about migraine, colic, and the liver.

Fontane has often carried his realism beyond Europe, and speaks of affairs in other parts of the world. He is especially hostile toward the combination of commercialism and Christianity which threatened to

ip. 64. 2p. 272. 3p. 326. 4p. 75. 5p. 299. 6p. 50. 7p. 42. Sp. 55.

56

rule the world'. His poems dealing of far away lands, such as "Die Bal- inesenfrauen auf Lombok"2 and "Fire, but don't hurt the flag"3 are absolutely realistic in tenor, and entirely different from the totally un- realistic exotic poems of Freiligrath.

The most realistic nature poems of Fontane are "Herbstmorgen"* and "Spatherbst"5. We are reminded of the hypersensitiveness of An- nette von Droste-Hulshoff when Fontane writes in "Mittag''^: "Und doch es klingt, als strom ein Regen leis tonend auf das Blatterdach". An episode in the barn-yard seems to have inspired "Der Kranich"^.

Ferdinand von Saar is of a different temperament than Fontane. Fontane portrays the middle classes or the higher classes in a big city, his trend of mind is humorous, unprejudiced, and objective, he seems to regard life with good-natured contempt. Saar, on the other hand, often leads us into the slums, which he portrays with the most crass and unsparing realism imaginable. There is a menacing undertone in some of his poems which prophesy a social revolution, which the poet does not advocate, but which he seems to fear.

Saar shows us the factories in which the laborers work. "Der Ziegel schlag"8 takes us to the brick factory in a large field covered with yel- low mud puddles; high chimneys tower above the wooden sheds. The dust, heat, mud, the pale faces of the laborers, and the monotony and drudgery of factory work are mentioned. "Arbeitergruss"^ deals with the sooty faced workman of the foundry, and the contempt which the physical laborer has for all purely mental labor.

We are then led into the slums. The delapidated tenement houses, overtowered by high chimneys, and surrounded by the smoke and foul atmosphere of the factories, half-naked children, anaemic and rachitic, stores in which unappetizing and disgusting food is kept for sale, low saloons, small traders in dingy and damp dwellings, sickness and idle- ness, dull, brutish people, and women with hard, but nevertheless lustful stares, all this is portrayed by Saar in "Proles" lo. A similar poem is "Der neue Vorort''^, where we see the scrofulous, rachitic, and anaemic wo- men of the overcrowded tenement district. The adulterated foods sold to the poor people are a sign of the scientific advancement of the age. The children are taught in the district schools by hysterical school tea- chers. The poem predicts a social revolution. The latter is also fore-

i"Britannia an ihren Sohn John Bull", p. 80. ^p. 72. 3p, 71. 4p. 5. 5p. 28. <5p, 12, 7p. 7. 8ed. used for Saar: Leipsic, n.d. Max Hesse, "Der Ziegelschlag", p 36. ^p. no. lOp. 145. upart II, p. 26.

57

casted in "Nachtbild*'i where laborers and outcasts gather around the street lunch-stove, where unappetizing things are sold. The glowing coal in the stove is likened to the spark of hatred that will shortly kindle the great revolution. The poem "Das letzte Kind"2 is perhaps among the crassest poems in literature. It shows us the woman of the slums, who, helpless against the brutish passions of her drunken husband, de- livers herself of her eighth child in a barn; fortunately she manages to bring the child into the world dead, for the family is already at the verge of starvation. "Kontraste"3, contrasts the life of the laboring classes with that of the well-to-do. The workmen must work in noon-day heat with pick and shovel in order to mend the pavement, while the wealthy have left town, or spend their time in aesthetic enjoyment. The work and noon-day rest of the workmen are described most realis- tically. vSocialistic tendencies are also strong in "Der Eisenbahnzug"*, where the railroad train is portrayed: "Abgeteilt nach Wagenklassen, mude von der Reise Qual, schau'n die Menschen stumpf gelassen durch die Fenster, eng und schmal." "Gesang der Armen im Winter" s shows us the plight of the poor people in winter, when heavy snows have im- peded the work of erecting houses, and when only a little money can be made by shoveling snow. "Das Judenweib"* portrays the Jewish woman who sells matches, cigar holders, note books, and other small merchandise in the streets.

