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A DICTIONARY

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Practical Apiculture.

GiVING THE CORRECT MEAN:NG OF NEARLY FIVE HUNDRED
TERMS, ACCORDING TO THE USAGE OF THE BEST
WRITERS. INTENDED AS A GUIDE TO UNI-
FORMITY OF EXPRESSION AMONGST

Bee - KEEPERS.

With Numerous Illustrations, Notes and Practical Hints.

~
LA ===
°

' [ ve
‘as BY JOHN PHIN,

AUTHOR OF ‘‘HOW TO USE THE MICROSCOPE,” ETC. EDITOR OF

‘“THE YOUNG SCIENTIST.”

anny OF COVE
OO ay, ee
NEW YORK:
THE INDUSTRIAL PUBLICATION COMPANY,
1884.

Copyright Securea, 1884, by Fohn Phin

Entered Aceording to Act of Congress, in the Year 1884,
BY JOHN PHIN,
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D, C.

12g ag ab ahve oS) ae d

THE compilation of the following collection of terms used in Bee-
keeping was commenced some years ago, when the author held the
position of Professor of Agriculture in the Agricultural College of the
State of Pennsylvania. We believe the first Lectures on Apiculture
ever delivered in any College or Technological School in this country,
and practically illustrated by bees and hives, were those given by the
author, during the year 1867, at the institution just named.

In preparing his lectures, the author was impressed with the im-
portance of securing uniformity, accuracy, and definiteness in the
terms used, and as a guide for himself and students, he compiled a
brief vocabulary, extending to about two hundred and fifty vocables.

For some years subsequent to this time, he was unable to devote
any attention to bcee-keeping ; the subject consequently dropped from
his mind, the MSS. was laid away with other things, and by the merest
accident escaped the disastrous fire at 37 Park Row, New York, which
destroyed the author’s working library, in January, 1881, as only a few
days before the flre occurred the box containing it was removed to
his residence. Having been recently placed in a position to resume
his interest in that most fascinating of all pursuits—Apiculture—the
old notes were found, and a perusal of them brought up many strange
thoughts and associations. A pretty wide reading of books and jour-
nals, during the past year or two, had impressed the author more
than ever with the importance of some general guide on this subject,
and as the same feeling seemed to have taken possession of the minds
of many prominent apiculturists, it was decided to publish it.

To this end the entire vocabulary was re-written and revised, so
that the work has been brought down to the latest date. Few persons
can have any idea of the amount of labor that this has involved, but
notwithstanding the apparently very simple character of the volume
which is the result, the number of general lexicons, special treatises
on bees (from old Gervase Markham, 1610, down to Alley’s work on
Queen-Rearing), journals and technical works which have been laid
under contribution, is a surprise to the author himself, now that the
work is completed. He has taken nothing on trust, but has en-
deavored to refer to original authorities in every case, and as the
great libraries of New York are singularly deficient in works on bee-
keeping, he has been compelled to rely wholly on his own collection.
This may possibly induce the reader to exercise more than usual
leniency in regard to the shortcomings of the book.

A word or two in regard to the authorities upon whom we have
relied may not be out of place. These authorities are of two very dis-
tinct kinds: 1. Works and papers on Apiculture ; and 2. Dictionaries
and treatises on Technology.

66

il | PREFACE.

It is an unfortunate fact that most of the writers on bee-keeping
have been deficient in general education—some of them even lament-
ing this fact in their works. Ofcourse there are some notable excep-
tions—Markham (1610), Warder (1676), Dunbar, Cotton, Bevan, Lang-
stroth, Cook, and a few others. We therefore find words used by such
writers in different senses, and in many cases improperly—as, for
example, the words hatch, hybrid, rabbet, etc. Now, while we have
entered our pretest against the improper use of well-known words,
we must remember that in the false senses thus given to them, they
have crept into general use, and such use is not to be lightly changed.
As Herschel well says: ‘* Hardly anything can counterbalance the
evil of disturbing well-established names, which have once acquired a
general circulation.” Moreover it must be borne in mind that the
functions of a technical dictionary like the present are two-fold: It
should not only give the right word for the right place, but it should
enable us to understand the writings of all those who have treated
upon the subject. We at first proposed to confine this lexicon to
those words only which are in general use, but we soon found the im-
possibility of so doing. The great difficulty of drawing any well-
defined line rendered such a course out of the question. We have
therefore given every word specially related to bee-keeping. with the
exception of general botanical and entomological terms. To have in-
cluded these would have doubled the size of the volume, without any
corresponding practical gain. So, too, we have not deemed it advis-
able to discuss the names of special forms except in a general way.
Thus we give not only hive, but box hive, movable frame-hive, leaf-
hive, etc., but we have not felt that it came within the scope of
our work to give descriptions of such modifications as the American
hive, the Gallup hive, etc., ete. Neither have we attempted to
exclude objectionable words. We have rather aimed to give every
word, simply contenting ourselves with marking those that are obso-
lete or improper. Even such an absurd term as moth-miller finds its
place in this Dictionary, so that the student may be warned against its
use. Therefore, even the catalogues of dealers have been ransacked
for terms and descriptions of various articles. Having secured the list
of vocables, the next step was to note their meaning and mark those
which are obsolete or improper. In this connection it will be found
by the careful student that as regards technical subjects, we have,
amongst our dictionaries, no wtimate authority—that is to say, none
from whose decisions we do not feel perfectly at liberty to appeal
without hesitation. Those who have studied our best and ablest dic-
tionaries must have felt that in many points their deficiencies, as re-
gards technical subjects, are so great that no independent worker will
consent to be trammeled by them. We acknowledge them as au-
thorities only when we know them to be right.

aaa

PREFACE, i 111

The list of the dictionaries which have served us in the preparation
of this volume, includes all those of most importance. Beginning
with Bailey (1735), Walker (1798), and adding Johnson, Ogilvie (‘' The
Imperial Dictionary,” 4 vols., edited by Annandale), Richardson (edi-
tions of 1838 and 1865), Webster, Worcester, and several minor ones,
we have generally been able to get not only the wsual meaning of the
word under consideration, but its scope and and proper application.
When any doubt occurred as to the propriety of the application of any
word, we have sought firm ground through the medium of its history
and etymology, and in this direction Skeats’ Dictionary has proved
invaluable. For special information in regard to chemical subjects
we have relied upon Watt’s ‘‘ Dictionary of Chemistry” (8 vols.), and
the works of Wagner, Muspratt, etc. The technical dictionaries of
Ure (4 vols. 1878), Brande (3 vols. 1875), and the ‘* Cyclopedia of
Anatomy and Physiology,” edited by Todd (5 vols. v. d.) have often
been of service. From recent general cyclopedias, -properly so-
called, we have never received any very great assistance, and there-
fore have never made any special efforts to add them to our library.
From the older cyclopedia of Rees, and the ‘* Penny Cyclopedia,”
much interesting historical matter may be gleaned. These we have,
as also the ‘‘ Lexicon Technicum ” of Harris (1710), Jamieson’s ‘* Dic-
tionary of Arts and Sciences,” Gwilt’s ‘* Cyclopedia of Architecture,”
Nicholson’s ** Architectural Dictionary,” etc., all of which have been
occasionally consulted with good results. The Botanical Glossaries of
the late Prof. Balfour, and of M. C. Cooke, we have referred to for
some words. In entomology, Westwood, Burmeister, Kirby and
Spence, Harris, Duncan, Packard and Shuckard have been at hand.

In matters of general apicultural practice we have depended largely
upon our own experience, which began more than a quarter of a cen-
tury ago, and enables us to look back with interest to the time when
we procured our first Italian Queen from the early product of the
importation of S. B. Parsons. This we have supplemented with the
records given by others in the journals devoted to apiculture. We
were among the early subscribers to the American Bee Journal, and
although we did not take it for many years, we have now a nearly
complete set of this most valuable periodical.

Throughout the work we have endeavored to reach a dispassionate
and unprejudiced conclusion as to the value and significance of each
word as used by the best authorities. It is only in a few cases that we
have obtruded our own personal preferences and opinions as against
the general custom. In some of these instances we are so clearly aud
decidedly right that the words we condemn will never again be used
by respectable writers in the senses which we have condemned. Such
words are hatch, rabbet, and a few others. Then we have words in
regard to which we know we are right, though we are not quite so

1V PREFACE.

sure of being able to convince others of the fact ; fertile and hybrid
are good examples of such words. And lastly, there are the com-
pound words formed from the word egg: Egg-workers, egg-drones,
egg-queens. In regard to these, all we can say is that if we are not
right we ought to be. Philologically and scientifically we are correct;
whether others will see it in the same light that we do is of course a
question to be determined. We await the decision of the majority.
It may, not, however, be out of place to present here the reasons for
the change, which we have proposed. In speaking of the different
kinds of eggs laid by the queen (perhaps different conditioned eggs
would be more correct, as all the eggs are probably of one kind) it is
usual to speak of ‘‘ worker eggs” and ‘* drone eggs,” when we wish
to designate eggs which respectively will produce drones or workers.

Now, to the ordinary reader, knowing nothing of bee-keeping, but
thoroughly understanding English, these terms would signify eggs
laid by workers and by drones, just as we speak of hen eggs, duck
eggs, turkey eggs, when we refer to eggs laid by turkeys, ducks and
hens. And in fact the term worker eggs does sometimes mean eggs laid
by workers. The ordinary expressions, therefore, are not only non-
sense, but absolutely incorrect in some cases; for example, we have
no such thing as ‘‘ drone eggs;” drones do not lay eggs. But if we
use the word egg as a prefix to the words drone, worker, queen, we
then express accurately the facts in the case and ‘ egg-drones,”
‘‘ego-workers,” and ‘‘egg-queens,” denote queens, workers and
drones in the condition of eggs. We thus secure scientific accuracy,
and avoid the double meaning which attaches at present to the ex-
pression ‘t worker eggs.”

We have included in this Dictionary the names of the different new
races of bees that have been described and recommended. It is-
proper to say that in this department we have had little or no experi-
ence; the descriptions have been copied from the best accessible
sources, and are given for what they are worth.

In sending forth this little work the author would ask those into
whose hands it may fall to give him, either personally or through the
Bee Journals, such criticisms on mistakes and omissions as their
knowledge may suggest. All such criticisms will be taken kindly,
where kindly meant, for no one appreciates more fully than he does
the shortcomings of this work. And although it is one of the sound
canons of literature—one which the writer has never yet violated—
that an author should not reply to his critics, yet in this case, as he
believes that the general good will be best served by so doing, he will
either accept any sensible corrections that may be offered, or give his

reasons for rejecting them.
JOHN PHIN.

Cedar Brae, Paterson, N. J., March, 1884.

INTRODUCTION.

‘The imposition of a name on any subject of contemplation, be it a
material object, a phenomenon of nature, or a group of facts and rela-
tions, looked upon in a peculiar point of view, is an epoch in its his-
tory of great importance. It not only enables us readily to refer to it
in conversation or writing, without circumlocution, but, what is of
more consequence, it gives it a recognized existence in our own
minds, as a. matter for separate and peculiar consideration ; places it
on a list for examination ; and renders it a head or title, under which
information of various descriptions may be arranged ; and, in conse-
quence, fits it to perform the office of a connecting link between all
the subjects to which such information may refer.”

Sir J. F. W. Herschell.

Not only is our language governed by our ideas, but our
ideas, thoughts, and reasoning are too often governed by
our language. Loose language is the invariable accom-
paniment of indefinite thoughts, while that which can be
clearly expressed is in general clearly and definitely com-
prehended. And the logician well knows the dangerous
fallacies which may be introduced by giving one meaning
to certain terms at one time, and a different meaning at
another. ‘The use of language is not confined to its -
being the medium through which we communicate our
ideas to one another ; it fulfils a no less important function
as an instrument of thought, not being merely its vehicle,
but giving it wings for flight. Metaphysicians are agreed
that scarcely any of our intellectual operations could be
carried on, to any considerable extent, without the agency
of words. None but those who are conversant with the
philosophy of mental phenomena can be aware of the im-
mense influence that is exercised by language in promoting
the development of our ideas, in fixing them in the mind
and detaining them for steady contemplation. In every
process of reasoning, language enters as an essential ele-
ment, Words are the instruments by which we form all

Vill INTRODUCTION.

our abstractions, by which we fashion and embody our
ideas, and by which we are enabled to glide along a series
of premises and conclusions with a rapidity so great as
to leave in the memory no trace of the successive steps of
the process; and we remain unconscious how much we
owe to this potent auxilary of the reasoning faculty.”—
Loget.

It is obvious, however, that if language is to serve us in
any such capacity as this, its terms must be accurate and
precise, and this precision which is so desirable for our own
sakes becomes imperative, if we would seek to learn from
others or to teach them. If in ordinary technical matters
the terms used are indefinite, we must fail to understand
or to be understood, and if they have several different
meanings, we will soon find ourselves in the condition of ©
the workers at Babel—asking for bricks and getting
mortar.

Care should therefore be taken to secure uniformity, and
this can only be done by carefully studying the different
meanings ‘which have been accepted for different words,
-and rigorously adopting one to the exclusion of all the rest.

It is true that in addition to accuracy a certain degree
of elegance is desirable. This can best be attained by
careful attention to the principles which govern the con-
struction and use of language, and the exclusion of certain
words which are inelegant, unpronounceable, and formed in
violation of the accepted canons of philology. A general
treatise upon this subject would occupy more space than
this entire volume, but it may not be out of place to state
a few obvious elementary principles.

t. The first rule which ought to govern us in the use of
technical terms is that if possible no word should have more
than one meaning. Ignorant and uneducated persons who
devise a new article are very apt to call it by some name
which has already been appropriated to something else,
and the consequence is that our technical dictionaries are
full of words of double meaning. Better banish a word
altogether than allow it to have two meanings. Fortun-
ately, however, in bee-keeping, things have not gone so
far that it is impossible to introduce a reform, provided suf:

INTRODUCTION: a 1x

ficient authority be given to the right words to enforce their
use by writers on subjects connected with this art. The
words, colony, hatch, hive, stock, swarm, and some others,
are all used at present in several senses, but the true meaning
of each is so obvious that it forces. itself upon the student
as soon as it is presented, and then there is no danger of
its ever afterwards being used in-a wrong sense except in a
moment of thoughtlessness from force of habit. We must
acknowledge, however, that this latter danger is one that is
not to be despised.

The words cap, clamp, rack, transfer, etc., have each
more than one legitimate meaning, and it will be difficult,
perhaps, to eradicate altogether the confusion which thus
arises. We have made some progress in our efforts to
present the subject clearly and soundly, but the matter is
not yet fully matured. It demands very thorough examin-
ation and great caution, and should be fully discussed in
the public journals before it is embodied in a book.

The second rule is, that well-known words, when
used in a technical sense, should depart to as slight a de-
gree as possible from the meaning which they have in
ordinary language. It will be found that the great ma-
jority of technical words are merely ordinary words with a
somewhat new meaning added; therefore they should
hever acquire a signification which shall be opposed to
this meaning. ‘This occurs, however, more frequently
than one would suppose, and always without any good
reason. Let us take the word zadbdet as an example. As
ordinarily used, and as applied technically by the carpen-
ter, it has a well-defined and fixed meaning, and signifies

the recess which is made in the edge of a
board by removing a portion of the wood.

R Thus, for example, in the accompanying cut
Ris the rabbet. With the movable frame hive
came a necessity for a recess in which the
arms of the frames might rest, and as_ this
recess was called a rabbet, the word came to
be commonly used amongst bee-keepers ; but,
unfortunately, to their minds it conveyed an

RABBET, : .
idea equivalent to that of dcaring or support,

x INTRODUCTION. .

And so when it occurred to somebody to attach a thin”
strip of metal to the edge of the rabbet, so as to make it
impossible for the bees to glue the arms fast, these strips
were called rabbets!

’ TIN BEARING.

In the accompanying figure is shown a section of the
upper edge of the end of a hive, B, and on the rabbet is ~
se-n a curved piece of tin, A, one edge of which is in-
tended to support the arm, c, of the frame. ‘These tin
strips, A, are catalogued and sold as vabbets—the fact being
that they are just the opposite of rabbets!!| The proper
name for them is deavings or supports.

Another word which has been changed somewhat in its
meaning, though not wholly by bee-keepers, is the word
fertile. Of this word Worcester judiciously remarks:
“ Fertile is applied especially to the soil; fraetful to trees
and vegetables; prolific to animals” (See Worcester’s Dic-
tionary, s.v. fertile). It 1s now used by writers on bee-
keeping to signify pregnant, and the word fertilize is em-
‘employed as equivalent to zmpregnate. ‘This misuse of the
word came about through the botanists in this wise:
Botany being a favorite study with young ladies of such
an age that these words could not be used without a cer-
tain degree of indelicacy, teachers very commendably
looked about for some other expression, ‘and adopted
Jertile and its derivatives. From the botanists it passed to
the bee-keepers, but without the same good reasons. ‘To

“its use there are many objections, and it is strange that it
should ever have been adopted, when the proper word

.

INTRODUCTION. xl

‘fas been in general use so long. This word is fecundate,*
with its derivatives as given in the body of this work.

This tendency to soften such expressions as convey
coarse or indelicate ideas is a marked, and, from a certain
point of view, a laudable trait; but, unfortunately, it is apt
to introduce confusion by destroying the sharp clearness of
our expressions, and by giving more than one meaning to
each word. -The tendency is well illustrated in the mod-
ern use of the word meat, which formerly was generally
used to signify food of any kind, but has now come to
serve as a substitute for the word /esh—the latter having
been banished as conveying ideas of carrion and objection-
able objects. If we ask a modern housekeeper if she has
any meat in the house, she will certainly say “ No!” unless
her larder is provided with flesh of some kind, just as the
little girl was puzzled to know why her papa said grace
before tea—there being no flesh on the table, and her
catechism expressly giving the grace as “to be said before
meat.”

This tendency towards euphemism, as it is called, that
is, a softening of speech, is very general. It is seen in the
use of the words “plain” for “ugly; “fast” for “ dissi-
pated;” “gallant” for “licentious,” and others. But it
tends to defeat the very object which it has in view, as is
well illustrated by Mill in his “System ot Logic,” by the
following anecdote: At a certain period in French his-
tory the expression “to esteem” came to denote more than
modern dictionaries give as its meaning. In short, it be-
came a euphemism for licentiousness. A certain lady of
the Court of France, when at confession one day, acknowl.
edged. that she had an “esteem” for a certain cavalier.
““Combien de fois avez vous estimé ?” was the question

*For authorities on this point, see Cuvier’s *‘ Animal Kingdom,’
edi‘ed by Prof. W. B. Carpenter, the well-known author of a Soeaata
work on Physiology, and Prof. J. O. Westwood, whose work on Ento-
mology, in 2 vols., is an acknowledged authority. These two gentle-
men are perhaps the highest authorities i in the language. In giving
the technical terms used in Zoology, at page 28 we find the following : ;
‘** When there are sexes the male sex fecwndates.” In the translation
of Huber’s work, published in Edinburgh and London (Second’ Edi-
tion, 1808), the word ae is always used. See “PBESs 8, 18, 20,
28, 33, 37, 44, etc., etc.

Xil INTRODUCTION.

which came quickly back, and this having got abroad, put a
stop forever to that use of the word.

The euphemism of to-day becomes the indelicate expres-
sion of to-morrow, and while we have really gained noth-
ing, we have introduced confusion and error.

3. Scientific precision is an end that should always be
carefully sought in our expressions. We do not mean by
this that many-syllabled scientific terms should be used in
preference to simpler words found in common use, but
where the ordinary expression is. loose and indefinite, the
scientific word should always be used. A good example
of this is found in the words moth and miller. Miller is no
doubt a proper general term for the insect that has caused -
so much injury to bees, but then it is applied equally to
any small butterfly as well as toa moth proper. Moth, on
the other hand, has come to have a precise scientific mean-
ing, and is altogether the best word. On the other hand,
good, plain, common words are sometimes to be greatly
preferred to the scientific substitutes used in their place,
for the simple reason that the common name denotes the
commercial article, while the scientific term can be
properly applied only to a pure product, which bee-keepers
rarely use, and to this extent it is inaccurate. Such a
word is farina , it formerly meant flour or meal, and has
been used asa synonym for pollen; it now means starch,
or rather the pure starchy powder obtained from various
grains. It is needless to say that true farina is not used by
beekeepers; they use meal and flour, and these names are
altogether to be preferred.

4. A certain degree of elegance and force should always
be sought by every writer, and it will be found that short,
familiar, anglo-saxon words are always to be preferred to
those long compounds adopted from other languages.
“Matrimonial excursion” is not nearly so good as
“ wedding flight”; “handling” is, in most cases, greatly
to be preferred to “ manipulation,” though, the two words
not being gwizée synonymous, the term “ manipulation,”
which has a sub-audition of operating which handling lacks,
cannot be altogether dispensed with. ‘The same is true of
the words “ apiculture,” “ bee-keeping,” and several others,

INTRODUCTION. xiii

The inappropriate use of high- sounding words of foreign
origin is exceedingly ridiculous, and, strange to say, it is
not always the uneducated that are guilty 1 in this respect.
To use a technical word properly requires a knowledge
not only of language, but of the arts, and with the latter
there are but few classically educated men who are con-
versant. An instance came to our knowledge, a short
time ago, where the head master of a classical school, not
a thousand miles from New York, had presented to him
for examination a new style of joint for uniting the pipes
forming the water supply and sewage systems of buildings.
The word joint, however, was too simple; in his eyes the
term was “common,” and therefore “unclean.” Conse-
quently, throughout the whole conversation he substituted
the word “articulation” for joint —thus not only making
himself ridiculous, but committing a positive error.

Hybrid words, that is, words which are made up of
parts from different languages, are always inelegant, and
should be rigorously condemned and thrown out of use.
Such a word is Bee-culture. ‘The first half is English, the
second part is Latin, and the whole may be called “ Maca-
ronic.”* The word Aficulture, on the other hand, is a
legitimate word, and may well take its place beside Agri-
culture, Arboriculture, Floriculture, Horticulture, Pisci-
culture, Sericulture, Sylviculture, Viticulture, ete; etC.,al-
though it is not found in the unabridged edition of
“ Webster’s Dictionary.”

In some instances, an attempt has been made to
adapt English words to special cases which they do not
cover. This should be avoided, even at the cost of using
a purely Latin or Greek word. Thus the word midrib has
been used to denote the septum or partition between the
two sheets of cells which are found in every comb. Now

*The term ‘‘ Macaronic” is applied to prose or poetry in wliich two
languages are mixed up, each following its own inflections, The
well-known verses, beginning—

‘* Felis sedit by a hole.
Intenta she cum omni soul,
Prendere rats.”

form a good specimen of macaronic poetry.

X1Vv INTRODUCTION.

the word “midrib,” though good English, does not meet
the case. It is a modern word, not found in Bailey (1735),
Walker (1798), Richardson’s Ed. of 1838, or even in
Maunder (1838), who picked up almost everything in
common use. Skeat does not give it. So far as we
have been able to trace its history, it would appear to
be a modern word used only by botanists to designate
that extension of the petiole which passes along the mid-
dle of a leaf, and to apply it to the thin sheet of wax
which forms the division between the ends of the two sets
of cells in a piece of honey comb is decidedly wrong. The
word septum, however, is short, easily pronounced, explicit,
and, in spite of its Latin form, should be adopted. .Vhe
word diaphragm might be used, but has never been sug-
gested, so far as we know; it has no advantage over scf-
tum, and its length and complexity are against it.

DICTIONARY

on (RE

PRACTICAL APICULTURE.

Abbreviations.—Certain words in frequent use are generally
abbreviated or contracted by writers on Bee-Keeping. This is
certainly unobjectionable, being the same practice followed by
botanists and others, and to those who are familiar with them
they cause no confusion, though beginners are sometimes puz-
zled. The following are the principal abbreviations that we
have met in the works in common use:

Cb. ae L. Langstroth.

Cmb. ew L. F. Langstroth Frame.
Fdn. Foundation. Q. Quinby.

Hy, . Hives: Qa Quinby Frame.

Abbreviations which though not peculiar to Bee- Keeping are
used in this book:

a. Adjective.

n. Noun.

q. v. Quod vide—which see—when placed after: a word it
means: Refer to that word. Thus: Comb (q. v.) directs us to
look up the word Comb for further information.

s. v. Sub verbo. Under the word or title. Thus: s. v. Race
means that the desired information: will be found under the
title or heading Race.

v. Verb.

In the following pages we have indicated the part of speech
of a word only when the same word occurs, sometimes as one
part of speech, and sometimes as another.

Abdomen.—tThe third or most posterior of the sections into
‘which the body of the bee is externally divided. It consists in
‘the males of seven, and in the females of six segments. It con-
tains the principal ENE and respiratory and the whole of
‘the generative organs.

ee DICTIONARY OF

t
*

Abnormal Swarm.—A swarm is abnormal when it comes out
under unusual conditions. (Abnormal meaning without law or
contrary to known laws). In many cases, however, a colony leaves
its hive in a body without really having the swarming impulse
(See Swarming Impulse). Colonies under such conditions can-
not properly be called swarms. The term Deserting Colony (q. v.)
expresses the facts in a more satisfactory manner.

Absconding Swarm.-—This term has been applied to a colony
of bees under two very different conditions. The first and un-
questionably the proper signification is a swarm, which, forming —
only part of the original colony, comes out under regular condi-
tions and absconds or leaves for parts unknown. But sometimes
it is applied to a colony which deserts its hive in a body—a
phenomenon only too well known to careless bee-keepers. In
the latter case there is nothing of the ‘‘ swarming” character
about the affair (See Swarm), and the term ‘‘ Deserting Colony”
would express the facts in a much better manner.

Adapter. —‘‘ A board to set ees on.”—Keys. What is now ©
called a Honey-board.

Adulteration.—‘This term is only properly applied to the
adding of substances to articles of commerce, food or drink, for
the purposes of deception or gain; but the term, by magistrates
or analysts, is often practically applied to accidental impurity,
or even in some cases to actual substitution.” — Blyth. The strict
etymological meaning of the word is the adding of something
else, but like most other words, this one has come to have a
much wider, though quite legitimate, signification. It includes
the taking away, as well as the adding, of important ingredients.
Thus tea and coffee may be properly said to be adulterated
when the theine and caffeine have been abstracted, and: sold
separately, and the leaves or ground berries are then offered
for sale as new.

The more common adulterations of the articles connected
with apiculture will be found under the heads, Honey, Sugar,
Was.

Adulteration is one of the greatest enemies of the bee-keeper,
as it not only excites suspicion in the minds of the public, but
by unfair competition lowers the price of the pure article. Bee-
keepers throughout the country should unite to secure laws
visiting severe penalties upon this crime. We cannot trust to
our scientific professors to expose and condemn it, as the his-
tory of oleomargarine very sadly showed. Indeed the names of
many of our college professors are better known in connection
with puffs of commercial articles, than for scientific research.
The reform must begin with the people.

After-Swarms.—Swarms which come out a short time after
the first swarm are called after-swarms, and are always led by
virgin queens, of which they sometimes contain several. When
sufficient time elapses for the supernumerary queens to be de-

PRACTICAL APICULTURE. 9
stroyed in the original stock, the new queen to be fecundated,
and queen cells to be raised from her progeny, the swarm may
be called a lateswarm, but cannot be calied an after-swarm. Such
& swarm is a prime swarm, as much as one sent out in May, be-
cause it is led by an old queen.

Air-Space—Dead.—A space filled with air and so completely
enclosed that there is no communication with the external at-
mosphere. Such a space has been recommended by many
prominent writers as being quite as good a non-conductor of
heat as a similar space filled with loose material like straw, dry
leaves, chaff, etc. This is a great mistake. The air, owing to
its great mobility, carries the heat rapidly from one side of the
apartment to the other, and so allows it to be dissipated. In fit-
ting up hives with double walls for the purpose of protecting
the inmates from great cold or sudden changes of weather, the
space between the walls should always be packed with some
light, porous material, which will effectually prevent all circula-
tion of air in the confined space.

Albino.—By this term is properly meant a person or animal
having an unnatural whiteness of the skin and hair, and what
are called red eyes, the latter appearance being due to the en-
tire absence of pigmentary matter, so that the pupil shows red.
The term was first applied by the Portuguese to certain negroes
they found ou the coast of Africa, and who were born mottled
of disfigured with white spots. Inthe albinos the eye is very
weak and is of but little use during the daytime, being capable
of seeing distinctly only in twilight or moonlight. Various
races of domestic animals, as rabbits, ferrets, cats, ete., fre-
quently show the albino peculiarity.

So much for the true albinos. The term is sometimes ap-
plied by bee-keepers to a strain of Italian bees which are rather
lighter than usual, and which has the rows of white hairs unusually
distinct. ‘‘ They are nota distinct race. In fact I have often no-
ticed among Italians the so-called Albinos.”— Cook.

Alighting Board.—A board upon which the bees alight when
they return to the hive. It may either be a part of the hive ora
simple board laid in front of the eutrance.

Apiarian.—The best authorities use this word as an adjective
only. ‘Thus we speak of ‘‘apiarian pursuits,” ‘‘apiarian pro-
ducts,” ‘‘apiarian implements,” etc. The use of the word as
denoting a pers*u who keeps bees is against good usage. See
Apiarist. as

Apiarist.—One who keeps or cares for an apiary. A bee-
keeper. Sometimes improperly called an Apiarian.

Apiary.—A place or establishment where bees are kept. The
term apiary may mean either the locality or the ‘‘ plant.”
Good custom sanctions both uses of the word.

Apiator.—A bee-keeper.

10 DICTIONARY OF

Apiculture.—Bee-keeping; the care and management of bees.
The word apicuture is not recognized by many of our standard
authorities, but we confess that we cannot see any objection to
it. 7 0 stands. on the same ground as arboriculture, horticulture,
viticulture, ete., all of which are generally accepted. On the gen-
eral principle that a good Anglo-Saxon word is always to be pre-
ferred when it can be used to equal advantage, we prefer the term
Bee-Keeping. to Apiculture, but at the same time it must be borne
in mind that apiculture has a somewhat broader signification
than . bee- leeeping. The term bee-keeping, therefore, cannot iyays
take the place of the word apiculture.

-Apide.—The name of the Family to. which the ee be-
longs. It includes several GENERA, one peas apis ip —- the
bee is found. See Apis.

Apis.—The name of the Genus in which. the honey-bee is
found. Great.differences of opinion exist as to the number of
species Which it includes. Westwood enumerates eight species, -
but later. entomologists are inclined to regard most of these as
mere varieties. Prof. Cook regards the. following as distinct:

Apis dorsata of India and the East ee known as the Great
Bee of Java.

' Apis Zonata of the same island.

' Apis Indica of India and China...

~ Apis Florea of India, Ceylon, China-and Borneo,

Apis mellifica, our common honey-bee, of which the more com-
mon; races will be found enumerated under the head Bee ir
this: dictionary. Those who wish to study the position of the
bee in the organic kingdom’ will find a most admirable resumé
of the subject in Prof. Cook’s ‘‘Manual of the Apiary.”’

See also Race, Variely, Species in this work

‘Artificial Comb.—See Comb, artificial.

Artificial Fecundation. —The impregnation of queens in con-
finement. Sometimes improperly called artificial fertilization.

Artificial Honey.—See Honey, artificial.

Artificial Pasturage.—Plants yielding honey and raised by
cultivation as opposed to those that grow wild.

Artificial Pollen,—Flour and meal of various kinds are errone-
ously so called because they are seamen y used as substitutes
for the pollen of flowers.

Artificial Swarm.—See Swarm, artificial.

Atavism.—This is a-medical term frequently used by breeders

of stock. It signifies the recurrence of any peculiarity or dis-

ease of an ancestor in a subsequent generation after an inter-
mission for a generation or two. See Crying Back.

- Balling a Queen.—Bees occasionally surround the queen in
a compact cluster or ‘‘ ball.” This is more apt to happen when
astrange queen is introduced to a colony, but sometimes a

ae PRACTICAL APICULTURE. Tt

colony will ball their own queen if unusually excited or dis-
turbed. ‘The term is used in either case. If not soon released
the queen dies and is thrown out of the hive. Dzierzon tells us
that bees sometimes’ ball their queen for the purpose of pro-
tecting her from the attacks of strange bees.

Sugar.—Sugar boiled till it is brittle when cool and
bias pea So-called because it used to be boiled with a de-
coction of barley. See Cundy.

Bar Hives.—Hives in which the combs are attached to bars
instead of being enclosed in frames. ‘The bar usually corres-
ponds to the top bar of the ordinary frame, and the comb is
suspended from it. It was used in early times, even before the
invention of the frame by Langstroth. ‘The frame has entirely
superseded itin this country, though, strange to say, it is still
used largely in Europe.

Barren.—Sterile. Incapable of producing young.

Bars.—Strips of wood to which combs are attached and from
which they hang in bar-hives. ee

Bee.—The term Bee or Honey-Bee is properly applied only to
the different species of the genus Apis (q. v.) which also include
several varieties or races. See Breed, Race, Variety. Under the
following heads: Albino, Black, Brown, Carniolan, Caucasian,
Cyprian, Dalmatian, Egyptian, German, Heath, Holyland, Italian,
Palestine, Syrian, will be a found a description of some of the
races.

