nee : Stieece na
ese eae ean ion

Sartor

CUO Se

pa

s teeoroo TOEO O

WAM QA

— IOHM/TEIN

Se
a 4 ae

or

: ’ : \ b — SG apy 5 ¢ ; An RA

Meee WER

ts arash ue on

86° 80°

a DEN “ay ee

| Sor ke
J South tr,
aa t

100 - 1000
s

fra d
1000.-

NORTH
ATLANTIC OCEAN
BOTTOM CHART.

The Contour lines show the
approximate increase of depth
by every half mile trom 2000 fins:

1000 Fathams . 1 Nautic Mile
Submarine Telegraph Cables. thus

———_—

NN semi
a

A

FOR THE

NORTH ATLANTIC
OCEAN,

COMPRISING

INSTRUCTIONS, GENERAL AND PARTICULAR,

FOR

ITS NAVIGATION.

BY ALEXANDER GEORGE FINDDAY, FR.G.&.,

Honorary Member of the Societa Geograjicu Italiana.

SIXTEENTH EDITION.
REVISED AND EDITHD BY W. R. KETTLE, F.R.G.S.

5 7 ee A

LONDON :

PUBLISHED BY IMRAY, LAURIE, NORIE & WILSON, Lrop.,
156, MINORIES, E.

“O'sr the glad waters of the dark blue Sza,
Our thoughts as boundless, and our souls as free,
Far as the breeze can bear, the billows foam.
Survey our Empire, and behold our Home.”
—TLord Byroim

ENTERED AT STATIONERS’ HALL.

PREFACE
TO THE THIRTEENTH EDITION.

SO

More than sixty years have elapsed since the First Edition of this work
nade its appearance—a period which has witnessed a total change in the
aspect and requirements of Hydrography, as in most other departments of
knowledge.

Professing to deal with the subject in its present condition, this Edition
bears no resemblance to the book in its original form, except in the title it
bears ; every topic and every page have been changed by the accession ot
facts, due to the research which modern refinement brings to bear upon
every branch of scientific enquiry.

There has been no greater advance made during any portion of the long
time which has elapsed, since its first appearance, than has taken place
during the last twenty years ; and, to represent that advance, this Edition
has been entirely remodelled, and may be considered rather as a new work
upon the former arrangement, than as a revised production.

The examination of the bottom of the Ocean, almost a new subject,
and yet in its infancy, has already dispelled many of those dangers which
were formerly believed to exist. The various features which have been
elucidated in the Wind and Current systems, and their bearings upon the
best Routes for traversing the Ocean ; the more exact acquaintance with
the Magnetical condition of the Earth, and the most important connection
this has with the increasing number of iron ships; with many other
subjects, will be duly discussed in the ensuing pages.

To enumerate here the authorities to which we are indebted would be
to offer a long list: we have duly acknowledged them throughout the
work ; and we trust that this 7hirteenth Edition may do as good service
to the mariner in its quiet utility, as those which have preceded it.

A. G. Finppay.
Lonpon, February, 1873.

“HE foregoing Preface may be said to apply equally to this Fifteenth
Edition, in its reference to the rapid increase in our knowledge of the
Ocean and its shores. -In 1879 the Fourteenth Edition was issued, care-
fully revised, with numerous additions bringing it abreast of that date,

N. A. O. 1*

iv PREFACE.

and this has now in its turn been thoroughly revised. The Tables of
Positions have been reconstructed ; the Chapters and Diagrams on the
Winds, Currents, and Passages, embrace information from the latest and
most reliable sources of knowledge on these subjects, especially the
Sections on the Winds and Weather of the Northern Atlantic, on the
Gulf Stream, and on the new Uniform Routes for Steamers, to minimise
the risks of collision; the subject of Ice, as a danger to navigation, is also
fully discussed, and includes a Code of Ice Signals for the vicinity of the
Newfoundland Banks; while the descriptions of the Coasts and Islands,
and of the Scattered Rocks and Shoals, have been completely re-written.
The theory of Storms and Hurricanes has received due attention, azd the
Section on Hurricanes and the Law of Storms, illustrated by new
diagrams, has been entirely remodelled; as appertaining to the same
subject, an article has also been added on the use of Oil in Calming
Rough Seas, illustrated by diagrams. The latest information concerning
the Depth, Temperature, &c., of the Ocean, has been colleeted and
embodied in the Section on tiose subjects.

We could exten our remarks, but prefer that tnose who may use this
Work should draw their own conclusions as to its value. We have now
only to thank the numerous authorities, to whom we are indebted for the
increase of our knowledge, which has added so considerably to the bulk of
the volume, and to solicit fresh information from those who may be in a
position to amend or add to it.

W. B. K.
Lonpon, Octover, 1894.

It having become necessary to reproduce this Work in the midst of a dis-
astrous War, it was found impossible to prepare an entirely new edition.
The Uniform Routes for Steamers have been revised, consequent upon the
appalling loss of the steamer Titanic ; a new chart of the Magnetic Varia-
tion and Dip inserted ; and the descriptions of the Coasts and Islands have
been omitted, as being out of date.

W. RE
Lonpon, January, 1918.

INTRODUCTION AND GENERAL REMARKS, WITH

CONTENTS.

SECTION I

TABLES

OF DETERMINED POSITIONS AND THE AUTHORITIES,
ETC., INCLUDING THE VARIATION OF THE COMPASS.

INTRODUCTION AND GENERAL REMARES...

Limits of the Atlantic Ocean, 1; Remarks on the Charts, 2—3;

Length of Coast Line, 5—6.

> TaBpuEs OF DETERMINED Positions, Eto.

sds
2.
3.

. Coasts of France—Positions of Places, 27—30; Notes

England and Wales—Positions of Places, 8—11; Notes ............. ve
Coasts and Islands of Scotland—Positions of Places, 12—14; Notes
Coasts of Ireland—Positions of Places, 16—18; Notes
Norway and Sweden—Positions of Places, 19—22; Notes

Seeccesecece

. Denmark, Germany, Holland, Belgium—Positions of Places, 23—26;

INOLEN bcs ceccucsesssssesceteececercctabcecdecececcecccoe topo satetescc ns ate kaa alent

Seeeseevescesesoce

. Coasts of Spain and Portugal—Positions of Places, 31—34; Notes...
. The West Coast of Africa—Positions of Places, 36—41; Notes
. The Azores or Western Islands—Positions of Places, 44; Notes

. Madeira and the Canary Islands—Positions of Places, 45—46; Notes
. The Cape Verde Islands—Positions of Places, 47—48; Notes
. The Feroe Islands, Iceland, Greenland, Labrador, and the Coast of

Newfoundland—Positions of Places, 49—55; Notes

Poe eerecedessesece

. Gulf and River of St. Lawrence, with Cape Breton Island, &¢.—

Positions of Places, 57—62; Notes

SOE STO TOES EHEHRO SHOE EE EEE EEE OES EE EEEEOED

. Nova Scotia, &c., Southern Coasts—Positions of Places, 63—65; Notes
. Atlantic Coasts of the United States—Positions of Places, 66—72;

Notes

SOPOT OHH SSTSETOEOHSEEE TOSS EEOEEEEEESEEESH OSE EEE SESS SESE ESS HOSES ESET ESE OEO EES ESS

Peeeroecceseecsoce

. The Bahama, and Passage Islands—Positions of Places, 77—80; Notes
. Cuba, Jamaica, &c.—Positions of Places, 81—83; Notes

. Haiti or Santo Domingo, Porto Rico, and the Virgin Islands—

Positions of Places, 84—87; Notes

POO SRT SHOT HEHE OTO OHH O OHO EseaEseseesessss®

. The Caribbee and Leeward Islands—Positions of Places, 88—90;

Notes

OPPOSES EEO SHEE EEE HH SEES ESOT EE ERO SESESEOESESEE SSE HT EOE SES ESE SES EE SESE EE ESSE SSD

. The Coasts of Guiana, &c., to the Mexican Sea, inclusive—Positiong

of Places, 92—96; Notes

OOOO COTO SEH H EHH HEH TEH SHES TES TOSSES SESS SOOT EE DEES Eee

vi CONTENTS.

SECTION IL

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS, TIDES, AND
CURRENTS, AND ON THE DIFFERENT PASSAGES OVEB.
THE NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN.

PAGE
I.—The WINDS eoeceeveereeereeeeeeeeeeeeeeees sree ee eeeeeeeteene 97

1. GeneRAL Remarks, 97; Theories of Halley, Hadley, and others, on
the Wind System, 98—101; Aqueous Vapour, 101; The Atmosphere,
and Proportions of Land and Water, 102; Force of the Wind, with
Tables of Force and Velocity, 103—106; Wind and Weather Nota-
tions, 103, 104; Land and Sea Breezes, &c., 106—107; Wind System
of the Northern Hemisphere, 107.

2. Toe Motions AND PRESSURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE, 108; Use of the
Barometer, 108; Barometer Normals, &c., 108—111; Changes in
Atmospheric Pressure, 111; Buys-Ballot’s Law, 112—113; Remarks
by Captain Henry Toynbee, 1183—116; Barometric Waves, 116;
Mr. W. R. Birt’s Researches, 116—117; Barometric Gradients, 117—
124; Methods of Foretelling Storms, 118—121; Remarks by Mr. Birt
on the Weather Charts of the Meteorological Office, 122—124.

8. NortH ATLANTIC WINDS AND WEATHER, 124; Wind Regions of the
North Atlantic Ocean, 124; Wind and Weather Charts, &c., 125;
Monthly Forecasts, from the United States Pilot Charts, 126—128.

4. Tae N.E. Trape Winn, 128: Region, 128; Direction and Force of
the Trade Winds, 129; Mean Rates of Vessels, 129—131; Northern
Limit, 181; Equatorial Limit, 131—132; Table showing Equinoctial
Limits of the Trade Winds, 182; Direction and Duration of the
N.E. Trade Wind, 1382—135; Maury’s Summary, 135—136; Captain
Toynbee’s Remarks on the Winds during each Month, in the region
between lat. 20° N. and 10° S., from long. 10° W. to 40° W., 1836—140.

Winds of the Atlantic Islands, 141; West Indies in general, 141; at
Jamaica, 142; Bahama Islands, 144; the Bayamos, near Cuba, 144;
Guyana, Cumana, &c., 145; Gulf of Mexico, 146; the Norths, 146—
150; Gulf of Mexico, North Coast, 150—152.

5. EquaroriaL CauMs AND WInps, 152; Limits Defined, 152—153;
Table of Extent, 154; Captain Toynbee’s Remarks, 155; Maury’s
Cloud-Ring and the Rains, 156.

6. THe Arrican Monsoons, 157; Extent of the Monsoons, 157—158;
Winds and Seasons on the African Coast, by Captain Midgley, 158—
160; Coast from Cape Blanco to Cape Palmas, 160; Windward
Coast, &c., 160—161; Remarks by Comm. Bourke, Baron Roussin,
and Lieut. Bold, 161—163; The Harmattan, 164—168.

7. Winps anp CauMs on THE Tropic, 168; at Bermuda, 169,

CONTENTS.

8. THE ANTI-TRADES, OR PassaGE Winps, 170; Definitions, 170—171;
The Winds between 55° and 40° N., 172—177; Captain H. Toynbee’s
Remarks on Hight Logs, kept by Captain J. A. Martyn, in Passages
over the North Atlantic, 177—178; Notes by Captain R. Inglis,
178—180; Effect of Sea Temperature on the Passage Winds, 180.

Storms in the North Atlantic Ocean, between lat. 40° and 55° N., 181;
General Tendency from West to East, 181; Remarks by Captain
Toynbee and Professor Buys-Ballot, 182—183; Description of Cy-
clonic Wind Systems, 183—184; Anti-Cyclones, 185; Various
Remarks on Cyclonic Gales of the North Temperate Zone, 185—187 ;
On Ordinary Gales, 187; Information from New York, Danish, and
London Meteorological Offices, 189—196; Records of Storms ex-
perienced by Steamers of the North German Lloyd, 196—198.

Winds of the British Isles, 198; Weather, in Cyclonic and Anti-Cyclonie
Systems, 200—203 ; Winds at Greenwich, 203; Winds at Liverpool,
203—206; English Channel, 206; Diagrams explained, 207; Bay of
Biscay, 208—211; North and West Coasts of Spain and Portugal,
211—213 ; America, Gulf and River St. Lawrence, 2183—215; Nova
Scotia, &c., 215—216; South Carolina, &c., 216.

9. Hurricangs, 217; Defined, 217—223 ; Season, 223 ; Regions, 223—
226; Indications, &c., 226—228; The Storm Centre, and how to
avoid it, 228—231; Investigations by Padre Viiies, of Havana, 231—
232; Rules, &c., for Avoiding their Violence, 282—248; Storm Card,
by Lieut. Evans, 234—241; Remarks by Captain Leighton, 241—243;
Short Rules for Action, 243—245; Practical Hints by Padre Vijes,
245—248; The Storm Wave, 240; Oil on Rough Seas, 248; Examples
of Famous Hurricanes, 248—258; On Making Use of Hurricanes,
258—259; Squalls and Tornados, 259—264.

10. WaTERspouTs, 264; Definition, 264; Principles of their Formation,
264; Description by Malté-Brun, 265; by Mr. M. Downie, 265—267 ;
by Mr. G. Maxwell, 267; by the Hon. Capt. Napier, 268; Examples
of Casialties caused by them, 270.

Pe CEES yea: sin's 4 ai6\nloie:o'ein a. o.oss,nis's iene ejeliphevajel tes ofa shclaiet dial

Explanation of Tidal Phenomena :—The Action of the Moon, 271; Of
the Sun, 272; The Tidal Wave, and its Velocity, 273; The Establish-
ment, and the Corrected Establishment of the Port, 274—275; The
Semi-menstrual Inequality, 275; The Age of the Tide and Difference
of Two Diurnal Tides, 275; Height of Mean Water, 275; Action of
Atmospheric Pressure, 276; Various Phenomena, 276—277.

Tipe Tasie:—River Thames, and South and West Coasts of England,
278 ; Scotland, &., 278—279; England, East Coast, 279; Ireland,
279—280; Norway, France, Spain, and Portugal, 280—281; Atlantic
Islands and the West Coast of Africa, 281—282 ; Newfoundland and
the St. Lawrence, 282; New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, &c., 282—
283; United States, 2883284; Gulf of Mexico and West Indies,
284; Remarks on the Tide Table, 284—293.

vii

PAGE

271

CONTENTS.

TTT saline CURRENTS: 4), 25 sje: caois sje annie Aol « 9:9. 8 sraierahe Some e

General Remarks, 294 ; Drift of Bottles, &e., 295—297 ; Circulation
of the Ocean, &c., 297—298; Depths of Current, 298—299;
Definitions, 299; Current Systems, 299—301.

1. RENNELL’s CURRENT, or the Occasional Current Athwart the

Entrance of the English Channel..........c0ccsccscsssccscesescoscseesses =
2. The NortH AFRIcAN CURRENT, an Easterly and §.E. Drift to the
Coasts of Europe and Africas .....scecacss>sscvessonsndessinase+sesetsscesaae

8. The Guinea CuRRENT, being an Easterly Stream Across the Atlantic,
and along the Coast of Africa, into the Bights of Benin and Biafra

4.) The iSARGASSOISBA: ‘sce cceddelsas.tecdectsceecercees costes cod cedeesetenteeee teres
5. The’ NORTH HQUATORIAL CURRENT .....cccccccscccccscvsccssocsccccccoccccccses
6. The Sourm HQUATORIAL CURRENT <-.cccossseccesscscaccescccsteccoccectseteaee
7. CURRENTS of the CARIBBEAN SEA and the GuuF of MEXICO ............
8. The Gur SPRRAM cbs cacccscescessceeve ves cnersbbearenek venues suaseerse eee ae
9. NortH-EastEeRty SET to the Coasts of Western Europe, &c. .........
10. ‘The ARctic)or LABRADOR CURRENTS .. ccvsesseses cos saceccsscccoessosseeseacene

IV.—MAGNETIC VARIATION AND DIP, with a CHarz ......
V.—PASSAGES OVER THE NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN....
1. GENERAL REMARKS and GREAT CIRCLE SAILING ....sccscececeeceeeecececesons
2. To and from the’ Hinglish Channel... ..22--ssancsseoncessasapcetnoesso<usi onto
8. To and from the St. George’s Channel..........0.--.ssssscseesccsssececonseces
4. Passages between England and Gibraltar ...........scsecscsecececeeeeeeenees
B PAGKORS the FSQUBlOL jjcccesccrcscssscceccotsamuweconssscesnooshgn eats <soseee see

Leaving the Channel, 477; Passage to Madeira, 478; Approaching
and Crossing the Equator, 481; East or West of the Cape Verde
Islands, 493 ; The Return toward England, 501.

6. Routes to and from the Senegal and Gambia.............ssesesereeeeseweeeee
7. Remarks and Directions for the Navigation to and on the Coast of
Western Atrica.....ccs..ccresenpnnsanncos-nasesecnsoessoseesccnsseensap snshsaneeeee

8. Passages to and from the West Indies, with Instructions for Navigating
CHONG | agp dbe spopss cops enpacsbduanbe sccacscsessnneesnscncessnesnes shuweseunnanie -
Directions for Sailing to and from the West Indies and North America,
from the Derrotero de las Antillas......ccccssescseccccossoesces srenderssoucsh

Particular Instructions for the Navigation of the Windward Islands, &c.
General Remarks on the Navigation of the Caribbean Sea, from Lee-

ward to Windward, by Lieutenant Greevelink ............sesseeeeeeeneee
Steam Navigation between Tobago and Demerara .........ssssseeeererees
Navigation to Jamaica via St. Juan, Porto Rico, Cape Haytien, and
Bi. Jago, de. Cuba .......cscpecsdenatteasnemanscsscssbacsescesrivsonsifespesnsereniae
Between Grenada and Jamaica .......ccccccccscssecccecscccscsessesscnsescsosces ‘

Jamaica to the Bar of Maracaybo, by Captain Edw. Dunsterville ...
The Channels of Providence .........csccscsececsccscsesscncesescevescerscessenees

PAGE
294

CONTENTS. 1x

PAGE

9. Passages to and from the Northe:n Ports of America....... ane 539
The Great Circle Track, 539; Remarks by Lieut. GHitiea: eave, 540:
To the Gulf of St. Lawrence, &c., 543.

10. Between Europe and New York, KC. .seccssesceensseceeree sosenceesasseesenecees esean DAO
Tables of Crossings from Maury, 546—549.
11. Steam Tracks to and from America.. Saisae Acceuciecncaeranensenucccenesitice ss ereaeces 549.
Uniform Tracks for Steamers, “558 : Bubwean Gibraltar and New
York, 561.

12. From the United States to the Hquator....csssessccsessccsssescevccsssscsserssescesees O62

SECTION III.

SUPPLEMENTARY REMARKS UPON THE WINDS, CURRENTS,
ETC., OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS OF
THE NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN.

s
UNCUT ANID eEUDAUN OR: OU Coeaeiendsoavasienacsulecslaatascleccvestecsdssessesistcicastancerscbierseceursiacees scores, 906
The English Channel, 566; St. George’s Geenvan 566; Coast of ee 566 ;
Bay of Biscay, 566.

MHeWWUST COAST! OF AWRIGA..ccccccocssceccsesssccocasesssescscaee secceoaens enaseedachseesssescesas 566
Coast of Morocco, 566—568 ; Currents along Shore, between Cape Spartel and
Cape Bojador, 567; Winds, &c., 567; Cape Juby, 567; Red Dust, 568;
Currents, Bank of Arguin, 568.

Senegal River, 568; Dakar, 568; Gambia River, 568; Casamanze River, 569;
Jeba River, 569; Rio Nunez, 569; Isles de Los, 570; Sierra Leone, 570; St.
Anne Shoals, 570; Liberia, 570.

SPH OPAZORES OFSVV ESTER NMISTAND Ss star csieetcecocsdccaneiiecuccesesesssedsewiecerseceselceesnessecs 570
Climate, Winds, &c., 570—573; Harbour of Ponta Delgada, 573: Reported
Dangers, 574—677.

D4 CONTENTS.

The Isnanps oF MADEIRA and Porto SANTO....... sie iencseuiedavetessecsaceissepensepemaaee 578
Porto Santo, Falcon Rock, 578; Madeira, Climate, Winds, &c., 578—580;
Steen Ground, 580.

The CANARY IGLANDS.......00-cc0ceccescocencsocoscooceesceteveccccsscecsescorecceases seseesursionten - 581
Climate, Winds, Calms, &c., 581—582; St. Brandon Island, 582; Directions
for Sailing among the Islands, by Captain Glas, 582-583.

The Carr VERDE ISLANDS.........-- edetasosaas o0ceeasoccesescnsncssausvaan aimee
Climate, Winds, &c., 583 : iGunranbe: 584 - Boubtta Bock: 584.

Miho BREMUDA ISLANDS .:..00ssssc020een asc 000 -sonssonesabivesesscecudnesduastsaxss-seemaeieneeme eee 580
Climate, Winds, &c., 585; Bermuda Squalls, 585; Currents, 586 ; Chaliaener
and Argus Banks, 586; Remarks and Directions, 587—588.

NEWFOUNDLAND BANES 30d NANTUCKET SHOALS. cocceccccceccssscccoccesscscessessecsevesess O90

CONTENTS. xi

SRCTION, IV.
PAGE

1. AN Account oF THE ScaTreRED Rocks, SHOALS, AND VIGIAS, IN THE
NortH ATLANTIC OCEAN.

PECL IMEOMMALKS Uhicaceccscuscsasecdes anes oocetesvsevecsdaeessvocash wane dsashaeiscecn eden cssiteeee 593
Shoals, &c., to the Northward of Latitude 40° N. ow. . oo. cece cece eee cne coe soeeee 597
Shoals, &c., between the Equator and Latitude 40° N. ...........e see see sees eeeee 603
Tables of Doubtful Rocks in the North Atlantic Ocean................:0:sseeeeeeeees 608

Table A, Rocks whose Existence is Very Doubtful, 608 ;
Table B, Rocks, &c., Reported, but do Not Exist, 609—611.

2. VOLCANIC REGIONS ........... Ke ceusalrswesvctan ecadieucaseeatee dst adete subuwesnat sete ase eaten 611
BREE SCOLOURE DI NVATER .tu ches sesccnscecscodeceaeonsnsdeten Wadeautsuns cottaealoleytasemuaeesied'scnses 615
4. Fanus oF Dust IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN .....0:cecseseecscessnrcecsecseceeseecss 621
5. DeprH, TEMPERATURE, &c., of the North Atlantic Ocean .............:eseecseeeeeeeres 626

Deep-Sea Sounding, 626; Deep-Sea Exploring Expeditions, 627—631;
Apparatus, 631—633 ; Depth, 633 ; Deep-Sea Deposits, 634.

Temperature, 635; Thermometers, 635—639; The Temperature of the
Surface Water, 640—641 ; Of the Deep Sea, 641—642.

Salinity and Specific Gravity of the Ocean, 642—-646; Circulation of Ocean
Water, 646—648; Animal Life, &c., 648—652 ; Waves, 652—653.

On THE USE OF OIL FOR CALMING ROUGH SEAS ......ccsscccseecccecccceccceccccecers 653
CTA SSERICATION OF) THE) OHOUDS) ccs suasscccoccedecncessescescsssccsesacacceceressacnesceseesess 658
WON MAGNETISM AND THE COMPASS! .0..ccceccescesctedecssciiecsccesdccecsceesecenasecsesbeciite 663

History and Principles, 663; Terrestrial Magnetism, 664; Variation,
666; Dip and Intensity, 667; Local Deviation, 668; Dr. Scoresby
on the Changes which take place in the Magnetism of Iron Ships,
669—671; Extracts from the Reports of Captain F. J. Evans on the
Compass, 671—675; On the Nature of the Magnetism in Iron Ships,
671; On the Best Direction for Building an Iron Ship, 672; On the
Position and Arrangement of the Compass, 672; On Various Sources of
Error, 673 ; Effect of Direction while Building, 675; The Heeling Error,
675 ; Sub-Permanent and Permanent Magnetism, 676; Local Derangements
of the Compass, 676 ; The Standard Compass, 676.

8. REMARKS ON THE BAROMETER, by Admiral FitzRoy and gihiere As Mises 677

eae NES BN CAE MUN D) Ee Ree srarain cts We cow seca hictae acals sauwailowish even niece Goea wee acl De avis a unitelsuacnp’socisies eisiesiewns 683

1. Chart showing the Depth of the North Atlantic Ocean, with Routes
of Submarine Telegraph Cables .....0.002.2.csc.c00onacn-0eeeeneueee Frontispiece.
2. Diagrams of Normal Height of the Barometer, in Spring, Summer,
Autumn, and Winter ....... od éveeb acs Heseemepe tie xcs anos at sete seen se ©«©=.: 1.09
3. Barometrical and Wind Chart of the British Isles, illustrating simul-
taneous ObservatiOns <.....ccccccscseccocccevcesancecsnccccsesscce cece eneeeeeeee 120
4. Chart showing the Winds and Calms of the North Atlantic Ocean...... 125
5. Diagram illustrating the Direction of the N.E. Trade Wind .............2. 133
6. “ “A ” » Anti-Trades or Passage Winds 171
7. Diagrams of Four Years Wind Observations at Liverpool.................. , 203
8. Chart of the Courses of Various Hurricanes ...............0.-ccccccssccccssseue 217
9. Storm Card, and Diagrams showing Normal Hurricane Track............ 225
10. Chart showing the Currents of the North Atlantic Ocean.................. 295
11. Chart showing the Tracks of notable Derelicts, Bottles, &c........... nate 297
12. Ice Signals for the Vicinity of the Newfoundland Banks .................. 448
13. Chart showing the Magnetic Variation and Dip, in 1917 .................. 455
14. Great Circle Track Chart of the North Atlantic Oceam ...........:sse0eeeee 459
15. Charts illustrating the Best Routes over the North Atlantic Ocean,
and Across the Equator .....ccccccccccsceresccscscescscscossescecnscncosenccncncens 475
16. The Meteorology of Square No. 3 (0°—10° N., 20°—30° W.), with Best

(heir (Ay

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

To Facer Pacer

Routes Across the Equator ..cccccccoccccccssecccscssescsscccvenes coccseceeseuke | MON

THE

NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN.

INTRODUCTION.

THe Norta ATLANTIC OcraN is the smallest of all the great divisions of
the Ocean, but it has ever been of far greater importance to man than all
others collectively. It owes this maritime superiority to the great propor-
tionate length of its varied coast-line, which perhaps nearly equals that of
all other navigable seas, and to the vast area drained by the rivers falling
into it, which give ready access to, and intercommunication between, seats
of dense and inland population. It is from these causes that the inhabit-
ants of its maritime countries have, in all ages, applied themselves to
navigation ; and it is more than probable that the facilities thus afforded
by it for commerce and travel have caused the nations, who inhabit tha
vicinities of those vast inland seas and bays which distinguish the borders
of the Atlantic, to make greater progress in civilization than those of any
other part of the globe.

The area of the North Atlantic does not comprise more than about one-
eleventh part of the entire ocean. From its having been the great high-
way for so many ages, its history, features, and phenomena are better
known than those of any other, and we can now give a far more perfect
view of it—in every aspect—than of the rest of the world of waters.

A cominittee appointed by the Royal Geographical Society defined :—

‘The limits of the Arctic and Antarctic Oceans, respectively, to be the
Arctic and Antarctic Circles; the limits of the Atlantic on the North and
South, to be the Arctic and Antarctic Circles; its Western limit to be the
coast of America, as far South as Cape Horn, and thence prolonged on the
meridian of that Cape, until it meets the Antarctic Circle; its Eastern
limit to be the shores of Europe and Africa, as far South as the Cape of
Good Hope, and thence prolonged on the meridian of Cape Agulhas, till
that meridian cuts the Antarctic Circle.”

Our present work deals exclusively with the Northern portion of the
area thus defined, or that part which is separated from the Southern by
the Equator.

ve A. 0. P

2 INTRODUCTION.

The length of the coast-lines which bound the North Atlantic and its
chief bays: (except the Mediterranean), measured around their principal
sinuosities, is not less than 62,000 miles; if more minutely estimated, it
would amount to much more. A Table is given presently, showing the
figures which make up this sum. Of these coasts, about 7,000 miles, or
one-ninth, remain unsurveyed; but they are the Arctic regions, unfre-
quented by commerce. Of the remainder, two-fifths have been surveyed
by the English Government, and three-fifths by foreign powers. The
whole of the coasts of the Atlantic Ocean are now represented on our
charts with the most minute accuracy in nearly all places of interest to
the sailor.

The first Chart of the Atlantic Ocean, upon a large scale, was published
in Amsterdam by the renowned but now extinct house of Van Keulen, in
the middle of the eighteenth century. It was issued under the title of
the Spanish or West Indian Sea, and contained some useful details, amidst
a thousand errors. The second, entitled a Chart of the Atlantic Ocean,
was engraved at London, on the circular projection, invented by Mr. Mur-
doch, but was found to be extremely inaccurate, and the constructor
added to the Cape Verdes, two islands, under the names of St. Philip
and St. John, neither of which existed; these names being sometimes
given by the Portuguese to the Islands Fogo and Brava.

The next, which was the first of the kind published in this country, was
constructed by M. de la Rochette, a painstaking and talented hydro-
grapher, in 1777; and was published by the house whence the present
work issues, in that year. It was drawn upon the basis of the observa-
tions of M. Fleurieu, and for many years was in large demand; of which
some degree of proof was given by its having been during that period
repeatedly copied, and illegally published. In the course of time, many
improvements were obtained, and it was superseded, in 1812, by another
of the same scale and size, constructed by Mr. John Purdy, a name well
known to mariners for many years. This chart, in its various editions,
did good service to seamen for a long period.

These charts in their turn, requiring many improvements, from the
great acquisition of exact knowledge during recent years, it was deemed
necessary to supersede them by the charts which have been published
by the proprietor of this work, as compiled from the now nearly perfect
geographical data. They moreover exhibit, at one view, a summary, in a
graphic form, of all that range of phenomena with which hydrography has
of late been enriched.

But there is one drawback to the great increase of observation. Each
department of hydrography is overloaded for practical every-day use, and
the seaman would waste much time in endeavouring to elicit some system
from the multifarious authorities he has now before him. A system of
mean results has therefore been adopted, as will be hereafter explained,
under the various sections which follow.

Hydrography, as at present understood, commenced with Captain Cook,
in his celebrated first voyage to the South Seas, in 1768. Previous to this,
our coasts were represented and corrected by the rude draughts and im-
perfect reckonings of painstaking mariners, in the pursuit of their profes-

INTRODUCTION. 3

sion; but the extended practice of lunars, and the use of chronometers,
soon made great improvements in geographic representation. Captain
Cook, prior to his appointment to the great Exploring Expedition, was
employed in surveying portions of the Gulf of St. Lawrence; and the first
work which he published was a series of charts of the South and West
Coasts of Newfoundland. His charts, published by the predecessor of the
proprietor of this work, have been till recently the only faithful represen-
tations extant.

Our present object is not to give a history of the progress of charts, or
we might here present a long catalogue of those worthy observers, who, by
patient investigation, and multiplied observation, made the geography of
the ocean nearly as good, for the mariner’s use, as the far more elaborate
public surveys which have superseded them. These last have the exclu-
sive merit of being connected, and each portion placed in exact relation to
every other portion—a feature owing to the magnificent systems of trian-
gulation, which are now extended over the most important portions of the
civilized world.

It is the defect of detached observations that they do not exactly accord
with those by different individuals. It was the discrepancies arising from
this source, which necessitated the discussions formerly given on Atlantic
geography. But still there is much that was useful in the older works,
which is too often forgotten in the multiplicity of detail collected by modern
surveyors, which overload as it were the subjects they embrace with too
great a mass of knowledge for general use. Toward the end of the eighteenth
century, there were several surveyors who deserve especial mention here, as
their works, though carried out with very limited means and great personal
labour, will bear every comparison with those of their more favoured suc-
cessors. Among these was Murdoch Mackenzie, who surveyed a large
portion of the Western shores of Scotland, and all the coasts of the North
of Ireland. Greeme Spence, an admirable surveyor, surveyed the Southern
coasts of England, between 1772 and 1812.

The coasts of Spain and Portugal were laid down in accordance with
the valuable surveys of Tofifo, Franzini, &c.; in the delineation of the
African Coasts, with the islands off the same, the positions afforded by
‘Messrs. Fleurieu, Verdun de la Crenne, Borda, Pingré, and Roussin of
France, were the authorities for our charts.

The American Coasts were originally exhibited according to the obser-
vations and surveys of our illustrious countryman, Captain Cook, as before
mentioned; those of Lieutenant Michael Lane, of Mr. Des Barres, of
Captain Holland, of Messrs. Wright, Mason, Dixon, and De Mayne, recti-
fied with the observations of Dr. Rittenhouse, Mr. Ellicott, Mr. Hassler,
and other astronomers, &c., of the United States.

For the correct delineation of the West India Islands, much of our earlier
information was derived from the labours of Messrs. Puysegur, Verdun,
Borda, Pingré, and other foreign officers, whose names will be for ever
entitled to respect. They were the pioneers who were followed by the
skilful observers acting under the orders of the Hydrographic Directors of
Madrid; particularly the Captains Joaquin Fr. Fidalgo, Cosme de Churruca,
and Jose del Rio; to whom, and to the Baron von Humboldt, Messrs,

4 INTRODUCTION.

Oltmanns, &c., we were indebted for the proximate situations of many
points of Spanish America. These have again been adjusted by English
and United States Officers.

The more noted of the numerous surveyors who have seconded these
scientific leaders in the completion of our hydrographic representations,
will be alluded to in connection with their respective labours hereafter.

While we can refer with confidence to the charts of the various coast-
lines, as being so perfect, that no possible alteration will be made in the
fixed features of the land, which could be rendered applicable upon a
general chart, there is one branch not so satisfactory, though much has
been done to remedy this. This is the list of detached dangers, as rocks
or shoals, which have been from time to time reported, and which, unless
disproved, are a constant and daily source of great anxiety to those who
have to pass their vicinity. To deal with the conflicting and ambiguous
statements recorded, is most perplexing. Still it is most essential that no
danger should remain unmarked, although its existence or situation may
be involved in great doubt. It is of the utmost importance, therefore, to
the facility and safety of navigation, that these dangers should be correctly
placed and characterized, and in the case of a fresh discovery, some test,
as by the sounding lead, ought to be applied, to determine its absolute
existence. This is now most imperative; without such guarantee, any such
announcement is next to worthless, as being authentic, and most mis-
chievous, as leading to distrust and anxiety. All that we know of this
subject is recorded in a later part of this work, and in the chart, but it
may be stated that of late the extended practice of deep-sea soundings, has
actually disproved the existence of many apparently well-authenticated
dangers, and thrown very great doubt upon others.

Notwithstanding the great improvements made in recent times in the
appliances placed at the disposal of the marine surveyor for the prosecution
of his researches, perfection has not yet been obtained in the results. It
is only necessary to refer here to such recent events as the stranding of
H.M.S. Sultan in Comino Channel, Malta, on March 6th 1889, and of
H.M.S. Victoria, at Dragomesti, on the coast of Greece, on January 29th,
1892, as examples of what defects in the work of the surveyors may lead
to. In broad daylight and clear weather these fine vessels were both run
aground on uncharted dangers, blind confidence having apparently been
placed in the charts used in their navigation. From these, and similar
cases mentioned hereafter, the moral may be deduced that no chart can
be considered as absolutely perfect, and the mariner should exercise
some amount of common sense in their use, especially when navigating
in localities with which he is not familiar.

It has been before stated that the length of the coast-line of the North
Atlantic Ocean, between the Arctic Circle and the Equator (excluding the
Mediterranean), is about 62,000 miles, more or less. This estimate is
higher than has been usually attributed, but it is the result of a measure-
ment around the present surveyed coasts, omitting the minor sinuosities
and smaller islets. If these were taken into the account the sum would
be much greater, as may be supposed, upon an examination, for example,
of the vast range of islets which front the coasts of Norway and Finland,

INTRODUCTION. 5

but it is the length of line over which the patient marine surveyor has had
to toil in the execution of his arduous but most important duties. These
figures, however, but faintly express, as indeed anything we could say
here would fall short of telling, how much has been done to bring the
hydrography of this ocean to its present condition. It is enough here to
draw the seaman’s attention to a few of the results of those costly and
laborious surveys by which he benefits.

Of the 62,834 miles of sea-coast, the English Government have surveyed
about 23,600 miles, and foreign governments about 31,600 miles, the re-
mainder being unsurveyed.

Of the coasts of Hurope, the English Admiralty and Ordnance have only
surveyed about 4,000 miles out of 19,000 miles.

The following Table of the details of the length of the coast, &c., of each
country, is therefore given rather as a matter of curiosity than material
utility, and will form a fitting introduction to the Geographic Tables
which follow.

Extent | Toran
DATE OF Seok
COUNTRY. SSE of Coast) Gxo.
Ge.miles| MILES.
ee
Exgland; South Coast and | English Ordnance
Channel Islands ............ | and Admiralty. 1792—1852 488
PBTASGN OOSUveccecccscsoncessuecacse 5 1830—1859 470
RViGatICOONSbsesccdsccscacsccsesessse " 1772—1860 748
Scotland; East and North
Coasts, and Islands......... hy 1815—1850 810
West Coast and Islands...... “p 1750—-1863 400
Treland ..... Bgaleisdcdcensavedasecesa + 1828—1858 1320
Total British Isles ...ccccccesvees | Misco. | | Satacceesees aoe 4238
Norway; West & South Coasts | Dan.& Norw. Gts.) es. s.s eee 2900
Denmark; East Coastand Ids. | Danish Govt. =| aasesenee 1585
IESTRRSHD)® aadacequasoncpconocebcuncodeoo iqspew DEN (Croats © Gececnce 625
Russia and Finland............... RUSS yon OWeOe Gta |.) scssceens 2720
BMG ane coccednscenweseedennanaenne Swedish Govt. = {| eseereee . 2360
otal BOUIC, GC. ssosssccses ons Arete BR. eccontce 5 ... |10,190
Denmazk; West Coast and
Ferie Islands Danish Govt. 1806—1841 ae 730
PIR WOVEL a ercss coe seccc race deses covers DuteneG ovis sles ee eseseecese as 180
MO ATIO sccccseccs=ciess Pa dees || ae feet aca ce see 540
Belgium... .....ccccccosecessoneseeees French Govt. 1816—1839 oss 64
TOT TICO ee wiacsasocccorececccceccssores ab 'as 7 ” ° 1687
Spain (to Gibraltar)............0+ Spanish Govt. Seoseness ove 915
Portugal ...scersecrreseesscseeveecs Various. eoveveees eee 540
Total Coasts of Western Europe sasceees : =coceoce ‘. »» |19,082
Morocco, KC........ssccccrscsceseres Fr. and Eng. Gts. 1835—1858 460
Agadir to Equator ....ssseeee+e+ English Govt. 1826 4430
Total Africa ..rrecrreccessoseees SCE Sti | es Weecrancocn xX ost 4850

Total Atlantic Islands oss... English Govt. 1783—184¢ eee 2990

6 INTRODUCTION.

a Oe a

{ i}
Extent | ToTaL

DATE OF
COUNTRY. SURVEYED BY of Coast | GO.
ORIGINAL SURVEY. 6 Silos) MILES.

Wog@land ices cyscccocesasecccaseeeeeas Danish Govt. 1500
YEOMAN Aye. nccceccooencsossaiereaes Not Surveyed 2000
PEdsonts Bay, GC. -escsceoneeciees 3 4000
Labrador; East Coast............ on 1140

VotalArctte LANAGS Oreersesvi|enein ieee csenes Bac 8640

Newfoundland; Hast & South
WOaStscaqeteeeceserss-coesacscines English Govt. 1765—1867 2765
Gulf of St. Lawrence ............ 3 1766, 1819, 1849; 2820
Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, and

New Brunswick ............ A 1824—1860 1765

SULIT PINTO, PATLAREL mocscocea | | coapeaceo) || «pt pe0000 ese 7350
United States; East Coast...... U.S. Government 1817—— 3735
oronilal (COPE), Heacedcncocuaanssadod Sete i le wtesceccions 2770

GHA UPR INTEL. “Saocoseeoccs {| “Bosoosos |) tosnicoddet vas 6505
Mexico, and Central America... | Span. & Eng. Gts. 1808 3295
Colombia and Guayana ......... Spon We Os 1B || Gaoscotnc 4100
West India Islands (British)... V2 OLS eee | enero acta 2947
Haiti and Cuba.................0006 Not properly Sur. | _—_—.......... 2350
Warlousplslandseccccccacesccacecveceu! |i amemcoctstec a) ann lina | NINN Niches 685

POtal (West HINGES. GC! lecadvossw |) |) | sgaescsesie al \tyiescsesres see 13,377

The following shows the general amount, the details of which are given
above :—

|

COUNTRY. ‘TOTAL GEO. MILES.
WSUIROBRE) (ic... csacennsesovoccacecusnasnesceeuassuavarecsecsects ex sMalstnsuelncemnchiee tee 19,082
UIRICIA: (occa ccssaecetcccionssaciacenceletnnoas occa oseesace denen sseceusdlequisanansecenseese 4,890
MSGS) cic ccccsnccstenn ach /scciesqcactdcnseckncesneteassnnesrcedecsacsteds aeseionc casas 2,990
AMERICA 25.0... .ccccuesccsccsscccescveossvcncecacnanssvecssceetavenscussssevesens=esrs 35,872

Torat LENGTH of the Coasts of the North Atlantic Ocean ......... 62,834

SECTION IL

—:0: ——

TABLES OF DETERMINED POSITIONS, THE AUTHORITIES,
THE VARIATION OF THE COMPASS, ETC.

The first portion of this volume consists of a selection of the principal
geographical points established in the surveying operations, and appended
to them are some notes, which will sufficiently explain their nature. In
former editions we were led to discuss more fully the merits of the various
authorities and the discrepancies between them, which were often con-
siderable in amount. Owing chiefly to the extension of the telegraphic
system, these differences have been so overcome, and such minute exact-
ness attained, that whatever notes are still retained on this topic, must be
taken rather as subjects of curiosity than of practical utility. The names
of the original observers are also retained in many places in the Tables,
more as a record of their services, than as authorities for the positions now
given, as may be gathered from the above remarks.

It is manifestly impossible that the seaman in the ordinary pursuit of
his: calling can hope to improve what has cost so much labour, with such
refined appliances. The Secondary Meridians, and many other points in
the Geographic Tables which follow, may be taken as points of departure
by which he may correct his reckoning and rate his chronometer; and the
explanatory notes appended will serve to give him confidence, and afford
information upon this important section of hydrography.

Where telegraphic communication renders it possible, the true longitude
of a station may be very accurately ascertained by comparing by signal
two chronometers, whose errors are known, one at each end of the line.
Differences of longitude may thus be measured, step by step, from the
prime meridian. Since 1873, the United States Hydrographic Office has
determined by this method the positions of the chief points of the New
World, including the West Indies, and some of the results are given in the
following Tables.

Secondary Meridians are printed in larger characters, thus: Portsmouts,
BRuSSELS, PaRis.

(3)

1. ENGLAND AND WALES.

2% The Fiaurss in Brackets refer to the Notes subjowmed to each Section.

LAT. N. LONG.
° ' " °o ! "
GREENWICH, Roya
OBSERVATORY ...-.-+-- [1]| 51 28 88 | 0 O O
London, Cupola of St. Long. W.
Paul’s Cathedral ......... 51 30 49 | O 5 48
Kew OBSERVATORY ......... 5128 6] O 18 46
Long. E.
Tilbury Fort, Flagstaff .... 51 27 7 0 22 42
Gravesend, Church ......... 51 26 39 0 22 10
Sheerness, Flagstaff......... 51 26 47 0 44 50
Harwich, old Lighthouse...| 51 56 38 | 1 17 25
Orfordness, Lighthouse ...| 52 5 0O| 1 34 34
Lowestoft, Lighthouse...... 52 29 12 | 1 45 28
Haisbro’ Upper Lighthouse) 52 49 12 | 1 32 20
Cromer, Lighthouse......... 52 bo Ok, | oko Ss
Spurn High Lighthouse ...| 53 34 41 | 0 7 11
Long. W.
Flamborough Lighthouse || 54 6 58| 0 4 51
Hartlepool Heugh Light...) 54 41 47 | 1 10 27
Sunderland, North Pier
Lighthouse..........-s-se00 5455 5 | 1 21 30
Souter Point, Lighthouse} 54 58 15 1 21 30
Tynemouth Lighthouse ...| 55 1 5 | 1 24 52
North Shields, Lighthouse] 55 0 31 | 1 26 10 |
Blyth, High Lighthouse ...| 55 7 33 | 1 29 50
Coquet Island Lighthouse] 55 20 2 | 1 32 17
Farn Island, S.W. Lt.-ho.| 55 36 55 1 89 15
Berwick, Lighthouse ...... 55 45 58 | 1 58 57
Long. E.
North Foreland, Lightho.| 51 22 28 | 1 26 48
Weal, Lime: Balle. s....c.-.2.-- 51 18 20 | 1 24 20
’ South Foreland, High
Lighthouse.......scecseseees 51 8 23 | 1 22 22
Dover Castle, the Keep ...| 51 7 46 | 1 19 23
Folkestone, Lighthouse ...) 51 4 41 1 11 33
New Romney Church ...... 50 59 O| O 56 40
Toya (Chumrehiiccssceserecsaes 50 57 5 | O 54 29
Dungeness, Lighthouse ...| 50 54 47 | 0 58 18
Bexhill Church cccss sees 50 50 45 | O 28 48
Beachy Head, Lighthouse} 50 44 15 | 0 12 58
Newhaven, Breakwater
Lighthouse........sccsereees 50 46 85 | O 3 30
Long. W.
Brighton Church ............| 50 49 82 | 0 7 40
Shoreham Church ......... 50 50 0; O16 19
Selses, Church® je scss-ccsees 50 45 19 | O 45 55
Chichester Spire ............, 50 50 0| 0 46

VAR.
WEST,

|

AU'E ORITIES.

1895.

16 20

15 50

17

10

18 0

16 50

16 0
16 15

The Astronomers Royal.

The Granp TRIGONOMETRI-
CAL or ORDNANCE SURVEY,
one of the great works of
which our country ought to
feel proud, was commenced in
1783, with a view to ascertain
the difference of longitude
between the Observatories of
Paris and Greenwich, under
General Roy. The principal
triangulation was gradually
extended under the successive
directions of Colonel Williams,
General Mudge, Gen. Colby,
Colonel Hall, and Colonel Sir
Henry James. It was com-
pleted and the account of it
published in 1858. The bases
upon which it is constructed
were measured on Salisbury
Plain, and upon the shore of
Lough Foyle, Ireland, that at
the former being 36,577°8581
feet, or a little under 7 miles,
| and that at Lough Foyle being

41,640°8873 feet, or a little
‘under 8 miles. The refine-
| ment attained may be judged
| of when it is stated, that the
difference between the calcu-
lated and measured lengths
of these bases was less than
24 inches. The mean length
of the sides of the great trian-
gles is 35:4 miles, of which 11
exceed 100 miles in length;
the longest is 111 miles, z.e.
from Slieve Donard in Ireland,
county Down, to Sca Fell,
Cumberland.

GHOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.

Le)

ENGLAND, SOUTH COAST.

VAR.

operations

It has
Archdeacon

LAT. N. LONG. W. | WistT, | AUTHORITIES.
1395. |
{
tora aa) Sie ihe Was cr |
PortsmoutH, Observatory) 50 48 3 1 5 58! 16 50 The Granp TRIGONOMETRI-
Scuthsea Castle ........00.. 50 46 39 tL fy TKO) | CAL or ORDNANCE SuRVEY of
Calshot Castle ...........00. 50 49 9; 1 18 22 | England, &c.
Southampton, Observatory) 50 54 49 | 124 6) |
Southampton, West Pier} 50 53 42 | 1 24 28 | |
Hurst Castle, East Light...; 50 42 27 | 1 82 56 | REMARKS.
Dunnose, Station in the AR.)
MAY. M1 2op cocci ocivd eaves 50 37 6] 1 11 50 As a matter of curiosity it
St. Catherine’s Lighthouse, | eink fe ee ee by ela-
Mee OL Wight... ...cccesaces 50 34 3 Pe Ae le 90") ea eral starr e eae
Needles Lighthouse ......... BOF a TA0 ie 180265 1 10s) Fate becle Gee FOO Fok: Hic
Christchurch Head ......... 50 42 388} 1 44 45 Polar radius 20.855.400 fash «
Anvil Point, Lighthouse...).50 35 80 | 1 57 30 aida meen degree Gb the meric
oole Church .........0ses.se+ 50 42 46 | 1 59 18 | dian contains 364,616 feet. The
ee, Deper Lightho.| 50 = 4 a i. 17 35 | ellipticity of the earth is as 294
Miymie CODD .......c000 abcoos 50 4 is to 295, and the mean density
abs or Hope Nose ...... 50 27 40 | 3 28-43 is 5-316.
Berry Head, Flagstaff...... 50 23 55 | 3 28 50 ‘ These ac seve .
ave now been carried to suc
Lei 50 2029 | 8 38 54 a degree of refinement, that the
Start Point, Lighthouse ...| 50 13 18 | 3 38 28118 0 aed sone onthe aiken
Bolt Head, Signal Station} 50 138 5| 8 48 40 eee tee
: ‘ effect on their results.
Eddystone Lighthouse ...| 50 10 49} 4 15 53 | been argued by
Mewstone, near Plymouth Pratt (of Calcutta) that this is
i Somes ; sees 50 18 20 | 4 6 20 sufficient to cause a deflection
ymoutnh, meaton 's of from 20” to 30” in the perpen-
Tower on the Hoe ... 50 21 50 4 9 80 dicularity of the pint ne
Drake’s Island, East end) 50 2115 | 4 9 5 | and this of course affects, in a
Lighthouse, on the West corresponding degree, the deter-
end of Breakwater ...| 50 20 2 4 9 27 | 18 20 | minations of the exact latitude,
Meridian Tablet, on the and with that the true figure of
Breakwater .........[2]| 50 19 59 | 4 8 52 the earth,
Penlee Beacon ............00 50 19 20 | 4 11 35 |
Rame Head, Flagstaff...... 50 18 53 | 4 138 25 |
Dodman or Deadman Point, |
BUEAPSGAIL .oscuvevesvasacces ---| 50 18 20 | 4 48 1 | 18 40
St. Anthony’s Head, Light- |
AGRO saiwscecsesceee EAs 3]| 50 825 | 5 050
Pendennis Castle, Flagstaft| 50 8 44 | 5 2 45
St. Kevern Steeple ......... nO 8 7) 5 5 8
Blackhead, Flagstaff ...... 50 O 20 i) (op als;
Lizard, Kast Lighthouse...) 49 57 85 | 512 5. 18 40
St. Michael’s Mount, Tower) 50 6 55 5 28 37
St. Paul’s Steeple, Mount’s |
Le eee 50 5 20] 5 82 43
St. Leven’s, or Guethens-
bras Point, Flagstaff...... 50 210] 5 40 46
Wolf Rock, Lighthouse ...| 49 56 43 | 5 48 27
Land’s End House ......... 50 350) 5 4250/19 0
Longships Lighthouse...... 50 38 57, 5 44 45)
Scilly Islands, St. Agnes’
Lighthouse............... 49 58 31) 6 20 41 | 19 15
St. Mary’s Flagstaff, at
the Fort .............00.| 49 54 50] 6 19 15 |

NA. 0.

10

Scilly Islands—continued.
St. Martin’s Daymark...
Bishop Rock Lighthouse’
Round Island Lightho.

Godrevy Island, Lightho.

St. Agnes’ Beacon, Corn-

Trevose Head, Lighthouse
Hartland Point, Lightho.,
Lundy Island, Lighthouse
Braunton Sands, Lower)
Lighthouse..........s.00.-
Minehead Steeple............
Burnham (or Bridgewater)
TiiehthoOuse....c.1s.00-.---25
Bridgewater Spire.........+.-
Avon Lighthouse
Bristol Cathedral
Usk Lighthouse
Cardiff, East Lighthouse...
Flatholm, Lighthouse
Nash Point, E. Lighthouse
Swansea Castle............+0-
Mumbies Lighthouse
Wormis Heads... ....0.+002.as
Pembrea Steeple
Tenby Spire
Caldy Tee Lighthouse...
Milford Steeple Sones nes Sewell
St. Anne’s High Lighthouse.
Grassholm eet eee
Smalls Lighthouse
St. David’s Cathedral ......
peat Island, highest
Bithop and Clerks Rocks,|
northernmost
Cardigan Isle, highest point
Cardigan Steeple
Aberystwith, Castle Church
Cardigan Bay Lightvessel
Bardsey Lighthouse.........
St. Tudwall Lighthouse ...
Caernarvon Bay Lt.-vessel
South Stack Lighthouse...)
Holyhead, Lighthouse......
Skerries Light
The West Mouse
Lynus Point, Lighthouse...|
Great Ormes Head, Light-
iVpiiiclewe, Pann repedoceu-eracn
Abergelé Steeple
Air Point, Lighthouse......
Leasowe Lighthouse

eeeceeccseces

eeoeeeesesees

eee eceseeees

eaeeee

eccece

eee eeeeesesesesese

wee eee eeeeee!

eee ewceseee

BipsTun OBSERVATORY......

ENGLAND AND WALES.

37

25 0|

LONG.

oO o&
Noe
Od Or

oo GG Go G2 PP PP PPP OU Pe Or or Or Or Or Or Or He BB CO GO GO GO CO DO DO DO GO LO Ce He He Or OF (> Tor)

pe
co

rT
Dw

GC on Nore He OO
Anos Dw one

PRO PRE oo} on
AODOHOCHRODAWIDOO

to
—)

18

18
18

17
18

19

19

19

18
19

| 19

19

19

35

15

35

55
30

30
30

10

:
i

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.

AUTHORITIES.

The GrRanD TRIGONOMETRI-

CAL or ORDNANCE SURVEY of
England, &.

7

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS. 11

ENGLAND, WEST COAST.

VAR.
LAT. N. LONG. W. | WEST, AUTHORITIES,
1895.
fo) ! " ° U ” hs ° !
Black Rock, Lighthouse...) 58 26 89 | 8 2 28 The GRAND TRIGONOMETRI-
Liverpool, Custom House) 53 24 10 | 2 59 12 | 18 40 | cat or OrDNANcE SuRvEy of
North-West Lightship...... 538 30 52.| 3 80 48 England, &e.
Formby Lighthouse......... 58 8219 | 38 38 56
Formby N.W. Mark ...... 53 384 0} 8 5 53
Rossal Point, Landmark...| 538 55 15 | 3 2 56
Fleetwood, Lighthouse ...| 53 55 35 | 3 O 22
Wyre Lighthouse............ 53 57 13 3 1 46
Laneaster Steeple............ 54 3 4; 2 48 14
Walney Island, Light ...... 54) 255 | 8 10 33:)19 0
St. Bees Head, Lighthouse| 54 80 48 | 3 88 8 | 19 20
Whitehaven, Pier-head Lt.-
BATESO. os acisesacadgieecison seeded 54 83 10 | 3 35 50
Maryport, Lighthouse...... 54 48 0} 8 80 21
Lee Scar Lighthouse ...... 54 51 46 | 3 24 48
Skinburness Lighthouse ...| 54 52 47 | 38 22 46
Workington, Chapel Hill...| 54 88 28 | 3 34 11
Southerness, Lighthouse...| 54 52 22 3 35 37 | 19 25
Criffell, Station in the Sur-
vey, 1,831 feet above sea! 54 56 26 | 3 87 37
ISLE OF MAN.
Point of Ayre, Lightho.) 54 24 56 | 4 22 1/ 19 45
North Barrule, Station,
1,840 feet high ......... 54.17 27 | 4 23 32
Snea Fell, Stat., 2,034 ft.| 54 15 50 | 4 27 35
Chicken Rock, Lightho.| 54 215) 4 50 10] 19 50
Peel, Lighthouse ......... 54 12 45 4 42 23
NOTES.

1. Greenwicn OpsERvaTory, the Prime Meridian.—This Observatory was founded
during the reign of Charles II., and the Prime Meridian in general use passes through its
great transit instrument. In 1884, a Conference of delegates, appointed by twenty-five
European and American countries, assembled at Washington, in the United States, for
the purpose of fixing a universal Prime Meridian, to do away with the inconvenience
experienced from various countries each assuming a meridian of its own. Twenty-two
delegates voted in favour of Greenwich; San Domingo voted in the negative; while
Brasil and France abstained from voting, the latter favouring a so-called ‘“ neutral ”
meridian, to pass through the Azores or Behring Strait. The Geodetic Conference held
at Rome, in 1883, also very decisively expressed its opinion in favour of Greenwich.

French charts adopt the meridian of Paris; Spain adopts the meridian of San
Fernando, Cadiz; and Portugal that of Lisbon. Most other nations use the meridian
of Greenwich.

From 720 observations of the Pole Star, made during eighteen months of 1825 and
1826, the latitude of the Royal Observatory was deduced as 51° 28’ 38”. By a later
correction it was placed in 51° 28’ 40-16"; but by the Grand Trigonometrical Survey it is
taken as 51° 28’ 38-30".

2. PLymoutH BREAKWATER.—On the northern side, near the centre, is a landing pier,
on the East end of which is a granite pillar, with a brass plate, on which is engraved its
sorrect latitude and longitude, 50° 19’ 59” N., 4° 8’ 52” W.

12 GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.

3. Fatmouta.—Dr. Tiarks ascertained, in the summer of 1822, by the comparison of
sixteen excellent chronometers, carried backward and forward between Greenwich and
Falmouth, that the western longitude of the latter had been given at 44 seconds of time,
or 1’ 6” of arc too little, by the first Trigonometric Survey. In consequence, twenty-nine
of the best chronometers belonging to the Admiralty were subsequently committed to the
care of the doctor, and a vessel was appointed wherein he was to sail, backward and forward,
between Dover and Falmouth, until the longitude in time, between these stations, and
between them and Portsmouth, as an intermediate station, was settled beyond any
doubt. The result was, as to all places on the South Coast of England, between the
meridians of Greenwich and Falmouth, if 1 second be added to every 4 minutes of longi-
tude, as given by the original Survey, the exact longitude, according to the chronometers,
will be obtained. These differences have since been entirely settled by the re-examination
of the triangles, now completed.

VARIATION OF THE COMPASS.

In the latter part of this volume, some observations on the general subjeot will be found,
among which, as to the secular change, which requires attention, the more especially
from the care demanded in the navigation of iron ships. In these Tables we give the
approximate variation for the year 1895, reserving such remarks upon former results for
the section specially devoted to the subject.

The Variation is now decreasing on the Coast of Englard at an average rate of about
53' or 6’ per annum, according to the most recent observations at the Greenwich Obser-
vatory, varying irregularly from 5’ to 8}' between successive years. The rate at which it
is increasing or decreasing in this and other regions is also shown on the special Diagram
given hereafter.

2. ISLANDS AND COASTS OF SCOTLAND.

VAR.

LAT. N. LONG. W. | WEST, AUTHORITIES.

| 1895.
PSs aye

EDINBURGH; the Observa-| ° ' "” emt OY

TORY c atts oochedenue asta e [1]] 55 57 23 | 3 10 54 | 19 30 The GRAND TRIGONOMETRI-
Inchkeith Lighthouse ...... DO 2 TEN a 20 6 CAL or ORDNANCE SuRVEY of
Isle of May, Lighthouse...| 56 11 9] 2 33 22 Great Britain.
East Lomond, 1,461 ft. ...| 56 14 31 3 13 10
IFENNOSS! ccc sswseecessssccaceces 56 16 45 | 235 O
Bell Rock, Lighthouse...... 56 26 4| 223 7|)19 5
Dundee nliaiwac.assesecnceseees 56 28 11 2 59 10 | 19 25
Buddon-ness, High Light) 56 28 8 | 2 44 54
Arbroath, the Abbey ...... 56 33 45 | 2 34 53
ReaghiGadiccerccsesctecsceecees 56 36 55 2 29 24
Montrose, Scurdy Ness,

TiighGhOUsesescctseeessesewes 56 42 5| 226 6
Girdleness, Lighthouse .... 57 815] 2 2 40
Aberdeen, Marischal Coll| 57 8 57| 2 5 42/19 6 |
Aberdeen, North Break-

water Lighthouse......... 57 833| 2 4 6 |
Belhelvie or Orrock, Dove-

COLE ceccceee Seeeneserstvecrasne 57 15°52 2. 3 57
Buchanness, Lighthouse...) 57 28 14 | 1 46 22
Peterhead, Old Mill.........| 57 30 44 | 1 47 82

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS,

13

ISLANDS AND COASTS OF SCOTLAND.

a

LAT. N.

Rs Sara acf?

Rattray Head, Pile ......... lai cobhoe,
Fraserburgn, Kinnaird!

Head Lighthouse ......... | 57 41 52
Troup Head, Staff .........| 57 41 38
Macduff, Spire ............... | 57 40 5
Covesea Skerries, Lightho.| 57 43 15
Tarbetness, Lighthouse ...| 57 51 55
Noss Head, Lighthouse ...| 58 28 38
Duncansby Head ............ 58 38 30
Dunnet Head, Lighthouse! 58 40 19
ORKNEY—Pentland Sker-

ries, Upper Light... [2}| 58 41 26
Stromness, Church ...... 58 57 44
Hoy, Rora Head ......... 58 52 30
Cantick Head, Lightho.| 58 47 10
Kirkwall Light ............ 58 59 9
Start Point of Sanda,

Bishthouse............... 59 16 42
N. Ronaldshay, Lightho.| 59 23 6
Stronsay, Station in

Survey ....... ROCOHD SOOO 59 5 38

Fair Island, summit......... 59 82 45

Scaddon'Lighthouse...... 59 30 45
Foul Island, sum. (1,369 f%.)| 60 8 24
BREE SICILY” cievecesgecesecsas 59 4 50
North Rona Island ......... 59 7 16
SHETLAND— Sumburgh

Head, Lighthouse...... 59 61 17
Bressay Island, summit} 60 7 48
Lerwick; the Fort Flag-

Mibrilieracncsadentearsfase sac 60 9 22
Whalsey Island, summit} 60 20 1
Out Skerries, Lighthouse} 60 25 30
Yell Isle, Reafrith Kirk] 60 35 55
Fetlar Isle, summit ...... 60 37 12
Haaf Gruna, summit ...| 60 39 44
Balta Island, summit ...} 60 45 3
Saxavord, Stat.in Survey| 60 49 39
Lambness, on Unst...... 60 49 O
Burraford Holmes, Lt.-

HOUSE tee desccatsasscs cack 60 51 20
Ramna Stacks, N.end...| 60 39 50
Ve Skerries, off St. Mag-

ISDE EY ons o oFeinadnavennan 60 22 30
Fugloe Skerry, near Papa} 60 20 15
Scalloway Castle .........] 60 8 10

!

WESTERN CoastTs.

Holburn Head ...........000 58 37 20
Cape Wrath, Lightho. [8]| 58 87 838

Loch Laxford, N.W. Point] 58 24 40

LONG. W.

ee

fad pat fet =O OooocorFrorFE

Or O98

CHR DOR HD POD BOD OD ODDO

24 |

VAR.
WEST, |
1895.

AUTHORITIES.

ONS a — ——

° ’

The GRAND TRIGONOMETRI-
CAL or ORDNANCE SURVEY.
19 10

19 45

19 50

The OsBsERvATIONS of Mr.
19 0 | George Thomas, R.N., on his
Survey of Shetland, &c., 1825

to 1833, and later observers.

18 55

rs
SR

14 GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.

ISLANDS AND COASTS OF SCOTLAND.

Ru Stoer, Lighthouse ......
Flannan or Seven Hunters,

Idd ena AY Keres on gecoeccocconad
Butt of Lewis, Lighthouse
Ru Rea, Station in Survey
Stornoway Lighthouse, in

NGG WAS eure saa: see teceteaaces
Glash or Scalpa, Lightho.

Storr Hill, in Skye .........

°

On
bo
ao

=e OO
TON OV

o

St. Kilda, Peak at N.E. end
Monach Isles, Shillay Lt.-

TS UHSIEY BS 286 geepoce soase ecb
Ben More, 8. Uist; Station
Barra Head, Lighthouse...
Skerryvore Lighthouse ...
Dubh Artach Lighthouse...
Ardnamurchan Pt., Lt.-ho.
Tobermory, Mull; Light

on Runa Gal Rock ......
Lismore Lighthouse, Sound

rag ill an osenesssertenone

Oban, Light on Pier......... 56

Ben Nevis, summit .........
Ben Tartevil, or Tart-a-

bhaile, Islay Island ......
Rhynns of Islay, Lightho.

Jura Island, North Pap,|

DIG O MCC Le me-eesecemeres csc
Sgeir Maoile Lighthouse...
Mull of Cantyre, Lightho.
Sanda Island, Ship Rock

BR ras cote dinate ome aaer
Campbelltown, Devaar Lt.
Goat Fell, Arran Island ...
Ben Lomond, Station in

SHWAIESY —saoncacaosnbacsoda[T

Troon, Lighthouse ......... f

Pladda Lightho., Arran Id.
Little Cumbrae, New Light-

INOUSE Re sseessccacweseeeales
Toward Point, Lighthouse
GLASGOW OBSERVATORY ...
Ardrossan, Horse Island

WPT Ke 6opcccosndopcéocasasonae
Ayr, Lighthouse ...........
Turnberry Point, Lightho.
Corsewall Point, Lightho.
Mull of Galloway, Lightho.
Southerness, Lighthouse...

Coe co bo
me O ob

uN
—_

Ho ce
SOile enon

or or & oO D> or or or lor) Ooonnaa- DODO & (>) one |
is

Or Or Or

Oro > > Called a

VAR.
WEST, | AUTHORITIES.

1895.

22
23

22
22

21

21

21

20

20

|

The ADMIRALTY SURVEY,
based on the Ordnance ‘tri.
15 | angulation,

50

15

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS. 18

‘ NOTES.

1. Eprnsureu.—The geographic position of the Astronomical Observatory on the
Calton Hill, was given by the Ordnance Survey, in 1816, as longitude 8° 10’ 54” W. But
this result appears to have been affected by a singular cause, which demonstrates the
refinement to which these operations have been carried. It was afterwards found that
the attraction of the mass of Arthur’s Seat (a hill to the southward of it) had drawn the
plumb-line (or zenith sector) towards it, and thus produced an error of several seconds in
the calculation. This error was established in 1839, by Professor Henderson, who made
the longitude 8° 10’ 45”. Some interesting experiments were made on this curious point,
during the late Ordnance Survey, by which, not only the effect of mountainous masses on
surveying operations was ascertained, but also the density of the earth was established.

Since the completion of the triangulation of the Ordnance Survey, a new principle for
ascertaining the difference of longitude has come into operation. The extension of the
electric telegraph has placed Greenwich Observatory in direct connection with most other
important Observatories; and in April, 1857, a series of instantaneous signals was trans-
mitted between it and Edinburgh, under the direction, at the latter place, of Professor
Piazzi Smyth, the worthy son of the excellent Admiral Smyth, well known to all sailors.
The results of these experiments placed its longitude at 12™ 43-0485 in time, or 3° 10’ 45-72”
in arc, confirming Mr. Henderson’s previous result. It is now, however, considered to
be in long. 3° 10’ 54”.

2. OrKNEys, &c.—The Orkney Islands were originally surveyed by the elder Mackenzie.
Murdoch Mackenzie, F.R.S., was the first surveyor of our coasts, who conducted his
operations on right principles. His first work, Orcadia, or the Orkney Islands, with part
of Lewis, was done at his own expense, and was published in 1750. Its accuracy is great,
and its utility is still unequalled. He was afterwards employed by the king in surveying
the coasts of Ireland, &c. Later in life his works were attacked, most unjustly, by
Dr. Anderson, which called forth suitable replies and justification from John Clark, in
1785. This work may be said to have commenced the Admiralty Surveys.