Saar's "Die Entarteten"^ expresses the modern theories of heredity and degeneracy in poetry.

Saar seems to be remarkably aware of the peculiarities of our modern day. "Drahtklange"8 refers to the telegraph wires as the harp which voices the joys and sorrows of humanity. "An eine junge Hollanderin"^ gives us an extremely realistic picture of a railroad depot. In the latter poem we hear the shrill whistle of the official, loud cries, and see the doors leading to the trains flung open, as well as the train slowly start- ing to move amidst snorting and puffing. He sees women going out to work in offices which were once filled by men onlyio, and in "Fin de siecle"!* he imagines the future with its flying machines and its women who have lost their femininity.

ip. 178. 2p. 138. 3p. 175. 4p. 144. sp. i63. 6p. 173. 7p. 177. sp. 35. 9p. 96. io"Die Post-Elevin", p. 141. "part II, p. 65.

58

It is only occasionally that Saar treats of the higher society i. Much more remarkable are his descriptions of city life as it appears on the surface. The hot and noisy streets are repeatedly referred to2, "Lie- besszene" was inspired by a young couple reading a torn book at one of the tables in a summer garden. "Stimmen des Tages" tells of a sleepless night and the relief afforded by the arrival of the day, when sparrows begin to chirp and heavy vehicles start to roll by on the street. "Stadtsommer" more especially emphasizes the oppressive heat of the summer in a large city. "Vergessene Liebe"^ very realistically describes the market place at the dawn of day. "Schlaftrunkne Gaule zogen hinter sich die Karren mit Milch und mit Gemiise nach dem Markt, allwo beim Scheine wandelnder Laternen die Hokerweiber ihre Platze suchten", and "Mit Wagen kamen schon die Bauern; Schafe blokten, Kiihe briillten — " may serve as examples. In "Sonntag"* the poet de- scribes his Sunday afternoons; the streets are deserted, and he spends his time in reading. "Wie lieb ich es, an Sonntagsnachmittagen allein zu sitzen im vertrauten Zimmer". The sun shines shrough the window and casts a golden glow over his book.

Rural life is only rarely pictured by Saar, although the story of a runaway cow underlies the poem "Die Kuh"^, and "Das junge Weib"^ gives us a realistic description of a peasant woman washing a pan in a village street. On the other hand there is a great deal of realistic na- ture painting in Saar. The silent and oppressive heat of summer^, the dreary sadness of autumn^, when one can walk over damp and barren fields, where the feet of the pedestrian sink deep into the mud, and when the noise of the distant ax in the forest creates the real November at- mosphere^, a winter nightio, the pale winter sun and the cruel winter stormsii, the melting of the snow ("horbar tropft es im Kreis"i2), and the icy winds of early spring, when there are still traces of snow in shady placesi3, all this is concretely and vividly presented to us by Saar. "Auf der Lobau"!* describes the river quietly flowing past shores cov- ered with brush; alder trees, white poplars, and the cry of the heron

i"Wohtatigkeits-Redoute", p. 164; "Das erwachende Schloss", p. 132. 2"Stadtsommer", p. 24; "Stimmen des Tages", p. 28; "Liebesszene", p. 108. 3p. 101. 4p. 57. 5p. 130. 6p. 135. 7'Xied", p. 20; "Opfer- stunde", p. 91. 8"Landschaft im Spatherbst", p. 36. 9"Novemberlied", p. 115. io"Winterabend", p. 24. ^Abschied von Kaltenleutgaben", part II, p. 21. i2"Tauwetter", p. 25. i3"Die Lerche", p. 72. i^p. 84.

59

give atmosphere to the landscape. It is so quiet that the motion of the butterfly and the breath of the roe are almost audible. "Der Trauer- mantel"! describes the butterfly in the garden: "Einmal noch umkrei- sest du das weite Beet — dann, hohen Schwungs, entflatterst du ins nahe Dickicht, wo Fichtenzweige hell stammige Birken umdtistern".