The term Bee has two meanings, just as the word man is used
in two senses. The first and narrowest sense is that in which it
is used to denote the full-grown bee and particularly the worker
bee, when no other is signified. ‘The second and broader signifi-
cation includes the bee in every condition-——queen, drone, worker,
egg, larva, nymph, etc. re eee

The life-history of the bee is briefly as follows: The males are
known as drones; the perfect females as queens, of which only
one is normally found in each colony; the imperfectly developed
females as workers. Under normal conditions they are all devel-
oped from eggs laid by the queen or perfect female, and during
the progress of this development they pass from the egg to the
larval condition; from the larva to the pupa or nymph; from the
nymph to the perfect bee—the time occupied in each step, some
allowance being made for differences of temperature and other
unknown conditions, being nearly as follows:

Egg. Larva. ' Sealed. Entire Period.
WEOUEE es ce! 3days. 63days. 143 days. 24 days.
Gacem... 24... ae eee ieee Sra: NG ee
Worker... 53.'2! ae De ee 1s eae pA Wier

The pupa or nymph form is assumed only after the larva has
been sealed for some time. At first the young bees do not leave
the hive except for what is known as a ‘“‘play-spell,” in which

12 DICTIONARY OF

their wings are probably hardened and their muscles strength-
ened so as to prepare them for long flights when gathering
honey and pollen. ‘‘ The young bees build the comb, ventilate
the hive, feed the larve and cap the cells. The older bees—for,
as readily seen in Italianizing, the young bees do not go forth
for the first two weeks—gather the honey, collect the pollen, or
bee-bread, as it is generally called, bring in the propolis or bee
glue, which is used to close openings and as a cement, supply
the hive with water (?), defend the hive from all improper intru-
sion, destroy drones when their day of grace is past, kill and
arrange for replacing worthless queens, destroy inchoate queens,
drones and even workers, if circumstances demand it, and lead
forth a portion of the bees when the conditions impel them to
swarm. When there are no young bees, the old bees will act as
house-keepers and nurses, which they otherwise refuse to do.
The young bees, on the other hand, will not go forth to glean,
even though there be no old bees to do this necessary part of ©
bee-duties.” — Cook.

Numerous attempts have been made to determine the number
of bees in an ounce, a pound, a quart and a gallon, but their
weight and bulk vary so much under different conditions that
the results are not very satisfactory. A. I. Root gives 4,000 as
the number of bees ina pound. These were probably well filled
with honey. Keys, towards the close of the last century, pre-
pared the following table which does not differ widely from
Root’s estimate.

NUMBER, WEIGHT AND MEASURE OF BEES.
Ib. fo)

Zs dr.

VWOOSDronesis. oo 5 ee 0 1 0
ZOU NV OUKCYS« <.csaiee 0 1 0

4 640 dha SS ORIMRS ETA 1 0 0
915 Ae NUS eran ag oOo: 4 pint 0 3 2
1,830 sp ae ealhiie dunaala thoy 0 6 *
3, 660 a eae ie ECE 0 12 10
29,280 re a AEs ee 1 peck 6 5 6

The weight is avoirdupois and the measure the Winchester
bushel, which contains 2150°42 cubic inches. The peck con-
tains 537°5 cubic inches, and Keys says that a swarm filling this
is the least that will prove productive. See Nucleus. He adds
that these data are only approximative, as they will never come
out twice alike.

Bee-Bird.—A local English name of the spotted flycatcher
(Muscicapa grisola), so called from its catching bees.— Ogilvie.

Bee-Box.—A hive.

Bee-Bread.—The farinaceous matter which forms part of the
food of bees. Generally it consists of pollen but bees some-
times, either of their own accord or under the influence of the
bee-keeper, use flour and other matters. See Pollen.

PRACTICAL APICULTURE. 13

Bee Cap.—A close fitting cap or hood used by European bee-
keepers for the same purpose as our bee-veils (q. v.). It seems
to us an expensive, awkward, suffocating contrivance when
compared with our simple device.

Bee Climbers.—Iron stirrups with sharp steel points usually
strapped to the leg, and used to aid the bee-hunter in climbing
trees. Almost the same as those used by ‘‘line-men” when re-
pairing telegraph lines.

Bee-Culture.—This word is equivalent to bee-keeping and
apiculture. If used as two words it might be pardoned, but as a
compound word, the several parts being from different languages,
it violates the canons of sound philology and should be dis-
carded. See Apiculture.

Bee-Culturist.—One who keeps bees. This word may not be
absolete but it ought to be.

Bee-Dress.—A suit so arranged as to protect the entire person
from the stings of bees. It is made in different ways, fora de-
scription of which see any good work on bee-keeping.—See Veil.

Bee-Eater.—A bird that feeds on bees. There are several
species included in the genus Merops, of which the M. apiaster
of Europe is remarkable for the brilliancy of its plumage.—
Ogilvie.

Bee-Garden.—An apiary. A garden or enclosure to set bee-
hives in.

Bee Glass.—A glass in which bees may store honey.— Brande.
- Bee Glue.—Another name for propolis (q. v.).

Bee-Gum.—1. Since the black gum tree (Nyssa multiflora),
one of the largest trees of the Southern States is almost always
found hollow, bees in the wild state very frequently select this
tree for a habitation. Man, taking the hint, in early days used
a section of a hollow gum tree for a hive. Most hives were
therefore really gum-tree hives, and hence the term gum or bee-gum
came to mean any kind of hive. Properly, however, it signifies
a hive made of a hollow log or tree.

2. Propolis is sometimes improperly so called.

Bee Hawk.—The honey buzzard (Pernis apivorus), so-called
from preying on hymenopterous insects, such as wasps, etc.
Lepidopterous insects of the genus Sesia are also often called
bee-hawks or bee-hawk moths.— Ogilvie.

Bee-Herd.—An old name for a person who takes care of bees.
- Bee-Hive.—See Hive.

Bee-Hood.—See Bee-Cap.

Bee-House.—The Imperial Dictionary and others define bee-
house as a house for sheltering hives, and this is the generally
accepted and, in English, the proper meaning of the term.

14 DICTIONARY OF

Some persons who have had a German training use the word in
_its German sense of bee-hive.
Bee-Keeper.—-One who keeps bees. See Apiculturist and bee-
culturist. ;
Bee-Line.—The shortest and most direct line from one place
to another, like that of a bee through the air.

Bee-Louse.—A curious parasite found on the honey bee and
named Braula ceca (Nitzsch). Itis not common in this country,
but does considerable injury to bees in Southern Europe. A fig-
ure and very excellent description are given in Prof. Cook’s
Manual. See also article Parasite in this Dictionary.

Bee-Martin.—A local name for the king bird—Tyrannus
Curolinensis.

~ Bee-Master.—One who keeps bees.
Bee Moth.—See Moth.

Bee Pasturage.—Flowering plants from which bees gather
honey. It is said to be natural or wild when it grows without
cultivation and artificial when it is planted specially for bees.
Some plants, such as the apple, raspberry, buckwheat, etc., oc-
cupy a middle position, being cultivated for fruit or grain, but
at the same time yielding large quantities of honey.

Bee Plants.—Plants that yield honey.
Bees-Wax.—See Wax. :
Bee Tent.—See Tent.

Bee Tree.—A tree, the trunk or a branch of which is hollow
and inhabited by bees.

Bee Veil.—See Veil.
Bee-Worm.—An old name for the larva of the bee.—Ray.

Bell-Glass.—A glass vessel, shaped somewhat like a bell.

hey are used to a considerable extent as
surplus receptacles by English bee-keepers.
They present a very neat appearance, and
when the comb is built in fancy shape, as
shown in the figure, they are quite orna-
mental on the table. But honey stored in
such glasses costs a good deal more than
when stored in, ordinary sections.

Black Bee.—1. The common honey bee;
the kind usually kept in box hives. Called
BELL-GLASS, also Brown Bee and German Bee. See Race.

2. Robber bees that have lost their hair and
become black and shiny were supposed by Huber to be a dis-
tinct kind of bee, and in several works they are mentioned by

a name of Black Bees. They are, however, only the common
ee.

PRACTICAL APICULTURE. 15

Bottom-Board. —The board which forms the bottom of the
hive. It may be either fixed or movable. The fixed bottom
boards form part of the hive, while in the case of movable bot-
tom boards, the hive is simply placed on them. Both kinds
have their advantages and disadvantages. Van Deusen has
invented a clamp by means of which the bottom board may be
made either fixed or movable at will, thus securing all the ad- -
vantages of both systems. | a

Bottom Rail.—The lower horizontal bar of a frame. .

Box Hive.—A hive consisting of a plain box with a few cross-
sticks for supporting the combs, In such a hive the comb and
bees cannot be examined or handled and most of the operations
‘of modern bee-keeping are impossible. Box hives are therefore
things of the past, and bee-keepers who are behind the times
are called ‘‘box-hive men.” When we look back, however, and
see what was accomplished by such men as Quinby, using box
hives, we cannot fail to be impressed with the fact that thorough
scientific work will always produce good results even with the |
peor implements and in the face of the most formidable diffi-
culties, 7
Those who have read the first edition of Quinby’s ‘‘ Mys-
teries of Bee-Keeping ”—a work which will always be a classic
no matter what improvements may be made in the art, will be
greatly amused at the following extract from the latest edition of
-an English standard authority, ‘‘ Brande’s Dictionary of Science,
Literature and Art.” Under the head ‘‘ Hive,” we find this sub-
section:
_ _“ American Box Hives. The well known circumstance that bees
often collect enormous stores of honey when building their
combs in a large space (as under the roof of a house) has led to
‘the design of hives of immense size. Some employed in
America have been found as large as sentry-boxes. These large
‘boxes are easily stocked by supporting a hive of bees on a few
cross-bars placed in the interior, when the bees rapidly extend
the combs below the small hive, often completely filling the box.
The plan is not so advantageous as might at first appear, as all
the combs contain wood and bee-bread, and the honey yielded is
consequently always impure, and moreover, is not easily obtained
without destroying the bees.”

Shades of the lamented Quinby—how is this for a fair repre-
‘Sentation of the American Box Hive!! This is about on a par

with Blyth’s “‘poisonous honey, from the Savannas of New
Jersey.” See Honey. i

Box Honey.—Comb-honey (q. v.) stored by the bees in boxes.
Breed.—n. A term applied by stock breeders to races arti-
ficially produced and established. It is in this that a breed
differs from a race (q. v.) and both differ from a variety in that
they have been so established, either by careful selection and
culture in the case of breeds or by long-continued and potent

16 ss MICTIONARY OF

and natural influences in the case of races, that all danger of
‘‘erying-back” (q. v.) is past. Owing, probably to various
hitherto insurmountable difficulties in the way of mating, we
have no ‘‘ breeds” of bees; we have races and strains (q. v.) but
no breeds.

Breed.—v. 1. Toraise young. In bee-keeping this is gener-
ally called brood-rearing or brood-raising. See Raise.

2. To produce a distinct breed. ‘To do this requires thorough
knowledge of the nature of the animals under experiment and
careful attention to certain laws which are tolerably well under-
stood as they affect the higher animals, but have not been investi-
gated in the case of insects. But from the fact that scientific
apiculture is an art of but a few years growth, we may reasonably
hope for as great advances in this direction as has been made in
the case of cattle and horses.

For the present, however, we can only follow the laws which
have been found to obtain in the breeding of cattle, and await .
the discoveries which it is hoped that careful experimental in-
vestigation will give us. _

1. In attempting to establish a new breed or to improve an
old one, we must, contrary to the usual opinion, pursue a relent-
less system of breeding in and in, and itis here that the skill
and judgment of the expert breeder will be most fully shown.
We have on the one hand the danger of weakening the constitu-
tion of our stock, and on the other, the danger of producing a
lot of mongrels without any fixed characteristics. The experi-
ence of all great cattle breeders has shown that it is only by in
and in breeding that the tendency to ‘‘ cry back ” can be elimin-
ated, and these men have also shown that when sufficient care is
exercised in the selection of the breeding stock, the danger of
weakening the constitution is not to be feared. In this connec-
tion it should be remembered that all the well-marked native
races of bees must have been produced by a series of in and in
breedings, combined with a system of natural selection, which
allowed the survival of none but the fittest—all the weak and
non-prolific, and all the poor honey-gatherers being killed off
during severe seasons. It is the same here as with the great
herds of cattle and horses which roam at large in various
countries. The most powerful and active bull or stallion obtains
the leadership of the herd and breeds in and in with his own
cousins, sisters, and even daughters, until one of his progeny,
more powerful than he, displaces him in turn. But here we
have the weak and feeble calves and foals selected by the forces
of nature with better judgment than ever man exercised and
killed off by the inclemency of the weather as surely as ever
butcher’s knife did its work. ‘

2. It will be found that certain males and females have the power
to perpetuate their own characteristics in their progeny more
powerfully than others. This is a most important factor in any
attempt to build up a new breed, or to maintain or improve a

PRACTICAL APICULTURE. By i

certain strain. We see it marked in the human family where
certain men and women have given origin to a long line of
representatives which possess marked characteristics. Stock
breeders are quite familiar with the fact, and there are certain
strains of cattle specially valuable for milk, butter or flesh
which owe their origin to some well known cow or bull.

3. It will be found that the influence of the male is in general
(not always) more powerful than the influence of the female
provided heis pure bred. Thus far too little attention has been
paid to the character of the drones, though this is not to be
wondered at when we consider the great difficulty of the sub-
ject. We must remember that it would be almost impossible to
select an individual drone as we select a bull from a cattle-herd
or a queen from an apiary. Itis even difficult to make sure of
getting our queens mated ‘with the drones from any given hive,
but even in the face of all these difficulties, the importance of the
subject must not be forgotten.

There are other points which will readily occur to the scientific
breeder. Thus we must not forget that the impregnated female
is herself influenced by the male. This has not the same im-
portance with bees that it has with cattle, but how far the:
impregnation of the queen may influence her drone progeny. is a
point that cannot bear to be overlooked.

Lastly, the ‘‘environment,” as evolutionists call it, will, no
doubt, have something to do with the production of excellence
in any given breed, though less here than in cases where the
mother may be trained or worked, as with cattle or horses. Pre-
natal influences have a wonderful effect on the-progeny of mam-
mals, and may it not be that eggs obtained from a queen in the
height of her productive power and activity will produce far
better breeding stock than eggs from the same queen when her
energies are dormant or not fully developed? This brings up
the important question of the best age for breeding queens.
And does not the quality of the eggs laid by the queen in the
early part of the season have quite as much to do with the
quality of the queens produced as does the so-called swarming
impulse on the part of the workers?

All these questions deserve careful experimental consideration.
They may be suggested by theoretical reasoning but they cannot
be settled in any such way.

_Itisin the process of natural selection, however, that the en-
vironment will aid us. No stock that has had fair play during
the summer and fails to be ready to meet the winter, should be
kept for breeding. We may feed and keep them for other
purposes, but nature would have destroyed them, and we should
not attempt to perpetuate them either in the male or female line.

Breeding **In and In.”—When a queen’ is fecundated by a
drone whic is near of kin to her (as brother or cousin), the
progeny is said to be the result of breeding ‘‘in and in,”

i8 DECTIONARY OF j

Bridal Trip.— Wedding flight (q. v.).

Brimstone.—n. Sulphur. The word literally means burn stone,
and is applied only to sulphur in the form of solid masses like
stones or rolls.

Brimstone.—v. To expose to the fumes produced by burning
sulphur. See Sulphur. When used in connection with bee-
keeping the word signifies the destruction of a colony for the
sake of obtaining their wax and honey.

Broad Frame.—See Wide Frame.

Brood.—Young bees while in the various stages between the
egg and the bee which has emerged from the cell. The use of
the word brood in this connection is very old. Skeat tells us
that in ilfrics Homilies (A.D. 975) speaking of bees, the
writer says: ‘‘Of tham hunige hi bredath heord brod”—i.e.,
with the honey they nourish their brood.

Brooding Bees.—The nurse bees (q. v.) are so called by some—
European writers.
Brood-Cluster.—The cluster of bees which cover the brood-
nest.
Brood Comb.—Combs containing brood. The term does not
apply to empty worker or drone comb which might contain

brood but does not. Such comb is called either worker comb or
drone comb according as the case may be.

Brood-Drones.—Drones in the brood state. See Egg.

Brood Frame.—-A frame of the right width to receive brood-
comb.

Brood-Nest.—That space in the hive which is occupied Ly the
queen for laying. In fall, winter, and early spring, this space is
confined to a smal! portion of the centre of the hive, and includes
the centre space on two or more combs, but in warm weather the
queen sometimes lays in combs at some distance from the brood-
nest, and even in the boxes arranged for comb honey. But
there is always a spot where the rearing of young is specially.
carried on, and this is the brood-nest.

Hee ile ea ad 5 sais
Brood-raising The raising of brood. See Raising.
Brood-Workers.— Worker bees in the condition of brood.

See Eq.
Brown Bee.—The common honey bee; the kind usually kept
in box hives. Called also Black Bee and German Bee. See Race.
Buckwheat Swarm.—A late swarm produced by the stimulus
caused by the great flow of honey obtained from buckwheat.
Bunt.—This term properly signifies smut or the fungus (Uredo

feetida) which produce disease in grain, but it is also used as a
name for the puff-ball (q. v.),

PRACTICAL APICULTURE. 19

Cage, Queen. See Queen Cage.

Candy.—n. This favorite material for feeding bees is prepared
by boiling sugar syrup until it is sufficiently condensed. There
are three forms depending upon the method of preparation.

1. Sugar candy, so called. This is sugar crystallized by leaving
the saturated syrup in a warm place (90° to 100° Fahr.), the
shooting of the crystals being promoted by placing sticks, or
threads, at small distances from’ each other in the liquor; it is
also deposited from compound syrups, and does not seem
to retain muck of the foreign substances with which they are
loaded. Brown sugar candy is prepared in this way from raw
sugar; white sugar, from refined sugar; and red sugar, from a
syrup of refined sugar which has been colored red by means of
some coloring matter of which cochineal is to be preferred.

2. Boiled candy or barley-sugar (q. v.). ‘This is prepared by
boiling the syrup, the several stages of the process being as fol-
lows: Well clarified and perfectly transparent syrup is boiled
until a ‘‘skimmer ” dipped into it, and a portion ‘‘touched”’ be-
tween the forefinger and thumb, on opening them, is drawn into
a small thread, which crystallizes and breaks. This is called a
‘*weak candy height.” If boiled again, it will draw into a larger
string, and if bladders may be blown through the ‘‘ drippings ”
from the ladle, with the mouth, it has acquired the second de-
gree, and is now called ‘‘ bloom sugar.” After still further boil-
ing, it arrives at the state called ‘‘ teathered sugar.” To determine
this re-dip the skimmer, and shake it over the pan, then give it
a sudden flirt behind, and the sugar will fly off like feathers.
The next degree is that of ‘‘ crackled sugar,” in which state the
sugar that hangs to a stick dipped into it, and put directly into
a pan of cold water, is not dissolved off, but turns hard and
snaps. The last stage of preparing this article reduces it to
what is called ‘‘carmel sugar,” proved by dipping a stick first
into the sugar, and then into cold water, when, on the moment
it touches the latter, it will, if matured, snap like glass. It has
now arrived at a ‘full candy height.” Care must be taken
throughout that the fire is not too fierce, as, by flaming up
against the sides of the pan, it will burn and discolor the sugar,
converting a portion of it into caramel which is said to be
poison to bees in cold weather; hence the boiling is best con-
ducted by steam heat.

Any flavor or color may be given to the candy by adding the
coloring matter to the syrup before boiling it, or the flavoring
essences when the process is nearly complete.

For feeding bees the earlier stages are to be preferred as con-
aewae more water and as being softer and more easily rasped

own.

3. White candy. This is prepared by boiling a strong syrup
until it becomes solid on cooling. While still hot the pan is
placed in snow or ice water and constantly stirred until the en-
tire contents consolidate into a white mass. Candy in this con-

20 DICTIONARY OF

dition absorbs a large quantity of water and is easily used by
the bees. Asa winter food we have found it excellent. It may
be moulded into cakes or bricks and laid over the cluster, or it
may be packed in wired frames and hung by the side of the bees.

4, Thereis also a preparation which is known as ‘‘Good’s ©
Candy” or ‘‘Sholtz Candy.” Langstroth, in his Hive and Honey
Bee, gives the following directions for preparing it.

‘Rev. M. Scholtz, of Lower Silesia (Europe), recommends
the following mixture for feeding bees: ‘‘Take one pint of
honey and four pounds of powdered lump sugar;* heat the
honey, without adding water, and mix it with the sugar, working
them together to a stiff doughy mass. When thus thoroughly
incorporated, cut it into slices, or form it into cakes or lumps,
and wrap them in a piece of coarse linen and place them in
the frames. Thin slices, enclosed in linen, may be pushed
down between the combs. The plasticity of the mass enables
the apiarist to apply the food in any manner he may desire.”

Candy.—v. When honey or sugar crystallize from a solution
they are said to candy. Candied honey is that which has solid-
ified.

Cap.—n. 1. When the cover of a hive is made in the form of a
box it is sometimes called a cap.

2. The cover of a cell—either brood or honey. Sometimes
called the capping.

Cap.—v. To cover a cell or seal it over.

Capped Brood.—Sealed brood (q. v.).

Capped Honey.—Sealed Honey (q. v.).

Cappings The caps of honey cells which are removed when

Caps the honey is extracted.

cad frame filled with honey comb. A sheet of honey-
comb,

Carniolan Bee.—A race of bees found in the mountains of
Southwestern Austria. The workers are light grey, and are re-
markable for the gentleness of their dispositions. See Race.

Carrier Bees.—Workers that are old enough to forage.

Cases for Sections.—This term is used indiscriminately to
denote two distinct devices: 1. Wide frames filled with sections
and hung in the hive like ordinary frames.

2. Crates or boxes in which sections are placed and held while
on the hive while the bees are filling them, or packed for ship-
ment.

Cashiered Stoecks.—Stocks of which the bees are either dp-
stroyed or united with other stocks.

Casts. —This term is usually and properly applied only to

* The sugar must be reduced to very fine powder.

PRACTICAL APICULTURE. 91

‘¢second, third, etc., swarms,” but some authors use it to denote
any swarm.

-Caterpillar.—This term properly applies only to the larva of
lepidopterous insects (moths and butterflies). According to
some etymologists, it should be applied only to those larvz that
are hairy—the word being literally a hairy she-cat (Old French—
chate péleuse). Webster gives a stealer of food (Cater, food, and
piller, robber).

Caucasian Bee.—A race of bees found amongst the Caucasian
Mountains and said to be very active and amiable.

Cell.—Literally a small house or room. The compartments of
the honey comb in which the bees store honey and raise their
young. They are of various sizes and forms—round, penta-
gonal, hexagonal, etc. See Comb, Queen Cell, etc.

Cell, Royal.—See Queen Cell.

Chaff Hive.—A hive with double walls, the space between
them being filled with chaff or some porous material which will
prevent the passage of heat, and consequently will keep the
hives warm in winter and cool in summer.

SECTION OF CHAFF HIVE.

A section of one of the most popular forms—the ‘Sim-
plicity ”—is shown in the accompanying engraving where A, A,
are the outer sides; C C, the inner walls, and B, B, chaff. H is
the entrance, and E, E, a movable cover. It will be seen that
this hive is a two-story hive by construction, though cf course it

Do, DICTIONARY OF

is used as a one-story hive in winter—the upper story being
filled with a bag made of any cheap stuff and packed with chaff.
A frame of comb is shown in the lower story with its end facing
the entrance H, and three frames, I, are shown in the upper
story and lying across it.

Chrysalid ) Plural, chrysalides. A condition into which the
Chrysalis { caterpillars of butterflies and moths, and the larve
of most other insects, pass before they change into the perfect
insect. It corresponds to the terms aurelia, nymph and pupa.
At one time it was confined to the lepidopterous insects (insects
which have wings covered with powdery scales—butterflies and
moths) but is now applied to the pupz of other insects. The
term pupa is, however, to be preferred in the case of the bee.

Clamp.—1. A movable piece which fastens two or more parts
of anything together. Thus we have clamps for fastening the
bottom board to the hive; for securing the sides of the hives to
each other where they are made movable, and for other purposes. ~

2. A piece of wood ora batten put across a board to strengthen
it. Clamps are often nailed to the underside of bottom boards.

3. Anumber of stocks piled together and covered for winter
protection. =

4, Frames and boxes piled together and properly arranged so
as to be covered with an outer case.

Cleansing Flight.—See Flight, Cleansing.

Closed-End Frames. See Frames, Closed end.

Cluster.—v. Bees are said to cluster when they form a com-
pact mass, each bee holding on to her neighbor by means of the
hooks at the ends of the feet.

Cluster.—n. 1. Any mass of bees which hold together by
means of their foot-hooks. :

2. When ‘‘the cluster” is spoken of, reference is had to the
compact mass into which the bees of a colony form themselves
when reposing quietly in their hives especially in winter.

Cocoon.—The silken case in which the larva of the bee or
other insect envelops itself when it passes into the pupa state.

2. When cocoons are spoken off in connection with the apiary,
the cocoons of the bee-moth are generally meant.

Collateral System.—Placing small hives or boxes at the sides
of the main hive or, as Nutt called it, the Pavilion.

Colonizing.—A method of dividing colonies by inducing them
to enter and fill a second hive placed in communication with the
original one. Used only with box hives and open to very
serious objections.

Colony.—The bees of a stock. (See Stock.) A complete col-

ony consists of queen, workers, and at certain seasons, drones.
The test of a perfect colony seems to be its power of perpetu-

PRACTICAL APICULTURE. 23

ating itself, and for this the queen and workers are all that is
required. We sometimes speak of a queenless colony, and the
expression is not incorrect, but it is equivalent to saying that
the colony is not full or perfect.

The distinction between a colony and a swarm is simply this:
A swarm is a new colony just separated from the parent stock.
See Swarm.

Colt.—A name sometimes given to the second after-swarm.
The third is called a filly. See Filly.

Comb.—A number of cells built together so as to form a
sheet. Comb is always built with cells on both sides, the
division between the ends of the cells being called the septum
and serving as a bottom for both series of cells, thus saving
wax. The cells are not placed exactly opposite each other, but
the centres of the bottoms are arranged quincunx fashion (see
quincunz). These bottoms are not flat but concave (as seen from
the interior of the cells), being formed of three rhomboidal
plates, consequently the cells are a little deeper than just half
the thickness of the sheet of comb, which for brood is about
15-16ths of an inch. Such comb weighs about } 1b. to the square
foot, and it is said to require about 5 lbs. of honey per square
foot to make it. Some writers, however, think that the amount
of honey used ir making wax is greatly over-estimated. As it
is more than probable that bees cannot altogether control the
production of wax, any moro than other secretions, it may be
that tho wasto incurred in tho production of comb is not quite as
great as has been supposed. When filled and sealed, brood
comb weighs about 5 Ibs. per square foot, but the cells may be
lengthened out so as to hold a much greater quantity. Root
says as much as 10 lbs. per square foot. Since honey varies very
much in specific gravity (from 1.261 to 1.450. See Honey) even
when sealed, we must not accept these figures as correct in all
cases,

CSeSese

WORKER COMB, DRONE COMB.

Three kinds of comb are found in most hives—worker, drone
and store, each being indicated by the cells of which it is
formed. The cells of worker comb are shown of actual size in
the figure, Five of these cells, placed in line, measure just one

24 DICTIONARY OF

inch, so that each square inch contains 25, and the surface on
both sides contains 50 cells. An ordinary Langstroth frame,
moderately filled with brood (say a space six inches by eleven)
will contain 3,300 young bees, and three such frames will pro-
duce about 10,000—a number which constitutes quite a nice little
swarm. It is easily seen, therefore, how rapidly weak stocks
may be built up during warm weather by giving them occasion-
ally a frame of sealed brood.

The cells of drone comb are much larger—four of them
placed side by side measuring one inch or 16 to the square inch.

The depths of both worker and drone cells are the same, but
as the caps of the worker cells are flat while those of the drone
cells are very considerably convex, the latter really has what is
equivalent to a greater depth. |

In store comb—that is, comb for storing honey—the cells are
often irregular in size and shape. Honey is often stored both in
worker and drone cells, but the bees often build comb in corners
and out of the way places and use it for storing. Cells for
storing honey are generally much deeper than brood . cells—
sometimes as much astwo inches deep and turned up at the
ends. See also Honey-comb, Wax.

Comb, Artificial.—aAll attempts hitherto made to construct
comb artifically have failed. We frequently see the article men-
tioned in the newspapers, but in all such cases the writer draws
on his imagination for his facts, and a very poor imagination at
that. Thus we have seen it stated dozens of times that comb
honey was now manufactured on a large scale by first making
comb of paraffine, and then filling it with flavored glucose. It
is needless to say that as yet this cannot be done. There is no
end to the projects of this kind which might be suggested.
Thus we might propose the manufacture of delicate india rubber
comb, in which the bees might store honey, and then, instead of
passing itthrough an expensiveextractor use a common wringing
machine to squeeze out the honey.

Shortly after the introduction of the movable frame, bee-
keepers become deeply impressed with the importance of util-
izing old wax in the manufacture of new comb, and various
plans for getting the bees to work up old wax were proposed,
but none have been successful except what is known as Founda-
tion (q. v.). This, however, cannot be called ‘artificial comb,”
simply because it is not comb but only foundation.

That bees would use artificial comb for all purposes was very
fully shown by that most ingenious apiarist—the late M. Quinby.
He constructed comb, with proper sized cells, out of very light
sheet metal, and coated it with a very thin layer of wax. Asmall
section of this artificial comb when placed in the brood nest
was used by the queen to receive her eggs, and which hatched
into larva that were duly nursed by the bees, and finally
matured, As an experiment, this was qa most important step;

PRACTICAL APICULTURE. 25

Lut thus far, a really practical article of artificial comb is a
thing of the future.

Jomb-Bars.—Bars or slats to which comb is attached and
from which it hangs in the bar-hives.

Comb Basket.—That part of the extractor which receives and
holds the comb. The term is some-
times used instead of comb box or
comb carrier, but this application of
it should be avoided.

A comb basket for small pieces

iz: of comb is shown in the engraving.
faezs Comb Box. —Another hame for
EE comb carrier (q. v.).
is .
peeaate Comb Bucket.—A comb carrier
sBEbE eee! Cc (qs V.).
Comb Carrier.--A box made of
Cc such a size as to hold one or more
frames of comb so that they may be

COMB BASKET FOR SMALL : s
PIECES. easily carried about. It should have

a close-fitting cover so that the honey
shall be protected from flies and robber bees, and the brood
from chilling drafts. It may be made of tin or very thin boards—
one important point being to have it quite tight. The engraving
shows a very neat and convenient article made of tin by Root,
ot Medina, O.

|

_ For the confusion of names in regard to this article, see
introduction,

Comb Cutting.—See Pruning.

Comb Foundation,—See Foundation, This term was sometimes

l

COMB-CARRIER,

26 DICTIONARY OF

used by old writers to signify a starter for which, of course, they
used natural comb.

Comb Guide,—Any arrangement by which the bees are in-
duced to build comb in the exact place that it 1s wanted. The
best comb-guide isa strip of foundation. Before foundation was
invented, small pieces of comb were used, and the term was also
applied to the edge of the top bar of the frame.

Comb-Holder.—A device for supporting a frame of comb after
it has been removed from the hive and until the bee-keeper is
ready to return it. In some cases the comb-holder is a separate
stand, and it is then perhaps more propery called a comb-stand

COMB-HOLDER.

or comb-horse.. The engraving shows a very convenient form of
holder which may be hooked over the edge of the hive and
which will hold the first frame of comb, so as to give more room
in the hive while examining the others.

Comb Honey.—Honey in the comb as distinguished from ex-
tracted or strained honey.

Comb Horse.—See Comb- Holder.
« Comb Pruning.—See Pruning. —
~ Comb Roller.—A German device for uncapping when ex-
tracting. It consists of a roller with short wires projecting
from its entire surface. When passed over a comb it breaks the
caps of the cells so that the honey is easily thrown out. It is
not as good as the knife.

Comb Stand.—See Comb Holder.

Condemned Bees.— Bees that are to be consigned to the brim-
stone pit.

Coppet.—A hackle (q. v.).

Corbicula.—Literally, a little basket, The pollen-basket
found on the legs of the bee.

Corners.—Metal. This term is properly applied to pieces of
sheet metal which are fastened to the corners of wooden frames
for the purpose of strengthening them. The term has, however,
been used to. designate pieces of metal which, when applied to
the upper corners of the ordinary hanging frames, form the
projecting supports from which the rest of the frame hangs,
Such so-called corners are shown at c in the figure,

PRACTICAL APIGULTURE. OF

_ A more appropriate name for these would be metal arms.

Metal arms have been constructed in various ways—of wire and
of sheet tin. ‘The usual way is to make them of tin, and they
are so formed that they may be folded round the corner of the
frame so asto hold firmly and present two thin edges by which
they rest upon the bearers or rabbets. The advantage of metal
corners is that the bees cannot fasten the frames to the rabbets
with propolis. 'Theframes are therefore easily set free for ex-
amination and do not require to be pried loose. The disadvan-
tages are that the frames move about very easily when the hive
is carried. Some very able bee-keepers do not like them on this
account.