3. WEST OF SCOTLAND, AND THE HEBRIDES.—Up to a recent date the charts of the
whole of this portion of our shores remained nearly in the same state that they were left
by Murdoch Mackenzie. Notwithstanding their imperfections, however, statistics have
shown that no great detriment to navigation arose from their so-called ‘“ disgraceful”
condition, an epithet which took twenty-five years of organized surveying parties, and
£250,000, to remove.

We may here add that they were examined, and partially surveyed, by Captain Joseph
Huddart, whose charts were long of good service. Captain Huddart also surveyed a great
portion of the St. George’s Channel at the expense of the predecessors of the publisher
of this work.

The Variation of the Compass on the Coasts of Scotland is now decreasing at ike rate
of about 9’ per annum.

16

Tur NORTHERN COAST.

Tory Island, Lighthouse...|
Fannet Point, Lighthouse
Innistrahul, Lighthouse ...
Lough Foyle, Dunagree
Point, E. Lighthouse
Magilligan Tower ...[1]|
Londonderry Cathedral
Port Rush
Bengore Head
Rathlin Isle, Lighthouse...
Knocklaid Mountain (1,690)
feet) |

see eeeeoesesseseseees

ee eseeeescocecssesses|

Tor Point
Garrone LOllusesesssesscscsesers
The Maidens, West Rock

see eeeeerereeseeerers

ENP HUROUBE: csace eens secede
Hunter Rock (9 feet) ......
Blasio Heads sencsscaencsses see
Carrickfergus Castle.........
Belfast, Mouth of the

JEEPS Ceca de pessoa

Divis Mount (1,560 ft.)
Bangor Castle
Copeland Lighthouse
Donaghadee, Pier Head ...
Ballyhalbert, Fort
South Rock, Old Lightho.
St. John’s Point, Lightho.
Slieve Donard (2,797 ft.)...
Carlingford, Haulbowline

Rock Lighthouse ......
AIT (1920567), ccc ccecteese
Clogher Head ......cscccsess
Drogneda, Bridge............
Balbriggan, Light............

St. Patrick’s Island
Rockabill Lighthouse
Lambay Island, summit ..
Howth Hill, peak (548 ft.)
Howth Bailey, 8.E. point,
IAP NGDOURG - 256 onow ese cccaes
Poolbeg Lighthouse
Dublin, Nelson’s Pillar [2]
DunsINnK OBSERVATORY
Kingstown, Lighthouse on
East pier
Wicklow Head, Upper Lt.
|

eee

eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeres

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS,

38. COASTS OF IRELAND.

52

57

|
|

| LONG. W.

°

mo & ADMDDIMP HD “1-1 0

oO o> DAD DD AAADAADS HDHD OD Or Or Or Or Cr Cr OU GD Or Or Or Or Or or o>

~-

OD
oo =I or

kt Or Or
CO 1 Or

39

me oO
em 10

45

Cc on He
Orn oe

31

oro bo bw
Or Ors

ee
oO? Oo He

20

_
ae)

De
Con SOMO wD PRO

VAR.
WEST,

1895.

20 40

20 20

20 35

20 30

|

AUTHORITIES,

The GRAND TRIGONOMETEI-
caAL Survey of Ireland, aud
the Surveys of Capt. William
Mudge, R.N., F.R.A.S., and
other Officers.

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS. 17

COASTS OF IRELAND.

—

ree

| LAT.N. LONG. W. | WEST, | AUTHORITIFE
| 1895.
ee es - = So af ——
ie} , ” ° , " o 7
a 52 41 56 | 6 12 58 The Granp Trr A
Forth Mountain ............ 52 18 58 | 6 33 39 CaL SURVEY, &c. uhed a
Rosslare Harbour, Pier Lt.| 52 1510] 620 0 :
Tuskar Lighthouse ......... 5212 9| 612 22] 920 0!
THE SOUTHERN Coast.
Saltees Lightvessel ......... 52 218] 6 39 30
Coningmore Rock............ 52 510] 6 87 30
Hook Lighthouse, near
MMMEEIO TG: crond waccacveecnee 52 724] 6 55 43 | 20 25
ifelwick Head .........0.002. 52 3810} 7 32 15
Mount Kneckmeldown ...| 5213 40] 7 54 51
Roche Point, Lighthouse...) 51 47 33 | 8 15 15
Daunt’s Rock Lightvessel]/ 51 43 0} 816 O
HeOberts Head .........0..00- 51 43 55 | 8 18 50
Kinsale, South Lighthouse} 51 86 11} 8 31 58 | 21 10
Galley Head, Lighthouse] 51 31 50 | 8 57 10!
Stags of Castlehaven ...... 51 28 0} 9 18 80
Cape Clear, Old Lighthouse} 51 26 2| 9 29 3 | 21 45
Fastnet Rock, Lighthouse] 51 23 18 | 9 36 25
Crookhaven, Lighthouse...| 51 28 35 | 9 42 39
Ss CE 51 27 0} 9 49 30
Mount Gabriel ............... 51 33 80 | 9 382 30
pt 22 i 51 382 30 | 9 51 15
Hungry Hill, Station in
UREN a cnicircniacidow cine ccs 51 41 13 | 9 47 27
Bantry Bay, Roancarrig
Island, Lighthouse ...... 51 39 10 | 9 44 49
Bear Island, Signal Tower
on West end «............. 51 37 438 | 9 53 40 / 22 5
THE WESTERN Coast.

Dursey Island, South Point| 51 34 45 | 10 14 10 |
Bull Rock, Lighthouse ...| 51 35 30/1018 3 | 22 20

Skelligs, Lighthouse ...... 51 46 6 | 10 82 29
Valentia Isle, Cromwell
Point Fort .....scsss00s 51 55 50 | 10 19 15 | 22 380
West end ......e.ee0 [3]| 51 55 22 | 10 20 41
MGuIUS FVCad:....sccsescececss bl 57-6 | 10 19-20

Dunmore Head, Dingle Bay| 52 6 30 | 10 28 40

|
Feaghmaan Station at

Tearaght Island, Lightho.| 52 4 30 | 1040 0O/| 22 50
Great Foze Rock ............ 52: 1 15,) 10:41 5
Mount Brandon, Station ...| 52 14 6/1015 10
Kileradan Head, Lightho.| 52 34 47 | 9 42 34
Scattery Id., Round Tower| 52 36 42} 9 81 15
Limerick Cathedral ......... 52 40 4] 5 87 23} 21 40
Loop Head, Lighthouse ...| 52 33 88 | 9 55 55 | 22 30
Mutton Island, Lighthouse} 53 15 14] 9 8 11
Arran Island, Lighthouse! 53 7 88 | 9 42 6 i
Slyne Head, N. Lighthouse] 53 23 59 | 10 14 1] 238 5
Inishgort Lighthouse ...... 58 49 85 | 9 40 138

) ! {

eA. O. 4

18 GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.

WEST COAST OF IRELAND.

ee Gh oh
i) 1 |
VAR.
LAT. N. | LONG. W. | WEST, AUTHORITIES.
1895. |
a
° Uy " ° Uy " ° '
Clare Island, Lighthouse...| 53 49 38; 9 58 58 The Granp TRIGONOMETRI-

PNGHAMBENCEIO | Ivetesesslen/seiecee 53 58 20 | 10 16 O | 28 20 | can Survey, &c.
Slieve More, Achil Island| 54 0 35 | 10 8 26
Hagle Island, Lighthouse...| 54 16 0| 10 5 32

Tawnaghmore, Station ...| 54 17 40 | 9 35 47
Telling or Teelin Head ...| 54 42 0} 8 48 10 |
Rathlin O’Birne Lightho.| 54 39 47 | 8 49 52 | 22 40

St. John’s Point, Lightho.| 54 34 8
Ballyshannon Church... ... 54 80 11
Slieve League (1,977 feet); 54 39 5
Rinrawros Point, Lightho.| 54 50 0
Bloody Foreland (1,024 ft.)| 55 8 14
Muckish Hill (2,186 ft.) ...} 55 6 O
CHANIA iva. deetiensienisescov'es 57 36 20

15 41 , 22 30

w- 10 0OO®O
oo
SU)
iw)
oO

41 32 | 27 20 | Capt. Vidal, «ec.

1

a

NOTES.

1. The positions of places on the Irish coasts depend upon the observations made in
the Trigonometrical or Ordnance Survey. The principal triangles, commencing with the
measurement of the base on the East side of Lough Foyle, in 1826-8, were extended over
the whole area, between that period and 1852, and gave results which may be practically
taken as absolutely correct.

Since that period, the minute surveys of the land, on a very large scale, have also been
completed; and upon this basis our Admiralty surveyors have constructed our present
charts, by adding the soundings and maritime features outside the low-water line. The
names of Mudge, Bedford, Wolfe, Beechey, Frazer, and Church, should be mentioned
among the officers connected with those operations.

2. Dusiin.—The Astronomical Observatory at Dunsink, 3 miles N.W. of Dublin, in
lat. 53° 23’ 13” N., long. 6° 20’ 80” W., is a point verified by triangulation as well as by
observation.

3. VALENTIA.—One of the most important geodetical operations in connection with the
Ordnance Survey, was the chronometric determination of the difference of longitude
between Valentia and Greenwich, in December, 1845. This are, one of the largest which
could be measured in the British Isles, has been of very great importance, as well in
verifying the accuracy of the T:igonometrical Survey, as in determining the true figure
of the earth. It was carried on by Professor Airy, the Astronomer Royal, assisted by
Mr. Sheepshanks, Mr. Hartnup, Mr. Hind, and several other observers, by means of thirty
pocket chronometers. The stations were Greenwich, Liverpool Observatory, a temporary
Observatory at Kingstown, and Feaghmaan at Valentia. The final determination of the
longitudes, chronometrically, were—Liverpool, 12™ 0:05; Kingstown, 24™ 31°208; and
Valentia, 41™ 23-23%. By the Ordnance Survey, these longitudes were made—Liverpool, -
12" 0°35 Xingstown, 24” 31°488; and Valentia, 41™ 23-07%.

The Variation of the Compass is now decreasing on the Coast of Ireland at the rate of
from 6}! to 8’ per annum.

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS,

19

4 NORWAY AND SWEDEN.

me ar ee

Moudiuga Island, Berezov
Bar, Lighthouse

Swiatoi Nos, Lighthouse...|

North Cape
Lofoten Islands, Skomvecer
Lighthouse........sc0000.
Svolvaer Light
Vaagé or N. Hellig Vaer Lt.
Nyholmen, Lighthouse ...
Tr Island, Sée Id., Lt.-ho.
Andersbak Id., Lighthouse
Mangvardkua, conical ben.
Donnes 6e, Church at N.
end
Bjérn Market-place
Alstené, Syv Séstre Mts.,
South one
Skjerver I., Klep Harbour
Siola Island, summit
Vegen I., Gulsvaagfjeld Mt.
Vegtinden Mountain ...
Sjelva Beacon, off Minlamd
Hoiholmtinderne Mount.,
DOUGH Peal... .ccccecsececsae
Andalshatten Mtn., 8. pk.
MevalOC. SUIMIMNIG ..occccvcses
Helgeland Oflissen beacon,
BEI MAIOG oc sosccnovennenns
Heilhornet, remarkable Mt.
Lekée, beacon on summit
Vigten Islands, Sulafjeld
POC MUsccccscccarscncsceese
Indre: or Inner Island,
Rorvig, on East side...
Grinna beacon ...............
Prestée Light, near Nerée
Gjcen, Brakstad ............
Otter den, Findanger Fjeld
PPATMOSs VIG, veccceccesecens
Nordé Lighthouse............
Oxbaasheia, Village at 8.
aaNaaaec ence sno scesscesen-
Buholmene, cone beacon...
Vigs Sjelen, summit.........

eeeceescoseoreesee

Peeeceesseseessesesesene

BERET OHUPCH..1.cccccsncsosesy
Almindingée, Hvalhovden

or South point............
Halten Island, Lighthouse
Leikua Beacon, off Lysé...
Suuls Fjord, Sulen Tower
Fréien Island, Titterodden,

or West point ....... aeees

LONG.

40
39
25

11
14
14
14
11
12
12

12
12

12
if
if
iQ!
11
12

12
12
12

11
12

16
48
46

54
36

1
24
59
19
41

36
35

82
35
45
ol
54
19

26
26
i

54
9

30
12

11 87 45
10 49

inl
10
13l
11
11
10
10

10
10
10
10

15
59

if
13

"
41
33

80
26
24
31

10 1

9
9

27
53

0

A5

0
55
30

30
20

0
30

30
30
45

8 31 45

8 19 10

° ,

EAST. |
8 15

WESI.
10 5

1, “Q

tt 0

1i 36

12 15

12 15

——

13 18 -

SS

AUTHORITIES.

Russian Surveys.

The TRIGONOMETRICAL SUR-

VEY, made by order of the
Norwegian Government, by
Capt. Vibe, &c., as explained
in the Notes.

20 GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.

COAST OF NORWAY.

OO ee

VAR :
LAT. N. | LONG. E. | WEST, AUTHORITIES.
1895.
my 2) AME sid | __
° t " ° ' " ° .
WiVo; GUAStiONd wocncesssccssss 63 40 0; 9 7 O The TRIGONOMETRICAL SUR-
Great Kopperen Hill, on VEY, made by order of the
Mainland. cesccvrcssseeseoss 63 48 15 9 45 O Norwegian Government.
Hitteren Id., Béré Light...| 63 34 20| 914 O |
Omdasfjeld, on N. side} 63 383 25 | 8 43 O | 13 35 |
Trondhjem Channel, Ter- |
ningen Lighthouse ...| 63 29 50} 9 3 10 | 13 30
Agdenes Lighthouse ...| 63 88 40 | 9 45 30
Trondhjem, Munkholmen
MOVE partanssedenoseseesses 63 27 30-| 10 23 30 | 12 18
Gathedrals/..teccc.ses2- [2]| 63 25 49 | 10 28 40
Smoelen Island, Maaberg-
tuen, on North side...... 63 25 38; 8 1 O
Eddé ; Trondhjem §S. Chan-
nel, Light on Ringholm| 63 18 45 | 8 14 0
Grip Island, centre ......... 63 18 0] 7 385 40
Brathaarskallen Lightho.| 63 14 0| 7 37 O
Stavenes Lighthouse ...... 63 640! 7 40 10
Aver6, Quaernaes.........00. 638 O 20 744 O
Meknokken Mountain...| 62 58 80 | 7 385 15
Christiansund, Indlandet
Pehle ee 68 6 0] 74815/14 5
Frey den, Frey Kollen Mt.| 68 3 0} 746 O
Qvitholm, Lighthouse...... 63 125] 7 14 30
Stevshest, summit ......... 62 59 Oj ¥ 12 30
Bjérnsund, Lighthouse ...| 62 53 40| 6 49 30
Ona Island Lighthouse ...| 62 51 45 | 6 33 15
Sando, Church <..5...sc.<<. 62 49 81) 6 385 30
Romsdals Oerne, Harré
UEPENS oes tee cess<cees 62 47 O| 6 28 10 | 14 45
Harams6, Light at N.W.
Sahel ee eee 62 41 2} 61030!
Lepsdrev Lighthouse ...... 62 85 15| 616 15 |
PSERO IPTG scnvanasseceseses's 62 33 0| 5 56 30
Walderé, Light on 8.E. pt.| 62 29 50} 6 8 5
God6, Lt. on Hogsten Pt.| 62 27 45 672.10
Light on Alnes Tang ...| 62 29 30| 5 58 20
Hess6, Sugar Loaf ......... 62°27 30) 16:36720
Aalesund, Light on mole...| 62 28 25 | 6 9 30!
Groesholmen Lighthouse...| 62 25 45 | 5 46 O
Rondé, Kvalnes Lightho.| 62 24 50} 5 385 40 15 20/
Svin6, beacon ..........cc00- 62 19 40) 5 16 30
Stadtland, Quitenes at N. i
CHG socenenenss Sena eanaewens 62 12 35 | 514 O |
Furenes.......... ceieaeeee 62 6 0; 5 7.40) |
Vaags6, Skongnes Light] 62 2 0| 5 7 50,
Bremanger Land, Older- |
veggen or West Point...| 61 5115 | 4 49 45 ©
Froe Soen, Smér Haven Lt.| 61 45 45 | 4 56 20 | 1h 45)
Battalen, summit............ 61 88 40 | 448 O
Ytteré Island Lighthouse] 61 34 15 | 4 41 15
Kindo, Lighthouse ......... 61 38 40 | 447 0O
Bue Land, Yststeen......... 6117 30| 4 36 10
Udveer, Mulen ............... 61 145! 4 380 30,

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS. 21

COAST OF NORWAY.

|
| hss

LAT. N. | LONG. E. | WEST, AUTHORITIES,
| 1895.
u —
CLM Oi au; | On MPT ate OI AP |
Holmengraa, beacon ...... 60 50 30; 4 89 15 | The TRIGONOMETRICAL SuR-
Feje Oosen, Hellisé Lt.-ho.| 60 45 0} 443 O | vEY, &c., as before stated.
Holzené, Light on Skel-

MES wacivsseescotcvces sees 60 386 30| 4 57 15
Bergen, Cathedral ......... 60 23 80] 5 20 20| 15 15

Observatory ............00 60 23 50] 5 18 365
Leeré, Light on West side} 60 14 15} 5 10 15
Kors Fjord, Marsteen Lt.-

SE rcencuscaccscnssaesesns 60 7. 45.) 25 71.70
Piir Holm, Light ............ 60 5-10] 5 11 15
Selb6, Oxhammer Light...} 59 59 15 | 5 13 30
Selbé Fiord, Furren beacon| 59 58 0| 5 315 | 15 10!

Slotteré Light ............ 59 54 30| 5 4 30] |
Stoksund, Light on Folgeré| 59 48 O| 5 18 45
Bommel Fiord, Ryvarden

Rte cca cicscceseassasees 59 81 40| 514 0

. Roevaer Island, Light on

RPRIEO Poesctaceseccisecsicos 59 26 5) 5 7 40
Sarhougsund, N. entrance,

| Cee 59 25 25| 5 14 45
Haugesund, Skaare Church] 59 25 10] 5 16 10
Udsire Island, Lighthouse} 59 18 20} 4 52 30; 1& O
Karmé, Skudesnes Lt.-ho.| 59 8 20] 5 17 30
Bukkesund, Light on Buk-

STL ee 59 18 25) 5 27 35
Hviddings6, Lighthouse...| 59 3 30] 5 24 20 ¥
Stavanger, Church ......... 58 58 12| 5 45 15] 14 30
Tungenes, Lighthouse ...|}59 2 0/ 5 35 O
Fladholmen Lighthouse ...| 58 55 20| 5 33 40
Little Feisteen Lighthouse] 58 49 30} 5 30 55
Joederens Point, beacon...| 58 45 45} 5 30 30
Obrestadbrekka, Light ...} 58 39 830] 5 33 30
Warhoug, Church............ 58 86 88| 5 87 15
Ekersund, Church ......... boa OliE 6 10: 20

Vibberodden Lt.-ho. [3]) 58 25 5| 5 59 35 |} 14 15
Ekeré, Lighthouse ......... 58 25 50] 5 52 O
Varnes Lighthouse ......... 58 10 385; 6 87 46
Lister Lighthouse on Gun-

PBSOUE, sc .ccscccnsascoxs 58 6 380! 6 34 10
Lindesnes or Naze, Light-

MESS eng tote cnet wonaces ony 67 59 0} 7 3 O} 18 80
Ryvingen, Lighthouse...... 57 58 5] 7 29 40
Helled, beacons .....esecees Doe OUrDul) wie Ole
Christiansand, Church......| 58 9 Oj; 759 50/18 O
Odderé, Lighthouse ......... 68 810) 8 0 50
Ox6, Lighthouse ..... Gace 58 425] 8 38 35)

Ulvé, Outer beacon ...... scl 08) 6 50) Sts 5
Justé, Beacon on Reier-

BEIGE ocncscducebesseddcssdoss 58 11 50| 8 23 45
Homborgé, Gronningen|

MAGHELOUSE:)) ..i.0c.00-...0- | 58 15 22' 8 3215
Grimstad, Light ............ 58 20 40! 8 36 30 |
Torungen, Outer Lightho. 58 24 5| 8 47 45

8

Inner Lighthouse......... | 58 24 50 48 0|
| i

22 GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.

NORWAY AND SWEDEN.

] | :
VAR. |}
| AN Oe LONG. E. | WEST, AUTHORITIES.
| 1895. |
° ’ " ° U " ain:
Sandvigodden Lighthouse} 58 26 15; 8 47 25 | The TRIGONOMETRICAL SUR-
TromonOhurchis.t dieses sees ee 58) 27 (0) "8 52) 15 yzy, &c., as before stated.
Trom6 Sund, Bonden bea- |
con at entrance............ 58 31 20 | 8 59 50
Sandé6, cone beacon at N.E.
TT ay een 58 86 5| 9 5 20 | 12 25 |
Osterrisér, Stangholmen
TA SAEROUSEs 2330. 00ds00s00e- 58 42 40} 915 O |
Sondelov, Church............ 58.46 0) || ©9 to 12
Krager6é, South end of town) 58 52 0| 9 24 45 The TRIGONOMETRIcAL SuR-
Jomfruland Lighthouse ...) 58 52 10 | 9 36 15 | 12 10 | vy, by Lieut. Schie, Messrs.
Langétangen, Lighthouse] 58 59 45 | 9 45 50 Diriks and Wille, &c.
Frederiksvern, Staverns6
PAgHEWGUSS. .seccesscereses 58 59 85 | 10 8 35
Svenéer Lighthouse ...... 58 58 25 | 10 9 20 |
Little Ferder Lighthouse} 59 1 50 | 10 82 0
Fulehuk Lighthouse......... 59 10 45 | 10 36 20 |
CHRISTIANIA, New Obser- i
WALOEN eonwecern sen -neeaues= wen 59 54 48 | 10 43 38 | 11 35
Torbiornskier, Light ...... 58 59 50 | 10 47 20
North Koster Lighthouse] 58 54 15 | 11 0 27
DOSCISKEEE ceercerecsnsencecense 58 46 35 | 11 59 50
Stromstad Church ......... 58 56°18. | Pf 11-0
Waderobod, Lighthouse ...| 58 82 45 | 11 2 15
Hallé Lighthouse ............ 58 20 15 | 11 13 20
Maseskar Lighthouse ...... 58 5 43 | 11 20 10
Marstrand, Carlsten Light) 57 58 40 | 11 85 0
Winga Lighthouse ......... 57 38 0O| 11 36 30 | 10 45
Gotheborg Church ......... 57 41 55 | 11 55 40
CoPENHAGEN, New Obser- |
UEMOEY sey saneape sche acisees dle 55 44 14 | 12 34 48 | if 6
NOTES.

1. Coast or Norway.—The Trigonometrical Survey of the Western Coasts of Norway,
to the northward of Trondhjem, was commenced by Lieut. Vibe, assisted by Lieuts.
Paludan and Hagerup, in June, 1828, by order of the Norwegian Government. It was
continued by those officers, under the direction of Capt. Vibe, to the frontiers of Russian
Lapland, till 1849. Their elaborate charts, published at intervals, between 1835 and 1849,
show the extraordinary features of this coast—a complete labyrinth of islets and rocks—
of which all written descriptions must utterly fail in giving any notion. We have given
the positions of the more prominent landmarks, but there are few points which can be made ~
available for the mariner’s use, except the information afforded by their valuable charts.

2. TRoNDHJEM, &.—The ancient cathedral of Trondhjem or Drontheim, once one of
the finest in Europe, was the northern limit of the survey carried on by the Danish
Government.

The coasts to the South were trigonometrically and astronometrically surveyed by
Commissioner N. A. Vibe, before mentioned, assisted by Lieut. D’Aubert and Captain
C. F. Grove, as far as Stavanger and Egefield. The charts issued under Admiral Klint
(@ well-known name), leave little to be desired, and the nature of the country, the

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS. 23

geological formation being of primary gneiss, granite, and other very hard rocks, will
prove that but little change can arise from the wear of the sea.

3. EXERSUND oR EacErsunD, &c.—The charts of the South Coast of Norway, between
Eglefield and Jedderen and Christiansand, were published in 1800. The triangulation
was carried on by the same officers as before mentioned, Captains Grove and Vibe, and
Lieut. D’Aubert.

This section of the coast is dependant on the positions of Stavanger and Christiansand
Churches. Lindersnes, or the Naze of Norway, as it is generally called, was made by
the triangulation to be in latitude 57° 58’ 0” N. By the astronomical observations of
Messrs. Rich and Vibe, in 1781, 57° 58’ 48” N.

Between Ekersund and Christiansand, the triangulation was re-examined in 1855-6, by
Lieutenant Schie, assisted by Herr C. Diriks and Lieutenant H. Wille; between Arendal
and Jomfruland, these operations were carried on by the same officers in 1853-5. The
portion of coast between Arendal and Christiansand was examined in 1854-5, by Herr
Diriks and Lieutenant Wille, under Major Vibe.

The VARIATION of the Compass is now decreasing on the Coast of Norway at the rate of
about 9’ per annum.

5. DENMARK, GERMANY, HOLLAND, AND BELGIUM.

VAR.
LAT. N. LONG. E. | WEST, AUTHORITIES.
1895.
re D ° ! ” ° , ” ie) !
West Coast oF DENMARK. Charts: published’ bythe
Skagen or Skaw Point, New DANISH GOVERNMENT.
PAPHENOUSE..0....cncssceenes 57 44 20 | 10 38 20 | 11 80
Hirtshals, Lighthouse...... 57 85 0} 9 56 38
Lékken, Lifeboat-house ...| 57 22 0| 9 42 80
Bolbierg Bluff (360 ft.) ....57 9 7| 9 2 30
Hanstholm, Lighthouse ...| 57 6 45 | 8 86 O | 12 50
Klitmélle, Beacon ......... Dosa OP moma 0 :
Lodberg, Lighthouse ...... 56 49 O| 8 15 45
Ron Channel, entrance ...' 56 48 O| 8 13 20
30vbierg Head, Lighthouse} 56 30 40 | 8 6 45
ey Church! .....0.csess008 56 17 80; 81015) 18 5
Ringkidbing Church,5 miles
BAMEANG Wersitsleiiers/scc's enicmisias 5/0 1c 56 5 80) 815 O
Nymind Gab, entrance .... 55 47 6 | 8 11 25
Blaavands Huk, Lightho.| 55 83 80; 8 5 10
Horn Reef, outer patch, 10
BOER sec Senacccxasasencacs 55 32 30| 741 5
Horn Reef Lightvessel| 55 33 10 | 7 19 380
Hjerting, landing-place ...| 55 31 35 | 8 21 10 | 12 40
Fané, Nordby Northbeacon| 55 27 45 | 8 28 30
Mane Church ........0.000+. 55 16 10] 8 382 30
Romé, St. ClemensChurch| 55 6 55 | 8 382 45
Sylt Island, Albue Head,
Lighthouse..........0.00 55 38 20| 8 24 10 | 12 50
Réde Klif, or Red Cliff |
Marhthouses.cs..2.25500 54 56 55 | 8 20 30
Hornum Odde, Beacon...| 54 45 10 | 817 O |
Amrum, St. Clemens |
Church at Nebel ...... 54 89 22 | 8 21 35
Lighthouse at South end 54 38 0/| 8 21 30 |

24

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.

DENMARK, GERMANY, AND HOLLAND.

———

VAR.
LAT. N. | LONG. E. | WEST, AUTHORITIES.
1895.
\
° ' " ° ! "” ° !
Fohr Island, Wyk Church] 54 41 25 | 8 34 12 Charts published by the
Dagebill Harbour Lights) 54 43 50 | 8 41 40 DaNIsH GOVERNMENT.
Husum Church..........csee0 54 28 45 | 9 310! 12 15
Ording Church ...... Eacecrees 54 20 15 | 8 36 25
Eiderstedt, Hitz Bank
BEGCON! fo-s2->orese-sesennes 541715} 8 39 20
Ténning, South Church ...| 54 18 55 | 8 56 30
Biisum Harbour ..... evens 54 740] 8 51 50
Helgoland, Lighthouse ...| 54 10 59 | 753 0, 12 55
Bésch Sand Beacon ...[1]| 54 4 385 | 8 38 45 The Surveys made by the
Elbe River, Outer Light- GERMAN ADMIRALTY.
VOSBOLINO Fle cecascsbenwe 54 1015), Sielo 208 | el2nSsbn)
Scharhérn Beacon ...... 538 57 10! 8 24 35 |
Neuwerk Lighthouse ...| 53 54 55 | 8 29 55
Kiel or Ball Beacon ...| 53 53 30 | 8 41 25
Cuxhaven, Lighthouse...} 53 52 28 | 8 42 45
Gluckstadt, Pier Light...| 53 47 10 | 9 24 45
Autona, Observatory ...| 53 32 45 | 9 56 39 | 11 45
Hampure, Observatory] 53 33 5 | 9 58 81 |
Weser River, Outer Light- |
Sidi eecccceecccdscesssereee 538 54 15} 7 49 20 |
Rother Sand Lighthouse} 53 51 20| 8 5 5
Hohe Weg Lighthouse...} 53 42 50 | 8 14 40
Meyers Legde Lightho.| 538 43 30 | 8 24 30
Longwarden Church ...| 53 36 20 | 8 18 382
Bremerhaven, Lightho.| 53 33 20 | 8 383 45 | 12 30
Bremen, Observatory ...| 53 4 388} 8 49 O
Jade River, Minsener Olde!
GOS MCRCOR ees cs0s000% 53 46 30 | 8 O 55
Schillighorn Lighthouse] 53 42 25 | 8 1 30)
WILHELMSHAVEN Obser-
ViLLOMVieteneeinesisisee ces cece 58 81 52| 8 8 48| 12 45
Wangeroog Lighthouse 53 47 28 | 7 58 59 |
W@lnimehtien. eine cok ueecssces «i Be Cup BOL Fei ay)
Spikeroog, Beacon near
MILE adi totecoeuce truant 53 46 80 | 7 42 40 |
Langeroog, North beacon
FIG AT VIAZE ...scecesercnas 58 4510] 7 29 0 |
Baltrum. village at W. end] 53 43 45 | 7 22 10
Norderney Beacon ......... 58 42 40| 7 9 30} 138 15)
SEMI 5. 6f ok 5c vcsheaslestoes 538 42 30| 7 8 35
Juist, Eastern Village...... 538 40 40] 7 0 O
Coast oF Hoxanp. [2]
Borkum, Lighthouse ...... 58 85 20 | 6 40 16] 18 25 The Great TRIANGULATION
PACU, FLOURO....s0ec0s0000 53 82 25 | 6 381 46 by Baron Krayenhoff, and the
Delfzyl Church............+2- 53 19 58 | 6 55 38 Surveys made by Admiral
Emden, West Church...... 58 92) Ded Beale Ryk, Captains Keuchenius,
Schiermonnik-oog, High Van Rhyn, &c.
TIPHLNOUSES sccacessessss0s 53 2919 | 6 9 42)
Ameland, Hollum Church
DOWD )S:35 thes disecesavecstant 53 26 5 88 15 | |

Ce

GHOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS. 25
COAST OF HOLLAND.
; | :
VAR.
LAT. N. LONG. E. WEST, AUTHORITIES.
1895.
|
te} , " ce] ’ Eh et ° ’
Ameland, North Lightho.| 53 27 0] 5 37 20 The Great TRIANGULATION
Terschelling, | Brandaris by Baron Krayenhoff, and the
METTIVONOUSC..¢.-s-cccc0saece 53 21 40 | 5 12 54 Surveys made by Admiral
Harlingen, W. Ch. Tower] 53 10 29 | 5 24 45 Ryk, Captains Keuchenius,
Vlieland, Lighthouse near | Van Rhyn, &e.
East end..........0. «.-.| 65 17 48} 5 3 31} 14 20 |
Posthuis near West end) 53 16 5) 5 58 40 |
Franeker Steeple ............ 538 1114| 5 32 42
Makkum, Church Tower...| 53 3 37] 5 23 59
Bolsward, Church Tower] 53 38 55} 5 31 35
Hindeloopen, Tower ...... 52 56 87 | 5 23 57
Stavoren, Church Tower...| 52 52 57 | 5 21 39 |
Urk Island, Church Tower] 52 39 46 | 5 35 88
Vollenhoven, Station ...... 52 40 538 | 5 57 4
Muiden Church............ ca} 52 19 64 | 5 4 17
Amsterdam, West Tower of | |
Cian i ee [3]| 52 22 82} 453 2| 14 25
Marken Island, Light ...... 52°27 31/25 8-30" |
Enkhuisen, Church Tower] 52 42 15 | 5 17 35 | |
Wieringen Island, Ooster-
land Tower......s++. vesseee| 52 55 55) 5 0 40
Eyerland, Lighthouse at
RARE IOI so cdeccseseecesene 53:11 0 | -4)-51):30
Texel, Oostereind Church] 58 5 5]! 4 5238
Hoorn, Church Tower...| 58 1380); 4 45 5 |
Willemsoord, Time Signal
OH) ESIACE....:00-.0s+00. [4]| 52 57 50| 4 46 36 | 14 30
Kykduin Lighthouse ...... 52 57 5 | 4 43 20
Calandsoog Steeple... ...... 52 49 55 | 4 41 50
Egmond-aan-Zee, Lightho.| 52 87 10 | 4 87 20
Ymuiden or Noord Zee
Haven, South Pier-head|! 52 28 0| 4 34 O
Zandvoort, Lighthouse ...| 52 22 20 | 4 31 38
Nordwyk, Beacon............ 52 14 45 | 4 26 O
anwyk, Light ...........0... 5212 2] 4 23 28
Leen, Observatory...[5]| 52 920]; 429 3 | 14 30
Scheveningen, Lighthouse] 52 610/ 416 0
Hook of Holland Canal, |
North mole-head Light) 5159 10/ 4 5 5 | |
Voorne Island, Brielle, |
Light at entrance...... 51 54 25 | 4 10 40 |
Hellevoetsluis, Time |
Signal on the Hospital| 51 49 19 | 4 7 40 | 14 35
Rotterdam, Time-ball ...... bl 54 3 4 28 51
Goedereede, Church Tower
MIG Sc sesarseats dive se cuss 5149 5| 38 58 38
Iron Beacon Light, on |
Worth sidece 640 2: 51 49 42| 38 55 45 |
Schouwen Island, Brou-
wershaven South Mill] 51 48 22 | 38 54 40
Renesse, East Lightho.| 51 44 82 | 3 47 45

Lighthouse at West end’ 51 42 33 8 41 30.
Zierikzee, Great Tower 5139 2 8 54 52)

DerA- O.

26 GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.

HOLLAND AND BELGIUM.

| VAR.
| LAT. N. LONG. E. | WEST, AUTHORITIES.
| 1895.
| ° mou ° baw, Of Frail
Walcheren Island, Veere The Great TRIANGULATION
Great Tower .........2.. 51 382 52 | 38 40 2 by Baron Krayenhoff, &c.
West Kapelle, Light......) 5IBL 46.) 8 OF 0
Middelburg Tower ...... 51 30 0} 8 36 55
Flushing or Vlissingen,
Time Signal ............ | 5126 85 8 385 48 | 14 50
|
BELGIUM.
Antwerp, Cathedral Tower, 51 138 20 | 4 24 10 |_ The French GovERNMENT
BrvussELs, Royal Observa- | Surveys, &c.
BOE Mina seb siaenecercselees [6]| 50 51 11 | 4 22 18) 14 25
is leyycirs ILS) ey hceaececessnecceeee 51 20 25 | 3 14 20
Blankenberg, Lighthouse 5118 50; 38 7 5
Ostende, Lighthouse East
GM AR bOUT een-.sessaecnsnen 511415 | 2 55 45 | 15 20
Nieuport, Lighthouse ...... | 51 9 30| 2 48 55
NOTES.

1. Expt anp WEsER Rivers.—The details given in the Table are taken from the
Surveys of these entrances, made by the German Admiralty, based on the triangulation
of Professors Gauss and Schumacher. The longitudes are dependent on that of the well-
known Observatory at Altona.

2. Hoxiuanp.—The charts of the Coast of Holland are based upon the great triangula-
tion of that country, by Lieut.-General C. R. T. Krayenhoff, the account of which was
published in 1813. Upon the points thus established, the coasts and channels about
Vlieland, Ameland, &c., were surveyed by the late Capt.-Lieut. S. J. Keuchenius, published
in 1831-34 ; the Texel Channels, by Lieut. A. Van Rhyn, 1840; the Zuider Zee, by the
game, in 1841; the Schelde Channels, by the late Vice-Admiral J. E. Ryk, 1841; Goeree
and the Maas, by the same, in 1827; and Brouwershaven Gat, by Captain Keuchenius,
1826. These fine Surveys were deserving of all confidence, and have been re-examined
and amended in later years by other officers.

3. AMSTERDAM.—The triangulation of Baron Krayenhoff was dependent on the position
of the western tower of the Cathedral of Amsterdam, which was considered to be in
longitude 4° 53’ 16°86” E. Its longitude, by electric signal, appears to be as shown,
4° 53' 2:55" KE. By a Government Notice, dated August 1st, 1826, Greenwich was named
as the prime meridian for Netherlands hydrography.

4. Time S1enazs have been established at Willemsoord for the Nieuwe Diep, at Helle-
voetsluis, and at Flushing, all in electric connection with the Observatory at Leiden.

5. Lerpen.—The National Observatory of Leiden was established in 1854, under
Professor Kaiser. Its longitude was obtained by electric telegraph time-signals, between
Paris and Leiden, and fixed at 17™ 56-60* in time, or 4° 29’ 9-0" E. in are, but by a very
careful determination, deduced from a great number of telegraphic signals made with
Greenwich, in the autumn of 1880, by M. M. Bakhuyzen, it is considered to be in
4° 29' 3" BE.

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS. 27

6. BrusseLs.—The Observatory at Brussels was considered, by the observations con-
ducted therein, to be in latitude 50° 51’ 10°7”, iongitude 0" 17™ 29-0* in time, East of
Greenwich. Although this position may not affect those of the coast, which were obtained
by an independent process of triangulation, yet the change in the assumed longitude of
the Observatory of Paris, with corresponding alterations in the relative connexions
between that and other observatories, affect the longitudes of places on the coasts, in
such a minute degree, it is true, that it is perfectly inappreciable by means at the ordinary
sailor’s command; yet it is noticed here to show to what refinement these operations are
earried on. It will also demonstrate the almost insuperable difficulty there is in arriving
at an exact conclusion. This subject has been alluded to in connexion with the Edinburgh
Observatory, and will be hereafter with that of Paris.

In 1859, a series of instantaneous electric signals was made to connect the Observatories
of Brussels, Berlin, Altona, &c.; and the longitude of Brussels, as given by M. Quetelet,
came out as 17™ 28°98, or 4° 17’ 30°5” Hast of Greenwich—a very close approximation to
the independent assumption. Later observations, however, have determined the position
as given in the Table.

The Variation of the Compass is now decreasing on the Coasts of Denmark, North
Germany, &c., at the rate of 74’ per annum.

6. COASTS OF FRANCE.

VAR.
LAT. N. LONG. E. | WEST, AUTHORITIES.
1895.

NoRTBERN Coast. [2]
Paris, Observatory...... [1]| 48 50 11 | 2 20 15 | 14 55 The FrENcH GOVERNMENT

Belgian Frontier, Corps de SURVEYS originated from the
ERPGLEM inca soudcsssasssocesese 51 5 20} 2 82 50 triangles intended merely for
Bergues, great spire........., 50 58 8| 2 26 30 the admeasurement of the
Dunkirk, Belfry tower...... 51 212] 2 22 87 | 15 25 | degrees of the meridian in
Heuguenaar Tower ...... 51 228) 2 22 50 France, but ultimately carried
Cassel, Western Mount ...| 50 48 1] 215 48 on throughout the kingdom.
Gravelines, Church spire...| 50 59 10| 2 7 44 These were commenced by
Oye, Station in Survey ...| 50 58 48 | 2 2 82 M. Picard, who effected an ad-
Calais Spire ....sessseceeeesee| 50 57 383 | 151 9 | 15 40 | measurement between Paris
Lighthouse........... susecee! JOLOL 45), 9 51S 20 and Amiens in 1669, and
Coquelles, West Mill ...... 50 55 41 | 1 47 53 finally completed by Messrs.
Cape Blanc-Nez ........ .-| 50 55 83 | 1 42 34 Mechain and Delambre, in
Mont Couple, summit...... 50) 52) £7 1 42 20 1798; after having exercised
Cape Gris-Nez, Lighthouse] 50 52 10} 135 0 the abilities and industry of
Ambleteuse, Windmill ...| 50 48 45 1 36 40 M. Cassini the elder, his son,
Boulogne, Colonne de la and grandson; and since then
Grande Armée ......... 50 44 31} 187 O| 15 45 |of MM. Miraldi and de la
BEROEELS «Cocca voaccensntes 50 43 8 1 36 53 Caille, with other of the most
Cape d’Alprec’h, Lightho.] 50 41 57 1 33 50 eminent French astronomers,
Lorne] Point ........ sivtoness (00 c0,00)| 134 36 &c., up to the present time.
Etaples Church ....... caexe] 00 S062.) Ff 88°35
Touquet, South Light...... 50 81 23 | 1 35 35
Berck, Lt. on Haut-Banc} 50 23 52| 1 83 24
Cayeux, Lighthouse......... 560 11 42;'} 181 O
St. Valery-sur-Somme, Lt.| 50 11 30] 1 87 40
Tréport Steeple...............| 50 3 89 {/ 1 22 30 |
Dieppe, Semaphore......... 49 56 0) 91 “5 35
St. Jacques Church ......1 49 55 85| 1 438. 15 50 |

28

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.

NORTH COAST OF FRANCE.

Pointe d’Ailly, Lighthouse
St. Valery en Caux, Chapel
Fécamp Abbey ...ccscseeseees
Cape d’Antifer .....sssseoees
Cape La Héve, N. Lightho.
Le Havre, Steeple of Notre

DAME <.....ccrccccnsccevesees
Honfleur, Western Light...
Rouen, Bridge ...cccccscseeee

Oyestreham Church.........
Pointe de Ver, Light ......
Port en Bessin, Light......
St. Marcouf Isles, Lightho.
Fort La Hougue, Lightho.
Cape Barfleur, Lighthouse
Cape Levi, Lighthouse
Cherbourg, Central Fort on
the Digue ...... scvccccccces
Querqueville Spire ......+4.
Cape La Hague, Lightho.
Alderney, Braye Harbour,
SMG Ot MIGIE assesses cores
Casquets, Lighthouse
Guernsey, St. Pierre North
PP OE OAC wieccovevasese- sees
Hanois Rocks, Lighthouse
Jersey; St. Helier, Eliza-
beth Castle........... “5
Corbiére Rocks Lightho.
Chausey Island, Lightho.
Cape Carteret, Lighthouse
Granville, Lighthouse......
St. Malo, Light...............
Cape Frehel, Lighthouse...
Le Rohinet Islet ..... aceeuse
Caper ed Tigi. smmescesns ations
Les Comtesses, Western
ROCK Facer cotdeele saan gueates
Grand Léjon Rock, Lt.-ho.
Harbour Isle, off St. Quay
Isle Bréhat, Paon Point
THENTHOUSO Si csdcasececssese
Héaux de Bréhat, Lightho.
Roches Douvres, Lightho.
Tréguier River, La Corne
Rock Lighthouse .........
Les Sept Les, Lighthouse
Triagoz Lighthouse ......+..
Tle de Bas, Lighthouse near
the West end......s.cceeve .|
Pointe de Pontusval, Licht-
house

Cero eer eee eee eeeereeerne

LONG.

VAR.
WEST,
1895.

16 10 |

17 15

Were

17 25

AUTHORITIBS.

The FReNcH GOVERNMENT
SURVEYS.

The Survey by Captain
Martin White, R.N., and Mr,
Richards, &e.

The excellent Surveys of
the Coast by the French En-
gineers, under the direction of
M. Beautemps Beaupré, in
1830—1831, and later surveys.

+ PR eS

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.

99

WEST COAST OF FRANCE.

AUTHORITIES.

The Hyprocrapuic Sur-
veys of the Western Coasts
of France, made by the French
Engineers, under the direc-
tion of M. Beautemps Beau-
pré, with later observations.

REMARKS.

It is to be remarked, that the
longitudes, as given in the Con-
naissance des Temps, compared
with those in the Charts of the
Piloie Francais, constructed be-
tween 1816 and 1827, under the
direction of M. Beautemps Beau-
pré, showed a difference amount-
ing to, at the least, 51-5", the
former Survey being so much
less, which was occasioned by
the later determination of the
geographical position of Crozon,
near Brest, as explained in the
The longitudes given in
the Table are corrected.

VAR.
LAT. N. | LONG. W. | WEST,
1895.
° ! ” ° Uy " | ° ,
Chenal du Four, Lightho. 48 8120| 448 5 |
Ouessant, or Ushant, N.E.|
Lighthouse ........ aco 48 28 30 | 5 38 15 | 18 15
Tue Bay or Biscay.
Les Pierres Noires Light-

RMEUISCWectcnsesseccctcceccs ces 48 18 40 | 4 54 45
Lampaul Church .......... | 48 33 40 | 4 39 15)
Kermorvan, Lighthouse ...| 45 21 44 | 4 47 15
St. Mathieu, Lighthouse...| 48 19 49 | 4 46 10
Portzic, Lighthouse ......... 48 21 88 | 4 82 15
Brest, St. Louis Church...| 48 23 20 | 4 29 80! 17 65
Mrozon Church .......:.si-... 48 14 48 | 4 29 20
Toulinguet Point Lightho.! 48 16 45 | 4 387 45
Tevennec Rock Lighthouse| 48 4 20] 4 47 40
Bee du Raz, West extreme! 48 222] 4 44 20
Ile de Sein, Lighthouse ...| 48 235 | 4 51 55
Ar-men Rock, Lighthouse| 48 3 0| 4 59 50/18 5
Penmare’h Lighthouse 47 47 53 | 4 22 25
Peniret Lighthouse ......... 47 43 17 | 3 57 10 | 17 380
Tle de Groix, Western Lt.-

‘LILES oe eee 47 38 55 | 3 80 30 |
Port Louis, East point of note.

EUDEAMCOR pees-css<cccsccseee 47 42 45 | 3 21 45
Belle Ile, Lighthouse on

ENON. s <ivvasassces 4718 43 | 3 3 838/17 0

Lighthouse off North end} 47 23 20 | 815 5
Grands Cardinaux, Lt.-ho.| 47 19 20 | 250 5
Le Four, Lighthouse ...... 4717 50} 238 0
Aiguillon, Lighthouse ...... 47 14 40 | 215 45
Saint Nazaire, entrance ...| 47 16 80 | 2 ld 40
Pilier, Lighthouse............ 47 2380] 2 21 30
Ile d’Yeu, Lighthouse ...... 46 438 5 | 2 22 55 | 16 35
St. Gilles sur Vie, Mole Lt.| 46 41 46 1 56 45
La Chaume, Lighthouse...| 46 29 42 | 1 47 50
Sables d’Olonne, Jetty Lt.- i

OIG ee 46 29 30 | 1 47 20
Tle de Ré, Baleine Lt.-ho.| 46 14 44 | 1 33 40

Port of St. Martin ...... 46 12 26 | 122 0
Port de la Pallice, North

Pier Light ............ wee--| 46 935 | 118 80 |
Rochelle, Harbour Light...| 46 921{| 1 9 0} 16 10
Le d’Oleron, Chassiron Lt.- | |

IGHEG! cccsccecacacoceosceestes] 46 2 52) 1 24 87
Ile d’Aix, Harbour Light...| 46 0 86 | 1 10 35
Pointe de la Coubre, Light} 45 41 40 | 1 15 20
Port of Royan, Light ...... 45 37 18! 1 1 35
Cordouan Lighthouse ...... 45 35 14 | 1 10 20
Pauillac, Harbour Light...| 45 11 55 | 0 44 40
Borpeavx, Observatory ...| 44 50 17 | 0 81 21] 15 80 t

St. André Church...... -..| 44 50 16 | O 384 30
Pointe de Grave, Lightho.| 45 84 10 | 1 8 55
Hourtin Lighthouse ......,45 825! 1 9 40

30 GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.

WEST COAST OF FRANCE.

a a a

_
¢

VAR.
LAT. N. | LONG. W. | WEST, AUTHORITIES.
1895.
1 RR a ]
° ro ° LL ° '
Cap Ferret, Lighthouse ...| 44 38 30] 1 14 50 The FrencH HyDROGRAPHIO
Contis, Lighthouse ......... 44 545] 119 0 SURVEYS.
Cap Breton, Lighthouse ...| 43 39 20] 1 26 40
River Adour, Outer Light 3 31 386] 1 31 10
Bayonne, Bridge ......... 43 29 40} 1 28 10
Biarritz, Lighthouse......... 43 29 38] 133 0
Socoa, Harbour Light...... 43 23 44| 1 40 50 | 15 45
St. Jean de Luz, Jetty Lt.-
HOUSE ..seeeee pioseaasiess tase 43 23 20} 140 5)

NOTES.

1. Paris.—The grand operations, in point of aceuracy, for the determination of the length
of the degrees of the meridian, have taken place since 1783. In that year a memorial was
transmitted by M. Cassinide Thury to the Right Hon. Charles James Fox, then Secretary
of State. This application caused the operations by General Roy, already explained,
which afterwards extended into a General Survey. This gentleman, in England, acted in
conjunction with Messrs. Cassini, Mechain, and Legendre, in France; but it unfortunately
happened that the results of the two parties did not exactly agree—that of the British
being, for the difference of longitude, 2° 19’ 51”, while that of the French was 2° 20’ 15”.

In order to determine this question, the subject was resumed in 1821, on the suggestion
of the French authorities. The operations were consequently repeated under the direction
of commissioners, nominated respectively by the Academy of Sciences and the Royal
Society. An account of the operations and results were given in the ‘“‘ Transactions” of
the latter, and the determination was that 2° 20’ 22” was the difference between the
meridians of Paris and Greenwich. It was also attempted, in 1825, by the respective
governments on a plan suggested, we believe, by the late Sir John Herschel, and Captain
(afterwards General Sir Edward) Sabine, and Colonel Bonne, of simultaneous observa-
tions of rocket signals at a chain of stations; but they failed on the French side, and the
result, 2° 20’ 22’, was not considered satisfactory.

Notwithstanding the immense labour and consummate skill employed in these measure-
ments, the results obtained were doubtful, and it was reserved for the private means of a
commercial association to make another attempt to settle the question by means of the
electric telegraph. The death of M. Arago delayed the French preparations which were
organized when M. le Verrier became Superintendent of the Paris Observatory, and
several thousand signals were transmitted in 1854, so many, in fact, that a large portion
were rejected, leaving 1,700, or nearly 2,000, which were thought unexceptionable. Each
observation was probably as accurate as the mean of all former observations, and the
means of all showed previous results to be in error nearly a second of time (a large
quantity in astronomy).

The mean result of these electric observations was that the D. L. between Greenwich
and Paris Observatories is 9™ 20-633 of time, or 2° 20! 9- <i in are. Later observations,
however, place it in 2° 20’ 15”,

We have been more diffuse, perhaps, than necessary on this point, but it is one of
the most important geodetical operations ever undertaken.

GHOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS. 31

2. The re-examination of the Northern Coasts of France and the triangulated Survey
of the Western shores was originated in 1814, by a memorial addressed to Louis XVIII.
by Admirals Rosily and Rossel, but from political events it was not commenced till 1816,
and then M. Beautemps Beaupré started the survey frou Brest. The triangulation was
based upon the carefully observed position of the Tour de Crozon, and carried out by
M. Daussy down to the frontiers of Spain. The noble Atlas is the best eulogy that can
be presented for these important works.

The Variation of the Compass is now decreasing on the Coast of France, at the rate of

about 7’ 30 per annum.

7. COASTS OF

LAT. N.

Nort Coast or Spain. [1]
Cape La Higuera, Lightho.| 43 23 20

PEIEM ETL ADIA ...6..c0cceeceeee 43 21 46
Port Pasages, Cape La Plata:

PAMAGOUSE.....0:c0cerees00s | 43 20 5
San Sebastian, Mt. Igualdo

THIHEDOUSE..0..2.000ccreeees 43 19 17
Guetaria, Lighthouse ...... 43 19 0O
Motrico, Atalaya .........0 43 19 30
Cape Machichaco, Light-

[DOREEO condom Gone Ener eCenoEe 43 27 45
Punta Galea, Lighthouse...| 43 22 36
Boriuealete ......0.2...sc0000 43 20 0
Bilbao, Arenal Bridge...... 43 16 10
Castro Urdiales, Santa Ana

Gastle Light. .....60..6.000. 42 24 10

Santofia, Lighthouse on
N.E. Pescador Point...... 43 28 30

Cape Ajo, extreme ......... 43 31 30
Santander, Mouro Island

Lighthouse.........2..4.- 43 28 37

PETG OU ssccsseccssecsseacees 48 27 52

Cape Mayor, Lighthouse...| 43 29 45
San Martin de la Arena,
Torco de Afuera Light! 43 26 49
Suances Church ......... 43 26 10
Cape Oyambre, extreme ...| 43 25 15
San Vicente dela Barquera,
PISHGROUSE....2-.026---005- 48 24 45
Llanes, Lighthouse ......... 43 26 30
Cape Prieto, N.W. extreme) 43 28 48
Sella River, Somos Point

TAGHthHOUSE........2cecceeeee 43 31 0
Cape Lastres........+...+0.04. 43 34 20
Gijon, Santa Catalina Point

Dighthouse...........000 43 35 30

Mpe TOrres: .2...0..0s00000 43 37 0

Cape Pefias, Lighthouse...| 43 42 0
Aviles River, Lighthouse...| 43 88 5

SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.

| VAR.
| LONG. W. WEST, AUTHORITIES,
| 1895.
|
pea ib sarhoht
oO , " ° t

147 50/15 50; The valuable Surveys of

1 47 30 Don Vicente Tofifio and Don
Josef Varela, of the Spanish
1 56 380 Marine, and of Major Fran-

zini, of the Portuguese Royal

0 43 | 16 © | Engineers, corrected by later
13 0 observations of M. Saulnier
94 45 de Vauhello, Captain Florez,
Captain W. H. Smyth, R.N.,
49 296 116 5 | and others,

47 6) 16 30

He He HS He He He G2 9 OD oo G9 oo bo 09 09 bo www
oo
4
o

Ov Or Or Or Or or
1S)
io 0)
ow
a
“1
iw)
i=)

32 GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS

COASTS OF SPAIN.

Cudillero, Revallera Point
Light ...cccscsscecescssssees
Cape Bidio, extreme ......
Cape Busto, Lighthouse...
Ria de Navia, Campel Point
Orrio de Tapia Island, Lt.-
GUGE <vessasteccnecesetanress
Rivadeo, Pancha Island
Lighthouse........-.++0.-++-
Foz, Point de los Cairos..
San Ciprian, Lighthouse...
Port Vivero, Socastro Point
Estaca Point, Lighthouse
Cape Ortegal, extreme......
Candelaria Point, Tower..
Cedeira, Robaleira Point
Lighthouse........sssseceeee
Cape Prior, Lighthouse ...
Cape Priorifio, Lighthouse
Ferrol, West Mole...... [2]
Corufia, Tower of Hercules
teh eaten sseeveceteees ors
St. Antonio Castle ......
Sisargas Islands, Lt.-house

on Isla Mayor ........-0-. |

Cape Villano, Lighthouse
Camarifas, Mole ............

West Coast oF SPAIN.

Cape Torifiana, N. extreme
Cape Finisterre, Lighthouse
on South extreme.........
Corcubion, Lt. on Cape Cé
Remedios Point, extreme...
Muros Bay, Queijal Point
Lighthouse........+0+2ss2++
Qape Corrobedo, Lightho.
Arosa Bay, Santa Eugenia
Chparcha sic sacesensanneen
Salvora Island, Light on
South point .........
Carril Church ............
Arosa Island, Light on
North point ........++..
Onza Island, Lighthouse...
Pontevedra Bay, Cape Udra
Pontevedra, centre ......
Bayona or Cies rage
Caballo, or N. Point..
Middle Island, Light on
Mount Faro ............
Boeiro Island, off South

CN cecocee eeeeeesesseooossss

|
|
| LONG. W.

baraeiag

CW liad baka uke whe,

43 36 10| 6 8 80
43 87 45 615.15
43 36 10| 6 27 30
43 34 45 6 48 15
43 35 36 6 56 26
43 384 40; 7 4 15
43 35 45 7 14 380
43 48 0 7 25 45
43 48 28 7 36 30
43 47 15 7 41 30
43 46 10 7 54 380
43 4210| 8 2 20
43 39 O 8 410
43 33 40} 8 18 30
43 27 30 8 20 15
43 28 35 8 14 25
48 23 15 | 8 24 20
4392 0| 8 23 15
43 21 45 8 50 20
43 9 50 9 12 58
43 8 0} 911 30

43 420;| 917 45
42 52 59 | 9 15 24
42 5450; 910 5
42 4745; 9 815

424410; 9 4 0

42 34 30| 9 4 48
42 33 0)| 9 58 45
42 2810; 9 O 26
42 36 40 | 8 45 30
42 34 8| 8 52 30
42 22 30 | 8 55 30

4220 0} 8 49 15
42 25 30 | 8 87 50

42 14 50| 8 53 25
42 12 30 | 8 53 54
42 10 12 | 8 52 56 |

_

17 50

ers
j
|
|

18 15

18 20

18 30

AUTHORITIES.

The Charts published by the
SPANISH GOVERNMENT, &c.

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS. 33

COASTS OF SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.

a

VAR.
LAT. N. | LONG. W. | WEST, AUTHORITIES.
1895.
°o oot ° oon ° ,
Vigo Bay, Cape Hombre, The Charts published by the
LS) ee AG IAT 4AS Poi) On, 0 SPANISH GOVERNMENT, &c.
Vigo, Castro Castle ...... 42 13 85 | 8 42 80/18 5
N.S. de la Guia Castle,
Ut} 4215 6] 8 41 50
Cape Sentoulo, Mount
BUCEEO) acesceas adeeesaceaate 42 850} 8 50 0
mavyous Church............... 42 645}; 849 0O
Cape Silleiro, Lighthouse} 42 6 0/|] 8 53 O
Orullada Point, extreme...| 42 -1 380] 8 53 30
Minho River, Mount St.
Tecla Chapel...... eaeaeetse 41 52 50| 8 52 15
Coast oF PoRTUGAL.
River Minho, Castillo Point] 41 51 30 | 8 52 0/18 O
Viana, Castello de Santiago} 41 41 25; 8 50 15
River Neiva, entrance...... 41 37 0} 8 47 30
Espozende, Light........ ....| 41 32 830] 8 47 O
Villa do Conde ............... 41 21 30} 8 45 O
Leixoes Harbour, Castle...| 41 11 80 | 8 42 30 f
River Douro, Light at N.S. Capt. Sir Edward Belcher,
Ga Ee .i2...+50 wees [3]| 41 9 9 | 8 40 84 R.N., 1833, and later Surveys.
Oporto, Bridge ............ 41 815] 8 36 380/ 17 50
Aveiro, Barra Nova......... 40 38 45 8 45 0
Cormpra, Observatory ...... 40 12 26 | 8 23 37
Cape Mondego, Lighthouse} 40 10 45 | 8 54 30
Peniche, Lighthouse on
Cape Carvoeiro.........+6 39 21 45 | 9 24 0
Berlengas, Light on Great
BRI ATNCaecc sec sec. maedeuscioce 39 25 2| 9 30 28 | 17 45
Farilhoens, centre............ 39 29 0} 9 81 56
Cape Roca, Lighthouse ...) 38 46 50 | 9 29 45
Tagus River, Bugio Fort
MMM eh cacaseaent~cadeceecns 38 89 20 | 917 45
Lisson, Royal Observa-
2 [4]| 88 42 81] 9 11 10| 17 30 | U.S. Officers, 1878-9.
Cape Espichel, Lighthouse] 38 24 45 | 913 0
Setubal or St. Ubes, Light
on Fort d’Outao ......... 38 29 30] 8 56 0
Cape Sines, Lighthouse ...| 37 57 80 | 8 53 0
Cape Sardao...........csccees 37 31 O]| 8 49 380
Cape St. Vincent, Convent
MR rdandaeaada coos stay sesas 87 120]. 8 57 45 | 17 10
Gorringe or Gettysburg
Bank, shoalest spot of
30 fathoms.........00. scoCoe 36 81 30 | 11 35 30 | 17 50
Lagos, Piedade Point ...... 87 440] 8 38 15
Villa Nova de Portimao...| 37 7 0}| 8 31 10
Baliera Point, Light......... 37 430] 8 15 30

Cape Santa Maria, Light...| 86 58 15 | 7 49 50 | 16 50

mR

Mm AAS O;

34 GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.

SOUTH COAST OF SPAIN.

VAR.
LAT. N. LONG. W. | WEST, AUTHORITIES.
1895.
|
O° 4 u o ern a
SoutH Coast or SPAIN.
Guadiana River, Ayamonte The Charts published by the
Mouth, Light on W. side} 37 11 10 | 7 24 O| 16 45 | SpanisH GoveRNMENT, &c.
Odiel River, Lights ......... 37 730| 649 O
Huelva, Observation
Spot near West end of
OWL Saceetecemcessaeeene se 3715 9| 657 4
Guadalquivir River, Punta
de Malandar Light ...| 36 47 30 , 6 21 20
San Lucar de Barrameda,
TOW Shy Se Seep ereceeeeeeeLeee 36 46 5 | 6 22 20
Chipiona, Light............++ 36 44 0] 6 26 30
Capiz, San Fernando Ob-
SErvatOry .......e00e- [5]| 86 27 41 | 6 12 24 | 16 20
San Sebastian Castle Lt.; 36 31 20 | 6 18 54
Cape Trafalgar, Lighthouse] 36 10 45 | 6 2 12
Punta Gracia, Tower ...... 36 5 5 | 5 48 58
Mount Sella del Papa,
summit (1,567 ft.)........- 36 616| 5 47 O
POmb ee alOmia Wesesrcse aces 386 315) 5 42 40
Tarifa, Lightho. on South
(COIR Sbacoabsncesosa space seas 35 59 47 | 5 36 45
Punta Acebuche .......0+0 36 248 | 5 28 15
Carnero Tower ..........ce0es 386 4 30 | 5 25 50
Algesiras, Verte Island Lt.| 36 715 | 5 26 16
GIBRALTAR, Dockyard Flag-
balla seers oseetencccnts [6]| 36 720 | 5 21 27/16 0
Europa Point, Victoria
Lighthouse ....ccsescecere 86 6 22 | 5 21 0
NOTES.

1. Tue Nortu Coast or Sparmn.—The whole of the North Coasts of Spain were
excellently surveyed and delineated by Don Vincente Tofifio de San Miguel, in the years
1787-91 ; at the same period that our hydrography was being enriched by the talent and
labours of Mackenzie, Spence, and others. The Spanish charts, still most useful, exhibit
the minute details of this ironbound coast with such fidelity, that but little change has
been found necessary upon re-examination. This, doubtless, is in some degree owing to
the geological structure of the country, which, devoid of sloping beaches, presents a much
more effective barrier to the degrading action of the sea; while the S.W. Coast of France,
at the bottom of the Bay of Biscay, is embarrassed by those immense collections of sand,
&ec., the débris of the coasts to the West of it, which is carried thither by the prevalent.
wind, waves, and currents.

But while the details of this Survey are so excellent, later and more correct observa-
tions show that there are some great errors in the relative position of the principal points.
This was detected, among other operations, by the early observations of M. Bory, and
perhaps by the Spanish Surveys, which were taken possession of by the French, at the
investment of Madrid. Later, the survey made by M. SAULNIER DE VAUHELLO, of the
French Marine, showed that Cape Machichaco was placed nearly 10’ too far eastward,
and other points from 4’ upwards, also too far te the East. These great errors are now,

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS. 35

if not entirely removed, so nearly adjusted, that the discrepancies are too small to affect
navigation. The positions, especially the longitudes, given in the Table, are in accordance
with the latest observations.

2. Coast oF Gaticia.—The N.W. Coast of Spain was re-examined by Captain
Don J. F. Fuorez, of the Spanish Navy, in 1835-6. His survey, with more recent
examinations, seems to show the accuracy of his predecessor Tofiiio.

8. River Douro.—This river was surveyed by Commander (afterwards Sir Edward)
Belcher, R.N., in 1833. His determinations, which coincide with those made by Admiral
Smyth, when a lieutenant, in 1811-12, served to correct the positions previously given
by Tofiio. In former editions of this work, we had to acknowledge our obligations in
this, as in many other instances, to Admiral Smyth, for his improvements in hydrography.
It is sufficient here to repeat them.

4, Lisson.—The longitude of Lisbon was assumed as 9° 8’ 40’ W., the mean result of
observations made by the astronomers De la Caille, Pingré, and Messier, of a great
number of eclipses of the first satellite of Jupiter. The occultation of a star by the moon,
October 5, 1753, with a corresponding one at Paris, gave one minute more. Captain
Owen, in the memoir of his important expeditions to Portugal and Africa, assigned to
the Arsenal of Lisbon, lat. 38° 42’ 18’ N., long. 9° 8’ 54” W., from observations made in
H.M.S. Leven, in 1819 and 1822. Later observations placed it in 9° 7’ 31°8’, and the
present charts are dependent on the latter position.

By telegraphic determinations, made by United States Officers, in 1878 and 1879, in
connection with establishing secondary meridians for the East Coast of South America,
the longitude of the dome of the Royal Observatory was ascertained to be 9° 11’ 10:2” W.
The latitude is determined to be 38° 42’ 31:25” N.

5. Capiz.—The position of the Observatory in the city of Cadiz is established as
lat. 36° 82’ 0’ N., long. 6° 17’ 30” W. The New Observatory (Observatorio Real) of San
Fernando, in the Isle of Leon, is in lat. 86° 27’ 41” N., long. 6° 12’ 24” W.

6. GIBRALTAR.—This position is important, as it affects the longitudes of the West
Coast of Africa. Mr. Charles Rumker gave the position of Europa Point, Gibraltar, as
86° 5! 15" W.—(Ledinburgh Philosophical Journal, vol. i., page 322). Captain Bauza, of
the Hydrographic Establishment at Madrid, gave Tarifa in 36° 0’. This accords with
Mr. Rumker ; but Captain Livingston made the latitude of Europa Point, by sextant and
artificial horizon, in 1820, 36° 6’ 10’, and exactly the same on another day, by the sea
horizon. Captain Smyth gave Gibraltar in lat. 36° 6’ 30” N., long. 5° 21’ 12” W.

It is to be observed that Lieutenant Raper adopted 5° 21'17" as the longitude of the
Mole (or Europa Point in 5° 22’ 0”), and this was from the observations of Capt. Smyth;
Capt. Shirreff, 5° 20’ 16”; and Capt. Vidal, 5° 21’ 42”. By telegraphic sommunication
with Malta, in 1886, the officers of H.M.S. Sylvia determined the longitude of the
Dockyard Flagstaff to be 5° 21’ 27” W.

The VariaTIon of the Compass is now decreasing on the Coasts of Spain and Partugal,
at the rate of about 6’ per annum,

Oe me es fe ee ee ee

36

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.