Aside from the poems of the slums, the big city, and the concrete, re- alistic treatment of nature, Saar has written several poems which re- flect upon life in general in a most realistic way. It has been pointed out that he is especially successful as- a realistic portrayer of women2. Again and again he reflects upon the tragedy of women who begin to show their age^. In "Das alte Ehepaar"^ he reflects upon an old couple who have learned to understand and appreciate each other only with the approach of old age. In "Amara"^ the poet is shown as looking over old letters and a faded photograph ; he is unable to understand how he could once fall in love with the woman whose picture he has before him. This poem is also decidedly realistic in tone.

CONCLUSION

To sum up the development of naturalism, we might say that the early folk-song realism made its appearance in German poetry shortly after 1770. The first evidences of socialism are also to be found at this time. This realism, first more or less limited to rural and outdoor life began to be transferred to urban and indoor life after 1800. At the same time a nev/ and more modern note was sounded by several poets, such as the later Goethe, even more by Brentano and Chamisso, and especially by Heine ; the latter poet gives the most pronounced evidence of the break with romantic idealism and of the blending of the folk-song realism with the modern spirit, although much of the Heinesque spirit had already been foreshadowed by Brentano and Chamisso.

The most minute analysis, especially of nature, is to be found in the poetry of Annette von- Droste-Hiilshoff ; Hebbel's "Mutter und Kind" stands out as one of the earliest attempts to picture a "milieu" in the slums of a large city; Theodor Storm again unites most of the natural- istic traits found in German poetry before his time. The realistic treat- ment of Berlin life by Fontane and the treatment of the slums by Saar already bring us to the naturalistic period proper.

ip. 72. 2see Minor's "Ferdinand von Saar": Liepsic and Vienna, 1898. 3"Clarisse", p. 38; "Ottilie", p. 106; "Die alternde Magd", p. 140. 4p. 136. 5p. 104.

60

We may now turn to the question as to whether we are justified in considering the appearance of Liliencron's "Adjutantenritte" in 1884 as the beginning of a new period in German poetry. It is generally accepted that the appearance of a great and original personality as that of Liliencron had dealt a death blow to the period of imitation and sen- timental idealism, to the "Epigonenlyrik". On the other hand, the naturalists have added very little, if anything, in regard to striking in- novations as to subject matter or even expression. But, although all naturalistic details are to be found before 1884, the naturalists have been more consistently and more exclusively naturalistic than most of the poets before 1884. It will also be noted that the most naturalistic of the poems of Fontane and Saar are the later ones which have been written after the advent of the naturalistic period.

61

INDEX

Anacreontic Poetry, 1, 4, 9, 12, 15. Freiligrath, 48.

Anzengruber, 54. Geographical Knowledge, 7.

Arndt, E. M., 18. Geological Terms, 39.

Arnim, 18, 19. Gessner's Idyls, 5.

Arnold, Mathew, 1. Goethe, 11, 31.

Astronomical Knowledge, 27, 50. Grisebach, Eduard, 31, 53.

Bdranger, 2, 23. Groth, Klaus, 42.

Brentano, 19. Griibel, 11, 17.

Brockes, 6. Griin, A., 36.

Browning, 2. Hain, 5, 14, 19.

Burger, 9. Haller, 7.

Burns, 2. Hauptmann's "Before Dawn", 10.

Byron, 1. Hebbel, 48.

Chamisso, 23, 48. Hebel, 11, 15, 42.

Classical French Drama, 1. Heine, 3, 20, 21, 23, 24, 27, 53.

Claudius, Mathias, 8, 11. Herder, 4.

Coleridge, 1. Hermann und Dorothea, 15.

Contemporary Events Treated, 10, Holderlin, 2.

18, 22, 24, 26, 32, 50, 51, 57. Holty, 8.