Cover Board.—Honey board.

Crate.—A skeleton box for holding sections either on the hive
or on their way to market.

Cross.—a. Irritable; easily made angry.

Cross.—n. When two races or breeds are bred together the
progeny is said to be across. See Hybrid.

Cross-Mated.—A queen of any breed which has met a drone
of another breed may be said to be cross-mated. This term is
greatly to be preferred to the word ‘“‘impurely ”” mated, which
really has no meaning whatever.

Cross Sticks.—Sticks, or spleets as they are sometimes called,
which are placed in box and straw hives to support the combs.

rown Board.—Honey board.

Cry Back.—It is a curious fact, well known to breeders of the
higher animals, that the effect of a cross will frequently disap-
pear for several generations and then appear again in a very
marked degree. This principle is known to physicians as
Atavism (q. v.), and amongst breeders of stock such progeny is
said to ‘‘ery back,”—a term derived from a well known hunting
expression. It is therefore never safe to breed from two cross-
bred animals. Crossing between pure bred animals is per-
missible when we intend to use the cross itself or when we
intend to breed from it by mating with a pure male or female,
but not otherwise.

28 DICTIONARY OF

Cushion.—A bag or similar receptacle filled with some porous
material which does not conduct heat freely. Cushions are used
to protect the bees, and may be used both on top, sides or bot-
tom of the frames. When used at the sides, the form employed
is generally called a division board (q. v.).

Cyprian Bee.—A race of bees found in the Island of Cyprus.
They resemble the Italians very closely. Prof. Cook says ‘they
may be distinguished by the bright, leather-colored lunule
which tips their thorax posteriorly, and by the fact that the
under side of their bodies is yellow to the tip. They are more
active than are the Italians, and the queens are more prolific.
The good qualities of the Italians seem all to be exaggerated in
the Cyprian, except the trait of amiability. The Cyprian bees
are second only to the Egyptian in irritability. That they will
become less cross with handling is to be expected.” See Race.

Dalmatian Bee.—A race of bees found in Dalmatia. They
are slim, wasp-like, and very black, the wings of the abdomen
being banded with a light yellow. See Race.

Dead Air-Space.—See Air Space, Dead.

Decoy Hive.—A hive properly arranged for the reception of
bees and set out in the hope that a swarm will take possession
of it. This device is very old, but has never been generally suc-
cessful, although occasionally a swarm will be secured by it. It
was described by Markham in his ‘ Countrie Farm ” (1610).

Deprivation.—Removing honey from the hives.

Deserting Colony.—Colonies frequently leave their hives in a
body in fall or spring, when their supplies are exhausted or other
conditions are unfavorable. Colonies under such circumstances
have been called ‘‘Abnormal Swarms” and ‘‘ Absconding
Swarms” (q. v.), but neither of these terms is quite applicable
under the circumstances. The term Deserling Colony expresses
the exact condition of affairs.

Diarrhea.—Generally called Dysentery (q. v.).

Dipping Plate.—A plate of wood or metal which on being |
dipped in melted wax becomes coated with a thin layer or sheet
of this material. This sheet is then peeled off, and after being
passed through a proper mill or press is known as comb founda-
tion, or simply as foundation (contracted to f dn).

Distance Guides ) Pins or blocks attached to the sides of the

Distance Pins top bar of a frame to aid in keeping it in
position, and at a proper distance from the others.

Dividing.—A method of artificial swarming by dividing a
colony.

Division Board.—A board used for dividing a hive sce as to
contract the space in which the colony is kept. They are of two
kinds: The plain ones consist simply of a thin board; the chaff

PRACTICAL APIGULTURE. 29

cushion division board consists of a frame about two inches
thick, the sides being covered with very thin boards, and the
hollow being filled with chaff. The latter are a most excellent
device for preventing the escape of heat from the cluster in
winter and early spring. Some writers think it is ‘“‘too much
machinery,” but we think the advantages greatly overbalance
the very slight extra complication. A Chaff Cushion Division
Board is shown in the annexed engraving. We believe this con-
trivance is due to A. I. Root.

CHAFF CUSHION DIVISION BOARD.

Dollar Queen.—See Queen, Dollar.

Driving Bees.— Bees may be caused to leave their combs and
hive and pass into an empty box by continued rapping on the
sides of the hive. This is often done for the purpose of trans-
ferring, making new swarms, etc., and is called driving.

Drone.—A male bee. :

Drone Brood.—The common name for brood which produces
drones. More properly termed brood drones.

Drone Comb.—Comb with cells large enough to cortain
drone brood.

Drone Egg.—An expression generally used to denote those
eggs which produce drones. More properly termed egg drones.

Drone Trap.—A trap for catching drones. It generally con-
sists of a cage of some sort with meshes or wires through
which the workers can pass-freely, but through which the drones
cannot pass. Into this cage the drones are led bya long or
crooked passage so that they cannot find their way back. ‘The
workers fly off and the drones are kept prisoners. 2

The modern improvements in hives, and especially the inven-
tion of foundation, enable us to control completely the produc-
tion of drones, and it is better to prevent their being reared
than to waste honey in producing them, :

30 DICTIONARY OF

Sometimes, however, the bees tear down worker comb and
raise drones. They may then be destroyed while in the brood
condition. Shaving their heads off isa simple method. Some-
times we wish to remove them after they have emerged; in that
case the drone trap is of great use.

Drumming.—To rap or beat the sides of a hive for the pur-
pose of alarming the bees and causing them to leave their comb
and hive and pass into another receptacle. See Driving Bees and
Forcing Swarms.

Dummies.—A term applied by some English writers to
division boards. A contraction for dummy frames.

Duplet.—The hive set over or under another.— Keys.
Duplicate.—To set one hive over another.

Dysentery.—A disease in which bees void large quanwules of
very soft faeces. Cause and cure are not yet fully understood.
Even the nature of the disease is unknown. Some claim that -
diarrhea is the proper name for the disease, and probably it is,
but the advances thus far made in insect pathology do not war-
rant us in coming toa decision. It may be, however, that ere
long the pathological histology of the bee will be so well
understood that this point will be fully decided. In the mean-
time, there can be no objection to the use of the old word.

Egg.—tThe first condition of the bee after it leaves the
bedy of the mother. When first extruded, and before it has
been exposed to the air, the egg has a soft glutinous surface
which enables it to adhere to any object which it may touch.
The queen places it at the bottom of the cell and it remains as
shown in the figure which is considerably mag-
nified.

When a colony is in good order all the eggs
in the hive are laid by the queen, but it some-
times happens that -fertile workers (q. v.) are
present, and they too lay eggs. Such eggs are
often, and we think not improperly, called
worker eggs. The queen lays eggs under
three different conditions, and capable of
producing three different kinds of bees—

queens, workers and drones. Such eggs

EGG DEPOSITED are generally called queen eggs, worker eqqs,
IN CELL. and drone eggs, but it is obvious that this
mode of expression is faulty. All eggs

laid under proper conditions are queen eggs ; there are no ‘‘drone
eggs,” for drones never lay eggs, and by ‘‘ worker eggs” may be
meant eggs laid by workers. If, however, we regard the word
egg in this case as denoting the condition of the bee, we may
be enabled to express exactly what we want to say without cir-
cumlocution or doubt. The terms egg queens, egg workers, eqg
drones, express the facts precisely. In the case of eggs laid by

PRACTICAL APICULTURE. 31

workers, which eggs always produce drones, ‘‘worker eggs”
would be proper, and the expression ‘‘worker egg drones”
would distinguish them from ‘‘ queen egg drones.”

Egg Drone.—A drone in the condition of an egg. An egg
which will produce a drone. Snch eggs, when queen eggs, are
known by being laid in drone cells. Worker eggs (that is, eggs
laid by workers) are laid in any kind of cell.

Egg Queen. —This is undoubtedly the same as an egg worker,

Egg Worker.—A worker in the condition of an egg. Such
eyes are always laid by queens, and are really queen eggs.

Egyptian Bee.— This bee was at one time regarded as a dis-
tinct species and named apis fasciata, but it is now generally
thought to be a mere variety or race belonging to apis mellifica,
the common honey bee.

‘‘The German apiarist, Herr Vogel, has given special attention
to this variety, and has discovered in it some interesting pecu-
liarities. It never gathers propolis, but uses wax in its place;
and it seems proof against the cold. But the most singular fact
that has come to his knowledge is, that there exist regularly in
an Egyptian colony some twelve or so small drone-laying
queens, which would be called fertile workers but that they have
a distinctive appearance, consisting in the waxen yellow of their
breasts—a feature which is possessed also by the drones of their
progeny. ”— Neighbour.

Under these conditions it will be interesting to study the
“question of hybridity in connection with this bee, and we have
made arrangements to do so.

Prof. Cook says of these bees: ‘‘They are very yellow, in-
tensely cross, and frequently have fertile workers. ‘They are
probably the bees that are famous in history, as having been
moved up and down the Nile in rude boats or rafts, as the
varying periods of nectar-secreting bloom seemed to demand.”

Eke.—An addition to a hive, making it larger. This term was
generally used in connection with the old straw hives or skeps,
and by it was meant an additional ring or hoop, the same diam-
eter as the original straw hive, placed under the old hive. Neigh-
bour defines eke as half a hive placed below the main hive, while
a whole hive used in the same way is called a ‘‘nadir” (q. v.).
We believe, however, that any addition to the old straw hive
was called an ‘‘ eke,” which merely signifies an addition.

Emerging Bees hae bees just leaving the cells in which
Emerging Brood} they were raised. The term hatching
brood is trequently but improperly applied to young bees in this
condition. See Hatch.
Engraft.—A queen cell is said to be engrafted when it is

taken from one comb and s0 arranged in another that the bees
fasten it properly,

on DICTIONARY OF

Entrance.—The opening or passage through which bees enter
and leave the hive.

Entrance Blocks.—Blocks by means of which the entrance
to a hive may be regulated as to size and position.

Entrance Guard.—A device by means of which queens and
drones are prevented from entering or leaving the hive while
the workers have free passage. This is accomplished by fasten-
ing in front of the usual entrance a strip of wood or metal,
pierced with holes which are just large enough to admit a

JONES’ ENTRANCE GUARD.

worker, but too small to allow a queen or drone to pass. A very
excellent form of this device is that shown in the figure and
known as Jones’ Entrance Guard. It is made of zinc, the open-
ings in which do not change by being alternately wet and dry.

Extractor.—A machine by means of which the honey is
thrown out of the cells by centrifugal force. The honey is col-
lected in suitable vessels and the combs, quite uninjured are re-
turned to the hive. A very good form of this machine is shown
in the figure on the opposite page.

Extracted Honey.—Honey that has been taken from the
combs by means of the extractor. Prior to the invention of the
extractor, honey was obtained in a liquid state by mashing the
comb and straining out the honey. Honey obtained in this way
from combs taken from the body of the hive (asin the old sys-
tem of brimstoning) is always contaminated with bee-bread, the
animal fluids of larve and other impurities. It was called
strained honey (q.v.), and this term should always be applied to it,
whiie the term eatracted honey should always be used to denote
honey obtained by means of the extractor.

Farina.—This word literally means flour, but it has been used
occasionally by botanists to signify pollen, and consequently
bee-keepers have sometimes used it in the same sense. But in
view of the fact that true flour is used by bees as well as true
pollen, it would be well to avoid the use of the word farina asa
synonym for pollen.

Feeundate.—To impregnate. The queen is fecundated during
a successful wedding trip. ‘The words fertile and fertilize are
generally used where the words fecundated and fecundate ought to
be employed. See Fertilize, ;

PRACTICAL APICULTURE. aes 33

EXTRACTOR,

Feeder.—A device for holding bee-food in such a way that the
bees can readily take it without “being drowned.

Fer file The use of the words fertile, fertilize and fer-
Fertilize tilization as synonyms for fecundaled, fecun-
Fertilization date and fecundation, is greatly to be regretted.

It is true that the word fertilization is used by botanists quite
generally to signify the process by which the pollen renders the
ovule fertile, and there are a few instances, outside of works on
the bee,in which the same word is used to signify the act of
fecundating the ovum in animals, but in the latter case its use is
exceptional and, in the case of the queen bee, improper; because
the word, if used in this sense, has two distinct meanings, and
hence confusion is apt to arise. The word fertile means fruitful,

and a queen bee may be fruitful without having been fecundated.

Indeed, we ordinarily speak of fertile workers, which are never
fecundated. It is true that in both these cases, drones only are

34 DICTIONARY OF

produced, but this does not alter the case; it would still be im-
possible to speak of either the queen or worker as unfruitful. If,
however, we relegate the words under consideration to their
proper places, and give them their most usual signification, we
shall be able properly to speak of a fertile and fecundated queen
as meaning one that is both fruitful and impregnated. See
Fecundate. The subjectis also discussed in our Introduction.

Filly.—A fourth swarm, the third being called a colt (q. v.).
A colt is a male foal; a filly isafemale foal. In this country the
term colt is applied to the young of the horse without distinction
of sex, but this isan Americanism which ought to be carefully
avoided by all who appreciate accuracy of language.

Flight.—An after swarm or cast.

Flight, Cleansing.—When bees issue from the hive to void
their feces, after a long confinement, they are said to take a
cleansing flight.

5 : a When the queen makes an excursion
Flight, Matrimonial } from ike Win for the purpose of
Flight, Wedding meeting a drone, she is said to make

a marriage flight. Such a flightis said to be successful or unsuc-

cessful according to obvious circumstances.

Floor Board.—The bottom board (q. v.).

Flour.—See Meal.

Forage.—Bee-food obtained from natural sources.

Force.—To drive. See Driving Bees.

Forcing Box.—A box which is made to fit exactly over a hive
so that the bees may be driven into it by the process of drum-
ming (q. v.). In this way artificial swarms are forced, and the

bees are sometimes removed from the hive previous to the pro-
cess of transferring.

Flight, Marriage :

Foul Brood.—The name of a disease which is -undoubtedly
the most dangerous to which bees are subject. But little is
really known regarding it with any degree of certainty. It is
now generally thought to be due to the growth of a microscopic
fungus, though this is by no means certain. It affects the brood
but not the old bees, and generally gives evidence of its presence
by its horrible odor.

Foundation.—Sometimes contracted tof dn. This term was
used by Huish and the older writers to signify guide comb, used
to induce the bees to build comb on the slats or bars of the
bar-hive. It is now applied exclusively to sheets of wax so
stamped as to form an artificial beginning for comb-building. By
many it is regarded as one of the three great inventions which
have entirely revolutionized bee-keeping, while others, who
by no means stand low down in the ranks of bee-keepers,

PRACTICAL APICULTURE. 35

think that the advantages to be derived
from the use of foundation are greatly
overestimated.

One of the great objections to the
use of foundation is its tendency to
sag and thus distort the cells, which
in this way are made longer in one
direction than in another. This is
very well shown in the engraving,
where it will be seen that the cells
are much larger from top to bottom
than trom side to side. To prevent
this various devices have been em-
ployed—the most efficient being either
to wire the frames (see Hrame, Wired)
or to insert fine wires in the founda
tion itself.

ELONGATED CELLS CAUSED
BY THE SAGGING OF FOUN-
DATION—From Quinby,

Frame.—When the word frame is used by bee-keepers, with-
out any qualification, it signifies the movable frame in which
comb is fastened or built. Frames are usually made of three
light strips of wood which, with a stronger one called the top-
bar, form a rectangle. The parts of the frame are as follows:

A

DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE FRAME,

Top-bar shown at T in the engraving,

End-bars CE aT Beas ‘
Bottom 66 66 B 66 sc
Arms 66 66 A 6é 6é
Combrourde: ‘°° SoC. +

The arms are the projecting portions of the top-bar which rest
upon the rabbets or bearers, The comb-guide is that portion of
the top-bar which projects downwards at C, and serves not only

36 DICTIONARY OF '

to strengthen the top-bar, but to secure the sheet of foundation.
Before foundation was introduced, bee-keepers relied upon this
depending part of the top bar to guide the bees in making
straight comb. Hence the term ‘‘ comb-guide.”

There are several very different sizes of frames in use, the
following being the dimensions of those most used:

OUTSIDE DIMENSIONS OF THE PRINCIPAL FRAMES IN USE.

Yote.—These are the outside dimensions in inches of the
rectangular part; the arms project at each end # of an inch.

Length. Depth
SNOUT a Ne sella toile athena at aera 33 1it
INIMCTICR IE: ie ere cee aes 12 12
Gallup Ne sree wr se 114 tit
Mang stroth am) cee we ee 172 94
Quimby cass ose Nh eee 183 11}
Quinby frames with closed ends.. 194 11
SIMpPHCiiveN eye te ee eee 172 94

Standard of the British Association of Bee- Keepers, 14 inches
long by 84 deep.
ream Brood.—A frame filled with brood comb.

Frame, Broad.—A wide frame for holding sections. It is
hung in the hive like any other frame, but the comb being built
in sectionsis easily removed. A better termis Wide Frame ‘(q. v.)

Frame Cover.—The mat or thin sheet used for covering the
tops of the frames for the purpose of keeping the bees down.
It is generally made of enamel cloth or duck. Sometimes im-
properly called a quilt (q. v.). A mat (q. v.) is sometimes used
instead of a cloth cover.

Frame, Hanging.—A frame madeto hangin the hive from
rabbets or bearers. See Frame, Standing.

Frame Holder.—A stand for holding frames while the bee-
keeper is at work.

Frame, L.—The Langstroth frame.
Frame Stand.—Same as Frame Holder (q. v. )

Frame, Standing.—A frame which stands upon the bottom
bar instead of hanging from arms resting on rabbets or bearers.

Frame, Wired.—A frame in which vertical and diagonal wires
are placed so as to prevent either the bottom bar or any comb or
foundation that may be in the frame
from sagging.

Wired frames frequently have a
stout tin bar placed vertically in the
center as shown in the figure. This
we dislike on two grounds: 1. We
object to any metal in the hive except
WIRED FRAME, _ the very finest wire. Metal is too

good a conductor of heat, and carries

PRACTICAL APICULTURE. on

d

away the heat from the cluster too rapidly. 2. Anything that
takes up permanently a large space in the centre of the combs
is objectionable.

We placea stiff wooden rod between the top bar and the bot-
tom bar when the frame is wired, and as soon as the bees have
built ont the comb this rod is removed and its place is soon
filled with comb.

Frog-Cheese.—The puff ball. A large fungus used for smok-
ing bees.

Fume-Box.—‘‘ The bex kept for the purpose of fuming.”—
Keys. Bees were ‘‘fumed” or ‘‘fumigated”’ by exposing them
to the smoke of the puff-ball (q. v.) which stupetied them to such
an extent that they fell from the combs.

Fume To expose to stupefying fumes. The word is
Funigate never used in reference to destructive fumes
like those of sulphur.

Fuzz-Ball.—The puff-ball (q. v.).

German Bee.—The common honey-bee; the kind usually kept
in box hives. Called also Black Bee and Brown Bee. See Race.

Glassing.—Putting glass in sections or honey boxes.

Glucose.—This word means sweet, and has no relation to. the

gluey or sticky qualities of the substance, as some writers on bee-
keeping seem to think. It is a variety of sugar, and its chemical
relations will be found in this work s. v. Sugar.
- Glucose is a natural constituent of the juice, and especially of
the nectar of many plants, and as such, it is present in all
honey. It is consequently exceedingly difficult to detect it when
it is used as an adulterant of this article.

Glucose, Artificial.—Artificial glucose is made from starch,
the process being to change the chemical constitution of
the starch by means of acids, and then remove the acids
by means of lime. When moderately weil made it contains
no starch, as many bee-keepers seem to think, and no
dextrine—and these two impurities are easily detected, as are
also the sulphuric acid and calcic sulphate (plaster of paris),
which are present in very rudely prepared specimens. Glucose
can also be prepared from rags and from saw-dust; but when
the latter material is used the product is so difficult to purify
that it is fit only for the manufacture of the coarser kinds of
alcohol used for varnishes, ete.

- In commerce, however, glucose is a name appropriated to a
strong solution of grape sugar, in which the conversion of the
starch is not carried quite to completion, and consequently
some specimens contain a large proportion of dextrine.
The term grape sugar is applied to the same compound,
further converted, and reduced to a solid condition. Of
the nature and characteristics of glucose most writers on bee-

38 DICTIONARY OF

culture have a very confused idea. The editor of one of our
prominent bee-journals told his readers recently that it was ‘‘a
liquid and always a liquid.” This isa mistake, as every chem-
ist knows, and we understand that some western manufacturers
are now producing crystallized glucose which, in appearance, is
almost equal to granulated caue sugar.

It is unnecessary to give any tests for impurities in artificial
glucose, as bee-keepers have no use for the article. It is never
adulterated; assoon might one carry coals to Newcastle, or sin to
the lower regions, as to think of adulterating glucose, which is
itself the impersonation of adulteration, and is never used
for any other purpose unless, indeed, it be the manufacture of
alcohol.

In view of the immense frauds to which the manufacture of
glucose gives rise, its production and sale should be strictly re-
gulated by law, if not altogether prohibited. It has lately
received the endorsement of the National Academy of Sciences,
but then we all know what the endorsement of the scientific men
of this country is worth; a glance at the advertisements of the
manufacturers of patent articles will give us all the information
we need on that point. Pure glucose may be harmless from a
physiological point of view—that is to say, it may not be an
actual poison—but we must remember that it is never sold at
retail under its own name. It cannot be found in open market,
offered to the consumer direct. It is used by the confectioner,
the syrup manufacturer, the manufacturing grocer, and others,
to adulterate their goods, and in every case it is sold for what it
is not—that is, for pure cane sugar, while it is well known that
its actual value, as judged by its sweetening power, is only one-
third that of sugar. It is, therefore, a fraud, which tells most
heavily against the poorer classes, and yet, to the extension of
this fraud, the National Academy of Sciences lends the sanction
of itsname! Attempts have often been made by bee-keepers to
employ glucose (both liquid and solid) as a food for bees. Some
have reported fair success; others declare that it is very injurious.
Many years ago (1859) the author was impressed with the idea
that since glucose or grape sugar is a prominent constituent of
honey, it ought to form a good food for bees. He therefore pre-
pared some from potato starch and fed it to a small colony with
success; but when made on the small scale, it was altogether too
expensive to compete with common sugar. But, since glucose
has become an article of commerce, the price is greatly reduced.
Under these conditions we have tried it again, both in the pure
state and when mixed with cane sugar, but we must confess that,
thus far, we have found no economy in its use. We found that
colonies fed on it were especially deficient in comb-building
power, and our experiments were on a considerable scale. We
used hundreds of pounds of glucose carefully tested for purity.

Bee-keepers should never allow it to enter their apiaries under
any shape whatever. It will be very difficult to keep it out of

PRACTICAL APICULTURE. 39

the surplus boxes, and then the bee-keeper lays himself open to
a charge of the worst kind of adulteration.

Good Candy. See Candy.
Gouged Honey.—Honey which has been ‘‘gouged” out of
the top of a ‘‘bee gum” after taking off the cover.

Granulated Honey.—See Honey, Granulated.

Grape Sugar.—Kuown also as potato sugar, rag sugar, glucose,
ete.

For its chemical relations see Sugar.

In commerce the term grape sugar is applied to the solid pro-
duct obtained by slow evaporation from the solution. When in
the state of a thick syrup it is known as glucose. See Glucose
and Sugar.

Gray Bees.—There seems to be a special strain of bees known
throughout the South by this name.

Green Honey.—See Honey, Green.

Grub.—See Larva.

Guide Comb.—See Comb, Guide.

Gum.—See Bee-Gum.

Gum.—This term is sometimes, though very improperly, ap-
plied to propolis, which is a true resin. In the ‘‘ Dictionary of
Chemistry,” by Watts, one of the highest authorities in this de-
partment of science, gum is defined as ‘‘a vegetable substance
which forms a thick glutinous liquid with water, is insoluble in
alcohol, and is converted by nitric acid into oxalic and mucic
acids.” None of these properties characterize propolis.

Hackle.—The straw covering which used to be set over the
conical ‘‘skeps” to protect them in winter. Called also a copped.

Hateh.—‘‘To produce from eggs by incubation.”— Webst-r.
To issue from the egg. The word hatch, through allits different
meanings, carries the original idea of production from the egg,
and any other meaning is only by way of analogy, as ‘‘to hatch
a plot,” etc. It should therefore be confined to this meaning; if
we use it, as is commonly done, to express the issuing of the
matured bees from the cells, we give it two meanings and intro-
duce confusion. The term, hatching brood, therefore, should be
used to signify the very young larve just issuing from the egg;
when we wish to signify brood that has matured and is issuing
from the cell, the term emerging brood (q. v.) should be used.
Our readers must bear in mind, however, that almost all writers
fall into this mistake; and by ‘‘hatching ” brood, mean brood
that is just emerging from the cell.

Hatching Brood) 4 term which is properly applied only to

Hatehing Eggs larve which are just issuing from the egg;
eggs which are just hatching. Often improperly applied to
brood that is just emerging from the cells. See Hatch.

40 DICTIONARY OF

Heath Bee.—A race of bees which takes its name from the
district known as Luneberg Heath. In form and ‘appearance
they are similar to the German Bee, but are very inferior for
practical purposes, as they build drone comb, and produce large
numbers of drones, even with a young queen, and keep con-
stantly swarming.

Hexagon.—A figure having six sides all equal and six angles
also equal to each other, as shown in
the figure. |

The hexagon has the remarkable
property that the distance from the
centre to any of the angles is pre-
cisely equal to one of the sides.
Hence, it can be inscribed in a circle
by laying off the radius of the circle
(the distance from the centre to the
circumference) along its circumfer-
HEXAGON. ence.

Hexagonal.—Six sided. Most of the cells of which honey-
comb is composed are hexagonal. The term hexagonal has been
improperly applied to what is known as the quincuns arrange-
ment (q. V.).

Hill’s Device.—A contrivance by means of which the bees are
enabled to pass over the combs, from one to the other, during
very cold weather. It is a substitute for winter passages (q. V.), °
but in our opinion is not equal tothem. It has the advantage
of not disfiguring the combs, as the winter passages are said to
do, though not to our eyes. As well speak of the combs as dis-
figuring the frames. Hill’s device consists of a number of

HILL’S DEVICE.

curved strips of wood nailed to a cross-piece as shown in the
figure. When laid on the top of the frames it keeps the cover
or quilt up so as to allow the bees to pass under it. The cross
piece is often made of iron, a great mistake, since metal is too
good a conductor of heat. Wood would be much better.
Hive.—n. A box or basket in which bees are kept. In the old-
fashioned system of bee-keeping the hive consisted of a box,
basket, or hollow log, in which the bees lived, and to the sides

PRACTICAL APICULTURE. 41

of which they attached their combs; where movable frames are
used, the hive includes only the outer shell and its appur-
tenances.

The old sense of hive is house. Some Germans still call a
bee-hive a bee-house. In practical apiculture the word is never used
as synonymous with ‘‘swarm” or ‘‘colony,” though it is some-
times so used in poetry. .

Hive.—v. To cause a swarm of bees to enter a hive.

Hive, Leaf.—A hive invented by Huber, in which the frames
are hinged together end to end.

Hiver.—One who hives bees.

Hiving.—The process of removing a swarm of bees from the
place where they have clustered to a hive.

Hiving Basket | 4 basket or box used for hiving bees. It is
Hiving Box used to receive the bees from the cluster
and carry them to the hive.

Holyland Bee.—This name has been given to the bees found
in Mount Lebanon, Mount of Olives, Mount Hermon, the Valley
of Sharon, Bethlehem, the Hills of Judea, Jerusalem, Jordan,
Ammon, East of Jordan, near the desert, Galilee, Damascus, and
various other places in that region. Mr. Benton, however,
claims that there are, in the countries named, two distinct kinds
of bees possessing very different characteristics. These he calls
the Syrian Bee and the Palestine Bee. They will be found de-
seribed under these heads.

Honey.—-The nectar of flowers gathered and stored by the
bees. ‘This and this alone is true honey. That the bees do
effect a change in the nectar is undoubtedly true. Pure cane
sugar syrup when fed to bees and stored in comb is no longer
cane sugar, though neither can it be called honey. So, too, bees
often gather the juice of fruit, honey-dew, molasses from grocer’s
hogsheads, and other stuff, and store it in their cells, but none
of this is honey, even though it has passed through the honey-
sac of the bee.* )

As might be expected, honey varies greatly in its composition—
different varieties being secreted by different plants. The com-
position also varies with the age of the honey, asa portion of
the cane-sugar is gradually converted into inverted sugar by the
action of a ferment contained in the honey. Whether this fer-
ment is of animal or vegetable origin is not yet fully settled.

* Tf the reader wishes to see how far astray our so-called standard dictionaries are
in their definitions, let him turn to the words ‘‘Honey” and ‘‘ Propolis.”” He will
be reminded of the famous definition of ‘‘ crab”? propounded t » Cuvier by the members
of the French Academy, when they were getting up their celebrated dictionary.
They thought that they had achieved something wonderful when they had defined
“crab” thus: ‘fA red fish that walks backwards.” Cuvier complimented them
highly upon their ingenuity, and said the definition would be perfect if it were not
for three slight defects: In the first place, a crab is not a fish; secondly, it is not
red; and thirdly, it does not walk backwards.

42 DICTIONARY OF

Some hold that the ferment is similar to that found in the juice
of most fruits; others think that it originates in the alimentary
canal of the bee itself. hose who claim a vegetable origin for
it, suggest that the bees try to prevent fermentation by the ad-
dition of an acid (formic acid?) and by sealing up the cells.

Honey contains four different kinds of sugar: 1, cane-sugar;
2, fruit sugar or glucose; 3, inverted sugar (so-called because it
turns the plane of polarization to the left or inverts the action of
the fruit sugar; 4, a sugarof which but little is known, but which
is evidently distinct. Under the action of the peculiar ferment
previously mentioned, and which is generally present, the cane
sugar gradually changes to sugar of the second and third kinds,
and as these are less soluble than cane sugar, the clear, limpid
fluid gradually becomes opaque and granular—in other words,
the honey is said to granulate.

From this it will be seen that there may be some pure honey
which will not granulate, and also, that it would not be so very
difficult to produce an imitation or fraudulent boney which
would granulate. Therefore, the greatest safeguard which the
consumer has against adulteration lies in the reputation of the
producer.

The specific gravity of honey varies as widely as its chemical
composition. We have seen the bees gather a liquid which was
little more than sweetened water, and we have seen the contents
of the cells so dense that they solidified before the cells were
sealed. The differences in the following data are, no doubt, due
to this cause.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF HONEY,

Authority. Spec. Gravity. Weight of a Gallon.
Paris'\ Codex) 5. -5..cs.haee ee eee 1-261 10°515 lbs.
DCA ee ig A eae a ae 1:333 iL tes bles. 3
Various works on Natural Phil-
OSOPMY 2.0) es eae 1:450 12209 es

Our own determination of clover
honey extracted after being
Sealed (cere sich Symes oe sg ewe 1-370 LS Oi

The gallon is the standard U.S. gallon of 231 cubic inches,
holding 8-339 lbs. of pure water.

A cubic inch of water weighs -0361 lbs; this multiplied by the
specific gravity of any sample of honey, will give the weight of
a cubic inch of that honey. Thus :0361 multiplied by 1°370
gives ‘04945 lbs. as the weight of a cubic inch of clover honey.
This is at the rate of rather less than 21 cubic inches to the
pound.

A syrup of the same specific gravity as average honey (1°350)
may be prepared by dissolving 7 lbs. of cane sugar in 3 lbs. of
water. See Sugar.

Honey is adulterated ordinarily by mixing it with glucose or
syrup of cheap cane sugar, and adding some flavoring extract.

PRACTICAL APICULTURE. 43

Since glucose has become so abundant and so cheap, has
driven all other adulterants out of the field, and as it is some-
what difficult to detect except by experienced chemists or honey
producers, it is very largely used. Hassal names starch, chalk,
plaster of Paris, and pipe clay, as chief adulterants, added for
the purpose of giving a lighter color to very dark honey. These
are easily detected by simply dissolving the honey in hot water
and collecting the sediment. Pure honey contains scarcely any
sediment. ‘lhe starch, if unboiled, will fall.down with the other
impurities. If rendered soluble by boiling, it can still be de-
tected by the blue color produced on the addition of iodine.

Blyth, in his ‘‘ Dictionary of Hygiene,” names, in addition to
starch, treacle or molasses, potato sugar (grape sugar and glu-
cose) and syrup.

To consumers of honey, we would say that the only sure way
to get a reliable article of honey is to procure it in original
packages properly sealed, and bearing the label of some known
producer. If such packages are tampered with, the producer
undoubtedly has a remedy at common law, and can claim heavy
damages from the seller.

The most common form of adulteration, or rather of substitu-
tion, is to placea small piece of comb honey in a glass jar and
fill up the jar with glucose. The presence of an ounce of comb
honey generally serves as a credential for a pound of glucose.