8. THE WEST COAST OF AFRICA.

|

VAR.
LAT. N. | LONG. W. | WEST, AUTHORITIES.
1895.
Ce eeu ° tou ° '
Ceuta, Almina Point Light) 35 53 38 | 517 3 | 15 5 Capt. C. P. de Kerhallet,
Sierra Bullones or Apes M.C.A. Vincendon-Dumoulin,
Hill (summit) ..........-- Bs) 6B) eb) |) by Pn (0) Captain Washington, Lieut.
Tangier Bay, Cape Mala- Smith, Captain T. Boteler,
bata, ToWer ...cccccccecees 385 48 50 | 5 45 O Lieutenants Wm. Arlett and
Tangier, N.E. part of town] 85 47 5 | 5 48 40 H. Kellett, R.N., Don Juan
Cape Spartel, Lightho. [1]| 85 47 0 | 5 55 16 Badia y Leblich, otherwise
ANTM diss. .cccce-cscccvcesestsese 38529 0] 6 1 O called Ali Bey, 1804, the
El Araiche, Fort ...........- 35 18 O| 6 7 30 | 16 15 | Chevalier de Borda, &ec., &e.
Old Mamora, Large Tomb) 34 55 0 | 6 17 45
Mehedia, ......ccccccccesseseeees 34 18 30 | 6 38 O
Faz or Fez....cccccccsccsccsees 34 5 0] 456 O
Mekinez ..........cscccccveseses 33 58 30 | 5 29 O
Slaa or Salee, Fort ......... 84 4 30 6 48 30
Rabat, Hassan Tower ...... 34 3 30| 648 O | 16 25
El] Mansoria........seeeees [2]| 33 46 10) 716 0
Cape Fedala .......seeeeeeeees 33 44 20 | 7.22 15
Dar-el-Beida, Ruined Fort) 33 837 0 | 7 32 50
AUZBINIOT. sie sanestaneceesssasse= 33 17 87 | 8 16 30
Mazagan, English Con-
ADU) sconpoandoanecscanoocad. 83 15 82 | 8 30 42 Comm. Dawson, R.N., 1886.
Cape Blanco North ......... 33 8 O]| 8 36 15 | 16 50
El Waladia......ccccccscsceeees 32 44 20 | 8 59 O
Cape Cantin ....cccccceceeeees 32 32 50 | 9 14 20
Asfee or Saffi, Castle ...... 82 17 56 | 9 10 47
Marocco, centre ......... [3]| 81 88 0} 7 386 O | 16 35
Suerrah or Mogador......... 31 30 52 | 9 46 30/17 5
Cape Tefelneh .............+- 31 6 O| 9 47 380
Cape Ghir or Ras Aferni...| 30 88 0| 950 0
Agadir or Santa Cruz,
Minaret ....... nacnseeactece 30 27 O]| 9 34 35
Cape Aguluh .......00. ssoseeeel 29 49 O | 9 48 30
Cape Nun or Inoon ......... 28 45 45/11 1 O
Porto Cansado, entrance...) 28 3 45 | 12 10 30
Cape Juby, Fort ............ 97.56 41 | 12.56 5 ; Commander Dawson, 1886.
False Cape Boiador......... 26 2515 |14 7 30 BF
Cape Boiador or Bojador
[4]; 26 7 2 | 14 30 20 | 17 50
Penha Grande, summit ...| 25 6 30 | 14 49 30
Seven Capes, Central Cape} 24 41 12 | 15 0 30
Angra dos Cavallos ......... 24 312/15 40 0O The Observations of Capt.
Rio do Ouro, Durnford o W. Fitzwilliam Owen, M. le
Gs Nero ee sapewonncen 2 37 59 | 16 O 20; Baron Roussin, &e.
intra Bay, North point... 6 80 | 16 12 30 «+ : ;
Gap R AED As «ois cedseacessee 99 20 30 |16 45 0 | 18 25 | wastis Adin, Sic Edy) Bacon
Pedra da Gall, centre ...... 22 13 15 | 16 54 O by repeated observations, found
Cape Corvoeiro .....eeeeeesees 21 46 44,17 0 O Cape Blanco in lat. 20° 46’ 26"
Cape Blanco .....ccsecccsees 90 47 0|17 2 50 | 18 25 | long. 17° 4’ 10". :
Cape Arguin ........ gucuceses 20 82 15 | 16 34 15 French Survey, 1888.
Cape Mirik, the Down...... 19 23 0 | 16 32 30
Tanit Bay, the Down ...... 19 38 48 | 16 12 20 H.M.8. £sk, Capt. Purchas.
Angel’s Hillocks, Southern} 18 29 30 | 16 3 0

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.

37

THE WEST COAST OF AFRICA.

AUTHORITIES.

Portandik SOSSSSOSOOSSSSSSSSSEs
Down of Red Sand .........
Second ditto
Huts of Inguiagher

eeeceeces

St. Louis, Senegal, Light
on Government House!

Bar of the Senegal, North
BBMMIENY. Sevcuedesscecsuctscaes
Little Paps, near Cape
Verde, northern one......
Cape Verde, Light on ex-
PEETTUY ..ccscesnce Satenssens
Dakar, Petit Paris
Cape Manuel, Light.........

Goree, the Fort Lighthouse}

Rufisque, Light...............
Cape Naze
Portudal, Village
Point Serine
Men DOW ccccsscscscecncoesss
River Gambia :
Bathurst Town, Battery
Flagstaff
aperot. Mary ..ccccecse0s
PATTER PH OVE rccecccssceceesse.
Thankrowell or Tankural
Elephant Isle, West Pt.
Yamamaroo Town
M’Carthy Island, Fort
George
Pisania or Pisaneea......
tld CADE ......0006 Seas cones
omit) Ste PCATO...c..cecescese
River Souta, Bird Islet ...
River Casamanza, North
point of the entrance ...
BPE TIOKO sacs esccccscessses
Rio Cacheo, Breakers of
Falulo, West part......
Parcels Breakers, West

eececesecces Peecee

PPAEUaeknerercs-ccasesaess0
Isle of Cayo, West point...
Bissao, Portuguese Fort...

_Bijooga Islands, &e. :

Papagaio Islet ...... coeeee
Areas Isle, centre.........
BubaFactory,RioGrandy
Bulama Island, East end
Bossessamé, orTombelle,
North point, Factory
Beh POU... cs 2an. evs
Gallinha Isle, West point
N.E. Hog Island, East
PIGHIG) Ssasncccscavcvesss:

16 9

|

|

|
16 6
16 21

”

°

U

18 20

18

19

19

5d

—_—

Captain (afterwards Admiral
and Baron) Roussin, and later
French Surveys.

French Survey, 1876.
Capts. Owen & Boteler, R.N.

Survey of the River Gambia,
from its entrance to Pisania,
by Capt. Richard Owen, R.N.,
assisted by Messrs.E.O. Tudor
and 8. M. Mercer, H.M.S.
Leven, 1826, the Officers of
H.M.S. Sylvia, 1886, &e.

Capt. Thos. Boteler, H.M.
sloop Heela.

Capts. Roussin and W. F.
Owen.

Survey of the Bijooga
Islands, and the adjacent
Coast of Africa, by the officers
of H.M.S. Leven, Capt. W. F.
Owen, &c.

38

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.

THE WEST COAST OF AFRICA.

ees a
|

|

Bijooga Islands( continued).
Kanyabac, Barel or East}
PONE ...ceeeeees sonbece!
S.W. point....ccceseceeee
Orango, 8.E. point
West point....ccseseeeees
South Breaker
Bijooga Breaker, West,
end
Pullam Islet, South point
Aleatras Islet, centre
Conflict Reef, 2;-fathoms,
patch off South Prong...
Rio Nunez, Entrance, Sand
Islet
Boke, English Factory
Cape Verga, summit
Ponga River, entrance, W.|
point
Mount Kakulimah
Isles de Los:
Crawford Isle, Observa-
tion Spot
Tamara, Arethusa or N.
POING scccsvecccseccccsesss
White Islet
Matacong Island, centre...
Yellaboi Island, centre ...
Kakonkah Island, centre...
Cape Sierra Leone, Light-
TNOWIEE castobasedoncosa 5)
Sierra Leone, Freetown.)
Citadel |
False Cape, extremity......
Cape Chilling, or Shilling
Banana Isles, highest peak
WES tO acsecccaceewossce.
Plaintain Ids., Gillmorris
Bengal Rocks
Tassa Point, extremity......
Turtle Isles ; North Island,
centre
Cape St. Anne, extremity
Shoals of St. Anne, N.W.
Patch, 23 fathoms
York Isle, in Sherbro’
River, N.E. point.........
Argyle Point, Shebar River
Boom Kittam River, Forks
River Galinhas, Kzmasoun

eeeeescecese

eceeeeseescccceeeseesese

eeecee

eoeseccsecceseseoeees

eeceee

eceeeeecesoseseeessseece

eoecscces

eeccesocesesees

wee eeereesesesseseees

eeeceeseceses
eee cower ceresseseseeeeee

|
|

Island, West elbow ......
Cape Mount, Western
1BYar Vel al gaaneanonocbuLuntaqodcos

St. Paul’s River, entrance

Cape Mesurado, Lightho.| 6 19 10

LAT. N.

° DOG

32 0
23 20
20 O

7° O°S

6 44 30 |
6 23 0|

|

13
13

12

12

12
12

55
11 28 20

10 49 O
10 49 25

\

\

| 19

cr

19 15

19 20

SS

|

19 aa

|

AUTHORITIES.

Survey of the Bijooga
Islands, and the adjacent
Coast of A frica, by the officers
of H.M.S. Leven, Capt. W. F.
Owen, &e.

*,* In 1830, Capt. (Sir Edw.)
Belcher, in H.M.S. Etna, from
his observations, made Pullam
Islet, S. end, inlat. 10°51’ 53"N..,
long. 15° 43’ 5” W.; North exd
of Alcatraz, in lat. 10° 38’ 1" N.,
long. 15° 20’ 30” W.; Sandy
Isle in lat. 10° 36’37" N.. long.
14° 42’ 19" W.—Geo. ~ournal,
vol. ii., pp. 284, 291, 296,

Captain W. F. Owen and
Captain Purchas, corrected by
later Surveys.

Capt. A. T. E. Vidal, H.M.
ships Etna ana saven, and
later Surveys.

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS. 39,

THE WEST COAST OF AFRICA. t F
!
VAR.
LAT. N. LONG. WEST, AUTHORITIES
1895.
° , " ° i. 0 ° ,
WEST.
Monrovia, Govt. House .... 619 5 | 10 48 55 | 19 15 Capt. A. T. E. Vidal, H.M.
Junk MRiver, Marshall, ships Etna and Raven, and
Agent’s House ............ 6 8 6 | 10 99) 45 later Surveys,
Grand Bassa,Agent’sHouse! 5 5450/10 4 5
River Sestros, or Grand
Cestos, Factory on St.
George Point...... aecweswes 5 26 25 | 9 84 45
PAHOU PONG ....50sceceeceses b 9:10) 9 17 30
Bloo Bara, or Barbarra
Hactory, Sinou............ A OO* Eby) IO) Br ob
Middle Neefoo, or Niffou.... 445 38] 8 33 15
STAITANVAY \.caccocesescscsssenss 430 0| 7 56 30
Cape Palmas, Lighthouse] 4 22 9] 7 4416/19 9
8 425 0] 7 21 80
Grand Bereby, Bluff ...... 439 3 6 54 10
St. Andrew’s River, King
George’s Town, within
Swartou Corner ......... 45745! 6 8 47
River Fresco, or Rio de
Lagos, Mouth ............ 5 5 0} 5 33 15 | 18 15
Grand Lahou, Eastend...| 5 845] 4 57 40
GSR a Se 5 1145 | 426 8
Grand Bassam, Bar......... Hy ay 0) |} 6) 2) 1}
Assinee River, entrance[6]| 5 8 45 | 8 23 10| 17 45
Apollonia, Fort..........s000 458 45 | 235 5
Axim, Fort St. Anthony...) 4 5218 | 2 14 45
Cape Three Points, Lt.-ho., 4 44 50! 2 5 45/17 30 Captains Vidal, Owen, Pur-
mrequidah, Hort.......0.0.0.0.5, 44515 | 2 2 10 chas, Kelly, Denham, and
Dixcove, Fort ......... Suess 4 47 45 1 56 40 other and more recent ob-
Takoradi, ruined Fort...... 4 538 40 | 1 44 45 servers, including the offieers
Elmina, or St. George del ofthe French vessels Zalisman,
Mina, Fort St. Iago...... 5 6 © | 1:20 95 Gabés, Guichen, &c., 1882—
Cape Coast Castle, N.E. 1886.
SRAM ING ot ocnesouecccasevods 5 6 51! 1138 40] 17 15
Mauree,or Moree, Flagstaff, 5 750/ 111 0
Annamboe, Flagstaff ...... 51012] 1 6 30
Cormantine, Flagstaff...... is ALL Bie 1 4 45
Tantumquerry, Extreme
EAI LtesesecaccvcCleateswasicdes 5 12 50 0O 47 380
Mamkwadi or Devil’s Hill,
summit ...... ROEEODONOROOOC 5 19 20 | 0 89 30 Longitude of Acera, y four
arracoe Point ....:.0.esesess 5 23 0] O 28 30 good chronometers of H.M.S,
Accra, Fort James, West Dryad, Captain Hayes, 1682,
Bastion .........sseseee| 5 81 48 | O 11 30 | 16 50 | 0° 15’ 20" W., lat. 5° 32’ 27" N.
EAST.
Ningo, Fort Fredensborg) 5 44 25 | 0 11 50
Volta River, Dolben Point,
West side of entrance.... 5 46 5] 0 40 45 Captain Glover, 1870.
ape St. Paul ......cescovess 5 49 50 | O 58 30
Quitta, Flagstaff ............ 5 55 5 | 0 59 45
Bagidah, West German
IRCLOLY, desicceciscesssactesse 6 980) 1 22 28
Porto Seguro, Fabre’s
Blagstaff.........00.c000.) 618 O]| 1 82 23 | owe

40

~ GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.

THE WEST COAST OF AFRICA.

Little Popoe, Fabre’s Flag-
Sipilig Seah3 ea eosana re Oeerre
Grand Popoe, Fabre’s Flag-
(SURI SB A Soeeaeonn dose “Ma 9ebeor

Whydah, or Ajudah......,..
Kotonu or Appee, Pier [7]
Porto Novo, Town ........-

VOR pecan cae sies. oespcSyoee
Badagry, Mount ............

Road
Lagos River, Lighthouse...
Palmas shvoadetersctssesce Seis
Jbfalidtainnl BYoniGl ndeconpaoenedecon
Benin River, N.W. point...
Rio dos Esclavos, N. point
River Foreados, Factory

ON SOUL Side, .2.-0.00n5-
River Dodo, North Point...

eee reese cece esseeesseses

River Middleton, George
islands (centre. sscsssseseces
River Nun, Quorra, or
Niger, the: Bar -.ns.cse
Barracoon Point .........
Cape ana i.9e sesicseaseey
Rio Bento or Brass River,
Westone ts secsssscecs
Harrison Factory.........
Rio St. Nicolas, or Third
River, West Point.........
New Calabar River, Foche
Pom ekeveseesceess<cnees
Bonny River, Rough Corner
POD she sscestontes coc cone
OBSERVATION Spot, 47
yards South of Boler’s'
LON sete te ads anutond [8]
Opobo River, West Point
Old Calabar River, Tom
Shot’s Point, Westside

of the Entrance

the Entrance............
Rio del Rey, West Point...
Bimbia Isle ........ seadewaave
Cape Camaroons

ee eeeereceses

Camaroons Mountain, peak!

eeeeee
{

Backasey Gap, East of

Rumby Mountains, highest}

DORI: uegenac eseneceseseetsin st
Qua Mountain .........scc008
‘Malimba River, entrance
‘Beundo River, Factory ...
Batonga, English Factory
Campo River, North Point
San Bento River, Joho or

South Point ......... Peewee

LAT. N.

53

LONG.

ay
iS%)
Or

AanrrwWwWwnnnNnnnwnre
or
icy

Oooo meo Omomom@m @ a ba | =] for) oO o> lor mor mer) or Or or
hb ee bo
a bo > ©

ie)
oo
Ws)

E.

30

on oo Sy)
oo o°oocoeo

w
o ooon

VAR.
WEST,
1895.

16 5

15 40

15 25

15 5

14 45

AUTHORITIES.

Captains Vidal, Owen, Pur-
chas, Kelly, Denham, and
other and more recent ob-
servers, including the officers
of the French vessels Zulisman,
Gabhés, Guichen, &e., 1882—

1856.

Lieutenant Field, 1881.

Lieutenant Field, 1881.

Lieutenant Field, 1881.

Lieutenant Field, 1881.

Commander Pullen, 1891.
Lieutenant Field, 1881.

H.M.S. Growler, 1869,

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS 41

THE WEST COAST OF AFRICA.

| VAR
LAT. LONG. B. | WEST, AUTHORITIES
| 1895.
|
One faect |' cOMd Frat | o or
North |
Mepe st.-John .........0.0 Te 1G O59 92s .@ | | Captains Vidal, Owen, &e., &c.
Corisco Island, N.W. por 0 55 54! 9 20 15 , 15 25
_ Cape Esterias ............... 0 88 80 | 9 21 15 |
® Point Clara or Joinville .... 031 0; 9 21 O|
Gaboon River, Gombe or {
Round Corner Point,
HVS GHOUSC...0...000.0yee 018 80 | 9 19 30 | 15 30
Libreville, Flagstaff...... (0) GAB aly) 8) Bey sy French Officers.
South
HG LOPOZ .ccs..oeac-oeeess 036 0| 843 0/16 0|
|
AFRICAN ISLANDS. |
FERNANDO PO North. | Lieut. Badgley, Captain
Clarence Peak .........00 3.35 20 | 8 46 30, W. F. Owen, Comm. Boteler,
Cape Bullen, Northern | and Spanish and Portuguese
SXILEMNITY -...rccecnsees 3 47 45 8 43 15 | Surveys.
Adelaide or EnriqueIslet; 3 46 0} 8 4717/15 0°
Santa Isabel, Point Wil- |
liam or rernanda, Lt.. 3 46 0} 8 47 42
* Cape Horatio, N.E. ex-
| tremity ..cccccssseseeee 34615] 8 5615
Cape Vidal, Hast extr.. 3 0918 | 8 58° 0"
Cape Barrow, South Rock’ 3811 50| 8 44 0O|
Cape Eden, 8.W. extr. 318 30] 8 27 0
Cape Badgley, Westextr.| 321 0] 8 25 0
Charles’ Folly, N.W. ene 3 28 15] 8 29 40 |
Cabras or Goat Isle, Lt.-
RRS periiasanqsiesooeets'secs 3 382 25 | 8 34 40
epeler Hock... .sc0s0.s.. | 8 87 15 | 8 35 30 | |
PRINCES ISLAND |
PEPATIGONIO vis esncseecass Wades: 25 7 2b 155) t5 40 |
Ponta das Agulhas, or |
West Point, summit...| 1 35 30 | 7 20 25 |
Carocha Island, or | |
Dutchman’s Cap ...... 1 30 50! 7 25 40 |
South Brother Rock ...; 12110] 7 17 30
ST. THOMAS ISLAND |
Ilha das Cabras, Light-
ee oF Sanetoonde oe 0 24 0; 6 43 80 | 16 15
NNA DE CuHaAveEs Bay,
Observation Spot [8] c 20 88 | 644 7 | Commander Pullen, 1891.
outh |
Rolas Isle, S.W. Point... 0 1 0) 6 81 40 |
North |
Ponta Hurd]; ccccesccaves| O71 20) 6528 . 0" |
|
ANNO BOM ISLAND | South. |
Turtle Island.......s.sesse | 194 18| 5 3812/17 5|
Fernando Po Rock ...... 12836 5 36 42 | |

RAL: | 7

42 GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.

NOTES.

1. Carpe Spartet.—The remarks of Mr. William Chapman, master of H.M.S. Iilustrtous,
appeared to confirm the longitude of Tofifio, from whom he differs only 40 seconds in
latitude, which he represents as so much more to the southward. The observations of
Captain Smyth gave the lat. 35° 47’ 15”, and the long. 5° 55’ 45”, by chronometer and
lunars. ‘The coast, from Cape Spartel to Cape Bojador, was surveyed in the Hina and
Raven, under Lieutenants Arlett and Kellett, 1835.

2. Empire oF Marocco.—The points determined by Captain Washington we owe to an
excellent Paper, entitled ‘‘ Geographical Notice of the Empire of Morocco; by the late
Lieutenant (afterwards Rear-Admiral) John Washington, R.N.,” given in the first volume
of the ‘‘ Journal of the Royal Geographical Society ;” a communication replete with
interesting and useful information. Captain Washington afterwards became Hydro-
grapher to the Navy.

8. Crry or Marocco.—The scientific traveller, Don Juan Badia y Leblich, commonly
called Ali Bey, from his observations in 1803-4, gave the centre of Marocco as in lat.
81° 387’ N., long., long. 7° 35’ 30’ W. On reference to the Astronomical Journal of
Captain Washington, there appear upwards of 100 sights for determining the longitude
of the city. Distances between moon and sun; moon and stars East and West of her;
and altitudes of the moon when in the prime vertical—thé mean results of which give
the longitude of a garden at the S.W. angle of the city as 7° 36’ W.; lat. 81° 87’ 20”, the
mean of about 20 meridian altitudes of the sun.

4, CapE GEER, &c.—M. le Chevalier Jean Chas. de Borda was charged, in 1776, by
Louis XVI., with a commission to the Canary Islands and the West Coast of Africa, for
the express purpose of making observations, and determining the chief points of the
Canary Islands, &e. He was furnished with time-keepers, by which he ascertained the
positions, as they appeared in the earlier Charts and Tables. On this expedition,
M. de Borda, in the ship La Boussole, was accompanied by the Espiegle, M. le Chastenet
Puysegur, who afterwards composed the Pilot for St. Domingo; also by Captain
Don Josef Varela, and another intelligent officer of the Spanish marine; all of whom
assisted in the operations.

But in the years 1817-18, Captain (afterwards Baron) Roussin was employed by the
French Government in surveying the coast between Cape Bojador, in 26° 7’ N.. and the
Isle de Los, in 93°; and this officer gave, most satisfactorily, many points not before
ascertained.

Again, in 1820 and 1821, Captain William FitzWilliam Owen, in H.M.S. Leven, was
commissioned by the English Admiralty to examine and settle the coast from Cape Noon
southward; and his observations still further, and in a much more important degree,
tended to perfect the hydrography of Western Africa. To Captain Owen’s work, there-
fore, we refer most particularly in the Tables; and have only to add that there is a re-
markable coincidence, in general, in the results of the two commanders ; and that even
in comparing either with those of M. de Borda, the differences, practically considered,
are of little moment. »?

Most of the positions given in the Tables are as they appear on the most recent charts,
though there still exists some amount of uncertainty as to the exact longitude of the
various points on the West Coast of Africa, and in many parts even as to the latitude.

A survey of the Canary Islands, and the continental coast thence northward to Cape
Spartel, was made by Lieutenants William Arlett and H. Kellett, commanders of the
Etna and Raven, in 1835; the particulars of which are given in the “ Journal of the
Royal Geographical Society,” vol. vi.

5. Strrra Leong, &c.—In preparing former editions of this work, we collected a large
number of observations, which had been made, from time to time, on the coast of Guinea,

ges we

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS. 43

&e., between Sierra Leone and Cape Lopez; they included those previously given by
the officers of H.M. ships Argo, Amelia, Inconstant, Tartar, and others, and we finally
appended to such as we selected for the tabular statement the following remarks :—
* Although we have paid the utmost attention in the comparison of different results,
charts, and descriptions, as shown in the Tables and Notes, we are by no means satisfied
with the conclusions as to many points eastward of Cape Palmas and St. Andrew’s Bay.
Indeed, all that has yet been done by the naval officers, and others, prove only the
necessity of a new series, in order to establish so much as may be correct, and to rectify
so much as may not be so.” Happily, such rectification has taken place to a great
extent, and many doubts, on the most important points, have recently vanished.

We give a specimen, on the longitude of Cape Sierra Leone. Many years ago, the late
Sir George Young gave the longitude of this Cape as 12° 33' 47; the French tables after-
ward, as 12° 54’; the Requisite Tables, 13° 9’17” ; H.M.S. Argo, 1802, as 13° 12’; the
Inconstant, 1816, the same; the Amela, in 1812, 13° 17’ 30”; the Leven (Captain Owen),
in 1826, 138° 18’ 0”; the Eden (Captain Owen), in 1827, 13° 18’ 10”; Captain Sabine,
Royal Artillery, in 1822, 13° 19’ 0’; and Captain Purchas, in 1827, 18° 19’12". Captain
Owen’s longitude, as given in the Table, appears to be correct. It may be added, that
Lieut. Raper assumed the North Battery to be in 13° 14’ 30”, or nearly as in the Table.

By 318 lunar distances (23 sets), taken in the West Bastion of Fort Thornton, at
Freetown, Captain Sabine, in 1822, made the longitude of that spot 18° 15’ 11” W.; and
in 1827, Captain Owen, in the Aden, made that of the Victualling Office 13° 14’ 30”.
Latitude of the latter, 8° 30’ 6”; of Fort Thornton, by Captain Sabine, 8° 29’ 21”.

6. AssINIE.—Observations made by the officers of the French vessel Guichen, in 1886,
place the old Powder Mill in lat. 5° 4’ 45” N., long. 8° 18’ 15” W.

The COAST of GUINEA, between Cape Three Points and Cape Lopez, including the
off-lying islands. Although this portion of the coast of Africa is described in the

_ “Directory for the South Atlantic Ocean,” we have considered it proper to continue the

series of points in the Table. For the description of the coast, and remarks upon the
positions, we refer the reader to the above work.

7. Kotonou.—In 1890, Lieut, Serres, of the French Navy, determined the longitude
telegraphically from Libreville, as 0° 0™ 24:86 East of Paris, equivalent to 2° 26’ 80” East

of Greenwich.
8. Bonny anp St. Toomas Istanp.—These positions were accurately determined by

means of telegraphic signals with the Cape of Good Hope Observatory, by Commander
Pullen, R.N., in 1891.

The VARIATION of the Compass is decreasing on the West Coast of Airica, at the rate of
8’ to 4’ per annum,

44

Formigas or Ants:
Formigao or Hormigon,|
highest rock, 35 feet
Dollabarats Shoal, 11 ft.

Santa Maria or St. Mary:
Ponta do Castello, or
8.E. Point
Villa do Porto, Quay ...
Maldebarea Rock, off the
N.W. Point
Ponta dos Matos

San Miguel or St. Michael’s:
Ferraria or West Point
Ponta Delgada, Castle...
Villa Franca, Island......
Pta. Retorta, S.W. Point
Arnel Point, Lighthouse
Ponta da Ajuda.........0---
Morro da Ribeira Grande
Porto Capellas, Morro...
Ponta de Bretanha

Terceira:
Monte do Brasil, near
Angra, South edge ...
Praya, Ponta de Malma-
renda
Pta. de Serrata or W. Pt.

St. George:
Topo Island, off S.H. Pt.
Ponta de Rosales, or

N.W. Point

Graciosa:
Fort at Praya
Ponta de Fozo do Porto,
or West Point

Pico:
The summit of the peak

eeeresceseecoes

eeeccesceesseeeresese

eoeccee eccce

eeeeeeeecccs

Pta. da Ilha, or E. Point} é

Magdalena Rocks, off W.
Point, North Rock ...

Fayal:
Horta, Santa Cruz Castle
The 8.E. point, or Morro

da N. 8. da Guia

Caldeira, sum., 3,351 ft.| :

Ponta da Negra, W. Pt.

Flores :
Santa Cruz, Fort ..... esi

Corvo:
South Point, or Ponta
do Pesqueiro-alto

37
37

39

28

47
43

VAR.

WEST,

1895.

23
23

24

1
w ie}
0 | 22
55
30
30 | 22
50
30
10 | 23
0 | 23
0
30

40

40

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.

9. THE AZORES, OR WESTERN ISLANDS.

AUTHORITIES,

The Survey made by Capt.

A. T. E. Vidal, 1842.

es tee

eg ae Bel ee

GHOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS. 45

NOTES.

The positions here given accord with those on the latest charts, but it is possible the
longitudes may be somewhat in error, and this will ke decided when the telegraph
cable has been established. M. Fleurieu ascertained the position of the Mount of Brasil,
near Angra, in Terceira, to be lat. 38° 38’ 87” N., long. 27° 12’ 27” W. Tofiiio’s result
was lat. 38° 38’ 10”, long. 27° 14’ 40”, a remarkable comcidence, considering the distance
of time at which the observations were made. The longitude of this spot was, therefore,
assumed by the Spanish commander, as the meridian referred to for the points sub-
sequently determined. The summit of the Mount, as given by Captain FitzRoy, R.N.,
is in lat. 38° 38’ 35”, long. 27° 12' 54”. '

Captain Alexander T. EK. Vidal, R.N., who re-surveyed these islands, placed the Fort
at Villa do Porto, in St. Mary’s, in lat. 36° 56’ 30’, long. 25° 9’ 45” W.

The VaRiaTiow of the Compass is decreasing among the Azores, at the rate of about 23’
per annum.

10. MADEIRA AND THE CANARY ISLANDS.

| VAR.

| LAT.N. | LONG. w. | WEST, AUTHORITIES.
| 1895.
MADEIRA. ° 0 “ ° ’ w ° 4
Funcuat, Flagstaff of Fort
Bnet IO! Wuseacccancon sce [1]| 82 388 4 | 16 53 58 | 18 50 Captain Matthew Flinders,
Camera de Lobos............ 32 88 25 | 16 58 50 H.M.S. Investigator ; General
Ponta do Pargo, the West Sir Thomas Brisbane; Capt.
Point, Semaphore ...... ppd ais) W/W a) W. F. Owen; Capt. Vidal;
Tristao, or N.W. Point ...| 32 51 25 | 1712 0O and U. §. Officers, 1878-9.

San Jorge or North Point} 32 49 45 | 16 54 25
Ponta de San Lourenzo,
PAPHTHOUKE...0.00600ccecene 32 43 10 | 16 389 O
Cape Garajao, or Brazen |
Head, S.E. extremity ...| 832 87 30 | 16 51 0O |

Pico Ruivo, summit, 6,056
HEC tise Metesssscsevees Eaeseeces 32 45 O | 16 56 30

Porto Santo: |
Villa Baleira on the )
South side ..........c000 33 3 30 | 16 19 45 | 18 40 | Captain A. T. H. Vidal
Baixo Island, S. Point...| 82 59 40 | 16 22 35
North-East Rock, 380 ft.| 88 7 40 | 16 15 45

Dezertas :
Chao Island, Sail Rock! 32 34 50 | 16 32 10
Dezerta Grande, summit,

MPGOO Sis swosvecattsncescse 32 31 15 | 16 30 25
Bugio Island, Agulha or
South Point ............ 32 23 15 | 16 27 10

The Salvages:
Great Salvage, Burt
Peak, on West side ...| 830 7 31 | 15 54 20 | 18 25
Great Piton Islet, South!
bOiGbecssedeesees Sipecene 80 0 0/16 4 0

46

ee

CANARY ISLANDS.

Lanzarote :
Allegranza Isle, Lt.-ho.
Port de Naos, Lightho.
Cape Pechiguera, Lt.-ho.

Fuerteventura:
Isle of Lobos, Point Mar-
tino, Lighthouse ......
Point Jandia, the S.W.
Point, Lighthouse

Canaria, or Grand Canary:
The Isleta, or N.E. Point,
AGH iROUSE:.;,.0..+-<20--
Point Maspalomas, or S.
Point, Lighthouse
Cape Sardina, Lightho.

Tenerife :
Santa Cruz, Mole Lt. [2]
Pico de Teide, summit...
Orotava, N.W. side ......
Punta de Anaga, East

Point, Lighthouse......
Punta de la Rasea, South
Point

Pta. de Calera, W. Point} ‘

Palma:
Sta. Cruz, on the E. side
Taxacorte, on the W. side
Cumplida Point, Lt.-ho.
Fuencaliente, or South
BOM beierecssescesseesiee cscs

Hierro or erro:
Port de Hierro ............
Point Orchilla, S.W. Pt.

Pta. de la Restinga, S. Pt.|

THE CANARY ISLANDS.

LAT. N.

28

46 30
41 40
37 30

LONG.

18 0

18 25

18 45

19 0

NOTES.

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.

AUTHORITIES.

The SPANISH GOVERNMENT

Surveys, &c.

1. Funcwan.—The latitude of Funchal is well ascertained, though from the isolated
position of the island there have been some differences in the longitude as given by various
observers. The longitude was estimated by M. Bory, in 1772, as 16° 56’. Our respected
countryman, Captain Flinders, from observations in H.M.S. Investigator, 1801, made the
latitude of the road to be 32° 87’ 44”, and the greatest longitude, by any of six chrono-

meters, 16° 54’ 26”.

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS. 4%

Sir Thomas Brisbane, on his voyage to New South Wales (1521), obtained his time at
the house of Mr. J. W. Gordon, at Funchal, by four excellent chronometers, by which
the mean longitude was concluded as 16° 54’ 36”. At the same time the latitude of the
tower, on Mr. Gordon’s house, was found to be 32° 38’ 19-7”, and that of Loo Rock,
32° 37’ 53:8’, The longitude given by Sir Thomas Brisbane was confirmed by ten
Admiralty chronometers, under the care of Dr. Tiarks, in 1823, which gave for the
longitude of the British Consul’s Garden, 16° 54’ 45” (in time, 1" 7™ 89s); the latitude is
32° 38’ 22” N. Captain Fitzwilliam Owen, from observations in H.M.S. Leven, 1820, gave
the landing-place, near the Loo Castle, in lat. 832° 37’ 42” N., long. 16° 55’ 30” W.

By telegraphic determinations from Lisbon, made in 1878 and 1879 by United States
officers, in connection with establishing secondary meridians for the East Coast of
South America, the longitude of the flagstaff of Fort St. Jago was ascertained to be
16° 53’ 53:4” W.; the latitude is given as 32° 38’ 4:08” W. This would place the British
Consul’s House in longitude 16° 54’ 30” W., very nearly the position ascertained by
Dr. Tiarks.

2. TENERIFE.—The position of Santa Cruz in the Table is that given by Captain Vidal
on his completion of the survey of these islands (1844), and is apparently correct. Pre-
vious observations placed the longitude generally one or two minutes more to the west-
ward of those in the Table.

Captain Fitzwilliam Owen, from his observations in the Leven, 1820, made the Mole
Head in lat. 28° 27’ 54” N., long. 16° 15’ 0” W. The peak in lat. 28° 16’ 24” N., long.
16° 39’ W.

The Variation of the Compass is decreasing at Madeira and the Canary Islands, at the
rate of about 3’ per annum.

11. CAPE VERDE ISLANDS.

VAR.
LAT. N. | LONG. W. | WEST, | AUTHORITIES.
1895. |
North Point ........s..064. 16 51 O| 22 55 O|} 20 15 The Survey by Lieutenants
HOMbE OM! .csccses seeeee 16 34 15 | 22 56 30 (afterwards Captains) Vidal
Lion’s Head, summit ...) 16 41 35 | 22 59 40 and Mudge, R.N., 1819—1821,
Bonavista: compared with the obser-
Sol or N.W. Point ...... | 16 13 10 | 22 56 380 vations of Captains King,
Pontinha or N.E. Point) 16 11 45 | 22 44 0| 20 5 | Poster, Owen, &c., &e.

|
Ch th OS Lf ih oy |
Sal or Salt Island:
English Road, Lightho.
|

|
on Small Island ...... / 16 9 10 | 22 57 15
Curral Velho or South
Pout) 2... Dutscdocenenecs 15 57 O | 22 49 10
ME LOMPEVOCK Uecescessecscices 1548, 023 9 5 |
Mayo, or Isle of May: |
iorhit EP OMb seccccrss esse |} 1519 0| 28312 5
English Road, Light on
Pee Ue ces sccesacrrecnsecs: 15 7 30 | 23 13 20
BOUL PONE ...ccscccconss. 15 6 40 | 23 10 15
f

48

LAT. N. | LONG. W.
o , ” ° ' u
Island of St. Iago:
Bighude, or Non Point| 15 19 30 | 23 45 45
East Point, Porto do
Lobo, Lighthouse perce | 14 59 30 | 23 25 15
Porto Praya, Quailld.[1]| 14 58 40 | 23 30 34
Bas LOM: csccanesesane-c | 14 58 380 | 23 48 40
Island of Fogo: |
North) Pomtpessenscseeeeess| 15 1 20 | 24 21 380
Town of N.S. da Luz,|
Lt. near Fort Carlotta) 14 52 15 | 24 81 0
Brava: |
Jalunga or East Point, |
bn hed oi ieee teN Se arrcceron) 14 50 30 | 24 40 10
South Omit scccsec-crcsees 14 46 0O | 24 42 40
East Rombo Islet, N.end| 14 55 45 | 24 40 30
St. Nicholas : ! |
a SueLOlM Ub eceeseeaceeesenes 16 34 30 | 23 59 30
North eP ont). -ces.ceccssss 16 41 45 | 24 20 40
West Point, Lighthouse) 16 387 45 | 24 26 20
SouthpLomt) pee-eeccccceeces 16 28 20 | 24 18 15
Rolla Road, Flagstaff
near Preguiza Fort ...| 16 34 30 | 24 16 0
Raza, Landing Place on
IWieStISIGeG! weecccecesecseteee 16 388 0 | 24 37 O
Branca, North Point ......' 16 41 O | 24 41 30
St. Lucia: |
ASE Olnibecsiese cance cenesee |16 46 O | 24 41 45
INMostd ay 1eteybonn Conspoacoccacde 16 49 QO | 24 47 10
St. Vincent : |
Porto GRANDE, Flag-
staff at Telegraph
OfiCecicscwetasaverscss [2]| 16 53 20 | 24 59 22
Bird Island, Lt.-ho.| 16 54 45 | 25 1 10
West Point.........ccccecee- 16 50 0} 25 5 30
VAST OINUsesswanetsenee sta 16 52 © | 24 528
St. Antonio: [3]
Punta do Sol or North
Point, Lighthouse 171215 | 25 54
\Wiseig Teterbaiy) Aaqocqsoscoaced 17 4 0} 25 22 1
South) Lolnti.......c..--es- 16 55 0 | 25 18 4
East Point, Bull Point,
Lighthouse.........sssee 17 6 50 | 24 59 2

CAPE VERDE ISLANDS.

J
:
|
:

19 55

|
|
|
|

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.

ee oe ee

The Survey by Lieutenants
(afterwards Captains) Vidal
and Mudge, R.N.,1819—1821,
compared with the obser-

| vations of Captains King
| Foster, Owen, &e., &o.

19 55 | U. 8. Officers, 1878-9.

19 55

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS. £9

NOTES.

1. Porto PrayA.—The longitude of this place appears to be well determined, particular
attention having been directed to it by many of our most skilful navigators. Captain
FitzRoy placed the West point or landing-place on Quail Island (called also Gun Point),
at Porto Praya, in longitude 23° 30’ 0” W. Captain P. P. King made it 23° 30’ 17’;
Captain Vidal, 23° 31’ 28”; and Captain Owen, 23° 31’ 3”; therefore, 23° 80’ 34”, the
longitude formerly assigned to it by Mr. Purdy, in previous Sditond of this work, cannot
be far from the truth. Telegraphic observations by MM. de Sugny and Garnier, 1885,
place the flagstaff on Quail Island as 6° 4’ 49-6” West of Dakar East jetty, which would
make it 23° 30’ 17” West of Greenwich.

2. St. Vincent.—The position of the flagstaff in front of the Brasilian Submarine
Telegraph Company’s Office was determined, by telegraphic means, by United States
officers, in 1878 and 1879, in connection with the establishment of secondary meridians
on the Hast Coast of South America, to be in long. 24° 59’ 22-3” W., or about 1’ 50”
eastward of the position previously given. The latitude is 16° 53’ 20-12” N.

3. Captain King made Terrafal Bay, at the 8.W. end, by eleven chronometers, in
longitude 25° 20’ 1”; Captain Owen made : 25° 21’ 42”; and Captain Foster, 25° 22’ 56”
the mean from these being about 25° 21’ 380”; and the West point, 25° 23’ 10”.

The Variation of the Compass is creasing among the Cape Verde Islands, at the rate
of about 1’ per annum.

12. THE FHROE ISLES, ICELAND, GREENLAND, LABRADOR,
AND NEWFOUNDLAND.

| j

VAR.
LAT. N. | LONG. W. | WEST, AUTHORITIES.
1895.
Fs ° ’ " ° , " ° ,
Tas FAROE ISLANDS. |
Mranken Islet .......00css0s- | 61 23 40 | 6 46 0} 24 0 The Survey by Capt. Born,
Suderé, Porkerji ............ 61 42 0} 650 O of the Danish Navy, 1790-5,
Sandé, Village of Sand ...) 61 52 80/| 6 50 0 corrected by later observers.
Waags, Sorwaag .......ccess 62 6 380| 715 0
Myggenes, West point .... 62 8 0| 7 36 0
Strom6, Thorshavn .........| 62 240) 646 QO} 24 30
Osteré, Ristang or N. Point, 62 22 0} 6 56 0
Fuglo, East point.......000e 62 20 80| 6138 0
ICELAND.
Snefells Jokel, 4,696 feet} 64 48 0/23 48 0| 4040| Mr. Bjorn Gunnlaugsson’s
Breidavik, Stapi .....0......, 64 46 15 | 23 35 0 Survey, 1849, the French
Akra Nes eeesseeseses eeececece 64 39 40 22, 25 0 Survey, 1859, ke.

Thormod’s Skar, S. point) 64 25 30 | 22 17 30
Reikiavik, Hill to N.W. ...! 64 8 38 | 21 54 58 | 88 20
Cape Utskalar, Beacon ...| 64 4 50 | 22 40 45

Na A. O; 8

50

GHOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.

ICELAND AND GREENLAND.

VAR.
LAT. N. LONG. W. | WEST,
1895.
° t " ° My " ° LU
Reykjanes Point, Lightho.| 63 48 30 | 22 41 50
Geirfuglasker.....ssesseeseeee 63 48 0| 28 5 0
Grindavik Church............ 63 49 0 | 22 80 0
Herdisarvik, anchorage ...| 63 51 30 | 21 46 15
Keflavik, anchorage......... 63 50 30 | 21 26 30
Olfusa, ENtrANCE .,.cccceeeer 63 52 O | 21 10 15
Piorga, ENtVANCE ....eceeeeee 63 46 40 | 20 48 15
Affall, entrance........cccce-- 63 387 45 | 20 380 30
Markarfliot, entrance ...... 63 31 30 | 20 0 0
Mount Hekla, 5,364 feet... 63 59 0/19 39 0
Portland Head, the South
point of Iceland ......... 63 23 45 | 19 6 380 | 35 40
Ingolfs Hofde ........-seee0 63 48 50 | 16 85 O
Horne Fiord, entrance 6415 0; 15 8 380
Hvalsbak Islet ........sssc00 64 40 0|13 12 0
Rode Fiord, Krosnes ......| 65 1 30 | 13 32 50 |
Hornnes, East point of
Meelamd: Gocc.cdvesseesshe ..| 65 10 50 | 18 28 0 | 82 10
Langanes, N.E. point...... 66 23 0 | 14 28 0
Revsnes, North point of
Weiss brett Goseeseeoecacese se 66 33 30|16 8 0
"TiOPWEGS cravdcoes dedee se ahus dust 66 13 40|17 7 O
Grimsey Church .........++ 66 83 30|18 0 0
HolariChurch =2...s0.0<0.0-¢ 65 45 30|19 5 0
Skagen, Skagataa........0«- 66 8 0| 20 38 30
North Cape -....5.sccccersses 66 29 O | 22 25 30 | 40 25
Staalbierg Huk, W. point) 65 30 25 | 24 380 15
GREENLAND.
Land reported, 1870 ...[1]| 78 383 0/19 0 0/|46 0
Cape Bismarck .....++++ss++ 76 47 30 | 18 80 O
Pendulum Island, 3,000 ft.| 74 89 0 | 18 3130
Cape Hold-with-Hope,
3,000 feet .....c.ecrerseoess 73 30 0O | 20 32 30 | 45 O
K. Francis Joseph Fiord,
entrance, C. Humboldt] 73 10 30 | 22 27 30
Davy Sound, Smith Island) 71 49 0 | 2215 0
Cape Gladstone.....sscceceres 71 33 0 | 21 40 O
Scoresby Sound, Cape
Brewster.....ccccccsseseseees 70 11 0} 21 59 O | 48 30
Knighton Inlet, C. Barclay) 69 14 0 | 24 25 0
Cape Grivel ....sccceeseeeeees 68 34 0 | 25 388 O
Horror Bay, entrance...... 66 49 0| 384 5 O| 50 50
Cape Dan.......sseeseeeees [2]| 65 31 0| 387 0 O
Dannebrogs Oe, summit...| 65 19 0 | 39 34 0
Cape Lowenorn ....seeeeeee 64 30 0| 40 7 380
Colberger Heide ......+.04.- 64 4 0| 40 35 0
Cape Mosting «...carssereeee 63 40 0 | 40 33 0
Cape Juel ..cccccesssereeeeeees 63 138 0|41 5 O
Cape Bille ............ ees ae 62 0 80 | 42 3 O| 51 80
Cape Tordenskiold ......... 61 25 O | 42 20 0
Cape Discord.....+...-c0eee+++| 60 53 0 | 42 36 0

AUTHORITiB&S.

Mr. jorn Gunnlaugsson’s
Survey, 1849, the French
Survey, 1859, &e.

North German Polar Ex-
pedition, 1870.

The Danish GOVERNMENT
CHARTS.

The CHart of GREENLAND,
published by authority at Co-
penhagen in 1832, toillustrate
the voyage of Captain Graah,
corrected by later explorers.

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS. 61

GREENLAND AND LABRADOR.

eet eee
VAR. |
LAT. N. LONG. W. | WEST, | AUTHORITIES.
1895. |
° ’ " ° , " ° ,
BBO VAHOC. ..ccecevesssecedes 60 85 0} 42 50 O DanisxH Cuarts, &a,
Cape Farewell or Staten-
Joona Eee 59 46 0 | 43 52 80| 47 5
Frederiksdalor, Ikigeit ...,; 60 0 0O/| 44 43 0
Arsuk Fiord, Ivugtut ...... 6113 0/48 7 801} 50 35
Mrederikshaad .....sccesses. 62 0 0} 49 42 O
BREAD anciccnsessvsacvessees 64 11 O | 51 42 80
Hamborgerland, West end! 65 84 0 | 5310 0
Holsteinborg, Flagstaff ...| 66 55 42 | 58 42 0
Disko Bay, Egedesminde...| 68 42 0 | 52 45 0
Christianshaab ............ 68 48 0 | 51.6 0)| 65 0
PAKODSHAVN sccvcccsnsesess CGO 12930) |) 12). 0
DENY ENS ‘wos cys<cccsecessce 69 14 0O| 58 28 O
Disko Island, East side,
BPE CUES owas sgcesceysoee 10) OOF) Sav bos oO
Hare Island (coal), N. point) 70 28 0 | 54 56 0
PARUSTOUK ....ncqnccescsuce CLA OO So50e
EIU, occa ccsccecescessoses 72 47 0; 56 7 380
Horse Head ......... Seccascoc fenos. O) | ten O
PMIETOAG oc .ccevevessccsescses 7 0 0/5715 O
Carey Islands, southern...| 76 40 0 | 72 23 0
Hall’s Rest, Tablet erected |
iby British, IS76 ......... 81 388 0 | 61 40 0/100 0
Alert, Winter Q., 1875-6...| 82 27 0 | 61 20 0 Alert and Discovery, 1875-6.
Markham & Parr’s farthest] 83 20 26 | 68 0 0O
Cape Colombia (Aldrich)...| 83 7 45 | 70 80 0
Aldrich’s farthest ............ 82.21 0 | 86 OF 0
Beaumont’s farthest ...... 82 20 0/51 0 O
LABRADOR [38].
Cape Walsingham ......... 66°, 0° 01) 6% ff 6 Various Surveys.
Resolution Island, C. Best] 61 21 0/65 0 0| 52
Cape Chidley.......c...e.e00. 60 29 0 | 64 21 0
Eclipse Harbour, Mount
Bache, 2,150 feet.......... 59 5117 | 64 5 15
Ramah Mission Station ...| 58 55 0 | 68 23 0
Hebron Mission Station,
BICROLALS ...02..s0ccctereee 58 17 0 | 62 88 0| 46 30
Akkak Mission Station ...| 57 40 01! 6155 O
Port Manvers, entrance... 57 0 O|6117 O
Beet Church ...00.cccsecncedes 56 32 45 | 61 40 30 Staff-Commanders Maxwell
Ford Harbour, Head ....... 56 26 59 | 61 18 11 and Chimmo, 1867—1875.

Farmyard Isles............... 55 49 380 | 58 52 O
Hopedale Mission Station] 55 27 4 | 60 11 49
Gull Island, North end ...| 55 30 20 | 59 42 30
Cape Mokkovik............... 55 13 50 | 59 8 20| 41 O
Aillik Bay, H. B. Co. Sta) 55 9 0/59 5 O
Webeck Har., (Cannatock-
tuit), Harbour Rocks ...| 54 54 27/58 1 51
PPS HM AarrisON, ...cecccsessers 54 55 50 | 57 55 40
Bulldog Island ............... 54 45 10 | 56 50 O
White Bear Ids., E. rock 54 27 0 | 56 50 35
)

52

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.

LABRADOR AND NEWFOUNDLAND

|
|

Hamilton Inlet, Rigoulette
Herring Isles, S.E. extr.
Outer Gannet Island ......
Independent Island, 8. pt.
The Wolves, S.E. rock ...
Curlew Harb., Curlew Id.
Cartwright Harb., Castle
South Wolf Island, South
Wilt DOCK. coe snsccecsen- sos
Domino Run, Spotted Id.,
8.E. point
Grog Island, summit ...
Roundhill Island, S.E. end
Shoal Bay, E. entrance pt.
American Tickle, Long Id.
Partridge Island, East end
Boulter Rock

weeeseescscsese

eeecccosescrccs

Venison Tickle, Flagstaff...
Cape Bluff
St. Michael Bay, First Pt.
Occasional Harbour, Twin

Islands
Fishing Ship Harbour,

Entrance Island
Cape St. Francis
St. Lewis Sound, Goose Id,
Islet Bay, anchorage ......
Peterel Island, S.E. end...
Chateau Bay, York Point
Barge Bay
Amour Point, Lighthouse

weeeescsoseseecesrces

NEWFOUNDLAND [4].
Belle Isle, N.E. point......

Lighthouse on South Pt.
Cape Norman, Lighthouse
Cape Bauld
Griguet Bay, Camel Island,

East point |
White Cape, near St. Lu-

IAAT OVA lesesdslesccaceccers
Bréhat or Braha Shoal ...
Cape St. Anthony
Crémailliére Cove, entr....
Goose Cape, 8.E. point ...

eee eeeesesereseces

How Harbour, entrance,

West point.......cccececsess |
Fishot Isles, Northern Isle
Croce Harbour, South point!

Groais Isle, N.E. point ...
Bell Island, N.E. Rock ...
Rouge Islet, North point

VAR.

LONG. W. | WEST, |
' 1895. |

55

35

22

or

|

30 30

34 55

86 25

35 45

34 40

|

AUTHORITIES.

Staff-Commanders Maxwell

‘and Chimmo,

(later
Bullock, R.N., and his assist-
ants, Messrs. T. Smith, &e.,
1823, 1824, 1825, and 1826.
The longitudes adjusted by the
observations of Capt. H. W.
Bayfield, &., &e.

The Surveys by Admiral

Bayfield, 1827—1860.

The Surveys by Lieutenant
Admiral) Frederick

ee.

GHOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.

Canada bay, Canada Head
Hooping Harbour,entrance
Fourchette Harbour, entr.
Orange Bay, entrance......
Little Harbour, Deep Head
Cat Head, extremity
Coney Arm Head.........0..
River Head ...... Seceweetence
Partridge Point

eeeees

eeecscessess

Fleur de Lys Harbour,

EET. Lo iccececavse ove
St. Barbe, or Horse Isles,
8.E. point
Paquet Harbour, entrance
La Scie Harbour, N. point
Cape St. John:
North Bill
1
St. John’s Gullisle, summit
PannOp Fock ........sscccceses
Betts Cove, head
Nippers Isles, S.E. point
Cutwell Harbour, E. point
League Rocks, BE. extreme
Triton Harbour, entrance
Fortune Harbour, N.W. pt.
Toulinguet Island, Lt.-ho.
Change Isles, North End
Islet
Fogo Isles, Change Island
Tickles, Tobacco Id....
Fogo Harb., Slade’s staff
Hare Bay, N.E. islet off
West entrance point...
Seldom-come-by Har-
bour, Ship Hill.........
Ireland Rocks, East end...
SEMPECECOCK co 5005 c5200scercccacs
Funk Island, West end ...
Offer Wadham Island, Lt.
Gander Island, North point
Deadman Point...............|
Cape Freels, Brandies Islet
Stinking Islets, East islet;
Puffin Island, Light.........
Offer Gooseberry Island,
GRU CHE (520... scacecsesese
Salvage Bay, Cow Head...|
Barrow Har., Gerrard Hill
Cape Bonavista, Light
Kelp Rock, breaks .........
Catalina Harbour, Green
Island Lighthouse ......|
BEOPHE CHOPS s..ccecseccsseess

Perec eerssesessces

Peewee eseeerecceseeesoes

NEWFOUNDLAND.

LAT. N.

LONG. W.

VAR.

WEST,
21895.

33

33

co
oO

32

30

15

53

The Surveys by Lieutenant

| Bullock, R.N., &e.

The Surveys by Staff-Com-

mander J. H. Kerr, R.N.,
1866—1871; Capt. Orlebar,
R.N., 1862—1864 ; &e.

54 GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.

Trinity Harb., Fort Point
Lighthouse ...sccccesseees
Bonaventure Head .........
Trinity Bay, East Random
ISIGEYs| acosscunconconcosede
Deer Harbour, Green Id.
Mickle -POmUh seepsraseeromes
Heart’s Content Church
New Perlican Church ...
Salvage Point ....cc.eee--
Grates Point -....c.scssc0ns
Baccalieu Island, Lightho.
Conception Bay, Harbour
Grace Island, Lightho.
Bay Roberts, East en-
trance point .........6.-
Cape St. Francis, Lt.-ho.
Black Head ....... paeeseasere
Torbay Point.........+ aoeeaee
St. John’s Harbour:
Cuatn Rock Battery [4]
Fort Amherst Light,

South side of entrance)

Cape Spear, Lighthouse ...
Bull Head ........... pe eeeeenee
Cape Broyle, North Point
Cape Ballard..............+4..
Cape Race, Lighthouse ...
Virgin Rocks, on the Great

Bank of Newfoundland
Trepassey Harbour, Shingle

INECIC c.weecensosseccosereece
Cape Pine, Lighthouse ...
Cape St, Mary, Lighthouse
Placentia Harbour, Prive-

Coeur Point.........cecceece :
Cooper Cove, Obs. Spot...
Fox Island, §.W. point ...
Burin Island, Lighthouse
Worbimpelead peessssesesseceees
Great St. Lawrence Har-

bour, Episcopal Church
Pointe aux Gauls ............
St. Pierre Island, Galantry

Head Lighthouse ......

Pigeon Island, North pt.
Green Island, West point
Miquelon Islands, Cape

Coupé, South pV int...

Miquelon Road, anchor-

seme eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeseee

NEWFOUNDLAND.

LAT. N. | LONG. W.

25

31 40

31 10

29 30

30 10

28 30

AUTHORITIES.

The Surveys by Staff-Com-
mander J. H. Kerr, R.N.,
| Captain Orlebar, R.N., and
' other Officers,

Captain James Cook, Cap-
tain (Rear-Admiral) H. W.
Bayfield, 1827 to 1860, Cap-
tain Orlebar, 1862, and Staff-
Commander Maxwell, 1873—
1876.

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS. 65

NEWFOUNDLAND.
VAR,
LAT. N. | LONG. W. | WEST, AUTHORITIES.
1895.
° ’ u ° ! u °o ’
Pass Island, Lighthouse...| 47 29 80 | 56 11 10 Captain James Cook, Cap-
Devil Bay, E. entrance pt.| 47 36 40 | 56 37 10 tain (Rear-Admiral) H. W.
New Harbour, entrance ...| 47 35 80 | 56 39 10 | 29 80 | Bayfield, Capt. Orlebar, and
Fransway or Francois Bay, Stalf-Commander Maxwell.

West entrance point ...| 47 33 30 | 56 44 0
Cape La Hune ..............., 47 31 30} 56 51 50
Little River Point ......... 47 34 5/] 57 7 15
Old Man’s Bay, East point] 47 35 35 | 57 10 50
Ramea Ids., Ramea Harb.,

North entrance point ...| 47-80 30 | 57 24 30
Bear Island, West point...| 47 86 35 | 57 238 35
Burgeo Ids., Boar Island,

PFANGHOURG — cc..cesesicsess 47 36 10 | 57 35 10
La Poile Bay, Great Har-

bour, Episcopal Church! 47 89 48 | 58 24 18
Rose Blanche Point,Lt.-ho.| 47 85 50 | 58 41 30
Port Basque, Channel Ch.| 47 38 56 | 59 7 83

0

Cape Ray, Lighthouse [5]| 47 87 0 | 59 18 28 15
Codroy Roads, Beach Point} 47 52 38 | 59 23 47
St. George Har., Sandy Pt.| 48 27 27 | 58 30 31
Cape St. George eadeneucesee 48 28 25 | 59 15 20
Bay ofIslands, South Head| 49 9 0O/ 58 22 10
Cape Gregory ......cceseoee. 49 22 20 | 58 14 20 | 31 15
Bonne Bay, S. entrance pt.| 49 83 80 | 58 0 O
NOEL CAG 57 ccesanasesess'ssses 49 55 0} 57 49 50

Rich Point, Lighthouse ...| 50 41 55 | 57 24 30
St. John Harbour, South
entrance point ............ 50 48 0 | 57 15 30
Ferolle Point, S.W. extr.| 51 0 40 | 57 6 20
Sainte Genevieve Bay, En-
Pram’ Aslan i. .ccascn2s one 51 8 O| 56 49 36
Green Island, centre ...... 51 24 O]| 56 83 30
Cape Norman, Lighthouse] 51 88 0 | 55 53 40 | 35 30

NOTES.

1. The North German Polar Expedition of 1870, consisted of the steam-ship Germania,
143 tons, and the Hansa, a sailing vessel of 242tons. Its object was geographical discovery
towards the North Pole by the Eastern Coast of Greenland. On reaching the coast, the
vessels became separated, the sailing ship, proceeding to the southward, was ultimately
lost in a storm, and the crew, taking refuge on an ice-floe, were drifted several hundred
miles to the southward, to within reach of a Danish settlement near the southern
extremity of Greenland. ‘The (Germania wintered near the southern end of Pendulum
Island, near the locality of Sir Edward Sabine’s Magnetic Observatory, when he visited
the locality with Captain Clavering, in 1823. From this point, sledging expeditions in
the spring of 1870 were undertaken, which reached as far as 77° North latitude.

2. An interesting account was published of the Discoveries on the Eastern Coast of
Greenland, by Captain Graah, of the Danish Royal Navy, in 1829, who proceeded along
the coast from Staten Hook, to the parallel of 653°, and disproved the existence of any
ancient European colony upon it. In a single boat, amid difficulties almost insuperable,

56 GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.

with only two Greenland men and four women, M. Graah reached an island, in latitude
65° 18°, longitude, computed, 38° 27'; he proceeded onward until stopped by an imsur-
mountable barrier of ice, and was forced to return to the 8. W.

All the coast appeared to be colder, more barren, and miserable, than the western coast.
‘Tt may be said to consist of one uninterrupted glacier, exhibiting only a few patches of
vegetation, generally on the banks of the rivers, and elsewhere, often advancing into the
sea, and forming promontories of ice, which are passed with so much the more danger
that they frequently fall in avalanches.” During the whole summer of 1829 there was
not one day which could be called warm; and, before the 14th of June, the thermometer
had never risen above 53°.

During his last stay, in 1831, Capt. Graah determined the longitudes of the two southern
Danish settlements, Julianeshaah and Nennortulic, with great precision, by means of
occultations of fixed stars, &c.; and we also gained, by his observations, the positions of
Cape Farewell, never before ascertained, and Cape Christian, another promentory of the
same island.

The Eastern Coast is distinguished by the name of the late excellent King Frederick VI,

3. Laprapor.—The Eastern Coast of Labrador was surveyed by the Newfoundland
survey party under Commanders Chimmo and Maxwell. It was an arduous undertaking,
on account of the shortness of the navigable season.

4, NEWFOUNDLAND.—The work of the surveyors in recent years has placed the coast of
the island in a much more satisfactory light to the navigator. Previously, great errors
existed. The assigned positions of Cape Bonavista is an evidence of the uncertainty
which existed in the longitudes of the old surveys. The first sheet of the survey by
Messrs. Holbrook and Bullock, in 1817, made the long. 52° 59’ 15”. In the re-issue,
shortly afterwards, of the same sheet, it was shifted to long. 53° 8’ 20”, or 9° 5’ farther
West. In the modern survey it is placed in 53° 4’ 35”.

The coasts to the northward appear to have been given much more to the westward.
It is necessary to notice these discrepancies here, although the amounts of differences,
as now settled, are not important to the general navigator.

The exact longitude was determined by the Electric Telegraph connecting Ireland
with Heart’s Content in Trinity Bay in 1867, and from this the principal meridian has
been deduced. The Admiralty Survey takes the Chain Rock Battery, on the North side
of the entrance of St. John’s Harbour, as the meridian.

5. The West Coast of Newfoundland is still represented according to the surveys of
the circumnavigator, Captain James Cook, and Michael Lane, at the latter part of the
eighteenth century. The original charts of the West and South Coasts were pubkshed by
Mr. Laurie’s predecessors, and it will be seen, upon comparison, that the positions
given in Cook’s first work are still found to be near the truth.

The VARIATION of the Compass is decreasing on the Coasts of Iceland, at the rate of about
5}/ per annum. It is nearly stationary on the Coasts of Newfoundland and Labrador.

P| er ee eh eee ae

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS,

57

13. THE GULF AND RIVER OF ST. LAWRENCE, WITH
CAPE BRETON ISLAND, ETC.

|
| VAR.
LAT. N. | LONG. W. | WEST,
| 1895.
ie} ” ° ’ " ° ,
THE GULF. [1] |
IsLAND OF St. PavL.
Northern Extreme, Light-
RTI dc re nn5<<ccidaosssseesse 47 13 55 | 60 8 20 | 27 20)
Eastern side of Neck ...... 4713 9] 60 8 380)
South Point, Lighthouse...| 47 11 20 | 60 9 40
|
MaaGpaLEeNn IsLANnDs. |
Entry Isle, Lighthouse on
BiB S10 Goon scace~aconcaseose 47 16 30 | 61 41 45 |
South Cape, Lighthouse...| 47 13 0 | 61 58 0 |
Deadman Islet, W. point...| 47 16 3 | 62 12 28
Grindstone Island, Lt.-ho.| 47 23 20 | 61 57 80
Coffin Island, N.E. point...| 47 87 30 | 61 23 0 |
Bird Islet, Lighthouse...... AT 50 40 | 61 8 20 | 27 35
Byron or Cross Isle, E. pt.| 47 47 53 | 61 24 30 |
ANTICOSTI. |
East End, Heath Point, |
MET GIGHOUSC..+0.cchensecscces 49 5 20 | 61 42 0 | 29 10
South Point, Lighthouse...) 49 4 0 | 62 15 50
8.W. Point, Lighthouse ...| 49 23 45 | 63 35 30
Cape Henry, S.E. extreme| 49 47 45 | 64 22 45
West Point, Lighthouse ...| 49 52 45 | 64 31 40 | 28 30
North Point, extremity ...| 49 57 45 | 64 9 O
Observation Cape.....ccceeee 49 40 0! 62 41 45
Bear Bay, entrance of th |
EMORGE cisos tne des verasesesenc 49 80 82 | 62 24 20 |
LABRADOR, &c. |
Bradore Harbour, Flagsta
on Jones House ......... 51 27 30 | 57 14 15 | 34 45
Greenly Island, Lighthouse] 51 22 35 | 57 10 50
Belles Amours Point, 8.H. |
PRPC. <ccnsoersaxcscosceses 51 26 34 | 57 25 538
Whale Island, South end] 51 21 O | 57 41 O
Mistanoque Id., E. point o
Cove, N. side of Island...| 51 15 43 | 58 12 8
Flat Island, South end ...| 50 45 45 | 58 47 20
Mecattina Harbour, South |
point of Dead Cove...... 50 46 44 | 58 59 28
Cape Mecattina....cecee.see- 50 44 20 | 58 59 45
Antrobus Point.............+. 50 88 40 | 59 16 30
Hare Harbour, Eastside...) 50 36 24 | 59 17 23
St. Mary Island, North end| 50 20 20 | 59 36 57

N. A. O.

tem Na, ene, es A a a

: ee Ye an

AUTHORITIES.

The observations of Capt.
(afterwards Admiral) Henry

j Wolsey Bayfield, F.R.A.S.,

in H.M. surveving vessel

Gulnare, 1827 *o 1860.

58

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.

GULF AND RIVER OF ST. LAWRENCE.

|
Wapitagun Harbour, East
point of islet ..........0.00
Cape Whittle, S.W.
treme of Lake Island ...
Coacoacho Bay, 8. point of;
Outer Islet 2. scesccew-ssacee |
Kegashka Bay, Islet at
South end of beach
Natashquan River, South
point of entrance... ...... |
Little Natashquan Har-
bour, North Point Islet
at head of bay
Nabesippi River, entrance
Appetetat Bay, East point
Betchewun Harbour, S.E.
point of Low Isle.........
Clearwater Point, South
extreme
Mingan Harbour, Sandy
GING b. secssranctacescssemess|
Mingan Island, summit ...
St. John River, East point
of entrance
Manitou Point, extreme...
St. Charles Point, South
PRMOTICE: satacer cue cetesecees
Moisic River, 8.W. point
OLCDIATEE 2 vs ceccssce-.se-
Carousel Island, Lightho.|
Seven Islands Bay, Store-
house, East side .........
St. Margaret’s Bay, S.W.
extreme |
Cawee Islands, West point
oi Little Island..........

See cesses eesesoeeees,

5011

Egg Island, Lighthouse .

Trinity Bay, S. W. point...

Point de Monts, Lightho.|
South extreme

NortH SHoRE.

|
River St. LAWRENCE; |
|
|
|

extreme
Manicougan Point,
extreme
Bersimis River,South point,
OL ONAN CE..c.sseseccseaccas
Jeremie, Trading Post......!
Port Neuf Church..

LAT. N.

° tow

50 11 40

| 50 10 36

50 9 4
19
50 6

50) 5}

41

57

LONG.

"67

67

67
67
68
68

68 4

69

Ww. | WEST,
1895.
“ ° ,
|
23
0 | 31 80 |
138
38
i
58 | 80 80 |
33 | |
0
13
54 |
|
; |
56 | 29 25
31
16 i
8 | |
48 |
38
40 ;
4 | 927 80
43
58
6
8 |
58 | 25 A
18
30 |
4
|
55 | 23 45 |
54
0 H
| a

AUTHORITIES.

The Surveys by Admiral

H. W. Bayfield.

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.

Saguenay River, Lark Islet,
Lighthouse
Chicoutimi, Trading Post
Isle aux Coudres, W. point
of La Prairie Bay
QuEBEC, Observatory... [2]
Wolf Monument
Time Ball, King’s Bas-
tion, Citadel

eececcescece

seececsscces)

River St. LAWRENCE;
ABOVE QUEBEC.

St. Jean des Chaillons,
R. C. steeple

C. Madeline, R. C. steeple] 46
Three Rivers, East steeple] 46
Point du Lac, R. C. steeple} 46

Sorel, Episcopal Church...

Repentigny, R. C. steeple) 45

MontreEaL, McGill Col-
HEC OMewssacececssscssceccese
Gate Island, North end,
Lighthouse

R. C. Cathedral ...... [3] 45 é

River St. LAWRENCE;
SourH SHORE.

Orleans Isle, 8.W. point...

Stone Pillar Island, Lt.-ho.| 47

Kamouraska, N.E. point of
Crow Island

eeerececcecesce

Brandy Pots, Lighthouse} 47

Loup River, Pier Light, on
North side of entrance...
Red Island, Lighthouse ...

Green Island, Lighthouse! 48

Razade Rocks, N.H. one...