Conventional Language in Mouth Homer, 1, 4, 6, 10.

of Peasants, 8, 14, 25. Individual References, 3, 9, 11, 13,

Corneille, 3. 31.

Des Knaben Wunderhorn, 18. Interiors Portrayed, 13, 17, 21, 23,

Dialect Employed, 6, 15-17, 42-45. 26, 28, 36, 44, 46, 49, 52.

Didactic Tendencies, 7, 16. Keats, 1.

Dingelstedt, P., 34. Keller, 50.

Droste-Hiilshoff, Annette v., 5, 35, Kerner, 22, 24.

37, 44, 45, 46, 48,^57, 60. Kleist, Ewald v., 7.

Expression, Freedom of, 2, 8, 9, 13, Lenau, 34.

14, 28, 42, 48, 53. Lenz, 10.

Faust, Goethe's, 12. Liliencron, 3, 18.

Folk-song, 1, 4, 8, 10, 12, 18, 21, 22, MacPherson's Ossian, 4, 10.

25, 35, 52. Miller, J. P., 8.

Fontane, 54. Moli^re, 3.

Foreign Words, 7, 20, 28. Miiller, Wilhelm, 15, 25.

Mythology References to, 4, 8. Saar, F. v., 54, 57.

Nature, 35; cruelty, 19, 35, 52; dis- Satire, 7, 23, 26, 31, 42, 51, 55.

agreeable aspects, 5, 13, 17, 21, Schenkendorf, 17, 18.

24, 34, 38, 51, 52, 54, 59; minute Schiller, 15, 31.

treatment, 2, 6, 9, 11, 17, 22, 27, Schubart. 9.

37, 39, 43, 52; personified, 16, 33; Scientific Spirit, 2, 37.

odors in nature, 6, 17, 37, 40, 52; Shelley, 1.

sounds in nature, 5, 26, 37, 40, Silesian Schools, 4.

44, 52,; nature sounds imitated. Social Compassion, 3, 6, 9, 10, 19,

38; useful in nature, 6. 34, 42, 49, 51, 58.

Novalis, 18. Social Revolution, 36, 50, 51, 57, 58.

Peasants, see Rural Life. Storm, T., 52.

Percy's Reliques, 4, 10. Swinburne, 2.

Platen, 2. Symbolists, 18, 21.

Proletarians, 3, 5, 22, 23, 49, 51, Tennyson, 1.

57-58. Theory of Naturalism, 9, 1 1, 21, 25, Prostitutes, 19, 31, 49, 53. 29.

Railroad, 22, 34, 36, 48, 50, 53, 56, Tieck, 18.

58. Trivial Details, 5, 9, 14, 17, 25, 26, Renaissance, 3, 11. 30, 35, 45, 50.

Repast Described, 6, 33, 47. Uhland, 15, 25.

Roman Elegies of Goethe, 12, 14. Urban Realism, Beginnings of, 7, Romanticism, Break With, 15, 22, 14, 16, 17, 20, 21, 23; street

29, 32, 34, 39, 52. scenes, 20, 28, 40, 45, 49, 50, 54,

Rosetti, 2. 55, 57, 58, 59.

Rousseau, 3, 4-5, 10. Verlaine, 23.

Ruckert, 26, 35, 48. Voss, J. H., 5, 11, 12, 25.

Rural Life, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 16, Wedekind, 20, 31.

19, 36, 43, 44, 46, 49; rural par- Wordsworth, 2, 36.

son, 6, 40, 46; rural schoolmaster, Xenien, Zahme, 12.

6.

AUTOBIOGRAPHY

I, Erwin Herbert Bohm, was born in Cleveland, Ohio, November 23, 1893. I received my secondary school education at the Realgym- nasium in Weimar, Germany; my undergraduate education at Ohio State University, from which I obtained the degree of Bachelor of Arts in 1914 and the degree of Master of Arts in 1915. The year 1915-16 was spent at the University of Wisconsin as Henry Gund Scholar in German Literature. The degree of Doctor of Philosophy was conferred upon me by Ohio State University in 1917 after a one year residence on a University Fellowship.

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