Honey, Artificial. —When a substance which is exactly like a
natural product, in its chemical and physical properties, is pro-
duced by art, we may well give it the name of the natural
product with the prefix ‘‘ artificial.” But under no other circum-
stances can this be justified. Therefore, we have no such thing
as artificial honey. We have adulterated honey, imitation honey,
fraudulent honey, but no artificial honey; for the simple reason,
that as yet, we have not been able to produce the article in our
laboratories. We can take cane sugar syrup, and by adding a
little honey we have something which may be sold for honey, but
only by fraud. And so with glucose. If this be added to honey
we get a product with all the evil qualities of the adulterant, and
with the delicate flavor and stimulating acid of the honey attenu-
ated to the last degree. Such mixtures certainly are not artifi-
cial honey, even though they be sold for such. We might just as
well call a mixture of milk and water, artificial milk.

To illustrate still further, let ustake the case of the diamond:
If a manufacturer could crystallize carbon so as to form a gem
like the diamond, he would produce something which might be
called an artificial diamond, for it would be really and truly a
diamond made by art. But a piece of heavy glass or, as it is
called, paste, cannot be called an artificial diamond, even though
it be sold and used as such. It is merely an imitation diamond,
which is a very different thing.

_ Honey-board.—A board with suitable openings placed over
the frames for the purpose of supporting the honey boxes,

44 DICTIONARY OF

Honey-bag.—An enlargement of the alimentary canal of the
bee in which it carries its load of honey.

Honey-box.—A box in which bees store honey apart from
the hive.

Honey-comb.—This term is applied generally to all the comb
in the hive, as every part may at some time or other be used by
the bees for storing honey. Some writers, however, use this
term to denote comb specially set apart for honey. The cells in
such comb are very deep and frequently turned up at the ends.
See Comb, under which word the reader will find the chief
points of practical interest to bee-keepers.

In regard to the etymology of the latter part of the word
honeycomb lexicographers differ greatly in opinion; Webster and
Worcester, s. v. comb, give the Anglo-Saxon combe, a valley, as the
word from which it is derived; Skeat and others derive it from
comb—the same word as that used to denote a common toilet
article. Skeat say: ‘‘The likeness to a comb is fanciful, but
there is no doubt about the word.” At first sight, merely calling
to mind the honeycomb as it comes to table, or as it is seen in
improved hives, the likeness is rather fanciful, but if we turn up
an old-fashioned skep, and notice the lower edges of the comb
projecting below the cluster of bees, the likeness becomes quite
obvious, especially to the comb once used by women to keep
their hair in place. The word stands alone amongst languages
being peculiar to English. The Germans speak of honey-comb as
honig-scheibe—a ‘‘shive” or slice; Swedish, honingskaka ; Danish,
honning-kage—honey-cake; Icelandish, hunangsseimr; Dutch,
honigzeem—honey-string; French, gateau—cake, and rayon—rays.

Honey-dew.—The best authorities are agreed that there are
two kinds of honey-dew; or, at least, that honey-dew is derived
from two very distinct sources. One kind is purely vegetable
and is exuded by plants—often to such an extent that it falls on
the ground ina shower. ‘The other kind is produced by aphides
or plant lice. Bee-keepers are justly very suspicious of honey-
dew. It may do, perhaps, for warm-weather food, but itis gen-
erally agreed that bees cannot winter well on it, although excep-
tional cases are recorded.

Honey Extractor.—See Kttractor.

Honey-gate.—Since thick honey does not fiow freely through
the ordinary faucet, bee-keepers have adopted the ‘‘ molasses-
gate” as it is called. When used for honey it is properly called
a honey-gate. The pipe, instead of being closed by means of a
stop inserted in it, is shut at the end by means of a sliding gate.

Honey, Granulated.—After what we have said under the
head Honey, the reader will readily understand how it is that
honey granulates. Granulation, in this case, is a change re-
sulting in crystallization, and the exclusion of the atmosphere
serves not only to defer the change, but to prevent to a certain

PRACTICAL APICULTURE. 45,

extent, the subsequent crystallization. It isa curious fact in re-
gard to crystallization that when a strong solution is sealed up
while hot, it will remain liquid indefinitely, but if the air be
admitted, or if a centre of crystallization be inserted in it, the
whole at once assumes the crystalline condition. Take a satur-
ated, boiling solution of alum or glauber salt, contained in a
glass bottle or flask, and cork it tightly with a good common
cork. If laid aside till cold, it will remain clear and limpid, but
the moment the cork is withdrawn, crystals shoot through every
part of the liquid, and the whole becomes a crystalline mass.
The same is true in the case of honey. If hermetically sealed
(in the way fruit and meat is put up in air tight cans) while
warm it will remain liquid indefinitely, but if exposed to
the air while the temperature is low, it speedily crystallizes. May
not this be one reason why the bees so carefully seal their winter
stores?

The granulation of honey is a very good test of its purity.
Imitation and adulterated honeys rarely granulate. Ignorant per-
sons, however, who are not aware of this fact, are unfortunately
apt to regard granulated honey with suspicion.

Honey-house.—A house for collecting and keeping honey.
It is generally a small building connected with the apiary.

Honey-knife.—1. A long thin knife used for separating the
combs from the sides of a box-hive. 2. A knife of peculiar
shape used for cutting off the caps of the honey cells before the
comb is placed in the extractor.

Honey, Narbonne.—Honey obtained from the neighborhood of
the town of Narbonne in France, in the department of the Aude,
8 miles from the Mediterranean. Itis an old town and was known
to the Greeks 500 years B. c. Fora long period it was a most mag-
nificent city, adorned with temples, triumphal arches and amphi-
theatres, and famous for the purity and salubrity of its air. Now
all its splendor has shrunk into a collection of antiquities, and
its only celebrity is its honey, which is considered the best in
France, and by some the best in the world. Narbonne honey
owes its delicious flavor solely to the abundance of fine honey-
bearing plants especially rosemary, which grow in its vicinity.

Honey-sac.—See Honey-bag.

Honey Slinger.—<An extractor (q. v.)

Honey, Virgin.—That which drains spontaneously from the
comb when the cells are uncapped. Some authors claim that
stocks which have never swarmed can alone give virgin honey,
but this would be to make a distinction without a difference, as
the fact of swarming or not swarming makes no difference with
the honey.

Honey Wine.—Mead (q. v.)

House Apiary.—An apiary which is kept in a house specially
constructed for the purpose, The hives are reached from the

46 DICTIONARY OF

inside by the apiarist, and the bees pass out and in through
suitable holes in the sides.

House, Honey.—See Honey- House.

Hungarian Bee.—A race of the honey bee found in Hungary.
See Race.

Hybrid.—The term hybrid should undoubtedly be applied
only to animals whose parents are of different species. When
the parents are merely different races or breeds of the same
species, the product is more properly termed a cross (q. v.) Con-
sequently, unless we decide that the Italian and the common bee
are distinct species, the product should be called a cross, and
not a hybrid or mule.

One of the special characteristics of hybrids or mules, at least
in the higher animals, is that they are sterile or unfertile.
Whether this law extends to animals lower in the scale of being,
insects, for example, has never been determined so far as we
know. Indeed, the bee is the only insect that we can call to
mind, to the breeding of which it has ever been attempted to
apply generally received principles. ‘The few other insects that
are cultivated by man are never, so far as we know, controlled in
their mating propensities. One of the most interesting and
scientific results to be derived from the introduction of the Apis
Dorsata, will be the determination of this point: Will the pro-
geny of the A. Dorsata and any of the varieties of the A. Melii-
ficu, be fertile?

So far as we can at present see, however, the term hybrid, as
applied to the progeny of an Italian queen and a black drone,
is entirely incorrect. The progeny is merelya cross. Still more
absurd is it to calla pure Italian queen, fecundated by a black
drone, a hybrid. Such a queen is not even a cross; she is
merely cross-mated, or, as it is more commonly called, impurely
mated, and the term cross-mated should always be used in such
cases. There ought certainly to be a limit to the absurdities to
which language, even though sanctioned by high authorities,
may be allowed to carry us.

Hybrid Queen.—See Queen, Hybrid.

Image.—The fully developed insect. The last and perfected
stage of insect life, when the pupa-case or mask which covered
it, is dropped, and the inclosed image or being comes forth.

Inferior Hive.—-The lowest of a storified set.

Introducing a Queen.—When a queenless colony is induced
to accept a strange queen, the latter is said to be successfully
introdueed. The conditions upon which depends success in the
introduction of a queen are not fully understood. Sometimes a
queen may be introduced without any trouble whatever; at other
times, the bees cannot be made to accept a queen except by ex-
traordinary methods, It is said that if queens are introduced

PRACTICAL APICULTURE. 47

just at dusk, the operation is much more likely to be successful
than if the operation be performed earlier in the day.

Italian Bee.—A race of bees which seems to have been devel-
oped in a province of Northern Italy, north of the Ligurian
Gulf, or Gulf of Genoa. This region is shut in by high, snow-
capped mountains on the one hand, and the sea on the other.
The bees inhabiting it have therefore bred in-and-in, until their
characteristics have become fixed and a distinct race has been
developed. Spinola called it the Ligurian Bee, a name now very
generally given to it in Europe.

Italianizing.—Changing colonies from any other kind of bee
to Italians. This is done by the introduction of an Italian
queen.

C
Jelly, Royal.—The food of the larvee which develop into
queens. Its composition is not fully understood. By some it is
supposed to be precisely the same as the food upon which the
larve-workers are reared, the quantity in which it is supplied
alone making the difference. Others believe that its composi-
tion is entirely different. The subject needs investigation.

Larva, Plural Larvee.—An insect in the stage between the egg
and the pupa. The word means masked, because the true char-
acter of the perfect insect is masked or hidden. In the case of
butterflies and moths the larva is also called a caterpillar, and
the terms worm, maggot and grub,
are all sometimes applied to the
larva of the bee. The term worm
is decidedly wrong, since the
worms are not insects at all. The
term maggot conveys disgusting as-
sociations connected with blow-flies
and putrid flesh; the word grub is
perhaps better, but the best way
of all is to adopt the simple word
larva into the English language. The accompanying engraving
shows the larva of the bee in its cell and considerably magni-
fied. For the various stages of the bee in its progress from the
egg to the perfect insect, see article Bee.

Ligurian Bee.—The Italian bee. It was accurately and very
fully described by Spinola in his ‘‘ Insectoruwm Ligure species
novee aut variores.” He found it in Piedmont in 1805. See Italian
Bee and Race.

Ligurianize.—To Italianize.

Late Swarm.—See Swarm, Late.
Laying Worker.—See Worker, Fertile.
Leaf Hive.—See Hive, Leaf.

Long Idea Hives.—See New Idea.

LARVA OF BEE.

48 DICTIONARY OF

Lusatian Experiment,—The raising of queens from egg-
workers.
- Lycoperdon.—There are several species of this fungus, the
one generally used for fumigating bees being the L. gigantewm.
It is called Lycoperdon (wolt’s fart), because when stepped on, it
gives a sharp puff and emits a cloud of dust. See Puff-ball.
Maggot.—See Larva.

Maiden Swarm. —The first swarm that issues from a stock.
By some this term is applied to the first swarm that issues from
a swarm of the same season.

Manifold Hives.—Hives with numerous compartments which
may be used either for one large colony or several of moderate
size.

Manipulation.—Handling. The words Handle, Handling, are
greatly to be preferred to manipulate, manipulation.

Marriage-fiight. Wedding flight.

Mat.—A flexible covering for the frames. It may be made of
a great variety of materials—cloth, oil-cloth, wooden strips, ete.
' Maturing Brood.—Brood which is nearly mature; generally
applied to emerging brood (q. v.)

Mel Extractor.—A honey extractor. Obsolete.

Melipult.—A honey extractor. Obsolete.

Metal Corners.—See Corners, Metal.

Micropyle.—The opening in the egg by means of which the

spermatozoon reaches the inside. It corresponds to the opening
or foramen of the seed in botany.

Miller.—A moth; so-called on account of the dusty stains
which it leaves when it rubs against anything, just as does a
man who works in a flour mill.

Mismated.—Cross-mated.

Moth.—This is the popular name of a division of lepidopter-
ous insects, readily distinguished from the butterflies and the
sphinges by the form of their antenne.

The moth which is of special interest to bee-keepers is that
known as Galleria cereana—the generic name, (alleria, being de-
rived from the Latin gallus, a fowl, because the wings when shut
together turn up at the ends like the tail of a fowl. The spe-
cific name, cereana, has been given because it feeds on wax.

The female moth is much larger and darker than the male, and
is shown in Fig. 1—copied from the excellent illustrations given
by Langstroth.

The male is shown at Fig. 2. The eggs are very small and
round, and are. shown full size at the left of Fig. 3; those at
the right being greatly enlarged. The female lays her eggs on
the comb if she can, but quite as often in some crack in the hive
where they hatch, and afterwards creep into the inside. Dr.

PRACTICAL APICULTURE. 49

Fig. 1. FEMALE. Fig. 3. MOTH EGGS.
Thacher, in his Treatise (1828), suggests that the bees themselves
may carry the eggs into the hive on theirlegs. After a short

time the larve grow to the size of
about an inch and present the ap-
pearance shown in Fig. 4.

They now spin a cocoon, whence
they emerge as moths, again to
Fig. 4. LARVH OF BEE morH St in motion the round of insect

FULLY GROWN. life. :

Thacher, Harris and others, give
April or May as the earliest period at which the moth makes its
appearance. On the 9th of February, 1884, I found two moths
in full vigor in a hive in which aqueenless colony, upon which I
had been experimenting, had died. The hive had been standing
out doors all winter, exposed to a temperature of 10° Fah. after
the bees died.

Cleanliness, watchfulness, and prompt destruction of every
moth, cocoon or larve, will be found great aids in keeping these
depredators in check. But the most efficient safeguards are
strong stocks and Italian bees.

_Moth.—See Wazx-Moth.

Mother Bee.—See Queen.

Moth Laryze.—The larva of the bee-moth.

Moth-miller.—An absurd name for a moth. Amongst. bee-
keepers it is generally employed to denote the moth whose larvee
or young destroy the combs of the honey bee. See Moth.

Moth-trap.—A trap for catching moths. Also frequently ap-
plied to a trap for catching their larve. Most traps are useless;
if, however, a loose piece of wood be laid on the bottom or against
the side of the hive, the larve of the moth will creep under
it, and may be caught and destroyed. But if such a trap be not
attended to, it is worse than useless.

Moth-worm.—An improper name for the larva of the bee-
moth.

Movable Frame.—See Frame.

Moving Bees.—This term is applied to the transportation of
bees from one place to another—sometimes fora few yards, at
other times for miles.

Mully Puff.—The puff-ball (q. v.)
Mule.—The workers have been so-called by some writers, The

50 DICTIONARY OF

term mule is, however, properly applicable only to the progeny
of two distinct species, and is synonymous with hybrid (q. v.)
Nadir.—The hive which is set under another-— Keys.
Nadir-hiving.—Placing a hive below another for the purpose
of giving more room. ‘The opposite of super-hiving (q. V.)
Narbonne Honey.—See Honey, Narbonne.
Nectar.—The sweet secretion found in the nectaries of plants.
Named after the famous drink of the gods.

Nectary.—The honey-gland of a flower.
- Neidering.— Same as Nadir-hiving (q. v.)
Neuter. Workers are frequently but improperly so called.

The term is a relic of the days of ignorance in regard to the ©
physiology of the bee.

New Idea Hives.—This term has been applied at different
times to various systems and devices, but in general, the ‘‘new”
idea has been an old one after all. The system which came into
prominence a few years-ago as the ‘‘New Idea” consisted in
using an unusually large number of frames, all in one story.
This, we believe, was the main point, though there were other
features which were claimed to be of great importance. From

the great length of these hives they came to be called also the .«

‘‘Long Idea Hives.” It is needless to say that there was little
about this that was new. Langstroth tried it more than a third
of a century ago, and we ourselves, prior to the breaking out of
the late civil war, had put it in practice. Our experience was,
that it was a most excellent system for raising bees, but not a
very good one for raising honey.

Non-swarmer. - 1. A hive so contrived as to prevent the bees

from ST EEO 2. A colony from which no swarm has come
forth.

Non-swarming Hive.—A hive so contrived as to prevent
swarming. It has not yet been invented, however.

Normal.—This word literally means—by the carpenter’s square
being derived from the Latin word norma, a carpenter’s square.
Itsignifies, ‘‘ according to established rule or principle ”; regular;
usual. The word abnormal (q. v.) is the opposite, and signifies
out of the ordinary course; not according to established prin-
ciples; exceptional.

Nucleus, Plural Nucleii—The plural nucleuses, even though
sonoioned by Webster, is barbarous. Literally, the kernel of a
nut. A centre around which others of the same kind may
gather. In bee-keeping it signifies a very small colony of bees
which, by care may be increased to a full sized colony. Such
small colonies usually consist of one or two frames of comb with
a queen or queen-cell, and afew hundred bees. It is astonishing
how small a colony will, under favorable circumstances, increase
toa full sized one, We have had a colony, so small that it coy-

PRACTICAL APICULTURE. 51

ered but a small portion of an L frame, increase so that it win-
tered and became a powerful colony. But the most astonishing
case on record is thatof Mr. Doolittle, who once had a colony
become so reduced, that by actual count there were only 81 bees
and the queen, and so they held on till warm weather, when
they built up without help, and actually gave a surplus of 5 lbs.
on buckwheat, in sections, and were in splendid condition for
winter. Such nuclei, however, should not be made to gather
stores or build comb. A weak colony cannot build comb in cool
weather, even if fed, while astrong colony will build comb with
the thermometer below 20° Fah. if they have food. We had 5
lbs. of bees in a box (taken froma box-hive which was to have
been brimstoned), and while preparing to get them ready for
winter they were fed sugar syrup. As they had a little
comb in the box, we gave them what we thonght was enough
syrup to fill it; but instead of storing it, they used it to build
two small sheets of beautiful white comb! The thermometer
stood at 18° Fah.

Neither should such small colonies be compelled to go abroad
much for stores, except in very warm weather. If fed a little
every two or three days they will stay at home and cover their
brood, but if compelled to forage, the brood becomes chilled, if
the weather is at all cool, the bees get disgusted and desert their
hive in a body.

Nurse Bees It is generally believed that the duty of

Nursing Bees nursing the brood devolves upon the young
bees—those of two weeks old or less. Hence they are called
nurses or nursing bees. Old bees, however, will care for brood, as
we have shown, by moving a colony in the evening to a consider-
able distance from the old stand, and placing its own queen with
perfectly empty comb on the old stand. The first time we tried
this the bees deserted; the second time they stayed, as we gave
them comb into which we had poured honey and also comb with
larves just hatched. They went to work; the queen laid eggs
which in due time matured, and the colony became quite strong.

Nursery, Lamp.—This consists of a double-walled hive made
of tin. he space between the walls holds a liberal supply of
warm water, which is kept atan equable temperature by means
of alamp. Whena frame with a sealed queen cellis placed in
such a hive or nursery and covered with a thick mat, the queens
emerge quite as well as when the cells are left in the hive from
which they were taken. Some assert that queens matured in
this way are weaker than those that are matured under ordinary
circumstances, while others, and those amongst our prominent
queen-raisers, claim that there is no difference.

Nymph
Nympha

An insect in the pupa state.

59 DICTIONARY OF

Observable Hive | A hive with glass sides, through which
Observation Hive | the epcrpons of pee bees aE be ob-
: : : served. Such a hive should contain
Observatory Hive r but one comb, so that the queen may
Observer's Hive | be always in view. When not under
Observing Hive J observation the glass is covered with
wooden panels which exclude the hight.

As to which of the above five terms is the best, it would be
difficult to say. The second and last are decidedly the worst;
number three is the one most commonly used; the first and
fourth are the most logical. They have all been used by authors
at different times.

QOpen-end Frames.—Frames in which the end bars are so
narrow that the edges do not meet when the frames are placed
in the hive. ‘There is, consequently, a passage whereby the bees
can reach the space between the frames and the sides of the hive
or outer case. i

Ovary.—The organ in which eggs are formed. In the queen
bee they are large and fully developed, but in the worker, they
are abortive. Sometimes, however, they become so far devel-
oped in the latter as to produce eggs, and in that case the bee is.
called a fertile or laying worker (q. v.)

Over-stock.—To keep in any locality more bees than can find
a full supply of honey. Some authors doubt the possibility of
doing this in any case whatever; but it has been so thoroughly
proved, that fifty colonies in most apiaries will gather much
more honey per colony than can one hundred, that there can no
longer be any doubt in regard to it.

Oviduct.—The tube through which the egg passes when it
leaves the ovary.

Palestine Bees.—The bees found in the southern portion of
the Holy Land are said by Mr. Benton to be far inferior to those
found beyond the chain of mountains which crosses the northern
portion of the country. The latter he calls Syrian bees. See
Holyland Bee.

Paraffin.—The substance known as paraffin or paraffine in
this country, isa solid, white material, perfectly inodorous and
tasteless, somewhat resembling spermaceti. Paraffin is, how-
ever, a generic name for a series of compounds which range in
consistency from heavy gases to hard solids, and even the sub-
stance that we buy and use as paraffin does not possess any
chemical individuality, but is probably a mixture of several
compounds. In England, the term paraffin, is as frequently ap-
plied to the liquid as toa solid form; and consequently, we find
frequent references to ‘‘ paraffin lamps”—something very puz-
zling to those who are not aware of these facts.

Paraffin possesses an interest to the bee-keeper from the fact
that it is frequently used as a means of adulterating wax. It has

PRACTICAL APICULTURE. 53

even been suggested as a material for foundation—a purpose for
which it is totally unfit, as its melting point is only 112° Fah.,
while that of wax is 145°. The consequence is, that it melts by
the heat of the hive, and the entire mass of comb, honey and
brood falls down in a disgusting mass of irreparable ruin. For
a method of detecting paraffin when used to adulterate wax, see
Was

Paraffin is a most useful substance in its place. It answers
equally as well as wax for coating the inside of wooden vessels,
and it is used for making beautiful water-proof paper and cloth,
which serve to protect articles from dampness or leakage.

Some of the mineral resins or paraffins have a melting point
higher than that of the article usually sold, and it has been sug-
gested that they might be used for foundation, but we would
strongly advise the bee-keeper to keep everything except pure
wax and honey out of the products of his apiary.

Parasite.—A plant or animal which obtains nourishment from
the body of another plant or animal during the whole ora part
of its existence. In the case of animal parasites, when they live
in the interior of the animal on whose juices they feed, they are

called entozoa (singular, entozoon); when they live on the outside
(as do lice, ete.), they are called ectozoa (singular, ectozoon); or,
epizor (singular, epizoon). Animals which merely live with
others, eating the food of the latter, and existing only where the

- hostis present, are called messmates. 'The animal which harbors

the parasite is called the host.

The bee is not seriously troubled with parasites. We have o2-
easionally found it infected with a minute species of jfilaria;
bacteria and fungi are often present, and it is supposed that A
peculiar species of the latter gives rise to the disease known as
foul brood. Of the ectozoa that infest it there are two or three,
but they do but little damage to a strong stock.

Parent Colony 2 The colony or stock from which a swarm is-
Parent Stock sues forth.

Parthenogenesis.—The production of young by a female
without ieperconree with the male.

Pasturage, Bee.—Plants from which bees procure honey. It
is natural or ‘artificial according as itis wild or cultivated.

Pauper Swarm,.—A deserting colony (q. v.)

Pavillion.—The middle hive on the collateral system.
Piling.—Placing hives one above the other; storyfying.
Piper.—An after-swarm having a virgin queen.

Piping of Queens.—A sound made by young queens when

there is also in the hive a mature queen, but one not yet emerged
from her cell.

Pissoceros.—Literally, pitch-wax. Modern authors consider
it equivalent to propolis. Pliny tells us that it is the second

54 DICTIONARY OF

foundation of the honey-comb, the first being called commosin
by the experienced, and the third propolis.

Pollen.—The minute grains which fecundate the ovules con-
tained within the female organs of the plant. It has also been
called farina, but this term, in this sense, is obsolete. Itis not
even given in Balfour’s Glossary of Botanical Terms. Pollen is
also called bee-bread, and from a mistaken idea that it was the
crude material from which combs are made, it has been called
TaW Wan.

Pollen presents a peculiar and characteristic appearance under
the microscope, and at one time its presence in honey was re-
garded as an evidence of the purity of that article. But the
purer the honey, the less pollen will there be found init. The
grains of pollen vary with different orders and families of plants,
but are constant in form for each species, and even for some
genera. A microscope of very moderate power is sufficient to

POLLEN GRAINS.

show their form and markings which are often very beautiful, as
will be seen by the accompanying engraving, taken from Car-
penter’s work on the microscope. The figures in the engraving
give a very good idea of the variation in form of different kinds
of pollen. That marked A is from the Althwa rosea; Bis from
Cobeea scandens ; C from Passion flower (Passiflora Cerulea), and
D from Ifromea purpwea.

Pollen, Artificial.—We have not yet succeeded in producing
pollen artificially, and it is not likely that we ever shall. The
term artificial pollen, is therefore a misnomer. But we have good

PRACTICAL APICULTURE. 55

substitutes for pollen, amongst which are the meals of rye, oats,
and wheat. The best, however, is pea-meal. This was to have
been expected from its highly nitrogenous character, and prac-
tice fully confirms what theory suggests. It is a great mistake,
however, to call meal or flour, artificial pollen.

Pollenarious. —Consisting of meal or pollen.

Pollen Basket.—A concavity found on the leg of the worker
bee. Itis surrounded with stiff hairs which literally form a kind
of basket in which the bee packs and carries pollen.

Portico.—A porch or covering for the entrance to the hive.
It may be made quite ornamental, and if properly designed,
may be made to protect the entrance from wind and rain. It
leaves a large opening for the bees to strike in the first place,
while the passage from the outside of the portico to the narrow
entrance of the hive is thoroughly sheltered.

Prime Swarm.—A first swarm; one led off by a fecundated
queen.

Princess.—A young or virgin queen.

Prize-section.—See Section.

Propolis.—A resinous substance collected from various plants
by the bees and used by them for fastening movable parts of
their hives, filling up cracks, covering offensive matter, and sim-
ilar purposes. Sometimes improperly called a gum, which it is
not; the term bee-gum is used by some English writers as a name
for propolis.

Prune.—To cut out old combs so that new may be built. Called
by the older writers gelding.

Propolize.—To cover with propolis.

Pucks. —Puff-balls.

Puff-ball.— A large fungus, filled with dust when ripe. When
thoroughly dried it is used for smoking bees, and is a very
powerful narcotic.

A knowledge of this plant and its uses in apiculture came to
us from Great Britain, where there are two genera of puff-ball—
the Bovista and Lycoperdon—the latter being the one generally
used for stupefying bees by fumigation. ‘The species generally
employed is the Lycoperdon giganteum, which sometimes attains a
size of two feet in diameter, and is, in its earlier stages, of a
dirty white color, but becomes brown by age. When quickly
crushed (as when trod on) it explodes with a puff and sends out
a cloud of dust. Hence the scientific name Lycoperdon (q. v.),
and also the old English name ‘‘wolf’s bladder.” It had a place
in the old pharmacies as a sovereign application for staunching
blood, and was also used as tinder in the days before matches,
though for both these purposes several species of Boletus were
more frequently used, and indeed have, even now, a place in
the pharmacopeia, When young and pulpy the lycoperdon is

56 DICTIONARY OF

excellent eating, but it deteriorates very rapidly after being
gathered, and should be discarded if, when cut, any yellow
marks or stains are visible, for then it is too old.

For fumigating bees, they are dried by artificial heat.

Thorley, in his ‘‘ Melissologia or Female Monarchy,” gives the
following directions for collecting and using it. ‘‘ When you
have procured one of these pucks put it into a large paper,
pressing it down therein to two-thirds or near one-half the bulk, .
tying it up very close. Put it into an oven some time after the
household bread is drawn, letting it continue all night. When
it will hold fire it is fit for your usein the method following.
With a pair of scissors cut a piece of the puck as large asa hen’s
egg (better at first to have too much than too little), and fix it
to the end of a small stick slit for that purpose, and sharpened
at the other end, which place so that it may hang near the middle
of an empty hive. This hive you must set with the mouth
upwards, near the stock you intend to take, in a pail or bucket.
This done, set fire to the puck with a candle, and immediately
place the stock of bees over it, tying a cloth round the hives
that no smoke may come forth. Ina minute’s time, ora little more,
you will with delight hear them drop like peas into the empty hive.
When the major part of them are down, and you hear very few
fall, you may beat the top of the hive gently with your hand, to
get as many outas youcan. Then, loosing the cloth, lift it off

‘to a table, or broad board, prepared on purpose, and knocking
the hive against it several times, many more will tumble out,
perhaps the queen amongst them, as I have often found. Lodg-
ing near the crown, she often retains her hold, and falls one of
the last.”

Puffs.—Puff-balls.
Punk-fist.—The puff- ball.

Pupa.—-A bee in its later stage as sealed brood. During the
earlier period of its existence as sealed brood, it is simplya
larva—not having spunits cocoon. After the cocoon
has been spun it is a pupa, and so remains until it
emerges as an imago or perfect bee.

The appearance of the pupa when changing its form
from that of the larva to that of the fully developed
bee, is very well shown in the accompanying figure from
Bevan.

The appearance of the bee during the several
changes from egg to imago are beautifully shown in
Girdwoyn’s work— ‘‘ Anatomie et Phy siologie de
VAbeille,” Plate XII.

Pare sore may be a contraction for either pure-bred or
purely mated. It should therefore never be used alone.

Queen.—n. The mother of all the bees raised under natural
conditions in the hive.*

* It is a common practice to transpose the comb, eggs, and brood of different

PRACTICAL APICULTURE. ar

Although all the workers are females and should not be
spoken of as of the masculine gender, as is too commonly done,
the queen is the only fully developed female in the hive.
Some old writers spoke of her as the ‘‘ King Bee,” and this error
survives even to-day amongst some non-progressive bee-keepers.

Queen.—v. To supply a queen to a colony. To introduce a
queen.

ueen Cage.—A cage or box for holding a queen during cer-
tain operations. Thusit is used for sending queens by mail;
for keeping queens temporarily out of the hive; for protecting
queens during the process of introducing. It generally consists
of a wooden block with a large opening covered with wire gauze.

Queen Cell.—A large cell in which a queen israised. ‘The
accompanying engravings from Langstroth give an excellent

QUEEN CELLS.

view of aqueencell. Fig. 1 shows the cell as seen before the
queen emerges; Fig. 2 shows the same cell with the side broken
away by the engraver, so as to show the royal pupa within.

Queen, Cross-mated.—A queen that has been mated with a
drone of another race. Generally, but improperly called an
impurely mated queen. Sometimes, and still more“ improperly
termed, a hybrid queen.

Queen, Dollar.—A term used to denote an untested queen,
bred from a purely bred mother that has mated with one of her
own race. So-called, because the standard price was supposed
to be one dollar. Strange to say, however, the price of ‘‘ dollar”

queens varies from 75 cents to $2. The term, therefore, looks
very much like a misnomer.

Queen, Hybrid.—An improper name for a queen whose

hives, and consequently, the progeny of a pure Italian queen is often raised in a
colony of blacks; but this isan artificial, not a natural condition, ‘The presence of
fertile workers is also an abnormal condition,

58 DICTIONARY OF

mother had been cross-mated. Thus far, we have no evidence
that we have any hybrid bees (see Hybrid), but if we use the word
‘‘hybrid” instead of the more appropriate term, ‘‘ cross bred,”
then a hybrid queen is one that is produced from the eggs of a
cross-mated queen. But to complicate and confuse matters still
more, the term hybrid is applied by many writers, and in almost
all the trade circulars, to pure-bred queens which are cross-
mated. Such queens are not even crosses let alone hybrids.

Queen, Lmpurely Mated.—A queen that has met a drone of
another race 1s said to be ‘‘impurely mated.’ We prefer the
term ‘‘ cross-mated.”

Queenless.—Having no queen.

Queen Raising -) The process of developing queens from the
Queen Rearing egg or larva. See Raising.

ueen, Tested.—A queen whose progeny has been examined
and found to be pure-bred. Consequently, the queen must be -
pure, and not cross-mated. By pure is meant that she is of
some well-defined race, such as the Black bee, the Italian bee,
the Cyprian bee, etc. It mayseem strange to talk of a tested
black queen, but it is perfectly proper to do so, and might be
necessary.

Queen, Virgin.—A queen which has not met a drone; an
unimpregnated queen; an unfecundated queen.