Bicquette Island, Lightho.| 48

Bic Island, N.E. extreme

Olea. RGCE © s.t<cd..ssss002
Barnaby Island, N.E. pt
Father Point, Lighthouse;
Camille Mount, summit

B.OSG 160U) as iceseadesaveues
Little Metis, Lighthouse...
Matane River, Lighthouse
Cape Chatte, Lighthouse...

Martin River, Lighthouse
Cape Magdalen, Lightho.

Fame Point, Lighthouse...

RIVER ST. LAWRENCE.

LAT. N, LONG.

50 | 20 8
51

48 6 45
48 26 5

47 24 40
46 48 17
46 48 38

52
20
31

17 30

5 48 23 36

72
72,
72 32
72
73
73

46

On
Oo

73

73 &
73 it

|
46 |
18 50

39

39

0

59

6 | 20 40
8 H
20
23

47
48

48

22 20

49
49

59

AUTHORITIES,

The Surveys by Admiral
H. W. Bayfield.

Staff-Commander Maxwell,
1885-8.

60 GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.

NEW BRUNSWICK, ETC.

VAR. |
LAT. N. LONG. W. | WEST, AUTHOBATIES.
1895. |
H
° i] W fe} ’ " ° i J
Great Fox Bay, centre of...| 48 59 57 64 22 55 The Surveys by Admiral
Cape Rozier, Lighthouse...| 48 51 37 | 64 12 0 H. W. Bayfield, Sta

ff-Comm.
Cape Gaspé, Lighthouse...| 48 45 15 | 64 9 45 | 26 45 | Maxwell, &e. i

\
NEW BRUNSWICK, &c.
Cape Despair, Lighthouse} 48 25 40 64 18 30
Chaleur Bay, Macquereau|
Point, Lighthouse...... 48 12 80 | 64 46 25
Port Daniel, West point) 48 9
Paspebiac, Episcopal Ch. 48 1 47 | 65 15 6
Bonaventure Point, S.
EOXtLCIME .....eeereccsecces 48 0
Carlton or Tracadigash
Point, extremity ...... 48 5
Dalhousie Island, E. pt.| 48 4
Belledune Point, Lt.-ho.| 47.55 15 | 65 538 15
Black Rock, Station on| 47 51 54 | 65 45 80 | |
Bathurst Harb., Carron
Point, North Lightho.| 47 39 20 | 65 36 40 |
Mizzenette Pt., Station) 47 50 2 | 64 58 43
Caraquette Id., Lightho.| 47 49 40 | 64 53 15
Shippigan Harb., Fall’s |
Wrihard .....c-ceccceseseces 47 44 52 | 64 42 12
Miscou Island, Lightho.| 48 1 0 | 64 29 28 | 25 20 |
Shippigan Gully, North |
entrance point «.......-0+ 47 48 24 | 64 89 86 |

Tracadie, North Gully, Lt.- |
ITOUSCL eeaeteneesecsecseress ees 47 38 20 | 64 51 25

Tabisintac Gully, Lightho.| 47 17 35 | 64 56 50 |
FEscuminac Point, Lt.-ho.| 47 4 82 | 64 47 30 | 28 865 |
|
{

Richibucto Head, Lightho.| 46 89 40 | 64 42 30 |
Buctouche River, Station
at ENtYANCE ...ccsseeeeeeee 46 26 55 | 64 37 45
Cocagne Head, ext. of cliff) 46 21 31 | 64 31 41 |
Shediac, Episcopal Church| 46 14 15 | 64 33 32 |

|

Cape Tormentine, Joure-

main Island, Lighthouse] 46 10 0 | 63 48 40
Tignish Head, Bay Verte,

Station ...ccccccccsevescsces 46 0 28/| 64 1 O,
Pugwash, Episcopal Ch....| 45 51 14 , 63 39 18 | 22 40
Amet Island, Lighthouse...| 45 50 15 | 63 10 15
Pictou Harbour, Lightho.| 45 41 25 | 62 89 26
Pictou Island, Lighthouse, |

Hast Ond.....ccesscsccesesese 45 49 10 | 62 30 20 | 23 30 |
Cape George, Lighthouse] 45 52 50 | 61 55 0) |
Antigonish Harbour, North

DEACON .reccccccrecccssceces 45 41 49 | 61 52 56 |
Pomquet Island, Lightho.| 45 39 40 | 61 44 30 |
Gut of Canso, Light, North;

CNELAICS ...ccccccvrerereseees 45 41 45 | 61 28 50 | 23 10

eS OS ID

_ Bedeque Harbour,

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.

61

PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND—CAPE BRETON ISLAND.

PRINCE EDWARD
ISLAND.

North Point, extr. of cliff
West Point, Lighthouse ...
Cape Egmont, Lighthouse
Green’s
(CUE ocae Sse aaa ne
Cape Traverse, extreme of
cliff
St. Peter’s Island, Lt.-ho.
Charlottetown, Flagstaff
on Fort George ...... [4]
Prim Point, Lighthouse ...
Panmure Island, Lightho.
South Point, Wood Island,
Lighthouse
Cape Bear, Lighthouse ...
East Point, Lighthouse ...
St. Peter’s Harbour, Sand-
hill, HE. side of entrance
Tracadie Harbour, Lt.-ho.
Grenville Harbour, Lt.-ho.
Richmond Bay, North ex-
tremity of Bunbury Id.
Cascumpeque Harb., Light
Cape Kildare, extreme......

CAPE BRETON
ISLAND.

Bear Head, extreme
Plaster Cove, North end of

EEO OE sc ewaccenstoawas saeaee
arts OOd, Wight... ss...
Sea Wolf Island, Light-

house on summit
Chetican Point, Lighthouse
Cape St. Lawrence, N. ext.
Cape North, Lighthouse...
Cape Egmont, E. extreme
Inganish, Lighthouse ......
St. Anne Harb., Beach Pt.
Ciboux Island, Lighthouse!
Carey Point, W. side of en-

trance of Great Bras d’Or
Aconi or Cunet Point, extr.
Sydney Harbour, Light-

house on Flat Point......
Table Head, extreme ......
Flint Island, Lighthouse...
Scatari Island, E. Lt.-ho.
Menadou Harbour, N. pt.

|

)

46 0
46

46
46
46

46
46
46

45 33 5
45 388 56
46 0 0

46 21
46 36
47 2
47 2
46 51
46 41
46 17
46 23

46
46

30
22
54
15

i
20
41
12

17
20

41
32
46 16 12
46 13 20
4611 5
46 218
46 0 29

LONG. W.

63 59
64 23
64 7

47

|

|

VAR. |
WEST,
1895.

AUTHORITIES,

20 | 24 15
10
39

The Surveys by Admiral
H. W. Bayfield; and Com-
manders Orlebar and Max-
well, &c.

26

23 45

Or

25 40

62 GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.

CAPE BRETON ISLAND.

VAR.
LAT. N. LONG. W. | WEST, AUTHORITIES.
1895.
° , “ ° , " ie} t
Cape Breton, extreme...... | ABV DT 3059047 8) The Surveys by Admiral
Louisbourg, Lighthouse...| 45 54 34 ; 59 57 15 | H. W. Bayfield, and Com-
Gabarus Bay, Ch. on cape) 45 49 15 | 60 4 30 | manders Shortland & Orlebar,
Guyon Island, Lighthouse; 45 46 10 | 60 6 35 R.N., 1827-60, &e.
St. Esprit Island, Lightho.| 45 87 30 | 60 29 15
Michaux Point, Station on
OXULCMMC ws sscececcssssssceeess 45 34 11 | 60 41 O
BEODEO 0 ocecenicewiscmancieossas 45 36 45 | 60 45 59
St. Peter Island, S.W. ext.| 45 35 54 | 60 48 50
St. Peter Bay, Old Fort on
West side of Haulover...| 45 89 21 | 60 52 4 | 24 80

MapamMeE I[snanD:
Grande-digue, Lennox
Passage, Station ...... 45 35 49
Arichat Harbour, Jersey-
man Island, Lightho.| 45 30 15
Lighthouse on Marache

L’Ardoise, R. C. Church
61 38 7| 24 15

Te giTy Soman cos cen 45 29 2)|61 1 52
Green Island, Lighthouse; 45 28 45 | 60 53 45
NOTES.

1. Taz GULF anp RIVER or ST. LAWRENCE, together with the Coast of New-
foundland, and the coasts thence to Boston and Cape Cod, are described in the British
American Navigator, published by the proprietor of this work.

2. QuEBEC.—In the early editions of this work, the longitude of Quebec was stated to
be 71° 16’; ‘‘ according to the observations of M. le Marquis de Lotbiniére, M. Bédard,
Director of the Seminary of St. Louis, and Captain Holland, M. Mechain computed
the longitude to be 71° 10’, by several eclipses of Jupiter’s first satellite, observed by
Messrs. Lotbiniére and Holland, and the passage of Venus, which Captain Holland
observed in 1769. All the observations, made at different times, have given very
coherent results.”—Vide American Trans., vol. i., &c.

The above passage, from ‘ Analysis of a General Chart, &c.,” Paris, 1786, shows the
position in which Quebec was laid down on the charts, and it agreed with that given in
the ‘“‘Connaissance des Temps.” But Quebec was afterwards exhibited considerably
more to the eastward. Mr. Wright, in his chart of 1807, made it 70° 27’. The Requisite
Tables, of 1802, gave latitude 46° 48’ 38”, longitude 71° 5’ 22’. Colonel Bouchette, in
his work on Canada, 1815, gave 46° 48’ 49” N., and 71° 11’ W. In the years 1819, 1820,
and 1821, the officers of H.M.S. Newcastle, provided with four chronometers, made many
observations in the river, and these observations may be judged of by the longitude in
which they placed Quebec for three successive years, assuming Halifax as in 63° 33’ 40’;
July 16th, 1819, 71° 12’ 48”; June 19th, 1820, 71° 18’ 14”; July 5th, 1821, 71° 12' 25”,
The greatest difference is 49”, and the mean of the whole is 1” farther West than the
longitude given in 1819.

From these and other observations combined, the late Mr. Purdy placed Quebec in
longitude 71° 13’, in the charts, &c., which he constructed.

When the charts of Captain H. ww. Bayfield were published in 1837, they were based

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS. 63

upon a longitude of 71° 16’ W. for Quebec. This was shown to be in error nearly 34
minutes of are, by electric telegraph signals transmitted between Quebec and Cambridge
Observatory, in Massachusetts, by Lieutenant E. D. Ashe, R.N., in 1857.

The position of Cambridge, as will be seen in the Note on that longitude on a subse-
quent page, was settled as 71° 7’ 58°55”, and the mean difference between that Observa-
tory and the Observatory in Mann’s Bastion in the Citadel of Quebec, as determined by
Lieutenant Ashe, is 0° 4’ 34:17", which placed Quebec in 71° 12’ 32°72”. By the most
recent observations, Quebec Observatory is placed in long. 71° 12’ 20’, as given in the
Table.

3. Montreat.—The longitude of Gate Island, opposite the Cathedral and the Hotel
Dieu, is given by Captain Bayfield in 78° 34’ 38’. Lieutenant Ashe, R.N., as stated
above, in continuation of his work on electric time-signals, obtained the difference of
longitude between Quebec and Viger Square, 630 ft. West of Gate Island, on March 12th,
1857, as 2° 20’ 45:5”, which makes it in longitude 73° 33’ 18-12”. as shown in the Table.

4, CHARLOTTETOWN AND PRINCE Epwarp’s IsLanp.—The position of the flagstaff in
the Fort of Charlottetown was given by Rear-Admiral Bayfield as lat. 46° 15’ 55” N.,
long. 63° 7’ 23” W. It had been before placed 3’ more to the West, but the exact
difference of longitude between this point and Quebec has been determined by the
electric telegraph as 8° 5’ 26”.

The VaRtaTION of the Compass is now decreasing on the shores of the Gulf and Miver
of St. Lawrence, at the rate of 1’ per annum.

14. NOVA SCOTIA, &c.—(SoutHErn Coasts.)

VAR.
LAT. N. | LONG. W. | WEST, AUTHORITIES.
1895.
° , u" ° ’ " ° !
SABLE ISLAND [1]
Lighthouse 13 mile from)
BPASE COs. ec. cceceseceees 43 58 30 | 59 46 O | 22 55 | The Surveys by Admiral
Lighthouse on West end) 43 56 20 | 60 6 0 H. W. Bayfield; and Com-

manders Shortland & Orlebar,
R.N., 1827-60, &ec.
NOVA SCOTIA. [2]

Cranberry Island, Lightho.| 45 20 0 | 60 55 40/24 5 |
Canso Harbour, Cutler Id., |

S.H. extreme............ | 45 20 42 | 60 59 27
Steeple of Church......... 45 20 10 | 60 59 25
White Head Island, Lt.-ho.| 45 11 58 | 61 8 27

White Haven, Observation

Station in Marshall Cove} 45 14 387 | 61 11 48
Berry Head, Lighthouse...| 45 11 40 | 61 18 40 |
|

New Harbour Head, Nob) 45 9 7! 61 28 21
Green Island, Lighthouse

on South point............ 45 6 15 | 61 32 30
Harbour Island, N.E. point) 45 8 25 | 61 86 15
Isaac Harbour, Red Head,

BOING, saccedesansececsvnass 45 9 39 | 61 38 50
Country Harbour, Station

opposite Widow Point...; 45 14 41 | 61 47 6 | 23 16
Hollins Head......reeevee00-51 45 4 19 | 61 44 57 |

|

|

Wedge Island, Lighthouse
St. Mary River, Episcopal
Clonigday Abeossocpruoasccdacce
Liscomb Island, Lightho.
Mary Joseph Harbour,
Lobster Point, extreme
Beaver Island, Lighthouse
Salmon River, Church ...
Sheet Harb., } mile N.W.
from Watering Cove ...
Taylor Head, summit......
Pope Harbour, Harbour
Island, Lighthouse
Ship Harbour, Islet near
Salmon Point
Egg Island, Lighthouse ...
Jedore Harb., Marsh Point
Jedore Rock, centre.........
Jedore Head, extreme......
Graham Head, summit ...
Devil Island, Lighthouse
Halifax Harbour, Lightho.,
Maugher Beach
Haurrax, Dockyard Ob-
BELVALOLY ....eeeeeeee [3]
Sambro Island, Lighthouse
Betty Island Lighthouse ...
St. Margaret Bay, S.W.
Island, South end
Green Island, off Mahone
Bay, Lighthouse
Lunenburg Harbour, Cross!
Island, Lighthouse
West Ironbound Island,
Lighthouse
Metway Head, Lighthouse
Coffin Island, Lighthouse,
Liverpool Harbour
Mouton Island, South Rock
Shelburne or Cape Rose-
way, Lighthouse on Mac-
nutt Island......... waxcienns
Negro Island, Lighthouse
Baccaro Point, Light on
West side of Port Latour
eG ENOGIC csensecccscsesuses
Cape Sable, Lighthouse ...
Seal Island, Lightho. [4]
Cape Fourchu, near Yar-
mouth, Lighthouse ......
Bryer Island, Lighthouse
Annapolis Basin, Point
Prim, Lighthouse.........
Black Rock Point, Lt.-ho.|

eoccece

eeeecccccece

eeccee

eecces

wceessesecosess

LAT. N.

44
t4

44
43

43
43

43
43
43
43

48
44

44 41 30

45

26

87
30

26
21
23
23

47
14

10

NOVA SCOTIA.

|

nA} or a

36 | 61 52 40

30 | 61 57 15
20 | 61 57 50
52
45
32

11
24

40

59
55

20
15

43
10

35
28

58
58

45
21 0

17
55

12
48
10
50

54
25
20
34

30
57

20
32

10
50

me

10

VAR.

LONG. W. | WEST,

1895.

22 5)

i

18 0

18 30

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.

AUTHORITIES,

The Surveys by Admiral

H. W. Bayfield; and Com-
manders Shortland & Orlebar.
R.N., 1827-60, &o.

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS. 65

NOVA SCOTIA—NEW BRUNSWICK.

=

VAR
LAT. N. | LONG. W. | WEST, AUTHORITIES.
1895
° ? " o / u ° , ,
Horton Bluff, Lighthouse] 45 6 30 | 64 13 20 The Surveys by Comm.
Partridge Island, in the Shortland, R.N., Admiral
Mines Channel..... wavenee 45 21 50 | 64 20 10 Bayfield, and Commander
Cape Chignecto...........0... 45 19 35 | 64 56 45 | 21 O | Orlebar, R.N., to 1867, &e.

Isle Haute, Lighthouse ...| 45 14 55 | 65 O 40
Cumberland Basin, Ward
Point, Lighthouse......... 45 43 45 | 64 29 40

NEW BRUNSWICK.

Hillsborough, Light......... 45 55 15 | 64 38 O

Cape Enragé, Lighthouse} 45 35 35 | 64 46 55

Quaco Head, Lighthouse...| 45 19 80 | 65 31 55

Cape Spencer, Lighthouse] 45 12 5 | 65 54 30

Partridge Island, Lightho.| 45 14 3| 66 3 5

City of St. John, South end| 45 16 0 | 66 38 15 | 19 50 Lieutenants Harding and

Point Lepreau, Lighthouse] 45 38 30 | 66 27 39 Kortright, R.N.

Beaver Harbour, Lightho.| 45 3 45 | 66

South Wolf, Lighthouse...| 44 56 25 | 66

Passamaquoddy Bay, St.
Andrew’s, Lighthouse...|-45 4 10 | 67

Grand MananId., Swallow
Tail, or N.E. Point, Lt.-
OD DES eg eesaieer enero cree 44 45 55 | 66

Gannet Rock, Lighthouse} 44 30 35 | 66

NOTES.

1. Sapte Istanp.—On this island is an establishment for the relief of shipwrecked
mariners. It was founded, in 1803, by the Provincial Legislature of Nova Scotia, at the
recommendation of the late Sir John Wentworth, then PN Governor; and has
since proved the means of saving many lives.

2. Nova Scotia.—The coasts of Nova Scotia were first laid down from the surveys of
Mr. Des Barres, with emendations by Mr. A. Lockwood, R.N., and various corrections
in position by Admiral Owen and others. After the completion of the survey of the
Canadian coasts, our Admiralty Surveyors, Admirals Bayfield and W. F. Owen, with
Captains Shortland and Orlebar, re-examined the South-East shores of Nova Scotia and
the Bay of Fundy, the results of which are shown in the Table.

8. Hauirax.—In former editions of this work the following appears :— The latitude
of the Naval Yard of Halifax, from observations very carefully made by the officers of
H.M.S. Niemen, in 1842, was 44° 39’ 37". This was gained by eleven meridian altitudes
with the artificial horizon, and several observations made on each side of noon at small
intervals; the mean true altitudes being computed from the hour angles. The longitude,
63° 38’ 43”, was obtained as the mean result of more than 30 sets of lunar distances. We
formerly gave the longitude of M. Des Barres, &c., as 63° 32’ 40”, and therefore presume
that a statement of 63° 37’ 48”, which has lately appeared, is 4’ too far West.”

N. A. O, 10

66 GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.

Captain Bayfield assumed the longitude of the Dockyard, in his survey, to be 63° 37’ 48"
as previously stated. The late Admiral W. F. Owen, in H.M.S. Columbia, in 1844, made it
63° 35’ 28’ W. The late respected Lieutenant Raper made it, as a secondary meridian.
63° 37' 36”, or nearly the same as Captain Bayfield.

In the determination of this, and of other longitudes, the Electric Telegraph has
decided the question beyond controversy.

The difference of longitude between Cambridge Observatory, Massachusetts, and that
of Halifax Dockyard, was determined, electrically, by Professor Bond, and Captain
Shortland, R.N., to be 0° 30™ 9% in time, or 7° 32’ 23°45” in arc. This meridianal difference
applied to the longitude of Cambridge, 71° 7’ 58°55", as then determined, made Halifax
Dockyard Observatory to be in 68° 35’ 35” W. of Greenwich. It is now considered to be
63° 35’ 21", as given in the Table.

4. Seat Istanp.—‘' M. Des Barres placed the southernmost point of the southern Seal
Isle in lat. 43° 25’ 25”, and long. 66° 0’ 35”. Later charts have it in lat. 43° 26’ 35”; but
our correspondent, Lieutenant Hare, gave the latitude of the South point 43° 22’ 23”, or
Four miles more to the southward. This result, since confirmed, will account for so many
ships having been yearly cast away, on coming out of the Bay of Fundy. A very strong
indraught, both on the ebb and flood, sets toward the isles, and in the vicinity, equal to
4 knots an hour, and they should not be approached without a commanding breeze.” The
lighthouse should obviate this.

The Variation of the Compass is inercasing on the Coast of Nova Scotia, &c., at the
rate of 14’ to 3’ per annuxa.

15. THE UNITED STATES.

LAT. N. | LONG. w. | WEST, | AUTHORITIES.
1895.
|
° , " | ° , " ° '
MAINE.
(BSS c@ at ypangeecoaaeooe ood 44 54 12 | 66 59 The TRIANGULATION made

5
Passamaquoddy Bay, for the UnirEp StTaTEs Coast
Quoddy Head, Lightho.| 44 48 54 | 65 57 1 | 18 50 | Survey, under the superin-
Little River Island, Lt.-ho.| 44 89 45 | 67 12 5 tendence of Professor A. D.
Machias Seal Ids., Lt.-ho. Bache, &c.
on East one (British) ...; 44 80 7] 67 6 5
2

Machias Bay, Libby Island, *,* For the purposes of the

Lighthouse .......s0.cse0s 44 34 5 | 67 22 Survey, the Coast of the United
Moose a-bec or Moose Peak, States was divided into eleven
Mistake Island, Lightho.| 44 28 27 | 67 31 55 sections (nine of which are on
Petit Manan, Lighthouse the Atlantic Coast), in all of
DMS OUt A CNG. .....csesceans 44 22 2| 67 51 51 which the work was carried on
Mount Desert Id., Great simultaneously, the Survey
leads Se. 6nd c.c.t...s-52 44 19 40 | 68 10 25 being in different stages of

Mount Desert Rock, Light) 43 58 7 | 68 7 42 | 16 55 | Progress in the several sections.
Isle au Haut, Light on These several sections are de-

P fined as follows :—Section I.

Saddle Back Islet......... 44 0 51} 68 438 35 ’
Pipe 5 a : from Passamaquoddy Bay to
Matinicus tock, Lightho. 43 47 O 68 61 18 Point Judith, Section II., from

Penobscot Bay, Owls Point Judith to Cape Henlopen.

Head, Lighthouse.......«. AA mei 69 2 39 Suction JW nies Cape Hen.
Cape Rosier .......csesesereee 44 15 30 | 638 4) 30 lopen to Cape Henry. Section
Manheigan Island, ee 43 45 52 | 69 18 57 | 15 45 | Iy., from Cape Henry to Cane

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS

THE UNITED STATES.

LAT. N.

°

?

"

Cape Small SeSeeeseseseesecoss 43 42, 0
43 27 22
43 33 56
43 27 23

43 21 27

Portland Head, Lighthouse
Cape Elizabeth, East Light
Fletcher’s Neck, Light on
Wood Island...............
Cape Porpoise Harbour,
Light on Goat Island ...
Cape Neddick, Lighthouse
York Harbour, Light on
Boon Island ............

New Hampshire.

Agamenticus Hill, summit
Portsmouth Harb., Whales
IBRCE ANGIE. . cccssecsconsases
Isles of Shoals, White Id.,
Lighthouse ..

eeeececcce

MASSACHUSETTS.

Newbury Port, East Light
on Plum Island
Cape Ann, North Light on
Thatcher Island
Light on East point......
Baker’s Island, Lighthouse
Marblehead, Light at the
entrance
Nahant Head
Boston, State House... [1]
Cunard Wharf, Flagstaff
CAMBRIDGE Observatory,
WOTIG) eccncwan-cs- [2]
Boston Bay, Lighthouse
on Little Brewster Id.
Minot’s Ledge, Light ...
Scituate Harbour, Light on
North Point
Plymouth Harbour, Light
on North side of entrance
Sandwich, Church Spire...
Barnstaple, Sandy Neck,
Tiehthouse .......::... hisaw
Billingsgate Point, Lt.-ho.
Cape Cod, Provincetown,
Orthodox Church Spire!
Race Point, Lighthouse
Highlands Lighthouse...
Nausett, Centre Light...
Monomoy Island, Light-
house at South end......

eeececeseese

eeerorsceseesecsese

eecessecesscces

43
43

42
41

9
7

45
16

43
21
37

41 33 32

VAR.

LONG. W. | WEST,

° ,

69 50
70 12
70 12

70

70
70

19

25
35

70 28

70 41
70 41
70 37

70

70 4
70

"
0
29
1
45

31
30

36

41
48
25

1895.

14 30

13 45

13 30

12 35

13 15

67

AUTHORITIES.

The TRIANGULATION made
for the UnitTEp States Coasr
SuRveY, under the superin-
tendence of Professor A. D.
Bache, &c.

Fear. Section V., from Cape
Fear to St. Mary’s River.
Section VI., from St. Mary’s
River to St. Joseph’s Bay.
Section VII., from St. Joseph’s
Bay to Mobile Bay. Section
VIII., from Mobile Bay to Ver-
milion Bay. Section IX., from
Vermilion Bay to the Rio
Grande. Section X., Coast of
California, San Diego Bay to
42nd parallel. Section XI., Coast
of Oregon, &c., 42nd to 49th
parallel. The Tables give the
latitudes and longitudes of some
of the trigonometrical points in
each section. The manner in
which these data have been ob-
tained may be briefly explained
here.

In each section a base line of
from 5 to 10 miles in length
was measured with all possible
accuracy. A series of triangles,
deriving the length of their sides
from this base, was then esta-
blished along the coast, by the
measurement of the angles be-
tween the intervisible stations.
In this primary series the tri-
angles were made as large as
the nature of the country would
permit, because the liability to
error increases with the number
of triangles.

On the bases furnished by the
sides of the primary triangles, a
secondary triangulation was
next established, extending
along the coast, and over the
smaller bays and sounds, and
determining a large number
of points at distances of a few
miles apart.

The distances between the
points thus determined, were
liable to an average error of
about one foot in six miles.

As, on the completion of the
primary triangulation in each
section, the several series form

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.

THE UNITED STATES.

| LAT. N.
|

}
Het aM
Nantucket Island, Brant!

Point, Lighthouse......
Light on Great or N.E.
IELOIING sasescesccknsoss asoee
Sankaty Head, Lightho.
Tuckanuck Id., Westend
Davis South Shoal, Light-
vessel, about..........ss006
Muskeget Island, N.E. pt.
Martha’s Vineyard, Cape
Poge, Lighthouse......
Hdgartown, Spire.........
Holmes’ Hole, Spire ...
West Chop, or North
Point, Light
Indian Hill, on N.W. side

Gay Head, Lighthouse
No Man’s Land, centre ...
Cuttyhunk, Lt. on 8.W. pt.
Nashon Island, Lighthouse
Nobska Lighthouse
Mattapoiset, Lt. on Ned’s
Point
New Bedford, Pope Island
Seconnet Point, East Rock

"

41 17
23
16
18

54
20

25
23
27

28
25
20
15
24
28
30

39
38
27

Pre eer eeU ee Cee)

RHODE ISLAND.

29
26
34
40
49
21
13
10
18

Newport, Spire...........-++
Beaver Tail Lighthouse
Quaker Hill, near N. end
Bristol, Court House
Providence, Unitarian Ch.
Point Judith, Lighthouse
Block Island, Lt. on N. pt.
Beacon Hill, on West side)
Watch Hill, Lighthouse ...

Connecticut AND NEW
YorK.

Long Island Sound:
Montauk Point, Lt.-ho.
Plum Island, Lighthouse
Stonington, Light
New London, Lightho.
Connecticut River, Light

on Saybrook Point ...|
Faulkner Island, Lt.-ho.)
Newhaven, Epise. Ch....
Light on Long Wharf
Stratford Point, Lightho.
Stratford Shoal or Mid-
dle Ground, Lightho.
Throg’s Neck, Lightho.

weeeee

21 |

|

51
12
54

oy)

20
og
5

54

6

73 6
73 47

54

27
43
36
25

37
Ja
49
56
ite

6
30

———————

LONG. W. | WEST,

(

VAR. |

AUTHORITIES.
1895.

The TRIANGULATION made

for the UNITED STATES Coast
Survey, under the superin-
tendence of Professor A. D.
Bache, &e.
12 10 | one connected chain, the dif-
ferent bases affoxd verifications
of each other, and of the trian-
gulatien connecting them.

11 45

11 25

10 50

10 30

9 50

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS. 69

THE UNITED STATES.

]
VAR.
LAT. N. | LONG. W. | WEST, AUTHORITIES
1895.
Sands Point, Lighthouse} 40 51 55 | 73 43 48 The TRIANGULATION made
Faton’s Point, Lightho.) 40 57 12 | 73 23 45 for the Unrrzp Starzs Coast
Old Field Point, Lightho. 40 58 84] 73 7 8 Survey, under the superin-
Horton’s Point, Lightho.| 41 5 4 | 72 26 46 tendence of Professor A. D.
Long Island, South side, Bache, &e.
Shinnecock Bay, Pond-
quogue Point, Lightho.| 40 50 55 | 72 30 16
Fire Island, Lighthouse ..| 40 387 55 | 73 13 9
New York, City Hall ...... 40 42 48 | 74 015) 8 30
Navy Yard, centre ofislet
lying CS ae [3]| 40 42 10 | 738 58 O

NEw JERSEY.

Sandy Hook, Lighthouse | 40 27 40 | 74 0 9
Highlands of Navesink, Lt.| 40 23 45 | 73 59 11
Barnegat Inlet, Lighthous 39 45 52 | 74 6 24
Little Egg Harb., Tucker’

Beach, Lighthouse Soaecs 39 30 22 | 7417 8} 710
Absecum Inlet, Lighthouse
on South ea 39 21 59 | 74 24 52

| ° dt / ° BOO ° ,
Long Island Sound:

DELAWARE Bay.

Cape May, Lighthouse ...| 88 55 50 | 74 58 10} 6 15
Egg Island, Lighthouse ...| 89 10 45 | 75 8 37
Cohansey, Lighthouse...... 39 20 30 | 75 22 0
Brandywine Shoal, Lt.-ho.| 88 59 0| 75 7 20
Philadelphia, Girard Coll. | 89 58 23 | 75 11 0

South end of islet......... 39 56 15 | 75 8 45 6 25
Wilmington, Light at
Christiania River......... 39 48 15 | 75 31 45

Cross Ledge, Lighthouse} 39 9 45 | 75 14 30
Cape Henlopen, High Lt.| 38 46 88 | 75 5 19

VirGINIA, &c.

Indian River Inlet, entr. | 38 86 385 | 75 4 O
Fenwick Island, Lightho.| 88 27 0} 75 38 45
Assateague Island, Lt.-ho.| 37 54 37 | 75 21 10
Hog Island, Lighthouse ay

@
; i
a ere nr a

a

South 5 |e een 37 23 18 | 75 41 30
Cape Charles,SmithIsland,'
Lighthouse paeaatncs <esace oo. 37 7 20 | 75 52 48 | 4 20

CHESAPEAKE Bay.

Old Point Comfort, Lt.-ho.) 837 O 3 | 76 18 10
York Spit, Lighthouse...... 387 12 31 | 76 14 40
Wolf Trap Shoal, Lightho.| 37 23 25 | 76 10 50
Smith Point, Lighthouse | 37 53 35 | 76 11 15
Cove Point, Lighthouse ...| 38 22 50 | 76 22 30

70

Thomas Point, Lighthouse)

Baltimore, Lazaretto Light

WasHincton,Capitol Dome
Naval Observatory ... [4]

NortH CAROLINA.

Cape Henry, Lighthouse...
Currituck Beach, Lightho.
Entrance to Pamplico
Sound, Body Id., Lt.-ho.
Stevenson Point, N. side of
Albemarle Sound ... [5]
Cape Hatteras, High Lt.-
house
Extremity
Ocracoke Inlet, Light on
West end of island ......
Cape Lookout, Lighthouse
Extremity
Beaufort Inlet, Fort Macon
Bogue Inlet, entrance......
Cape Fear, Lighthouse on
Bald Head .......<.0-scc.
South extreme
Little River, entrance......

eececseccecceccees

SoutH CAROLINA.

George Town, Light at en-
trance of Pedee River...
Be ae Romain, Light on
accoon Kay......cc.c.s..«s
Bulls Bay, Light at North
end of Bulls Island
Charleston, Main Light-
house on Morris Island
St. Michael’s Church [6]
North Edisto River entr....
Hunting Island, Lightho.
Port Royal, Martin’s In-
dustry, Lightvessel
Hilton Head Island, High
Light .....cccceee wecesseesess

eovcce

GEORGIA.

Savannah River, Tybee
Lighthouse
Exchange Spire
Sapelo Sound, Bar, S. end
of St. Catherine Island)
l’cboy Sound, Sapelo Id.,)
Lighthouse on Southend

eeeeeesesere

THE UNITED STATES.

80 50
81 5

81 10
81 17

"

O | WEsT.

50
0
45

° ,

GLOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.

AUTHORITIRS.

The TRIANGULATION made

for the UNITED StatEs Coast

4 10 | Survey, under the superin-

3 35

1 30

tendence of Professor A. D.
Bache, &c.

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.

St. Simon Sound, Light-
house on North side......
St. Andrew Sound, Light
on Little Cumberland Id.

FLORIDA.

St. Mary’s River, Lightho.
near N. end of Amelia Id.
Fernandina, railroad wharf
St. John’s River, Lightho.
St. Augustine Inlet, Light-
house on Anastasia Id....
Mosquito Inlet, entrance
Cape Canaveral, Lightho.
Jupiter Inlet, Lt.-ho. 8. of
Cape Florida, Biscayne Kay
7

Florida Reefs, Lighthouse
on Fowey Rocks
Alligator Reef, Lightho.
Sombrero Shoal, Lt.-ho.
American Shoal, Lt.-ho.
Sand Kay, Lighthouse...
Rebecca Shoal, Lightho.
Key West, Lt. on 8. W. pt.
NavaL STOREHOUSE fg}
Marquesas, S.W. point ...
Dry Tortugas, Lighthouse
on Bush Kay, Fort Jef-
FEYSON ......cccccccsccevcceees
Cape Sable
Cape Romano
Sanibel Island, Lighthouse
Gasparilla Island, Lt.-ho.
Tampa Bay, Egmont Kay,
Lighthouse
Anclote Kays, Lighthouse
Cedar Kays, Lighthouse on
Seahorse Kay ...........-
St. Mark’s Harbour, Lt.-ho.
Dog Id., Lt. near W. end
Cape St. George, Lightho.
Cape St. Blas, Lighthouse
St. Andrew Island, Hurri-
cane Island, S.E. end...
Santa Rosa Island, E. end
Pensacola Bay, Lighthouse

eoesee

eeccccccosesece

ALABAMA.
Mobile Point, Fort Morgan
i)

Dauphin Island, West end

71

THE UNITED STATES.

VAR.
EAST,
1895.

LAT. N. LONG. W. AUTHORITIES.

The TRIANGULATION made
for the UniTEp Statgs Coast
SuRVEY, under the superin-
tendence of Professor A. D.
Bache, &c.

31 81 24 15

30 25

1 40

2 10

2 40

2 40

2 40

4 20

88
88

30 13 48
80 15 0

12 GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.

THE UNITED STATES.

s

VAR.
LAT. N. LONG. W. | EAST, AUTHORITIES,
1895.
° t " ° t " ° ,
Mobile, Episcopal Spire...| 80 41 26 | 88 3 0 The TRIANGULATION made
Horn Island, Lighthouse...| 830 13 21 | 88 82 0 for the Untrep SrateEs Coast
SuRveEy, under the superin-
WMisstssrppr & LOvIsIANA. tendence of Professor A. D.
Bache, &c.
Ship Island, Lighthouse on}
IWiPSh DOME. cccesescsansceee 30 12 30 | 88 58 1

Chandeleur Island, Light-
house on North point...| 30 2 45 | 88 52 30
Entrance of the Mississippi,
Pass a L’Outre Lt.-ho.| 29 11 30 | 89 2 30| 5 10
South Pass, pierentrance|] 28 59 30 | 89 8 15
S.W. Pass Lighthouse...| 28 58 28 | 89 23 30
New Orleans, City Hall{10]| 29 57 45 | 90 6 45,
Grand Pass, Lighthouse ...| 29 14 45 | 89 58 30
Timballier Bay, Lt.-ho. on
West side of entrance ...| 29 1 45 | 90 19 15
Ship Shoal, Lighthouse ...| 28 55 5 | 91 4 30
Atchafalaya Bay, Point au
Herlower: ‘.cccssscnsssecs 29 19 50 | 91 21 80 | 610
Vermilion Bay, 8.W. Pass| 29 85 0O| 92 2 45
Sabine River, Lighthouse
on Brant Point............| 29 43 55 | 98 50 19

TExas.

Galveston Bay, Lighthouse

on Bolivar Point ......... 29 22 10| 94 45 5] 7 30
Galveston, Court House...| 29 18 14 | 94 46 33
Matagorda Island, Light-

house on East point...... 28 20 17 | 96 25 5
Aransas Pass, Lighthouse

on North side ~....0s.s00<s 27 53 23 | 97 1 20
Brazos Santiago, Isabel Pt.| 26 4 86 | 97 12 28| 7 55

NOTES.

GENERAL NOTE.—In the year 1807, the United States Legislature determined upon
the survey of the coast. This was not properly commenced until 1817, when some base
dines were measured, and triangles taken. In 1832 the operations were resumed, under
its original superintendent, Mr. F. R. Hassler.

In 1842 a plan was drawn up by Congress for its further organization, by which it was
-continued under the able superintendence of Professor A. D. Bache. In the conducting
of this extensive survey, every refinement and appliance to ensure accuracy has been
employed, and many new and important discoveries in geodetic science have been made,

As shown in the Note on pp. 66-67, the coasts of the United States were divided into
eleven sections, of which two are composed of the Pacific Coasts, and the geographie
connexion between America and the rest of the world, is mainly dependent on the
position of the Observatory of Cambridge near Boston.

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS. 73

1. Boston.—Dr. Bowditeh, from six astronomic observations, viz., two transits and
four solar eclipses, made the longitude of Boston as 4" 44™ 16:6; and it was the opinion
of Dr. Bowditch that this longitude was more accurately ascertained than that of any
other place in the United States. The State of Massachusetts was surveyed trigono-
metrically, by Simeon Borden and Robert Treat Payne, Esqrs., and the survey was
based on the position of Boston State House. ‘From observations in 1829 and 1830,”
says Mr. Borden, ‘I made the longitude of the State House as 4" 44™ 146%, and by the
great solar eclipse, May 15th, 1836, 4" 44™ 19°68; mean of the whole, 71° 4’ 13°5’.” The
latitude deduced as 42° 21’ 22-7”, was from 636 observations.

2. CAMBRIDGE OBSERVATORY.—The longitude of the Observatory of Cambridge
near Boston, is the primary meridian of the greater portion of N.W. America, inasmuch
as the longitudes of most other places have been referred to it by triangulation, or by
electric signal. Its relation to Greenwich has also employed years of assiduous labour
and consummate skill, and may now be considered as entirely established, within probably
an insignificant amount of error.

Prior to the year 1849, the astronomic observations systematically carried on there had
resulted in a longitude assumed as 71° 8’ 0” West of Greenwich. When the positions
of the United States Coast Survey Stations were published in 1851, it was assumed as
71° 7’ 22-5”, from the following data:—Moon culminations at various Observatories

_referred to Cambridge, 4" 44™ 28-4; by eclipses and occultations in the same manner,
-42 44m 29-68; and by chronometric differences to that date 4" 44™ 30-18, This latter
determination was afterwards assumed by Professor Bond to be very nearly the true
longitude.

But in 1855 the chronometric operations were again resumed early in January, and
the first meridional distance was carried by the steamer America, June 5th, and the last
by the return of the Africa to Boston, October 26th, 1855. There were six voyages
across the Atlantic, between Boston and Liverpool, and the total number of chronometers
used was fifty-two, and the final longitude determined was as follows :—

hm 8
Voyages from Liverpool to Cambridge ............sssseeeseeee 4 32 31:92
Voyages from Cambridge to Liverpool .............:seeeeeeee 4 32 31°75
ECAIV conctecossacashacsnccat ansene teas 4 32 31°84
Miverpool West of Green wich> ......0..9.cescsoscseseccscsesceases 12 0:05
Resulting longitude ............... 4 44 31°89 or

Cambridge 71° 7’ 58°55” West of Greenwich. This longitude, which is 1:79% in excess of
the longitude of 1851, is a very close approximation to that established by Dr. Bowditch
and Mr. Borden for Boston as in the previous Note, and is also nearly identical with
that of New York, as obtained by Mr. Dent’s chronometers in 1839. Later observations
make the longitude to be 71° 7’ 39” W., as given in the Table.

3. New Yorx.—In the Ladies’ and Gentleman’s Diary, or United States Almanac, fox
1820, Mr. Nash, the Editor, having the reputation of an excellent observer, gave parti-
culars of a great many meridian and circum-meridional observations taken at his school.
- Broadway, New York, from which he inferred the latitude of No. 331, Broadway, as
40° 42’ 58”. The difference of latitude, trigonometrically found, between Mr. Nash’s and
the City Hall, was somewhat less than 1,300 feet, which, assumed as 13”, gives the
latitude of the Oity Hall 40° 42’ 45”, z.e., allowing 40° 42’ 58” as the latitude of No. 331,
Broadway. By observations of a solar eclipse, which Dr. Bowden observed at New York,
he found the difference of longitude between Greenwich and Colombia College, equal to
74° 0' 45" W. On the 29th of May, 1818, at a few minutes past noon, the longitude of

No A.C, 11

74 GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.

No. 331, Broadway, by the mean of three distances of the sun and moon, appeared to be
74° 0’ 42”, and Mr. Nash adds, ‘‘I am inclined, for the present, to place the City Hall
in 74° W.”

By seventy lunar distances, forty of Pollux East, and thirty of Aldebaran West of the
moon, in December, 1822, and January, 1823, Captain (afterwards General Sir Edward)
Sabine gave the longitude of the cupola of Colombia College, New York, as 74° 3/ 27”,
and the latitude which he assigns to it is 40° 42’ 43”. Mr. De Witt, on his survey of the
province, gave the longitude as 74° 3’.

The chronometers of Messrs. Arnold and Dent, however, appeared to have decided the
longitude of New York. Four of them were embarked in the British Queen steam-vessel,
under the care of Captain Roberts, on her first voyage from England to America, in
July and August, 1839, and gained the longitude of the City Hall in New York, as
45 56™ 3:358 = 74° 0’ 49". A second experiment was made on the next voyage of the
same vessel, in October and November of the same year, by another set of four chrono-
meters, and by this the difference of longitude between the Observatory at Greenwich
and the City Hall, New York, appeared to be 45 56™ 0-24*, say 74° 0’ 10”. M. Daussy,
the French Hydrographer, had previously given it in the Cunnaissance des Temps as
4h 56™ 0°728, or 74° 0’ 11”.

By the determination of the United States Coast Survey, from data up to 1851, it was
in longitude 74° 0’ 3-09"; but, by the subsequent correction of the Cambridge longitude,
as shown before, it is in 74° 0’ 15”, as in the Table, very nearly identical with the deter-
mination of M. Daussy and Mr. Dent.

4. WasHINGTON.—In our former editions, the Dome of the Capitol was placed in longi-
tude 77° 0’ 20”, agreeing closely with the State Survey of 1816. Later observations
place it in 77° 2’ 0” W.

Szaton Station, in the City of Washington, is the point to which all telegraphic
differences of longitude are referred, and which have now placed it in connection with
most of the important places on the Coasts of North-West America, and established,
beyond controversy, their true relative longitudes.

5. NortH Carouina.—The longitudes of the coasts South of Cape Henry, at the
Chesapeake, as far as Cape Fear, or Section IV. of the United States Coast Survey, are
dependent on that of Stevenson Point, the West Point of Little River, on the North side
of Albemarle Sound. The base line upon which the triangulation was established, was
measured upon Body Island, on the coast of Pamplico Sound, the South end of it being
near the Lighthouse.

6. CHARLESTON.—The longitude of Charleston was obtained from Seaton Station, in
Washington, by Electric Telegraph, in 1850, by Professor Walker and Lieutenant Gibbes.
Section V. of the United States Coast Survey system is thus connected with the rest of
the series.

7. Care Fiorina, &c.—In 1845, Captain Edward Barnett, R.N., made a running survey
of the Coast of Florida and the adjacent banks. His longitudes found by eight chrono-
meters by meridian distance from Havana, and in other portions of this region, have been
found very consistent. He placed Cape Florida in longitude 80° 3’ 0” W.

But the United States Surveyors maxe tnis position w primary point for the longitudes
in Section VI. of the Coast Survey, and they made 1t, according to their estimate of 1851,
80° 5’ 0’, and in 1859, 80° 9’ 29”, or 63’ farther West than Captain Barnett. Yet Sand.
Kay was placed by the United States authorities, in November, 1852, as 81° 52’ 43”, while
Captain Barnett’s longitude was 81° 51’ 12”, a difference of only 1}’.

8. Key Wesst.—The position of the Naval Storehouse was determined by United
States officers in 1875-6, the longitude being ascertained by electric telegraph.

9. Mopite.—F ort Morgan, on Mobile Point, is made the primary station of Sections
VIII. and IX. of the United States Survey, or between it and the Mexican frontier.

10. New OruEeans.—The longitude-of New Orleans is of some interest. The United
States Coast Survey assumed a considerable degree of importance from its extent, and
these results being extended to the other portions of the territory, rendered the con-

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS. 75

sideration of a primary meridian for the western world one necessary to be determined
in the early state of the operations.

The Capitol of Washington would naturally appear to be the fittest starting point; but
as the introduction of greater diversity in astronomic and other Tables than at present
exists is certainly not desirable, the United States Survey Department commissioned
Professor Bache to report on the subject. Impressed with the inconvenience attached
to the introduction of a fresh mode of reckoning meridional distances, and at the same
time to give due importance to the geodetical operations carried on in America quite
independent of any in the eastern hemisphere, he recommended, if any transatlantic
meridian were to be assumed as a primary, that of New Orleans would be the fittest.

The progress of the survey having shown that New Orleans was in long. 90° 0’ 0”, or
nearly so, it became manifest that one objection to a new fractional element being intro-
duced was in some degree removed if this were taken. With this view, if any meridian
were to be assumed for the United States, that of 90° West of Greenwich, wherever it
may fail, is the fittest. If in the course of the operations any correction be found
necessary to this meridian, as marked in some part of New Orleans, let it be removed
accordingly. Thus the first meridian of the United States would be one-fourth of the
circumference of the globe, or six hours in time, West of that of Greenwich.

VARIATION OF THE COMPASS.

The question of Magnetic Variation or Declination received much attention from the
United States Survey Department, under the superintendence of Professor Bache, who.
with Mr. J. E. Hilgard and other officers, have reported on the subject.. The amounts
given in the Table can only be considered as approximate.

The line of No Variation intersects the coast about Charleston. To the north-eastward
of this line, the Westerly variation is increasing about 3}’ per annum in the vicinity of
Cape Hatteras; about 3}’ per annum near New York, and on the Coast of Maine.

The lines of equal variation run about N.W. and §.E. true on the Coast of Maine;
N.W. by N. and §.E. by S. about New York; and N.N.W. and §.S.E on the Coasts of
Carolina and Georgia.

—@aqee wee eee ee

76 GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.

16. THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.

ss Sgr. qc

VAR.
| LAT W. | LONG. W. | WEST, AUTHORITIES.
1898,
| 8
° aw. ° leat ° ,
Ireland Island, South extr.

of breakwater......... [1]| 32 19 20 | 64 51 35 The Trigonometrical Sur-
Somerset Island, beacon...| 32 17 4 | 64 53 55 vey, by Captain Thos. Hurd,
Gibb’s Hill, Lighthouse [2]} 832 15 4 | 64 51 36| 8 20) R.N., between the years 1783
Castle Island, entrance of and 1797, adjusted by the ob-
Castle EHarbours...:..<..s: 32 20 18 | 64 41 50 servations of Captain Edward
St. David’s Head, Lightho.| 32 21 42 | 64 40 40 Barnett, R.N., 1846, and later

Fort Cunningham, entr. o
St. George’s Harbour ...
Mills Breaker, eastern edge
OCHS ECE ..420.000coeseces

observers.

32 22 18 | 64 41 0
32 24 30 | 64 39 20
32 28 20 | 64 47 45

Challenger Bank, N.E. ex-
tremity 24 fathoms ......

32 735 | 65 415

NOTES.

1. Between the years 1783 and 1797, Captain T. Hurd, R.N., was employed in the
survey of these beautiful islands, the outline of which survey was published by the British
Admiralty. Captain Hurd deduced his longitudes from Wreck Hill, which may be taken
as having been within 4’ or 5’ East of the correct longitude. In the chart of the Bermuda
Islands, published by Mr. Laurie, the longitude is deduced from recent observations, but
notice was issued, in 1886, that from further investigation the Dockyard Clock Tower at
Ireland Island appeared to be in long. 64° 49’ 35”, or about 2’ to the eastward of the
position previously accepted. This would affect all the positions here given. Now that
telegraphic communication exists with the islands, from Halifax, N.S., the exact longitude
will probably be ascertained before long.

Wreck Hiii.—Captain Hurd considered this to be in lat. 32° 16’ 20’, long. 64° 50’;
but, according to the corrected position of Ireland Island flagstaff, this is 1’ 25” South,
and 4’ 40” Kast of its right place.

2. Gips’s Hitt LicutHousEe.—The position of this was obtained by triangulation from
Treland Island. Recent observations, by English and United States Officers, make the
longitude to be 64° 50’ 7” W.

The Vagiarion of the Compass is increasing at Bermuda, at the rate of about 2’ per _
annum.

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.

17

17. THE BAHAMA AND PASSAGE ISLANDS.

—_—_—_—

EAY.N. | LONG. W. | WEST,

LITPLE BAHAMA
BANK.

Matanilla, or Maternillo

Bank, N.W. end...... [1]} 27 21
Outer part of the Western!

UCCL ihevsincsssedecdscossescese Path
Memory Rock ............-. 26 56
Settlement Point, W. end

of Grand Bahama Island| 26 41
Burrow Kay, off 8.E. point| 26 25
Hole in the Wall, Lightho.| 25 51
Elbow Kay, Lighthouse ...| 26 32
Moraine Kay.......... ececeees 26 2
Walker Kay ........ aueeeeaeea | 27 15

GREAT BAHAMA
BANK.

The Southern Kays, The
Jumentos, &e.:
South Hd., nearly awash| 22 2
The Brothers, §.E. rock} 22 1
Kay St. Domingo......... 21 41
EMV VICLUE'.cc2c.ccsscsseses 22
Little Ragged Isle,
Beacon on South end] 22 9
Ragged Island, Flagstaff} 22 11

Racoon Kay, Beacon ...| 22 21
Channel Kay, Beacon...| 22 31
Jamaica South Kay...... 22 42

Man of War Kay, N.endj| 22 48
Flamingo Kay, centre...| 22 52
Water Kay, S.W. point | 22 59
Peat Kay s.s<ecess cocceceee| ZO 7

Yuma or Long Island:
South Point
Great Harb., Clarence...| 23 6
Michael Bank, 12 fms....| 28 9
Santa Maria, Whale, or

INOrbHePOING -sscacesaeec- 23 41
Exuma, the Beacon......... 23) 31
Galliot Cut, on the bank...| 28 54
Eleuthera, S.E. point...... 24 387

Governor Harbour ...... DoD
James’ Cistern .....ccceeee 25 21
Harbour Island, 8. end | 25 29
Egg Island, Lighthouse] 25 30

15

0
45

30
30
30
10
30

80 |

53
45
40
0
0
0
30

79 6 40

VAR.
AUTHORITIES,
1895.
° ,
110| aptain Edward Barnett,
H.N., 1846, & later observers.
0 40
The Observations of Capt.
Richard Owen, B.N., 1831—
1832, do.
E--5
0 25
w

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.

THE BAHAMA AND PASSAGE ISLANDS.

TuE Istxs, &., on N.W.:

Fleeming Chanl., Beacon) 25
Douglas Channel, Entr.| 25
Nassau, New Providence,
Lighthouse ......... [2]} 25
Clifton or West Point...| 25
Joulter Kays, N. extreme) 25
Andros Isles:
Morgan’s Bluff, or N.E.
GUM ce ecenssencaseaneey- 25
High Kay, on the East
(COASt os -aswenseosecacester 24
Golding Kay. <..20<:-s.s.0-. 24
Green Kay, West end...} 24
Berry Isles:
South Stirrup Kay, N.W.
TOON. GoocasacpnaocoqgoNETee 25
Great Stirrup Kay, Lt.-
GMB Ouen seas renaaseccses: 25
Holmes Kay, centre ...| 25

Great Isaac, Lighthouse} 26

Western sede of the Great
Bank:
Moselle Bank, BeminiIs.| 25

Gun Kay, Lighthouse ...| 25
Brown's. Kay... ..-.sccecas 25
S. Riding Rock, Beacon) 25
Orange Kay, Middle...... 24

Southern part of the Bank:
Guincho, or Ginger Kay| 22
Lobos Kay, Lighthouse | 22
Mucaras, or Diamond

POINT Sac occreccesnee [3]| 22
Cayo Verde, or Green
KRGGY oan csicawnasceevevexscee 22

Kay of St. Domingo ...| 21
Kay Sal Bank, Elbow Kay,
Lighthouse ............ 23
Anguila Islands, S.E. pt.| 23

THE PASSAGE

ISLANDS.

Little San Salvador, West
OU ie geek deneaesaecwanesa. sc 24

San Salvador, Columbus or
Sah PROM ti saccceecosueess 24

Hawk’s Nest, or S.W.
Point) cescccees eevevecccess 24
NSW (Pointe cc ceseceseesene 24

Conception Island, S. end} 23

Southampton Reef, N.extr.| 23 55 30

29

41
48

22
10
50

10
55

30

30

VAR.
LONG. W. | WEST,
1895.

1 lu

0 25

AUTHORITIES.

The Surveys of Captain

Richard Owen, Captain E.
Barnett, Lieut. T. Smith,
BR.N., &e.

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS,

THE PASSAGE ISLANDS.

LAT. N.
° , "
Rum Kay, 8.E. White Cliffs} 23 38 40
BUM ETC y.ccesaceccasee [4]| 23 88 40
Watling Island; Large
White Rock at N. end| 24 10 15
BE OOM bss. cecaresnsesequs 23 56 15
Hinchinbroke 8. Rock...) 23 56 0
‘Samana or Attwood Kays:
East Low Kay ...... seb awe 23 5 10
Westernmost Reef, atl 23 5 bv
White Cliff, South side | 23 4 45
Planas or Flat Kays, S.W.
end of West Kay ......... 22 34 30
Crooked Islands, &c. :
The N.E. Breaker ...... 22 43 0
Mount Pisgah ............ 22 44 10
Bird Rock Lighthouse...| 22 50 15
Fortune Isle, or Long
Kay, South poinb...... 22 82 0
Castle Isle, Lightho. [5]| 22 6 45
Miraporvos :
Miri HOCK .....cc0r0s..| 22 T 50
South Kay, centre ...... 22 5 O
Hobart’s Breakers, S. a
BUM iy cra nace sensteqeecse Run 21 58 30
Diana, or Monkey Baa
QRiMOMNS tscscssceseecsecer 22 30 30
Mariguana, or Mayaguana,
Bee OMG... c.00000-00-. 22 21 45
Eastern End of E. Reef| 22 18 0
The Caycos:
Cape Comet, N.E. point} 21 42 30
Large House near the
Booby Rocks ......... 21 50 30
The Three Maries......... 21 69 O
Providenciales, N.W. pt.| 21 52 0
West, or Little Cayco,
PE LPOG... .cecacc0.0: 21 37 +O
West Sand Spit ......... 21 22 0
GHTUIT SHOAL] ...ccccccessase ot 2. 0
Swimmer Shoal ......... 21 5 15
Cockburn Harbour, Par-
BOM SM LOM. codes oe vos 21 30 O
The Hogsties, N.W. Kay| 21 41 30
|
Great Inagua:
ihe N.W. Point) ......0s. a1 7 «10
Middle or West Point...| 21 1 45
Be ee Olli nenescccessseses ss 20 55 O
Matthew Town, Lt.-ho.| 20 56 30
Lantern Head (82 feet), 20 56 30
eet. Point ....... searcrneces 20 57 45
Bibs L-OIDG...0se-ccenseeces| 21 20 49

| VAR.

LONG. W. | 1895

ale
72
72

72
72
(ga!
71

Ue
73

73
73
73
73
73
73
73

51

39
42
38
40
19

9

0

20

0
20
30

0
30

50

0
40
15

0
15
45

|

)
|
|

Barnett,
R.N., &e,

AUTHORITIES.

Lieut.

19

The Surveys of Captain
Richard Owen, Captain E.

80 GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.

THE PASSAGE ISLANDS.

| ee

LAT. N LONG. W. | WEST. AUTHORITIES.
1505.
| \
° , ° ’ ” ° t
Little Inagua : |
East Point........ ceasceenes 21 29 0 | 72 55 15 The Surveys of Captain
EEE OIG sccsncsensesass 21 380 30 | 7% 4 O Richard Owen, Captain E
Barnett, Lieut. T. Smith,
Turk’s Islands: R.N.,; &e.
Endymion Reef ......... O17 15 ||. 7 1840
Sand Kay, centre......... | 21.11 12 | 71 14 338
Salt Kay, centre ......... DAWA) TO) PAL UPA (0) |
Grand Kay, Hawk’s |
VCR seerecsstnscsecconess 2196 15 | 71 7:80) @)20 |
Square Handkerchief, N.E.
detached Breaker...... 21 6 30 | 70 29 30
S.E. extremity ...........- 20 48 30 | 70 29 15
Western extremity ...... 20 55 30 | 70 89 O
Silver Kay, or Plate Bank:
East End (10 fathoms)...) 20 85 20 | 69 21 53 The Surveys of Mr. Anthony
Se OI wesacws Gaccdsovens 20 15 0O | 69 35 45 De Mayne, &c.
IWin\Who LEtoibahe « Goonqanccécosor 20 55 O | 69 55 30
SOWA UE OItit...0ccestsan secre 20 17 20| 70 O 0} O 20
Bajo de Navidad, or Ship
Bank :
Northern Extremity ...| 20 14 0 | 68 50 30; O 40
Eastern Extremity ...... 20 2 0 | 68 46 30
South Extremity ......... 19 51 30 | 68 55 30 |
| j °
NOTES.

1. Maranitua Banx.—Matanilla Bank, to the northward of the reef, was not repre-
sented in Mr. De Mayne’s Chart, although given in that of the Spanish Surveyors. It
was examined by Captain Edward Barnett, R.N., in 1846, and the positions corrected
accordingly.

2. Nassau.—The position appears to be finally settled as in the Table. The Spanish
Surveyors gave the town as in lat. 25° 4’ 83” N., long. 77° 19’ 830’ W. Mr. De Mayne as
mo0 p18" N77? 19! We.

8. Diamonp Point oF THE Mucaras.—The Mucaras, Lavanderas, and Lobos, with
the dangers on the bank in the vicinity, were surveyed, with great care, by Captain
Edward Barnett. This portion of the bank was formerly represented, as in the Spanish -
Charts, rather more to the South, and 6’ more to the East.

4. Rum Kay.—This island was formerly very erroneously represented on the charts,
both as to magnitude and position. The white cliffs at the S.E. end are remarkable, and
may be seen 18 miles off.

5. CastLE Iste.—This point appears to be finally settled. Former observations gave
lat. 22° 7’ 45” N., long. 74° 17' 80” W.

‘he VARIATION of the Compass is decreasing among the Bahama Ialands, at the rate of
about 3}’ per annum.

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.

18. CUBA, JAMAICA, ETC.

SourH Coast oF CusBa.

Cape Maysi, Lightho. [1]
Port Guantanamo, Light
on end of mole............
SANTIAGO DE CuBA, Blanca
Battery, 8. angle [2]
Morro Lighthouse
Cape Cruz, Lighthouse ...
Caballones Channel, Pilot
Point
Boca Grande Kay, West pt.
River Guaurabo, Ciriales
REM casi cecaeosnescnsconcses
Port Casilda, Casilda Point
Port Xagua or Jagua, Lt.-
house
Xagua Bank, shoal part...
Piedras Kay, Lighthouse...
Jardines Bank, East point
Rosario Channel, South
GULEANICCsteccnececccoessoses-
Isle of Pines, Frances Point
3
Extreme South point BI)
San Felipe Kays, S.W. part
Laguna de Cortes, small
kay at entrance

20

Coeeseseceseeceessessese

NortH Coast oF CusBaA.
a1

22
22

Cape Antonio, Lighthouse
Colorados Reef, S.W. end
Jutias Kay, West end......
Bahia Honda, Point Cerro
MEMEOTFANO ....0ceccees sus
Havana, Morro Lt.-ho. [4]
Engineer’s post under
No. 4 fort
Peak of Matanzas, summit
Kay Piedras, Lighthouse...
Cruz del Padre Kay, Lt.-ho.
Sagua La Grande, N. end
Bahia de Cadiz Kay, Lt.-ho.
Kay Francés, Lighthouse
Paredon Grande Kay, Lt.-
house
Kay Confites, South point
Kay Verde, N.W. end
Maternillos Point, Lightho.
Port Nuevitas, Lighthouse
on Barlovento Point......

N.A. O.

22
23

23
23
23
23
22
23
22

22
22
22
21

eoeeee

21

oo is)
fer) ~1
a
oO oon (>) oococo

12
38

29 3
11 14
8 45
40 2

37 30

ee eee

LONG. W.

50

i)
o

ist)
oo

—
bo
joy)

[o2)
-
bo
oO oo, So ooofo C=)

VAR.
EAST,
1895.

Ons
nts 15
|

AUTHORITIES,

Surveys by officers of the
Spanish Navy, with partial
Surveys by Captain Richard
Owen, R.N., & recent English
Surveyors.

12

83

CUBA, JAMAICA, ETC.

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.

VAR.
LAT. N. LONG. W. | EAST,
1895.
°o , " ° , u ° '
Port Padre, Point Guinchos| 21 18 0 | 76 32 45
Port Naranjo, East side of

GMbLAWCOsstccseseresensiseies OA (OP ibeba po
Peak of Sama, summit (885

FEGU) tees cessesernececersseses OAL ay (ON) Visto
Port Nipe, Roma Point ...) 20 47 0 | 75 81 45
Port Sama, East side of

OMGLanCCrecscceaceseessccesss Of, (908) a 420
Lucrecia Point, Lighthouse} 21 4 24 | 75 86 54| 1 30
Port Cayo Moa, Pajaros or

South Bointiecsesecesessce 20 41 20 | 74 538 32
Port Baracoa, Lighthouse| 20 21 40 | 74 29 0

JAMAICA, Anp IsLEs

ADJACENT. [5]

Navassa Island, N.W.extr.| 18 24 30| 75 3 O0|] 2 0
Morant Kays, N.E. kay ...| 17 26 30 | 75 58 20
Formigas Bank, shoal spot| 18 33 0 | 75 44 45
Morant Point, Lighthouse] 17 55 5 | 76 11 50
Port Morant, Bowden Pier| 17 63 15 | 76 19 55
Morant Town Church...... 17 52 55 | 76 25 30
Lamottes Bank (4fathoms)| 17 50 5 | 76 30 40
Cow Bay Point.......0sssess 17 52 20 | 76 387 5
Plum Point Light............ 17 55 40 | 76 47 20
Port Roya, Fort Charles

Flagstaff.........sece+ [6]| 17 55 56 | 76 50 38
Kingston, Fort Augusta Lt.| 17 58 0 | 76 51 30

St. Michael Church...... 17 58 O| 76 47 30
Portland Bight, Pigeon Id.,

CONbLersseccsccesccccscsecaces Wea 40017 “6.20
Portland yLOmteeseccscecs ccs Ly AQ LD ih LON 0
Carlisle Bay, Pier House...| 17 46 30 | 77 17 28
oun deelleee ese sccerees cess 17 51 380 | 77 23 0
Alligator Reef, N.E. end...| 17 48 40 | 77 32 20
Pedro Bluff, S.W. extreme| 17 51 12 | 77 45 15 | 2 55
Black River Anchorage,

@hurchisasscocs sceccessscess 18 1 25) 77 51 55
Savanna la Mar Fort, ruin| 18 12 20} 78 8 54
South Negril Point ......... 18 16 15 | 78 23 48| 38 5
SteluciaseHorbicccesessceesne 18 27 45 | 78 11 34
Montego Bay, Fort......... 18 29 25 | 77 56 56
Falmouth, Fort.........ce00.. 18 30 34 | 77 40 24
St. Anne Bay, Prison ...... 18 26 24| 7718 50] 2 40|
Port Maria, N.W. Wharf...| 18 23 0 | 76 54 54
Port Antonio, Fort flagstaff| 18 11 15 | 76 27 24
Manchioneal Harbour, N.

entrance point .......cee- 18 215) 76 17 10
PGA COMES ssccdushoavesccaevehs 17 59 30 | 76 15 20
Pedro Bank, East end,

Portland Rock ... [7]| 17 6 20| 77 2715| 8 9

Baie VCAKCLS cecscesccess 16 48 80 | 78 12 O l

DNA | COR Cee sercweveneneees 17 87 380 | 78 51

|

AUTHORITIES.

Surveys by officers of the
Spanish Navy, with partial
Surveys by Captain Richard
Owen, R.N., & recent English
Surveyors.

From the Surveys of Capt.
Richard Owen, R.N., 1835,

2 80 | and more recent Surveys.

United States Officers, 1875.

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS. 83

. JAMAICA, ETC.
Path ae pe
VAR.
LAT. N. | LONG. Ww. | EAST. AUTHORITIES,
1895.
& , ” ° ' " ° '

Baxo Nuevo, Kay ........., 15 51 0 | 78 38 O From the Surveys of Capt.
Grand Cayman, Fort Richard Owen, R.N., 1835,
George, West end... [8]/ 19 17 45 | 81 23 50 | 8 465 | and more recent Surveys.
Little Cayman, West point) 19 39 30 | 80 7 30

Cayman Brac, Scott House,

near 8. W. point......... 19 41 20 | 79 54 9
MOMENI b..ssecinsecdeosees 19 45 0O| 79 44 25 3 O65
Pickle Bank, Centre ...... 20 23 20 | 80 29 50

Serranilla, S.W. Kay ......| 15 47 45 | 79 51 27 | 38 45

NOTES.

1. Cape Mays1.—Captain Foster placed Cape Maysi in 74° 5’ 18”, considering Chagres
as 78° 57’ 19”. Captain Owen made it 74° 8’ 0”.

2. St. [aco pE Cusa.—Mr. Nicholls, Master of the Shearwater brig of war, in 1819,
communicated the situation of the Morro Castle of St. Iago, from observations made in
that ship, as follows :—Latitude observed, 19° 57’ 50”; longitude by lunars, 76° 2’ 45;
by chronometer, 76° 0’. The Spanish Chart of the harbour represented the Morro as in
75° 55’ 33” W. Telegraphic determination from Havana, by United States Officers, in
1875, placed the Morro Lighthouse in long. 75° 52’ 6” W.

3. Cape ANTONIO, Isux or Pings, &.—On the 12th of August, 1817, Capt. Livingstone
came to an anchor off Cape Antonio, in 7 fathoms; and, by an excellent observation,
found his latitude to be 21° 53’ 54”, confirming that given by the Spanish Officers. The
longitude was considered as well established between 84° 57’ and 84°58’. The Baron
von Humboldt gave 84° 57’; Captain Owen, 84° 58’; the Spanish Officers had pre-
viously given it as 84° 57’ 30”. The position given in the Table accords with that on the
most recent charts.

4, Havana AND LiGHTHOUSE.—The longitudes in the western part of the Caribbean
Sea depend upon the position of the Morro Lighthouse, Havana, given by Don José
Joaquin de Ferrer, Astro. Soc. Mem. iv., page 586 ; long. 82° 22’ 12” W. Note: Telegra-
phic determination from Washington, United States, by the United States Hydrographic
Office in 1875, placed Morro Lighthouse in long. 82° 21’ 23” W.

The position of the Engineer’s post, near the steam wharf under fort No. 4, Havana
Harbour, has been deduced from the Morro Lighthouse, and is here given as being
convenient for rating chronometers, lat. 23° 8’ 53” N., long. 82° 20’ 48” W.

The position formerly given was lat. 23° 8’ 18” N., long. 82° 22’ 4” W., the longitude
being the mean of twenty results from stars eclipsed by the moon, by Don Josef Joachim
de Ferrer, 1809-10-11-12. This place, which was taken by Lieut. Raper as a secondary
meridian, was considered by him as in long. 82° 21’ 57” W. The difference, 17’, between
this and Mr. Purdy’s position, as given in our previous editions, is but trifling, and the
difference between Mr. Purdy’s position in 1850 and that determined electrically from
Washington in 1875, is but 17”, the latter position placing it in 82° 21’ 23”.

5. JAMAICA in general.—In his “ Outline of Jamaica, 1821,” Mr. De Mayne gives
Morant, or the eastern point, in longitude 76° 12’, and South Negril, or the western
point, in 78° 25’ W. Mr. Leard, in his survey of 1791, gave Morant Point in 76° 3’, and
South Negril in 78° 33’; consequently, he represented the island more than 15’ longer
than it has since been exhibited.

84 GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.

6. Port Royat.—Telegraphic determination from Havana, by United States Officers,
in 1875, placed the flagstaff at Port Royal in long. 76° 50’ 88” W. The northern coast, it
appears, was placed too far North from 1 to 2 miles.

%. Porttanp Rocx.—Portland Rock is a single kay, 14 to 20 feet above the sea, and
covered with small bushes. It has been variously represented in from lat. 17° 74’ to
17° 13’, and from long. 76° 82’ to 77° 31’. In Mr. De Mayne’s Chart it appears in
17° 73' N., and 77° 29' W. ‘The position given in our Table cannot, we think, be far
from the truth. The Officers of H.M.S. Winchester, in 1834, by numerous altitudes, &e.,
gained the latitude of the rock as 17° 7' 25”, long. 77° 27’ 4".

8. Granp CayMan.—The latitude of the S.W. kay of the Grand Cayman, as observed
by Captain Livingstone, August 5th, 1817, appeared to be 19° 14’, not 19° 14’, the parallel
formerly assigned; the longitude was communicated to us by the late Captain Hurd, as
a determination to be relied on, and it appears to have been confirmed by Captain
J. W. Monteith.

Don J. M. Herrera, of the Spanish Navy, 1863, placed the Hast extreme of the Easterm
Little Cayman (Cayman Brac) in lat. 19° 45’ 15” N., long. 79° 46’ 24” E. The §.E.
point, according to Mr. Dunsterville, lies in lat. 19° 16’ N., long. 81° 6’ 40” W.

The VaRIaTion of the Compass is decreasing around the Coasts of Cuba, Jamaica, &c.,
at the rate of 23’ to 2’ per annum.

19. HAITI OR SANTO DOMINGO, PORTO RICO, AND THE
VIRGIN ISLANDS.

| VAR.
LAT, N. | LONG. W. | EAST, AUTHORITIES,
| 1895.
i
1
° Ped °

HAITI OR SANTO

DOMINGO.
Isle of Mona, West Point} 18 4 0 | 67 5615} O O | Spanish Surveys.
Cape Engatio......ccccscseseee 18 35 51 | 68 20 0

Isle of Saona, West poe 18 14 0} 68 47 0

Espada Point .....0.00000+. 18 21 0 | 68 28 15
Quiabon River, entrance...) 18 20 20 | 68 53 23 \

Boca de la Romana........- 18 22 0] 68 56 37
IMISIGCORIS cccacescccssscoseseccens 18 25 50 | 69 10 25
Santa Catalina Island, W.

RGU esosevercese ces eesteance 18 19 0} 68 59 O

City or Santo Domineo,
Cathedral, W. portal
[1] | 18 28 17 | 69 52 26 0 380
Lighthouse.........c..ssee0 18 27 54 | 69 52 59 United States Officers, 1890.
Neiva Bay, River entrance Capt. Richard Owen, R.N.
Alta-Vela, or the High Sail and Edw. Dunsterville, Esq. ©
[2]! 17 29 80 | 71 88 O R.N., 1826, &.”
Pta. Ajugas, or False Cape; 17 47 0 | 71 41 O
Frayle Rocks, South end...| 17 87 0} 71 41 O
Cape Jacquemel, or Jacmnel 18 11 20 | 72 35 15 | 1 20
Jacmel, Wharf ..ccccscccceres 18 13 30 | 72 33 39

_
@
bo
nse
oO
ro)
Or
(Je)
oO

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS. 85

HAITI OR SANTO DOMINGO.

VAR.
LAT. N. | LONG. W. | EAST, AUTHORITIES.
1895.
° , u ° , " o ’
Aquin Bay, Grosse Kay,

RGIE wodcvecancasctssadeecis 18 18 80 | 73 28 0 Capt. Richard Owen, R.N.,
St. Louis, the For ......... 18 14 37 | 73 34 30 and Edw. Dunsterville, Esgq.,
Aux Cayes, the Town Mole| 18 11 18 | 73 46 15 R.N., 1826, &c.|
Isle 4 Vache, East point..., 18 4 0/} 73 35 25
Point Abacou ..... dadseeseoe|| 200, 2 40) | (73 47 30

_ Pointe a Gravois ............ 18 2 20] 73 57 O
Cape Tiburon, extremity...| 18 22 0| 74 29 30] 1 50
Irois Bay, House on the

MBO ncn can suudwaccaadesdes0 18 23 48 | 74 29 33
Isle of Navaza, middle...... 18925 454|70, <3 0
Cape Dame Marie, or

Donna Maria......... wedece 18 87 30 | 74 27 31 Staff-Comm. Kiddle, R.N.,

Jérémie Bay, Wharf ....... 18 38 0| 74 5 45 1873.
Miragoane Harbour, Town) 18 28 0| 73 4 30
Pirogues, on Rochelois Reef} 18 38 30 | 73 12 20
Hummock of Petit Gonave| 18 41 30 | 72 48 10
Isle of Gonave, West point} 18 55 26 | 73 18 30
Port Au Prince, Fort Alex-

EMEP Ere cesisonccsto<vesssare= 18 38 10 | 72 19 46| 1 15
Arcadins, northernmost...| 18 48 0 | 72 388 0
St. Mare, or St. Mark’s Pt.| 19 210! 72 50 O
OFh EUTICNG cccecs.-.s0. Geese LO OO OO liianod 0
Wee HOU. cc. ds. c0 canescens 19 44 0 | 73 27 15
St. Nicolas Mole, Fort

George flagstaff............ 19 49 15 | 73 23 7 United States Officers, 1889.
Port a l’Ecu, West Point...| 19 55 10 | 73 4 30
Port Paix, Carenage Point) 19 57 30 | 72 48 45
Tortue or Tortuga Isle,

PVCSD LOI fees. ss cecass 20° 8 0°) (72-57 60

BG) COUMNG <2. .5.c-screscee 20 130] 72 35 0O|
City of Cape Haytien,

Watering Place............ 19 46 40 | 72 10 42 | O 56
Manzanillo Bay, Manza- :

AMO OE OMG 0.00. .ccccecesees 19 45 34 | 71 47 20
Beata Point......:..ceccc0.0- 19 58 40 | 71 40 45 U.S.8. Congress, 1871.

Cape Isabella ............ | 19 56 0} 70 58 O
Isabella Bay, Islet ......... 19 53 50| 71 4 7
Port Plata, Lighthouse on

ISLE OlNtivececewecscesecss 19 48 51 | 70 41 27 United States Officers, 1889.
Old Cape Francais ......... 19 40 0| 69 54 15
Pepe CAbron: ........0..s.0000s 19 21 30 | 69 11 30
Cape Samana ...........e00 1919 0| 69 615
Samana Bay, Balandra or

North Point .25..s.0.ss 19 11 10 | 69 13 30 United States Survey, 1882.

Port Santa Barbara, Cas-

PALO E OING <5 ssc saesccseus 19 12 30 | 69 19 24
ape Raphael .........0.c000 19 8 0O| 68 51 30 Spanish Surveys, especially
Punta Macao, ranchos 18 50 0| 68 35 O those of Captains Don Cosmé
Cape Engaiio, extreme ...| 18 35 51 | 68 20 0! O O|de Churruca, Francisco Fi-

| dalgo, Juan Romero, &c.

86

GEOGRaPHICAL POSITIONS.

PORTO RICO—THE VIRGIN ISLANDS.

ISLAND OF PORTO
RICO.

Cape St. Juan, or N.E. Pt.

Morro Caste oF Sr.
Juan, Lighthouse... [3]

Point Bruguen, or N.W.

Point, Lighthouse ......
Desecheo Isle, North end
Aguadilla Town ......... [4]

Mayaguez Bay, Algarrobo
Dolnitiecccccscessatiecssscens
Mayaguez River, N. point
of entrance ..........0.00.
Aguila Point, 8. W. point...
Port Ponce, Custom House
Puerto Guanica, East Point
Caxa de Muertos, or Coffin,
Lighthouse on summit

THE VIRGIN ISLANDS.

Anegada, West Point ......
Hast OME oo. .sc0cc.02 [5]
Soldier, or North Point
Horse-shoe Reef, S.E.

CNOA esdccdscccvssssessees

Herman Reef, 9 ft., S. end

Virgin Gorda, Pajaros or
HasteOimtse-cccccecsssscese

Ginger Isle, centre .........

Tortola, Road Town, Fort
uit ss sccesseessoncecestass

St. John’s, S.E. Point......

Sta. Monica Rock (9 feet)

Sr. Tuomas Harpour, Ft.
Christian, 8. W. angle [6]

Bergantin, Carvel, or Sail
Rock

Sere eresececssesesscess

Culebra Island, N. W. point!

Vieque or Crab Island, East
DOING Mist vcousecasninencuse
Rorte Mra, seccccsescceccets
Sandy or N.W. Point...

Sr. Crorx or Santa Orvz:

Eastern extremity of the|

liglanvdeaet.s ossacuceceraces
Sir ANDREW Lana’s

OBSERVATORY ...... (7}
Harbour of Christian-

sted, Outer Point Bat-|
tery, or Fort Louisa!

Augusta, flagstaff......

LAT. N.

18 23
18 28
18 29
18 23
18 25
14
11
58
17 58
57

53

45
42
45

36
33

30
23

25

17 45

66

0 | 67
67
67

67
67
0 | 67
66
66

0 | 66

aie

7
7
30
11

12

41

LONG. W. | WEST,

65 36 45

28
30

VAR.

AUTHORITIES.
1895.

0 40 | Spanish Surveys.

United States Officers, 1875
0 15

French Survey.
Lieut. Sharrer, U.S.N., 1886.

Lieut. G. H. Stoate, R.N.,
| 1875.

0 25 |

1 20 | The Survey by Lieutenant
G. B. Lawrence, R.N., and
J. Parsons, R.N., 1848-52.

1 0 | United States Officers, 1875.

United States Officers, 1875.

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS. 87

THE VIRGIN ISLANDS.

—SSSS————_—_—_———ee...— eee
3 :
VAR. /
LAT. N. | LONG. w. | WEST, AUTHORITIES.
1895.

) [2 tp} o a
Sr. Crorx or Santa Orvz:
Salt River Point ......... ily) 247/11. Survey by Lieut. Lawrence
Hams or N.W. Bluff ...| 17 46 24 ae ;

Fort at Frederiksted or
West end, Flagstaff...) 17 43 10
Sandy Point, the S.W.
extremity of theisland| 17 40 40
Buck Isle, E. extremity; 17 47 18
Summit, about 350 feet] 17 47 15

NOTES.

The United States Government has of late years despatched several officers of its
navy to make accurate observations as to the positions of many points of the West
Indies and Central America, and the results are given in these Tables, the longitudes
having been settled by means of telegraphic signals.

1. Santo Dominco.—We previously gave the longitude of the City as 69° 58’, on the
authority of the Spanish Officers, Captains Don. L. Argedas and J. A. Sartorio, who
observed an eclipse here in 1780, with a subsequent correction of 13’. This result was
considered by the talented and energetic Sir Robert H. Schomburgk, F.R.G.S., on his
appointment to the Dominican Consulate, in 1849, to be too far West, and he accordingly
made many observations, and collected others of authenticity, and placed it as stated in
the Table.

2. Aura Veta, or the High Sail.—This is a high rocky islet, which serves as a general
point of departure to all ships bound from the eastward to Jamaica, &c. It is peaked, and
appears to the northward, at a distance, like a dome, emerging above a mist or fog.

On the authority of the respected and scientific Admiral Espifiosa, of the Spanish
Navy, we formerly gave Alta Vela in long. 71° 22’ W., instead of a more westerly
position, which had previously been assigned; but it is now fully proved that this is
wrong, and that the true longitude is about 71° 38’. Mr. Dunsterville, from the mean of
observations in 1826 and 1829, made it 71° 39’ 25” W. Captain R. Owen made the
summit in 71° 39’ 44” W.

3. Morro or St. Juan.—The Harbour of St. Juan was surveyed by Don Cosmé de
Churruca, in 1794. Don Josef Cerquero, Director of the Royal Observatory in the Isle
of Leon, near Cadiz, gave the position of the Morro Castle as lat. 18° 29’ 0”, long.
66° 7’ 0” W., the longitude being considered as one of the best established in America
The position given in the Table is that established by United States Officers in 1875.

4, AGuADILLA.—The situation of Aguadilla, as given by the Spanish Officers, is lat.
18° 25’ 53” N., long. 67° 6’ 20” W. Admiral Mackellar gave it as lat. 18° 24’ 57” N., long.
67° 8’ 25” W. On the latest charts, its situation is as given in the Table.

5. ANEGADA, with its reef, were surveyed by Mr. (afterwards Sir) Robert Herman
Schomburgk, the distinguished traveller, in 1882. He noticed that, between 1811 and
1832, twenty-one American vessels, seventeen West Indian, fifteen Spanish, nine British,
two French, two Swedish, and one Portuguese, were wrecked here; and this is attributed
chiefly to the insensible operation of the currents.

88 GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.

6. St. THomas.—With regard to the position of Fort Christian, we received the follow:
ing communication from Major Sir Andrew Lang :—‘* The bearings of the flagstaff of
Cowell’s Battery, from my observatory (see note 7), N. 21° 54’ 27” W., from the true
meridian, were determined by myself with a Troughton’s altitude, azimuth, and transit
circle. Notwithstanding the distance (873 miles), the flagstaff was distinctly seen with the
telescope of the circle, and intersected with the vertical wire. Considering the latitude
of the flagstaff, 18° 19’ 32” N., which must be near it, then its longitude is as stated,
64° 55!’ 45" W., as deduced from my position; but I now strongly suspect that it is a
little more to the North, say in 18° 19’ 45”; if so, its longitude, as deduced from my
station, will be 64° 55’ 50” W., and the latitude and longitude of Fort Christian would,
on the same data, be lat. 18° 20’ 39” N., long. 64° 55’ 39” W. Fort Cowell is on the very
top of an eminence (275 ft. above the level of the sea) which rises at the southern
extremity of a tongue of land, forming the western side of the entrance, and also the
western shore of St. Thomas Harbour.” Sir Andrew Lang’s observations, therefore,
show a very close approximation to the most recent examinations, the results of which
are given in the Table.

7, OBSERVATORY OF Sik ANDREW Lanc.—‘‘ The height of the Observatory, which is
about 1 mile to the E.S.E. of the town of Christianstzd, is 440 English feet above the
sea. The latitude is true to within one second. The longitude is the result, I may say,
of the labour of years, and the present assumption of 64° 41’ 0” in are, or 4" 18™ 44° in
time, West from Greenwich, I consider to be determined with almost such absolute
certainty, that I do not think the error in the determination can exceed four seconds in
time, or one minute in arc, and I trust less. On that datum the longitudes of the other
stations are accurately determined. All the latitudes are certain to one or two seconds.”
—Andrew Lang.

Later determinations, with the aid of telegraphy and more perfect instruments, have
tended to show the accuracy of Sir Andrew Lang’s observations.

The VaRIATIon of the Compass is decreasing around the Coasts of Haiti, and increasing
around those of Porto Rico and the Virgin Islands, at the rate of about 2’ per annum.

20. THE CARIBBEE AND LEEWARD ISLANDS.
|

VAR.
WEST. AUTHORITIES.
1895.

LAT. N. LONG. W.

CaRIBBEE IsLanps. [1]

Sombrero, Lighthouse ...| 18 35 40 | 63 27 55 | 2 O Captain E. Barnett, R.N.

Dog Isle, landing on S. side] 18 16 15 | 63 16 10 Lieut. E. Lawrence, RAG

Anguilla, Custom House on Mr. Parsons, R.N., &e.
INGruh SidOw..ccccceeceeerees 18 138 6] 68 4 40

Scrub Island, East point...} 18 17 80 | 62 55 40

St. Martin’s; Philipsburgh, |

Stadt House ............ 18) 15925463) 28236 |
SVVGSE EON. ccccccccesssccs 18 3) 25 1163 10) 0)}
Saba, the centre ............ 17 88 0] 68 14 O |

St. Bartholomew, Gustaf
Harbour, Fort Oscar ...
Barbuda, Martello Tower
(ONTOS Wie SLAG Scccscecesseees

17 58 58 | 62 51 31 |

17 85 50 | 61 49 36, 2 20)

'

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS. 89

THE CARIBBEE AND LEEWARD ISLANDS.

VAR.
LONG. W. | WEST,
1895.

AUTHORITIES.

St. Eustatius, Orange | Sel Ae Se Se Ce :
POW, HOT a0-s0<-s00sc0< 17 29 20 | 62 58 50 Captain E. Barnett, R.N.,
St. Christopher’s, Basse- ‘Lieut. E. Lawrance, RB.N.,
Terre, Church ...... [2]| 17 18 10 | 62 42 50 | 1 45 | Mr. Parsons, R.N., ke.
Nevis, Charlestown, Forti 17 7 50} 62 37 10
Redonda, the Pinnacle,
16 56 0/6819 O

BOO COGY cckcicccccscde veces
Vilar cco vn ceeesecSececlecs 16 42 12 | 6218 0O

AntTicua ; St. John’s Road,
WHO PAMES ccccceesoses

17 6 40 | 61 51 45

17 6 12] 61 50 28 United States Officers, 1875-6,
FortByham,on N.E.side 17 7 10 | 61 46 42
Dockyard Flagstaff,
English Harbour ...... 17 O 0O| 61 45 42] 2 20
Desirade or Deseada, N.E.
POUAG scccccsscssceoeces [3]} 16 20 50 | 61 0 10
Guadaloupe, Basse-Terre,
PPE asesticsatisaccasewswas

St. Anne, Church.........
Port du Moule, Lightho.
Pointe a Pitre, Jarry Mill
Grand Vigie or N. Point

15 59 20 | 61 43 5] 1 40! French Surveys.
16 13 30 | 61 22 40
16 20 0! 61 20 10
16 13 56 | 61 32 34
16 81 0| 61 27 30

Marie-Galante, Grand
BSB THACDG ..cccccccessees

The Saintes; St. Paul, Bol
Head, S.W. Point ......

Aves Islet ......... BoCenCOnCCoc

15 53 0 | 61 18 35

|
15 50 55 | 61 88 35
15 42 0} 638 87 45 Lieutenant Lawrance.

Dominica, Road of Roseau,
Fort Young......... [4]
Cape Melville, N.W. pt.
Prince Rupert Bay,
Roman Catholic Ch.
Scots Head, 8.W. poin

15 17 27 | 61 23 32
15 38 20 | 61 28 5

15 34 37 | 61 27 54
15 12 30 | 61 22 45

Martinique, Fort Royal or
de France, Fort a
5
Caravelle Peninsula, Lt.-
MED USG! sdeessanacdession.t2s
Sr. Prerre, Upper Light
in Ste. Marthe Battery
St. Lucia, Pt. Moulacique
or South Pt., S.E. end
Port Castries, Bananas
PAID Case gescciccsseuncess's
St. Vincent, Kingston Ch.
Grenadines, Bequia, Admi-
ralty Bay, Church....... | 13 0 25 | 61 18 53

|

Ne Ae 0: | 13

French Surveys.
14 86 7] 61 4 30
14 46 10 | 60 52 55
14 48 54 | 61 11 12 | United States Officers, 1875.
13 43 0O/| 60 56 50

14 0 53/61 0 25
13 9 15 | 61 13 24

90

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.

THE CARIBBEE AND LEEWARD ISLANDS.

— ae

LAT. N. | LONG. W. ieee. AUTHORITIES.
| le) wet au Gore eer we o
Barbados; Bridgetown, WEST.
Fort Beckwith ... [6]| 13 4 53 | 59 8618 | 1 15 | Harris and Stanley, 1869.
RickETT’s BATTERY,
Blagstali.....ccccecesssess 18 5 43 | 59 87 18 United States Officers, 1875.
North Point Jes.sscu-sa<2 13 20 10 | 59 36 24
South Point, Lighthouse) 13 2 57 | 59 31 24
Diamond Uslet..ctsscccnesees 12 19 40 | 61 34 45
Grenada, Fort St. George
7||} 12 8 2 | 61 44 55
Tobago, N.E. Point ... [8]| 11 20 59 | 60 81 6| O 20 | Mr. J. Parsons, R.N., 1864-5.
Scarborough Landing
Wikies cn-sonnpacscsesenee 11 10 55 | 60 48 35
Crown Point, S.W. end) 11 8 385 | 60 49 55
Trinidad :
Point Galera, N.E. point} 10 50 2) 6054 5} O 5 Commander W. Chimmo,
Point Galeota,§.E. point) 10 8 25 , 60 59 30 R.N., 1866-8.
Siparia Hill, 400 feet,
CONUS ccccaseseu-sccwneeee 10 5 30/ 61 28 0
Icacos, or §.W. Point...| 10 3 20 | 61 55 45
San Fernando Pier Head| 10 16 59 | 61 28 10
Cipero River, entrance | 10 15 50 | 61 28 30
Port Spain, Water Bat- EAST.
tery Flagstaff...... [9]| 10 388 39 | 61 80 88 | 0 10 | United States Officers, 1875.
Entrada, or N.W. Point} 10 42 22 | 61 40 15
Chute d’Eau Id., centre| 10 45 35 | 61 30 45
Chacachacare Id., outer
rocks off S.W. point...| 10 40 0 | 62 46 20
Goose Island, East end ...| 10 38 20 | 61 51 20 The Spanish Surveys of the
Testigos, Centre ....ccccces 11 22 45 | 63 8 O Coasts of Venezuela, &c., by
| Don Joaquin Francisco Fi-
Margarita : dalgo, and other Spanish
Pampatar Castle ......... 10 59 0 | 68 49 25 | O 35 | Officers. Published by the
North Point .........s000 1110 5 | 68 54 30 Direccion Hidrografico, at
San Juan Griego Bay, Madrid, in 1816 and 1817,
Maria Libre Point...... 11 4 54 64 2.30 corrected by later observa-
Pta. de Arenas, or Sandy tions.
Pilg ce eeeanarecssceeess 10 58 20 | 64 26 15
Blanquilla, North point ...| 11 54 30 | 64 37 30 !
Tortuga, East point......... 10 54 45 | 65 12 10 |
Orchilla, N.E. Breakers ...| 11 52 45 | 66 4 30/ 0 50
El] Roque, Lighthouse...... 11 58 15 | 66 39 30
Islas de Aves (Bzrds Isles) :
Windward Isle ............ 11 57 30 | 67 27 80; 1 10
MEO WALCUUS Clccccssssecsee 11 59 30 | 67 42 O
Buen-Ayre, N.E. point ...| 12 13 30 | 68 14 30
South Point, Light ...... 12 2 30) 68 17 20
Curacao, North point ...... 12.21" (0) "69" 180} ei 8b
Bay of St. Anna, Rif
Fort, Light ...... [10]| 12 6 24 | 68 57 6 Dutch Survey, 1889.
Little Curacao, Light ...... 12 2 0; 68 39 O
Oruba, S.E. point, Light... 12 23 30 | 69 55 45 | 1 40 |
North Point .........s000 1236 O|iw 8 0

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS. 91

NOTES.

1. WINDWARD AND LEEWARD IsLtanps.—Under the denomination of Windward Islands,
the navigators of France and Spain include the whole range from the Virgins to Trinidad;
and, under that of Leeward Islands, the range which lies between Trinidad and the
Gulf of Maracaybo. This distinction is natural and proper, and we have adopted it, in
preference to the former distinction in the English charts, which include, under the
name of Leeward Islands, those from Porto Rico to Dominica; and, under that of
Windward Islands, those from Martinique to Tobago.

The observations of the Spanish officers for determining the respective situations of
the Caribbee Islands were very numerous and important, and our charts have been
regulated chiefly thereby. Later corrections have, however, been made.

2. Sr. CHRISTOPHER’s.—In January, 1782, the Marquis de Chabert took nine meridian
altitudes, whence he concluded the latitude to be nearly as in the Table. The longitude
by his marine clocks, previously examined at Martinique, appeared as 62° 52’ 30’. Mr.
Zahrtmann made the difference of longitude between it and St. Thomas’s 2° 13’ 27”,
placing it in 62° 42’ 13”, nearly as in the Table.

8. DEsiraDE.—The Chevalier de Borda computed the latitude of the N.E. point as
16° 20’ 30”. Captain Monteith, in lat. 16° 58’, by three observations ; longitude of ship
by chronometer, 61° 9’ 45”; by lunars, 61° 14’ 38”; mean, 61° 12’ 12’; the bearing of
Desirade was S. 5° E., distance £5 miles, which gives 3’ of departure—long. 3’5”. Hence
longitude of the centre of Desirade, 61° 9’ 7”, about 8’ too far West.

4, Roszau.—The latitude of this place, according to the result of observations by
Messrs. Verdun, &c., is 15° 18’ 23’. French officers have given the longitude to the
westward of that shown in the Table, but the latter is probably correct.

5, Marrinique.—The latitude accords with that resulting from the observations of
Messrs. Verdun, Borda, &c., who concluded the longitude as 61° 0’. Captain Dunsterville
gave the longitude of Diamond Rock as 61° 6’.

In the Survey of Martinique, executed by order of the French Government in 1824 and
1825, the longitude of the flagstaff of Fort St. Louis, on which all the other longitudes
depend, was assumed by M. Monnier as 61° 1' 25”. This was arrived at by measurements
from Rio Janeiro, &c., and is 3’ less than that now given.

The longitude in the Table is that given by the latest French surveys, and is only 8”
to the eastward of a mean of chronometric measurements by M. Zahrtmann and
M. Lartique, between this and the Observatories of St. Croix and St. Thomas.

6. Barsapos.—The late Dr. Nevil Maskelyne communicated the latitude of St.
Michael’s Church, in Bridgetown, as 13° 5’ 30”. The longitude was afterwards given as
59° 53’ 40” and 59° 41’ 15”. From four separate measurements, the meridional difference
between Port Royal and Barbados appeared to be 17° 30’ 10”, which would give 59° 20’ 28”
as the longitude of Barbados. In 1850, Lieutenant G. B. Lawrence, by a careful measure-
ment from St. Thomas, with seventeen chronometers, made Fort Beckwith in longitude
59° 36’ 45-6” W., a close approximation to that given in the Table.

7. GRENADA.—In 1779, M. de Chabert concluded the latitude of Fort St. George as
12° 2’ 54”, and its longitude 423’ West of Fort Royal, Martinique. This varies only 2’
from the statement in the Table. Captain G. Daniell, of H.M.S. Victor, in 1833, made
the longitude 61° 48’ 30”. It was surveyed by Mr. James Young.

8. Topaco.—This island was very doubtfully placed on the charts previous to the
survey by Mr. J. Parsons, R.N., assisted by Messrs. J. P. Dillon and W. B. Calver, in
1864-5. The positions given by these officers are those stated in the Table.

9.°Port Spain In Trinipap.—Captain Foster made Fort St. David at Port Spain,
0» 52" 0-8: West of Para, which telegraphic observations place in 48° 30’ 0” (South
Atlantic Directory, page 9), therefore this would make it in 61° 30’ 12”. M. Zahrtmann
stated it to be 3° 10’ 12” Kast of St. Croix—61° 30’ 48”. Captain Owen made it 15° 19’ 0”
East of Port Royal, or 61° 31’ 45’. The longitude, according to Lieutenant Lawrance,

92 GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.

is 61° 31’ 0’, and these accord very closely with the position assigned to it by Captain
Chimmo, and with the telegraphic determination by United States Officers in 1875.

Captain (afterwards General Sir Edward) Sabine, R.A., from a great number of observa-
tions, gave the position of the Protestant Church in Port Spain as lat. 10° 38’ 56” N,,
long. 61° 35’ 0" W.

10. Curacao.—Till recent years the true position has been doubtful, and even now
capable authorities differ. The position of the Rif Fort, as given in the Table, is from
the latest Dutch Chart, but careful observations by United States Officers, in 1890, place
it in long. 68° 56’ 27” W.

The Variation of the Compass is increasing among the Caribbee and Leeward Islands,
at the rate of 31’ per annum.

21. THE COASTS OF GUIANA, ETC., TO THE MEXICAN SBA,

INCLUSIVE.
| VaR.
LAT. N. | LONG. W. | WEST, AUTHORITIES.
| 1895.
° , " ° ' ” ° ’
Cape North, extreme ...... 140 0O| 49 56 30} 38 30| M.Montravel, SirR.Schom-
Mount Mayé, summit...... 2 46 30 | 50 54 45 burgk, Captain Mouchez, of

Cape Cachipour, extreme| 3 48 30 | 51 1 30 the French Navy, and others.
River Oyapok,CapeOrange| 4 20 0 | 51 28 O
Mount d’Argent, summit) 4 20 30 | 51 39 30
Grand Connétable, centre; 4
Cayenne, Jetty Light [1}| 4
5

56 10 | 52 20 15 | 2 35 | French Survey.
Salut Isles, Lighthouse ...

Mont Diable, summit ...... 5 10 380 | 52 54 O |
Sinmarari River, Joubert
or West Point ...........- 5 21 15 | 52 54 16
River Maroni, Frangaise | |
Point, Light secccccce [2] 5 44 0] 53 58 0 1 55 French Survey.
Kaimar Head, W. point id
of entrance, Light ...| 5 48 48 | 54 0 30
Orange Creek, village of La
nam avbat ss cdcensieeasanncsees 5 51 30 | 54 35 O
Surinam, beacon on Bram |
POI eoccatovenscescescensess 5/58° 0 \:55-10550-)\ 21 46
Paramaribo, Church ...... 5 50 O | 55 14 30

Coppename or Saramacca
River, E. point of entr.| 5 54 0 | 55 55 30
Corentyn River, New Rot-
terdam, Nickerie Battery; 5 58 20 | 57 0 30 Dutch Survey, 1888.
Berbicé River, Lightvessel| 6 29 0
New Amsterdam ...... oe) Diao
Demerara, Lighthouse ...| 6 49 20 | 58 9 47/| 1 20 | English Survey, 1887.
Mocomoco Point, extreme} 8 40 0
Orinoco River, Barima

Point, extreme ......... 8 37 30 | 60 22 0; O O
Ciudad Bolivar, market-
PlACE ..cccecssserereveeess | 8 8 52 | 63 382 58
Baja Point.......sssceceseeeees | 982 0/61 0 0

Trinipap. See page 90.

po BE =

GHOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS,

93

THE COASTS OF VENEZUELA AND NEW GRANADA.

VENEZUELA. [3]

Pefias Point, extreme......
Cape Tres Puntas, extreme
Puerto Santo Islet, centre
Carupano, Lighthouse......
Esmeralda Islet, centre ...
Morro de Chacopata, extr.
Escarseo Point, extreme...
Margarita Island, Ballena
Point (see page 90) ...
Arenas Point, West extr.
Sola Island, centre
Cumana, San Antonio
Gasblelreccccesecesisiscoccees
Barcelona, Morro Hill......
Cape Codera, Morro
Tortuga Island, Oriental
Point
Centinella Islet, centre ...
La Guayra, Lightho. near
Breakwater
La Silla de Caracas, summit
(SsHOWPCCE) ccccasscscecceccs
Puerto Cabello, N.W. Bas-
1OWeceseckve'sicloceeseaceesecss
Tucacas Island, Ore House
St. Juan Bay, Kay
Punta Zamuro
Cape San Roman, extreme
Maracaybo Bar, Zapara
CABG ccesccccnesssosccecencce
Espada Point, extreme ...
Los Monges, North Islet...

OrF-LyinG Ips. See page 90.

NEw GRANADA.

Gallinas Point, extreme ...
Bahia Honda, East point...
Cape Vela, Islet ......sssse-
La Hacha, Church
Santa Marta, ruined fort...
Tribune Shoal, 3 feet ......
Savanilla Harbour, Lt.-ho.
Morro Hermoso ............
Zamba Island, Galera Pt.
Cartagena, Fort Pastelillo
Baru Island, Fort San
DUE csceviscadeuccasedecs
Port Cispata, Zapote Point
Fuerte Island, North extr.
Caribana Point, extreme...
Cape Tiburon, extreme ...

10 43
10 45
10 44
10 39
10 40
10 42
10 40

10 58
10 58
11 19
10 28
10 13
10 35

10 55
10 49

10 36
10 32

48
30

0
30

57
30

76

39
45
12
53
13
26
57

0
25
33

35
47
10
52

55

77 22 30

0 25

0 45

1 10

2 30

215

3 15

3 50

4 35

AUTHORITIES.

The Spanish Surveys of the
Coasts of Venezuela, &c., by
Don Joaquin Francisco Fi-
dalgo, and other Spanish
Officers. Published by the
Direccion Hidrografico, at
Madrid, 1816-1817, corrected
by later observations.

Norr.—Vessels should pro-
ceed with great caution between
Margarita Island and the main.

At night, anchorage will be
found under Coche Island.

United States Officers, 1890.

United States Officers.

United States Officers.

United States Officers.

Norrt.—Morro Hrrmoso is a
hill which constitutes a useful
landfall westward of the Mag-
dalena,

94

GHOGRAPHICAL POSITFONS.

NEW GRANADA, COSTA RICA, AND MOSQUITO.

Port Carreto, peak .........
Caledonia Harbour, Scor-

PION Kay ..occccceccsececee
Pomt San Blasiccssescscess=-
Manzanillo Point, extreme
Porto Bello, Fort St. Jero-

nymo
ASPINWALL, LIGHTHOUSE...
Toro Point, extreme ......
Chagres, Flagstaff............
Escudo de Veragua, West

point of island ............
Valiente Peak, summit (722

PEEL) peseeeesconsand=censece noe
Cobbler Rock, centre iveee’s
Shepherd Harbour, hut on

AUT bieeaceeceesteasscesses
Columbus Island, Lime Pt.
Tirby Point, extreme

Costa Rica AND
Mosquito.

Carreta Point, extreme ...
Blanco Peak, sum. (11,740
feet)
Port Limon, landing-place
Blanca Point, Grape Kay,
Light
Mount Cartago, the peak,
(11,100 feet) ......0cec00e.
San Juan de Nicaragua or
Greytown, Church ......
Blewfield, Schooner Point
Cookra Hill, summit ......
Pearl Kay Lagoon, Mos-
quito Point .......ss.ess00
Pearl Kays, Columbilla

Poe eeeoesecrersesesssese

See coeoseesecosoesossese

Kay
Geet Corn Island, Wells

North of Quin Bluff ecese
Little Corn Island, Gun Pt.
Brangman’s Bluff, extreme
Mosquito Kays, South end
Cape Gracias a Dios, extr.
Half-moon Kay, centre ...
Gorda Bank, Gorda Kay...
Farrall Rock, centre ......
Caxones or Hobbies, Great

Pe eeeesesereerrere

eee ereseeesesesese

Carataska Lagoon, EL. side
OF ENtVANCE .....cecerceees
Bajo Nuevo, Low Kay

LAT. N.

9
aly
3
21
59
8
52
51

3 30

15 23 40

15 52 28

6 0

LONG. W.

VAR.
EAST,
1895.

AUTHORITIES.

82

82 39 40

83
83

4 0
313

83 2 30

83 48 0
83
83
83

42 18
41 30
46 30

83 37 46

83

83
82
83
82
83
82
82
82

23 44

4 9
59 9
22 0
46 30
11 0
43 42
24 0
18 40

83
83

8 54
19 0

83 43 10
78 33 45

5 30

5 25

4 40 |

Spanish Surveys, &e.

United States Offieers, 1875.

U.8.S. Kansas, 1872.

U.S.S. Kansas.

Owen.

Barnett.

Owen.

REMARKS.

The whole of the coasts of the
Bay of Honduras, from Cape
Gracias 4 Dios to Cape Catoche,
including the Isles and Shoals
between the Pedro Bank and
Costa Rica, were surveyed under
the able direction of Capt. Owen,
Lieut. (after Capt.) Bird Allen,

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS. 95

THE COASTS OF COSTA RICA, HONDURAS, ETO,

VAR.
LAT. N. LONG. W. | EAST, AUTHORITI&S,
| 1895.
|
| |
aa
° ¢ " ° , wr ° ’ |

Roncador Kay, 8. point...) 13 34 30

80 5 39] 38 50 | Captain Owen, &.
Albuquerque Bank, South

PEG ance vs cveoscodessacsensess 12 10 0} 81 50 28 Lieut. (after Admiral) Edward
Courtown Kays, Middle Barnett, Lieut. J. Cannon, and
Re er en 12 24 0O| 81 28 27 other skilful officers of the
St. ae Island, S.W. British Navy. These important
Cove, Entrance Tetande. 12 81 40 | 81 43 40 surveys were the means of cor-

recting enormous errors in the

Old Providence, Isabel

representation of the Gulf of
House ...-cssssrssssereseeee] 18 22 54 | 81 22 80 | 4 50 | Honduras, and they also give a
Quito Sueno oe Spit at true representation of the Rio
DPV CNG sosiccscssesese 14 30 0; 81 7 54 | and Golfo Dulce, the coasts
South extreme of reef... 14 7 30] 81 9 54 of which were never before ex-
Serrana Bank, South Chan- plored.
nel, Little Kay SRE ER OCOD 14 21 80 | 80 15 20 | Barnett.
Serranilla Bank, Beacon
RGU Ede tacwatiscets sie siceciesse 15 47 45 | 79 51 27 [Oren
Rosalind Bank, N.W. extr.| 16 54 0| 80 52 0
Swan Islands, West one,
BEWepoint sesessesesess0s 17 24 80 | 83 57 0| 4 50]
HonDURAS AND OFF-LYING
IsLANDS.
River Patock, East side of |
CMLEANCE csccsesccecasicsince 15 48 80 | 8417 44; 5 6
Bonacca Island, S. side, y |
Kay next eastward of |

Roatan, Port Royal, N.W.

point of George Kay...| 16 24 20 | 86 19 14
Coxen Kay, centre ...... 1618 0O/| 86 35 0
Truxillo Bay, Cape Hon-

SUBS teria dasciasesiesciwa sess 16 115
Hog Isles, W., highest hill) 15 58 0

Utilla Island, South Kay.... 16 38 40 | 86 59 49; 5 36 |
Cape Triunfo, Bluff Point) 15 48 45 | 87 28 20
Congrehoy Peak, summit

N40 Teh) ..5632.055..6escee 15 88 0 | 86 55 30
Cape Three Points, N.W.

EXLTEMIOZs. concesecssesecsucss 15 57 45 | 88 39 24| 6 O
Gulf of Dulce, Isabel ...... 15 24 20 | 89 10 17
Glovers Reef, 8. W. kay ...| 16 42 10 | 87 50 45

OWatUs GXEFOMES ....020ccc0s 16 54 30 | 87 44 13
Half-moon Kay, Lightho.| 17 12 20 | 87 32 48
Lighthouse Reef, Lightho.| 17 28 20 | 87 27 30
Kay Bokel, centre ......... 17 8 50 | 87 56 24 |
Mauger Kay, N.W. end ...| 17 36 80 | 87 47 10
English Kay, Flagstaff .... 17 19 80| 88 3 54| 5 45

Belize, Fort George......... 17 29 20
Forth Standing Creek, ent.| 16 57 40
Cockscomb Mountain,sum-

mit (4,000 ft.) ............ 16 48 10
Sittee Point, Kay............ | 16 47 30
Placentia Point, huts on Pt. 16 30 54
St. George’s Kay, centre..., 17 83 15

@
@
(sy)
@
_
iss)

Half-moon Kay ......-+. 16 26 45 | 85 52 45 |

96 GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS.

THE COASTS OF YUCATAN, MEXTCO, ETC.

1 +

{
VAR.

LAT. N. LONG. W. | EAST, AUTHORITIES.
1895.
}
YucaTan aND GULF OF |
Mexico. |
Chinchorro Bank, North :

Kay, North end......... 18 45 0} 871915] 5 30 Commander E. B ‘
Sand Bore, South end...| 18 23 20 | 87 23 41 1839 ; and others, ne

Ascension Bay, Allen Point) 19 46 55 | 87 29 1
Cozumel Island, N. Point | 20 85 30 | 86 44 48 | 5 16
Mugeres Harbour, Look-

OUt Tower .....scsessrsesees 2112 O| 86 43 39 |
Cape Catoche, N.E. extr. | 21 36 0} 87 515] 5 26 |
Lagartos, Village ........s«.- 9136 0) 88 11 07} |
Bilan, Village.........cscccsess 21 23 0} 88 55 O
Progreso, Light.........s0++++ 2117 O| 89 89 15
Sisal, Fort .......cesccrcsesssos 2110 6; 90 311

Madagascar Reef, centre...) 21 26 30 | 90 19 0°
Alacran Reef, Perez Kay...| 22 23 36 | 89 48 0, 610
Kay Arenas, N.W. kay ...| 22 7 10/| 91 24 54
Bajo Nuevo Reef, centre...| 21 50 20 | 92 5 30
Triangles, West Reef, Kay
at S.W. end ....cccccees 20 58 0 | 92 19 30

East Reef, beacon ...... 20 54 54 | 92 13 21
Obispo Shoals, spot of 16 ft.) 20 26 30 | 92 14 30
Arcas Kays, Wes.ern Kay| 20 12 35 | 91 59 38
Placer Nuevo or New Bank,

ROTLLO scsnceosd-cveceesescesss 20 82 0, 91 53 O
Campeche, Fort San José| 19 51 36 | 90 31 30 | 6 25
Lerma, Church...........+++ 19 48 24 | 90 36 45
Carmen Island, West end) 18 38 44 | 91 51 46 Lieut. Lawrance, 1850, and
Xicalango, Lighthouse ...| 18 37 47 | 91 54 46 others.
River Tabasco, Lighthouse] 18 39 30 | 92 42 0
Coatzacoaleos Lighthouse} 18 8 56 | 94 24 47 United States Officers, 1889.
Zapotitlan Point ........+.- 18 35 0| 94 48 O
Alvarado, Bar .............++ 18 50 0} 95 46 O
Vera Cruz, San Juan de

Ulloa, Lighthouse......... 19 12 30| 96 757 | 7 20 _ U.S. Officers, 1883-4,
Lobos Kay, centre ......+. 21 29 0 | 97 18 30 |
Tampico, Light............++ 2216 0| 97 49 0| United States Coast Survey.
Rio Grande, entrance ...... 25 57 O| 97 615 8 40 | United States Coast Survey
Brazos Santiago, Isabel :

Point, Lighthouse ...... 26 4 36 | 97 12 28 (See also page 72).

Norg.—In this concluding Section the following may be considered as well-ascertained
positions, viz.:—Cayenne; Demerara ; La Guayra; Aspinwall; Great Corn Island;
Old Providence; Isabel, in the Gulf of Dulce; English Kay; Allen Point, Ascension
Bay; Sisal Fort; Lerma Church; Coatzacoalcos; and Vera Cruz.

The VARIATION of the Compass is subject to very little annual change on the coasts of
Central America, &c.

Cot")

Src FTO ff.

20:

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS, TIDES, AND
CURRENTS; AND ON THE DIFFERENT PASSAGES
OVER THE NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN.

70;

1—GENERAL REMARKS ON THE WINDS.

(1.) This book is intended as an introduction to the series which describes
the six great Oceans, and of which it forms the first volume; it therefore
includes some topics which are common to them all, though only incider-~
tally touched upon in the other volumes. In the preliminary chapters,
some general remarks on Ocean Meteorology are given at greater length
than some might consider necessary in a work like this; but as the greater
number of sailors commence their labours in the North Atlantic Ocean,
they are given here for the benefit of those who take more than a passing
interest in subjects which so much affect the courses of their daily life.

This science of Ocean Meteorology, whether as regards the phenomena
of the atmosphere or of the sea, has been greatly elevated in importance
of recent years, especially since the time when the Conference at Brussels,
in 1858, led to the establishment of the Meteorological Department, and
to the co-operation of numerous allied institutions. But, once for all, it
must be to Captain Maury that we should attribute the merit of initiating
the topic in its modern phase.

Since the development of the telegraphic system, which has enabled
observers to rapidly collect and co-ordinate the various meteorological data
from distant but connected stations, some remarkable results have been
arrived at, which will be more fully entered into in the next section.

(2.) As the sailor deals not with speculation, but applies the facts of
Nature to his use, the mode in which the whole mass of the atmosphere is
interchanged and mingled is important to him only as a field of observation
which he enjoys with the rest of mankind. The present object being
practical utility, the Theories of the Winds will be only briefly alluded to
here, leaving the reader to those numerous and voluminous works now
extant on these subjects for a more full elucidation of them.*

¥

* These and other subjects are more fully alluded to and described in a * Text-book
of Ocean Meteorology,” compiled from the Sailing Directories for the Oceans of the World,
by A. G. Findlay, F.R.G.S., and edited by Staff-Commander W. R. Martin, R.N.
Published by R. H. Laurie.

The scientific aspects of Ocean Meteorology are well treated of in Part IT. of the Annual
Report, 1885, of the Chief Signal Officer to the War Department of the United States,
entitled ‘‘Recent Advances in Meteorology,” by William Ferrel, M.A., Ph. D.; also in
“ A Popular Treatise on the Winds,” by the same author, 1889.

Ws A. O, 14

98 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

As a broad and primary principle, it may be affirmed that the complete
circulation of the atmosphere is demonstrated by the fact that the air is
composed of precisely the same elementary constituents in every part of
the world. This fact was practically demonstrated many years since by
the French Academy of Sciences, who had bottles of air most carefully
collected in all regions, and submitted to the most rigid analysis, which
failed to discover any difference whatever. It is manifest in a natural
sense, also, by its supporting animal and vegetable life universally in the
same manner. If it were not so, the air over a special region would, in the
course of ages, have become subject to the emanations and influences of
the land it covered. The same remark holds good, also, with the water of
the Ocean, equally universal in its definite characteristics, and from the
same cause, as will be shown hereafter. The manner in which this is

carried on is still involved in some mystery, although these difficulties are-

disappearing before the rigid investigations which are now pursued and
applied to each new fact as it arises.

(3.) In the year 1686, Edmund Halley* proposed the theory of the Trade
Winds and Monsoons, which is now generally received as an approximation
to the true solution. He afterwards altered his views, which were revised
and extended by George Hadley, in 1735. The following is a brief
summary of them :—

(4.) The sun is constantly vertical over some part of the earth between
the Tropics, and this zone is consequently maintained at a much higher
temperature than the regions nearer the Poles. This heat on the earth’s
surface is imparted to the air, which is therefore expanded, displaced, and
buoyed up from the surface, and the colder, and therefore denser and
heavier air from without glides in on both sides along the surface. The
displaced air, thus raised above its due level, and unsustained by any
lateral pressure, flows over, as it were, and forms an upper current in the
contrary direction, or towards the Poles; which, being cooled in its course,
and also sucked down to supply the deficiency in the extra-Tropical
regions, keeps up thus a continual circulation.

At the Equator the velocity of the earth’s rotation is 1,036 miles an
hour, in lat. 30° it is 897 miles, and in lat. 60° only 518 miles. Since the
Equator revolves so much more rapidly than the portions nearer the Poles,
it follows, that a mass of air flowing towards the Equator must be deficient
in rotary velocity, and, therefore, unable to keep up with the speed of the
new surface over which it is brought. Hence these currents from the
North and South must, as they glide along the surface, at the same time
lag or hang back, and drag wpon it in the direction opposite to the earth’s
rotation, 7.e., from Hast to West. Thus, from simple Northerly and
Southerly winds, they become permanent North-Hasterly and South-
Easterly winds.

The lengths of the diurnal circles increase very slowly near to the Equator,
and for several degrees on each side of it hardly change at all. It follows
from this, then, that as these winds approach the Equator, their Easterly
tendency must diminish, and at the Equator must be expected to lose their

* Philosophical Transactions, xvi., page 153. + Ibid., 1735, page 58.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS. 99

Easterly character altogether. And not only this, but the Northern and
Southern currents, here meeting and opposing, will mutually destroy each
other, leaving only the actions of local causes, which may lie in one region
in one way, and in another in a different one.

The result of this, then, is the production of two great Tropical belts of
North-Easterly and South-Hasterly winds, while the winds in the Equatorial
belt which separates them should be free from any steady prevalence of an
HKasterly character, and should also be comparatively calm. All these
consequences are agreeable to observed fact, and constitute the system of
the regular Trade Winds.

(5.) The constant friction of the earth upon the air near the Equator, it
may be objected, would, by degrees, destroy the rotation of the whole mass;
but it is compensated in this manner: the heated Equatorial air, rising and
flowing off toward the Poles, carries with it a rotatory velocity much greater
than that of the surface over which it passes in its Northward and South-
ward progress. Hence it will gain more and more on the surface of the
earth, and assume more and more a Westerly relative direction; and when,
at length, it necessarily returns to the surface in its circulation, which it
must do, more or less, in all its course, it will act on it by its friction as a
powerful §.W. wind in the Northern Hemisphere, and a N.W. wind in the
Southern, and thus restore the equilibrium. Some consider that this is
the origin of the S.W. and Westerly gales so prevalent in our latitudes,
and of the almost universal Westerly winds in the Northern part of the
North Atlantic Ocean.*

(6.) Now it will be seen that by this theory the Trade Winds meet near
the Equator, leaving a belt of Calms of varying breadth between them.
According to Commander Maury, the winds here being neutralized rise up,
and cross each other ; the wind brought by the S8.H. Trade passing over
the N.E. Trade as a S.W. upper current; and, having passed the Calms
or Variables of the Tropic of Cancer, it appears as the ordinary Anti-Trade
or §.W. prevalent wind. The chief physical fact upon which this theory
is based is the red dust, found frequently to fall on vessels near the Cape

* Sir John Herschel gives the following note in his work upon the Origin of Storms,
which, as it is most feasible, we give here; it must be observed thatit was written before
the views and observations of Reid, Redfield, and others, had been published. We shall
advert to it hereafter.

“Tt seems worth enquiry, whether Hurricanes in tropical climates may not arise from
portions of the upper currents prematurely diverted downwards before their relative
velocity has been sufficiently reduced by friction on, and gradually mixing with, the
lower strata ; and so dashing upon the earth with that tremendous velocity, which gives
them their destructive character, and of which hardly any rational account has yet been
given. Their course, generally speaking, is in opposition to the regular Trade Wind, as
it ought to be, in conformity with this idea.—(Young’s Lectures, vol. i., page 704.) But it
by no means follows that this must always be the case. In general, a rapid transfer,
either way in latitude, of any mass of air which local or temporary causes might carry
above the immediate reach of the friction of the earth's surface, would give a fearful exagger-
ation to its velocity. Wherever such a mass should strike the earth, a Hurricane might
arise; and should two such masses encounter in mid-air, a Tornado of any degree of
intensity on record might easily result from their combination.”’—Astronomy, page 132.
The more recent views of Sir John Herschel and others will be found in their place
hereafter.

100 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

Verde Islands, and in the Mediterranean, where it is called scirocco dust
(as coming from the South). This red dust was found by Ehrenberg to
consist of microscopic infusoria and organizations, whose habitat, as far as
was known, is in South America. But this argument may be demurred to
from the limited extent this dust falls upon compared with the vast area
from which it is said to be derived.

(7.) There is another great difficulty in the reception of this theory, in
the great breadth, in some parts, of that intervening band of Calms where
these supposed currents are to cross each other. In the Hastern part of
the Atlantic it is from 300 to 600 miles in breadth. If this great inter-
change of directions were continually going on with such a vast amount of
atmosphere, we may safely conclude that the lower strata would not be
characterized as they are by the Calms or “ Doldrums.”

(8.) The more reasonable argument, in the present state of our know-
ledge, is, that the Trade Winds reaching this belt ot Calm, by far the
greater part of the indraught will rise on its own side, and revert towards
the Pole of its own denomination in a precisely opposite direction to that
by which it arrived. In the parts of the Equatorial regions where this
intervening Calm belt is much narrower, as on the East coast of America,
this crossing may take place, and the upper currents pass on towards the
Poles of contrary names. At all events, this view of the circulation of the
atmosphere will satisfy our present proposition—that every particle of air
has been so commingled with the rest, that it produces the universality of
character which is demonstrated to exist. As stated before, these theories
are practically unimportant to the sailor in his profession, but are highly
interesting to him as a subject for observation and reflection.*

(9.) It has been held by many that the solar heat, combined with the
revolution of the earth, is sufficient to account for the general phenomena
of the Winds; but there are still some difficulties in the way of accounting
for some of the periodical winds which are found to recur with great
regularity. Mr. Hopkins points out that the Trade Wind at times blows
towards areas of great condensation, inferring that a great rain-fall occa-
sions a corresponding indraught.| This view of Mr. Hopkins is modified
by other observations, which lead to the inference that currents of air
move around areas of high or low pressure, the latter condition being
that which usually attends the greatest rain-fall. This is adverted to
presently.

It is also contended by some that the lowest stratum of the air, having
its velocity kept down by friction, generally moves from the Tropical belts
of high barometer to the regions of low barometer at the Poles and Equator.}
Thus, the N.W. and §.W. Anti-Trades constitute wider currents toward the
Poles, beneath an upper current, also toward the Pole, and a middle return

* See further on these subjects, Maury’s ‘‘ Physical Geography of the Sea.”

+ Mr. Hopkins: ‘“‘The Atmospheric Changes that produce Rain and Wind ;” also see
Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, 1856, pp. 158, et seq. See, also, D. Vaughan,
U.S., in British Association Report, 1860, page 41.

+ See Professor J. T. Thomson, in Report of the British Association, 1857; and Professor
J. D. Everett, in thesame Journal, 1871, page 54. A vast mass of data is given in Professor:
James H. Coffin’s ‘Winds of the Northern Hemisphere,” hereafter quoted (page 107).

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS. 101

or compensating current ; and that the crossing of the winds at the Tropic
is a physical impossibility.

Another view of the cause of atmospheric circulation is that by Professor
Laughton, of Portsmouth, who contends that it is due to aéro-tidal or
mechanical causes. He supposes that the prevailing Westerly wind of
high latitudes is caused by the influence of the moon, and that the modi-
fications of this wind, caused by the coasts which bound the sea, are the
sources of all other winds. For instance, he says whzn our Westerly wind
strikes the coast of Portugal, it will branch to the North and South as any
fluid would do under similar circumstances, and that eventually it will
recurve to the Westward to fill up the space from which the air forming
the original Westerly wind had moved. ‘Thus eddying, as it were, in two
great circuits, and carrying the surface waters with it, causing the main
Currents of the Ocean.*

There can be no doubt that land frequently offers an obstruction to a
current of air, and diverts its course, but this theory does not take into
account the changes which come with the seasons; they seem to be due
to Temperature.

(10.) The Honourable R. Abercromby considers that the popular idea
about the circulation of the atmosphere over the Equator is certainly
erroneous. It is usually supposed that the N.H. and S.H. Trades meet
over the Doldrums, and that the air then rises and pours back to the
nearest Pole. He says:—‘‘The result of my own observations in the
Doldrums of both the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, points to the conclusion
that at high levels the two Trades rather tend to coalesce into a single
Easterly current, and that the poleward motion of air near the Equator is
very small. The propagation of the dust ejected by the great eruption of
Krakatoa, in 1883, confirmed this view. The dust went round the world
in a belt near the Equator in about four days, and did not reach middle
latitudes till two or three months later.’’+ As this dust, however, is con-
sidered to have been projected far above the region influenced by the
action of the Winds (12), this argument is not conclusive.

(11.) There is one feature of the atmosphere which has been involved in
some obscurity, or, at least, has been the subject of controversy. It is the |
condition of Aqueous Vapour, at all times present in the air. It is a very
important question, as upon this water-bearing property of the air, evapo-
ration, condensation, and rain depend, and consequently climate and fer-
tility to the earth. Air charged with vapour is specifically lighter than dry
air, thus diminishing the atmospheric pressure where it exists, and this is
well illustrated by the low pressure existing over the moist Equatorial
Calm Belt.

The doubts may be briefly stated. The eminent chemist, Dalton, demon-
strated that one gas (and aqueous vapour is such) could permeate or exist
in connection with another gas without displacing its bulk, and that water
was thus diffused through the atmosphere without increasing its volume.

* « Physical Geography in its relation to prevailing Winds and Currents.”

+ ‘Seas and Skies in Many Latitudes,’ London, 1888, page 427; ‘‘ Observations on
Cloud Movements near the Equator,”’ by the same author, in the Quarterly Journal of
the Royal Meteorological Society, 1888, pp. 231—295.

102 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

Therefore, in estimating the height of the barometer, account must be
taken of the amount (or weight) and elasticity (or tension) of the vapour,
and subtracted from the height of the mercury, to give the true weight of
the dry air. With a dew-point temperature of 87-35°, the pressure of
moisture is equal to the weight of 1:26 inch of mercury, and must be
subtracted from the height shown by the barometer, as before stated. This
was the view held by Dalton, Ure, Regnault, Daniell, Sir Henry James,
Alexander Buchan, &c.

In opposition to this, Professor Patton, of Bombay, maintained that
moisture did displace an equal or equivalent volume of air, and that, there-
fore, it was only the difference of their amount which should be applied
as a correction, and he estimated the amount of vapour above stated to be
equal to a pressure of only 0°518 of an inch of mercury. But the first
theory is thought to be the most feasible.*

(12.) Leaving the field of conjecture, we come to the actual condition of
the atmosphere which covers the North Atlantic Ocean in particular, and
the whole earth generally. Its elevation, or weight, is ascertained by the
barometer, as is well known. According to the decrease in the height of
the mercury on ascending to great elevations, it is calculated that at 15
miles the air is rarefied to about 25,000 times, and that at 80 or 90 miles a
perfect vacuum exists. It presses with a mean force of 14:73 lbs. per square
inch, and forms one 1,125,000th part of the mass of the whole earth.

The Trade Winds do not reach to more than 3 miles in height, and it is
probable that all the phenomena of clouds and vapour occur beneath the
height of 4 to 5 miles.

(13.) If the surface of the earth were evenly covered with land or water,
or a combination of both, the phenomena of the Trade and Anti-Trade
Winds would form symmetrical zones around the globe; but the relative
proportions are very different in the two Hemispheres, being 100 land to
150 water in the Northern, and 100 land to 628 water in the Southern.
There is a still greater contrast, if we take the rational horizon of London
as a great circle dividing the earth into two Hemispheres. It will be then
seen that London is in the centre of that half which includes all the land,
except Australia; and the other half includes nearly all the water of the
globe. From this cause the line of meeting between the N.E. and S8.E.

* See “Abstracts of Meteorological Observations by the Royal Engineers, 1853-4,”
by Sir Henry James, R.E., F.R.S.; ‘‘The Handy Book of Meteorology,” by Alexander
Buchan, M.A., 1868, pp. 160—162; also, the later works of Professor Tyndall, &c.

+ The dry land, as far as is known, is estimated to occupy 49,806,000 square statute
miles. If this is increased to 51,000,000 for the unknown Polar regions, it will allow
146,000,000 of square miles to be covered by the Ocean.—Sir J. Herschel.

In a Paper on “The Height of the Land and the Depth of the Ocean,” read by
Dr. John Murray before the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and published in the Scottish
Geographical Magazine, 1888, pp. 1—41, it is estimated that the area of the dry land is
about 55,000,000 square miles, and of the Ocean 187,200,000 square miles. The mean
Height of the land above sea-level is 2,250 ft., and the mean Depth of the Ocean is 2,080
fathoms, so that the Ocean could cover the whole surface of the globe to a depth of about
2 miles. It is also estimated that the rivers and floods annually carry 3-7 cubic miles
of solid matter to the Ocean, and at this rate it would take 6,340,000 years to wash the
whole of the dry land into the sea.

Ro

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS. 103

Trades is in all seasons Northward of the Equator in the Atlantic; and,
from the land influences of Africa on the N.E. Trade Wind, there is a:
wide space of Calms, or doldrums, whose base lies against that continent,
with its apex stretching toward the Coast of Brasil, as may be readily seen
by referring to the Chart of the Winds, given in this work, which will
explain this peculiarity far better than any verbal description. ”

(14.) The Force with which the Wind blows is one of the chief consider-
ations of the sailor, in connection with his study of the subject. This
force is readily measured in a fixed observatory, or on board a ship at
anchor ; but not so when she is under sail, as it is manifest that she is
then apparently feeling less wind than is actually blowing, from being
drifted before it. We have had some singular accounts of some of the
fine clipper ships scudding at an immense rate before a gale, which has
been marked as of no extraordinary violence; while other ships, dull
sailers, have been dismasted or disabled by the fury of the same gale, from
their not being able to bear away before its great velocity. Therefore, the
recorded force of the winds met with at sea should be subject to this
qualification—what are the sailing powers of the ship which has recorded
them? It is manifest that a vessel, and especially a steam-vessel, will
estimate the force of the wind acting on her in exact proportion to the
direction from which she is meeting it or running before it. Thus, a vessel
of good sailing power going before the wind, which, while stationary, she
would estimate as having the force of 4, and running 5 or 6 knots before
it, will appear only to have a force of a light breeze, or 3 knots; while, if
a steamer went 10 knots against the same wind, it would appear to blow
with a force of 7, or as a fresh treble-reefed topsail wind. We have no
standard of sea-rates for the wind as yet. It would add to the value of
such observations if the sailing powers of all ships engaged in adding to
our knowledge could be tested both when close-hauled and running free
upon a wind of known velocity.

In former times the vague terms of Breeze, Gale, Hurricane, &c., sufficed
to describe the relative character of the wind. The late Sir Francis
Beaufort devised a system of simple notation which more exactly defined
these forces, and which is now in universal use at sea. The figures prefixed
indicate the estimated character of the wind* :—

* In addition to the figures, showing the Force of the Wind, the state of the Weather
is to be understood by /etters, as follows :—

Letters indieating the State of the Weather (Beaufort Notation).

b Blue Sky. m Misty. u Ugly (threatening) ap-
e Clouds (detached). o Overcast. pearance of Weather.
ad Drizzling Rain. p Passing Showers. v Visibility. Objects ata
f Foggy. q Squally. distance unusually
g Gloom. : r Rain. visible.

h Hail. s Snow. w Wet (Dew).

1 Lightning. t Thunder.

Norr.—A bar (—) under any letter indicates increased intensity :—thus f very foggy,
r heavy rain, r hcavy and continuing rain, &c., &c. ras

104 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

Beaufort Notation.

Velocity.*
0. Calm ....... Reeserense Sreoccn 0--3 Miles per Hour.
1. Light Air ........... soorcee «= 8 Just sufficient to give steerage way. 7
With which a well-con-
: ditioned sailing Ship of
2. Light IBTGOZO! cevsec cess a War, with all sail set, ane Z bess
ee | eo eee 3

water and ‘“‘clean full,”
L from
To which she could just
carry in chase, ‘full
and by” :—

| 5 to 6 knots.

For Suipes RIGGED
WITH DOUBLE

5, Mresh Breeze <..cececsee 98 Royals, &e. TopsalLs.

6. Strong Breeze ............ 34 ( Single-reefed topsails & | 6. Topgallant sails.
topgallant sails.

7. Moderate Gale............ 40 Double-reefed topsails, | 7. Topsails, jib, &.

jib, &e.

Speers Gale) ccc cn.cssecsses 48 ‘ Treble-reefed topsails,} 8. Reefed upper top-
&e. sails and courses.

9. Strong Gale ..........cee0 56 Close-reefed topsailsand | 9. Lower topsails and
courses. i courses.

10. Whole Gale ............06 65 With which she could +10. Lower main topsail
scarcely bear close- and reefed foresail.
reefed maintopsail and
reefed foresail.

HL (SUOTEWA, pSacsdodsossonnacoas 75 Which would reduce her to storm stay-sails.

Lh eEUUIT CANGH lensesesccess 90 Which no canvas could withstand.

(15.) The wind over the land is found to be generally of much less force
and velocity than at sea, so that the Beaufort Notation was found incon-
venient for land purposes: Mr. Glaisher, therefore, proposed another
Notation for this use, which was adopted at Greenwich, Liverpool, and
indeed at most of the principal Observatories. It divides the Force into
the numbers 1 to 6, which have been proportioned to the Beaufort Scale,
as follows :—

Glaisher Notation.

1. Moderate ...... (Beaufort Scale 1—2) 4, Heavy ...... (Beaufort Scale 7—8)
OMPLesherssescesess ( 5 3—4) 5. Violent ...... ( Py 9—10)
3. Strong ...... ceo (( a 5—6) 6. Tremendous ( “ 11—12)

- (16.) From numerous observations made during the voyage of H.M.S.
Challenger, it was found that the Mean Hourly Velocity of the wind over
the ocean was 174 miles, and on land only 124 miles.

(17.) The actual Force and Velocity of the Wind were calculated by Sir
W. Snow Harris, with an improvement of Lind’s Anemometer, by which
he found air moving 20 feet in a second presses on 1 square foot with a
force of about 13 oz. avoirdupois, or at 50 feet per second it would support
a column of water 1 inch high, the pressure force increasing very nearly
with the square of the velocity. With these data the Table on the follow-
ing page has been calculated :—

* The Velocity of the Wind, given in Miles per Hour, is taken from the work entitled
‘‘ Aids to the Study and Forecasts of the Weather,” by W. Clement Ley, M.A., published
by the Meteorological Council.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS. 105

TABLE,

Showing the Force and Velocity of the Wind from Light Airs to Heavy
Gales and Tempests.

Pressure!
in lbs. on
Square

Foot.

0-002
0-004
0-019
0-032
0-043
0-065
0-071
0-090
0-100
0-112
0-130
0-162
0-298
0-260
0-291
0-364
0-390
0-459
0-521
0-551
0-650
0-780
0-830
0-884
0-910
1-042
1-170
1250 j
1302 ~=«
1470 =|
1563
1-630
1-790
2-084
2-600
3-196
3-647
4-168
4-689
5-200
7-800
10:400
13-000
20:800
26-000
31-200
41-600
52-000
62-400

IN. A.-O.

Velocity.
|
Feet per | Miles per
Second. Hour.
1 0-68
1:47 il
3 2
3:9 2°66
4:5 3
5:28 3°8
5:87 4
66 4-5
6:98 4°75
7°34 | 5
7°89 5°38
88 | 6
10-4 | 4g
11 76
11:8 8
13°2 9
13:6 9:27
14:7 10
15:8 g 10°77
16-2 iil
17:66 12
19:3 13
20 13°6
20:6 14
20:9 14°25
22 | 15
23:6 16
24°2 16:5
25 Ne
26°5 18
27°39 18°67
28 19
29°35 20
31°15 21°47
35°32 24
38°73 26°40
41°83 28°52
44°83 30°56
47°44 32°34
50 34
61:18 41
70°72 48°2
79:07 53°91
100 68°18
111-74 76°18
122-62 83°6
141-30 90°34
157:98 107°7
173-06 120

Popular Descriptions.

1? Gentle airs (unappreciable by gauge).

(Beaufort Scale, 1).

would fill the lightest sail of a yacht.
(Beaufort Scale, 2).