Queen, Warranted.—A queen which has not been tested (see
Quecn, tested), but which the seller agrees to replace if it should
prove that her progeny are not pure-bred.

ueen-yard.—This was a device of the late Mr. Quinby and
was intended to prevent the loss of queens with clipped wings
when they attempted to lead off a swarm. It consisted of a
small ‘‘yard ” lined with tin, and with a smooth tin ledge which
projected internally so as to prevent the queen from crawling
out. Its use has been abandoned; one reason being that a num-
ber of bees would often cluster in one corner of the yard, and
the queen would escape by crawling through this cluster.

uilt,—A device for preventing the escape of heat from the
brvod-cluster. The arrangement most frequently used consists
of two thicknesses of cloth with some porous material between
them and the whole ‘‘ quilted” together. ‘This has the great ad-
vantage that the whole can be lifted off at once, but, on the other
hand, we have found that when coated with propolis, wax, etc.,
such quilts become so stiff and creased that it is impossible to
make them lie flat onthe frames; bees, therefore, escape, annoy
the operator, and in cold weather die, because they cannot find
their way back to the cluster. We prefer, therefore, to cover the
frames with a thin, tough sheet (enamel cloth in summer, duck
in winter), and lay the quilt on this. In this way, any old cloth
or carpet makes a most excellent quilt when cut to the proper
$1Zé,

PRACTICAL APICULTURE. 59

Quineunx.—This word is derived from the five marks on a
five ounce weight, and signifies an arrangement in fives, this
being the least number that will exhibit the system, the special
feature of which is that the objects stand in straight rows in
four different directions, so that if they were trees or other
plants, a cultivator might be run between them on four different
lines. If it be desired to get the greatest number of plants ona
given area, and still keep them the greatest possible distance
apart from each other in every direction, the quincunx system
enables us to do it. The objects may be arranged as in the
accompanying figure, where it will be seen that they form rows,

7, aie. N 5)
we ane oe Pad a
v7 Vo AA
ae ae us %
Ve, 2
a ae wv aS oe

the objects in the alternate rows ‘‘ breaking joint” with those
in the others, and the rows being placed at such a distance apart
that the distances between any object and those lying around it
are all equal.

The quincunx arrangement has been strongly recommended
for the hivesin an apiary, and it serves admirably. It has been
sometimes improperly called the hexagonal system, from the fact
that each hive is surrounded by six others, all at equal distances
from it and from each other. The system is a very old one, and
it would be a pity to introduce a new and inaccurate name for it.

Rabbet.—When one part of the edge of a piece of wood
is planed lower than the rest, the lower part is called a
rabbet or rebate. In Fig. 1, Ris the rabbet, and upon this lower
portion the arms of the frames rest, so that their
upper surface may not project above the walls
of the hive; otherwise, the bees would get out here
and cause annoyance.

Strange to say, the term rabbet has been ‘‘ lately
applied to a strip of folded tin, to be used in any
hive where the frames are suspended by the top
bar.” In Fig. 2 the folded tin strip, A, will be seen
resting on the rabbet as just defined. It will
be seen that the edge of the tin upon which the
arm rests is just the reverse of a rabbet, and to
call it a rabbet is an absurdity. It should be
called a support, bearer, or some similar name, but

60 DICTIONARY OF

certainly not a rabbet. Some English writers call it a runner, but
we prefer the word support in such cases. See Support.

Race.—The term ‘‘race,” in the sense of kind, is used to de-
note a variety which, by long exposure to peculiar influences
and conditions, has lost the tendency to recur to the original -
type. A race differs from a breed (q. v.), in that it has been pro-
duced by natural means; and from a variety in that it has en-
dured longer, and has become more permanent. Our most
scientific bee-keepers acknowledge quite a number of distinct
races of bees, amongst which may be named the Black, Brown or
German Bee; the Carniolan; the Caucasian; the Cyprian; the
Dalmatian; the Egyptian; the Holyland, Syrian, or Palestine;
the Hungarian; the Italian or Ligurian, for a short description
of all which, see under these several heads. In the case of
some of these—notably the Italians and the Cyprians, the race
has been hemmed in for hundreds, perhaps thousands of years,
by a wide extent of sea, or by mountain tops whose snow-clad
summits were an effectual barrier to the passage alike of the
queens, drones, and swarms of other races.

Rack.—n. 1. This word was originally used to signify the grat-
ing placed above a manger for holding hay; Bailey defines it as
‘‘a wooden frame to hold fodder for cattle, or to put botties in.”
In bee-keeping the term honey rack is the name of an open frame-
work or crate placed upon the brood frames for the purpose
of holding sections or honey-boxes. 2. The term rack is also
used in mechanics to signify a straight bar with teeth or projec-
tions. Hence it has been applied to a bar having notches and
fastened to the bottom of the hive for the purpose of keeping
the frames the proper distance apart. Used with very deep
frames and when moving stocks.

Rack.—v. To draw off clear liquid from sediment.

Raise ) Both these erms are properly applied to the producing
Rear {and bringing up of young animals. Webster defines
raise thus: ‘‘To cause to grow; to procure to be produced, bred,
or propagated.” Rear he defines thus: ‘‘To bring up or to raise
to maturity.” Queen-raising and queen-rearing are both proper.

PRACTICAL APICULTURE, 61

Worcester, and other authorities, give substantially the same
definitions. The best etymoiogical authorities agree that the
words are originally the same. They may, therefore, be used
interchangeably.

Raw Wax.—A name given by some old writers to pollen, It
is founded on the erroneous idea that bees collect wax.

Rebate.—See Rabbet.
Rectangle.—A figure in which ail the angles are right angles.
c It must therefore be four-sided.
D The sides, however, need not be
ali equal. The opposite sides must
be equal. A rectangle is not neces-
sarily oblong; it may be a square,
for every square is a rectangle,
though every rectangle is not a
RECTANGLE, square. ae

Re-hive.—We would suggest the
more general use of this word to signify the transposing of
frames and bees from one hive to another where the combs are
not cut out, and put in new frames. We need such a word to
signify the minor operation of transposing from the more im-
portant one of transferring, and the expression, re-hiving, seems

to us to meet the case. See Transfer. |

Render Wax, To.—To melt and clarify it. This is best
done in the Wax Extractor, but may be done in a common pot or
kettle. See Wax.

Rhomb,—A_ four-sided figure whose sides are all equal and
the opposite sides parallel to each other, but whose angles are un-
equal, two of the angles being obtuse and two acute.

D Cc D

RHOMB. ae RHOMBOID.

Rhomboid.—A four-sided figure whose opposite sides and
angles are equal, but which is neither equilateral nor equi-
angular. The difference between a rhomb and a rhomboid
will be readily seen on examination of the figures.

Ripe Honey.—Honey that has been evaporated either in the
hive or utherwise, so as to keep without souring. When fully
ripe it is capped or sealed (q. v.)

Rob.—When one colony takes the honey of another it is
said to rob it,

DICTIONARY OF

7).
Lx

Royal Cell.—See Queen Cell.
Royal Jelly.—See Jelly.
Sandarach.—An old name for pollen or bee-bread. Improper.

Scout.—It is a general belief that bees, when about to swarm,
send out scouts to find a suitable location for the future hive.
This is doubted by some, but the meaning of the word is as we
give it.

Seal.—To close a cell by means of a cap of wax, or of wax and
pollen; an operation performed by the bees.

Sealed Brood.—When the larve reach a certain stage of de-
velopment, the cells in which they have been raised are sealed
by the bees. The brood remains in this sealed condition until it
emerges as a fully developed bee, and during this period i
called ‘‘ sealed brood.”

Sealed Honey.—As soon as honey is fully ripe the bees cap
or seal up the cells in which it is contained. It 1s then called.
sealed honey. ;

Section A small frame, closed on

Section Poehion bottom and ends, in
which the bees are made to store honey.
The one-pound section is 4}x 44 inches.
The two-peund section (or so-called Prize
Section) is 54x61. The thickness or width
varies from 14 inches to 2 inches.

Separator.—A piece of wood or metal
placed between the sections for the pur- joyypareEp suc
pose of preventing the queen from entering TION BOX.
them and laying eggs; and also for the pur-
pose of preventing the bees from building the comb beyond the
sides of the section.

Septum. - A division. Generally applied to the vertical divi-
sion between the two series of cells in the comb—that is the
bottoms of the cells.

Sheet.—A cloth covering for the framesin a hive. While a
quilf is generally made of two thicknesses of cloth with some
porous material between them, a sheet is properly but one thick-
ness. The sheet is used chiefly for the purpose of preventing
the bees from passing above the frames; the more clumsy quilt
is used for preventing the escape of heat from the brood cluster.
See Frame Cover, Quilt and Mat.

Sholtz Candy.—See Candy.

Side Bar.—A name given by some English writers to the end-
bars of the frames. The term ‘‘side” bar is decidedly incorrect.

Side Boxes.—Honey boxes placed at the sides of the frames
of comb, or at the sides of the hive, in distinction from those
boxes which are placed on the top of the hive. The term is not

PRACTICAL APICULTURE. 63

often applied to sections or boxes hung at the sides of the
frames in the brood cluster, but it is difficult to draw the line.

Skep ? This word literally means a basket. In some coun-

Skip § tries the bees are hived in baskets lined with
straw. ‘lhe term, as used in bee-keeping, applies properly to
the old-fashioned straw hive and similar contrivances, and not
to box or similar hives.

Small Hive. —A term applied by some English writers to the
Cap or super.

Smoke.—Since the bee-keeper has occasion to use this term
frequently, it is well to get at its true meaning, so that we may
use the words smoke (v); smoke (n), fume, fumigate, etc., in their
proper senses. ‘The definition given by Webster, and followed
by the Imperial Dictionary, is so thoroughly wrong that it cannot
be defended either for scientific reasons, or upon the ground of
good usage. His definition is: ‘‘The exhalation, visible vapor
or substance that escapes or is expelled from a burning body.”
To this he adds: ‘‘Applied especially to the volatile matter ex-
pelled from vegetable matter, or wood, coal, peat, and the like,
the matter expelled from metallic substances being more gener-
ally called fume, or fumes.”

‘© Vapor” he defines: ‘‘ Any substance in the gaseous or aeri-
form state, the condition of which is ordinarily that of a liquid
or solid.”

_Now, the essential peculiarity of smoke is, that it consists not
of gases or vapors alone, but of gases or vapors, or both, loaded
with finely divided solid matter. In the case of ordinary smoke
used by bee-keepers, it consists of the gaseous products of com-
bustion (carbonic acid, carbonic oxide, etc.) and the vapors of
water, pyroligneous acid, etc., loaded with finely divided carbon
and the partially condensed vapors of imperfect combustion.
Smoke, therefore, is simply the gaseous products of combustion
loaded with finely divided solid matter. The smoke of a soft-
coal furnace is black; that of a magnesium lamp is white. The
definition given by Worcester agrees with these obvious facts,
and is correct.

On the other hand, the term fumes, does not apply especially to
mineral matter, as Webster states. We speak (and properly too)
of ‘‘the fumes of tobacco;” ‘the fumes of whiskey,” and the
word ‘‘fumigation,” as applied to the exposure of bees to the va-
pors arising from the slow combustion of puff-ball, has long been
an accepted term. The word ‘‘fumes” appliesto purely vaporous
_exhalations, whether vegetable or mineral, and, although origin-
ally meaning the same thing as smoke, it has now come to havea
slightly different meaning, so that we very properly make a dis-
tinction between the fumes of tobacco and the smoke of tobacco.

Since sulphur, when burned, gives off only fumes, it is proper
_to speak of fumigating bees with sulphur; in that case, we
should not speak of smoking them. In the case of puff-ball,

64. DICTIONARY OF

the active agent seems to be a volatile narcotic, and in this case
too, the term ‘‘fumigate” is proper, even although the fumes
may be accompanied with smoke.

Smoke.—v. To direct a blast of smoke on bees for the pur-
pose of subduing or controlling them.

Smoker.—An implement consisting of a small furnace in
which rotten wood, rags, or similar materials are burned. The
smoke from this slow combustion is blown on the bees by means
of a pair of bellows which is generally attached.

Smyrnian Bee.—A race of bees found in Western Asia. Said
to be quite distinct and very excellent.

Spacing Board.—A board with
grooves into which the end-bars or
bottom-bars of the frames slide
and are held firmly at the right
distances apart. They are used
when hives with movable frames
are transported from place to place.

Spat.—Unsealed brood. This
word is properly applied to the
young of the oyster and similar SPACING BOARD.
shell-fish. Itisnot a desirable sub-
stitute for the word brood.

Species.—To give a good definition of species, is a problem
that has taxed the powers of the ablest scientists. Fortunately,
for our purpose, all questions of origin, etc., may be safely dis-
regarded, and our task is, therefore, so much the easier. |

Buffon defines a species as ‘‘a constant succession of individ-
uals, similar to and capable of reproducing each other.” Cuvier’s
definition is: *‘A succession of individuals which reproduces
and perpetuates itself.” In both cases, the power to produce
fertile offspring is a prominent feature of the definition. The
main question of course is: How far may a series of individuals
depart from the main type and still belong to the species?

The fertility of the progeny has frequently been proposed as a
test of difference in species; but, even with such an apparently
simple and crucial test, it is not always easy to decide. Some
kinds interbreed with much more facility than others, even when
their apparent differences are much greater. Thus, it has been
found that wild and tame geese, when bred together, produce a
veritable mule which is unfertile, while the dog and the jackal,
which are apparently much less nearly related, breed together
freely, and the progeny is fertile.

So far as bees are concerned, it is believed by the best author-
ities that all the kinds at present under domestication are mere
varieties of one species. Even difference of habit to the extent
of using wax for propolis, as is the character of the Egyptian
bee— Apis fasciata—does not indicate a difference of species, for .
it is on record that the common honey bee has done the same

PRACTICAL APICULTURE. ms 65

_ thing when propolis could not be had, so that before coming to a
decision, if would be at least necessary to determine whether or
not the Egyptian bee has easy access to propolis,

For a list of species see Apis; the principal races are named
under the head Bee, and the extent of the variation which exists
among them under the heads Breeding, Strain, Variety.

Spent Queen.—A queen whose productive energies have been
exhausted. :

Spermatozoon.—Plural Spermatozoa.—An essential peculiarity
of the spermatic fluid of all animals, consists in the presence of
elongated bodies which have active motion, even for some time
after they have quitted the living organism. From this they
have been regarded by many as animalcules, but this is an error.
They are, undoubtedly, true products of the formative action of
the organs in which they are found, and cannot be ranked in the
same category with Animalcules proper. In all the higher ani-
mals, impregnation takes place from the union of one or more
spermatozoa with the ovum of the female, and in most cases
connection between the male and female is necessary for each
birth. In the birds, however—notably the turkey—one impreg-
nation lasts for several eggs, and in some of the insect families—
notably the ants and bees—one impregnation lasts perhaps, for
a lifetime. In these cases the males produce a large quantity of
very concentrated semen which is received by the female ina
small sac and kept there till wanted. See Spermatheca.

Spermatozoid.—This term was first used in botany to desig-
nate the moving filaments contained in the antheridia of crypt-
ogams. It has since been used by Flint and other writers to
designate what are usually called spermatozoa (q. v.); the object
in using this word probably being to avoid any appearance of
sanctioning the idea that spermatozoa are animalcules. But, on
the ground that the word spermatozoid has been appropriated by
botanists to denote a specific object, we prefer the word sperma-
tozoon. Etymologically, the objection named above applies
equally to both words, but it seems to us to be of no importance.
The plural of spermatozoid is spermatozoids, not spermatozoa, as
some have it.

Spermatheea,—A small sac which is attached to the oviduct
and receives the spermatic fluid of the drone in the act of copu-
lation. In virgin queens it is empty, but after impregnation it
is well filled. It is supposed, that when the egg, in passing
through the oviduct, comes opposite the opening of the duct
from the spermatheca, one or two spermatozoa are ejected so as
_ to impregnate it. The spermatheca is quite small—just clearly
visible to the naked eye—and yet it has been estimated by
Leuckart, that it may contain 25,000,000 spermatozoa.

Spring Dwindling.—In many colonies the bees die off in
spring faster than the young are matured. The colony, conse-
quently, dwindles, and sometimes disappears altogether, The

66 DICTIONARY OF :

cause of this disastrous state of things has been frequently dis-
‘cussed, but no satifactory conclusion has been reached. In our
own practice we have sought to avoid spring dwindling: 1. By
economizing to the utmost the natural heat of the bees. This
we do by contracting the brood nest as much as possible, and
surrounding it with non-conducting material in the shape of
cushions and division boards. Also lessen ventilation as much
as possible. 2. By supplying good wholesome food—preferably
sugar syrup, for the saccharine portion. 3. By taking great care
that the queen is never exposed to alow temperature. ‘This can
only beaccomplished by keeping the whole colony warm. If the
whole colony gets chilled, and the heat of the cluster falls, so
that the queen gets chilled, it takes her a long time to recover,
though she may eventually do so, and again become useful.
4. By having plenty of young but well-matured bees in the fall.
Young bees which have not had several good flights are worse
than useless. -

The great remedy for all troubles, however, is to have strong
colonies with plenty of food.

-Square.—A figure which has all its
N sides equal, and all its angles right
angles. The figure A, B, D, C, isa square.
A square is a rectangle, but a rectangle is
not necessarily asquare. See Rectangle.
E F Stall. —An old term for a stock (q. v.);
more properly, merely the stand. Obsolete.
Stand.—The base or support upon
which the hive stands; also, the location
re) of acolony. The word is used improperly
A SQUARE. for stock, colony and hive. See Stock.
Stand, Bee.—This term is sometimes
used as synonymous with apiary, but should not be used in this
sense.

Starter.—A small piece of comb or foundation put into a
frame or section to ‘‘start” the bees
comb-building in the right direction.
A section with a ‘‘starter” of foun-
dation is shown in the figure. ms

Sterile Queen. —A queen that does Ecce Hil
not lay. Sometimes queens lay eggs [itil
that will not hatch. In this case the Tn
queen can scarcely be said to be
barren or sterile, though the eggs are
properly called unfertile.

_ Sting.—The weapon by means of — sacrron WITH STARTER.
which bees defend themselves. 2

Stock.—This term can scarcely be dispensed with, although it

PRACTICAL APICULTURE. 67

does not find a place in some glossaries, and other writers con-
sider it synonymous with colony, which it certainly is not.
A colony is simply the bees of any stock, whether a new swarm
or the inhabitants of a hive that has been established for years.
Then we have the hive, which certainly does not includea colony,
just as a colony does not necessarily include a hive.* A stock,
however, includes colony, hive, comb, stores, and all that is
necessary for the normal existence of the bees. (Sections,
crates, smokers, etc., may be necessary for the bee-keeper, but
not for the bees, and.consequently cannot be included.)

- Stock Hive.—A term sometimes used to denote the hive or
apartment in which the brood, etc., exists, as distinguished from
the ‘‘Super” or honey-gathering apartment.

Stopped.—Capped (applied to cells containing honey).
Stop-wax.—Propolis.
Storify.—To range hives over or under each other.

Strain.—This word, though characterized by Webster as ob-
solete and rare, is one of the most useful, expressive, and legiti-
mate words that we have, and this is shown by the extraordinary
difficulty of finding a synonyme for it. When we speak of a
strain of bees we mean a series of carefully selected individuals
which have not been erected into a breed, but, nevertheless, show
certain peculiarities which distinguish them from bees bred pro-
miscuously. The word finds its proper place in the following
sequence:

( Variety
Genus—Species— 4 Race { stein
| Breed

Amongst stock breeders. the word is in common use, and
amongst certain very distinct breeds we have strains which are
nected for certain peculiarities, although these peculiarities do
not constitute a sufficient differenceto make anew breed. Thus,
we have certain strains of particular breeds of cattle, which
strains are noted for large quantities of milk, while other strains
of the same breed are noted for their butter-giving qualities.
And so, too, with bees; of the same race we may have different
strains—some noted for gentleness, some for great working
power, some as being good nurses, some as wintering well, some
as combining several good features.

Strained Honey.—This term would properly apply to filtered
or clarified honey, but it is generally used to denote honey that
-has been obtained from the combs by squeezing. It frequently
contains the juices of young bees, bee-bread, etc., etc.

7 Sugar.—Sugar being the main constituent of honey and the
chief food of the bee, possesses special interest for the bee-

~* Dealers and bee-keepers speak of sending ‘‘colonies’’ in packing boxes, Iy
puch instances they certainly do not include the hiyes, Sie

68 DICTIONARY OF

keeper. Under the heads Candy, Glucose and Honey, the reader
will find interesting and useful information in regard to the
subject. The different kinds of sugar which enter into the com-
position of honey are named under the head Honey, and possess
much interest to the scientific inquirer; but, with the exception
of cane sugar, which is used so largely for feeding bees, and
glucose (natural and artificial), it would at present be difficult to
turn this knowledge to practical account. The reader who is
curious on the subject will find a very complete resumé of our
knowledge in regard to it in the ‘‘ Dictionary of Chemistry,” by
Watts. A few of the chief facts in regard to cane sugar may be
of value here.

The term, ‘‘sugar,” is generally applied to the product ob-
tained from the cane and the beet, aud from the fact that it was
first largely obtained from the cane, it is now generally kuown
as cane sugar. Itis found not only in the sugar cane and the ~
beet root, but in the maple and in numerous other plants. The
juices of many grasses* contain it, and cases have been recorded
where bees have obtained much food from the stubble of wheat,
corn, and other plants of that kind. The nectar of the flowers
of the cactus contains cane sugar only. Cane sugar is also
found in varying proportions in the nectar of most other plants.

Cane sugar dissolves in one-third of its weight of cold water,
and in all proportions of boiling water. It has a sweetening
power of 100; grape sugar having 60. It melts at 320° Fah., and
on cooling forms the transparent substance known as barley
sugar. When heated to 400° to 410° it loses water and becomes
brown; it is then no longer capable of crystallization, and is
called caramel. Indeed, cane sugar is so susceptible of change
by heat, that if a colorless solution of it be exposed for some
time to the temperature of boiling water, it becomes brown and
partially uncrystallizable. Acids also effect this change. . Tar-
taric acid added to a solution of sugar and boiled, prevents the
formation of crystals, and no crystals can be obtained even after
the acid has been thoroughly neutralized by chalk or carbonate
of lime.

Cane sugar is (with bee-keepers) a favorite winter food for
bees. Experience has shown that it answers admirably, and its
composition shows that it is entirely combustible, leaving no
ashes or residue, whether it be burned in the organism of the
bee or the furnace of the chemist. It has a greater heat-giving
power, weight for weight, than other forms of sugar. But since
pure sugar contains no muscle-forming material, it may be
doubted if it alone will sustain a colony of bees which may be
compelled to exert themselves either for the purpose of gather-
ing food, or for that peculiar activity which they show when ex-
posed to great cold.

As bee-keepers may have oecasion to calculate the weights and

* The cane is regarded by botanists as a gigantic gre-.

PRACTICAL APICULTURE. 69

bulks of given quantities of syrup, we givea few figures. The
quantity of sugar dissolved is 100 parts; the amount of water by
weight is given in the first column, and the specific gravity of
the resulting syrup in the second column.

Parts of Water. Spec. Gravity.
UME a SRR WN os Te ae Bae er nege RE Real Oe cre er ane eo 1°345
ODS Pais, FARR See ee eh oes ee SAE a 2 I A 1-322
CAD Bs ee aah Res TN a Re ne em RODE A yi a 1297
SO a Saat Sond once ciaees eign Bean 1-281
Re ek ayaa ey tet ee PER ay eg he eee. oe te 1-266

ROO ee a ayan dens Wes ality se es ees PR eed oo A a eae
SICA Sage eet pa RRL AS emia eoti ten. coon bE gh os ira WES 1°222
1A DSR AR i ee ey eS ot 9 2s es ed Os | 1-200
AG Ore rere we are Rel et ak gr ee = RA ce oy LAS%,
ONS arenes ee eer Ric re re ngs Seat ee ke Ee: 1/176
AON Sarees Se Be NOP Son taal fe LE Cees a ac a ae Ba ar

As water has a specific gravity of 1,000, and a gallon of water
(231 cubic inches) weighs 8-339 lbs., it is easy to calculate the
weight of a gallon or a quart of syrup containing any known
amount of sugar. Or from the weight of a gallon or quart we
can tell how much sugar it contains.

Sulphur.—n. A well known substance of a yellow color. Itis
one of the chemical elements—that is to say, it cannot be manu-
factured by combining any other known substances. It occurs
as a mineral in some volcanic regions, especially Sicily, and is
also obtained from iron pyrites, which is a compound of iron
and sulphur. It is found in commerce in three forms: 1. Crude
sulphur or brimstone, which is simply the sulphur solidified in
masses like stones. 2. Roll sulphur, which is the preceding, puri-
fied and cast in moulds so as to form rolls or sticks. 3. A fine
powder prepared by distilling or subliming the common sulphur
and condensing the vapor. It melts at 232° Fahr., and between
this point and 282° it is quite liquid. When still further heated
it becomes thick and viscid, but again becomes liquid just be-
fore it vaporizes. Therefore, in melting sulphur for making
matches, it should not be made too hot. Sulphur is easily con-
verted into vapor without being burned, and in that case it is
not so deadly as when combined with oxygen so as to form sul-
phurous acid (sulphurous anhydride), or in other words, when it
is properly burned. In the latter case it produces a heavy gas
of a very penetrating and suffocating nature which effectually
destroys all insect life, whether in the form of mature bees,
moths, or the larve of either. This gas, however, quickly dif-
fuses in the air, and does not leave any taint on the comb or
honey exposed to it. But if we expose honey to the unburned
vapor of sulphur, the latter condenses on the comb or honey,
and leaves a very disagreeable tasteand odor. And as sulphur
is not volatile at ordinary temperatures, this taste and odor are
very persistent,

70 _ DICTIONARY OF

Sulphur.—». To kill by exposure to the fumes of burning
sulphur. A process now used by intelligent persons only for
destroying the moth in its various stages.

Super.—A hive set over another so that the bees may work
in it.

Super, Bar.—A bar super is simply a case or crate in which
the honey-comb is hung from bars (q. v.) instead of being built
in sections or boxes.

Super, Divisional.—English writers apply the term ‘“‘divis-
ional super,” to a set of long sections reaching across the entire
width or length of the hive, and held together somewhat after
the manner of closed end frames.

Super-hive.—v. To set one hive above another.
Super-hiving.—The opposite of Nadir-hiving (q. v.)
Superior Hive.—The uppermost of a storified set.

Super, Sectional.-—A super or case placed over the frames or
honey board, and containing sections (q. Vv.)

Support, Metal.—A strip of metal fastened
to the edge of arabbet for the purpose of sup-
porting the frames. Improperly called a metal

R rabbet. A common form of metal support,
bearing or runner (as some English writers call
it), is shown in the annexed engraving at B. See
Rabbel, where another form is shown.

Swarm.—A new colony produced by an old
stock. Prime swarms consist of the old queen
and an indefinite number of workers of all ages,
together with some drones. After swarms (called
also second, third, etc., swarms) consist of one

METAL suPPoRT OF More young queens followed by workers, and

ATTACHED To Perhaps drones. See After-swarm.

RABBET. The term, colony, is very apt to be confounded

with swarm. The difference is this: A swarm is

a young colony just detached from the parent stock. The idea
which attaches to the word swarm is, that either under the influ-
ence of the so-called swarming fever, or by the direct agency of
man in dividing them, the old colony has split up into two or
more parts, one of which maintains the identity of the old stock,
while the other seeks a new home. See Stock.

Swarm, Artificial.—A new colony formed from one or more
old colonies by the direct agency of man.

Swarming Basket ) A box or basket fastened when neces-
Swarming Box sary to the end of along pole, and used
for taking swarms from atree or bush and hiving them. The
box or basket is held directly beneath the swarm, and the bees
brushed into it with a feather, or where the limb is inaccessible
and better facilities are not at hand, the limb may. be shaken so

: PRACTICAL APICULTURE. 71

that the bees will fall into the box. This may be done in some
cases by placing the upper end of astick against the branch to
which the bees cling, and striking the lower end sharply with a
mallet. The bees fall off, but very few take wing, and there is no
danger of killing the queen. .

Swarming Impulse.—A desire or tendency on the part of
bees to swarm. ‘The conditions under which it occurs are not
“fully understood, but that it is a definite desire or impulse,
nearly as much soas the fever of fowls when wishing to set, there
can be no doubt, and the most effectual way of stopping it prob-
ably, is to gratify it in appearance at least. ‘The honey-extractor
is said to keep it down very effectually, but cases have been
known in which even this failed. Query: Has it any con-
nection with a greatly developed wax-secreting condition?
If so, the most effectual method of subduing it would be to set
the bees at work building new comb for a few days, as well as
giving them room for new stores of honey.

Swarm, Late.—A swarm which comes off after the usual
swarming season is past.

Swarm, Natural.—A new colony formed by the instinct of
the bees without the direct interference of man. Such opera-
tions as feeding to promote brood-rearing and to excite the
swarming impulse, do not constitute Wirect interference.

Syrian Bee.—A race of bees found in Syria. Frequently con-
founded with the bees found in the country to the south of
Syria. See Holyland Bee.

Take Up, To.—To destroy bees for the purpose of getting the
comb and honey.

Tested Queen.—See Queen, Tested.

Tier Up, To.—To place one hive on the top of another so as
to give the bees more room. The operation may be repeated
several times.

Top Box.—-A box placed on the top of a hive for surplus
honey.

Transfer.—To change the comb and bees of a stock from one
hive to another. The term transferring has, however, come to
have a special significance, and is commonly used to denote
the operation of changing bees and comb from box-hives to
movable comb hives, or, indeed, to change thecomb from one
frame to another. Andif any one could be found who changed
his comb back to the box hive, this operation also would be
called transferring. A quantity of comb transferred to a frame
is shown in the illustration on the next page. The comb is held
in place in this frame by means of wires, clasps and slats.

There is another operation, however, in daily use in extensive
apiaries, and that is the transposing of frames and bees from one
hive to another, This operation, strictly speaking, should not

72, DICTIONARY OF

’

be called ‘‘transferring” but transposing or re-hiving. See Re- /

hive. /
5 =| = SS || SSS
a (y all 5 |
e f; ‘ \ oa0g Al;
SNceabil Bid eecal anes ke /
olay AG reroll] Pe: he 1
rn 44 ood f |
baad faliiteo OLOG# |
Ch B Hox lice Ga06ap
: polllivesallt® Guo;
Ow QE, OFGIOOa: CLD
oe 7 all eal olen ate
ig OOS 00Rs 9.06 Fou I
OOELCrOUaAOgaAign||| Nae be ;
BS eee cece one |e eeoeeces :
; d : im
AV O Cees DIVISIVEOOcam cd & Salling EpOG u ]
Soy spasidaggouvoutsed|l| ps) Beat
eal Der ery COOOU CERN OR YY as |
BY PoopmocoppoO U000gGsool || 160) Pogo be |
Gb O od ofl te oy
any x Be:

COMB TRANSFERRED TO FRAME.

- Transferring Board.—A board with grooves used in trans-
ferring. The frame and comb lie flat on the board, and the wires>
or slats, seen in the previous figure, lie in the grooves s0 as not

TRANSFERRING BOARD,

to be pressed into the comb. In the figure the grooves are sim-
ply spaces between narrow boards or slats which are nailed to
two cross pleces.

Transpose.— When frames and bees are moved bodily from
the shell or outer case of one hive to that of another, the term
‘‘transpose ” might be used. In this way we would avoid con-
fusing the simple operation of changing boxes with the more
elaborate and difficult one generally known as ‘‘ transferring.”

To transpose a colony is one thing, however, and to transpose
frames of comb is another. The latter may be performed in the
same hive by simply re-arranging the frames. Asa single word,
denoting the changing of a colony from one hive to another,
without the Operation of transferring, we prefer the term re-hive.

Treble
Triple v. To add a third hive or box to two that were
Triplicate previously occupied by one colony.

- PRACTICAL APICULTURE. 73

Triplet.—A stock that has three hives or stories,

Twin-stock.—A word which has been borrowed from the
German. - It signifies a hive containing two colonies.

Uncapping.—To remove the caps from the cells of sealed or
capped honey. ‘This is always done before the combs are placed
in the extractor.

Unfertile.—This term may be applied to either queens or eggs.
It means incapable of producing young. See Sterile.

Unicomb Hive.—A hive having only one comb, and generally
with glass sides. An observable hive.

Unite.—To make one colony out of two or more.

Uniting Spirit.—A mixture of spirit of peppermint, water
and honey used for sprinkling bees to give them the same odor,
so that they may be united more easily. Dzierzon.

Unqueen.—To remove a queen and leave the colony queenless.
This term saves much circumlocution.

Unripe Honey.—Honey from which the water has not been
sufficiently evaporated.

Untested Queen.—A queen whose progeny has not been ex-
amined or tested.

Variety.—Any form or condition of structure, under a species,
which differs in its characteristics from those typical to the
species, as in color, shape, size, and the like, and which is
capable either of perpetuating itself for a period, or of being
perpetuated by artificial means; also, any of the various forms
under a species, meeting the conditions mentioned. Amongst
naturalists, a form characterized by an abnormity of structure,
or any difference from the type, that is not capable ot being per-
petuated through two or more generations, is not called a variety.
Varieties differ from species in that any two, however unlike,
will mutually propagate indefinitely, unless they are in their
nature unfertile, as some varieties of rose and other cultivated
plants; in being the result of climate, food, or other extrinsic
conditions or influences, but generally by a sudden, rather than
a gradual, development; and in tending in most cases to lose
their distinctive peculiarities when the individuals are left to a
state of nature, and especially if restored to the conditions that
are natural to typical individuals of the species.— Webster.

Varieties differ from races and breeds in the suddenness of
their appearance. The development of a race or breed is grad-
nal—often the result of agencies which have acted for hundreds
of years. .