45
| Light airs (just ‘appreciable by gauge) ;

Light breezes, such as would fill the
lightest sails of a large ship (8).

a Ma

\ Moderate breezes, in which ships can
carry all sail (4).

>
J
4
Fresh breezes; topgallant sails and
royals (5).

Fresh winds ; reefs (6).

Strong winds; treble-reefed topsails (7).

Gales; close-reefed topsails and reefed
courses (8).

stay-sails (9).

Heavy gales and storms (10).

Very heavy gales; great storms; tem-
pests (11).

2

y,

|

|

\ Strong gales; close-reefed topsails and
|

J

|

Tornados ; cyclones; hurricanes (12),

15

106 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE W.NDS.

There is no question that the figures in this Table may be open to some
doubt, as the subject is a difficult one, and they are given independently
of the different forces exerted by aqueous vapour and by air. Sir Henry
James also drew up a more complicated Table, and foreign and other
observers have also prepared various other Tables, differing more or less
from that just given, which will suffice for the sailor’s use.

The results vary much, according to the form of Anemometer used.
From exhaustive experiments recently made by Mr. W. H. Dines, it was
found that the pressure upon a plane area of fairly compact form is about
14 lb. per square foot at a velocity of 21 miles per hour, or in other words,
a pressure of 1 lb. per square foot is caused by a wind of a little more
than 17 miles per hour.*

After the disastrous failure of the Tay Railway Bridge and other strue-
tures, owing to heavy gales, an inquiry into the subject led Mr. Thomas
Hawksley to draw up the following Table.t

Prcaenke Velocity. Deen Velocity.
in lbs. per ; in lbs. per ?
Square Hoot. | Zectper | Miles ver || schare Hoot. | Zoster | Mies pox
0:25 10 .6°8 20°25 90 61:2
1:0 20 13°6 25:0 100 68:0
2°25 30 20:4 30°25 110 74:8
4-0 40 27-2 36:0 120 81°6
6°25 50 34:0 49-95 130 884
9-0 60 40:8 49-0 140 95-2
12525 70 476 56°25 150 102-0
16:0 80 54-4

(18.) The Alternation of the Sea and Land Breezes in warm latitudes is
an important feature in coast navigation. Its cause is generally well under-
stood, being owing to the different powers of radiation and absorption of
heat possessed by land and water. So that, generally, when the day tem-
perature is highest on the land, the strongest will be the alternating
breezes. During the day the radiation of the sun’s heat on the land
causes the air to expand and rise from the surface, and then the sea air
rushes in to fill the void. It frequently occurs that the surface of the soil
will show a temperature of 120° under the meridian sun, and sink to 50°
or 60° during the night ; while the sea, rarely having a higher temperature
than 80°, and from being a bad radiator fluctuates but very little, it follows
that it is alternately warmer and colder than the land, and hence the phe-
nomena in question. The minimum temperature of the twenty-four hours
occurring a little before sunrise, and the maximum about 2 p.m., the change
of these breezes occurs generally at some little time after those hours.

The above theory of Land and Sea Breezes does not satisfactorily account
for the known fact that the Sea Breeze always sets in first in the offing,

* An account of these experiments is given in the Report of the Meteorological
Council to the Royal Society, for the year ending March 31st, 1890, pp. 36—45.

+ ‘On the Pressure of the Wind upon a Fixed Plane Surface,” by Thos. Hawksley,
C.E., F.R.S., in the Report of the British Association, 1881, pp. 480—482.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS. 107

and not on the coast. Professor Laughton accounts for the Sea Breeze
by the excess of barometric pressure seaward owing to evaporation, and
for the Land Breeze by the descent of the column of air forced up by the
Sea Breeze. It is to be remarked that both Land and Sea Breezes are
only well developed on coasts backed by hills.

(19.) The wind decidedly veers round the compass according to the sun’s

motion, 7.e.,in the Northern Hemisphere from North through N.E., East,
S.E., to South, and so on, often making a complete circuit in that direc-
tion, or more than one in succession (perhaps occupying many days in so
doing), but it rarely backs, and very rarely, or never, makes a complete
circuit in the contrary direction, except in very high latitudes. Professor
Dové argued this to be the direct consequence of the rotation of the earth;
and, although the observation was recorded by Lord Bacon, in 1600, it is
now known as Dové’s Law of Gyration.*

(20.) Professor Coffin, from his elaborate discussions, considered the
following to be a general description of the Wind system of the Northern
Hemisphere :—

Ist. That from high Northern latitudes the winds proceed in a Southerly
direction, but veer towards the West as they approach a limit ranging
from about lat. 56° on the Western continent, to about lat. 68° on the
Eastern, where they become irregular and disappear. The area of this
zone is about 11,800,000 square miles.

2nd. That farther South there is a belt of Westerly winds, less than
2,000 miles in breadth, entirely encircling the earth ; the Westerly direc-
tion being clearly defined in the middle of the belt, but gradually disappear-
ing as the limits are approached on either side. The area of this zone is
estimated to be about 25,870,000 square miles.

3rd. That South of the zone last named the mean direction of the wind
is Easterly. This area is estimated to contain 60,760,000 square miles.+

Professor Dové contended that there are but two systems, the 1st and
3rd of the foregoing.t

* When speaking of the wind veering with the sun, of course the shifting of the
cyclonic winds in the Northern Hemisphere is not included.

+ “Winds of the Northern Hemisphere,” by Professor Coffin, A.M., Pennsylvania, U.S.,
in ‘‘ Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge,” vol. vi.

t See Report of the British Association, 1845. See, also, Professor Mitchell, in the
American Journal of Science and Arts, vol. xix., page 254. A great amount of information
will be found on the general subject in the works of Kiamtz and Romme, who have also
laboriously studied and generalized the phenomena of the Winds, and to whose iabours
much that is here said is owing.

ee ee ee

( 108 )

2.—_THE MOTIONS AND PRESSURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE,
with Introductory Remarks on the Use of the Barometer.

(21.) As so many references will be made in the succeeding pages to the
indications afforded by that invaluable instrument, the Barometer, we
here give a few remarks upon its use. So much depending upon the read-
ings being correct, masters of vessels are advised to compare their Baro-
meters as often as possible with Standard instruments on shore, so as to
ascertain the exact error if any. This can easily be done, without removing
the ship’s Barometer (in ports where reliable Barometer observations are
daily taken, at a stated time, with a Standard instrument), by taking an
observation on board at the same time, correcting it for previous error (if
any) and temperature, and then comparing the result with that of the
Standard. An Aneroid should always be gently tapped before it is read
off, to make sure that the pointer marks correctly.

The Barometer should be set and read at regular hours, every four hours
if possible in a general way, or more frequently when a change in the
weather is imminent, and the readings entered at once in the log.

(22.) Corrections are necessary in the reading of the Mercurial Barometer
to reduce its indications to the standard temperature of 32° I. at sea-level.
As the column of mercury shortens when cooled and lengthens when heated,
allowance must be made according to the temperature recorded by the
attached Thermometer, and deduction made as follows :—At 40° F., -03:
50°, 06: 60°, 0'8: 70°, -11: 80°, -14. An addition of about ‘001 must also
be made for each foot that the instrument is placed above sea-level. A
slight correction for temperature must also be made for observations with
Barometers having a brass scale extending upwards from the cistern, for
which a Table is given at the end of this work. Thus, at 40° F., bar.
30:0, 031 must be deducted: at 50° F., -058; at 60°, :085; at 70°, -111; at
80°, ‘138; the difference for *5 above or below 30:0 being only -001 to -002.

In making entries in the ship’s log only the actual reading of the Baro-
meter should be recorded, with the temperature of attached Thermometer.*

(23.) Barometer Normals.—Owing to the regular observations made and
recorded in sea-ports and ships’ logs for long series of years, it has been
rendered possible to draw up Charts and Tables showing that the barometric
pressure lies in regular zones over the Ocean, and by comparing his obser-
vations with these records the seaman may readily ascertain whether there
is any serious departure in these readings from the mean pressure, either
in the way of excess or deficiency, and this knowledge, combined with
observations of the actual direction and force of the wind, and of the
changes that take place in these, will furnish him with the means of guiding.
his action with confidence, as will be further explained hereafter.

* The French, and other nations using the decimal system, apply it also to the
Barometer scale, the latter being marked in millimétres, 1 of which = nearly ‘04 inch
(03937). The following amounts are equivalents:—27 inches, 685-8 millimétres;
27°5 in., 698°5 mm.; 28-0 in., 711:°2 mm.; 28°5 in., 723°9 mm.; 29:0 in., 786-6 mm.;
29°5 in., 749°3 mm.; 30-0 in., 762°0 mm. ; 30°5 in., 774-7 mm.

BAROMETER
for
November.

BAROMETER
for

j February

e

i & ove

7
ny,
“sf

a 80° o ° 50° SUM men A 4 face page 109.

ee Se = a Oe =

= DNS ;

te A | -— Reh} a Noe

BAROMETER
for

ied ty eh A

‘-.

‘
"

BAROMETER Jee BS
for

August.

BAROMETER NORMALS. 109

The accompanying diagrams are taken from the ‘“ Charts showing the
Mean Barometric Pressure over the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans,”’
published by the Meteorological Council, in 1887. On these charts the
observations are considered as taken with the cistern at 11 feet above sea-
level, reduced to 32° F. The months selected are February, May, August,
and November, as representing the Winter, Spring, Summer, and Autumn
seasons of the Northern Hemisphere. The probable pressure for the inter-
vening months can be easily deduced with fair accuracy.

We may also refer here to the useful Table of Barometer Normals appear-
ing on the United States monthly ‘“ Pilot Chart of the North Atlantic
Ocean,” published at the Hydrographic Office, Washington. These differ
slightly from the figures shown on the above charts.

As stated in (21), unless the exact error (if any) of the ship’s Barometer
is known, no practical use can be made of these Charts or Tables.

(24.) The lines drawn on the diagrams show where certain barometric
pressures, indicated by the figures upon them, are observed. These lines
are termed isobaric lines, or Isobars, because they pass over places having
equal barometrical pressure. It will be seen that, speaking generally, in
winter the barometer is highest over the land, which is then colder than
the sea ; and lowest over the sea, which is then warmer than the land.
In summer the barometer is lowest over the great continents, which are
then relatively hot, and highest over the sea, which is then relatively cool.

Over the Equator, and between the Tropics, where the temperature is
always comparatively high, the barometer is low relatively to the neigh-
bouring zones just beyond the Tropics, where the temperature is relatively
low, and the barometer is high.*

(25.) The main features brought out by these Charts are that over the
sea the pressure is more uniform throughout the year than over the con-
tinents, and that, roughly speaking, the Ocean, that part of the earth’s
surface which more immediately concerns the seaman, may be divided
in respect of barometric pressure into five great areas.

First, a belt of moderately low pressure, over the Calm belt of the Equa-
torial region. Then, North and South of the Equatorial region, are two
belts of high pressure, over the Trade Wind regions. Proceeding to the
higher latitudes, and towards the Poles, we again find, in each Hemisphere,
an area of Jow and diminishing pressure.

In the Equatorial region the barometer stands at, or close to, 30:0.
From the Tropic to about lat. 40° N. and §., the readings are above 30:0,
and in the central parts of the oceans readings as high as 30°2 are found
over large areas.” North and South of the parallels of 40°, the pressure
diminishes, and in mid-winter, South of Greenland and Iceland, an area
of low pressure, 29°4, exists, which disappears in mid-summer, the baro-
meter then standing half an inch higher.* e

Captain Toynbee also remarked in a lecture at the United Service
Institution, May 19th, 1871 :—‘‘ Having treated of the more permanent
areas of high and low pressure in the North Atlantic, here let me add, that

* “ A Barometer Manual for the Use of Seamen,” published by the Meteorological
Council.

110 MOTIONS AND PRESSURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE.

similar areas of high and low pressure are found to exist in the other great
oceans. If these areas were quite fixed, and the only disturbances to which
the air of the North Atlantic was subjected, the direction and force of the
wind might be expected to be equally fixed. But, besides the above, local
and temporary disturbances are very common.”

(26.) The diagrams show the mean barometrical pressure, but this is
liable to variation from several causes, periodical and non-periodical.

The Diurnal Variation (mainly due to temperature) is one of the most
regular of recurring phenomena in the Tropical and adjacent seas, gradually
diminishing in higher latitudes, and is hardly perceptible within the Arctic
and Antarctic Circles. This diurnal variation of pressure consists of a
double oscillation, there being two periods of increase and two of decrease;
the barometer rising from about 4 a.m. to about 10 a.m., then falling to
about 4 p.m., and again rising till about 10 p.m., when it once more falls
to 4 a.m. In Tropical seas the daily range between the highest and
lowest may be taken at about ‘07 or ‘08. In the British Isles the changes
of pressure due to this cause are hardly more than one-fourth of those
observed in the Tropics, amounting on the average to about -02.

The Annual Variation of pressure is also a well-marked phenomenon
within the Tropics, and in these seas it amounts to about ‘10 ; on approach-
ing the land it becomes mueh greater. As, however, the annual variation
takes place very gradually, it calls for no further comment here.

The non-periodical changes of pressure are those immediately associated
with changes of weather. The extent of these changes, under ordinary
conditions, and taking the average of the various seasons of the year, varies
with the latitude, being smallest near the Equator and increasing as we
recede from it. Within the Tropics, the ordinary fluctuations of the
barometer, including the diurnal variation, seldom exceed ‘3 or -4, except
in the event of one of those furious and dreaded revolving storms commonly
known as Hurricanes, Cyclones, or Typhoons (according to the part of the
globe in which they occur), when the barometer may fall much more, and
in the dangerous part of the storm-field may fall to the extent of 2 inches
or more. The magnitude of the range in the higher latitudes, as compared
to the Tropics, is exemplified in the British Islands, where the average
range in the course of a month is about 1-7 for January, and 0:9 for July.

(27.) Range.—The following Table is given in the ‘‘ Barometer Manual”

pie SOB ee
Between Lat. 65° and 60° N. —«.......0-e- 1-70 to 1-80 1-0

GOP 150? 1 Peescecesce=s, 1-80 — 1-50 1-00 to 0-80

BO° — 40% «= ceacsoerenre| 1-50 — 1-25 0-80 — 0-60

40° —— SOG a plese eaeseese 1-25 — 0-65 0-60 — 0-40

30° — N. Tropic............ } 0-65 — 0-40 0-40 — 0-30

N. Tropic — Equator ............ 0-40 — 0-20 0-30 — 0-20

Equator — S. Tropic ...........- 0-20 — 0-35 0-20 — 0-35

as the approximate range of the Barometer, under ordinary conditions of
In severe storms the range is naturally much greater; as an

weather.

MOTIONS AND PRESSURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 111

example it may be stated that during the great storm of January 26th,
1884, the barometer in Leith fell to 27 60 inches, and at Kilcreggan, near
Greenock, to 27°32 inches.

At the latter end of this work we give some further remarks on the
Barometer, including those by the late Admiral FitzRoy, which may be
referred to in connection with what has been stated in the foregoing pages
on this subject.

Having thus briefly recorded the chief points to be observed in making
use of the indications afforded by the Barometer, we now proceed to deal
with the second part of this Section, referring to the Motions and Pressure
of the Atmosphere.

(28.) Mr. W. Clement Ley, in the pamphlet previously quoted on p. 104,
says :—Changes of Weather are closely related to changes of Wind, and
changes of Wind to changes in the distribution of Atmospheric Pressure.
It would not indeed be safe to assert that the weather conditions are, in
all cases and absolutely, the effects of atmospheric currents, or that the
atmospheric currents are absolutely the effects of the distribution of
pressure ; for the inter-action between these several elements is not quite
so simple as would be conveyed by such an assertion. When the atmo-
sphere is in a state of equilibrium no movement of air can of course occur,
but as soon as the equilibrium is disturbed a current of wind is generated,
the air tending to move from the district of greater to the district of Iss
pressure ; in other words, the heavier air tends to drive out the lighter.
Absolute equilibrium is in nature hardly ever attained, the air being kept
in almost perpetual agitation by changes of pressure. The prime cause of
atmospheric disturbance is found in the unequal distribution of solar heat
over the earth’s surface.

As soon as a current of wind is established, the effect of the earth’s
rotation on its axis is to cause this current to deviate to the right of what
would otherwise be its course in the Northern Hemisphere, and to the left
in the Southern. The winds thus blow to a certain extent rownd instead
of directly into any area in which the pressure of the atmosphere is rela-
tively low, and the centrifugal force of the currents themselves helps in
this case to maintain the inequality of pressure.

This effect of the force of the earth’s rotation varies with the latitude.
In the high latitudes we find that if we describe lines along which at any
given time the pressure of the atmosphere at the level of the sea is equal,
while it is higher on the one side and lower on the other, the wind blows
in a direction which, for practi¢al purposes, may be regarded as parallel to
those lines. In low latitudes, on the other hand, the winds move more
nearly at right angles to such lines, and at the Equator the deflecting
effect of the earth’s rotation is zero, and the air must consequently there
travel in direct lines from the points at which the pressure is greatest to
those at which it is least.

(29.) The intimate connexion between the fluctuations of the Barometer
and changes in wind and weather is familiar to all. As Mr. Piddington
says: ‘“‘ The commander who is watching his Barometer is watching his
snip, and that in the most efficient manner.” This remark has a greater

112 MOTIONS AND PRESSURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE.

force now than when it was first made; because, since that period, the
sailor has greatly extended the use of the Aneroid Barometer, which, by
its immediately showing any atmospheric change, gives a longer and more
assured warning. The Mercurial Barometer used at sea, from having its
column much contracted in one part to overcome the “pumping” action
which the vessel’s motion would cause, is much more sluggish in its action,
and hence it may not indicate a change till a part of its predictions has
passed over.

(30.) But the isolated observation of the Barometer, and other indica-
tions of the condition of the atmosphere, made at sea, must necessarily be
of infinitely less value in guiding the sailor than are those made within the
range of the stations from which telegraphic Weather Reports are sent to
each other, and by a comparison of which many very important conelu-
sions can be quickly arrived at. It is this minute examination and com-
parison of the varied state of the meteorological conditions existing at one
and the same moment at stations widely separated and extending over
the West and N.W. of Europe, that some remarkable laws have been
arrived at, and great advances made in the general subject of atmospheric
meteorology.

(31.) But, although this method of comparison is not possible to the
ship at sea, yet it is thought that the method by which ‘weather pre-
dictions” are made; the reasons why barometric pressures indicate certain
general facts; why land disturbances from heat and cold, and differing
temperatures in sea water, bring about, or point to, great and broadly-
marked differences in wind and weather; are proper subjects for the sailor’s
study, and, as such, are not out of place here.

Tn laying as briefly as we can the results arrived at by the various ob-
servers, or by a combination of their deductions, we shall mostly give the
words of the authors themselves, referring to the works quoted for more
extended information.

(32.) When the Cyclone theory was propounded, which was in the first
place done by Mr. Redfield, then by Sir W. Reid, Mr. Piddington, Dr. Thom,
and other pioneers in this all-important subject, the ‘“‘ Law” was established
that these Hurricanes in the Northern Hemisphere, having a low barometer
in the centre of their vortex, will have this centre or vortex on the left hand
of any one standing on its circumference with his back to the wind; the case
being reversed in the Southern Hemisphere.

In the further investigation of the laws which govern the movements of
the air, consequent on the recommendations of the Brussels Congress, the
Dutch nation, well known to be foremost in the rank of enquirers, in 1857
established an Observatory at Utrecht, known as the Royal Meteorological
Institute of Holland; and here the late Dr. Christopher H. D. Buys-Ballot
pursued for several years an enquiry into the data afforded by the daily
weather telegrams which were sent to this Observatory from several parts
of the kingdom, and he arrived at the very important conclusion that the
same Law which had been established by Redfield and Reid in regard to
the local meteors, known as Cyclones, is applicable, on the very much
broader scale, to the whole system of winds over the whole of the globe.
But confining the remarks to the Northern Hemisphere, and more pagti-

BUYS-BALLOT’S LAW. 113

eularly to Holland, Professor Buys-Ballot determined the Law which is
known by his name, and is briefly stated in these words :—

Buys-Ballot’s Law.

If, on any morning, there be a difference between the barometrical
readings at any two stations, in Holland, a wind will blow on that day,
in the neighbourhood of places on the line joining those stations, which
will be inclined to that line at an angle of 90°, or thereabouts, and will
have the station where the reading is lowest on its left-hand side.

(33.) Dr. Buys-Ballot explained this Law, and the reasons for propound-
ing it, and its application to an apparatus, termed an Aéroclinoscope, for
indicating, each morning, at each port in Holland, the wind which may be
expected to blow there during that day, in a pamphlet, dated 1860.*

This Law is the same as that known to hold good in the case of Tropical
Cyclones, and also proved to be true in the case of winds in these latitudes,
by Dr. Lloyd, in his ‘‘ Notes on the Meteorology of Ireland,” 1854. How-
ever, Professor Buys-Ballot was the first to insist on its importanee as a
means of foretelling wind, both as to direction and force.

(34.) The further investigation of this Law, and its application to weather
predictions, were vigorously carried on by Capt. Henry Toynbee, F.R.A.S.,
—a, name well known to seamen—in connexion with the Meteorological
Office ; and in his Report on Isobaric Curves, 1869, he makes the follow-
ing remarks on the general subject.

‘Whilst considering Buys-Ballot’s Law, I have been struck by a few
facts which seem to indicate its relation to the general circulation of the
air in moderately high latitudes. Here it may be well to repeat that Law,
viz., ‘If you turn your back to the wind (however light) in the higher
Northern latitudes, there will be a lower pressure to your left than to your
right hand.’ This order is reversed in the Southern Hemisphere ; hence
it is probable that as the Equator is approached the wind will blow
directly from a high towards a low pressure.

“‘ With regard to the winds of the Northern part of the North Atlantic,
during our winter a high barometer exists over the cold land in Europe
and America, whilst it is relatively low over the sea, hence the prevalence
of strong South-Westerly winds on our side of the Atlantic, and of North-
Westerly winds in Newfoundland, as given in Mr. Buchan’s work.t These
winds work round an area of low pressure over the water, which seems to
account for the prevalence of North-Hasterly winds in Greenland.

«Then, as spring advances, the air over the land becomes heated,
causing the barometer to fall, whilst water, changing its temperature much
more slowly, does not act so quickly on the air above it, and the result is

* Eenige Regelen voor aanstaande Weersveranderingen in Nederland voornamelijk
in verband met de dagelijksche Telegraphische seinen. Utrecht, 1860. An English
version of this is ‘‘The Foretelling of the Weather in connexion with Meteorological
Observations,” by Captain F. H. Klein. Translated by A. Adriani, M.D., 1863.

+ “A Handy Book for Meteorology,” by Alexander Buchan, Second Edition, 1868.

NW. A.-0; 16

114 MOTIONS AND PRESSURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE.

that a higher barometer sometimes exists over the water than over the
land, which is probably the cause of so much North-Hasterly wind at that
season in England.

‘“‘ Again, to the Northward of the N.E. Trades, in the Calms of Cancer,
there is a region of very high barometer which does not extend up to the
coast of Africa or America (see the French ‘Atlas des Mouvements
Généraux de l’Atmosphére’). It is also well known to seamen that this
area of high barometer extends farther North in the summer; which,
taken into consideration with the heated land and consequent lower
pressure on the coasts of Spain and Portugal, seems sufficient to account
for the prevalence of Northerly winds on those coasts. The N.W. wind,
which so very generally precedes the N.E. Trades with ships outward
bound from England, seems to result from the draught of air, in accord-
ance with Buys-Ballot’s Law, between this area of high pressure and the
lower pressure to the Kast and N.E. of it. For the same reason the South-
Easterly tendency of the N.H. Trades, on the Western side of the Atlantic,
between 20° and 30° N. (see the Pilot Charts for the Atlantic Ocean), is
probably due to the air drawing round this area of high pressure. In fact,
it seems most probable that this area of high pressure is a perpetual ‘ Anti-
Cyclone,’ the name given by Mr. Francis Galton, in his ‘ Meteorographica,’*
to patches of high pressure round which the wind revolves in a contrary
direction to that of a Cyclone, which is an area of low pressure; and that
this area of high pressure is a downward current of air, which has over-
flowed from the various high temperatures and low pressures around it,
out of which the air seems to issue in various directions, being governed
by the neighbouring low and high pressures ; whilst in it there is a large
extent of equal pressure and consequent calm (‘the Horse Latitudes’)
which should be avoided by sailing ships as a kind of atmospheric shoal.
It will be noticed that the route of West Indian Hurricanes is round this
area of high pressure. The effect of the earth’s revolution upon these down-
ward and upward currents of air is supposed to be the cause of their
revolving in contrary directions.

‘In working up the meteorological data for that part of the Atlantic
between 20° N. and 10° S., I notice that in the winter there is a tendency
for the N.E. Trades to draw to the S.E., on the S.W. side of the Cape Verde
Islands, which probably arises from the air being cooler and heavier over the
land, thus bringing Buys-Ballot’s Law into play to deflect the wind.

‘‘Tt is well known to those who navigate the South Atlantic, that an
outward bound ship on the Western side of that ocean has a N.E. wind
towards the Southern verge of the 8.H. Trades, whilst a homeward bounder
in the same latitude, but near the African coast, has a S.W. wind. These
winds seem to result from the same cause, which has been alluded to in
the North Atlantic, viz., an area of high pressure over the central part of
the ocean, which decreases as you approach the land on either side.

‘“‘ In the Proceedings of the Meteorological Society, February 17th, 1869,
are given ‘ Results from Meteorological Observations, made at the Royal
Observatory, Cape of Good Hope, for twenty years, by Sir T. Maclear,’

* “ Meteorographica,” by Francis Galton, F.R.S., F.R.G.S.—Macmillan & Co,
¢t Full descriptions of the Cyclone and Anti-Cyclone are given hereafter.

BUYS-BALLOT’S LAW. 115

which show that the barometer is from two to three-tenths higher in their
winter than in their summer. Now it seems very probable that there is
not a corresponding change in the pressure over the warm water to the
South of Africa, which would cause an increased barometer difference,
and therefore, according to Buys-Ballot’s Law, an increase in the force of
the Westerly winds.

«The same Law probably holds good off Cape Horn; and as we may
uppose that a higher pressure sometimes exists over the South Shetlands
ind Graham’s Land, than over the water to the North of them, Buys-
Ballot’s Law would require that Easterly winds should be more common
in the neighbourhood of that land than near Cape Horn, as experienced
by Captain James Gales.

«This intimate relation between barometer differences and the direction
and force of the wind increases the value of barometer observations, for it is
clear that when their relation is better established, we shall be able to
form a good estimate of the one by knowing the other, and the method
now adopted in the office of sifting all our data into one-degree squares
for each month will, it is hoped, enable us to draw monthly isobarics for
important parts of the sea, which will be related to the direction and
force of the winds prevailing in each month. Such work for a few of the
important squares near the Cape of Good Hope and Cape Horn will show
where the barometer difference is least in a given distance, and as a con-
sequence where the wind is generally most moderate, whilst the direction
in which the isobarics run will show the direction of the prevailing wind,
helping the navigator to decide on the best route. Seamen, who fear a
calm more than a gale, will be glad if we can give them the monthly
positions of the different areas of high and equal pressure where there are
calms, in order that they may avoid them.”

(35.) In his pamphlet, ‘‘ Weather Forecasting for the British Islands,”
1890, Captain Toynbee makes the following remarks regarding permanent
areas of high and low barometric pressure over the Ocean :—

‘‘ Now, remembering that the force of a wind depends upon the amount
of difference between barometers at a given distance from each other, if
we can show that there are certain localities where the barometer is
generally high and others where it is generally low, then, if a low-barometer
system appears between such high and low barometer areas, the winds on
the side of that system which is nearest to the high barometer will be
stronger than those on the side which is nearest the low barometer. Such
& case occurs in the Northern part of the Atlantic Ocean, where, in the
latitude of the Azores and to the Southward of them, the barometer is
generally high, there being an accumulation of air on the Northern verge
of the N.E. Trades. The position of this area of high barometer is pretty
constant, although it changes its latitude with the sun, coming North in
summer and receding South in winter.

‘To the Southward of Iceland there is a part of the Atlantic where tha
barometer is generally lower than it is in the space surrounding it. This
is more particularly the case in winter, when there is a great difference
between the temperature of the warm water brought into that neighbour-
hood by the Gulf Stream, and that of the cold air over the neighbouring

116 MOTIONS AND PRESSURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE.

continents and islands. Over Siberia, in January, the mean height of the
barometer is nearly thirty-one inches, whilst South of Iceland and Green-
land it is about twenty-nine and a half inches, which fact well accounts
for our prevailing §8.W. winds in winter.

‘“« Knowing these facts, it is easy to realise that the storm-centres whick
come from the Atlantic towards our West coasts pass along the Northern
side of the large area of high barometer which prevails in the neighbour-
hood of the Azores, and have the area of low barometer which prevails to
the Southward of Iceland to the Northward of them. They are therefore,
as it were, subsidiary to the larger system which is situated in the Atlantic,
more especially in winter, and their Westerly winds are generally stronger
than their Easterly winds, owing to the fact that the greater barometer
difference or gradient is on their Southern sides.”

(36.) Barometric Waves.—In 1843, the late SirJohn Herschel presented
a report to the British Association on the result of some investigations he
had made into the barometric changes registered at the term-days of the
Equinoxes and Solstices, and arrived at the following conclusions :—

‘1, We have succeeded in tracing distinct barometric waves of many
hundreds of miles in breadth over the whole extent of Europe. Not only
the breadth, but the direction of the front and the velocity of the progress
of such waves have been clearly made out.

«2. Besides these distinctly terminated waves, we have been able, if
not to trace the rate and law of progress, at least to render very evident the
existence of undulating movements of much greater amplitude, so great
indeed as far to exceed in dimension the area in question, and to require
much more time than the duration of a term-series (86 hours) for their
passage over a given locality. At the same time it must be recollected that
the records of every meteorologist bear ample testimony to this conclusion
in the fact of long-continued rises, falls, and stations (both high and low)
of the barometer continuing for many days or even weeks.

‘3, In Europe, Brussels is clearly entitled to be regarded as a point of
comparatively gentle barometrical disturbance. Very deep waves itis true,
and very extensive ones ride over it; but with regard to smaller ones it
may be regarded as in a certain sense a nodal point where irregularities are
smoothed down, and oscillatory movement in general is more or less
checked; and: such movements increase in amount as we recede from
Brussels as a centre, especially towards the N.W. as far as Markree.”

(37.) Mr. W. R. Birt, in the further enquiry into the subject of barometric
waves, as reported to the British Association, between 1843 and 1848,
established in the year 1846 the fact that each wave is accompanied by two
streams of air, constituting two oppositely directed winds; and it is not
a little interesting to remark, in passing, that this discussion, although
unaccompanied by the actual projection either of barometric gradients or
isobars, anticipated them both, inasmuch as the heights of the barometer
are so arranged as to serve all the purposes of projected isobars and the
determination of gradients, and this was effected as early as 1844, by
barometric heights being treated geographically—an essential element of

the isobar.
Tt will be needless to follow the progress of this subject through all its

BAROMETRIC WAVES. 117

stages, but this will suffice to show that this important topic was inyes-
tigated when the means of doing so were much more difficult to obtain,
and that some of the decisions now accepted were clearly pointed out in
former times.

In the course of Mr. Birt’s researches on atmospheric waves, he had an
opportunity of testing the correctness of Professor Dové’s suggestion, which
he found to be in close accordance with the truth, for he not only ascertained
the existence of the 8.W. and N.E. compensating currents, but also that of
another set of oppositely directed and compensating winds at right angles
to them. These were N.W. and 8.E., with a lateral motion towards the
N.E. He also carefully discussed the barometric phenomena with relation
to both these sets of currents, and arrived at conclusions which the reader
will find in detail in Mr. Birt’s third report, presented to the British
Association for the Advancement of Science (Report, 1846, pp. 132 to 162),
but which may be briefly enunciated as follows :—During the period which
passed under the examination of the writer, he found the barometer gene-
rally rising with N.E. and N.W. winds, and that as a maximum or highest
reading of the mercury approached, the wind died away mostly to a calm.
On the other hand, with S.W. and S.E. winds, the barometer generally
fell, the force of the wind proportionally increasing until the mercury
passed its minimum or lowest reading.

There is one important feature which the study of the Barometer hag
brought to light, and which is by no means devoid of significance, viz.,
that its oscillations are much greater in the neighbourhood of water. Thus
it appears that the junction lines of land and water form by far the most
important portions of the globe in which to study atmospheric waves; for,
in the great systems of European undulations, it is well known that these
oscillations increase, especially towards the N.W., and the late Professor
Daniell shewed from the Mannheim observations that small undulations,
having their origin on the Northern borders of the Mediterranean, have
propagated themselves Northward ; and thus, but in a smaller degree, the
waters of the Mediterranean have contributed to increase the oscillations
of the barometer, like the larger surface of the Northern Atlantic.

From such considerations as these, it becomes very desirable that our
knowledge of the rise and fall of the Barometer, in immediate connexion
with the direction and force of the wind on the surfaces not only of our
large oceans, but also of those of our inland seas, and especially in the
neighbourhood of extensive archipelagoes, should be increased.

(38.) In a future page, in the Section devoted to a description of tha
Winds encountered in the Northern part of the Atlantic, this subject of
Atmospheric Waves will be again adverted to; and then it will be mora
plainly seen how it is applicable to the daily experience of the navigator.

(39.) Barometric Grapients.—The primary principle, that the atmo.
sphere moves in a series of waves, indicated by the high or low pressura
6f the barometer, having been established, the next step was to estimate
the dimensions of these waves, and the relation of this element to the
changes in the wind’s direction and force. In this enquiry several observers
recorded the results of their work, including Mr. W. R. Birt, before men-
tioned, Dr. Lloyd, in his ‘‘ Notes on the Meteorology of Ireland, 1854,”

118 MOTIONS AND PRESSURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE.

and several other gentlemen; but Mr. Thomas Stevenson, C.E., in 1867,*
was the first who proposed to define the dimension or magnitude of these
atmospheric waves as ‘‘ Barometric Gradients,” & term since adopted by
the Meteorological Office. Its further development, and the application
to weather predictions, have been carried out by the superintendents of
that office, R. H. Scott, M.A., the Director, and Captain H. Toynbee.

Mr. Robert H. Scott, M.A., in his work entitled ‘‘ Weather Forecasts
and Storm Warnings,” page 48, says :—‘‘ No very precise relation has yet
been established between the amount of the gradient and the force of the
wind, but a gradient of 0-02 inch per 15 miles indicates the probability of
as much wind as an ordinary yachtsman likes to meet with.” The
Standard Gradients adopted by the Meteorological Office are expressed in
hundredths of an inch of the mercury for a distance of 15 nautic miles, a
measurement almost identical with that adopted on the Continent, of
1 millimétre for 60 miles.

The system of announcing the probability of a coming storm, inaugurated
by the late Admiral FitzRoy, having been abandoned, it may be well to
briefly allude to the system now in use, and this will be best done by
quoting the words of the Report by Robert H. Scott, Esq.t

‘In order to test the truth of this Law (Buys-Ballot’s) as applied to
our own daily Weather Reports, and its value as indicating the approach
and progress of storms, I have investigated these Reports for a period of
nine months, viz., from October to December, 1864, and from October,
1867, to March, 1868, inclusive. Captain Toynbee, the Marine Superin-
tendent of the Office, has also been engaged in the study of these Reports.

«The observations discussed are all those taken at our own stations
within the limits of the British Islands, and, in addition, those from Brest,
L’Orient, Rochefort, and the Helder. In 1864, the Helder was not a
reporting station, and accordingly Heligoland was taken instead. All these
stations, except the last named, are situated within the area of a circle,
700 miles in diameter, whose centre is at Birmingham. ,

“The mode of investigation was threefold :—

“T, To ascertain the greatest difference of pressure existing between any
two stations within the area, at 8 a.m. on each day, with the resulting
direction for the wind according to the Law, and compare therewith the
strong winds reported as having occurred during the twenty-four hours
which succeeded the time of the observed barometrical difference.

“TI. To extract the daily barometrical differences, and the resulting
directions for the wind, along certain lines within the area, and compare
therewith the winds recorded in the vicinity of those stations during the
succeeding twenty-four hours.

* In the Report mentioned in the note below,t Mr. Scott says :—“ Mr. Stevenson
measures his Gradients as an inch of mercury in a variable number of miles. I measure
mine as a variable number of hundredths of an inch of mercury per 100 miles.»
Mr. Stevenson’s Paper contains, as far as I am aware, the first proposal to estimate
the intensity of storms numerically. It was printed in the ‘Journal of the Scottish
Meteorological Society’ for January, 1868.”

+ “Report of an Enquiry into the Connexion between Strong Winds and Barometrical
Differences,’ by Robert H. Scott, M.A., F.R.S.

BAROMETRIC GRADIENTS. 119

“TIT. To extract each strong wind which was recorded at any station,
and compare therewith the barometrical differences recorded along the
lines in the vicinity of that station.

‘« By these three enquiries it was sought to ascertain :—

‘1. What is the connexion between general barometrical disturbances
and weather succeeding it.

«2. What accordance do the strong winds actually observed show with
the directions over each district of the area as given by the Law.

“3. What amount of indication was given of each strong wind by
barometrical differences in its vicinity.”

(40.) We cannot here follow out the discussion into the details, but
Mr. Scott drew this conclusion from them :—

‘Tt appears, then, as a final result, that if we notice on any morning a
difference of 0°60 inch between any two stations, the chance is 7 to 3 that
there will be a storm within the succeeding twenty-four hours. On the
other hand, the chance is 9 to 1 that any storm which sets in will be pre-
ceded by unmistakeable signs of its approach, although the barometrical
difference of readings may not amount to 0°60 inch at 8 a.m.

‘‘ Before leaving this branch of the enquiry, there is one result which
seems of sufficient importance to deserve a special notice.

‘“‘T find that although there is a preponderance of instances in which the
difference of six-tenths is followed by a gale, yet on several occasions the
barometrical inequality exists after the violent motion of the air has come
to anend. In ten instances during the whole nine months, I find that at
8 a.m. on the day after a serious gale there was a difference of, or exceed-
ing, 0-6 inch, while there was not a gale during the remainder of the day.
This seems to me to be a very remarkable result, and one well deserving
of future investigation.

‘It appears, also, that as regards direction the Law receives strong
confirmation :—

‘‘ Southerly gales are preceded by a relatively low pressure in the West.

‘‘ Westerly gales are preceded by a relatively low pressure in the North.

‘“‘ Northerly gales are preceded by a relatively low pressure in the Hast.

“ Kasterly gales are preceded by a relatively low pressure in the South.

‘In devising a system for testing the Law as applied to the different
districts of the British Islands, and the North and West Coasts of France,
we are met by various difficulties. The simplest statement of the Law is
that according to it the wind at any point will blow in the direction of a
tangent, at that point, to the isobaric curve which represents the atmo-
spherical conditions existing a short time previously.

‘Firstly, the whole system of isobaric curves, or the whole distribution
of atmospherical pressure, is known to be subject to a motion of transla-
tion over the earth’s surface; but of this motion the direction and the
rate vary, from day to day, to a considerable extent, and in a manner
independent of each other. Neither of these points have been as yet
satisfactorily investigated. Secondly, the wind, especially in storms, seldom
blows for many hours consecutively from the same point, but either veers
or backs, the former motion being much more usual than the latter.

‘These considerations show us that we must not interpret the Law too

120 MOTIONS AND PRESSURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE.

strictly, but must make some allowance for translation and for change of
direction. ®

«The method adopted for testing the winds on each day will be under-
_ stood by reference to the adjoining plate, which is reduced from the given
map for January 16th, 1868, showing the barometrical readings and the
wind at the various stations at 8 a.m., with the gradients and their changes
during the preceding twenty-four hours.

‘Tt will be seen from these that the area has been, so to speak, trian-
gulated, as well as the situations of the reporting stations will allow. By
this means we have got a large number of lines of variable lengths, running
in different directions. Perpendiculars are let fall on each of these lines,
and the direction of the lines are taken according to the approximate
compass bearings of these perpendiculars, which are the wind directions
indicated, according to the Law, by differences of barometrical readings at
the extremities of the respective lines.

‘‘ Tn order to render the results obtained from lines of different lengths
strictly comparable with each other, they have been reduced to one uniform
standard of 100 miles. The actual length of each line, and the factor
requisite to reduce its indications to those of the uniform standard length,
and also the directions for the two winds indicated according as the baro-
metrical reading at one end of the line is higher or lower than at the other,
are here subjoined. ‘These directions, of course, differ by 180°.

eee Tine: Length in | Factor.| Indicated Wind.
W.30° N. | Valencia to Greencastle ...... 236 3 E.S.E. or W.N.W.
W. 40° N. | Greencastle—Nairn .........00 180 $ S.H. je eNpive
N. 30° W. | Greencastle—Leith ........000 144 $ S.S.E. ,, N.N.W.
EH. 10° N. | Leith—Nairm..............:c.0006 100 1 Ei. caaies Wis
E. Liverpool—Leith ..........cs0e 156 $ hh.) Oe ae
E. 40° N. | Liverpool—Greencastle ...... 189 $ NB) aes
N. 30° W. | Liverpool—Scarborough ...... 110 1 8.S.E. ,, N.N.W
W. 40° S. Scarborough—Leith ..........4 131 2 N.EL 435 Seve
W. 40° S. Helder—Nairn ..........cccecees 394 NES Sse
N. 30° E. | Heligoland—Nairn ............ 445 ; N.N.E. ,, S.S.W.
S. 10° KE. | Heligoland—Liverpool......... 380 + Ne ane Ss
N. 10° BE. | Helder—Liverpool ............ 284 s IN. ae S.
N. 30° W. | Heligoland—London ......... 330 io 8.S.E. ,, N.N.W.
N. 30° W. | Helder—London ................ 200 s S.S.E. ,, N.N.W.
W. 30° N. | Heligoland—Rochefort ...... 600 é E.S.E. ,, W.N.W.
W. 30° N. | Helder—Rochefort ............ 480 5 E.S.E. ,, W.N.W.
W. 10° S. Weymouth—Liverpool......... 172 3 Hi.) hy ee
W.10° S._ | Rochefort—Weymouth ...... 287 4 Bie ys% ae
W. 10° S. London—Scarborough......... 175 + Hanes W.
N. 20° W. | Penzance—London ............ 220 $ 5.5.E. ,, N.N.W.
iN. 45° Hie Rochefort—Brest ....cccseccoses 200 4 IN. HS, 25; Se
W. 20° S. Brest—Penzance .....cccccceeee 101 al E.N.E. ,, W.S.W.
N. 45° E. Brest—Valencia .......cccseone 307 s N.E. |; 9S
Ne4 Drs Penzance—Roche’s Point ... 138 2 N.Es. (5, awe
N. 10° E. Valencia—Roche’s Point...... 82 a ING ae ek
N. 20° W. | Valencia—Liverpool............ 287 $ S.S.E. , N.N.W.

‘«‘ These factors are, as will be seen, merely the nearest simple fractions
to the proportions between the length of each line and the standard length,

BAROMETRICAL READINGS
AND THE

WINDS OBSERVED
At each Station at 8 a.m. Jan.16, 1868..
With the Lines & Gradients.

RES TOES ees He DA

THE WINDS RECORDED as EXTREME WINDS | |

are shewn wi red

BAROMETRIC GRADIENTS. 121

ne eee ee SS
—

W.13 |— 6 Weymouth-Liverpool Veymouth. 8.w. 8, Portsmouth.

8,
. 9, Holyhead. —

Winds
Date.| Gradient. Line, SS SEE
Extreme. Next Morning.
: (|S.W. 9, Ardrossan. —
Jan.16} S.S.E. 12 |+-25| Leith—Greencastle - LIS.W. 8, Leith. at
S. 9, Holyhead. ee
S.W. 21 |+14! Liverpool-Greencastle { Sw. niyo aeeat cis
S.W. 12 |— 4|Helder—Nairn - i; S.W. 8, Leith —
S.W.19 |+ 3 Scarborough—Leith - J |W. 8, Yarmouth —
| S. 12, Valencia. —_
S.W. 25 |+10, Penzance-Roche’s Pt. ) |S.W. 9, Cape Clear. —
W.S.W.14|— 2, Brest—Penzance - - } |S.S.W. 8, Penzance. —
8.S.W. 9, Plymouth|S.W. 9, Plymouth.
W.12 |—16 Leith—Nairn - - -)/(|S.W.8, Leith, —=
W.16 |— 4\Liverpool—Leith - -§ |S.W. ?: Ardrossan. —
Ss. =
| S.
Ss)
‘Sis
t

| .W. 9, London. =
| W.12 \— 6London- Scarborough 4 |, 8, Yarmouth. vii
| : Preceding :
Date | Wind Station. Giidionts Line.
Jan 16Evening | Si | 8 | Holyhead- -| S.W. 21 |+14| Liverpool—Greencastle.
bis SS 12 | Valencia
S.S.W.| 8 | Penzance j S.W. 25 |+10 Penzance—Roche’s Point
S.S.W.| 9 | Plymouth
Ss. 8 | Weymouth
ss.w.| 8 Ne (acne ta §.8.E. 5 |+11) London—Penzance,
S.W. 8 | Leith - :
Sw. | 9| Ardrossan .f| S:S-B.12 |425) Leith—Greencastle,
pps 9 Oape Clear -| S.W. 25 |+10) Penzance—Roche’s Point
W. 2 een cath i W.12 |— 6) London—Scarborough,
17|\Morning| S.W. 9 | Plymouth -
SW. 8 E Grinmionthe | W.S.W. 14|— 2) Brest—Penzance.

“This shows us that the only gradient exceeding 0°12 on the 16th, which
was not followed by a very decided fulfilment, was that of West 13 from
Weymouth to Liverpool. The predominating storms on the South coast
of England were Southerly, and had very little Westing in them. They
gave, however, abundant indications of their approach in the change of
gradient of (+ 11) in the direction 8.8.K. from London to Penzance.

‘On the whole it will be seen that on the morning of the 16th there was
a gale at only one station, viz., South 10 at Valencia, and on the morning
of the 17th there were only two, viz., S.W. 9 at Plymouth, and S.W. 8 at
Portsmouth, while between these two dates gales were felt at 10 stations,
which might reasonably have been foreseen by an examination of the
morning reports of the 16th, on the principles laid down in the preceding
pages.

(41.) What has been said previously, as to the Isobaric Lines and Baro-
metric Gradients, refers exclusively to the observations made and collected

WAS O: 17

122 MOTIONS AND PRESSURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE.

simultaneously on land. It is quite clear that this is inapplicable to the
condition of a ship on a voyage. Still something can be learned from the
known phenomena of what is probable, and the reader is referred to a
valuable paper in the ‘‘ Mercantile Marine Magazine,” 1872, by Mr. Birt,
for many important practical hints, which are too long for quoting here,
but a few extracts must suffice. They relate to an examination of the
Weather Charts, issued by the Meteorological Office, between March 15th
and April 13th, 1872, the results of which are given in a tabular form.*

‘In order to see the practical bearing of this Table (not repeated here),
it is necessary to recall the main feature of Buys-Ballot’s Law, viz., that
the areas of high and low pressure are specially related to the direction of
the wind. Taking the direction of the wind from Kast to West for example,
and sailing or steaming with it, the area of high pressure is on the star-
board or North, and that of low pressure on the port or left. The steepest
gradient between Portsmouth and Dover during the thirty daysis + -142,
wind at Dover North force 6. This gradient occurred on the 19th, but as
no return for that day was received from Scilly, the barometric section
from Scilly to Dover is not complete. The section for the previous day,
the 18th, is complete, and shows a difference of about a quarter of an inch
between the extreme stations. At all the stations the barometer was
falling between 8 a.m. of the 18th and 8 a.m. of the 19th. Suppose we
take a vessel on the 18th, having just passed the Straits at 8 a.m. During
her passage down Channel her barometer rose, wind off Dover W.N.W.,
force 3, area of high pressure towards 8.S.W. On consulting the Weather
Charts, we find the isobars so arranged as to indicate the anterior slope of
an atmospheric wave, stretching from §.8.W. or thereabout, towards
Norway N.N.E.; the vessel was therefore sailing or steaming towards
the crest. In the case of a vessel steaming up Channel on the 19th, she
would have had a falling barometer with increasing wind force.

‘On selecting the steepest gradient, dip towards the West (—), we find
it to be — 071, wind South, force 3, at Dover, on March 27th, the wind
increasing in force Westward, being at Scilly 7, with a sea disturbance of 6,
marked ‘rough’ on the map; area of highest pressure to the Hastward ;
passage up Channel, barometer rising, wind force decreasing; down
Channel, barometer falling, with wind force increasing. The Weather
Chart for this day shows the isobars arranged as the posterior slope of a
N.W. atmospheric wave. A vessel coming up Channel approached the
crest rather obliquely. :

‘‘ It must especially be borne in mind that each vessel is entirely isolated,
the commander having only the height of the barometer and direction of
the wind at his ship, with Buys-Ballot’s Law, from which he is able to
infer in what directions the high or low pressures exist, but whether he is
approaching a crest or trough directly or obliquely, his data are inadequate
to determine. We are not aware that sufficient has been effected at land
stations to enable him to ascertain the general lay of the isobars from the
rise or fall of the barometer at his ship, and here we see the value of
discussing a large number of observations, in order to mark out with

* See, also, ‘‘ Weather Charts and Storm Warnings,” by R. H. Scott, M.A., F.R.S.

BAROMETRIC GRADIENTS. 123

approximate precision the barometric affections of such a line as the
South Coast of England. To effect this the labour is considerable, and it
can only be accomplished on the large scale by an office charged not only
with the work of collecting data, but of utilizing such data when obtained.

‘‘ In tabulating this, we have the whole line from Dover to Scilly divided
into three portions, Dover to Portsmouth, Portsmouth to Plymouth, and
Plymouth to Scilly. So far as the most important feature—the barometric
gradients—is concerned, each portion differs, more or less, from its neigh-
bours. Taking the gradients facing the Hast (+), we have on the line
Portsmouth to Dover these gradients occurring on 20 days. On the line
Plymouth to Portsmouth 12 days, and from Scilly to Plymouth 15 days.
Of the reverse or facing the West (—), Dover to Portsmouth 7 days,
Portsmouth to Plymouth 13 days, and Plymouth to Scilly 12 days. On
three occasions the barometer was equal in height at Dover and Ports-
mouth, on five at Portsmouth and Plymouth, and on two at Plymouth and
Scilly. These results clearly show that the barometric movements are
very complex ; nevertheless, it is possible that each portion of the Channel
may have its specific type.

‘“‘ A graphical representation is conclusive as to the connection between
barometric differences or gradients, wind force, and sea disturbance. A
determination of the law of this connection is important. We can, how-
ever, look at this matter in another light; for instance, we can take the
mean wind force and sea disturbance for each station as under :—

Dover .... 2°7 Wind. 2:0 Sea. | Plymouth.. 2-4 Wind. 1°5 Sea,
Portsmouth 3:5 __,, 3°01, DOULy, ect 4, 44 ,,

“« These numbers show that, with the exception of Plymouth, both wind
force and sea disturbance increase as we proceed Westward. Bearing in
mind that the scale of wind force is O—12, and that of sea disturbance 0—9,
the increase of sea disturbance is greater in proportion at Scilly than within
the Channel.

«We have already alluded to the isolated condition of each vessel as she
sails or steams up or down Channel ; and from the above example of dis-
cussing the daily readings, it appears that in the passage down Channel a
commander, on the average, meets with increasing force of wind, increasing
sea disturbance, and increasing barometric gradients. An important
question here arises: How is a commander to ascertain his gradient in

his isolated position? On passing the Straits, his barometer stands at a
certain height, on passing Portsmouth it has risen, but the difference will
not give him his gradient, for he is ignorant of the height of the mercury
at Dover when he is off Portsmouth. The rise he records is compounded
of two quantities, that due to the gradient he has sailed through plus (+)
the absolute rise of the barometer at the two stations during his voyage
from one to the other; or it may be that the portion due to the gradient
is reduced by a fall of the barometer during the interval. For example, the
gradient on March 19th, between Portsmouth and Dover, was + -142. On
the 18th the barometer stood at 30-01 at Portsmouth, on the 19th it was
29°94, fall in the 24 hours 0°07. On the 18th, at Dover, the barometer

124 NORTH ATLANTIC WINDS AND WEATHER.

read 29°87, on the 19th 29°78, fall in the 24 hours 0°09. The barometric
difference between the stations on the 18th was 14, on the 19th -16. If,
then, the barometer at the ship, on the 18th, off Dover, read 29°87, and
off Portsmouth on the 19th, 24 hours afterwards, 29-94, the captain would
record a rise of 0:07, the barometer having really fallen 0-08 at a point
intermediate between the stations: thus, while a real gradient of + -142
existed between Dover and Portsmouth on the 19th, the barometer having
fallen at both stations during the previous 24 hours, a captain sailing from
Dover to Portsmouth during the same 24 hours would record an apparent
gradient of + :062, the reduction from the real gradient arising from the
fall of the barometer at both stations, while the rise of his barometer
resulted from his sailing toward the region of higher pressure.’’*

38.—_NORTH ATLANTIC WINDS AND WEATHER.

(42.) The Wind Regions of the North Atlantic Ocean may be thus
defined :—To the North of the Tropic of Cancer are the Anti-Trades,t or
Passage Winds, which, though variable, have a general tendency from
S.W. to N.E.; in these temperate and Arctic regions the general barometric
pressure is moderate, with occasional appearances of areas of high pressure.
South of these is a belt of Calms and Variable Winds, distinguished by a
high barometer, called by Commander Maury the ‘“‘ Calms of Cancer,” also
known to sailors as the ‘‘Horse Latitudes,” as hereafter explained. This
belt varies between 30° and 35° N., according to the season. South of
this, and extending to about 8° to 5° N., but varying in its Southern as in
its Northern limits, is the great region of the N.H. Trades. In the space
between the Equator and this region of Trades are the ‘‘ Doldrums,” or
Calms, of the Equator; and upon the African coast there is a regular
alternation of the winds, similar to the monsoons in other parts. Hach of
these regions will be treated of separately in the following pages.

(43.) In the spaces which separate these wind systems those storms
known as Hurricanes, Tornados, Typhoons, or Cyclones occur. This
important branch of the present subject is fully considered hereafter, but
the occurrence of storms is an exceptional case in the vast system of «
atmospheric circulation we have been considering.

* Those wishing further information on this subject should refer to a Paper on
« Barometric Gradients in connection with Wind Velocity and Direction at the Kew
Observatory,” by G. M. Whipple and T. W. Baker, in the Quarterly Journal of the
Meteorological Society, 1882, pp. 198—203.

+ The term “ Anti-Trades,” adopted by Sir John Herschel, is expressive and appro-
priate. By others they have been named Cownter-Trades, which designation may more
exactly define the upper currents over the Trade Winds. They have also been vaguely
called ‘The Variables,’ a term which is best confined to the characteristic of the Belts
of Calm or shifting winds about the Tropics.

face p 125

Shetlands

|

NORTH

ATLANTIC OCEAN
WINDS
Showing the Limits of the Trade Winds

and
Observed Courses of Rotary Gales
in Aug. 1873, thus __ & Feb. 1870. —

From Official Reports published by the Meteorological Office)

|

Centre pf
Gale
Barometier
about 29-5|in

Permanent Arta of ES

Barometrical
Bar.| 30:2

Flores

HIGH

Fayale

res BL |
to B05 iniiatary

Graciosa.

ry con

Cad
Steof Gibcaltag |

1

sy Itvopie of| Camcer

AD

8 Fincent Zee gsal- O W

|(29/9. 30 in.)

WIND AND WEATHER CHARTS. 125

(44.) Wind and Weather Charts, &c.—As before stated, it is to Captain
Maury that the credit is due for initiating the system by which data from
ships’ logs are collected and formulated on the Meteorological Charts now
published by our own and foreign nations. Captain (then Lieutenant)
Maury’s “‘ Pilot Charts” were published in 1849, and were republished
in a different form, in 1855, by our own Meteorological Department, under
the direction of Rear-Admiral FitzRoy, and by the Royal Netherlands
Meteorological Institute, which has done so much for the advancement of
this knowledge. Since that time a great impetus has been given to these
researches by the gratuitous labours of innumerable commanders of vessels,
and others, who have kept carefully-compiled logs specially for the use of
the various meteorological institutions, on which the more recent publica-
tions are based.

Among the more noted of these works may be mentioned those of our
own Meteorological Office, including the ‘‘ Synchronous Weather Charts
of the North Atlantic and the adjacent Continents, from August 1st, 1882,
to September 38rd, 1883;” ‘Wind and Current Charts,” by Lieutenant
Brault, of the French Navy, 1880; ‘Daily Synoptic Weather Charts of
the North Atlantic Ocean, &c.,” published by the Danish Meteorological
Institute and the Deutsche Seewarte (a continuation of the work com-
menced by the late Captain Hoffmeyer, of the Danish Navy); the Charts
accompanying the Report on Atmospheric Circulation, based on the
Observations made on board H.M.S8. Challenger, 1873—1876, and other
Meteorological Observations, by Alexander Buchan, M.A., LL.D., 1889;
Atlantischer Ozean. Hin Atlas von 386 Karten, die physikalischen
Verhaltnisse und die Verkehrs-Strassen darstellend, mit einer erlauternden
Hinleitung,’’ published at Hamburg by the Deutsche Seewarte, 1882;
and last, though not least, the valuable ‘‘ Meteorological and Pilot
Chart of the North Atlantic Ocean,” issued monthly by the United States
Hydrographic Office, Washington.

(45.) Still, after all, but little has been done by these laborious re-
searches towards showing the mariner what weather, &c., to expect with
certainty in any particular district outside the Trade Wind regions, or as
to the course of, and area covered by, disturbances he may meet with.
In one passage favourable winds may be met with, and in the next passage
at the same season nothing but head winds and bad weather may be ex-
perienced. The Weather Charts show with precision what has occurred,
but what the future weather may be in the Northern part of the North
Atlantic Ocean appears to be only a matter of chance. If it be difficult to
forecast the weather ashore for only a few hours ahead, with all the
appliances and advantages of a fixed observatory, how much more difficult
must it be when dealing with a solitary vessel on the wide ocean.

Space will not allow us here to enter into the interminable discus-
sions connected with this subject, even: were it of much practical use
to do so. Many more years of patient observation are necessary before
any system can be hoped to be evolved from such discussions. All we can
do in this work is to show, for the guidance of mariners, the results of
what has hitherto been effected, while the student must refer for full details
to the works already quoted, and others too numerous to mention.

126 NORTH ATLANTIC WINDS AND WEATHER.

(46.) We here give the Monthly Forecasts appearing on the United
States Pilot Chart of the North Atlantic Ocean, and afterwards proceed
to describe the Wind Regions enumerated in the opening paragraph (42)
of this Section, commencing with the Trade Wind.

January.—Stormy weather will prevail over the Northern part of the
North Atlantic and along the American coast North of Hatteras. Strong
Westerly and North-Westerly gales may be expected every five or six days
along the transatlantic steamship routes, accompanied by heavy snow-
squalls and followed by clear and very cold weather. In the Gulf of
Mexico severe Northers will occur as often as once in ten days, and
Northerly gales may be encountered occasionally in the Caribbean Sea.
The N.E. Trades will reach their extreme Southern limit. Fog will be
encountered more frequently than during December on the Grand Banks
and off the coast to the Westward, and Ice may reach South of the latitude
of Cape Race, especially toward the end of the month.

February.—Stormy weather is likely to prevail off the American coast
and over the Atlantic generally North of the 35th parallel, where fresh to
strong gales, principally from the Westward, will be encountered about
once a week. Northers will occur less frequently in the Gulf of Mexico,
but may still be of great violence. Icebergs and field-ice may be encoun-
tered off Newfoundland and over the Grand Banks. The regions of fre-
quent Fog are over the Grand Banks and George’s Shoal.

March The weather on the North Atlantic will be considerably less
severe than during February, the average Southern limit of the region of
frequent gales being a line from about Hatteras to the English Channel.
To the Northward, gales may occur as often as once in six days. Along
the coast of the United States, from Hatteras Southward, the winds will
be variable. » Northers will be less frequent in the Gulf of Mexico, but
may be fiercer on their first day and have less North-Westing in them.
The N.E. Trades will be somewhat weaker than in February. Icebergs and
field-ice have been encountered in March as far South as the 40th parallel,
between the 41st and 55th meridians. Fog will be encountered with
increasing frequency off the Grand Banks and the coast to the Westward.

April— Westerly winds, of less force, however, than during March, will
prevail over the transatlantic steamship routes Kast of the 60th meridian ;
West of that meridian, and along the Atlantic coast of the United States,
the winds will be variable. Gales may be expected about once a week
North of the 32nd parallel. Fewer Northers will be felt in the Gulf, and
those that do occur will not last so long as earlier in the season. The N.E.
Trades, having reached their Southernmost point, will now begin to extend
farther North. Probably very little or no Ice will be encountered this
month South of the 45th parallel. Considerable Fog will be experienced
off the Grand Banks and along the coast as far South as Hatteras.

May.—Fair weather will prevail generally over the North Atlantic, with
occasional Northerly gales along the American coast, and moderate North-
Westerly gales along the transatlantic steamship routes, North of the
40th parallel. Northers in the Gulf of Mexico will occur less frequently
and will not last long, but are liable to be of great violence. There will
be a notable increase of Fog off the Grand Banks, due to the Northward

MONTHLY FORECASTS. 127

movement of the Gulf Stream and the Southward extension of Ice brought
down by the Labrador Current. Icebergs and field-ice may be encoun-
tered as far South as the 43rd parallel, between the 46th and 50th
meridians.

June.—Generally fair weather will prevail, with occasional gales along
the transatlantic route and off the Atlantic coast of the United States.
West Indian Hurricanes which occur as early as June originate, generally
speaking, in lower latitudes than later in the season, and are most liable
to recurve in the belt from latitude 20° to 23° N. Considerable Fog will
be encountered off the Grand Banks and the coast to the Westward as far
South as Hatteras, and also in the vicinity of the British Isles. Icebergs
and some field-ice may be encountered between the Grand Banks and the
45th meridian, as far South as the 43rd parallel.

July.—Generally fair weather will prevail. Occasional moderate gales,
frequently accompanied by electric phenomena, will be felt North of the
40th parallel; and West Indian Hurricanes are apt to occur, especially
during the latter part of the month. Frequent Fogs may be expected
over the Grand Banks, off the American coasts North of Hatteras, as well
as in mid-ocean, along the transatlantic route. Icebergs may be encoun-
tered to the Southward and Eastward of the Grand Banks, possibly as far
South as the 41st parallel.

August.—F air and exceptionally fine weather may be expected generally
over the Atlantic this month. The principal danger will be from Hurri-
canes, and navigators should watch carefully to avoid them, if possible, or
at least meet them to the best advantage. August, it should be remem-
bered, is the principal Hurricane month. (Full directions are given in the
Section dealing with them, for the best action to be taken on encountering
one of these dangerous storms). There will be considerable Fog over and
Westward of the Newfoundland Banks, as far as the American coast, but
it will be less frequently met with than during July. Only a few bergs
and little or no field-ice will be encountered off the Grand Banks.

September.—Moderate or fair weather may be expected, with occasional
gales North of the 35th parallel and between the coast of the United
States and Bermuda. West Indian Hurricanes are very likely to occur,
and should be prepared for. There will be less Fog along the trans-
atlantic steamship routes, and little or no Ice will be encountered off the
Grand Banks.

October.—Generally moderate weather will prevail, but gales may be
experienced along the transatlantic route and off the American coast three
or four times during the month. Although October is the last month of
the West Indian Hurricane season, several of the most severe Hurricanes
on record have occurred about this time, and no precaution should be
neglected. It will be well to remember that October Hurricanes recurve
in lower latitudes, generally speaking, than during July and August. There
will be less Fog than during September, and no Ice will be encountered
South of the latitude of Cape Race.

November.—The West Indian Hurricane season is now at an end, and
the gales that are encountered with increasing frequency North of the 40th
parallel are mostly from the Westward and North-Westward. During the

128 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

winter months the usual track of storms is Eastward across the Northern
United States and Canada, and then about E.N.E. over the Atlantic,
where they are followed by severe and long-continued Westerly gales.
Probably no Ice will be encountered South of the latitude of Cape Race.
Fog will be less frequent, owing to prevailing North-Westerly (off-shore)
winds. Strong Northers are likely to occur in the Gulf of Mexico.

December.—The region of frequent and severe storms over the North
Atlantic this month lies almost entirely to the Northward of a line from
Bermuda to the Azores, the great pathway of winter storms being a belt
about 500 miles wide stretching E.N.E. from Newfoundland toward and
to the Northward of the British Isles. Very heavy Westerly gales follow
the storms which move rapidly Eastward along this belt. Danger from
Fog, however, is at its minimum, as the warm water of the Gulf Stream
is well to the Southward, and dry off-shore winds prevail on the Grand
Banks, and off the coast of Nova Scotia. Little or no Ice will be encoun-
tered. In the Gulf of Mexico, Northers become more frequent. The N.H.
Trades are fresh and steady, sometimes interrupted in the Caribbean Sea
by strong Northerly gales.

4—THE NORTH-EAST TRADE WIND.

(47.) The regions of the Trade Winds oecupy nearly one-halt of the
entire surface of the globe. From their constancy and regularity they form
by far the most important part of the circulatory system of the atmosphere,
although generally their strength is inferior to many of those smaller but
compensating currents which are experienced in extra-Tropical regions.

(48.) The primary source from which the ensuing statistics of the Winds
are chiefly derived is the extensive collection of observations recorded in
the Pilot Charts of Lieutenant M. F. Maury, U.S.N., published in 1849,
On our Chart of the North Atlantic Ocean, in four sheets, to which this
work especially refers, these wind records are also arranged in a simple
and comprehensive graphie form. In 1876 the Meteorological Office issued
an analysis of the Meteorology of the Equatorial Region of the Atlantic,
between lat. 20° N. and 10° §., and long. 10° to 40° W. This elaborate
work, produced by Captain Toynbee, F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., is chiefly derived
from data collected by the late Admiral FitzRoy, and may be said to super-
sede the above-mentioned work of Lieutenant Maury, or that part of it
which relates to the crossing of the Equator. We give farther on, Captain
Toynbee’s remarks on the Winds observed in this region.

(49.) The North-East Trade Wind blows over the Tropical region be-
tween lat. 36° N. and the Equator, seldom, however, reaching these ex-
tremes.; When uninterrupted by gales or hurricanes, caused by the dis-
turbing influences of land or rain, it is a fair weather region which procured
for it the term of ‘The Lady’s Gulf,” by the old Spaniards. From the
difference 0-055 inch in the observed mean barometric pressure by the
Dutch in the N.E. and S.E. Trades, between the parallels of 5° and 20°,

THE TRADE WIND. 129

which is 29-968 inches for the former, and 80:023 inches for the latter, it
was inferred by Captain Maury that the greater pressure in the 8.H. Trades
indicates a greater force and velocity* than the N.H. Trades. This, as
investigated by him, was confirmed by the daily rate of vessels passing
through them. He compared the sailings of 2,235 vessels, and found that
the homeward-bound vessels crossed the Trades of the North Atlantic
with the wind abeam at an average rate of 5:6 knots per hour, and across
the Trades of the South Atlantic at an average rate of 6 knots. As the
latter is with the wind generally dead aft, he argued that this rate would
be increased 2 or 24 knots with the wind on the beam, and make the
difference still more evident. The comparative duration of each of these
winds in the Atlantic is thus given by Captain Maury :—

N.E. TRADEs. S.E. TRADES.

Between
Latitudes Mean Annual Mean Annual
Direction. Duration. Direction. Duration.