A variety also differs from a race in that the latter tends moreand
more to establish its distinctive features, and loses its tendency
to ‘‘ery back” (q. v.), consequently, a variety is generally con-
fined within narrower limits than a race. And it differs from a

74. DICTIONARY OF

‘‘ breed” not only in the points just mentioned, but also in the
fact that the latter is always to a certain extent artificial. In
short, a variety partakes largely of the nature of a ‘‘ sport,” as it
is called by horticulturists.

The term variety, however, is used almost wholly by scientific
men—naturalists in every department. Practical stock-breeders,
whether of Durham cattle or of bees, use the words. race and
breed.—See Species, Strain.

Veil, Bee.—A veil used by bee-keepers to protect them from
the stings of the insects. ‘There are different methods of ar-

BEE VEIL.

ranging the veil, one of the best being that shown in the en-
graving, copied from Quinby’s work on Bee Keeping.

Ventilate.—To change the air in any place. In the hive ven-
tilation is effected in two ways: Naturally, when the bees by the
action of their wings produce currents of air which penetrate to
every part of the hive; Artificially, when the bee-keeper estab-
lishes a current of air by means of suitably arranged openings.
Artificial ventilation in winter has been extolled on the one hand
as the greatest aid in safely wintering colonies, while on the
other it has been condemned as contrary to the habits of the
bee, and the probable cause of more losses than any other
device.

Virgin Comb.—Comb which has been used only once for
honey and never for brood.

Virgin Honey.—Honey taken from virgin comb (q. v.) By
some this term is applied only to the honey gathered and stored
by a swarm of the same season that the honey is taken. Some
authors define virgin honey as that which drains from the combs

PRACTICAL APICULTURE. 75

without pressure or heat, and this seems to be the definition
accepted by most of our standard authorities.

_ Virgin Queen.—See Queen, Virgin.

Virgin Wax.—Wax from virgin comb (q. v.) Virgin wax is
frequently prescribed in the older recipes for various industrial
purposes, but with our modern methods and systems of purity-
ing wax, any bright yellow wax is as good as what is known as
virgin wax.

- Warranted Queen.—See Queen, Warranted.

~ Wax.— When ‘ wax,” simply, is spoken of, beeswax is always
understood. In this place vegetable wax and mineral wax have
no interest for us except as adulterants, which are to be avoided.
Wax is secreted by the bees, is formed into scales in the wax-
pockets (q. v.), and is thence taken into the mouth, where it is
kneaded with saliva until sufficiently plastic to be used in build-
ing the cells. There are two kinds of wax in market—common
beeswax and Andaquies wax, which is produced by a small bee
found on the plains of Orinoco, above the Magdalena River.
Like the Apis dorsata, these bees attach their combs to the limbs
of trees. This wax has a rather higher melting point than com-
mon beeswax, and hence if it could be procured in quantity and
should prove sufficiently plastic, it might prove exceedingly
useful in the manufacture of foundation. Lewy gives its specific
gravity as °917, and its melting point as 170° Fahr.

Common beeswax has a specific gravity of -960 to -965, anda
melting point of 145° to 150° Fahr. The process of bleaching
raises the specific gravity to -990, and the melting point to 155°
Fahr. At 85° wax becomes plastic, so as to be easily moulded or
kneaded, and at this temperature pieces which are pressed into
contact unite into one mass. Proctor says, that at this tempera-
ture ‘‘its behavior while worked between the finger and thumb
is characteristic.” A piece the size of a pea being worked in the
hand till tough with the warmth, then placed upon the thumb
and forcibly stroked down with the forefinger, curls up, follow-
ing the finger, and is marked by it with longitudinal streaks.

Wax is freed from honey and adhering impurities by being
melted in water, to which vinegar, alum, or a little nitric acid
has been added. For the best methods of purifying and bleach-
ing wax, see article Wax in the forthcoming ‘‘'Treasury of Prac-
tical Information.”

The adulterations of wax are various powders—starch, clay,
etc.; resin; tallow and suet; and lastly, paraffin. Powders may
be separated by disolving the wax in turpentine, when the pow-
ders will be left. Resin may be detected by its peculiar terebin-
thinate (turpentine) taste, and by its solubility in cold alcohol,
in which wax isinsoluble. When resin is present the fracture
of the wax is shining instead of granular. Greasy matter is
_ easily detected by the unctuons feel and disagreeable taste, Wax

76 DICTIONARY. OF

with which paraffin has been mixed melts at a temperature too
low to allow it to be used for foundation. The wax may be
separated by a strong solution of alkali, which has no effect
whatever on paraffin.

Wax Extractor.—A piece of apparatus for separating wax
from other impurities, such as bee-bread, dead bees, ete.

Wax Moth.—See Moth.

Wax Pockets.—Small cavities found on the
under side of the bee, in which the secreted wax
is collected and kept.till required for use. In the
honey bee these pockets are found under the ab-
‘ domen, and there are eight of them—four on each

' side. The stingless bees of South America collect
the wax on the back.

Wedding Excursion When the queen leaves
Wedding Flight the hive for the purpose
wax pockets, Of meeting the drones, she is said to take her
wedding flight. Also called marriage flight.

Wide Frames.—Frames which are so wide that sections may
be placed in them and hung in
the hive. The term is to be pre-
ferred to broad frame, as the latter
is apt to be mistaken (especially
when written) for brood frame.
The figure shows a wide frame
with sections hung in a hive.

Wild Bees,—These differ in no
respect from the bees originally A
kept in hives, except in the fact WIDE FRAMES AND SECTIONS.
that they have taken up their
abode in some natural cavity in tree, rock, or even the ground.
This will be seen at once when we remember that most of the
colonies found in the woods have absconded from some apiary.
Even pure Italians have been found in the condition of wild
bees.

Wind Breaks.—Fences or rows of trees so arranged as to
break the force of the prevailing winds.

Wine, Honey.—Mead.

Wintering.—During nearly five months of the year (from
November Ist to April 1st) bees in northern latitudes are con-
fined to their hives, often for months atatime. During this
period, if neglected, they are exposed to cold, to the use of un-
suitable food, and even to actual starvation. The beekeeper, by
proper eare, protects them from cold, provides them. with a suf-
ficiency of good food, and in other respects sees that they are
guarded from those evil influences against which they themselves
are at this season powerless, This is called wintering. The.

a mi ;

PRACTICAL APICULTURE. 77

2 \

wintering of bees, as at present practiced, is not conducted
so as to secure uniformly successful results, and he who will
place it on a sound scientific basis will add millions to the
annual income of the country.

Winter Passages.—Passages made through the combs so that
the bees can pass to the different combs without having to go
under or around them. As the combs, where not covered by bees,
are very cold—often frozen—in winter, any bee that attempts to
crawl over them is lost, while if she could go through the combs,
without leaving the cluster, she might be able to reach a supply
of food and so sustain life. To enable her to do this, it is the prac-
tice of some of our best apiarists to cut holes in the combs about
two or three inches below the top of the frames, and as the bees
are apt to fill these holes up, many insert a tin thimble in them
to keep them open. We object to tin, or any metallic substance
amongst the bees in winter, and greatly prefer a wooden tube
made by rolling a thick shaving round a roller, and tying
it with very fine wire. The wood being a poor conductor of
heat is greatly better than tin. Such thimbles should be in-
serted in the foundation—thus saving the bees the labor of
building comb which is to be afterwards cut out. At least four
frames in every hive should have these thimbles. If they should
come into extensive use they could be easily and cheaply turned
out of some firm wood. The internal diameter need not be
more than half an inch, and they should be quite thin. We
have tried paper and pasteboard, but the bees gnaw them. We
greatly prefer two or three of these small holes to one large one.
They should be at least three or four inches apart. Where tin
tubes are used they should be heated and dipped in melted wax,
so that the metal surface may be completely covered.

Hill’s device (q. v.) is intended to answer the same purpose,
put we do not think it quite as efficient. Perhaps both would be

est.

Wired Foundation.—See Foundation.
Wired Frames.—See Frames.
Wolf’s Bladder.—Puff ball.

Worker Bees.—These are the undeveloped females that
gather the honey and pollen, secrete wax, raise the brood, de-
fend the hive, and perform all the other active duties of bee-life,
with the exception of laying eggs.

Worker Eggs.—Properly this term should signify eggs laid
by workers. More frequently it is used (improperly, we think)
to signify eggs that will produce workers. See Eq.

Worker, Fertile ) 4 worker whose ovaries have been so far

Worker, Laying { developed that she lays eggs. As these
workers are never impregnated, their progeny are always drones.
The term ‘‘fertile” worker has been objected to, but it is
strictly proper,

78 DICTIONARY OF

Worm.—A common but very improper name for larva (q. v.)
of bees or moths. Worms never change to flies, bees, or butter-
flies. They are not insects. ;

Worms.—The larve of the bee-moth are frequently, but im-
properly, so called. Indeed, when ‘‘ worms” are spoken of by
the ordinary beekeeper, the larve of the bee-moth are almost
always meant. :

PRACTICAL APICULTURE, 79

AP PHNDOLX.

Apiolory.—A discourse about bees. The literature of bee-
keeping.

Apist.—A bee-keeper (inelegant).
Apistical.—Relating to bees or bee- keeping.

Artificial Comb.—It is no wonder that the idea that artificial
comb is a regular article of manufacture should take a deep hold
of the popular mind, when so many journals and books speak of
it as an accomplished fact. In the ‘‘ Mutual Admiration So-
ciety’s”’ Cyclopzdia* we are gravely told that Dr. John Long has
invented a machine ‘‘that turns out combs with cells, rivalling,
if not excelling, the natural product”!!! This will bring a
smile to the faces of readers of back volumes of the American
Bee Journal.

In noticing the substitutes for comb we ought not to omit
mention of the fact that it was by transferring the larve to glass.
tubes, made in the form of cells, that Huber was enabled to
watch the process of cocoon-spinning. See ‘‘ Nouvelles Observa-
tions sur les Abeilles.” Par Francois Huber. Geneve 1814. Vol. L,
p. 221.

Frames.—The following comparison of the comb-surface ex-
posed by completely filled frames of the various sizes in use is
interesting. I have assumed that the top bar is 3 of an inch
thick; the end and bottom bars }inch each. In frames as made
by some makers these dimensions vary slightly, but by actual
measurement I find that the sizes I have given are not far out of
the way. The Standard Frame of the British Bee-Keepers’ As-
sociation is 14 inches long by 83 inches deep, the top bar being
3 of an inch thick, and the end bars (or side bars, as our cousins
call them, not very properly) } of aninch. ‘This gives exactly
three-quarters of a square foot, and is the smallest frame in use
for any except nucleus hives. Of course, in order to get the
entire surface of comb exposed (as in estimating amount of

* Johnson’s—So called because each of the several hundred editors and con-
tributors had his ‘‘biography’”’ published init. This, of course, left no room for
any account of such men as Langstroth, Dzierzon, Wagner, and many others
whose work really deserves recognition. Even Lawes, who has probably done
more than any other living man for the Science of Agriculture, and whose name is
familiar to every student of the subject, is net so much as mentioned.

80 DICTIONARY OF PRACTICAL APICULTURE.

brood), the quantities given in the table must be doubled, so as
to include both sides.

Area in Area in

Frame. Square Inches. Square Feet.
Quinby—open end............... 191 1:326
a closed Bier 8 193 1:340
Langstroth—Simplicity........... 145-56 1-010
es Standard.):.5. 25. 2... 14343 “995
IA GATS 5.3 ses: ieee Re Ee ee Ro 135-47 -940)
ATTETICAM scr A acieg eat nue s eee L330 fon -908
Gallup e cess coy. Soa etc 114:22 - "793
British Standard =<: 2 823 ee 108 "750

Frame, Broad-shouldered.—A frame with the top bar maae
wide at each end for the purpose of keeping the frames a proper
distance apart. :

Frame, Cold.—A frame which runs lengthwise of the hive—
that is, having the end bars against the entrance.

Frame, Warm.—A frame which runs across the hive—that is,
having the bottom bar parallel with the entrance. Why it was
called a ‘‘ warm” frame we do not-_know, except perhaps that it
was thought that the outer frames, with their sheets of comb,
would act as a protection from cold draughts of air. See Frame,
Cold, Supra.

Fungicide.—A destroyer of fungi. A term applied to certain
chemicals which have powerful antiseptic qualities, due, it is
supposed, to the fact that they are very destructive to minute
fungi. Prominent among these chemicals are borax, salicylic
acid, sulphur, sulphurous acid, ete.

Lugs.—(Scotch and Provincial English for ears). The arms
of frames are sometimes inelegantly so called.

Midrib.—A term sometimes improperly used for septum (q.v.)

Runner.—A thin-edged bearer or support for the arms of the
frames ‘The term is not a good one.

Subtend.—This term has been used (not very properly) to
denote the placing of one hive under another.

Swarm.—v. This term is used both in reference to the old
colony and the new swarm. A stock is said to swarm when it
throws off anew colony, and a new colony is said to swarm out
when it leaves the parent stock.

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EDITED BY A PRACTICAL BEE-KEEPER,

Assisted by a corps of contributors unequalled by that of any
other bee journal published, many of whom write for
no other.

The leading apiarists publicly endorse it as the best bee
journal published in the English language, and the

Northeastern Keckeepers’ Association
have made it their official organ.

As an advertising medium it is unsurpased, and our adver-
tisers testify that they have never had so good returns from
any other bee journal. If you are in any way interested in bee-
keeping, you have but to examine one number to become a life-
long subscriber.

SAMPLE COPY SENT FREE.

ADDRESS

SILAS M. LOCKE, Keitor and Proprietor

SALEM MASS.

Subscription Price, - $1.00 per year,

BARNES’ FOOT AND HAND POWER

MACHINERY.

FOR MANUFACTURING BEE-HIVES AND THEIR
APPURTENANCHES,

\\ \ |

THE COMBINED MACHINE.

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SSS co :

SEND FOR DESCRIPTIVE PRICE LIST.

ER MACHINERY.

Read what J. I. Parent, of
3 CuaR.Ton, N. Y., says—*‘ We
=} cut with one of your Combined
Machines last winter 50 chaff

Bh

HOI inane honey boxes and a great deal

===" Wines Sf q p
ai i iia - of other work. This winter we
a a Wag i have double the amount of bee
=. = 5 hives, ete., to make und we
= Stee ee a expect todo it all with this
a Saw. It willdo all you say it
will. Catalogue and Price List Free. Address W.F. & JOHN

BARNES, No.+>qy y Ruby street, Rockford, Ill,

“THE ECONOMY GARDEN ENGINE.”
JUST THE THING FOR BEE-KEEPERS.

AN

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———

Our “* Economy” Garden Engine is true to name. We offer it five to
seven dollars cheaper than any other garden engine in the market.
Size, 35x 14x22. Capacity, 40 gallons. Price with three feet of dis-
charge hose and ‘* Boss” nozzle, $20.00.

Gardeners, fruit-growers and nurserymen will appreciate this En-
gine, which, in seasons of drouth, enables them to keep their growing
crops from suffering for want of water. It can be moved about easily,
and for sprinkling lawns and flower gardens, and wetting down dusty
streets, will be found very valuable.

kar Bee-keepers can by it control their swarms completely, as from
the force with which it throws a stream, the bees can be reached at
distances where the crdinary ‘‘ squirt guns” are powerless.

Send for Catalogue.

TESTIMONIALS.
/CAMBRIA, Dec. 30, 1882.

FIELD ForcE Pump CoMPANY.— Gentlemen :—This last season I used
one of your Force Pumps to spray my pear, plum and cherry trees
with a weak solution of Paris green. I found that it greatly improved
the fruit and rendered it almost entirely free from worms. I am satis-
fied that it was perfectly safe to use the solution, as I used the fruit,
and found it superior to what was usually raised on the same trees.

W. D. ROBINSON.

Lockport, N. Y., Aug. 8, 1883.
FreLpD ForcE Pump Co.—Gents :—As to how I like my Force Pump,
will say can, with 50 feet of hose, throw a steady stream over my
two story house, and regard it asa very good and cheap protection
against fire. It gives perfect satisfaction. Yours,

0. C. WRIGHT.

Address FIELD FORCE PUMP €0., Lockport, N. Y.

Bak 5
At $7.00 per Colony,

IN ONE-STORY SIMPLICITY HIVE, EIGHT COMBS,
DIVISION BOARD, AND CLOTH.

———-*-@-+

ITALIAN QUEENS,

At 75 cents each, by mail,

AFTER JUNE Isr.

The Beeswood Queen Apiary,
Washington Awenue, |

NEOW A Riek, N. J.

W. EARLE CASS.

W. T. FALCONER,

MANUFACTURER OF

APIARIAN SUPPLIES,

A specialty made of all styles of the Simpricrty Hive,
including the ‘“‘ FaLcon” CHarr Hive, with movable -
upper story, which is growing rapidly in favor, as
offering superior advantages for wintering and
hardling bees at all seasons, which is at-
tested by the thousands now in use.

This hive is furnished with one or both sides MOVABLE,
at an additional cost of 15c. per side.

MANUFACTURER OF

FOUNDATION,

And Dealer im all Kinds of

Appliances for the Apiary.

or

SEND FOR ILLUSTRATED Price List, FREE.

W. T. FALCONER,
JAMESTOWN N. Y.

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WHY NOT BUY YOUR

QUEENS BEES

Direct from the Breeder?

25 CENTS SAVED IS 25 CENTS MADE.

If you wish to purchase Italian Bees or Queens early
in the spring, and wish a bargain, you should send for
my new Price List. Queens ready in April. Address

W. S. CAUTHEN,

Pleasant Hill, Lancaster Co., S. C.

MUTH’S —
HONEY EXTRACTOR
Is Second to None in the Market.

SQUARE GEARS, HONEY JARS, TIN BUCKETS,
LANGSTROTH BEE HIVES, ONE PIECE
SECTIONS, ETC., ETC.

Cireulars mailed on application. Send 10 cents for
‘¢ Practical Hints to Bee Keepers.” Address

CHARLES F&F. MUTH,
S, E, Cor. Freeman and Central Aves. Cincinnati, 9,

Twenty-seventh Edition. March, 1884.

DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE

FE

Practical. books

AND

PemneiiG 4S.

PUBLISHED AND FOR SALE BY

THE INDUSTRIAL PUBLICATION CO.

QE OZ
SSS eA
SS es —$y"—" ZZ

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Rf =
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(G= Any of these Books may be obtained from any Bookseller or Newsdealer. or will be
sent free by mail to any part of the United States or Canada ON RECEIPT OF PRICE.

Remittances should be made in Bank Drafts, Postal Orders, or Registered letters. Frac-
tional parts of a dollar may be sent in postage stamps of small denominations, but we will not
receive postage stamps to the amount of $1.00 or over. Postage stamps of large denominations,
and Canadian postage stamps are of no use tous. Canadian currency and British postage
stamps will be received in any quantity, dat only from foreign correspondents.

New Editions of this catalogue, containing descriptions of New Books, are issued from time
to time, and will be sent free to any address on application. Address all orders to

INDUSTRIAL PUBLICATION CoO.,
294 Broadway, New York.

NOW READY.

Second and Enlarged Edition.

The Steel Square

AND ITS USES.

By FRED. T. HODGSON.

This is the only work on THE STEEL SQuaRE AND Its USES ever
published. It is Thorough, Exhaustive, Clear, and Easily Understood. |
Confounding terms and scientific phrases have been religiously avoided
where possible, and everything in the book has been made so plain that
a boy twelve years of age, possessing ordinary intelligence, can under-

stand it from end to end.

The New Edition is Hlustrated with over Seventy-five Wood-cuts,
showing how the Square may be used for solving almost every problem

in the whole Art of Carpeutry.

The following synopsis of the contents of the work will give some

idea of its character and scope.

—History of the ‘‘Square.”’—Descrip-
tion, with Explanations of the Rules, Fig-
ures, Scales, and Divisions shown on goud
Squares.

—Brace Rules, Octagonal Scale, Board,
Plank and Scantling Rules, fully explained
and described.

—How to lay out Rafters, Hips, Jack-
Rafters, Purlins, Bevel Works, etc., etc.

Backing for Hips, Lengths and Bevels
of Valley Rafters. Laying out Stairs and
Strings.

—How to describe Circles, Ellipses,
Parabolas and other figures, with the
Square.

—How to obtain Bevels for Hoppers
and all kinds of Splayed Work and Spring
Mouldings, by the Square.

—Bisecting Circles, Proportion of Cir-
cles, Division of Widths, Bisection of

Angles, Diminishing Stiles,
Circles, etc., etc.

—Theoretical Rafters, Cuts for Mitre
Boxes, Measurement of Surfaces, including
Painting, Plastering, Shingling, Siding,
Flooring, Rough Boarding, Tinning and
Roofing.

—Rules for describing Octagons and
Polygons of every description, and how
to find their angles and areas.

—Rules for finding the lengths of Rafters
and Hips of Irregular Roofs, Cuts for
Equal and Unequal Mitres, Trusses and
Bevel Timber Work.

—The Development of Hip and Curved
Roofs; Veranda Rafters, Straight and
Curved; Hopper Cuts of all kinds, Angle
Corner-pieces, Splayed Work for Gothic
Heads, etc., etc., and many other things
useful to the Operative Mechanic.

Centering

Hiandsomely Bound in Cloth with Gilt Title.
Price ONE DOLLAR,

PRACTICAL CARPENTRY.

BEING A GUIDE TO THE

Correct Working and Laying Out of all kinds
of Carpenters’ and Jomers’ Work.

With the Solutions of the Various Problems in Hip-Roofs, Gothic
Work, Centering, Spiayed Work, Joints and Juinting, Hing-
ing, Dovetailing, Mitering, Timber Splicing, Hopper
Work, Skylights, Raking Mouldings, Circular
Work, Etc., Etc.

TO WHICH IS PREFIXED A THOROUGH TREATISE ON

‘““CARPENTER’S GEOMETRY.”

ILLUSTRATED BY OVER 300 ENGRAVINGS.

By FRED. T. HODGSON,

Autuor or “Tar STEEL SQUARE AND Its Usss,” ‘‘THE BuILDER’s GUIDE
AND EsTIMATOR’S PricE Book,’ ‘‘THE SLIDE RULE AND
How To. Use It,” Etc., Etc.

Hlandsomely Bound in Cloth, Price $1.00.

This is the most complete book of the kind ever published. It is
Thorough, Practical and Reliable, and at the same time is written
in a style so plain that any workman or apprentice can easily un-
derstand it. The annexed table of contents will give a better idea
of its scope and value than can be had from any amount of notices
or descriptions :

TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PART TI.

GEOMETRY.—Straight Lines.—Curved Lines.—Solids.—Compound Lines.
—Parallel Lines.—Oblique or Converging Lines.—Plane Figures.—
Angles.—Right Angles.—Acute Angles.—Ohtuse Angles.—Right-
anzled Triangles.—Quadrilateral Figures.—Parallelograms.—Rect-
angles.—Squares.—Rhomhbids.— Trapeziums. —Trapezoids.—Diag-
onals. —Polygons.— Pentagons. — Hexagons. — Heptagons. — Octa-
gons.— Cireles.—Chords.—Tangents.—Sectors.—Quadrants.—Ares.—
Coneentrie and Eecentrie Cireles.—Altitudes.—Problems I. to XXITX.
—Drawing of Angles.—Construction of Geometrical Figures.—Bisec-
tion of Lines.—Trisection of Lines and Angles.—Division of Lines
into any Number of Parts.—Construction of Triangles, Squares and
Parallelograms.—Construction of Proportionate Squares.—Con-
struction of Polygons.—Areas of Polygons.—Areas of Coneentrie
Rings and Cireles.—Segments of Cireles.—The use of Ordinates
for Obtaining Ares of Cireles.—Drawing an Ellipse with a Trammel.
—Drawing an Ellipse by means of a String.—Same by Ordinates.—
Raking Ellipses.—Ovals.—Sixty-two Illustrations.

PARL AL

ARCHES, CENTRES.—Window and Door Heads.—Semi-cireular Arch.—
Segmental Arches.—Stilted Arches.—Horseshoe Arch.—Lancet Arch.
—Kquilateral Arch.—Gothic Tracery.—Wheel-Windows.—Equila-
teral Tracery.—Square Tracery.—Finished Leaf Tracery.—Twenty-
two Illustrations.

PART ITT.

Roors.—Saddle Roof.—Lean-to or Shed Roof.—Simple Hip-Roof.—
Pyramidal Roof.—Theoretical Roof.—Roof with Straining Beam.—
Gothic Roof.—Hammer-Beam Roofs.—Curved_ Principal Roofs.—
Roofs with Suspending Rods.—Deck Roofs.—King-post_and_ Prin-
cipal Roof.—Queen-post and Principal Roof.—Roofs with Laminated
Arches.—Strapped Roof Frames.—Tie-beam Roofs.—Roofs for Long
Spans.—Theatre Roof.—Chureh Roof.—Mansard Roof.—Slopes of
Roofs.—Rules for Determining the Sizes of Timbers for Roofs.—
Acute and Obtuse Angled Hip-Roofs.—Development of Hip-Roofs.—
Obtaining Lengths and Bevels of Rafters.—Backing Hip-Rafters.—
Lengths, Bevels and Cuts of Purlins.—Circular, Conical and Seg-
mental Roofs.—Rafters with Variable Curves.—Veranda Rafters.—
Development of all kinds of Rafters.—Curved Mansard Rafters.—-
Framed Mansard Roofs.—Lines and Rules for obtaining various
kinds of Information.—Thirty-four Illustrations.

PARAL NG

CovERING oF Roors.—Shingling Common Roofs.—Shingling Hip-
Roofs.—Method of Shingling on Hip Corner.—Covering Circular
Roofs.--Covering Ellipsoidal Roofs.—Valley Roofs.—Four Illustra-
tions.

PART V.

Tur MITERING AND ADJUSTING oF MouLprines.—Mitering of Snring
Mouldings.—Preparing the Mitre-box for Cutting Spring Mould-
ings.—Rules for Cutting Mouldings. with Diagrams.—Mitre-hoxes
of various forms.—Lines for Spring Mouldings of various kinds.—
Seven Lllustrations.

PART VE.

SASHES AND SKYLIGHTS.—Raised Skylights.-Skylights with Hins—
Octagon Skylights with Segmental Ribs.—Angle-hars, with Rules
and Diagrams, showing howto obtain the Angles. Forms, ete.—Sash-
Bars, Hints on their Construction.—Twelve Illustrations.

PART VII.

Movutprnes.—Angle Brackets.—Corner, Coves.—Enlarging and Recuc-
ing Mouldings.—Irregular Mouldings.—Raking Mouldings, with
Rules for Obtaining.—Mouldings for Plinths and Capitals of Gothic
Columns.—Mouldings around Square Standards.—Mitering Cir-
eular Mouldings with each other.—Mitering Cireular Mouldings
with Straight ones.—Mitering Mouldings at a Tangent.—Mitering
Spring Cireular Mouldings.—Description of Spring Mouldings.—
Lines for Cireular Spring Mouldings.—Seventeen Tilustrations.

PART VIII.

JomnERY.—Dovetailing.—Common Dovetailin ili
RY. ling. g.—Lapped Dovetailing.—
Blind Dovetailing.—Square Dovetailing.—Splay Dovetalline =
Regular and Irregular Dovetailing.—Lines and Cuts for Hoppers
eee Work.—Angles and Mitres for Splayed Work.—Nineteen

PART IX.

iIISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS.—Bent Work for Splayed Jambs.— -
ment of Cylinders.—Rules and Diagrams for Making Pea a
Angular and Curved Measurements.—Eight Illustrations. :

PAIL. X;

JOINTS AND STRAPS.—Mortise and Tenon Joints yM i
: -—Toggle Joints.—
Joints.—Tongue Joint.—Lap policoctaiiae= Woden iain on
King-bolts.—Straps, Tron Ties, Sockets, Bearing-plates, Rings
Swivels and other Iron Fastenings.—Straining Timbers Struts and
King-pieces.—Three Plates, Sixty-five Illustrations. ;

PART XI.

HINGING AND SwInG JoInts.—Door Hinging.—Centre-pin Hinginge.—
Blind Hinging.—Folding Hinging.—Knuckle Hinging.—Pew Hing-
pee Wingo Pineine Haleiuen tee Hinge.—Back

ap inging.—Rule-join inging.—Rebate Hinging.— g
Plates, Fifty-one Illustrations. Crary amas

PART XII.

UsEFuL RuLes AND TABLES.—Hints on the Construction of Centres.—
Rules for Estimating.—Form of Estimate.—Items for Estimating, —
Remarks on Fences.—Nails: sizes, weights, lengths and numbers.—
Cornices, Proportions and Projections for Different Styles of Archi-
tecture: and Tall and Low Buildings, Verandas, Bay Windows and
Porches.—Proportion of Base-boards, Dados, Wainseots and Sur-
hases.—Woods, Hard_and Soft, their Preparation, and how to
Finish.—Strength and Resistance of Timber of various kinds.—
Rules, showing Weight and other qualities of Wood and Timber.—
Stairs, Width of Treads and Risers; their Cost; how to Estimate on
them, ete.—Inclinations of Roofs.—Contents of Boxes, Bins and
Barrels.—Arithmetical Signs.—Mensuration of Superficies.—Areas
of Squares, Triangles, Cireles, Regular and Irregular Polygons.—
Properties of Cirecles.—Solid Bodies.—Gunter’s Chain.—Drawing
and Drawing Instruments.—Coloring Drawings.—Coloring for
Various Building Materials.—Drawing Papers.—Sizes of Drawing
Papers.—Tahble of Board Measure.—Nautical Table.—Measure of
Time.—Authorized Metric System.—Measures of Length.—Mea-
sures of Surfaces.—Measures of Capacity.—Weights.—American
Weights and Measures.—Square Measure.—Cubie Measure.—Cir-
euler Measure.—Decimal Approximations.—Form of Building

ontract.

HAND SAWS.

THEIR USE, CARE AND ABUSE.
HOW TO SELECT, AND HOW TO FILE THEM.

Being a Complete Guide for Selecting, Using and Filing all kinds of Hand-
Saws, Back-saws, Compass and Key-hole Saws, Web, Hack and
Butcher’s Saws ; showing the Shapes, Forms, Angles, Pitches
and Sizes of Saw-Teeth suitable for all kinds of Saws, and for
all kinds of Wood, Bone, Ivory and Metal ; together with
Hints and Suggestions on the Choice of Files, Saw-

Sets, Filing Clamps, and other Matters pertain-
ing to the Care and Management of all
Classes of Hand and other Small Saws.

The work is intended more particularly for Operative Carpenters,
Joiners, Cabinct-Makers, Carriage Builders, and Wood-Workers
Generally, Amateurs or Professionals.

ILLUSTRATED BY OVER SEVENTY-FIVE ENGRAVINGS.

By FRED. T. HODGSON,

AuTHOR oF ‘‘ THE STEEL SQUARE AND Its Uszs,” *‘ THE BuILpER’s GuIDE AND
EstTIMATor’s PricE Book,” PRACTICAL CARPENTRY,” Erc., Erc.

Price — — = = —) = $1.00.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PART TI.

History of the Saw.—Saws.of the Greeks.—Invention of the First Saws.—
Eygptian Bronze Saws in the British Museum.—Antiquity of Saws.- -
Mention of Saws in Holy Writ.—Saws of the Stone Age.—Saws of the
South-sea Islanders.—Saws for Cutting Stone.—Japanese Saws.—Dif-
ferent Varieties of Saws.—Manner of Using Saws by the Ancients.—
Assyrian Saws.—Invention of Circular and Band-Saws.—First Circular-

Saws in America.
PARE st:

Philosophy of the Cutting Qualities of Saw-Teeth.—The ‘t Why and Where-
- fore” of the Cutting Pitch and Angles of Rip-Saw Teeth.—The Round
Gullet-Tooth.—Chisel-Teeth and their Action on the Wood.—On
the Various Angles Required for Cutting Hard and Soft Woods, with
Explanations of Space, Pitch, Gullet, Gauge, Set, Rake and Points.—
Names of Saws, with Dimensions, Form of Teeth, Descriptions and
Explanations.—How to Choose a Saw ; with Hints as to Form, Quality,
Make and ‘‘ Hang” of a Saw, with Remarks Concerning Different
Makers——Sash-Saws, Dovetail-Saws, Rip-Saws, Panel-Saws, Cross-cut
Saws, Bow-Saws, Web-Saws, Key-hole Saws, Compass-Saws and Tenon-

Saws. :
PARTE TEE.

How to Use Hand-Saws.—How to Saw Well and Easily.—Hints for Sawing
Straight.—Rules for New Beginners.—French, German and American
Workmen.—Saws Filed to Work on the Puill-Stroke.—Changeable
Key-hole Saws.—Use of Back-Saws.—Use of Web-Saws.—Care_ of
Buck-Saws.—The Buck-Saw; the Terror of Boyhood, and Why.—The
Butcher’s-Saw, the Hack-Saw, and the Surgeon’s-Saw with Descrip-
tion of Each, and Hints as to their Management.

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued).

PART LY.

Filing and Setting Hand-Saws.—The Qualities Required to make a Gooa
Filer.—Rules in some Old-time Joiner Shops.—Careless Filing and its
Consequences.—Clamping Saws for Filing.—The Line of Teeth.—
Angular Groove on Cutting Edge of Saw.—Filing Backs of Teeth.—
Jointing the Sides of Teeth.—Shape of Teeth for Cross-cutting Hard
Wood, Medium and Soft Wood.—Cutting Angles Required for Various
Degrees of Hardness in Woods.—Angle to Hold the File.—The True
Theory of Saw-Filing.—Buckling and Twisting Saws; How Done and
How Avoided.—‘t Hook and Pitch.”—Careless Use of Saws, and the
Injuries Done to them in Consequence.—The Filing of Different Saws,
and why One Class of Saws Require Different Treatment from Another.
The Saw that Scrapes, and the Saw that Cuts; the ‘‘ Why” of this Dif-
ference.—Why Some Men do Much More Work than Others, and with
Greater Ease, when Sawing.

PART VY.

Miscellaneous Saws ; their Uses, How to Care for Them, and How to Use
Them.—The Wl Tooth, Teeth that Cut Both Ways, Crenate Teeth,
Brier Teeth, Gullet Teeth, Parrot-bill Teeth, Hog Teeth, the Lancet
and other Fancy Forms of Teeth, Described and Explained.—The Old-
style ‘t Peg Tooth,” for Two-handed Cross-cut Saws.—Various Exam-
ples of the ‘‘ Peg-Tooth Saw.—Hack-Saws ; How to Use and How to
Keep in Order.—Butcher’s-Saws, Surgeon’s-Saws, Saws for Cutting
Combs, Ivory, Brass, Gold, and Silver.—Circular-Saws for Cutting
Metal, Ivory, Tortoise-shell, and other Hard Materials.—Jig-Saws,
Band-Saws ; their Usesand How to Keep them in Order.—Scroll-Saws 3;
their Uses and Care.—Progress of the Band-Saw ; its Future ; How to
Make them do Clean Work.—Heating Saws; Rules for their Manage-
ment.—Why Circular-Saws Burst.

PARTY VI.

Remarks on Saws, Files, Sets, and other Appliances.—Saw-Files ; what
Constitutes a Good One, and How to Select.-—Different Qualities of
Saw-Files, and How to Know the Various Grades.—Why there are
Different Grades.—Hints on the Use of Files.—Circular-Saws that are
not Circular.—How to Become an Expert Sawyer.—Speed of Circular-
Saws; Table of Same.—Speed of Reciprocating-Saws, or Jig-Saws,
Speed of Feed for Same.—Working Action of Band-Saws.—How Band-
Saws Became Possible.—French and American Band-Saw Blades.—
Inside Sawing with Band-Saws.—Detachable Band-Saws.—Aids to
Saw-Filing. — Saw-Clamps. — Saw-Filers. — Saw-Sets. — Hand-Setting
with Punch and Hammer.-——Setting with ‘‘ Sets.”—Machine Band-Saw
Setters.—Devices for Holding Saws while being Set and Filed.

PART VII.

Notes and Memoranda.—Saw-Gauges.—Comb-Saw Gauges.—-Saw-Guiies.
Mitre-Boxes.—Circular vs. Band-Saws.—Emery Sharpeners.—Small

, Saws.—Machine-Saws.—Narrow Saws.—Brazing Band-Saws.—Re-
marks on Circular-Saws.—Power Required to Drive Circular-Saws,—~
Mill-Saws,—Saws with Few Teeth,

_ Plaster and Plastering.
MORTARS AND CEMENTS.

HOW TO MAKE, AND HOW TO USE.

BEING A COMPLETE GUIDE FOR THE PLASTERER IN THE PREPARATION
AND APPLICATION OF ALL KINDS OF PLASTER, STUCCO, PORTLAND
CEMENT, HYDRAULIC CEMENTS, LIME OF TIEL, ROSENDALE AND
OTHER CEMENTS, WITH USEFUL AND PRACTICAL INFORMA-

TION ON THE CHEMISTRY, QUALITIES AND USES OF THE
VARIOUS KINDS OF LIMES AND CEMENTS. TO-

GETHER WITH RULES FOR MEASURING,

COMPUTING, AND VALUING PLASTER
AND STUGCO WORK.

TO WHICH IS APPENDED

AN ILLUSTRATED GLOSSARY OF TERMS

USED IN PLASTERING, ETC.

Besides numerous Engravings in the text, there are three Plates, giving some
forty figures of Ceilings, Centrepieces, Cornices, Panels and Soffits.

By FRED. T. HODGSON,

Price = = - = = = = 631.00.
Description of ves ° Sel
Preface, . : 5 : ; 3 4 : : 5 ° : 3
Preliminary, ‘ : : : : : : : ° . : a )

TOOLS AND MATERIALS.

PAGE PAGE
The Hoe or Drag, oo) te tenede LO PhenOnerator: “chloe me nee ari
The Hawk, 5 : : 10| The Scratcher, . : ; q Seals
The Mortar-Board. 5 ‘ . 11}The Hod, 5 3 : , : 13
Trowels, : : My hk 11|The Sieve, : : : : Pals
Floats, , ‘ : : ; - 11/Sand Screens, ; . : : 13
Moulds, g 3 : : t 11 | Mortar-Beds, . ‘ : : mek:
Centre Moulds, : ; ‘ ~ 124 fhe Slack Box. .- ¢ : 4 14
The Pointer, . : : : 4 12 | Lath, ? : - oie
The Paddle, : . 12|Lather’s Hatchet, é SN Geens 15
Stopping and Pricking out Te ol, 12| Nail Pocket, . : ; - 5 UE

Mitering- Rods, , 5 ° : . 12! Cut off Saw, é ; 5 3 15

INDEX ( Continued).

MATERIALS EMPLOYED IN PLASTERING.

PAGE

Internal Plastering, 16

Coarse Stuf, 5 ° . 16
Fine Stuff, - 4 - - 16
Putty, A 16
Stucco, a6
Lime, ‘ 17, 18, 20
Plaster-of- Paris, - . 17, 18
Maths® ©. 4 : iyi
Cements, - 17
Calcination, 18
Quicklime, 18
Slaking, 18
Air Slaking, 19
Hydraulicity, 1)
Hydraulic Limes, 20
Sand, : 22
ray OPERATIONS.

PAGE
General Instructions, - - . 30
Floating the Work, 31
Trowelling and Rendering, 32
Running Cornices, 32

‘Ornamental Cornices,
Flowers and Cast Work,

PLASTERER’S MEASUREMENT.
PAGE
Measuring and Valuation, 44

Mensuration of Supertices, ‘

Taking Dimensions, 44
Specifications, 46
Rendering to Walls, ; 46
Lath and Plaster Work to Ceilings, AT

Lath and Plaster Work to Partitions, 47

MISCELLANEOUS MEMORANDA.

PAGE
Hard Hydraulic Cement, 54
Colored Cements, 54
Brick-Dust Cement, 54
Hardening Plaster, 54
Mastic Cement, 54
Cement for Outside Brick Walls, 55

To Mend Plaster Models, ot ae
Cheap Concrete Flooring, :

To Make Moulds,
Artificial Building Stone,
Artificial “Marble,

Hard Mortar,

Marble-Wor ker’s Cement, 56
Mason’s Cement, f 57
Whitewash, P 57
Red Wash for Bricks, z 57
To Whiten Internal Walls, 57

Concrete, ‘ j z é
Papier Mache, ; : 4 : :
Plaster Ornaments, 5
Fibrous Plaster,
Staining Marble,
Cleaning Marble,

GLOSSARY OF TERMS.

PACE
Substitutes for Sand, ; ‘ as}
Marble Dust, : - - - 24
Hair, . : : - : 3 . 24
Colors, . 5 é a : - 24
Whitewash, : ; 3 5 aeE
Whiting, : : ° 25
Saylor’s Portland Cement, 25
Cellar Floors, < 25
Mastic for Plastering, 25
Stable Floors, 3 25
Concrete for Foundations, 26
Keene’s Cement, 27
Metallic Cement, Dat
Portland-Cement Stneco, 28
Lias Cement, i 28
Rough Cast, 29

PAGE
External Plastering, 35-41
Scagliola, : 41
Carton Pierre, . 42
Papier Mache, : é : ; 4?
Stamped Leather, . i i 5 ee
Stearate of Lime, 4 5 oO

PAGE
Measuring Cornices, 47
Measuring Stucco, 4§
Coloring, 748
Summary, 48-50
Pugging, . igh eIOU
Whitewashing and Coloring, 51-53

PAGE
To Take Wax Moulds from faeels 59
Cement for Mouldings, 60
Cement Floors for Cellars, 60
Wash, 2 60
Coloring in Distemper, 61
Mortar, 61
Caution, 61
Concr ete W alls, 62
External Stucco, 62
Proportions of Mater ials, 62
Puzzolana, s 62
Grout, 63
Weights of “Materials, 64
Items, 64
Cisterns, : ; : : 64
Blackboar Ske 2 a OS
Measuring Plasterer g Work, : 66
Notes, : 5 67
Mortars and Cements, : 67-74

Concrete Houses, 74-17

Strength of Different Mortars, . TT 8
Form of Agreement, i 7 8-81
a ; ; : p : . 83-10;

IMPORTANT ANNOUNCEMENT

TO ARCHITECTS, CONTRACTORS AND BUILDERS,

For many years past there has been a want by the building fraternity of a good
and reliable book on ESTIMATING, one that will give prices of materials and labor
for every department of buiiding, so far as this is possible. Such a book, the pub-
lishers believe, has at last been produced, and is now offered to those interested.

THE BUILDER'S GUIDE,

AND ESTIMATOR’S PRICE BOOK.

By FRED. T. HODGSON.

HTANDSOMELY BOUND IN CLOTH, GILT TITLE. PRICE, - $2.00.

Current Prices of Lumber, Hardware, Glass, Plumbers’ Supplies, Paints,
Slates, Stones, Limes, Cements, Bricks, Tin and other Building Materiais;
also, Prices of Labor, and Cost of Performing the Several Kinds of Work
Required in Building. Together with Prices of Doors, Frames, Sashes,
Stairs, Mouldings, Newels, and other Machine Work. To which is appended
a large number of Building Rules, Data, Tables and Useful Memoranda,
with a Glossary of Architectural and Building Terms.

This is an entirely new work, and gives Prices of Labor and Materials down
to a recent date, and is, therefore, the most reliable book in the market on the
subject of prices of labor and materials required for building. The work con-
tains, besides Prices, Data, Rules, and Several Hundred Tables and Hints on
Building, a blank column where the prices of Labor or Material may be written
in pencil, where such prices differ from those given in the book. There is also
a very complete Glossary of Building and Architectural Terms appended to the
work, which is a useful and valuable addition for practical builders.

The work is really a Cyclopedia of Prices and Builder’s Tables, Data and
Memoranda, and is necessarily a large work, having over 330 pages, each page
being 7j x 43, and covered with closely printed matter.

In order to give an idea of what the work contains, we give the following brief

SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS:

Part J.—Contains Hints and Rules for Correct Estimating.—Forms for Taking
Estimates, Quantities, Prices, and Manner of Computation. — Gener al Memor anda
of Items for Estimates.—Excavations.—Foundations.—Drains.—Iron Work.—
Baths and Water Closets.—Brick Walls.—Carpenter’s Work.—Joiner’s Work.—
Mantels, Grates, Stove Fittings, ete.— Pantry, Closets, Kitchens and Appurten-
ances.—Bell Hanging, Gas Fixing and Fixtures.—Stairs and Staircases.—Roofs,

rutters and Conductors.—Porches, Verandas and Fences.—Framing; Cost of
same.—Cost of Painting, Plastering, Shingling, Slating, Tinning, Finishing,
Glazing, Building Chimneys, and other Brick Work.—Rules for Measuring all
kinds of Hip and other Roofs, with Cost of same.—Rough Boarding, Shingling,
Siding, Laying Floors, and other Work.—Cost of Material and Labor for Stairs,
Newels, Balusters, Rails, Doors, Mouldings, Sliding and Folding Doors, Windows
of all kinds, Blinds, Wainscoting, Baseboar ds, Finials, Cr esting, Plumbing, Floor-
ing, and every thing else used about a Building.

Part IJ.—Contains an Extensive Schedule of Builder’s Prices, for Digging,

Shovelling, Ramming in Loose Earth, Clay and Gravel. —Cost of. Masonry,
Rubble, Hammer-Dressed Work, Rough Rock Work, Reveals, Ashler Work, Re-

SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS (Continued).

pairs, Arches, Plain Work, Rubbed Work, Beaded Work, Fluting, Reeding,
Throating, Grooving, Rebating, Leading in Work, Sunken Work, Mortising,
etc.—Prices of ail kinds of Native Stones per Cubic Foot.—Prices of Cements;
Portland, Roserdale, Keene’s, Lime of Teil, Lime, Lath, Slate, etc.—Bricklay-
ing; Price per 1,000, Laborer’s Wages, Prices of Bricks of Different Grades, Cir-
cular and Elliptical Work, Brick Paving of all kinds, Laid Dry or in Mortar.—
Drain Pipes, Cost and Quality; Terra-Cotta Chimney Tops, Cresting, Tiles and
Mouldings, ete.—Colored Bricks, Tuck Pointing, Setting in Sash and Door
Frames, Taking Down Old Work, Rebuilding with Old Bricks, Firebricks, Tile
Work, Quality and Prices of Bricks from Various Localities, Prices of Peerless
Brick Company’s Colored Bricks, Colored Mortars and Cements, Odd-Shaped
Bricks.—Plasterer s Work, Scaffolding, Lathing, Mortars for all kinds of Work,
Cements for Walls and Ceilings, Cornices and Stucco Work, Plaster-of-Paris
Flower and Ornamental Work, Kalsomining and Washes of all Kinds.—Carpen-
ter’s and Joiner’s Work ; Wages, Prices of Lumber, Prices of Made-up Stuff of all
Kinds.—Hard-wood Work, Nails, Screws. Locks, Butts and other Hardware.—
Stairs of all Kinds, Table for Finding the Run and Rise of Treads and Risers,
Turned Work for Stairs and other Work.—Painting, Colors, Prices for Different
Kinds of Work, Ladders, Scaffolding, Tools, Graining, Painting Iron Work,
Staining, Repairing Old Work, Numerical Work, Varnishing, Lettering, Oiling,
Sash and Door Painting, Mixing Colors, Prices of Colors, Miscellaneous Re-
marks.—Roofing Materials of all Kinds, with Prices and Cost of Laying ; Bell-
Hanging Materials, Skylights, Tubs, Sinks, Sheet Iron, Pumps, Tanks, Registers,
Ventilators, Wire Ropes, and other matters required in Building.

Part III.—Contains Rules for Builder’s Bookkeeping, Form of Balance Sheet,
Rules for Measuring Artificer’s Work, including Excavation, Drains. Shoring,
Concreting, and Labor in General: also Methods of Measuring all Kinds of Ma-
terials for Brick, Stone, or Wood Work.—Elements of the Mechanics of Archi-
tecture, Strength of Materials, Rules for Obtaining Same; Iron, Wood, Stone
and Brick, Crushing Loads for Various Building Materials, Columns, Iron, Wood,
Stone.—Tables for Computing the Strength of Materials, Factors of Safety,
Rolled-Iron Beams and Girders.—Bricks and Brick Piers, Terra-Cotta, Strength
and Qualities of Cements and Mortars, Fire-Brick, Colored Mortars, Granite and
other Stone.

Part IV.—Miscellaneous Tables.—Weight of Iron, Lead, Brass, Copper and
Cast Iron, per Foot Superficial or in Bars; Strength of Round Ropes, Weight of
Boiler Iron, Wrought-Iron Pipes, Flat and Round Wire Ropes for Elevators, Iron
Roofing, Lead Pipes, Nails, Foreign Weights and Measures, Force of Wind,
Square Measure, Long Measure, Equivalents, Arithmetical and other Signs, Ex-
pansion by Heat, Force of Explosives, Number of Shingles, Slates, Tiles and
other Covering Required for 100 feet of Roofing, Number of Bricks Required for

xiven Wall, Strength of Woods, Loads for Bridges, Strains on Bridges and
Trusses, Specific Gravities.

Part V.—Mensuration of Superfices, Areas of Squares, Cubes, Triangles,
Multi-sided Figures, etc.; Measurements of Solids, Cubes, Cones, Cylinders,
Spheres, etc.; Squares and Cubes of Numbers, Table of Spherical Contents,
Diameters, Circumferences and Areas of Circles, Board and Plank Measure,
Scantling Measure, Wages Table, Sizes and Capacities of Cribs, Boxes and Tanks.

Part VI.—Mechanics’ Lien Laws of Alabama, Arkansas, Connecticut, Cali-
fornia, Colorado, District of Columbia, Delaware, Florida, Georgia. Indiana,
Jowa, Illinois, Kansas, Kentucky, Maine, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Maryland,
Mississippi, Michigan, Missouri, New Jersey, Nevada, Nebraska, New Hamp-
shire, North Carolina, New York, Oregon, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island,
South Carolina, Texas, Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, West Virginia, Wisconsin,
Ontario.

Part VII.—Schedule of Architect’s Charges, Drawings, Superintendence, Per-
centage on Public Buildings.—Architect’s Rules and Methods of Charging for
Services Rendered.—Leading Architectural and Building Journals.—Glossary of
Architectural and Building Terms. (This ‘‘ Glossary” covers some fifty-seven
pages, and deals with over One Thousand Terms used in Architecture and
Building). te, Or ae

A INE We BOO

CABINET MAKERS, UPHOLSTERERS, FURNITURE MEN, AMA-
TEUR WOOD FINISHERS, ETC., ETC,

HINTS

Practical Information

FOR

(ABINET-MAKERS, UPHOLSTERERS, AND
FURNITURE MEN GENERALLY.

TOGETHER WITII

A DESCRIPTION OF ALL KINDS OF FINISHING, WITH
FULL DIRECTIONS THEREFOR—VARNISHES—POL-
ISHES -STAINS FOR WOOD—DYES FOR WOOD—
GILDING AND SILVERING—RECEIPTS FOR
THE FACTORY—LACQUERS, METALS, MAR-

BLES, ETC.—PICTURES, ENGRAVINGS,
ETC.—MISCELLANEOUS.

This work contains an Immense Amount of the most Useful
Information for those who are engaged in Manufacture, Supeiin-
tendence, or Construction of Furniture or Wood Work of any
Kind. It is one of the Cheapest and Best Books Ever Published,
and contains

Over 1,000 Hints, Suggestions, Methods,

And Descriptions of Tools, Appliances,
and Materials.

All the Recipes, Rules and Directions have been carefully Re-
vised and Corrected by Practical Men of great experience, so that
they will be found thoroughly trustworthy.

Price, Bound in Cloth, with Side Title in Gold, $1.00.

Sent TO ANY ADDREsS ON ReEcrEIPT OF PRICE.

A NEW SERIES OF PRACTICAL LPOOKS.

NEON NAN UrALS.

The intention of the publishers is to give in this Series a number of small books which
will give Thorough and Reliable Information in the plainest possible language, upon the

ARTS OF EVERYDAY LIFE.

Each volume will be by some one who is not only practically familiar with his subject,
but who has the ability to make it clear to others. ‘The volumes will each contain from
50 to 75 pages, will be neatly and clearly pnnted on good paper and bound in tough
and durable binding. ‘The price will be 25 cents each, or five for Une Dollar.

The following are the titles of the volumes already issued. (thers will follow at
short intervals.

I. Cements and Glue.

A Practical Treatise on the Preparation and Use of All Kinds of Cements, Glue
‘and Paste. By JoHN Puin, Editor of the Young Scientist and the American
Fournal of Microscopy.
Every mechanic and householder will find this volume of almost everyday use. It
contains nearly 200 recipes for the preparation of Cements for almost every conceivable
purpose.

II. The Slide Rule, and How to Use It.

This is a compilation of Explanations, Rules and Instructions suitable for mechanics
and others interested in the industrial arts. Rules are given for the measurement ot
all kinds of boards and planks, timber 1r. the round or square, glaziers’ work and paint-
ing, brickwork, paviors’ work, tiling and slating, the measurement of vessels of various
shapes, the wedge, inclined planes, wheels and axles, levers, the weighing and meas-
urement of metals and all solid bodies, cylinders, cones, globes, octagon rules and
formulz, the measurement of circles, and acomparison of French and English measures,
with much other information, useful to builders, carpenters, bricklayers, glaziers,
paviors, slaters, machinists and other mechanics.

Possessed of this little Book and a good Slide Rule, mechanics might carry in their
pockets some hundreds of times the power of calculation that they now have in their
heads, and the use of the instrument is very easily acquired.

iI. Hints for Painters, Decorators and Paperhangers.

Being a selection of Useful Rules, Data, Memoranda, Methods and Suggestions
for House, Snip, and Furniture Pai: iting, Paperhanging, Gilding, Color Mixing,
and other matters Useful and Instructive to Painters and Decorators. Prepared
with Special Reference to the Wants of Amateurs. By an Old Hand.

IV. Construction, Use and Care of Drawing Instruments.

Being a Treatise on Draughting Instruments, with Rules for their Use and Care,
Explanations of Scale;, Sectors and _Protractors. ‘Together with Memoranda for
Draughtsmen, Hints on Purchasing Paper, Ink, Instruments, Pencils, etc. Alsoa
Price List of all materials required by Draughtsmen. Illustrated with twenty-four
Explanatory Illustrations. By Frep. T. Hopcson.

V. The Steel Square.

Some Difficult Problems in Carpentry and Joinery Simplified and Solved by the
aid of the Carpenters’ Steel Square, together with a Full Description of the Yool,
and Explanations of the Scales, Lines and Figures on the Blade and Tongue, and
How to Use them in Everyday Work. Showing how the Square may be Used
in Obtaining the Lengths and Bevels of Rafters, Hips, Groins, Braces, Brackets,
Purlins, Collar-Beams, and Jack-Rafters. Also, its Application in Obtaining
the Bevels and Cuts for Hoppers, Spring Mouldings, Octagons, Diminished
Styles, etc., etc. Illustrated by Numerous Wood-cu's. By FRep, T. Hovcson,
Author of the ‘*‘ Carpenters’ Steel Square.”’ :

Note.—This work is intended as an elementary introduction for the use of those whe
have not time to study Mr. Hodgson’s larger work on the same subject.

one

POCKET MANUAL NUMBER ONE; OR, THE
Writers’ and Travellers’ Ready Reference Book

HOR EVERY DAY USE.
Rev. JOHN M. HERON, A. M., Editor.
CONTENTS.

. Title Page.

. Dedication and Copyright.
. Editor’s Preface.

. Contents.

14. A Table showing distance of the
principal American Cities from
New York, the differenee in
Time, and the present Popula-

tion of Each.

Our Country a nd Government; the
Area of the U.S., how nequired
Population of States and Terri-
tories, Number of Electoral Votes
each is entitled to, Representa-
tives, ete.; The Executive and
Judicial Branches of the Govern-

OOH he

. Over 20,000 Synonymous Words.

. Foreign Words and Phrases in| 15.

general use.

7. Domestic and Foreign
Rates and Laws
Duties.

8. Value Foreign Coins as per author-

ized standard U.S. Mint.

Postage
and Stamp

9. Use of Capital Letters. ment, duties of officials, their
10. Rules for Punctuation. salaries; American Progress,
TL, Aisioene anomie and their use. ete., ete.

12. A Perpetual Calendar. 16. Our Deportment.
13. An Interest Table. 17. A Complete Index.

Thousands of people have long felt the need of such a work as this. The
correspondent, student, literary worker, or any person who has any writing to
do, is constantly annoyed to think of just the right words to use in order to
convey the idea intended and make a smooth and finished sentence. The
Writers’ and Travellers’ Ready Reference Book contains 20,000 synonymous
words, alphabetically arranged, and this feature of it not only supplies this often
much needed word, but it at the same time EDUCATES the searcher and enables
him to express himself verbally with grace and ease. To the writer this list of
Synonymous Words is second only to the Spelling Book. The use of Capitals,
rules for Punctuation and use of-Abbreviations are all-important, and frequently
a lack of their observance or an ignorance of their rroper use turns what ** might
have been” a swecessful life into another channel because such things as these
caused some person to reject the application which otherwise would have been
the successful turning point in the career of the writer. We cannot always.

carry a Spelling Book or Dictionary with us, and nowhere is information on

these points so concisely given and so handy for reference as in the Writers’
and Travellers’ Ready Reference Book. We often spend considerable time
and go to lots of trouble to ascertain something about Postage Rates. There
are but few of us who do not need a list to give us the meaning of Foreign
Words and Phrases which we constantly come across in reading. aN Calendar,
Interest Table, and table showing the value of Foreign Coins, are all eminently
practical and useful. All these this little book contains. The one table showing
at a glance the population of the principal American cities, the distance of each
from New York City, and the difference in time, is a marvel of condensation,
and is worth more than the price of the book to any traveller. Under the
head of ** Our Country and Government” is given the pith of a large volume,
JUST SUCH facts as every American ought to possess, and they can be obtained
nowhere else for less than four times the money.

Good manners and an observance of a few simple Rules of Bbiquette often do
more towards winning friends and making one happy, than wealth, or the most
classic education. They always go further than either or both towards making
a gentleman or lady. Such Gems of Deportment as are of value to all, will be
found in the ‘** Pocket Manual.”

I® YOU would perfect and educate yourself in these matters, by all means,
GETIT. IF YOU would save yourself from many annoyances and much loss
of time and money, GET IT. IB YUU would make an inexpensive, appropriate
and useful present to any person, GET IT.

The Pocket Manualis printed from new and perfect plates, on fine tinted paper,
made expressly for it, bound in Silk Cloth, Flexible Covers, with Ink and Gold
Side Stamp, Red Edges. Price 50 cents.

THE

POCKET

NANUAL

NUMBER Two,
OR, A

KEY TO A PROFITABLE OCCUPATION FOR ANY PERSON.
REV. JOHN M. HERON, A.M., EDITOR.

TWENTY-FIVE DOLLARS WORTH OF INFORMATION IN THE POCKET.

CONTENTS.

How to Become a _ Short-Hand
Writer, or complete and practical
instruetion in Phonography, by
Curtis Haven, Pres’t Phila. College
of Phorography, ete.

How to Become a Proof-reader, by
J sere JOHNSON, experienced proof-
reader.

How to Become a Telegraph Opera-
tor, by J. W. Crousk, Ex Supt. Pa.
R. R. Wires. Eastern Division.

How to Use a Type-Writer, or simple
instructions for operating with a
Writing Machine. By J. W. EARLE,
Phila. Manager Remington Type-
Writer Op.

How to Get a Farm from U.S. By
ARTHUR BRADLEY, Attorney.

How to Manufacture Super-phos-
phate of Lime and Guano. by M.
FRANZ, Scientist.

How to Raise Poultry or Poultry and
Eggs as a Business. Ry M. H. PEen-
DLETON, editor “‘ Poultry Messen-
ger.

How to Become a Dressmaker. Plain
directions for learning to do finished
work for one’s self or as a business.
by Miss ISABEL CRAWFORD, Practica!
Dressmaker.

How to Draw and Paint Flowers, etc.,
from nature or otherwise. By PRor.
JOHN COLLINS, Artist.

The Subscription Book Business. Its
Influence, Growth, Desirability, ete.,
by W. H. THompson, Publisher.

How to Become a Book-keeper and
Practical Instruetions for Book-
keepers. By '’'HomAs MAy PEIRCE,
M.A., of the Peiree College of Busi-
ness, Phila.

How to Make out Reports and Audit
Ace’ts of Building Associations,
what Building Associations are and
how conducted. By THOMAS GAFF-
NEY, Practical Accountant and
Building Association Expert.

Directions for Silkk Culture, with in-
Struetions for raising Worms, spin-
ning Cocoons, ete., by Mrs. M. FE.
CUNNINGHAM, assisted by the silk
Culture Association.

Collecting Old Coins. Tables of dif-
ferent eoins with market prices, ete,
By G. L. FANCHER, Numismatist.

Stamps Collecting, and How to Buy
and Sell Stamps. By L. W. DuRBIN,
Philatelist and Stamp Dealer.

How to Make Soap. By FRANK P.
HARMED, Chemist of the Penn
Chemieal Works.

Ambition, Enterprise and Integrity.
By Rev. JoHN M. Heron, A.M.

Table of Wages by the Month. From
the American Home and Farm Cy-
clopeedia,

_ Every ARTICLE, with the exception of one or two of the less important ones,
1S ORIGINAL, and has been prepared withthe UTMOST CARE by a person of par-

ticular experience, reputation and ability for the subject.

So much original

matter and so able a corps of writers was never before presented in a book of

the size and price.

ILLUSTRATIONS. Several articles have been illustrated at a heavy ex-

wena. fa)
pen drawings 16 TIMES the size.

The lessons in short hand were produced by photo-engraving from
There are some 25 of these.

Prof. Collins’

and Attorney Bradley’s articles are most tastily and beautifully illustrated.
The skill of the engraver has been required in rendering complete several

other features.

The Pocket Manual is printed on the finest rose tint. paper, made expressly
for it, from new and perfect plates, with a rule around each page, contains 224

pages.

Price, Bound in Finest English Cloth, Red Edges. Gold Side Stamp, 50 cents,

A New and Live Book on the Gui:

Just Published. Price 75 cents, in cloth.

PLAIN DIRECTIONS

FOR ACQUIRING THE ART OF

SHOOTING ON THE WING.

With Useful Hints concerning all that relates to Guns and Shodi
‘ng, and particularly in regard to the art of Loading so a
to Kill. To which has been added several Valuable
and hitherto Secret Reciges, of Great Practical
Importance to the Sportsman.

Bry AN OLD GAMEKEEPER.

Sent free sy mail on receipt of price.

Optnions of the Press.

The directions are so plain that they cannot well be mistaken,
and they are expressed in the fewest pussible words.— Turf, Field
and Farm.

Facing the title-page is one of the handsomest, best-executed
woodcuts, we have ever seen. (It is entitled ‘‘The Wounded
Snipe,” and almost equals a steel engraving.— Baptist Union.

rom its pages we should think even the most experienced
sportsman might derive some new ideas, while the beginner will
“nd it an invaluable assistant.—Country Gentleman.

For concise instructions as to how to shoot, to select, load,
sarry, and keep a gun in order, vtc., it cannot be surpassed.—
Western Rural.

{ pleasantly written, and, it seenis, to us, correct and practical
treatise on the sportsman’s art; a modest little book, but one from
the reading of which a good deal of the right kind of kaowlea 2°
is to be gained.—Appleton’s Journal

A practical and well-written han.ibook, especially adapted for
che use of young sportsmen, as it gives sensible advice on the
manipulation of firearms. and the rujes and etiquette of tne field
Scientific American.

The Only Practical Book Published on this Subject.

THE PISTOL

AS

WEAPON OF DEFENCE,

In the House and on the Road.
12mo. Cloth. 50 cents.
se ee

This work aims to instruct the peaceable and law-abiding citizens in the
best means of protecting themselves from the attacks of the brutal and
the lawless. Its contents are as follows: The Pistol as a Weapon of De-
fence—The Carrying of Fire-Arms—Different kinds of Pistols in Market;
how to Choose a Pistol—Ammunition, different kinds; Powder, Caps,
Bullets, Copper Cartridges, etc.—Best form of Bullet—How to Load—
Best charge for Pistols—How to regulate the Charge—Care of the Pistol;
how to clean it—How to handle and carry the Pistol—How to Learn tc
Shoot—Practical use of the Pistol; how to Protect yourself and how to
Disable your antagonist.

‘*No man is fit to keep house who is not fit to defend it.”—Henry Ward
Beecher.

**So long as rogues cannot be prevented from carrying weapons, honest
men do not consult their own safety and the public good by totally dis-
carding them.”— Recorder Hackett,

**Such I hold to be the genuine use of gunpowder; that it makes all met.
alike call (or strong.)”—Carlyie.

For f£ale by all Newsdealers, or £ent postpaid by Mail on receipt of price

THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. —

A Collection of Useful and Reliable Recipes,
Rules, Processes, Methods, Wrinkles,

and Practical Hints,

FOR THE HOUSEHOLD AND THE SHOP.

CONTENTS.