° ° °

Oand 5 76 days. EK. 34 8. 308 days.

b «10 it eve E. 41 §. g990

HOM 5, 25 2085 10s Bil Se 305y

Howes. 20 OTe mes EB. 34 §. 253 5;

20 ,, 25 167° 45; E. 34 8. AGB 5
Means 153 days. E. 36 8 272 days.t

(50.) The Force or Velocity of the Wind is an important element in
these calculations, and Captain Maury’s system was enlarged upon by
Lieutenant J. C. de Brito, of the Portuguese Royal Navy, who investigated
the rates of sailing of 1,548 tracks across the Atlantic, and arrived at some
important and unexpected results, differing in some degree from the con-
clusions of the great American meteorologist.

Lieutenant de Brito reduced the courses of all his ships to the most
favourable point of sailing for all ships, that is, with the wind free, and
took the months of February and March for one season, and those of
August and September for the opposite. His enquiries related to both
Trade Winds—the §8.E. as well as the N.H. |

* Tt is generally argued, that less barometric pressure indicates increased force of wind,
and not the reverse, as it is here argued; but from the following note it will be seen that
these pressures are more nearly alike than is stated above.

+ As this Table is founded on the assumption that the Equator is the division between
the two wind systems, instead of the parallels of 5° to 9° N., as is really the case, it
cannot be taken as a fair comparison of their relative duration. If the parallel of 5° N.
be taken as a division, the mean barometric pressure in the N.E. Trades is 30:057 inches,
and in the §.E. Trades 30-034 inches, making the latter the least. If the winds recorded
between 0° and 5° N. be added to the §.E. Trades, it will give a mean duration of 239
days, and make the N.E. Trades 172 days.

We AO. ; 18

130 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

(51.) For the N.E. Trade he had 803 tracks—424 Dutch, and 379
American. The region of this Trade he divided into four parts, viz. :—
1. The Eastern, or that frequented by ships going South and passing to
the Eastward of the Cape Verde Islands. 2. The mean route of vessels
going South and passing Westward of those islands. 3. The Central part,
containing the routes to the Southward of ships from Europe and America.
4. The part containing the Westernmost homeward routes of American
vessels.

For February and March, he found that—

1. East of the Cape Verdes, the mean rate of 20 vessels, from 30° N.
to 5° N., was 6:1 miles.

2. West of the Cape Verdes, the mean rate of 71 vessels, from 30° N.
to 5° N., was 6°3 miles.

8. For the Central part, the mean rate of 262 vessels, from 25° N. to
5° N., was 6°5 miles.

4. For the Westernmost route, 44 American ships sailing from the
Equator to 25° N., between long. 32° and 33° W., gave a mean
rate of 6:7 miles.

Hence, for the whole region of the N.E. Trade, during February and
March, the Mean Rate was 6°4 miles.

For August and September, when the N.K. Trade is weakest, and is in
its most Northern position—

1. East of the Cape Verdes, the mean rate of 18 vessels, from 30° N.
to 15° N., was about 6°3 miles.

2. West of the Cape Verdes, the mean rate of 155 vesssls, from 30° N.
to 15° N., was 6°5 miles.

3. For the Central part, the mean rate of 198 vessels, from 30° N. to
15° N., was 5:3 miles.

4. On the Westernmost route, 35 American homeward-bound vessels,
from 10° N. to 30° N., gave a mean rate of 4:8 miles.

And for the whole region of the N.E. Trade, during August and Septem-
ber, the Mean Rate was 5:7 miles.

For the strength of the S.E. Trade, there were 655 tracks—417 Dutch,
and 238 American; and the regions given are :—1l. The Western, in which
the vessels go Southward. 2. The Central, in which the ships are coming
from the East Indies.

During August and September, it appears that—

1. For the Western route, 232 vessels gave a mean rate of 7-5 miles.
2. For the Central route, 124 vessels gave a mean rate of 7°4 miles.

During February and March, the results are as follows—
1. For the Western route, 142 vessels gave a mean rate of 7:0 miles.
2. For the Central route, 157 vessels gave a mean rate of 7:1 miles.
The S.W. Monsoon region gives, according to 90 Portuguese ships, an
average rate of 4:9 miles for February and March; and 5:3 miles for
August and September.

THE TRADE WIND. 131

(52.) From these observations it appears that the N.E. Trade undergoes,
in the two epochs, considerable change of strength, viz., equal to 0-7 mile
in favour of the February and March period; on the other hand, the S.E.
Trade is stronger by 0-4 mile in the August and September period than
during that for February and March.

Comparing the two Trades (N.H. and 8..) together, it would seem that
the 8.E. is 1:2 mile stronger than the N.E.

Again, ships bound to the Southward may generally expect to find the
N.E. Trade stronger on the Central route, during February and March,
than more to the Eastward ; while in the August and September epoch,
they will find this wind blowing with its greatest intensity between the
meridians of 20° and 25° W.

This last observation deserves consideration, because it is generally
believed that the wind is stronger in proportion as the distance from the
African shore is increased.

(53.) The N.H. (like the S.H.) Trade Wind, blows over a wider area in
the Eastern part of the Atlantic than on the American side, as at the
meridian of 10° W. they extend from 35° or 38° N. to 25° or 28° §.; while
on the American side the limits are from 28° or 30° N. to 23° or 25° S. :
but on the Eastern side the intervening space of Calms is much wider. The
extent and limits will be best comprehended by an inspection of the diagram
of the Winds; the limits there shown are taken from the tabular state-
ments by Commander Maury and by the Dutch Meteorological Institute,
and for the Equatorial region by Captain Toynbee. This will explain the
various lines and fluctuations better than a long series of words.

The Northern Limit of the N.E. Trade Wind, as will be seen, extends
on the Hastern side of the Atlantic, that is off the coast of Africa, to lat. 35°
as a mean, in August and September, being then at its greatest Northern
extent; but it is frequently encountered when in lat. 38°, or sometimes
even at 40°. To the Westward of the meridian of 30° the Northern edge
seldom extends Northward of 33° or 34°, while toward the Bahamas the
Northern limit is 30° N. This extreme Northern declination appears to
be attained in August and September, as stated before, and then following
the sun in its southward course, it reaches its Southern limits in March
or April. In January, its mean limit on the Eastern side is about the
Canaries; over the Eastern half of the Atlantic in about 25° N.; in the
centre about 22° N.; and over the Bahamas it seldom vibrates to any great
extent throughout the year.

The extent of variation between the Northern edge of the Trade Winds
when first encountered, as shown by Maury’s Trade Wind Charts, seems
to be as much as 10 degrees of latitude—a wide range of probability—and
in many cases there appears from these charts to be as much chance of
meeting them in one latitude as another. Of course this is taking into
account the Belt of Calms and Variable Winds usually (but not always)
found on the edge of the Trades, which will be spoken of presently.

(54.) The Southern Edge of the N.E. Trade Wind is limited in the
Eastern part by that broad region so embarrassing to the sailor, known as
the ‘‘ Doldrums,” or, especially during the Northern summer months, by
a set of winds blowing towards the coast of Africa, known of old as the

132 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

West African S.W. Monsoon. ‘This wedge-shaped area, whose apex
reaches in July to 40° or 45° W., extends on the African coast at that period
from 5° N. to 16° or 17° N. To the West of this there is still a belt of
almost constant rain ‘“‘under the Equatorial cloud ring,” called the Equa-
torial Calms, which, however, is much narrower, and perhaps at times
may not be encountered. The Trade Wind is at its Southerly limit in
March and April, reaching in mid-ocean sometimes to 3° S., but seldom so
far as 3° N. on the Eastside. It remains there for two or three months,
and then advances Northward till August and September, when it is
seldom found South of the parallel of 9° N.; indeed, this parallel may be
taken as the mean Southern limit of the N.E. Trade. This Northern
division of the Trade Winds is owing to the unequal distribution of land
in the two Hemispheres. .

The following useful Table was drawn up by the late Captain Horsburgh,
as the limits usually found in the track generally pursued by the Hast
Indiamen, at the commencement of the nineteenth century :—

TABLE, showing the Equinoctial Limits of the N.E. and S.E. Trade Winds,
between the Meridians of 18 and 26 degrees West.

—_——_

INTERVAL
N.E. TRADE WIND. S.E. TRADE WIND. Rerun
General Probable General Probable M
CEASES. Extremes. Mean. Extremes. Mean. B wath
Lat N. Lat. N. Lat. N. Lat. N. aa
° ° ° ° ° ° °
In January at...... 3 to 10 5 0% to 4 22 24
February......... 2 to 10 4 03 to 3 13 34
March, .c.cessceses 2 to, 8 43 04 to 24 1f 34
APTI Scneanc-Vone 24 to 9 5 O to 24 14 32
Wiciviesssaseneessnce 4 to 10 63 0 to 4 24 4
RE Ces ceneeeeeecnes 64 to 13 84 0 tod 3 54
DUEL Sosetecestssese 84 to 14 11 1 to 6 34 7%
ATI SUStie.csereswes 11 to 15 is? 1 tod 34 92
September ...... 9 to 14 114 1 tod 3 84
October ......... 74% to 14 10 1 tod 3 7
November ...... 6% to 12 8 1 tod 3 4}
December ...... 3 eto 7 54 1 to 44 33 2t

(55.). An inspection of the Weather Charts will show that at times the
two Trade Winds are separated by only a very narrow belt of Calms, and
vessels have even passed from one to the other without being becalmed
for an hour. Thus, as before stated, it is impossible to state certainly
where the Trade Winds will be met with or lost at various seasons. All
that the charts and diagrams can do is to show their probable limits.

(56.) The Direction of the N.E. Trade Wind is an important nautical
consideration. Its mean direction in the circuit of the earth is estimated
at N. 47° E., but it varies considerably under the influence of the land,
and especially so in the North Atlantic. As mentioned above, the Trade
Wind blows much more from the Northward to the Eastward of long. 25°
—that is, within 400 or 500 miles of the African coast,—than it does in

Diagrams Ulustrating the direction of
5 ok N Es TRABE WIND.
between Latitudes 10° & 20° N.

FlGia2:

Long. 30° 40°W. we
Fe

wh if Wy, ee
- a Zz

é
on =i
—
¥ <oeee
3 FILE SE
Lt “oe
Laanpaas \,

FIG. 4, Vi
Long.50°_60° W.
a mip Ves

CALMS
Win. 1-6 p.c.

Spr-2 » £
Sum.-\-t
Aut.-3° 1

\

a
=
>
Lael
o
ae ————_
-

¥,

oO,

“a

a
Hy
Wi

a

“1 Be.
Stare \S

FIG. 6.
South of Jamaica

7 par ye

The arrows represent Winds blowuvg toward the centre.
5. ee eee ee
Mar. une Sep. Dec.
The length of the arrows is proportionate to the frequency of that wind
and the proportion per cent will be given by this scale.

60 70 80 90 100

20 50
oe esos fe toepcces|ecseperen|ecsspsesefars Peres peseeyes opesenpmencgesss

eS

SLOPUST ak

THE TRADE WIND. 133

the open ocean. Between the Canaries and Cape Verde, during the
Northern summer months, it blows from N.N.E. and N.E. for 55 days out
of every 100 days.

During the winter months, from January to March, the wind in the
neighbourhood of Cape Verde draws very much toward the land, or from
N.W. and West. This point will be more fully discussed in a later part of
this work.

(57.) In order more fully to exemplify the duration and direction of the
Trade Wind, the adjoining diagrams have been selected from the Chart of
the North Atlantic Ocean. They will show the particulars of the wind
between the parallels of 10° and 20° N.; that is, in the main strength of
the N.H. Trades. They have been adapted from Maury’s Pilot Charts, as
appeared before (48), and will show the per centage of winds from any
quarter in each of the four calendar seasons ; and also the amount per cent.
of Calms encountered. The plate will explain the different arrows (indi-
cating the seasons) which are supposed to represent winds blowing toward
the centre of the circle, because the winds take their names from the
quarters from whence they come, the North point being supposed to be at
the top of the page, the South at the bottom, the Hast to the right, and the
West to the left hand. The length of the uppermost arrows is propor-
tioned to the duration or frequency of that wind, according to the scale
attached ; so that by applying the compasses to any one of the arrows, it
will give, according to the scale, the amount of wind per cent. for that
direction. These arrows are given for sixteen points of the compass, omit-
ting the ‘“‘by”’ points, in each season. The arrows altogether make up
the length of 3 inches, that of the scale given.* In the centre of each
diagram is given the amount per cent. of Calms encountered in the respective
seasons. As the Force of the winds is not given in the Pilot Charts, this
register of the Calms is the more important, as it is the only scale we can
apply to the force of this wind; as, by analogy, we may argue that where
Calms predominate, there also do light and baffling winds, and the reverse.

(58.) An analysis of the wind-roses in Captain Maury’s Chart, from which
these diagrams are constructed, will give the following figures as to the
prevalence and direction of the winds along the main strength of the N.E.

* There is one remark which it is necessary to make here respecting these wind obser-
vations (220,000 in number). They have been taken from a vast quantity of different
log-books, whose remarks are notmade with the definite accuracy necessary for scientific
precision. A slight inspection of the figures given on the diagram, or of the Board of
Trade charts, will show that in these data the direction of the wind is loosely and in-
definitely given throughout. Thus, a wind between North and Hast is set down asa
N.E. wind, &c., &c., and not so often as N.N.E. or E.N.E. as must really occur. Con-
sequently, the arrows representing these principal or cardinal points are longer than
they ought to be, and the intermediate ones shorter; in fact, they form a zig-zag or
irregular curve around the centre; whereas it is manifest that this curve should be some-
what symmetrical, and that the wind blows from the intermediate points in some regular
ratio to those on either side of it. Until we get more exact records added together in
great numbers, as has been done in the Pilot Charts with these imperfect logs, it is
plainly futile to draw any precise or refined conclusions from their teaching. This is
not said to underrate their value. To the sailor, who only requires a general exact
knowledge of the subject, they teach as much almost as he requires to know as to the
direction of the wind. ,

134 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

Trades in the North Atlantic. It must be premised, however, that these
figures, as well as the data from which they are derived, will give only a
general view of the phenomena likely to be encountered, and the chances
per cent. that a ship will have of meeting with similar winds or calms.
The figures in these columns give the number of days (or observations) the
wind blows in each hundred, from the respective directions :—

Fig. 1.—In the neighbourhood of the Cape Verde Islands.

Between
N. & E. E. &8.|S. & W.| W.&N.

Winter 11
Spring EK. H., N.N.E. | 1:8
Summer .N.E. .N.E. 85
Autumn HK. 4:7

Fig. 2.—Between Lats. 10° and 20° N. and Longs. 30° and 40° W.

Winter 45 41 2 2 E. by N. 3 N. East. 2°5
Spring 48 48 2 2 E.N.E. East. 2:0
Summer 48 32 12 2 E.N.E. N.E. to E. 6:3

2 E. by N East. 5:0

Autumn 32 51 9 | é :

Winter 60 26 8 6 N.E. 4 E. N.E. 17
Spring 70 25 0 5 N.E. by E. N.E. 0-6
Summer 63 29 4 4 |N.E.by H.2E. N.E. 5:0
Autumn 50 34 4 2 N.E. 3 E. N.E. 3-1

Fig. 4.— Between Lats. 10° and 20° N. and Longs. 50° and 60° W.

Winter 66
Spring 65
Summer 63

Autumn 59

Winter . by N.4 1:0
Spring EK. $N. East 0:7
Summer East. East 0:3
Autumn E. by N. East. 4-1

)

Fig. 6.—In the West Part of the Caribbean Sea, South of Jamaica, de.

|
Winter 47 49 6 | 58 | BbyN | NEB. | 67
Spring 42 50 Sie 0 E. by N East | 29
Summer 44 56 Os aD E.N.E | East | 10-0
Autumn 54 43 5] | Oral E.N.E N.E., E | 96

THE TRADE WIND. 136

(59). In examining the figures in these Tables, and the illustrative
diagrams, it will be seen by Fig. 1, that about the Cape Verde Islands,
or that part of the Atlantic most frequently crossed by vessels from Hurope,,
the mean direction of the Trade Wind is to the Northward of N.E.; and
further, that Calms and light airs are more prevalent than farther to the
Westward, especially in the summer and autumn months, July to December.
It has always been held that the wind draws more to the Eastward as you
get to the Westward of the usual crossing of the Equator, and this an
inspection of Fig. 2 will verify, when it is seen that the mean direction is
South of E.N.E., and that the Calms, taking the year round, are less
frequent.

Whether the Cape Verde Archipelago has an influence in thus causing
the Trade Wind to assume a more Hasterly direction to the Westward
cannot very well be determined; but it is certain that this E.N.E. direction
is not maintained between longitude 40° and the West Indies, as Figs. 3
and 4 show that winds hold persistently to the N.E., or a little to the
South of it, although winds to the Northward of N.K. are very rare. It
is probable, also, that the winds recorded from the other directions are
exceptional.

The Easterly direction of the Trade Wind in the Caribbean Sea will be
readily noticed. It will be further remarked on in the observations on the
winds of the West Indies, hereafter.

(60.) The calendar seasons of Northern latitudes are here taken as the
quarters of the year. In the American charts these seasons are made to
include the month before the usual reckoning; thus, winter. begins with
December ; spring, with March, &c. Perhaps the latter mode of division
would be rather more applicable to the Tropical phenomena than that here
chosen, because it appears that the changes in the inter-Tropical seasons
(to which, however, the terms winter, spring, &c., are not applicable) seem
rather to coincide with the American calculation. But as these changes
are certainly not simultaneous in the Northern latitudes, and, as including
such a difference would involve some confusion, the ordinary terms used
to designate European seasons is here adhered to as being readily compre-
hended and sufficiently exact.

(61.) The following summary of Trade Winds was given by Commander
Maury, in connection with his ‘‘ Wind and Current Chart ” :—

“There is a marked difference in the prevailing direction of the wind,
not only according to the season of the year, but also according to different
parts of the ocean, including even those parts which are between the same
parallels of latitude, but in different longitudes.

“‘ As a general rule it may be remarked :—

“Ist. That in the North Atlantic, the nearer to the coast of Africa and
the Equator, the more the so-called N.E. Trade Winds haul to the South.

“2nd. That to the West of long. 45°, between 20° and 30° N., the N.E.
Trades blow much more steadily in May, June, July, and September, than
they do during the rest of the year; and that during the other months,
particularly in March, they blow between these parallels nearly alike from
all points of the compass.

“3rd, That between lat. 15° and 20°, they are most variable, West of

136 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

long. 85°, in the months of September, October, and November ; while to
the Hast of 30°, between these parallels, they are most variable in February,
March, April, and October.

“4th, That between lat. 10° and 15°, to the West of 35°, they are steadily
between E.N.E. and §.E., except in July, August, September, October,
and November, when they are more variable, being most variable in the
three months first named. To the Hast of 35° W., between these parallels,
they may be said to lose their Trade character during the months of July,
August, September, and October, particularly in August and September,
when they blow nearly alike from the four quarters. Calms, too, are more
frequent here in these months.

“5th. That between the Equator and 10° N., to the East of long. 30°,
the winds assume a new feature. It may be said, almost literally, that in
this part of the ocean they uniformly blow, when they blow at all, during
the months of July, August, and September, from some point between 8.H.
and West. They blow most between South and W.S.W., and very rarely
from any point between North and E.8.H. To the West of this meridian,
during the same months, they blow most between 8.H. and N.H., inclining
more and more to the North as you go West. These are the months in
which the winds vary in this part of the ocean.”

(62.) The following are Captain Toynbee’s remarks which accompany
the Monthly Charts* of the Prevailing Winds in the region of the Atlantic
between lat. 20° N. and 10°S., and long. 10° to 40° W. In the chapter
of this work devoted to Passages, some illustrations will be found, together
with Captain Toynbee’s remarks on the Best Route across the Equator.

January.—Since December, the N.H. Trade has advanced about 2° to
the Southward on the Western side of the district where it now prevails to
the Equator ; but on the Eastern side it holds much the same position as
in December. On the Hastern sideit falls lighter and draws more Northerly
than it does farther to the Westward, while near to the African land it
becomes very light and North-Westerly. It has decidedly increased in force
since December. In Square 40 it is very squally and gusty, much more so
than in the Squares to the Eastward, which is the more remarkable as
Square 40 is open sea, whilst Square 39 contains the Cape Verde Islands.
Perhaps the proximity of Square 40 to the area of high pressure may have
something to do with it, as the gusts often come with a clear sky and with
very little wind between them, as though they were the effect of down-
ward rushes of dry air. Sharp gusts with blue sky, very cool weather,
and the atmosphere very transparent, are often experienced at the Polar
verge of each Trade.

The S.E. Trade only prevails to the Equator on the Western side of the
district ; to 4° N. in its central part; and there is a prevailing Southerly .
-wind up to 8° N. on its extreme Hastern side, but it is very light, and
tthe weather very unsettled. Near the Equator the S.H. Trade has very
decidedly decreased in force since December.

* “Meteorological Data for the nine 10° squares of the Atlantic, which lie between
lat. 20° N. and 10° S., and extend from long. 10° to 40° W.,” published by authority of
the Meteorological Committee, 1876.

THE TRADE WIND. 137

February.—The N.E. Trade has advanced nearly 2° to the Southward
since January; it now extends to about 4° N. on the Hastern side, and to
the Equator on the Western side of the district. It still falls light and
becomes North-Westerly near the African land. Between 10° and 20° N.
it has decidedly decreased in force since January, whilst between
0° and 10° N. its force has increased. It is still very gusty in Square 40°,
and in some cases the gusts are strongest when the sky is clear, and are
called ‘‘ hard clear squalls.”

The §.E. Trade prevails to 2° N. in the central part of the district,
whilst on the Eastern side a light South-Westerly wind prevails between
4° and 6° N., where it is met by the light North-Westerly wind of the
N.E. Trade. The S.H. Trade has decidedly decreased in force since
January. In Square 302 there is frequent mention of squalls or sudden
shifts of wind from §.E. to N.E., as though the upper current of air some-
times forced itself to the surface.

March.—The N.H. Trade holds much the same position in the central
part and on the Hastern side of the district as in February, but it has
advanced to the Southward of the Equator near South America. Its direc-
tion has become more North- Westerly on the Eastern side of the district
than it was in February, where it also continues to be much lighter than on
the Western side. It has decreased in force since February. Square 40 is
still remarkable for having strong gusts of wind, and in some cases it is
recorded that they are stronger with a clear than with a cloudy sky.

The S.E. Trade still prevails to 2° N. in the central and Hastern parts of
the district, and a South-Westerly wind is found to prevail as far as 8° N.
between 15° and 20° W., where it meets the prevailing North-Westerly
wind of the N.H. Trade, both blowing towards the area of lowest pressure.
It seems to have slightly increased in force since February.

April.—The direction of the N.H. Trade is very similar to that for March,
it being still North-Hasterly on the Western side of the district, Northerly
between 20° and 25° W., and drawing into a light North-Westerly wind on
its Eastern side, where it extends 2° more to the Southward than in March.
Between 18° and 20° N. there has been but little change in its force since
March, but to the Southward of that latitude it has decidedly decreased.
Gusts of wind are rarely reported in Square 40, but puffs (a weaker kind
of gust) were still very common, and much more frequent than in
Square 39.

The §.E. Trade only prevails to 4° S. on the Western side of the district,
but it extends to 4° N. on its Eastern side.

The prevailing South-Hasterly wind shown between 8° and 10° N. on
the Hastern side of the district is the result of only one observation, whilst
the North-Westerly winds which surround it number thirty, so that North-
Westerly winds may be supposed to prevail there. The S.H. Trade has
slightly increased in force since March.

May.—The direction of the N.E. Trade is very similar to that of April,
though rather more Hasterly between 20° and 25° W..; its force has in-
creased in the Northern part of the district, but decidedly decreased to
the Southward of 10° N. It has generally receded fully 2° before the S.E.

ICA. .O: 19

138 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

Trade, but on the Eastern side it has given way 4°. The N.E. Trade is
still much more gusty in Square 40 than in 39, and the gusts are some-
times heavy with clear weather. Gusts and puffs are also common in the
Northern part of Square 4.

The S.E. Trade prevails to the Equator on the Western side, and a
Southerly wind to 8° N. on the Eastern side of the district ; besides gain-
ing so much on the N.E., the §.E. Trade has decidedly increased in force
since April.

June.—The direction of the N.E. Trade continues very similar to what
it was in May, drawing into a North-Westerly wind near the coast of
Africa. Its force has decidedly increased between 16° and 20° N., but
decreased to the Southward of 16° N. It has generally receded 2°, and
in some parts of the district 4° to the North. It is still much more gusty
and puffy in Square 40 than in Square 39.

The S.E. Trade prevails to 6° N. except on the extreme Western side
of the district ; on its Eastern side South- Westerly winds prevail to 8° N.,
and even to 10° N. between 15° and 20° W. The 8.H. Trade has very
decidedly increased in strength since May.

July.—The N.E. Trade still draws more Northerly and eventually North-
Westerly as it approaches Africa; its force has very decidedly decreased
since June, and it has receded nearly 4° before the Southerly wind. In
Square 40 it is very much more gusty than in Square 39, so much so that
although Square 39 had nearly four times as many wind observations as
Square 40, the number of gusts and puffs there is not nearly so great.

The §.E. Trade now prevails to 10° N., and there is a prevailing S.S.W.
wind up to 12° N. on the Eastern side of the district; between 12° and 14°N.
on the same side the prevailing wind is West, and to the Northward of
that latitude North-Westerly. Having frequently passed from the North-
ward between the Cape Verde Islands and Africa in July, I can well re-
member the wind going from N.W. to West and 8.W. as we sailed to the
Southward. The July diagram gives a picture of the winds then sailed
through. The S.E. Trade has increased in force since June, especially the
Southerly winds to the North of the Equator.

August.—The N.E. Trade is still lighter, more Northerly, and in some
cases North-Westerly near Africa. Its force has decreased since July,
and it has receded about 2° to the Northward, its Southern limit being
now in about 12° N., its most Northern verge for the year.

The 8.E. Trade prevails to 6° N. on the Western side of the district,
while the prevailing Southerly wind now extends to 14° N. on the Eastern
side. On the Northern side of the Equator its force has very decidedly
increased since July, but it has not changed much in the South. The
S.H. Trade is more Southerly in Square 303 (near South America) as
well as more squally and unsteady than in the Squares to the Eastward.

The diagram shows that between 14° and 8° N., North-Hasterly and
South- Westerly winds prevail in spaces which lie abreast of each other
and in the same latitude, the N.E. being to the Westward of the 8.W.;
such a state of the atmosphere makes it probable that whirls revolving
similarly to West India Hurricanes will be formed, and suggests that this
is their birth place, which has been proved true in some eases. ;

THE TRADE WIND. 139

September.—The N.E. Trade has generally increased in force, but is
blowing in nearly the same part of the district as in August.

The Southerly winds North of the Equator continue to blow over the
same part of the sea as in August; they also continue to draw into South-
Westerly winds as they approach the area of lowest pressure near the
West Coast of Africa; their force has very decidedly decreased since
August. To the Southward of the Equator the 8.H. Trade has decidedly
increased in force since August. The gradient for North-Hasterly winds
seems to be steeper than for South-Easterly of the same force; this appears
to be common in other months also, and probably indicates that the N.E.
Trade gradient gets some of its supply of air from a downward movement,
whilst that part of the S.H. Trade with which we are dealing is probably
more entirely a horizontal motion of air. The dry, transparent, gusty
nature of the Northern part of the N.E. Trade probably points to the
same fact.

October.—The N.E. Trade has advanced several degrees to the South-
ward, especially on the Eastern side of the district, and now prevails to
8° N.; by this change it has extended over that part of the sea where
there is the highest temperature of both air and sea, so that instead of
North- Westerly and South- Westerly winds blowing into the area of highest
temperature, there is a hot N.E. wind blowing from it! The N.E. Trade
has increased in force since September.

The 8.E. Trade prevails to 8° N., and there is no prevailing South-
Westerly wind, it having given way to the N.E. Trade. The S.H. Trade
has very much decreased in force since September, especially in the
Southern part of the district. Hasterly squalls, veering from N.E. to §.E.,
are very common between the Trades in October.

November.—The N.E. Trade has advanced about 2° to the Southward
since October, and now prevails to 6° N.; it still extends over the hottest
area of air and sea, and, as in October, has not that tendency to draw into
a North-Westerly wind near the Coast of Africa which it had in previous
months. In the most Northern part of the district it does become more
Northerly near Africa, but in about 10° N. it becomes more Easterly again,
and draws away from the land. The N.E. Trade has decreased in force
near its Northern limits since October, and increased near its Southern
limits ; in the extreme North of the district the percentages of South-
Easterly and South-Westerly winds have much increased since October,
which seems to show that the Northern limit of the Trade is not very far
North of the district in November.

The 8.E. Trade prevails to 6° N., and, as in October, has fewer South-
Westerly winds at its Northern verge than in previous months. South of
the Equator it has increased in force since October, but scarcely changed
to the Northward of it.

December.—The N.E. Trade has advanced 2° to the Southward since
November, and now prevails to 4° N. Near the African land the wind
again becomes light, and more Northerly, changing even to N orth- Westerly
between 6° and 10° N., but the prevailing wind still blows North-Easterly,
from the hottest air and sea. The most remarkable feature in the direction
of the N.E. Trade in December is its prevalence at East between 10° and

140 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

20° N. and 25° to 30° W. ; between 18° and 20°, 40 per cent. of the wind
observations are from East, or some point to the Southward of Hast. It
seems most probable that this remarkable difference in the direction of the
wind is caused by the Cape Verde Islands, though it is difficult to say why
they should not have a similar effect in some other month. The N.H. Trade
has decidedly increased in force since November. Considering the number
of wind observations in each Square, the percentage of gusty and puffy
winds is much greater in Square 40 than in Square 39. Between
16° and 17° N. and 34° and 35° W. there were heavy squalls without either
clouds or rain. Fine weather winds, and squally winds having a force 7
or upwards, are more common in Square 40 than in 39.

The S.E. Trade prevails to 4° N. It has very decidedly decreased in
force since November.

Conclusion.—The N.E. Trade sometimes seems to draw round the Coast
of Africa in the same way that water does round a rock, whilst the current
arrows show that the sea has a similar motion. The Trade gets weakest
in that part of the sea where the difference of temperature of both air and
sea is greatest, which is contrary to the theory of some meteorologists.
Sometimes it seems to blow from hot towards cooler air, as shown in the
diagrams of October and November. The remarkable clear-weather gusts
experienced in Square 40 have been remarked upon in the course of the
Paper as probably downward rushes of air.

The ‘‘Remarks on Wind” show that both the N.E. and S.E. Trades
are often more Easterly in direction and weaker in force during the night
than during the day.

Attention has been called to the fact that in December, the commence-
ment of the Harmattan season, the N.E. Trade is diverted into an Hast
wind on the Western side of the Cape Verde Islands, whilst to the Hast-
ward of them it blows from N.N.E. It has also been shown that during
the Southern winter the wind and weather near Cape St. Roque are much
more unsettled than they are in parts of the sea in the same latitude, but
farther East; also that the wind becomes very Southerly near the South
American Coast, whilst in the Southern summer it is very Northerly.

N. B.—It should be clearly understood that whilst the diagrams only
show the wind from that point of the compass which has the largest number
of observations, a great variety of other winds blow in those parts where
the two Trades meet, especially in the atmospherical eddy which curves
round the South-Western part of North Africa; into it the Northern verge
of the S.E. Trade is drawn as a light South- Westerly wind, where it meets
the Southern verge of the N.E. Trade drawn into a N.W. wind, and the
result of their meeting is the greatest confusion of light airs, calms, squalls,
rain, thunder, and lightning of the most awful kind, together with water-
spouts, &c., &c.

To the foregoing general remarks the following, respecting particular
localities within the scope of the N.E. Trade Wind, are added. Further
application of them will occur in the Section on Passages, and other remarks
will be found in Section TIT.

THE WEST INDIES. 141

(63.)—Winds of the Atlantic Islands—The winds upon and near the
different islands in the Atlantic Ocean are very variable and uncertain,
especially where the land is high and irregular. In general, regular sea
and land-breezes alternately prevail; the Sea-breeze by day and the Land-
breeze by night, as the land is alternately heated and cooled: but the
direction of these breezes is varied by the quality and figure of the land,
and other local circumstances. If the land be very high, it generally
intercepts the prevailing wind, and so affects the air as to produce, on the
lee-side, either a calm, a gentle breeze in an opposite direction, or a kind
of eddy, which is sometimes very troublesome to sailing ships. Such is
the case under the Western part of Madeira, and to leeward of the Canary
Islands. The Grand Canary is so high as to stop the current of the N.E.
wind which prevails there ; and on the Eastern side there is a calm, or a
gentle breeze from 8.W.

The calms and eddy winds, occasioned by the figure and height of the
Canaries, extend from 30 to 90 miles beyond them to the S.W., according
to the height of the respective islands. The boundary of the calms may
be seen, for, within them, the water is smooth; without them is the
regular undulation of the sea, caused by the general wind; and at the end
of them, the winds, by setting in opposite directions, produce a breaking
of the waves with a foam, like the billows on a rocky shoal just beneath
the surface of the ocean.

From a consideration of the particulars now described, the cause of those
copious dews which fall in the night on the islands, &c., situated within
the Tropics, will be apparent. For as the great power of the sun by day
causes an extraordinary evaporation of the water of the ocean, so, in the
night, the exhalation, ceasing to retain the same degree of levity acquired
from the heat of the sun, becomes, by the absence of the power which
produced it, so dense and heavy as again to fall back to the earth. The
air at the same time cooling, by the same cause, is also affected by the
descending moisture, and thus acquires an additional tendency to increase
the land-breeze.

(64.) West Indies.—The following description of the winds prevailing
over these regions in general, in the different seasons, is taken chiefly from
Captain Livingston’s translation of the ‘‘ Derrotero de las Antillas,” or
Spanish Directory for the West Indies.

On the Eastern coasts of Central America, and among its islands, the
course of the general Easterly or Trade Wind is uninterrupted, though
subject to some modifications in direction and force. At a short distance
from the land the sea-breeze calms at night, and is replaced by the land-
breeze. This variation happens every day, unless a strong wind prevails
from the Northward or Southward ; the first of these being experienced
from October to May, and the second in July, August, and September.

The general Easterly wind, of the Tropical regions, is felt on the coast
of Guayana, and on the coasts of the Caribbean and Mexican Seas, but
with variations which may be denominated diurnal and annual. The
diurnal period is that caused by the sea-breeze, which strikes the coast
usually at an angle of two points, less or more, from a right angle, accord-
ing to the locality and other circumstances; and then the land-wind,

142 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

which, coming from the interior, always blows off shore. The sea-breeze
comes on at about 9 or 10 in the forenoon, and continues while the sun is
above the horizon, increasing its force as that luminary augments its
altitude, and diminishing in a similar proportion as the sun’s altitude
decreases. Thus, when the sun is on the meridian, the sea-breeze is at
the maximum of its strength; and at the time that the sun reaches the
horizon this breeze has perceptibly ceased. The land-breeze commences
before midnight, and continues until the rising of the sun, sometimes
longer. A space of some hours intervenes between the land-breeze ceasing
and the sea-breeze coming on, during which there is a perfect calm.

The annual period of the Trade Wind here is produced by the proximity
or distance of the sun, which occasions the only two seasons known in the
Tropics, the rainy and dry seasons. The first lasts from June to November,
when the sun is inthe Tropic of Cancer, and heavy rains with loud thunder
are prevalent. In this season the wind is generally to the Southward of
East, but interrupted by frequent calms, yet it occasionally blows with
force, and the atmosphere is thick and cloudy.

When the sun removes to the Tropic of Capricorn, the dry season com-
mences, and then the Trade Wind, which is steady at N.E., is cool and
agreeable. At this season, North and N.W. winds are sometimes found
blowing with much force; and, indeed, in some degree, they regularly
alternate with the general wiud, as they are more frequent in November
and December than in February and March.

In the change of the seasons there is a remarkable difference; for in
April and May no change is experienced in the atmosphere, and the weather
is, in general, beautifully fine; but in August, September, and October,
there are usually calms, or very light winds; and dreadful Hurricanes in
these months sometimes render the navigation perilous. From these perils,
however, are generally exempted the Island of Trinidad, the Coasts of
Venezuela (the old Tierra Firma), the Bays of Darien and Honduras, and
the Bight of Vera Cruz, which the Hurricanes seldom reach. In the space
of sea between the greater Antillas (Cuba, Jamaica, Hayti, and Porto Rico),
and the South American coast, the general N.E. or Trade Wind regularly
prevails; but near the shore local peculiarities are found.

(65.) Jamaica.—At Jamaica the air is, in most places, hot and unfayour-
able to European constitutions; but the cool sea-breezes, which set in every
morning, render the air more tolerable; and that upon the high grounds
is temperate, pure, and cooling. It lightens almost every night, but with-
out much thunder; nevertheless, when the latter happens, it is very
terrible, and roars tremendously.

On the Northern side of the island the sea-breeze from the South-East-
ward comes on in the morning, and gradually increases until noon, when
it is strongest; at two or three in the afternoon its force diminishes; and,
in general, it entirely ceases by five o’clock. About eight in the evening
the land-breeze begins; this breeze extends to the distance of 12 miles to
the Southward from the island. It increases until midnight, and ceases
at about four in the morning.

The sea and land-breezes are more regular than otherwise from the latter
part of January until May. In the middle of May the sea-breeze generally

THE WEST INDIES. 143

prevails for several days and nights, especially about the time of full and
change of the moon ; and thus they continue throughout June and part of
July ; from that time the sea-breeze diminishes, varies, and veers round
to S. by W., or 8.S8.W., with frequent calms. August, September, and
October, are the Hurricane months, in which there are generally strong
gales of wind, with much rain.

In December, January, and February, when the North winds pre-
dominate, their force checks the sea-breeze. The Southern coast is that
which, of course, is least exposed to these winds, being sheltered, in a
great measure, by the mountains. When combined with the land-breeze,
they render the air very cold and unhealthy.

During the months of July and August, the sea-breeze about the island
generally blows impetuously, and in frequent squalls. At this season,
vessels bound hence to Kurope would have the most advantageous passage
through the Strait and Stream of Florida ; but in October Northerly winds
frequently extend over all the Bahamas, Cuba, and for some time on the
North side of Jamaica; but the current of air is forced upward by the
mountains of the latter, and its strength is spent in the heights. In seasons
when it is more impetuous, it rushes through the windings and defiles of
the mountains upon the Northern Coast, particularly in the neighbourhood
of Kingston, and has sometimes been known to continue for several days
in succession.

During the winter the land-breeze is more general off the shores than in
summer; it sometimes continues throughout the day as well as night; and
Westerly winds prevail over all the space between Jamaica and Cuba, and
even to the Island of Hayti or St. Domingo. They have been experienced
from Port Royal, through the Windward Channel; but this is not generally
the case.

In November, Southerly winds prevail on the South side of the island,
and have been known to extend to the Mosquito Shore, whence vessels have
arrived in five or six days, that might, at other times, have been as many
weeks, when beating against the sea-breeze. The Southerly winds are
generally faint ; nor do they come upon the land until it be heated by the
sun, and are often expelled by a fresh land-breeze soon after mid-day,
which abates in a few hours.

The return of the sea-breeze, falling sooner or later in autumn, is gradual,
first approaching at the East end, then advancing a little; and in some
years it reaches Morant Point fourteen or twenty days before it is felt
above Kingston. It also blows for a week or two later on the East end of
the island than at Kingston; and has been known, in some years, to pre-
vail there in the day time during the whole time it was unfelt at the
former place.

(66.) At the Cayman Islands, summer winds range from E.N.E. to S.S.E.
Rainy weather sets in about the middle of May and continues till August.
Heavy squalls are prevalent from East and E.N.E., in June, coming on
suddenly at or before midnight. From November to April, the direction
of the wind is from N.K. to North, seldom varying for more than 48 hours.
There is at that time very little smooth water, and landing is difficult.
When the land winds are strong on the coast of Cuba, the swell rolls

144 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

across and breaks heavily on the Northern shores of these islands, - _—
Lieutenant Carpenter, R.N., 1880.

(67.) The Bahama Islands are all within the influence of the Trade
Winds. Their lowness, of course, exempts them from the regular land
wind; but in the summer season a light breeze frequently comes from the
Florida shore in the night, and reaches the Western side of the Little
Bahama Bank, but no farther. At this period the wind generally prevails
to the Southward of East, and the more so as their N.W. extreme is
approached; the weather is then very variable, and squalls rush down
with great violence, accompanied with heavy rains and an oppressive
atmosphere. They are within the zone of Hurricanes, and a year seldom
passes without their being visited by a heavy gale at least, from the $.E.,
which inflicts serious damage both on shore and at sea.

In the winter months, from about November till the middle of March,
the Trade Wind is frequently interrupted by N.W. and North winds. In
December and January this may be expected almost weekly. Previously
to this change the wind will draw round to the South and 8.W. In about
twenty-four hours, or less, dark masses of clouds will be seen rising from
the Westward, and in a short time the wind will rush down suddenly from
that quarter with the force of a double or treble-reefed top-sail breeze. It
will soon veer round to the N.W. and North, with clear weather, and re-
main between these points two or three days. It will then haul gradually
to the N.E., perhaps with increased force, accompanied by heavy squalls,
and wear itself out at East in the course of a few days. The barometer is
scarcely any guide.

(68.) Among the local winds of the West Indies are the Bayamos, violent
gusts which blow from the land on the South side of Cuba, and are so
termed from being felt more severely off the Bight of Bayamo or Buena
Esperanza, than off any other part of the coast.

When heavy and dense clouds gather over the mountains, a Bayamo
blast may be expected; after this, the surest prognostic is the thunder,
which invariably precedes the gust ; it is therefore advisable to take in all
sail with the greatest expedition, so soon as the first or more distant clap
of thunder is heard, the wind following it almost immediately. Fortu-
nately, however, these dreadful squalls are of short duration ; but, as a
repetition of them frequently occurs at intervals of half an hour or an hour,
great attention is necessary, especially during the night, to prevent the
ship being unprepared ; as it is almost certain that, if she were overtaken
by one of these squalls, whilst under sail, she would either upset or lose
her masts.

These sudden tempests are attended with sheet and forked lightning,
vivid in the extreme; and the flashes following each other in quick succes-
sion, have the momentary effect of illuminating every object, and leave
behind them a sort of blue indescribable appearance; the sea is whitened
with foam, and the rain falls in torrents, surpassing any, perhaps, witnessed
in other regions; for it appears as if the clouds had opened their store of
waters to deluge the earth ; in fact, we cannot better describe the extreme
heaviness of the shower, than by giving the sailor’s observation on it,
namely, that it ‘‘comes down by buckets full.” The Bayamo Squall, how-

THE COASTS OF GUAYANA, VENEZUELA, ETC. 145

ever, a\“hough the most awful of any in the Caribbean Sea, and creating
much anxiety to those exposed to its fury, is grand and sublime.*—
Lieutenant Evans, ‘ Revision of Geographic Terms,” page 107.

(69.) On the Coast of Guwayana, the cool season is from November to
May, when the N.H. wind reaches the shore ; the hot season is from June
to November, when S.E. and variable winds and calms prevail. Land
winds from 8.W. to N.W. blow at intervals close to the shore.

On the Coast of Guayana (the Derrotero again continues) there are no
land-breezes, nor more wind than is generally experienced between the
Tropics. In January, February, and March, the winds here blow from
North to H.N.E., and the weather is clear. In April, May, and June, the
winds are from Hast to S.H. In July, August, and September, there are
calms, with Tornados from South and 8.W.; and in October, November,
and December, there are continued rains, while the sky is, in general,
obscured by clouds. In the dry season, which is from J anuary to June,
the heat is very great ; and in the wet season, from August to November,
rains and thunder are constant and violent.

On the Coasts of the Venezuelan provinces of Cumana and Caraccas, as
far West as Cape la Vela, the Trade breeze follows by day the regular
course, H.S.E. to H.N.E., but at night inclines from the land. From
that cape to Cape San Blas, along the Coast of New Granada, the general
wind alters its direction, for it blows from N.K. or N.N.E., except in the
months of March, April, May, and June, when it comes to E.N.E., and is
then so uncommonly strong as to render it necessary for vessels to lie-to.
These gales, which are well known to mariners, extend from about mid-
channel of the Caribbean Sea to within 5 or 10 miles of the coast, where
they become weak, especially at night. The Trade Wind blows from the
N.E. into the Gulf of Darien with great strength from November to March,
or later.

In July, August, and September, vessels proceeding to windward will
frequently be assisted by a Westerly wind near the coast. As far as the
Gulf of Nicaragua, these Westerly winds occur from July to November or
December, and are known to the pilots of that country as Vendavales
(rainy winds), but these winds never pass the parallel of 13° N., nor do
they blow constantly, but alternate with the sea-breeze.

Upon the Mosquito Shore, Honduras, and Eastern Coast of Yucatan, the
general Trade Winds or breezes prevail from January to June ; but, during
the first two or three of these months, they are occasionally interrupted by
Norths. In June, July, August, and September, the wind generally comes
from the 8.E.- with occasional very heavy squalls from the 8.W., tornados,

* The winds on the South Coast of Cuba, when the Trade is not blowing steadily, have
a remarkable rotary motion following the course of the sun, according to Dové’s Law of
Gyration (19). Thus, in the evening, the wind comes off the land about North; by
daylight it will be N.E.; at 8 a.m., E.N.E.; at noon, H.S.E.; at 2 p.m., South; at
4 p.m., S.W., in which quarter it generally dies away into a calm until the land-wind
comes off again. By a knowledge of this a vessel may creep fast to windward during
the calm months of May, June, and August, and frequently at other seasons. The Trade
is found to be unsteady, especially in the night.

ING AiO) 20

146 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

and calms. In September, October, November, December, and January,
the prevailing winds are from the S.W. and N.W. quarters, with frequent
heavy gales from W.S.W. to W.N.W. and North.

On the North Coast of Yucatan, between Cape Catoche and Campeche,
the N.E. Trade Wind prevails, with North winds during their season.
From June to September the weather is squally.

On the Coast of the Mexican Sea, from Vera Cruz to Tampico, the breeze
from E.S.E. and East prevails in April, May, June, and July ; and at night
the land-breeze comes off from South to S.W.; but if the land-breeze is
from the N.W., with rain, the wind, on the day following, will be from
North, N.N.E., or N.E., particularly in August and September; these
winds are denominated, in the country, Vientos de Cabeza or Vendavales
(head or down-coast winds) ; they are not strong, nor do they raise the
sea; with them, therefore, a vessel may take an anchorage as well as with
the general breeze; but they impede getting out, for which the land-breeze
is required. These Vientos de Cabeza, or head winds, reach 60 to 90 miles
from the coast, at which distance those at Kast and H.8.H. are found.

(70.) From the middle of September until the month of March, caution
ig necessary in making Vera Cruz, for the Norths are then very heavy.
The narrowness of this harbour, the obstruction formed by the shoals at
its entrance, and the slender shelter it affords from the Norths, render an
attempt to make it, during one of them, extremely dangerous, for it will
be impossible to take the anchorage. The following description of the winds
here was written by Don Bernardo de Orta, a captain in the Spanish Navy,
who was captain of the port, and surveyed it.

Although in the Mexican Sea it cannot be said that there is any other
constant wind than the general Trade breeze of this region, yet, from Sep-
tember to March, the North winds interrupt the general course, and in some
degree divide the year into two seasons, wet and dry, or of the Breezes and
Norths ; the first, in which the breezes are settled, is from March to Sep-
tember ; and the second, in which the Norths blow, is from September to
March. For greater clearness we shall explain each separately.

(71.) The Norths.—The first of the Norths is regularly felt in the month
of September ; but in this month and the following one, October, the Norths
do not blow with much force. Sometimes it happens that they do not
appear: but, in that case, the breeze is interrupted by heavy rains and
Tornados. In November the Norths are established, blow with much
strength, and continue a length of time, during December, January, and
February. In these months, after they begin, they increase fast; and in
four hours, or a little more, attain their utmost strength, with which they
continue blowing for forty-eight hours ; but afterward, though they do not
cease for some days, they are moderate. In these months the Norths are
obscure and North-Westerly, and they come on so frequently that there is,
in general, not more than four or six days between them. In March and
April they are neither so frequent, nor last so long, and are clearer, but yet
they are more fierce for the first twenty-four hours, and have less North-
Westing. In the interval before November, in which, as we have said, the
Norths are established, the weather is beautiful, and the general breeze
blows with great regularity by day; the land-breeze as regularly by night.

VERA CRUZ—THE NORTHS. 147

There are various signs by which the coming on of a North may be fore-
seen: such are, the wind steady at South; the moisture of the walls, and
of the pavements of the houses and streets; seeing clearly the Peak of
Orizaba, and the mountains of Perote and Villa Rica, with the cloud on
those of St. Martin having folds like a white sheet; the increase of heat
and of dew; and a thick fog, or low scud, flying with velocity to the South-
ward. But the most certain of all is the Barometer ; for this instrument,
in the time of the Norths at Vera Cruz, does not vary more, between its
highest and lowest range, than ‘80, that is to say, it does not rise higher
than 30°6 inches, nor fall lower than 29°8 inches. The descent of the
mercury predicts the Norths; but they do not begin to blow the moment
it sinks, which it always does a short time before the North comes on. At
these times lightning appears on the horizon, especially from N.W. to N.E.;
the sea sparkles; cobwebs are seen on the rigging, if by day. With such
warnings, trust not to the weather, for a North will infallibly come on,

This wind generally moderates at the setting of the sun; that is, it does
not retain the same strength which it had from nine in the morning to
three in the afternoon, unless it commences in the evening or at night, for
then it may increase. Sometimes it happens that after dark, or a little
before midnight, it is found to be the land-wind, from the Northward and
Westward; in which case, should it get round to the Southward of West,
the North will be at an end, and the general breeze will, to a certainty,
come on at its regular hour; but, if that does not happen at the rising of
the sun, or afterward, and at the turn of the tide, it will return to blow
from the North, with the same violence as on the day before, and then it
is called a Norte de Marea, or Tide North.

The Norths, also, sometimes conclude by taking to the Northward and
Eastward, which is more certain; for if the wind in the evening gets to
N.E., although the sky remain covered the day following, but by night the
land-breeze has been from the Northward and Westward, the regular
breeze will surely ensue in the evening, good weather succeeding and con-
tinuing for four or six days; the latter period being the longest that it will
last to, in the season of the Norths; but ifthe wind retrograde from N.E.
to N.N.E. or North, the weather will be still unsettled.

Examples are not wanting of Norths happening in May, June, July, and
August, at which times they are most furious, and are called Nortes del
Hueso Colorado ; the more moderate are called Chocolateros, but these are
rather uncommon.*

* From the late Lieutenant John Evans, R.N. (a gentleman to whom we were in-
debted for many valuable communications), we received the following description of a
North in the Mexican Sea, which occurred in March, 1828:—

““We had observed, during our run over the Catoche Bank, a very extraordinary white
hazy-like appearance, very distinct from the common fog, haze, or mist. This was seen
principally in the Northern quarter, and attracted much notice; the air, at the same
time, ‘ breathing gently at South,’ and the sympiesometer falling unusually low, gave
us strong indications of an approaching North. On the 15th there appeared on the sky
only a few small cwmuli and dark strati; in the morning the air was very light from the
South, and was so warm, or rather hot and oppressive, that, like the sirocco it affected
the breathing of some of us. At 10 a.m. it changed to the N.E., with fine weather, the

148 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

(72.) Commander G. A. Converse, U.S.S. Enterprise, states that what
is designated in Aspinwall (Colon) as a “ Norther” is not necessarily a
gale of wind. In fact, the wind frequently does not blow home, and is at
such times quite light ; but a very heavy ground swell heaves into the bay.
When the wind does blow home, as happened during the Norther of
December 19—21, 1890, no vessel can remain at anchor with safety.

There is no way of predicting these dangerous Northers. The barometer
gives no indication; the ‘fitful showers of rain in large drops’”’ may or
may not be an indication. The gradually increasing swell supposed to be
a forerunner of a Norther frequently proves to mean nothing. The Norther
of December 19—21, 1890, was preceded, on the 18th, by a heavy swell
and threatening weather, but towards evening the swell decreased, the
weather cleared, and it looked like a fine night. Later in the night the
swell commenced to heave in with greater force, so that steamers were com-
pelled to leave their wharves. After daylight on the 19th, the full force
of the Norther began to be felt, and in a very short time it became so
rough that all steamers put to sea. The Pacific Mail steamer Newport cut
her lines and steamed across the bay to the anchorage under the lee of
Toro Point, but was soon compelled to abandon this anchorage and put to
sea. One steamer, lying in the harbour, with two anchors down, dragged
nearly 1 mile before she could get sufficient steam to be able to slip and
go to sea.

During the season of Northers, steamers visiting this port keep steam
up constantly, and are ready to move at a moment’s notice. However
long the weather may have been threatening, when the Norther does break
it comes suddenly and leaves no time for preparations. If compelled to get
under-way, the surest way is to slip the cable and steam out to sea. It
would be almost impossible to get up anchor without damage to the ship
at such times, and there is always a risk of hooking the old anchors and
chains with which the bottom of the harbour is strewed.

In standing off and on the Port of Aspinwall, the Enterprise, having on
three previous occasions encountered the Easterly current which habitually
sets along the coast, made allowance for it on the 19th, the first day of
the Norther, with the ship kept under steerage way only, heading N.N.W.
By an observation between rain-squalls, on the morning of the 20th, it was
found that the Norther had practically neutralized the current ; the absence
of driftwood, seaweed, and floating logs had been remarked. On the night
of the 20th, the Norther had somewhat abated, and the ship was headed
N.N.W., as on the preceding night. On the morning of the 21st, a certain
amount of drift was observed, and, when an observation was obtained, it

wind gradually freshening. At sunset the cwmuli changed into dark nimbus, of a deep
purple, edged with a bronze colour; from these clouds proceeded squalls with rain, the
wind veering from N.E. to N.N.W., after which it cleared up, the clouds all dispersed,
and at 8 p.m. a fresh North came on, with a rapidly-rising sea (which a short time before
had been perfectly calm and smooth). The sympiesometer fell to 29:80, which was.
lower than it had ever done before. It blew a gale all night, with a heavy sea; no
clouds; the stars bright and large. The same white hazy-like appearance took place
before the North set in. Early in the morning of the 16th the wind died away suddenly,
almost to a calm; and at 8 a.m. became a moderate breeze.”

GULF OF MEXICO—VERA CRUZ. 149

was found that the ship had been set to the N.E. some 16 miles in
9 hours.

While it is usually thick with frequent rain-squalls during these Northers,
there are times when it lifts and the high land at the back of Point Man-
zanilla can always be recognized if within 30 miles of it. If it is clear, it
can be distinguished much farther off (from 40 to 60 miles).— United States
Notice to Mariners, No. 9 of 1891.

Northers are winds proceeding from an Anti-Cyclone over Northern
Mexico and Texas, when there is a storm or region of low pressure moving
up the Atlantic coast of the United States. The name Norther is applied
to the heavy sea, even though the wind itself may not reach as far South
as Colon. On December 18th, 1890, at Colon a heavy swell set in, with
threatening weather, moderating towards the evening, but increasing at
night to such an extent that all the steamers had to put to sea. In this
case, observations prove that an Anti-Cyclone was moving slowly East-
ward over Texas, the North-Westerly winds in its front swept down
through Yucatan Channel, and, combining with the North-Easterly winds
prevailing over the Caribbean Sea, sent very heavy seas from the North-
ward into Colon.*

(73.) The Wet Season, or Season of the Breezes, at Vera Cruz, is from
March to September ; the breezes at the end of March, and through the
whole month of April, as already explained, are, from time to time, inter-
rupted by Norths, and are from H.S.E., very fresh; the sky sometimes
elear, at other times obscure. At times these come from S.E., and con-
tinue all night, without giving place to the land-breeze, which prevails in
general every night, excepting when the North wind is on. The land-
breeze is freshest when the rains have begun.

After the sun passes the zenith of Vera Cruz, and until he returns to it,
that is, from the 16th of May to the 27th of July, the breezes are of the
lightest description, almost calms, with much mist or haze, and slight
tornados. After that time the pleasant breezes from N.W. to N.E. some-
times remain fixed.

From the 27th of July to the middle of October, when the Norths become
established, the Tornados are fierce, with heavy rains, thunder and light-
ning; those which bring the heaviest wind are from the East, but they are
also those of the shortest duration. Calms also occur.

In the season of the breezes the total variation of the barometer is 0-4;
the greatest ascent of the mercury is to 30°36 inches, and its greatest descent
to 29:96 inches. The thermometer in July rises to 87°, and does not fall
to 824°. In December it rises to 803°, but never falls below 664°. This,
it must be understood, was ascertained in the shade, the instrument being
placed in one of the coolest and best ventilated halls in the castle.

In the months of August and September, rarely a year passes without
Hurricanes near Florida and the Northern Antillas ; but to Vera Cruz, or
any part of the coast thence to Campeché, they seldom or never arrive; all
that is felt being the heavy sea, which has arisen in the higher latitudes.
Hurricanes begin to the Kastward and Northward ; and, although they do

* United States North Atlantic Pilot Chart, March, 1891.

150 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

not always go round the same way, yet, in general, they’next go to the
Southward and Eastward, with thick squally weather and rain.

From Tampico to the Bay of San Bernardo, breezes from the South-
Eastward are steady and pleasant from April to August; but, in the
remaining months, this coast is much exposed to gales from the Hast and
E.S.E., which blow without intermission for two or three days, before a
North comes on. As far North as about latitude 264°, there are land-
breezes in the summer, which blow from midnight until 9 a.m.

(74.) Gulf of Mexico, North Coast.—On the Lowisiana Coast, from San
Bernardo Bay tothe Mississippi, in winter, the South winds are very tem-
pestuous and squally, the most dangerous months, however, being August,
September, October, and November, the season of Hurricanes. Between
the Mississippi and lat. 28° N., on the Florida Coast, from April to July,
the Trade Wind prevails from N.E. and §S.E. in the morning, changing in
the evening to S.W. These S.W. winds, known as Virazones, are very
squally in August, September, and October, during which months South
winds blow hard. North winds blow from November to March.

On the West Coast of Florida the Trade Wind blows till noon in summer,
when the sea-breeze sets in. In winter, November to March, the wind
blows from S.W., and raises a heavy sea.

In Florida Strait, and over the Bahama Islands, the Trade Wind blows
from one or two points Northward of East in winter, and to Southward
of it in summer. Northers occur in the former season. From June to
October, at the Bahama Islands, light Southerly winds and calms, with
terrific squalls, are experienced.

A series of observations on the Winds and Tides were made by the
officers of the United States Coast Survey, between June, 1847, and July,
1852. The force and direction of the wind were noted at three stations—
at Galveston, in Texas, lat. 29° 18’ N., long. 94° 46’ W.; at Fort Morgan,
Mobile Bay, about the middle of the North coast, in lat. 30° 13’ N., long.
81° 0' W.; and at Kay West, one of the Florida Kays, in lat. 24° 38’ N.,
long. 84° 48’ W. These observations, however, have the same imperfection
as that noticed in the note (*) on page 133—that the winds are not recorded
equally for all points of the compass. However, the following general re-
marks are useful and interesting as derived from these observations, and
are arranged in the form of diagrams, which need not be repeated here.

(a). Winds from some Northern quarter prevail from September until
February, both inclusive, and Southerly winds from March to August,
inclusive. Winds from the Eastward prevail throughout the year, except
at Fort Morgan, in May, June, July, and August, when the sea-breeze is
from the S.W. In the whole year the winds from the same quarter, North
and South, balance each other nearly, while the Easterly wind greatly
predominates over the Westerly.

(6). The months may be arranged, according to the prevailing winds,
into the following classes:—The Winter, consisting of December and
January; the Spring, of March and April; the Summer, of May, June,
and July; of preparation for change, August; the Autumn, of September
October, and November.

The Winter and Summer types are extremely distinct. At Kay West

GULF OF MEXICO. 15f.

in December and January, N.E. and North are the prevailing winds; at
Fort Morgan, North, E.S8.E., and East; at Galveston, North and N.W.;
then E.N.E. and §.E. The general course of the N.E. Trade Wind is
supposed to be disturbed by local action at Fort Morgan and Galveston,
the local position of greatest warmth being the Gulf.

The Summer type, May, June, and July, gives 8.H. as the prevailing
wind at Kay West; winds from the 8.H., South, and 8.W. (sea-breeze),
at Fort Morgan ; and from South, 8.E., and East, at Galveston, blowing
towards the land.

August resembles July, with the appearance of winds which prevail in
the autumn.

In September, October, and November, at Kay West, winds from E.N.E.
prevail; at Fort Morgan, North, N.E., and East; and at Galveston,
North, N.E., East, and N.W.

In March and April, the spring period, 8.E., §.S.E., and East winds
prevail at Kay West; North, 8.8.E., and E.S.E., at Fort Morgan; and
North, §.E., and South, at Galveston.

February resembles January, with a preparation for the spring period ;
and, like August, it is characterized at Fort Morgan and Galveston by a
general diminution in the quantity of wind.

January presents the full winter type of the winds on the Gulf; and
June-and July the full summer type. The changes are quite gradual, and
tolerably regular, from one extreme to the other.

(c). The following deductions are made from these observations in regard
to the least and greatest quantities of wind in the principal directions in
different portions of the yeavr.

The North wind is at a minimum at the three places in July, and at a
maximum in January; it is a very remarkable feature at all three places
in January. The N.W. wind almost dies out at all three from May to
September, first gaining strength at Galveston, in October, and reaching
its maximum in all the places in December. Its quantity at Kay West
and Fort Morgan is small when at the maximum.

The Northers and North-Westers both appear in force in April, at Gal-
veston. There is very little West wind at either place, but more at-Fort
Morgan than either of the others, and chiefly during June and July.

South-West wind is of rare occurrence, except at Fort Morgan, where it
constitutes the sea-breeze of summer, and reaches its maximum in June
and July, suddenly diminishing in September.

There is but little South wind at Kay West; at Fort Morgan it increases
in amount in the spring, and is the greatest in June. It is decidedly a
marked feature as one of the prevailing spring winds at Galveston, reaching
its maximum in May, and becoming quite small in August, re-appearing in
the winter, and rapidly increasing in March.

The N.H. wind is at a minimum at the three places in July and August;
is largest in quantity in September, October, November, and December,
at Kay West; in September and October, at Fort Morgan; and in Sep-
tember, December, and January, at Galveston. The sudden increase of
this wind in September, after its small quantity in August, is remarkable
at all three places.

152 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

The winds intermediate between N.E. and §.K. occur during the changes
from N.E. to §.E., and it would be of little value to refer to the greatest
and least quantities.

The S.E. wind is at a minimum in December and January at Kay West;
in January and February at Fort Morgan ; in December and January at
Galveston. It is at a maximum at Kay Westin July; but, being replaced
during the summer to a great extent by the sea-breeze (S.W.) at Fort
Morgan, makes its minimum in November, and at Galveston in May,
doubtless from the disturbing effect of the land; it is again large in July.
This is the sea-breeze of Kay West, and, as well as the South wind, that
of Galveston.

(d). The movement of the prevailing wind at Kay West, where the dis-
turbing causes of the land are the least, is very instructive.

The prevailing wind in April, May, June, and July, is the 8.H., hauling
to the Eastward in August, and becoming E.S.E. In September and October
it passes farther North toH.N.E., and in November and December becomes
N.E.; in January it reaches North; returning Southward, in February it
is N.N.E., in March East, and reaches the §.H. in April. The local action
is thus seen to prevail for the greater part of the year over the general. For
the whole year the 8.E. wind exceeds any other from an Easterly point.

The Easterly wind at Fort Morgan reaches no farther South than E.S.E.
in the spring and summer. In September, the prevailing wind is N.E.,
passing to H.N.E. in October, and back to E.S.H. in the winter and spring.
The general tendency for the year is then E.S.H.

The changes at Galveston resemble those at Kay West, the general
absence of E.N.E. and E.S.E. winds being due to defects in the observa-
tions.

In the Strait of Florida the Trade breezes are the prevailing winds, but
they are interrupted by Norths in the winter, and by Calms in the summer,
Although the Northern limit of this channel is within the boundary of the
Trade Wind, it is necessary to remember that in winter, or from November
till April, the variable winds from the Southward and Hastward, and
Southward and Westward, are met with in lat. 27°, and even before; and
in summer, from May until September, the winds in the whole channel are
variable from the Southward and Eastward, and Southward and Westward.

5.—EQUATORIAL CALMS AND WINDS.

(75.) The N.E. and 8.E. Trades, blowing towards each other, meet and
are neutralized near the Equator (6). This neutral line of Calms and
Varying Winds is sometimes known by the name of the ‘‘ Doldrums,” an
uncouth term, which, we think, has had unmerited authority given to it.
It is, perhaps, a corruption of the Spanish doloroso, or old Portuguese
dolorio, ‘‘ tormenting.”

Commander Maury says, ‘‘This region of Doldrums has a mean average
breadth (around the globe) of about 6 degrees of latitude. In this region,

EQUATORIAL CALMS AND WINDS. 153

the air which is brought to the Equator by the N.E. and S.E. Trades
ascends. ‘his Belt of Calms always separates these two Trade Wind
zones, and travels up and down with them. If we liken this Belt of
Equatorial Calms to an immense atmospherical trough, extending as it
does entirely around the earth; and if we liken the N.E. and S.E. Trade
Winds to two streams discharging themselves into it, we shall see that we
have two currents perpetually running in at the bottom, and that, there-
fore, we must have as much air as the two currents bring in at the bottom
to flow out of the top. What flows out of the top is carried back North
and South by the upper currents (8), which are thus proved to exist and
to flow counter to the Trade Winds.”

This Belt of Calms follows the sun in his annual course, though the
limits do not range so much in latitude as the sun does in declination ;
and, generally, they pass from one extreme of latitude to another in about
three months. The whole system of Wind and Calm Belts moves North-
ward from the latter part of May till some time in August; it then remains
almost stationary till the approach of winter, when it commences to go
Southward, and proceeds in that direction from December to February or
March.

“The great ‘sun swing’ of this Calm Belt,” says Captain Maury, “ ig
annual in its occurrence; it marks the seasons, and divides the year into
wet and dry for all those places that are within the are of its majestic sweep.
But there are other subordinate and minor influences which are continually
taking place in the atmosphere, and which are also calculated to alter the
place of this Calm Belt, and to produce changes in the thermal status of
the air which the Trade Winds move. These are unusually severe winters
or hot summers; remarkable spells of weather, such as long continuous
rains or droughts, over areas of considerable extent. Either within or near
the Trade Wind belts it is tremblingly alive to all such influences, and they
keep it in continual agitation ; accordingly we find that such is its state,
that, within certain boundaries, it is continually changing place and limits.
This fact is abundantly proved by the speed of ships, whose log-books show
that it is by no means a rare occurrence for one vessel, after she has been
dallying in the Doldrums for days, in the vain effort to cross that Calm
Belt, to see another coming up to her ‘hand over fist,’ with fair winds, and
crossing the belt after a delay in it of only a few hours instead of days.’’*

(76.) These remarks of Captain Maury, coupled with the experience of
most sailors who cross the Line, will demonstrate that the limits of thig
Calm Belt cannot be very exactly defined, and it is only the doctrine of
chances that can determine when any particular ship will lose the Trades,
and encounter the Doldrums.

On page 132 (54), is given the Table drawn up by Captain Horsburgh,
as the probable Equinoctial Limits of the N.E. and §.E. Trades, and con-
sequently of the intervening Belt of Calms. This applies to that part of
them, between 18° and 26° W., which was usually traversed by the Hast
India Company’s ships. The diagram of the Winds, and also the chart

* “ Physical Geography of the Sea,’ 1860, page 358.
N. 4. 0. 21

154

OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS

illustrating Captain Toynbee’s monthly discussion of the winds between
10° S. and 20° N., and from 10° to 40° W. (62), pp. 136—140, will serve to
assist the seaman in quickly finding the latitude in which he may expect

to fall in with these troublesome winds.