Abyssinian Gold;=Accidents, General Rules;—Alabaster, how to work, polish and
clean;—Alcohol;—Alloys, rules for making, and 26 recipes;—Amber, how to work,
polish and mend;—Annealing and Hardening glass, copper, steel, etc. ;—Arsenical
Soap ;—Arsenical Powder ;—Beeswax, how to bleach;—Blackboards, how to make ;—
Brass, how to work, polish, color, varnish, whiten, deposit by electricity, clean, etc.,
etc. ;-—Brazing and Soldering;—Bronzing brass, wood, leather, etc. ;—Burns, how to
cure ;—Case-hardening ;—Catgut, how prepared ;—Cements, general rules for using, and
56 recipes for preparing ;—Copper, working, welding, depositing ;—Coral, artificial ;—
Cork, working;—Crayons for Blackboards ;—Curling brass, iron, etc. ;—Liquid Cu-
ticle; —Etching copper, steel, glass ;—Eye, accidents to;—Fires, to prevent ;—Clothes on
Fire;—Fireproof Dresses ;—Fly Papers;—Freezing Mixtures, 6 recipes ;—Fumigating
Pastils;—Gilding metal, leather, wood, etc.;—Glass, cutting, drilling, turning in the
lathe, fitting stoppers, removing tight stoppers, powdering, packing, imitating ground
glass, washing glass vessels, etc. ;—Grass, Dry, to stain;—Guns, to make shoot close,
to keep from rusting, to brown the barrels of, etc., etc. ;—Handles, to fasten ;—Inks,
rules for selecting and preserving, and 34 recipes for;—Ink Eraser ;—Inlaying;—Iron,
forging, welding, case-hardening, zincing, tinning, do. in the cold, brightening, etc.,
etc. ;—Ivory, to work, polish, bleach, etc. ;—Javelle Water ;— Jewelry and Gilded Ware,
care of, cleaning, coloring, etc. ;—Lacquer, how to make and apply ;—Laundry Gloss ;—
Skeleton Leaves;—Lights, signal and colored, also for tableaux, photography, etc., 25
recipes ;—Lubricators, selection of, 4 recipes for;—Marble, working, polishing, clean-
ing ;—Metals, polishing ;—Mirrors, care Of, to make, pure silver, etc., etc. ;—Nickel,
to plate with without a battery;—Noise, prevention of;—Painting Bright Metals;—
Paper, adhesive, barometer, glass, tracing, transfer, waxed, etc.;—Paper, to clean, take
creases out of, remove water stains, mount drawing paper, to prepare for varnishing,
etc., etc.;—Patina;—Patterns, to trace;—Pencils, indelible:—Pencil Marks, to fix;—
Pewter;—Pillows for Sick Room, cheap and good ;—-Placier-of-Paris, how to work ;—
Poisons, antidotes for, 12 recipes;—Polishing Powders, preparation and use of (six
pages) ;—Resins, their properties, etc.;—Saws, how to sharpen;—Sieves;—Shellac,
properties and uses of ;—Silver, properties of, oxidized, old, cleaning, to remove ink
stains from, to dissolve from plated goods, etc., etc.;—Silvering metals, leather, iron,
etc. ;—Size, preparation of various kinds of ;—Skins, tanning and curing, do with hair
on;—Stains, to remove from all kinds of goods;—Steel, tempering and working (six
pages) ;—Tin, properties, methods of working ;—Varnish, 21 recipes for;—Varnishing,
directions for;—Voltaic Batteries;—Watch, care of;—Waterproofing, 7 recipes for ;—
Whitewash;—Wood Floors, waxing, staining, and polishing;—Wood, polishing ;—
Wood, staining, 17 recipes ;—Zinc, to pulverize, black varnish for.

164 closely-printed pages, neatly bound. Sent by mail for 36 cents
(postage stamps received).

RECENT ISSUES.
Collodio-Etching,

A Guide to Collodio-Etching. By Rey. Benjamin
Hartley. Illustrated by the”’Author. 12mo., Cloth,
INGatit mes = an 2 P= - - - - - $1.00.

This volume gives complete and minute instructions for one of the
most delightful of Amateur Arts. It is fully illustrated by wood-cuts
of all the apparatus used (which is very simple and easily made),
and also by actual photo prints of the etchings themselves.

Scientific Experiments.

Easy Experiments in Chemistry and Natural Philoso-
phy. For Educational Institutions of all Grades, and
for Private Students. By G. Dallas Lind, Author
of ‘‘Methods of Teaching in Country Schools,”’? and
‘“*Normal Outlines of the Common School Branches.”’
Paper, - - = - - - 40 cents.
This book, besides being a valuable guide for the teacher and

student, will afford scientific amuscment suiicient to brighten the
evenings of a whole winter.

The Builder’s Guide and Estimator’s Price Book.

Being a Compilation of Current Prices of Lumber,
Hardware, Glass, Plumbers’ Supplies, Paints, Slates,
Stones, Limes, Cements, Bricks, ‘Tin, and other Building
Materials; also, Prices of Labor, and Cost of Performing
the Several Kinds of Work Required in Building. To-
gether with Prices of Doors, Frames, Sashes, Stairs,
Mouldings, Newels, and other Machine Work. To which
is appended a large number of Building Rules, Data,
Tables, and Useful Memoranda, with a Glossary of
Architectural and Building Terms. By Fred. T. Hodg-
son, Editor of ‘‘ The Builder and Wood-Worker,”’
Author of ‘‘ The Steel Square and Its Uses,” etc., ete.
12mo., Cloth, - - - - - - $2.00.

Celestial Objects for Common Telescopes.

By the Rev. T. W. Webb, M.A., F.R.A.S. Fourth Edi-
tion, Revised and Greatly Enlarged. Fully Illustrated
with Eee ree and a large Map of the Moon.
Cloth, - . - - - <0 63.00
This edition has been made for us by the English nobles: and
is in every respect the same as the English edition. The work itself
is too well known to require commendation at our hands. Mo one
that owns even the commonest kind of a telescope can afford to do
without it
“Many things, deemed invisible to secondary instruments, are
plain enough to one who ‘ knows how to see them.’ ”—SMYTH.
‘‘ When an object is once discerned by a superior power, an inferior
one will suffice to see it afterwards.”—Str. W. HERSCHEL.

Chemical History of the Six Days of Creation.

By John Phin, Editor of the ‘‘ American Journal of
Microscopy ”’ and the ‘‘ Young Scientist.’’

12 mo., Cloth, - - - - 75 cents.

In this volume an attempt is made to trace the evolution of our

globe from the primeval state of nebulous mist, “ without form and

void,’ and existing in “darkness,” or with an entire absence of the

manifestations of the physical forces, to the condition in which it was

fitted to become the habitation of man. While the statements and

eonclusions are rigidly scientific, it gives some BagEe Ung 0/ novel
views of a rather hackneyed subject.

Ponds and Ditches.
A Work on Pond Life and Kindred Objects. By M. C.
Cooke, M.A., LL.D. . Cloth, 12mo., - - 75 cents.

This is a most interesting volume by a well-known author and
microscopist. It is very freely illustrated with engravings of the
objects usually found in pond water.

Microscopical Examination of Drinking Water.

A Guide to the. Microscopical Examination of Drinking
Water. By J. D. McDonald.
8vo., Cloth, 24 plates, - - - -- $2.75

Sements and Glue.

A Practical Treatise on the Preparation and Use of all
Kinds of Cements, Glue, and Paste. By John Phin,
Editor of the ‘‘ Young Scientist’? and the ‘‘ American
Journal of Microscopy.”

Stiff Covers, - - - - - - 25 cents.

This is the first of a Series of ‘Work Manuals,” which are intended
to be thoroughly trustworthy and practical. They are not mere
reprints of old matter, but fresh presentations of valuable material,
representing the latest developments of science. Every mechanic
and householder will find the volume on Cements of almost everyday
use. It contains nearly 200 recipes for the preparation of cements for
almost every conceivable purpose.

The Amateur’s Hand-Book of Practical Information.

For the Workshop and the Laboratory. Second Edition.
Greatly Enlarged. Neatly Bound, - - 15 cents.

This is a handy little book, containing just the information needed
by Amateurs in the Workshop and Laboratory. Directions for
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Tempering Tools, Cutting and Working Glass, Varnishing, Silvering,
Gilding, Preparing Skins, etc., ete.

The New Edition contains extended directions for preparing Poush-
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tions for rendering ladies’ dresses incombustible, ete. There has also
been added a very large number of new and yaluah‘e receipts.

Five Hundred and Seven Mechanical Movements.

Embracing all those which are Most Important in Dy-
namics, Hydraulics, Hydrostatics, Pneumatics, Steam
Engines, Mill and Other Gearing, Presses, Horology and
Miscellaneous Machinery; and including Many Move-
ments never before published, and several of which have
only recently come into use. By Henry T. Brown, editor
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This work is a perfect Cyclopedia of Mechanical Inventions, which
are here reduced to first principles, and classified’ so as to be readily
available. Every mechanic that hopes to be more than a rule-of-
thumb worker ought to have a copy.

How to Put Up a Lightning Rod.

Plain Directions for the Construction and Erection of
Lightning Rods. By John Phin, C.E., editor of the
‘Young Scientist,’’ author of ‘‘ Chemical History of the
Six Days of the Creation,’ etc. Second Edition. En-
larged and Fully Illustrated. 12 mo., Cloth, Gilt
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This isasimple and practical little work, intended to convey just
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or not his buildings are thoroughly protected. It is not written in the
interest of any patent or particular article of manufacture, and by fol-
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that will afford perfect protection, and that will not infringe any patent.
Every owner of a house or barn ought to procure a copy.

Lectures in a Workshop.

By T. P. Pemberton, formerly Associate Editor of the
*“Technologist;’’? Author of ‘‘ The Student’s Illustrated
Guide to Practical Draughting.’’ With an appendix con-
taining the famous papers by Whitworth ‘‘On Plane
Metallic Surfaces or True Planes;’’ “On an Uniform
System of Serew Threads; ’’ ‘*‘ Address to the Institution

of Mechanical Engineers, Glasgow;” ‘‘On Standard
Decimal Measures of Length.” 12mo., Cloth, Gilt, $1.00

We have here asprightly fascinating book, full of valuable hints,
interesting anecdotes and sharp sayings. It is nota compilation of
dull sermons or dry mathematics, but a live, readable book. The

papers by Whitworth, now first made accessible to the American
reader, form the basis of our modern systems of accurate work.

Mechanical Draughting for Self-Taught Students.

The Student’s Illustrated Guide to Practical Draught-
ing. A series of Practical Instructions for Machinists,
Mechanics, Apprentices, and Students at Engineering
Establishments and Technical Institutes. By T. P.
Pemberton, Draughtsman and Mechanical Engi-
neer. Illustrated with Numerous Engravings. Cloth
Gilt, - - - - = + - $1.00
This is a simple but thorough book by a draughtsman of twenty-five
years’ experience. Itis intended for beginners and self-taught stu-
dents, as well as for those who pursue the study under the direction of
a teacher.

A New Book for Bee-Keepers.

A Dictionary of Practical Apiculture, giving the correct mean:
ing of nearly Five Hundred Terms, according to the usage of
the best writers. Intended asa Guide to Uniformity of Ex-
pression amongst Bee-Keepers. With Numerous Illustra-
tions, Notes, and Practical Hints. By John Phin, Author of
*“How to Use the Microscope,” etc. Editor of the ‘‘ Young
Scientist.’’ Price, Cloth, Gilt, 50 cts.

This work gives not only the correct meaning of five hundred different
words, specially used in bee-keeping, but an immense amount of valuable
information under the different headings. The labor expended upon it has
been very great, the definitions having been gathered from the mode in
which the words are used by our best writers on bee-keeping, and from the
Imperial, Richardson’s, Skeat’s, Webster’s, Worcester’s and other English
Dictionaries. The technical information relating to matters connected with
bee-keeping has been gathered from the Technical Dictionaries of Brande,
Muspratt, Ure, Wagner, Watts, and others. Under the heads Bee, Comb,
Glucose, Honey, Race, Species, Sugar, Wax and others, it brings together a
large number of important facts and figures which are now scattered
through our bee-literature, and through costly scientific works, and are not
easily found when wanted. Here they can be referred to at once under the
proper head.

How to Become a Good Mechanic.

Intended as a Practical Guide to Self-taught Men; telling
What to Study; What Books to Use; How to Begin; What
Difficulties will be Met; How to Overcome them. In a word,
how to carry on such a Course of Self-instruction as will en-
able the Young Mechanie to Rise from the Bench to some-
thing higher. Paper, - - - - Sewn - 15 cts.
This is not a book of “ goody-goody ” advice, neither is it an advertise-
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practical advice in regard to acquiring that knowledge which alone can
enable a young man engaged in any profession or occupation connected
with the industrial arts to attain a position higher than that of a mere
workman.

The Horse.
A Treatise on the Horse and his Diseases. By J. B. Kendall,
M.D. 76 Engravings. Paper, - - - - - 20 cts.

A Treatise giving an index of diseases, and the symptoms; cause and
treatment of each, a table giving all the principal drugs used for the horse,
with the ordinary dose, effects and antidote when a poison; a table with an
engraving of the horse’s teeth at different ages, with rules for telling the
age of the horse; a valuable collection of recipes, and much valuable in-
formation.

The Engineer’s Slide Rule and its Applications.

A Complete Investigation of the Principles upon which
the Slide Rule is Constructed, together with the Method
of its Application to all the Purposes of the Practical
Mechanic. By William Tonkes. ~ - - 25 cents.

Rhymes of Science: Wise and Otherwise.

By O. W. Holmes, Bret Harte, Ingoldsby, Prof. Forbes,
Prof. J. W. McQ. Rankine, Hon. R. W. Raymond, and
others. With Illustrations. Cloth, Gilt Title, 50 cents.
We advise all our readers into whose souls the sunlight of fun ever
enters to purchase this little book. “‘ Making light of cereous things ”
has heen said, by a high authority. to be “awicked profession,” but the
genius which can balance the ponderosity of an ichthyosaur upon the
delicate point of a euphonious rhyme, or bear aloft a bulky lepto-
rhyneus on the sparkling foam of a soul-stirring love ditty, is worthy—
worthy of a purchaser.— Pluladelphia Medical News.

Instruction in the Art of Wood Engraving.

A Manual of Instruction in the Art of Wood Engraving;
with a Description of the Necessary Tools and Apparatus,
and Concise Directions for their Use; Explanation of
the Terms Used, and the Methods Employed for Pro-
ducing the Various Classes of Wood Engrayvings. By
S. E. Fuller. Fully Illustrated with Engravings by the
author, separate sheets of engravings for transfer
and practice being added. New Edition, Neatly
Bound, - = 2 = - - 30 cents.

What to Do in Case of Accident.

What to Do and How to Do It in Case of Accident. A
Book for Everybody. 12mo., Cloth, Gilt Title, 50 cents.

This is one of the most useful books ever published. It tells exactly
what to do in case of accidents, such as Severe Cuts, Sprains, Disloca-
tions, Broken Bones, Burns with Fire, Sealds, Burns with Corrosive
Chemicals, Sunstroke, Suffocation by Foul Air, Hanging, Drowning,
Frost-Bite, Fainting, Stings, Bites, Starvation, Lightning, Poisons,
Accidents from Machinery and from the Falling of Scaffolding, Gun-
shot Wounds, ete., ete. It ought to be in every house, for young and
old are liable to accident, and the directions given in this book might
be the means of saving many a valuable life.

How to See with the Microscope.

Being Useful Hints Connected with the Selection and
Use of the Instrument; also Some Discussion of the
Claims and Capacity of Modern High-Angled Objec-
tives, as Compared with those of Medium Aperture.
With Instructions as to the Selection and Use of Amer-
ican Object-Glasses of Wide Apertures. By J. Edwards
Smith, M.D., Professor of Histology and Microscopy ;
Fellow of the Royal Microscopical Society ; Correspond-
ing Member San Francisco, Dunkirk, and other Micro-
scopical Societies, etc., etc. Second Edition. Hand-
somely Illustrated, - - - . - $2.00
Prof. Smith is well known as the most expert manipulator in this
country, as regards objectives of wide aperture, and in this volume
he gives, in a clear and practical manner, all the directions neces-
sary to attain the surprising results which he has achieved. No
microscopist that uses anything better than French triplets can
afford to be without it.

Marvels of Pond Life.

A Year’s Microscopic Recreations Among the Polyps,
Infusoria, Rotifers, Water Bears and Polyzoa. By
Henry J. Slack, F.G.S., F.R.M.S., ete. Second Edition.
Seven Full Page Plates and Numerous Wood Engravings
in the Text. 12mo., Cloth, Gilt, - = - $1.00

Leidy on Rhizopods..

The Fresh-Water Rhizopods of North America. By
Joseph Leidy, M.D., Professor of Anatomy in the Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania, and of Natural History in
Swarthmore College, Pennsylvania. Contains 48 quarto
plates of drawings of Magnified Rhizopods, beautifully
eolored. 1 vol., 4to., Cloth, - - - - $5.00

Catalogue of Medical Journals.

We have just issued a Complete List of all the Medical
Journals published in the United States and Canada,
with Addresses, Prices, Clubbing Rates, Editors’ Names,
ete. This list is corrected from time to time, so as to
embody the latest information, and will be mailed free
to any one who sends for it,

Section Cutting.

A Practical Guide to the Preparation and Mounting co.
Sections for the Microscope; Special Prominence being
siven to the Subject of Animal Sections By Sylvester
' Marsh. Reprinted from the London edition. With
Tllustrations. 12mo., Cloth, Gilt Title. ~ 75 cents.
This is undoubtedly the most thorough treatise extant upon sectiot
eutting in all its details. The American edition has been greatly
enlarged by valuable explanatory notes, and also by extended direc-
tions, illustrated with engravings, for selecting and sharpening
knives and razors.

A Book for Beginners with the Microscope.
Being an abridgment of ‘‘ Practical Hints on the Selection
and Use of the Microscope.”? By John Phin. Fully illus-
trated, and neatly and strongly bound in boards. 30 cts.

This book was prepared for the use of those who, having no know-
ledge of the use of the microscope, or, indeed, of any scientific appar-
atus, desire simple and practical instruction in the best methods oi
managing the instrument and preparing objects.

How to Use the Microscope.

** Practical Hints on the Selection and Use of the Micro-
scrope.’’ Intended for Beginners. By John Phin,
Editor of the ‘‘ American Journal of Microscopy.’’
fourth Edition. Greatly enlarged, with over 80 engrav-
ings in the text, and 6 full-page engravings, printed on
heavy tint paper. 12mo., cloth, gilt title, - $1.00

The Microscope.

By Andrew Ross. Fully Illustrated. 12mo., Cloth,
Gilt Title. - - - - - 75 cents.

This is the celebrated article contributed by Andrew Ross to the
“Penny Cyclopedia,’ and quoted so frequently by writers on the
Microscope. Carpenter and Hogg, in the last editions of their works
on the Microscope, and Brooke, in his treatise on Natural Philoso-
phy, all refer to this article as the best source for full and clear
information in regard to the principles upon which the modern
achromatic Microscope is constructed. It should bs in the library
of every person to whom the Microscope is more than a toy. ft ig
written in simple language, free from abstruse technicalities,

The Microscopist’s Annual for 1879.
Contains List of all the Microscopical Societies in the
country, with names of officers, days of meeting, ete. ;
e.; Alphabetical and Classified Lists of all the Menin
facturers of Microscopes and Objectives, Dissecting Ap-
paratus, Microscopic Objects, Materials for Microscopists,
in Europe and America, etc., etc.; Postal Rates, Rules
ard Regulations, prepared expressly for microscopists;
Weights and Measures, with tables and rules for the con-
version of different measures into each other; Custom
Duties and Regulations in regard to Instruments ana
Books; Value of the Moneys of all Countries in U. S.
Dollars; Value of the Lines on Nobert’s Test Plates;
Table of Moller’s Probe Platte, with the number of lines
to inch on the several diatoms, etc., etc.; Focal Value
of the Objectives of those makers who Number their
Objectives (Hartnack, Nachet, etc.); Focal Value of the
Eye-pieces of different makers; Magnifying Power of
Eye-pieces and Objectives, etc., ete. The whole form-
ing an indispensable companion for every working micro-
scopist. Limp Cloth, Gilt - - - 25 cents,

na The “ Annual” for 1880 is in a forward state of preparation, and
will be uniform in size and price with that for 1879.

Microscope Objectives.
The Angular Aperture of Microscope Objectives. By
Dr. George E. Blackham. 0., Cloth. Eighteen full
page illustrations printed on Ae fine paper. $1.25.
Sold only by Subscription.

This is the elaborate paper on Angular Aperture, read by Dr.
Blackham before the Microscopical Congress, held at Indianapolis.

Kutzing on Diatoms.—Nearly ready.
The Siliceous Shelled Bacillariz or Diatomacesx; the
History of their Discovery and Classification ; their Dis-
_ tribution, Collection, and Life-History. By Friedrich
Traugott Kutzing. Translated from the German by Prof.
Hamilton L. Smith, of Geneva, N. Y. 12mo., Cloth,
Gilt, - - - - - : 50 cents,

FOURTH EDITION. Greatly Enlarged, with over 80 illustrations in the Text
avd 6 full page Engravings, printed on Heavy Tint Paper. 1 Vol. 12m0., 240
ges. Neatly Bound in Cloth, Gilt Title. Price $1.00.

HOW TO USE THE MICROSCOPE.

A SIMPLE AND PRACTICAL BOOK, INTENDED FOR BEGINNERS.
By JOHN PHIN,
Editor of “The American Fournal of Microscopy.”

CONDENSED TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Tue MicroscorpeE.—What it Is; What it Does; Different Kinds of Microscopes;
Trinciples of its Construct on; Names of the Different Parts.

SIMPLE Microscopes.—Hand Magnifiers; Doublets; Power of Two or More
Lenses When Used Together; Stanhope Lens; Coddington Lens; Achromatic
Doublets and Triplets; Twenty-five Cent Microscopes—and How to Make Them;
Penny Microscopes, to Show Eels in Paste and Vinegar.

DissecTiINnG Microscores.—Essentials of a Good Dissecting Microscope.

CompounD MicroscopEs.—Cheap Foreign Stands; The Ross Model; The Jackson
Model; ‘The Continental Model; The New American Model; Cheap American
Stands; The Binocular Microscope; The Binocular Eye-piece; The Inverted Micro-
scope; Lithological Microscopes; The Aquarium Microscope; Microscopes for
Special Purpo-es; ‘‘Class’’ Microscopes.

OpjecTIvES.—Defects of Common Lenses; Spherical Aberration; Chromatic do. ;
Corrected Objectives; Defining Power; Achromatism; Aberration of Form; Flatness
of Field; Angular Aperture; Penetrating Power‘ Working Distance; Immersion and
“‘ Homogeneous”’ Lenses; Duplex Fronts; French Triplets, etc., etc.

TeEsTING OsjecTiveEs.—General Rules; Accepted Standards—Diatoms, Ruled
Lines, Artificial Star; Podura; Nobert’s Lines; Moller’s Probe Platte, etc., etc.

SELECTION OF A MicroscopE.—Must be Adapted to Requirements and Skill of
User; Microscopes for Botany; For Physicians; For Students.

Accessory APPARATUS.—Stage Forceps; Forceps Carrier; Plain Slides; Concave
Slides; Watch-Glass Holder; Animalcule Cage; Zoophyte Trough; The Weber Slide ;
The Cell-Trough; The Compressorium; Gravity Compressorium; Growing Slides;
Frog Plate; Table; Double Nose-piece.

ILLUMINATION.—Sun-Light; Artificial Light—Candles, Gas, Lamps, etc., etc.

ILLUMINATION OF OPAQUE OpjECTS.—Bulls-Eye Condenser; Side Reflector; The
Lieberkuhn; The Parabolic Reflector; Vertical Illuminators.

ILLUMINATION OF TRANSPARENT OpjECTS.—Direct and Reflected Light; Axial or
Central Ligh ; Oblique Light; The Achromatic Condenser; The Webster Condenser,
and How to Useit; Wenham’s Reflex Illuminator, and How to Use it; The Wenham
Prism; The ‘‘Half-Button;” The Woodward Illuminator; Tolles’ Illuminating
Traverse Lens; The Spot Lens; The Parabolic Illuminator; Polarized Light. |

How To Use THE MicroscorpE.—General Rules; Hints to Beginners.

How to Use Opsjecrives oF LARGE APERTURE.—Collar-Correction, étc.

CARE OF THE MicroscopE.—Should be Kept Covered; Care of Objectives; Pre-
cautions tc be Used when Corrosive Vapors and Liquids are Employed; To Protect
th Objectives from Vapors which Corrode Glass; Cleaning the Objectives; Cleaning
th Brass Work,

# COREE STING OxsrEcts.—Where to Find Objects; What to Look for; How to Capture
em.

THE PREPARATION AND EXAMINATION OF OpjEcTs.—Cutting Thin Sections of
Sof Substances; Valentine’s Knife; Sections of Wood and Bone; Improved Section
Cutter; Sections of Rock; Knives; Scissors; Needles; Dissecting Pans and Dishes;
Dissecting Microscopes; Separation of Deposits from Liquids; Preparing Whole
Insects; Feet, Eyes, Tongues, Wings, etc , of Insects; Use of Chemical Tests; Liquids
for Moistening Objects; Refractive Powers of Different Liquids; Iod-Serum ; Artificial
-od-Serum; Covers for Keeping Out Dust; Errors in Microscopic Observations.

PRESERVATIVE ProcEessEs.—General Principles; Preservative Media.

APPARATUS FOR MountinG Opjects.—Slides; Covers; Cells; Turn-Tables, etc.

CEMENTS AND VARNISHES.—General Rules for Using.

MountinG Osjects.—Mounting Transparent Objects Dry; in Balsam; in Liquids
Whole Insects; How to Get Rid of Air-Bubbles; Mounting Opaque Objects.

FINISHING THE SLIpES.—Cabinets; Maltwood Finder; Microscopical Fallacies.

GENESIS AND GEOLOGY.

The only really scientific and logical system of harmony between
Genesis and Geology is to be found in a little work, just published,
and entitled

THE CHEMICAL HISTORY

The Six Days of Creation.

BY JOERN PEIN: C2 i,

1 vol., 12mo., cloth. 75 cents.

In this work an attempt is made to show that the account given of the
Creation, in the first chapter of Genesis, agrees literally with the record
developed by the investigations of modern science.

May be ordered through any bookseller. Single copies sent by mail,
on receipt of price,

The following are a few of the Opinions of the Dress:

This is a small book, but full of matter. The author believes in the book of Genesia
as the ‘work of Moses, and believes in the entire correctness of the statements made
by Moses.in regard to the work of creation. He defends the accuracy of the first
chapter of Genesis, and defends it from a scientific standpoint. We think this book
is full of interest and value; and as the discussions concerning the harmony of science
and -faith are rife at the present day, we commend the reasonings of Mr. Phin to the
great number of readers and students who are investigating these subjects.—7he
Presbyterian (Philadelphia).

The author gives a new solution of this difficult question, and certainly presents
many very plausible arguments in support of his theory.—Sunday-School Workman.

A very candid and ingenious essay.—Christian Union (H. W. Beecher’s paper).

It is a topic which needs a calm and well-directed intellect to approach. and Mr. Phin
bas surrounded its discussion with thoughts of the deepest interest to all minds seek-
ing rest on this much perplexing question.—Journal of the Telegraph.

The reasons and conclusions are clear, distinct, and natural. The book will interest
aud instruct, and is intended to lead the reasoning mind to firmer faith in the light of
revelation.—New York Globe.

No one can read this book without compensation, without becoming more thoughtfui
concerning the phenomena of creation; and he need lose none of his reverence for the
supremacy of the Divine Law.—Rural New- Yorker.

We could say much in commendation of Prof. Phin’s little book. An intelligent
reader can hardly fail to be interested in it, and many might be benefited.—Country
Gentleman.

The book can not fail to interest even those who do not fully accept the the»ry it
advocates.— Boston Journal of Chemistry.

It is a new scientific view of the matter.—Phrenological Journal.

The book, although not large, will prove exceedingly interesting to all who have
ever directed attention to this matter, and contains more solid and suggestive thoighi
than many voluminous treatises on the subject.—/nsurance Monitor.

The work is ingenious and original, and presents many striking suggestions.—.Amers-
ean Baptist. ;

We believe Prof. Phin has started upon the correct basis, and his theory is mainly
tenable. His views are presented in a nanner which, though terse, is easily compre
hended.— Paterson Daily Guardian.

THE YOUNG SCIENTIST,
A Practical Journal for Amateurs.
ISSUED MONTHLY. Price $1.00 per year.

Tt is characteristic of young Americans that they want to be DOING something.
They are not content with merely £zowizg how things are done, or even with seezzg
them done; they want todo them themselves. In other words, they want to experiment.
Hence the wonderful demand that has sprung up for small tool chests, turning lathes,
scrollsaws, wood-carving tools, telegraphs, model steam engines, microscopes, and all
kinds of apparatus. In nine cases out of ten, however, the young workman finds it
difficult to learn how to use his tools or apparatus after he has got them. It is true
that we have a large number of very excellent text-books, but these are not just the
thing. What is wanted is a living teacher. Where aliving teacher cannot be found,
the next best thing is a live journal, and this we propose to furnish. And in attempting
this it is not our intention to confine ourselves to mere practical directions. In these
days of knowledge and scientific culture, the ‘‘ Why” becomes as necessary as the
“‘How.”’ The object of the YounG SCIENTIST is to give clear and easily followed
directions for performing chemical, mechanical and other operations, as well as simple
and accurate explanations: f the principles involved in the various mechanical and
chemical processes which we shall undertake to describe.

The scope and character of the JOURNAL will be better understood from an inspection
of a few numbers, than from any labored description. There are, however, some
features to which we would call special attention.

CoRRESPONDENCE.—In this department we intend to place our readers in communi-
cation with eich other, and in this way we hope to secure for every one just such aid
as may be required for any special work on hand.

EXcCHANGES.—An exchange column, like that which has been such a marked success
in the Yournal of Microscopy, will be opened in the YouNG Scientist. Yearly sub-
scribers who may wish to exchange tools, apparatus, books, or the products of their
skill, can state what they have to offer and what they want, w7thout charge. Buying
and selling must, of course, be carried on in the advertising columns.

ILLUSTRATIONS.—The YouneG Scientist is finely illustrated, and some of the en-
gravings which we have published challenge comparison with those given in the most

expensive journals.
CLUBS.

_ Where three or more subscribe together for the JOURNAL, we offer the following
liberal terms:
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AN EXTRAORDINARY OFFER.

The examination of a few copies of the YouNG ScIENTIST would give a clearer idea
of its scope and character than pages of description and promises, and therefore we
propose to send to any address THE THREE FIRST NUMBERS OF THE YEAR FOR
TWENTY CENTS.

BACK NUMBERS AND VOLUMES.

As the pages of the YounG Scientist have been electrotyped, we can supply any
back number or volume. The prices for numbers and volumes prior to 1883 are:
single numbers, six cents; volumes in loose numbers, fifty cents; volumes neatly bound
in cloth, with gilt titles on the back, $1.00 each. At these prices the volumes and
numbers will be sent free to those ordering them. Beginning with January, 1883, the
YOUNG SCIENTIST was doubled in price and nearly trebled in size.

PREMIUMS.
A list of miscellaneous premiums will be sent to any one asking forit. We offer
specially liberal terms on Book Premiums and clubbing rates with other journals.
Advertisements, 30 cents per line, agate measurement. Liberal discount on large ot
continued advertisements. No advertisement inserted for less than $1.50.

Address YOUNG SCIENTIST, New York.

Fie

NEW DESIGNS

FOR

Fret or Scroll Sawyers.

MR. F. T. HODGSON, whose admirable series of articles on the USE OF THE
SCROLL SAW are now in course of publication in the YounG SCIENTIST, has pre-
pared for usa series of

SEVENTEEN DESIGNS,

of which the following is a list:

No. 1.—This shows one side, back, and bottom, of a pen rack. It may be made
of ebony, walnut, or other dark wood.

No. 2. —Design for inlaying drawer fronts, table tops, box lids, and many other
things. Itis a sumach leaf pattern.

No. 3.—Design for a thermometer stand. It may be made of any hard wood or
alabaster. The method of putting together is obvious.

No. 4.—This shows a design foralamp screen. ‘The open part may be covered
with tinted silk, or other suitable material, with some appropriate device worked on
with the needle, or, if preferred, ornaments may be painted on the silk, etc.

No. 5.—A case for containing visiting cards. Will look best made of white holly.

No. 6.—A placque stand, it may be made of any kind of dark 01 medium wood.

No. 7.—A design for ornaments suitable for a-window cornice. It should be
made of black walnut, and overlaid on some light colored hard wood.

No. 8—A design for a jewei casket. This will be very pretty made of white holly
and lined with blue veivet It also looks well made of ebony lined with crimson.

No. 9.—Frame. Will look well made of any dark wood.

No. 10.—Frame. intended to be made in pairs. Looks well made of white holly,
with leaves and flowers painted on wide stile.

No. 11.—Horseshoe. Can be made of any kind of wood and used for a pen rack.
When decorated with gold and colors, looks very handsome.

No. 12.—Design for a hinge strap. If made of black walnut, and planted ona
white or oaken door, will look well.

No. 13.—Design for a napkin ring. May be made of any kind of hard wood.

No. 14.—Hinge strap for doors with narrow stiles.

No. 15.—Centre ornament for panel.

No. 16.—Corner ornament for panel.

No. 17.—Key-hole escutcheon.

These designs we have had photo-lthographed and printed on good paper, so that
the outlines are sharp, and the opposite sides of each design symmetrical. Common
designs are printed from coarse wooden_blocks, and are rough and unequal, so that
it is often impossible to make good work from them.

The series embraces over forty different pieces, and designs of equal quality cannot
be had for less than five, ten or fifteen cents each. We offer them for twenty-five
cents for the set, which is an average price of only one cent and a half each,

Mailed to any address on receipt of price,

SHEET NO. I.

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SHEET NO. 2.

REDUCED FIGURES OF
NEW DESIGNS FOR FRET OR SCROLL SAWYERS.
SIZE OF SHEETS 28 BY 22 INCHES.
(For description see preeeding page.)