In the Chapter on Passages, the

routes recommended for Crossing the Equator will be found. The follow-
ing approximate estimate of the breadth of this Calm Belt is derived from
Maury’s Trade Wind Chart, &c., and given in the Hydrographic Office
Pilot Charts, and also by Dr. Van Galen.* It is of course in a measure
superseded by the work of Captain Toynbee, mentioned above, but is given
here, as it may be useful taken in connection with that work, in showing
the amount of reliance which may be placed on these deductions :—

TABLE of lhe Average Extent of the Equinoctial Calms.

Month.

January

February ...

eeeccecccsoe

eccccccce

eeeesscccese

September ...

October

November ...

December ...

| Oo 0 ° \e]
Limits, 29 = a ae
oes!

N. 3°N.| 38°N.
| S. — lee
N. 8 ies

S. — 3
ein Bae eed
UES: — eee}

Eatin tel
f N. aan ne”

S. = | 2
(N. 4 | 4
eek oH | 4
( N. Geren VG
dS. — 4
( N. 8 9
se — 5

N. ta 12
aerate 6
f N. 11 12

Ss. 8 6
N. 10 10

Sg. 7 6
N. 61k ie

S. 6 6

N. 2 4
{ S. pal eo 4

40° to 35°
We

{ |
35° to 30°/30° to 25°/25° to 20°! 20° to 15°
W. W.

2°N.
2

w. | wW.
|
3°N.| 3°N.| 6°N.
0 1 (ee
3 4 6
18; |e 0
2N. | 2) oe
28.1.4 SaNaee
QN.| 8N.] 6
26: | 1S. eee
4N.| 5N.| 6
1.°/ 40 1
9N.| 8 9
0 1 1
rf 12 =
2 2 1
12 13 =
2 2 1
19 12 =f
2 1 1
10 1 Es
2 1 1
6 8 10
2 1 1
4 5 1
1 2 1

This Table will show that, during the winter months, and in the Western
part of the ocean, the limits of the Trade Winds (as given in the Table)
approximate, and leave no interval of Calm. In the Northern summer
months, however, the Calm Belt is much more distinctly marked, although

® « Zeil, Wind, en Stroomkaarten Toegelicht,” door Dr. P. van Galen.

Rotterdam,

EQUATORIAL CALMS AND WINDS. 155

its mean breadth is not one-third or one-half what it is on the Eastern side.
This fact is also graphically explained by the diagram of the Winds. As
we said before, on pp. 131-2 (53, 54), the limits of the Trades vary to the
extent of 10° of latitude, and therefore the figures given in the preceding
Table can only be taken as a possible approximation.

There is one remark which it may be as well to urge here: that, as this
Belt of Calms runs East and West, the navigator will clear them soonest
by making a direct Southern or Northern course, as far as possible, as he
thus runs directly across them ; by beating too much Hast or West, he is
retarding himself in that direction.

(77.) In modern navigation, a calm is almost more to be dreaded than a
storm ; for, in the former, a sailing ship is helpless, and in the latter her
great sailing powers, and the many appliances now available, suffice to
disarm the fury of many ordinary gales. It is, therefore, of primary im-
portance that the commander of a sailing vessel should be aware of what
regions are subject to calms in different seasons, and by this knowledge
carefully avoid their detaining and troublesome influences. It is to this
knowledge that the improvement of the trans-equatorial passage must be
looked for. It has been strongly advocated, of late years, that a much
more Westerly crossing should be taken than was adopted in former years;
but it very frequently happens that the accounts of the voyages in one
month abound with bitter complaints against this Western crossing, while
those of another season are equally full of its praises. This topic will be
more fully dilated on hereafter, in the Chapter devoted to general sailing
directions. It will suffice here to give a general insight into the areas of
calms and baffling winds which exist in this Equatorial belt, and especially
in that part of it where the S.W. African Monsoon is felt; and in that
part of our subject some further remarks will be found.

(78.) In Section 2 and its accompanying diagrams (page 108) reference
has already been made to the barometric indications in these regions.
In an excellent discourse given by Captain Toynbee, at the United Service
Institution, May 19th, 1871, the following passage occurred, which will be
in place here :-—

“The ship from England, bound across the Equator, finds the wind to
draw more Northerly as she approaches the Southern verge of the N.E.
Trades; whilst, after passing through the Equatorial Calms, the S8.E.
Trades commence at South. It is also found that as this zone of Doldrums
is approached, the barometer falls; itis an area of low pressure; and the
zone of Equatorial Doldrums travels with it between the Equator and 10°
or 12° N. during the year.

‘«‘ Into this zone the air seems to blow from North to South, whilst the
pressure still remains lower than on either side; we have, therefore, reason
to suppose that here, on the border line of two Hemispheres, the air is
drawn directly towards the lowest pressure. It will be remembered that,
at a certain distance from the Equator in the Northern Hemisphere, the
air draws round an area of low pressure, keeping the lowest pressure to its
left, whilst at a certain distance from the Equator in the Southern
Hemisphere, this order is reversed, and the lowest pressure is to the right
of a person standing with his back to the wind. Hence it is reasonable

156 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

to expect that the air will move directly for the area of lowest presses in
a part where the two Hemispheres meet.”

(79.) The Trade Winds are essentially evaporating winds. From their
high temperature, in passing over a large extent of ocean, they become
loaded with aqueous vapour, which becomes evident when they meet and
neutralize each other in this zone of Equatorial Calms.

The result is the formation of the ‘‘ Cloud Ring” of Captain Maury,
which he likens to the rings of Saturn or the belts of Jupiter. Under this
oppressive and constant companion of the Equatorial Calm, the rain falls
in torrents, and by the progress of the sun in the ecliptic it causes the
phenomena of the tropical seasons, divided, as is well known, into the wet
and dry. A consideration of the chart and the shifting of this belt will
explain how it is that some places have two rainy seasons and others only
one, by the passing of the cloud ring over them.

‘‘Tt is broader than the Belt of Calms out of which it arises. As the air
with its vapours rises up in this calm belt and ascends, these vapours are
condensed into clouds, and this condensation is followed by a turgid
intumescence, which causes the clouds to overflow the calm belt as it veers
poth to the North and South. The air, flowing off in the same direction,
assumes the character of winds which form the upper currents counter (8)
to the Trade Winds. These currents carry the clouds still farther to the
North and South, and thus make the cloud ring broader. At least, we
infer such to be the case, for the rains are found to extend out on to the
Trade Winds, and often to a considerable distance North and South of
the calm belt.”

This oppressive region, most tedious to navigators, is, however, not at
all times subject to this great amount of deposition, which has procured
for it the appellation of ‘‘ The Rains ;” and especially during the winter
months, when its extent is more limited, it may be crossed without en-
countering either those torrents of rain, or almost unbearable calms. This
compensating belt to the evaporation of the Trades, of course, is subject
to squalls, and especially to thunder-storms, the natural result of the con-
flicting elements. Altogether, its effect on the health and spirits, its
enervating influences, its oppressive and damp heat, make it one of the
most unpleasant regions of the globe.*

* Attention to personal cleanliness is very important during the detention caused by
these calms. Dampier gives a quaint description of the ill effects of his men not drying
their clothes and lying down on their hammocks while wet, which caused all to become
offensive and open to attacks of disease. Captain Maury says, ‘‘The emigrant ships from
Burope to Australia have to cross it. They are often baffled in it for two or three weeks;
then the children and passengers who are delicate in health suffer most. It is a frightful
graveyard on the wayside to that golden land.”

6.—_THE AFRICAN MONSOONS,

(80.) The influence of the land upon the Trade Winds, and the inter-
vening Calms, is very powerful on the EKastern side of the Atlantic; and
the peculiar configuration of the Coast of Guinea, trending as it does along
the very axis or line of division of the N_rthern and Southern Wind sys-
tems, causes a different set of phenomena to arise. During that part of
the year when the sun is in the Southern Hemisphere, the Trades and
Calms follow the normal or usual course, as it is then exerting its maximum
force on the sea with its low absorptive and radiative powers; but when,
during the Northern summer, it is raising the temperature of the land of
the Guinea Coast, a new phase arises from the heated atmosphere over
the land drawing the wind towards it ; and instead ofa 8.H. or N.H. wind,
we have a South and 8.W. wind occurring with great regularity. Major
Rennell says, ‘‘In the space lengthwise, between Cape Verde and Cape
Mesurado, and in certain places to the extent of 200 miles off shore (150
off Sierra Leone), a regular change of winds and currents takes place,
according to the seasons. That is to say, a N.K. or North wind and S.E.
current, from September to June; and, in the rest of the year, a S.W.
wind and N.E. or Northerly currents, in effect a Monsoon, and this extends,
in respect of the wind, nearly through the whole space between the two
continents.*

(81.) In Dampier’s Discourse on the Trade Winds, and his illustrative
Chart (1697), we find a solution of the origin of these 8.W. winds, which
is that still held to be most feasible. It is, that they are derived from the
§.E. Trades, and not from a diversion of the N.E. Trades. This also was
suggested in the ‘“‘ Mercantile Marine Magazine,” of 1856, the data being
derived from Maury’s charts. An important element in determining the
reality or otherwise of this suggestion is the position of the Calms. Are
they interposed between the N.H. Trade and Monsoon, or between the
Monsoon and §8.H. Trade? But this consideration may not have great
weight in this region of calms, and besides the probability of this origin is
increased by the data for the direction of the 8.H. Trade, which is shown
not to blow with regularity to the Hast of a line joining Cape Palmas and
Angola.

(82.) There is another conclusive evidence of the Westerly extension of
the Monsoons in the Hasterly current which is met with almost constantly
during the seasons of their prevalence. These are very persistent as far as
longitude 40° W., and are at times encountered as far North as latitude 16°,
but more usually between lats. 6° and 11° N. This origin of the anomalous
Guinea Current was indicated in our chart of the Atlantic Ocean, published
in 1858. A similar current is shown to exist in the Pacific Ocean, West

* The existence and character of this S.W. African Monsoon was thus early recog-
nized and named (at the latter end of the eighteenth century). The term ‘ newly-
discovered’? Monsoons, given to them by our American friends, is therefore not quite
applicable.

158 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

of Panama Bay. This feature will be further dilated on when we come tc
the Section on Currents.

(83.) These South, 8.S.W., and S.W. winds prevail, according to Maury’s
Pilot Charts, chiefly during the months of July, August, September, and
October, and are then felt as far to the Westward as 35° or 40° W., he-
tween the parallels of 5° and 8° N. In the Western part of this area they
diminish in frequency as the sun proceeds to the South, and are scarcely
felt in the North Atlantic during the months of December, January, and
February. The chances of encountering this adverse wind must have an
important bearing on the choice of a route for crossing the Equator during
these months, but we leave this subject to be discussed under the heading
of Crossing the Equator, in the chapter on Passages given hereafter.
Between December and April, which is the season most visited by calms,
the wind has still a Southern tendency; but, during the season of the
Monsoon, the calms are at a minimum near the coast. It is difficult to
explain in words the relative duration, force, or frequency of the winds in
this changeable locality, without an appeal to the chart. The reader is
referred to those illustrating the Winds of the region between 20° N. and
10° S., and to the chart of the North Atlantic Ocean, in four sheets, before
alluded to (48).

(84.) In the Gulf of Guinea, as far North as Cape Palmas, the prevail-
ing winds are S.W. and Southerly ; between Cape Palmas and Cape Roxo,
S.W. winds prevail between June and September, and N.E. winds during
the remainder of the year. In the latitude of Sierra Leone, this S.W.
wind extends to long. 32° W. in the middle of the Northern summer.

(85.) The following remarks, by the late Captain Midgley, who had great
experience on the African Coast, will be found of service in explaining the
character of the winds and seasons :—

I will here offer a few remarks on the general variable winds and weather
which prevail between the parallels of 4° and 10° N., and the meridians of
18° and 25° W., or between the N.E. and S.E. Trade Winds.

The winds generally incline from the Southward, between the Trades,
and few vessels pass from one Trade Wind to the other without meeting
with very unpleasant weather, in the shape of calms, light baffling winds,
squalls, and rain, particularly when the sun is much to the Northward.

In June, July, and August, heavy squalls seem to prevail from the 8.W.,
with a great deal of rain, and the wind often blows hard from this quarter
for several hours together, and then falls calm, leaving a heavy and confused
short sea, which causes a vessel to labour and strain more than she would
do in a gale of wind.

When the sun is far to the Southward, the weather is comparatively fine,

with light Southerly and 8.E. winds, occasionally, however, interrupted by

squalls and rain; and the calms are of shorter duration, owing, probably,
to the limited breadth of the space between the Trade Winds at this season.

In this part of the ocean, when much lightning is seen in a heavy dense
cloud, in any quarter of the compass, the wind may be expected to come
out suddenly from that quarter, especially if there is any rain, even though
the wind may be blowing at the same time with moderate force from an
opposite quartei. Forked or chain lightning is the almost sure fore-

eee

THE AFRICAN MONSOONS. 159

rnmner of a heavy squall; it is a monitor whose warning should not be
neglected.*

Whenever there is much lightning, and the wind is unsteady and bafiling
about, prepare for a change. A heavy dense cloud, having a squally
appearance, may rise and pass slowly over the vessel directly to leeward,
with perhaps little or no increase of wind; and when the danger may be
supposed over, the vessel is suddenly taken aback with a smart squall.
This, I presume, arises from the cloud which has just gone over the ship,
being opposed in its progress to leeward by a stronger current of air from
the opposite quarter. On this account, when clouds are in motion from
opposite quarters of the compass, a better look-out, if possible, should be
kept to leeward than to windward.

Keeping a good look-out upon the surface of the water is an excellent
method of judging of the force of the wind in an approaching squall ; but,
on account of the heavy rain which invariably accompanies the squalls
alluded to, very little sound judgment can be exercised with respect to their
strength ; they are generally, however, tolerably heavy, and require sail to
be considerably reduced.

In June, July, and August, the weather is very wet and squally. Some-
times dense masses of clouds are seen in rapid motion from the 8.E.,
Southern, and 8.W. quarters of the horizon: these clouds have a bulky
and confused appearance, as if tumbling or rolling over each other ; are of
a dirty dark drab colour, with ragged edges, and inky-looking small clouds
flying about the edges of them. In their approach towards the zenith they
gradually appear to unite and form the apex of an angle, and, thus united,
blow with incredible violence from the §.W. quarter (veering about two or
three points or more) for upwards of two hours, during which time the rain
descends in torrents, perhaps accompanied by a waterspout or whirlwind.

Ships should be well prepared for these dangerous visitors; for they come
with a similar violence to the Arched White Squall of the West Indies. I
have experienced two squalls of the above description (both in the month
of July), and in one of them lost a good fore-topsail, after the reef tackles,
&c., were hauled out snug, and the ship had been for some time running
directly before the wind. Upon both occasions my barometer fell three-
tenths of an inch very suddenly, which enabled me to take in sail in time;
for the squalls did not look particularly alarming until about eight or ten
minutes before they reached the ship.

To the inexperienced in this part of the ocean, I would beg to remark,
that much sheet lightning is always suspicious, and forked or chain lightning
universally so; and the latter is, in some degree, indicative of a change,
as of an increase of wind.

After the wind has blown steadily, with fine weather for a few hours,
and it then begins to be variable, and fly suddenly about, squalls and rain
may be expected.

* In those parts of the North Atlantic Ocean which are not in the general influente nt
the Trades, I have very frequently remarked that lightning is indicative of a change of
wind.

160 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

The moon has great influence on the weather ; for ‘t is most squalty ard
unsettled, with much rain, about the full and change.

I perfectly agree with Captain Cheveley, that the month of July is,
perhaps, the worst in the year for making southing between the Trades.
I have made two homeward passages in July between the meridians of
22° and 26° W., and met upon each occasion with the same weather as
described by that gentleman; namely, strong 8.W. winds, hard squalls,
and torrents of rain, with a heavy sea, and Northerly currents.

(86.) Between Cape Blanco and the entrance of the Kier Gambia, Captain
J. W. Monteath states that during the months of November, December,
January, February, and March, the winds from the Hast and N.E. are
prevalent. In this time the nights are cool; but scarcely has the sun
arisen above the horizon, when the air becomes dry and parching. Never-
theless, these five months are the winter in this part of Africa, and this is
the most healthy season. Between the Gambia and Cape Palmas the
inland winds, during the same season, are variable.

In June, July, August, September, and October, the country situated
between Cape Verga and Cape Mount is much exposed to Hurricanes or
Tornados. ‘These, however, do not occur in any part of the coast North-
ward of Cape Verga. From the 20th degree of North latitude to the
environs of the Line, the atmosphere emits its waters to the earth; the
only difference is, twenty days sooner or later in the arrival of these
torrents. During the other eight months in the year there does not fall a
single drop of water.

Between the Cape Verde Islands, and in their neighbourhood, Southerly
and §.W. winds generally blow in July, August, September, and October.
These islands, when the sun is in their zenith, are generally surrounded
by thick fogs.

From Sierra Leone to Cape Palmas, the ordinary course of the winds on
the coast is from W.N.W., and beyond Cape Palmas, from W.S.W. to
S.W. and 8.5.W.

Although, in the Gulf of Guinea, the wind blows generally from the
Southward, and 8.S.W. toward the coast, they take, in South latitude, a
more Westerly direction near the land, and then prevail from S.W. and
W.S.W. between Cape Lopez and Benguela. But they veer proportionally
more Southerly as the distance increases from the coast.

Winpwarb Coast, &c.—The name of Windward Coast has been given
by our navigators to the whole of that coast which extends from Cape
Mount to the River Assinee, thus embracing the Gold Coast, and thence
continues to the Westward, including the three particular coasts called,
1st. The Coast of Adou, or Quaqua; 2nd. The Ivory or Teeth Coast ;
3rd. The Grain or Pepper Coast.

From January until May, the weather here, along shore, is commonly
fair and clear, with cooling breezes, and gentle Southerly winds. But about
the middle of May, South and 8.E. winds begin, accompanied not only
with Hurricanes and stormy gusts, but also with thunder, lightning, and
great rains, which continue, more or less, until the conclusion of the year.

On the Gold Coast, from Assinee to the River Volta, the wind in January
begins to blow from the S.W. quarter, and becomes stronger in February

THE WEST COAST OF AFRICA. 161

bringing with it sometimes rain, and sometimes a Hurricane. About the
end of March, and beginning of April, those heavy tempests, called by the
Portuguese Tornados, arise, accompanied with a deluge of rain, thunder,
and lightning; these continue to the end of May, and are announced by
the darkness of the sky in the 8.E.

During the rainy season, that is, in May and July, little or no land-
winds are felt; but from the sea it blows from the 8.W. and W.S.W.,
making a very great swell, which continues even in August, although the
rains begin to cease in that month.

The weather becomes fair in September, and the air clear, with gentle
South winds; and this continues till January, the hottest days being in
_ December.

(87.) Commander E. G. Bourke, R.N., F.M.S., remarks : The winds on
the African coasts are already so well known as to render much comment
unnecessary, the usual sea and land-breezes being, with few exceptions,
constant ; the latter, however, are nowhere very strong, and as a rule are
not felt before midnight, nor do they last later than 8 a.m. The sea-breeze
commences about 10 a.m., reaches its maximum strength at 4 p.m., and
then gradually falls light, but frequently, and especially in the Gulf of
Guinea, it maintains its full strength until it suddenly drops, and gives
place to the land-breeze. The sea-breeze blows from West to N.W. to the
North of Cape Palmas, to the South of that point it is from 8.8.W. to
W.S.W. true. North of Cape Palmas the land-breeze comes from Easi to
E.N.E., from Cape Palmas to Fernando Po from the N.W., thence to Cape
Lopez (1° 8.) from the East, and to the South of that cape it is from the
S.E. These breezes extend nowhere far from the shore, as at a distance
of 20 miles to seaward the constant 8.W. Monsoon is but rarely disturbed,
and then only by Tornados and the Harmattan.

The chief characteristic of the climate of the Coast of Western Africa
is moisture, which is accompanied by a temperature by no means high for
the latitude. This averages 79° between the Equator and 10° N.; from
the Equator to 10° S. it is from 4° to 5° lower.—Journal of the Meteoro-
logical Society, Vol. iv., 1878, pp. 25, 27.

(88.) Remarks by Baron Roussin.—Cape Bojador to the Isles de Los.—
On the whole extent of the African coast there are but two seasons, namely,
the rainy and dry seasons. The division of the two is connected with the
periods when the sun crosses from one Hemisphere to the other, and is
modified as he advances to, or recedes from, the Equator.

The Rainy Season commences at each place on the coast to the Northward
of the Equator, at the time when the sun passes the zenith of that place
in his course to the Northward. It is, usually, during the month pre-
ceding this event that the change of weather takes place. It may there-
fore be calculated that, at the Isles de Los, the first point exposed to the
rainy season, and which lie in 94° N., the first violent squalls do not occur
before the 10th or 15th of May. Their arrival seems to be affected by the
moon ; for they almost always commence, and are most violent, on the
lays of the new and full.

J: er. NF 22

162 . OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

The rainy season* ends in very violent squalls, with intervals of calm, of
which there are at least two, and frequently more, during the twenty-four
hours ; and we remarked that they generally happen on the rising or set-
ting of the sun or moon. In the country, these squalls are generally called
Tornados ; but, according to the best information, the Tornado, properly
speaking, is to be met with only to the Southward of Cape Verga. They
generally begin to form themselves in the N.E. or E.N.E. quarter of the
horizon, which seems completely on fire during an hour or more. The
storm then gradually shifts round to Kast and E.8.E., becoming darker in
the horizon. Having arrived at S.E., it attains its full vigour, when
thunder and lightning become incessant. A moment of absolute calm then
takes place, which is caused by the obstruction which the usual winds from
the N.W. meet with from this immense mass of clouds. Shortly after, a
small arch is formed at the horizon, which increases and rises rapidly.
The more defined the edge of this arch appears, the more violent will be
the storm, as it is a proof that the column of air has divided much heavier
clouds, and is more confined. When the summit of this arch has attained
an altitude of about 45°, the hurricane bursts forth, and torrents of rain
immediately follow. The crisis of its greatest violence generally lasts from
15 to 20 minutes; it afterwards gradually becomes weaker ; and, finally,
nothing remains but rain, attended with very little wind. It then shifts
round from S.E. to W.S.W., then to the quarter from which the usual winds
blow, to exhaust itself to the Northward in another squall from the S.H.

The rainy season, at any place, continues from four to six months, accord-
ing to its proximity to the Equator, and the Tornados continue to decrease,
both in frequency and violence, during the two latter months of the season.
In ten days or a fortnight after the sun has passed the zenith of any place
on his way to the South, it is considered as free from bad weather. On
the 15th of November, a gun is fired at Goree, which announces the return
of the fine season.

The squalls here spoken of, and the winds which precede or follow them,
generally occupying so very small a portion of the year, may be considered
as momentary convulsions in a state of climate almost unchangeable; a
sky nearly always serene, and generally clear.

On the greater part of the African coast, from Cape Bojador to the Isles
de Los, regular winds blow, and no rain ever falls during eight months.
The prevailing winds in this country blow from N.E. to N.W.; it may,
therefore, be said that they follow the direction of the coast from North to
South, and that they seldom vary from the limits here assigned.

The dry season commences in the latter part of October at Senegal; a
little later at Goree; and at each intermediate place toward the Equator
it becomes gradually later. It is not till the beginning of December that
its return is observed in the parallel of the Isles de Los.

* Captain Adams, in his sketches, says that the Wet Season, North of the Equator,
commences in the month of May, and terminates in July, when the Dry Season begins,
although heavy showers of rain fall during the months of Octoberand November, which
enable the Africans to reap a second harvest of maize ; but the rains commence and ter-

minate six weeks earlier near the Equator than at the Northern boundary, where the
periodical rains cease.

THE WEST COAST OF AFRICA. 163

(89.) Lieutenant Bold also says, that the Winds and Weather on all
parts of the Windward Coast are much alike, excepting that the rains
commence rather earlier in the 8.H. The wintry season makes its appear-
ance early in June, by strong breezes and occasional heavy gusts from the
Southward and S8.H., accompanied with rains, which increase violently
and continue until the latter end of August ; this is succeeded by a series
of close foggy weather, during which the land appears enveloped in vapour,
occasioned by exhalations from the humid soil. This is justly considered
to be the most pernicious season in the year to the European constitution ;
the whole atmosphere being then impregnated with deleterious matter,
generated by decayed vegetation. During the rains there are no land
winds, neither in the month of October, when the wind is strong down the
coast; in the following month it gradually draws down to the South and
Westward, with occasional rain. Toward the middle of December the
weather begins to clear up, and the summer season to make its appearance ;
this continues until June, with a beautiful clear sky and gentle refreshing
breezes from the §.S.W., during the last ten or twelve weeks of which the
Tornados prevail very violently; but these come on generally in the
evening, and give ample warning to the navigator to prepare against their
dreadful impetuosity.

The same intelligent navigator adds:—The seasons on the Gold Coast
are precisely similar to those of the Windward Coast, with the exception of
their successively commencing a month earlier. Along the coast, in the
winter season, when the winds are from the §.W. the swell and surf on
the beach are excessively high, and too dangerous in many parts to permit
landing.

The seasons on the Coast of Dahomey, éc., are nearly similar to those of
the Gold Coast; the rains commencing in May, preceded by Tornados
and equally boisterous weather, with Southerly and 8.S.E. winds from the
month of March, causing a heavy sea in the bight, with a violent surf
along shore. The finest months here are from September to March, during
which the winds are from W.N.W. to W.S.W., with cool refreshing breezes
by day, and land winds at night. But it is to be observed that, in the
rough season and the winter months, there are no land winds, and the
current is frequently found running rapidly to windward.

(90.) Commander E. G. Bourke remarks, that on the coast of Liberia,
between Capes Mount and Mesurado, as well as upon the coast Westward,
between Cape Mount and Cape St. Anne, the rains begin with May, and
continue till October, accompanied with great thunder and lightning, and
furious gusts of wind from the North-Westward. During this time the
sea sets so hard to the N.H. along the coast, and with mountainous
billows, that it is impossible to approach the shore ; so that sailing ships
which, between July and September, happen to fall below Cape Mount,
cannot, without, great difficulty, get about to the South.

The Winds, &c., of the Bight of Biafra, and the African Coast to the
Southward, are described in the ‘“‘ Directory for the South Atlantic Ocean,”’
by the aathor of the present work.

164 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

(91.) The Harmattan—On the Gold Coast, as well as the Windward
Coast, an Hasterly wind, called the Harmattan, prevails during the months
of December, January, and February. This wind comes on indiscriminately,
at any hour of the day, at any time of the tide, at any period of the moon
and continues sometimes only a day or two, sometimes five or six days,
and it has been known to last fifteen or sixteen days. There are generally
three or four returns of it in every season ; it blows with a moderate force,
not quite so strong as the sea-breeze, which every day sets in, during the
fair season, from the West, W.S.W., and S.W.; but somewhat stronger
than the land-wind at night, from the North and N.N.W.

In the “ Philosophical Transactions,” vol. lxxi, 1781, an account of the
Harmattan was first given by Matthew Dobson, M.D., F.R.S., from the
enquiries and observations of Mr. Norris, of which the following is the
substance :-—

On that part of the Coast of Africa which lies between Cape Verde and
Cape Lopez, a singular periodical Easterly wind, named, by the natives,
Harmattan, prevails during the months of December, January, and Febru-
ary. Cape Lopez lies to the Southward of the Line. At the Isles de Los,
which lie to the Northward of Sierra Leone, this wind blows from the
E.S.E.; on the Gold Coast, trom the N.K.; and at Cape Lopez and the
River Gaboon, from the N.N.E.

The Harmattan comes on as above described. A fog or haze always
accompanies it, and the gloom is sometimes so great as to render near
objects obscure. The sn is thus concealed the greatest part of the day,
and appears only a few hours about noon, and then of a mild red colour.
At 2 or 3 miles from shore the fog is not so thick as on the beach ; and at
12 or 15 miles distance it is entirely lost, though the Harmattan is felt for
30 or 35 miles off shore, and blows fresh enough to alter the course of the
current.

Extreme dryness is a property of this wind. No dews fall during its
continuance, nor is there the least appearance of moisture in the atmosphere.
All vegetables are much injured, and many destroyed. The seams in the
sides and decks of ships become very leaky, though the planks are 2 to 3
inches thick. Iron-bound casks require the hoops to be frequently driven
tighter, and a cask of rum or brandy can scarcely be preserved; for, unless
kept constantly moistened, the hoops fly off. The Harmattan has, likewise,
very disagreeable effects on the skin, lips, and nose, which become sore.

The effects of the Harmattan in evaporation are great, as will appear by
the following comparative statement :—At Liverpool, the annual evapora-.
tion is about 36 inches; at Whydah, 64 inches; but, under the influence
of the Harmattan, at the rate of 133 inches.

This wind, though so prejudicial to vegetable life, is highly conducive to
health ; so that fluxes, fevers, small-pox, &c., generally disappear in spite
of the doctor; and it contributes to the cure of ulcers, and cutaneous
eruptions. The baneful effects which have been said to arise from the
prevalence of this wind proceed from the periodical rains, which fall in
March, April, &c., and are ushered in by the Tornados from the N.E. and
E.N.E., accompanied with violent thunder and lightning, and very heavy
showers. ‘The earth, drenched by these showers, and acted upon by an

THE HARMATTAN. 165

intense solar heat so soon as the storm is over, sends forth such noisome
vapours as are the occasion of putrid fevers and other diseases.

On this coast, from the middle of February to the first week in March,
@ wind up the coast, from 8.8. W. to §8.8.E., prevails for about three weeks.
The Tornado season embraces part of March, all April, and the greater
part of May, about twelve weeks altogether. The rainy season sets in at
the latter end of May, lasts all June, and till about the 20th of July, about
eight weeks. Hence, high winds and squalls, with very heavy rains, to
the middle of August, about three weeks. The rain ceases; and then, for
the first three weeks in September, the weather is foggy and close, without
any breeze. From this time, for about six weeks, the wind blows fresh
down the coast; the Tornados and Southerly winds then succeed, with
some rain, generally called the latter rains, lasting about four weeks, to
the beginning of December, when the Harmattan season commences.

(92.) Remarks on the Harmattan, by Baron Roussin.—Although the
winds from N.E. to N.W. prevail on the N.W. Coast of Africa during the
dry season, that is, from November to May, they are, nevertheless, occa-
sionally interrupted between the 1st of December and the 1st of February
by the land-wind, which blows from E.N.H. to E.S.E., and sometimes
with violence.

It is this wind which the inhabitants of the country call the Harmattan.
It comes on at different periods in the above interval, and blows during
one, two, and sometimes five or six successive days. This continuance,
however, is rare, as it is generally interrupted by the sea-breezes, which
commence about noon, after a calm of one or two hours. These alternate
land and sea-breezes generally last till the end of February, when the usual
winds entirely prevail. The Harmattan, which passes over the most arid
country of the globe, is of an extremely dry nature, and would probably
become insupportable, were it not frequently allayed by the sea-breezes
above mentioned. Notwithstanding the salutary effect of these breezes,
the drought is astonishing, so long as the Harmattan lasts. Mankind is
inconvenienced ; vegetables suffer so much as to be nearly killed; the sun
loses its brilliancy, and is only to be seen when near noon; the sand,
brought with it from the desert, pervades the atmosphere, and prevents
objects from being distinguished at the distance of a quarter of a mile.
Nevertheless, the effect of the Harmattan is not really injurious to health;
it is remarked that it even purifies the atmosphere, by destroying the
noxious vapours with which it is replete on the conclusion of the rainy
season. It is usually onthe return of the Harmattan that recovery com-
mences from disorders which are incident to the climate.

The fog which accompanies the Harmattan loses nothing of its density
when 9 miles out at sea. On the edge of the Bank of Arguin, which is
30 miles from the land, it prevented our distinguishing the horizon during
three successive days. This state of the atmosphere is not permanent, but
varies with the winds which produce it; and, in general, independent of the
Harmattan, the African Coast, from Cape Bojador to Cape Verde, is con-
tinually covered, during the whole dry season, with a white mist, which is
seen from the sea much sooner than the land, of which it is a sure indica-
tion. This mist, which is nothing but sand, the extreme fineness of which

166 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

allows of its being supported by the least agitated air, is particularly re-
markable on that part of the desert between the parallel of 22° and Senegal.
We have seen it at the distance of 15 miles, when the coast could scarcely
be seen at 9 miles.

This dust, alluded to on pp. 99—100, is further remarked on at the end of
this volume; by some it is considered to consist of fine ashes blown from
the regions of forest fires in the interior.

(93.) Remarks by Captain T. Boteler, of H.M.S. Hecla.—Between the
Isles de Log and Sierra Leone, the Harmattan Season sets in with
November, or about a month earlier than off the Gambia, and prevails
through December and part of January, but not quite constantly ; for
occasional intervals of clear weather, accompanied by the refreshing sea-
breezes from the N.W., sometimes afford a respite to its oppressive effects.
Nor does the Harmattan blow uniformly, either in the same direction, or
with the same strength; for it ranges through eight points of the compass,
from N.N.E. to E.S.E.; and, however fiery at the commencement, declines,
after the first month, to a comparatively light breeze.

The peculiar haze, which more or less envelopes the Coast of Africa at
all times, is at its maximum during the influence of the Harmattan ; and,
though partially dispersed by the Tornados and the rainy season, returns
with increased density when they cease. Strangers should, therefore, be
on their guard when estimating their distance from the land, as the decep-
tive effect of this haze makes it appear much farther off than it really is ;
for the contrast which the coast presents to the eye, in different states of
the atmosphere, is very great. In clear weather, the view of the fertile
shelving hills in the Isles de Los, the stupendous features of the distant
mountains, the plains covered with trees, and the beautiful little island of
Matacong (described hereafter), are highly interesting; while, in hazy
weather, nothing is visible but a low mangrove coast, enveloped in mist,
with an indistinct opening of a river here and there, or peskae a column
of smoke rising from a native village.

The rainy season continues for four months, from May to September ;
but the Tornados, which invariably accompany its commencement and
termination, generally cease between those periods. They blow from the
E.S.E., and with great fury: but they seldom last more than three hours.
The prevalent winds, during the rest of the rainy season, are from the
Southward and Westward, and are usually so light as to give way in the
afternoon to the N.W. sea-breeze.

(94.) Mr. G. T. Carter, Administrator of the Colony of Gambia, in his
Report for 1888, states that the Harmattan usually sets in early in Decem-
ber, and. is eagerly looked for after the airless, oppressive weather in
October and November. It is an exceedingly dry wind, and though cool
and bracing in the early morning, becomes hot under the influence of the
sun, as it slackens in the middle of the day. The Harmattan is an inter-
mittent wind blowing for a few days, being then succeeded by the refresh-
ing sea-breeze, which in its turn gives way to the Harmattan. This inter-
change usually lasts up to the middle of April, the month of February
being the time when the Harmattan is most prevalent.

The months of July and October are decidedly the most unhealthy and

THE HARMATTAN. 167

unpleasant months in Bathurst. In July, the sea-breeze has stopped blow-
ing, the sun is very hot, and stifling, airless days may be expected pre-
paratory to the commencement of the rains, which are generally ushered
in by the storms known as Dry Tornados, followed by these storms accom-
panied by heavy rain.

The middle of June is about the time when rain may be first expected,
but the wet season does not become thoroughly established until a month:
later, the latter part of July and the whole of August and September being:
conspicuous for more or less continuous rain. The rainfall varies from 40
to 80 inches. w

As a rule, I think it may be considered that a heavy rainy season means
a healthy season, more especially if Tornados are frequent with their usual
accompaniment of thunder and lightning. No one who has resided in
Western Africa can fail to appreciate the pleasant sensations experienced
after one of these beneficent storms has passed over; a weight seems
lifted from one’s being, the air becomes unusually clear and pure, and the
temperature is considerably lowered. The wind seldom blows with suffi-
cient force to do any material damage during the progress of a Tornado,
and the most violent storms usually expend their force in the course of an
hour or two.

The Island of St. Mary has the advantage (in one sense) of possessing
a light, sandy soil, and consequently the heaviest rain soon percolates
through and does not stagnate on its flat surface.

Taken as a whole, the climate of the Gambia is decidedly superior to
that of any other British Settlement in West Africa, though at certain
seasons intermittent and remittent fevers are very prevalent, few Europeans
escaping an attack of one or other of these forms between the months of
July and October. Natives form no exception to this rule, though with
them the disease is rarely fatal. The point which has always struck me
about the Gambia is the dryness of the climate as compared with Sierra
Leone and the Gold Coast. From December to June there are periods of
phenomenal dryness, more especially during the occurrence of the Har-
mattan, but the sea-breeze, which blows from the North and N.W., and is
the prevailing wind during these months, is not charged with moisture to
the same extent as similar winds in Sierra Leone and on the Gold Coast.

The height of the thermometer in the Gambia, or, indeed, West Africa
generally, must not be taken as a guide to one’s sensations of heat; for
although the thermometer rarely exceeds 90° indoors, yet there are times
at Bathurst when, to judge by one’s feelings, 10° might well be added to
the 90°. This is especially the case during the month of October, which
is exceedingly trying to Huropeans. The rains have ceased, and the pro-
cess of drying up is going on, or, in other words, Nature’s distillery for
malaria is in active operation. There is rarely a breeze of any kind, or if
at alla land wind charged with poison from miles of foetid swamp. Such
as it is, however, it is welcomed, for during the oppressively still days and
nights there seems to be an absence of air for breathing purposes. This,
however, is the dark side of the picture, and, fortunately, the state of
things described is only of short duration. Taking all things into con-
sideration, climatically speaking, the conditions of life are more bearable

168 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

in the Gambia than in any other part of West Africa. This opinion, I may
add, is based upon nearly 14 years experience gained in Sierra Leone, the
Gold Coast, and the Gambia. P

(95.) Commander E. G. Bourke, R.N., says that the haze (mentioned
before) is prevalent during the whole season, so that whether the Har-
mattan be felt on the surface of the earth or not, it is probably going on in
the upper regions of the atmosphere. By the motions of the upper clouds,
the N.E. Trade seems to be always blowing over the Northern part of
Western Africa, and it may be that the Harmattan is only the N.K. Trade
extending itself to the surface from unusual strength, or other at present
unknown cause. I observed sheet lightning every evening during the con-
tinuance of this wind, but only to seaward, which was doubtless due to the
rapid evaporation from the surface of the sea owing to its being in contact
with such very dry air.*

7.—WINDS AND CALMS ON THE TROPIC.

(96) Between the N.E. Trades and the Westerly winds which prevait
more or less to the Northward of them, there is a belt of variable and light
winds, which have, perhaps somewhat vaguely, been called the Calms of
Cancer—a term which will not express its characteristics.

It is called, also, the Horse Latitudes, from the fact that vessels in former
years, employed in carrying horses to the West Indies, were frequently
obliged to throw them overboard during the embarrassment caused by the
continual changes, sudden gusts and calms, rains, thunder and lightning,
which are general in it (42), page 124.

(97.) This zone is caused by the uniting, or interchanging, of those upper
but contrary currents which pass Northwards over the N.K. Trades in con-
sequence of the heat acquired under the tropical sun having reached the
Northern extreme of this superheating influence. They here meet the
currents passing Southwards to feed the Trades from the polar regions, and
thus pressing against them cause the high barometer peculiar to this belt,
standing as it does at a higher level than either to the North or South of it.
Captain Maury infers that the mean height of the mercury in this belt is
30-21 inches, and at the Equator 29:93 inches. Admiral FitzRoy states
the mean height of the barometer in the latitude of England to be 29-95
inches. This greater height of the mercury, showing increased pressure,
will be an index to the sailor that he has reached this intervening belt
between the Passage and Trade Winds.

* Journal of the Meteorological Society, vol. iv., page 26.

litt

WINDS AND CALMS ON THE TROPIC. 169

From the lower part of this zone pass out two currents of air, one to feed
the N.E. Trades, as before described, and the other to form the Anti-Trades
or Passage Winds: and it is fed by the Polarand Tropical counter-currents
which flow over these different wind systems.

(98.) The mean latitude of this belt is from 30° to 35° N., but varying
with the motion of the sun in the ecliptic, as explained in (53), page 131.
In fact, the Northern edge of the Trade Wind may be taken as the axis
over which this belt moves, sometimes of great breadth, as 10°; at others,
not felt at all. The mean position of these Tropical Calms, é&c., will be
best comprehended from the diagram of the Winds. As is well known,
this belt is the line upon which the dreaded Cyclones turn; they pass to
the W.N.W., to the South of it; and to the H.N.E., to the North of it;
showing the origin of the struggle between the Polar and Tropical currents,
which is evident in their tremendous phenomena.

(99.) As was said in (53), page 131, the range over which the Northern
limits of the N.H. Trade is met with, seems to be, from Maury’s chart,
about 10° ; but as this and later meteorological charts cannot be pronounced
absolutely perfect, being derived from insufficient data, it may be said that
the mean position of the Tropical Calms in the various seasons of the year
cannot with certainty be predicted ; but as it does not offer the same obsta-
cles to navigation as those of the Equatorial regions, it is of less import-
ance to the sailor, who, by ordinary sagacity and prudence, may guard
against the squalls, thunder-storms, and calms, which characterize it.

(100.) To the Westward of the meridian 50° W.,—that is, the Western
half of the N.E. Trade in the North Atlantic—the Trades are very light
during the months of September and October; perhaps at other times of
the summer and autumn. They will be most felt between the parallels of
15° and 25°; but not with any certainty near the American coast. This
region may therefore be added to the Tropical Calms during these months.

As examples of the winds, as observed upon the lands lying in this belt,
we select the remarks upon the Bermudas.

(101.) Bermuda.—The winter, or cold season, at Bermuda, is the most
agreeable, and lasts from November to March, the mean temperature being
60° ; the predominant winds are then from the Westward ; if to the North-
ward of this, fine, hard weather, with a clear sky, accompanies them. This
is the favourable time for refitting ship, painting, &c. The close of this is
often a very fine, bright day, with little wind and partial calms, when the
wind is certain of going round to the §8.W. ; the weather becoming hazy,
damp, subject to heavy rains and gales. The thermometer immediately
attains 60° to 70°. These alternate North-Westerly and South- Westerly
winds prevail through nine months of the year, the wind remaining at no
other point for any length of time. This change is exhibited by a difference
of 14° in the temperature. At this season it seems advisable for ships
bound to the southward to wait and take the first set-in of the North-
Westerly winds. In most cases, it will ensure a quick run to the Variables,
and often to the Trades._-Mr. H. Davy.

In the latter part of February, spring commences, and the weather usually
continues mild, with refreshing showers of rain and gentle breezes from the

N..A.O. 23

170 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS

South and West, until the end of May. In June, the summer sets in, and
the weather becomes hot. Calms now succeed to the gentle breezes of May;
the air is sultry and oppressive, and long droughts are common, which are
often broken up by heavy thunder-storms. In September, the weather
changes its character, and becomes again mild and agreeable.

The dew-point in Bermuda usually ranges high. The climate being
therefore moist, is favourable to vegetation at all seasons, except during
the droughts of summer, and the storms of winter.

Hurricanes and tempests are very frequent, as is to be expected from
the proximity of the isles to the variable limit of the Trade and other
prevailing winds. Few autumns pass without Hurricanes of more or less
violence.

The Bermuda Squails are sudden and violent tempests, occurring par-
ticularly in the winter season. Some further remarks on this subject will
be found in Section III,

According to the observations registered at Her Majesty’s Dockyard, in
1853-4, the Easterly winds, or those to the Hast of North or South, pre-
vailed for a mean of 139 days, and Westerly winds for 186 days; the
remainder being made up of calms and variable winds.

8._THE ANTI-TRADES OR PASSAGE WINDS.

(102.) In a previous page, 124 (42), the reason is given for applying the
term Anti-Trades to the variable, but Westerly, winds which prevail to the
Northward of the Tropic of Cancer. In the consideration of these winds,
which only extend over an area, compared to that of the Trade Winds, as
5 is to 12 (thus showing their vastly inferior importance in the atmospheric
economy), it will be found that it is impossible to accurately define their
direction and character at any particular season. The great difference
which exists between the winds and seasons of different years, which,
however, when combined with a series, show a well-marked and consistent
average, will demonstrate that it is only the doctrine of chances which can
determine whether a single ship will encounter a particular wind at a par-
ticular time and place. Therefore, this Section will be less definite in its
teachings than that on the Trade Winds.

(103.) There is one fact which modern meteorological study has esta-
blished, and that is the frequent progress of storms in an Hasterly or
North-Hasterly direction across the Atlantic, in the regions of the Anti-

Woe Si a

NORTH

Diagrams Ulustroting the darections of

ANTI-TRADES or PASSAGE WINDS.

; Lat. 52° .N.
Long.10° W. Long15° W.
all: apy itm,
Ss CALMS oe 2S CALMS A,
Paes Mine pc. <—* a) peer —-,
Shaws er -——s Sun24 sn
ae. race , Se a ane S-
AY, Wh yes ~ Hy y ww7y,
BIS g HN
HS
Lat.47° N. | Lat. 52°N. \
L 20° W. Tong.25°W.
ong.20 = May, as a SS el, nb
“Das SS Ge.
SS Win ay a a ee vin Nope a
ea eer Ee pr = 51h a
Fy ancl! SF EY, Daas Re
—

Lat.47° N.

: Lat.47° N.
Long.30°W. ww \ Long.40° W. \
ng a Ml, so WWeley?, ’e
Cae tee SS ea =
ss pred: « = r. Pe =,
ee Ssum47 A 25:2 =u,
A Aut_2°5 ., < Aut.-36 » oF
Ayn fy Ww
Ht
Lat.42° N. Lat. 42°N.
Long 45°. Long.65°W.
ANI " QM lng,
= Spesae = — Sort
ee Ausc2s <o WZ ee oe

= Sum_5
EE
ae

es

PZ

6

Apis

The arrows represent Winds blowurg toward the centre.

2 Jan. _ (Apr. duly (Oct.

-—— Winter ) Feb. >—— Spring May o——SurnmmerjAug: + Autumn,Nov.
Mar. June Sep. Dec:

The length of the arrows ts proportionate to the frequency of that wind
and the proportion per cent will be gwen by this scale.

5 Ne 20 30 40 =e 60 70 80 90 400
aaah eecepeces}oone yp seeepors see peteepeeespes seeders Snes! eel Peery ieee eee Ric ees eee poses

SLOeUs thi

face p.171

2h Wid

——

THE ANTI-TRADES OR PASSAGE WINDS. \71

Trades. ‘This was alluded to in the Section on Atlantic Weather (pages
124—128), and will be further discussed, together with the rotatory nature
of such storms. ‘I'he reader is also advised to refer to Section 2, on the
Motions and Pressure of the Atmosphere, where full particulars will be
found of the causes which lead to the appearance of these storms.

(104.) ‘The most accurate and extensive observations—extensive because
continuous—which have been made upon the direction and force of the
wind in these latitudes, are those made upon land, and especially by self-
registering instruments, which have been in operation for a series of years,
and give absolutely the quantity and path of the wind passing over the
observatory during their operation. But these observations, however ex-
cellent, are fallacious; they do not give the correct normal direction of the
wind, but that of the wind under the powerful influence of the adjacent
land and its configurations. This may be obviated by the erection of
anemometers on isolated spots, as was done at Bermuda, or any other
position distant from any great mass of land.*

(105.) I'he Westerly predominance of the Anti-Trades wiil be more
manifest from an examination of the quantity (or force) ot the wind,
rather than its prevalence, from those quarters; so that mere nwmerical
preponderance gives an imperfect notion of the real proportion of Westerly or
Easterly winds. Thus, as before remarked (*) on page 133, the Pilot Charts
of Captain Maury and others, though the result of vast labour and of the
first importance as grand repertories of facts, are deficient in this respect.
A perfect Wind Chart is yet to be constructed.

(106.) But there have been numerous analyses of these Wind Charts,
combined with observations derived from other sources. We need not
further allude to the series of Wind Charts drawn up from Captain Maury’s
numerical data by Admiral FitzRoy, nor of those arranged by the Nether-
lands Meteorological Institute at Utrecht, and others previously mentioned
(page 125). But there is one essay which is of much importance, published
by the Hamburg Meteorological Office (Norddeutsche Seewarte), and trans-
lated by our own Meteorological Department, in 1872. It was drawn up
by Herr von W. von Freeden, Director of that Office,t and is entitled,
‘‘On the Winds, &c., of the North Atlantic, along the Tracks (and from
the logs) of North German Lloyd Steamers, between the Channel and
New York.”

* On page 103 (14), the question of force, as encountered by ships in motion, is alluded
to as not giving a correct estimate, as it ought to be the real amount without the effect
of the ship’s driving before it. The land observations also are modified by the above-
mentioned influence. A plan was proposed by Professor Piazzi Smyth, in conjunction
with Captain H. Toynbee, to have the wind recorded from the mast-head, as the only part
of a ship not affected by the eddies from her sails; the direction and force to be com-
municated electrically to the cabin and there recorded. See ‘‘ Report of the British
Association,” vol. xxv., page 45.

+ Translated from No. III. of the Mittheilungen aus der Norddeutschen Seewarte,
Ueber die Dampferwege zwischen dem Kanal und New York, nach den Journal-Ausziigen
der Dampfer des Norddeutschen Lloyd, in den Jahren 1860-67. Nebst Wind ind Wetter
in derselben Zeit. Von W. von Freeden, Direktor.

172 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

(107.) We extract the following from the work, premising that the charts
referred to have not been copied here.

1. Tae Winns or tHE Nort ATLANTIC, BETWEEN Lat. 55° anp 40° N.

We have made two Wind Charts dealing with the winds having a force
of 0 to 9, Beaufort Scale, of which the first, constructed according to the
old system of Maury, contains the aggregate number of observations
collected by Maury, Andrau, and the Norddeutsche Seewarte (the Ham-
burg Meteorological Office), amounting to 55,710 observations, including
calms and variables. The second chart exhibits, partly numerically and
partly graphically, 16,653 observations, made specially in the routes of the
North German Lloyd steamers, during the eight years 1860—1867. From
the detailed information given in these charts we condense the masses of
figures into closer groups, and elucidate the relative frequency of occurrence
of any wind by means of per-centages. In the first place we give—

A.—GENERAL WinD Taste for the North Atlantic, between Lat. 55° & 40°,
in the Yearly Period, and referred to Hight Points of the Compass.

No. of |
Long. | Lat, N. | Obser- Calm. | NE. | E. | SE. | 8 | 8.W.| W. | N.w.| N.
: vations. | |
° ° ° °o | | ae
55—50} 4,224 140} 250; 364} 443, 558] 712) 828; 562; 322 .«
5— 35) 8p.c.|6p.c.| 9p.c. |10 p.c.|13 p.c. |17 p.c.| 20 p.¢.|13 p.¢.| Bp. c.
50—45195,454 1,078 | 2,328 | 2,495 | 2,283 | 2,906 | 3,909 | 4,220 | 3,650} 2,451
4p.c.|Q9p.c.|10p.¢.| 9 p.c. |11 p.c.|15 p.c.|17 p.¢.)14 p.c.)10p.¢.
* 5,384 187 | 887) 3879] 302| 622) 917)|1,067| 864) 625
35—55 83 p.c.|6p.c.| Tp.c. | 6.6. |11p.¢.|17 p.c.| 20 p. c.|16 p.c.| 12 p.c.
45—40) 8,007 876| 611] 583] 721/ 1,047 | 1,284 | 1,899/1,082| 850
5p.c.|8p.c.| Tp.c.|9p.c. |13 p.¢.|16 p.c.| 17 p.c.)13 p. ¢.) 11 p. ec.
65—74| ,, {12,641 555 | 1,093 | 1,124} 914 | 1,550 | 1,900 | 2,221 | 1,744 | 1,360
4p.c.|Q9p.c.|Op.c.| 7 p.c. |12p.¢.|15 p.¢.)18 p.c.|14p.¢.)11 p.c.
Total ...... 55,710} 499 | 2,336 | 4,619 | 4,945 | 4,663 | 6,683] 8,722 | 9,735) 7,902) 5,606
Ses 2 8p.c.|9p.c. | 8p.c. |12 p.c.J16 p.c.|18 p.c.'14 p.c.j)10 pc.

By adding one-half the intermediate points to each of the four adjacent
cardinal points (thus, W. = W. + 45.W. + 4.N.W.), we find that—

Westerly winds are 33 per cent,

Southerly Ma 23 ~
Northerly s 22 ry
Easterly 3 LT ”

Calms and Variables 5

”?

The Westerly to Northerly winds are more certain to be found between
35° and 55° W. in higher latitudes, whilst the South to S.E. winds will be

THE ANTI-TRADES OR PASSAGE WINDS 173

met with more frequently in the lower latitudes, below 45° N. LEasterly
winds are always more prevalent in lower latitudes, corresponding to the
preponderance of the Westerly winds in high latitudes.

The distribution in the separate months of the year, and in seasonal
quarters, will lead to practically useful results. The following Table
shows :—

B.—GENERAL WIND TaBLeE of the North Atlantic, between Lat. 55° & 40°,
jor separate Quarters, and the Eight principal Points, nm
per-centages of the Wind’s frequency.

N N.

Quarter. W. Reine Fae able. Salar Pp. ¢.[p. C./p. c.|p. c.| p. c. |p. c.| p. c. |p. c.
° ° ° °

595 | (5550, 946 | — Poe le Fel (Ol 16 | 1 «onl aaa: ag

Winter. | 50—45| 4,886 1 ge -8 |) 9-20") 14.) Is a7 11a) ae

10,067 ob- {| 5, 5. | (50—45] 952 2 Saeelh opt eel) tote wa oon eae as

servations. (45—40) 1,241 1 3 Sil p16) etSh |e Zell Seed Oe Ome te

‘| 55—74 | 45401 2,042 1 2. Bat 8 | byl 9 tO. 1 lee Niete

595 | §55— S07 4 Beli Fe N12) Mie ibal = ae tS) tan 8

Spring. ( 50—45| 7,414 | — Pais tn Cogs Og ACT i pm er)

14,922 ob- {| 5... | (50—45] 1,042 | — Be 8) 6 lao te: Pie eae 3

servations. {45—40| 2,355 1 5 ob} Seby Bebe) 8 1de) 46> Lae 1@ i) 12

‘| 55—74 | 4540! 3,206 | 4 |10/10) 8|12! 18 | 16] 14 | 12

595 | (55—50| 1,340 | — ad hE Sile 8) ] 1S lS. (at ly as | 8

Summer. PaO 45 TOT | Ga Sie) Gul Ol aly | Boul teete

17,377 ob- {| 95 55 | (50—45] 1,787 2 Bb Gs) earl aphdSy! Tote bdo teior of te

servations. ( 14540, 2.770 | — 6G.) 6 TONG Neste oot ie sea ane

55—74 | 45—40| 4,409 2 CM 5 Wk Uk ol Fj aD co] ld Bsa

sae ae 1,033 2 Dull Gi hie Get Tlh Oke. a OOat ct mel ag

Autumn. ( 50—45| 6,083 | — 4) 85 et | eae te Note | ip tp

13,344 ob- /| 5... | ( 50—45) 1,603 2 3°) “C6 Mea 12 | dee ager a7 \as

servations. | | 4540 1,641 1 mW 0.01) Ya i Kl i Te Fs

‘| 55-74 | 4540! 2,984 1 4 | £07 S| GeO 12 ga) tyes

If we compare—

Long. OE anit NE.| E.|S.E] s. | S.W. al W.
Cc.

A. The distribution of the winds across the entire ocean, in the yearly

and quarterly periods, we see that the per-centages of the winds’ frequency
vary very much. If the differences of the per-centages, as compared with
the mean yearly values, are expressed by numbers five times too great,
and if we indicate by — when the quarterly number is smaller, and by +
when it is larger than the yearly number, we get (reckoning right across
the ocean) :—

Quarter. | Variable. \catms.

Winter ...... —1 —3/
SPIN es co c.6: —4 0
Autumn ... 0 —l

Summer ... —2 | +9

a

- 174 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

We perceive with remarkable clearness the double period of the decrease
of the N.E. to §.E. winds in winter and summer, in contrast to an increase
of the South to N.W. winds in the same seasons, and conversely an in-
crease of N.E. to S.E. winds in spring and autumn, and a less frequent
occurrence of the South to West winds at the same time. The reason why
the N.W. and North winds are proportionally less frequent in summer may
be because the region of average uniform heating of the oceanic atmosphere
then extends beyond 55° N., whilst in all other seasons the limit falls down
to 50° N., and so gives the cold polar wind an opportunity of breaking into
the warmer equatorial current at, or to the South of, 50° N. But if we
look at the distribution of the N.W. and North winds in separate meridional!
strips, we find them decidedly more frequent in the Eastern parts ot the
ocean, as far as 35° W. in summer (23 p.c.* against 21 p.c.; 27 p.c. against
24 ».c.); on the contrary, in the Western parts, as far as 74° W., they
occur much less often (16 p.c. against 24 p.c.; 15 p.c. against 25 p.c.).
Here the summer heating of the Huropean as well as the American con-
tinent evidently exerts its influence, and it attracts the cold N.W. wind of
the ocean towards the European coasts lying trom §.W. to N.E.; while
for the same reason it diminishes the frequency of this wind on the
American coast, and, on the other hand, must increase the 8.H. and South
winds (the Tables give 24 p.c. against 19 p.c.). These explanations as to
the causes of the prevailing summer winds on our coasts are here shown
by unequivocal numerical values.

B. An enquiry into the distribution of the winds with reference to longi-
tude only, seems still called for from our special considerations.

Our General Wind Table gives the following mean values of the winds’
frequency ; the per-centages are now doubled :—

|
Longitude. _ Variable. |

Calms| 1.E.| E.| 8.5. | 8. | s.w.| W. | NLW.| WN.
eee |
Between 5°—35°W.| 2 7 | 15 |19| 19 | 24] 32 | 37| 27 | 18
5 Meee Bp 8 g | 14 | 14] 15 | 24] 33 | 37] 99 | 93
» «Boo —74° W 2 |! g | ig |18| 14 |24| SO | 36) soeueeee
|
it RE Fe EN

=v |

From which it at once appears that between 35° and 55° W.., that is, in
the middle of the North Atlantic Ocean, the Easterly winds throughout
are less frequent than in the districts bordering it to the Hast and West ;
that the South winds are equally numerous in all three districts; the
remaining winds, between S.W. and North, are decidedly more frequent
in the central strip than to the West and Hast of it.

But if we again compare the per-centages of the same longitudinal
section in the year with the separate quarters, and keep to the above
notation, we obtain—

= —— Oe ee

* These figures are obtained by comparing the results for the summer, in Table B,
page 173, with those for the year, in Table A, page 172.

THE ANTI-TRADES OR PASSAGE WINDS, 176

1. Between 5° and 35° W., in doubled per-centages.

NE. | BSE ese SN. | We | NeW Ne

Quarter. | Variable. calms.

Winter ...... —1 —2| —2|; —3 Oo; +6; +4; +2; —2/] —2
Spring ...... —2 Oo}; +3; +5 7) +2; —4] —7| —4 0
Summer —2 +4; —2; —6; —5| —2) +4; +4/ +5 0
Autumn 0 —1; —1|; +1; +3; —2 Oo}; —2|} +3] -1

In the Eastern parts of the Atlantic, therefore, the distribution of the
winds in autumn agrees for the most part with the yearly mean, whilst
the absolute differences are greatest in spring and summer. In winter and
summer we find fewer Hast winds, but more Westerly winds, than in the
yearly mean; but S.W. to N.W. winds are more especially prevalent in
summer than in the year generally, and the preponderance of the N.W.
winds still continues inautumn. On the other hand, we find in spring a
strong set of cold Kasterly, z.e., continental winds from the Steppes towards
the ocean, and the 8.W. to N.W. winds must give way tothem. This is a
detailed confirmation of our above generalizations as to the causes of the
N.W. winds in summer. If the sea gets thoroughly warmed in summer,
we then have frequent calms near the Channel.

2. Between 35° and 55° W., in doubled per-centages.

Quarter. eveeatle. Calms.) N.E.| E. | Sz. Se 1 S-We i We. iN We ING

Winter ...... 0) —3 Oo} —1 1) On| —4 |) 68) | 4s! ee
Spring ...... =o o| +2); —1/ -—1] —2/ —1/ —2] 45! 42
Summer ...| —1 “P99 | =F Oo; +5| +6] +5| —8, —8
Autumn ) QO} +4) +1 Oo}; —1| —6| —5 44 | +3

The small numerical differences in winter and spring are very striking,
whilst in summer they are exceedingly high, and in autumn moderate ; on
the whole, however, they are smaller than between 5° and 35° W. The
change of the sign is about the same as before, but it is to be remarked
that in summer the N.W. and North winds are, relatively, extremely rare,
compared with the South to West winds, whilst in autumn exactly the
reverse takes place. The prevalence of Hasterly winds in spring and
autumn, which was exhibited between 5° and 35° W., is no longer trace-
able; these winds have exhausted themselves, 7.e., generally speaking (for,
e.g., in February, 1870, our steamers encountered, in 48° W., the Hast
wind which had come from 60° H., and brought the most severe winter
cold over central Germany, which was, by the way, a propagation in a
straight line of an Hasterly gale, which the advocates of the Cyclone
theory have not yet explained) ; at the best, the N.E. only occurs some-

176 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

what frequently in conjunction with N.W. and North, evidently in tne
closest connection with the decreasing northern declination of the sua.

8. Between 55° and 74° W., in double per-centages.

| ican
Quarter. | Variable. |Calms, N.H.) E. 8.E.| 8. s.W. | w. |nw.| N.

Winter ...... 0 ei) —9| —9] —4| —6|—10) -2) eee
Spring ...... 0 0 | 2| +2) +2 0o|—4 Oo; +2
ummer +2 a6 O} +4/ +6 | 419)| =o) Sere
Autumn 0 Oo; 42} —2| —2| —4|—6 0 |. + Gir

That the characteristics of summer and winter vary greatly from the
yearly mean is seen immediately, and at the same time the almost com-
plete discontinuance of the symmetry in the variation of the wind numbers
in winter and summer on the one hand, as compared with spring and
autumn on the other. Certainly the Hasterly winds fall short in winter
but with them also the Southerly and South-Westerly, and, in their stead,
the powerful winds from N.W. and North prevail, which are known to
sailors as the dreaded snow-storms. In spring, if the sea cannot rise in
temperature as quickly as the flat American continent, owing to the flow
of ice over the Banks of Newfoundland, the N.E. to S.E. winds blow on
to the land; in summer, the cool §.EK. to §.W. winds prevail on the
American coast, blowing from the cool sea on to the land, which has been
raised to Italian heat, until, at length, in autumn, the cold N.W. wind
accompanies the sudden transition to winter. As, in summer, with the
increasing Northern declination of the sun, the Gulf Stream also advances
some degrees to the Northward, calms are not rare, owing to the greater
equality of temperature between land and sea.

The task now remains to us—after having investigated the distribution
of the Winds, so important for general climatology, according to longitude
—to prove whether, for the practical purposes of navigation (and we always
keep in view the interests of sailing vessels as well as steamers) :—

C. The distribution of the winds according to latitude and longitude leads
to results which are worth notice.

The question now presents itself whether a ship, in any certain season
of the year, should keep a decidedly or partially Northern or Southern
course from and to America, and what she should do in any certain position
if overtaken by contrary wind or gale.

We have only to deal with the general question what answer should be
made for the separate quarters of the year. With this object we shall
investigate for each longitudinal section the simple per-centages of the
winds to the North and South of the latitudes under consideration. If
the Southern zone has a less per-centage than the Northern, we shal]
denote the same by the sign —, and the converse by the sign +.

THE ANTI-TRADES OR PASSAGE WINDS, 177

1. Between 5° and 35° W., in doubled per-centages,

mee, — a
Quarter. | Variable. \Calms. N.E.| E. | S.E.} S. |S.W.} W. pow N.

ee a

aol ed 0 | —10 soe 0

Winter ...... +2 Seri Eta ees

Spring ...... 0 +2) +8 0; —8]|] —8 0 Oo; +2) +4
Summer (0) +2); +6) +2) —4] —8|/| —4/—2/ 44] 44
Autumn —4 +4) +4) +4 Oo; +4; —8 —10 Oo; +6

The differences increase steadily from winter and spring until autumn,
otherwise they are pretty equal. Therefore, in winter, we have to expect
more Easterly winds to the South of 50° N., and fewer South to N.W.
winds, than to the Northward of 50° N.; in spring, the N.W. to N.E.
winds prevail to the South of 50° N., while the S.E. and South winds
greatly decrease ; also in summer, where the 8.H. to West winds are in
the minority, and the same in autumn, where to the South of 50° N. the
North to N.E. winds and South winds are in the minority.

Accordingly, on an average, outward-bound vessels would do better to
keep to the Southward of latitude 50° N., and homeward-bound ships
would mostly stand a better chance to the Northward of 50° N. Of course
we exclude the special conditions of each month, which may be worked
out in the same manner as the above results for seasons.

2. Between 35° and 55° W.

|]
Quarter. | Variable. Calms. N.E.| E.

——_ | ——————_— |X | — |

—————— | a | a | fe

Winter ...... —2 2| +4) —2, +2 Onl Eo On 9 | ee
Spring ...... +2 4 Oo; —6} +4 +4 O|—2]| —4] -2
Summer —4 +2); +2; +2/ +10/ +6] —6);—4]/ -6] -2
Autumn —2 +4; +4] +6 | +10) —2| —6|—12| —2 0

In this strip the differences increase considerably until autumn; in all
the seasons we find fewer West to N.W. winds to the South of 45° N. than
to the North of it, so that a ship desirous of avoiding inconvenience from
South to 8.W. winds, has only to hold off to the Northward in order to
continue her outward course on the starboard tack with success. In
summer and autumn especially we find more N.E. to §.E. winds to the
South of 45° N. than to the North of it, but of course it must not be for-
gotten that the absolute frequency of Hasterly winds is generally less than
the Westerly.

(108.) Captain H. Toynbee, the Marine Superimtendent of the Meteoro-
logical Department of the Board of Trade, made a rigid examination of a
very important series of logs, kept by Captain J. A. Martyn, of the Royal

N. A. O. 24

178 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

Mail Steamers’ tracks between the Channel and New York.* There were
eight of these logs, and for each of them a separate diagram was made
(which cannot be given here), exhibiting the character of wind, weather,
barometric pressure, air and sea surface temperature, the specific gravity
of the sea-water, and the readings of the dry and wet bulb thermometers.
Being thus uniformly arranged, a series of important deductions was derived
from their teachings by Captain Toynbee, which bear out in a remarkable
degree the observations previously made by Sir John Herschel and Mr.
Birt, on Barometric Waves (see (36) and (37), pp. 116—117 ante).

(109.) Captain Toynbee remarks :—Having considered the eight dia-
grams, I propose giving a few more facts before drawing any conclusions.

First, the peculiar undulations in the barometric curves, accompanied
by corresponding changes in the wind, weather, and temperature, are quite
in accordance with the experience of seamen in corresponding Southern
latitudes; there, from the latitude of the Cape of Good Hope down to
55° S., a similar series of changes is experienced, the winds commencing
at North and ending at West or S.W.; it will be borne in mind that in
this case the South is the polar wind. There, also, ships running to the
Eastward seem to keep company with a Westerly gale, so that the wind
continues from the same quarter for days.

With the object of discovering the breadth of these belts of Southerly
wind accompanied by a decreasing pressure, and of Westerly wind accom-
panied by an increasing pressure, I have calculated the number of geo-
graphical miles which the ship steamed to pass through them, and find
from seven of those on diagram 1, that each belt occupied about 20 hours,
and the ship steamed about 150 miles; also, that in diagram 1, the
Westerly wind belts were about as broad as the Southerly ones. Now,
by referring to the homeward passages, it will be seen that the steamer
often kept in the same wind for days together, and in some cases had a
decreasing pressure with a North-Westerly wind, and an increasing
pressure with a Southerly wind ; it therefore seems probable that she then
kept pace with the general motion of the gale to the Kastward, and, in
fact, sometimes outstripped it, so that we can hardly be wrong in esti-
mating that these systems of winds were travelling to the Hastward at
least at a rate of about eight miles an hour ; hence, on the outward passage,
whilst the ship steamed 150 miles to the Westward, the gale, by a rough
estimate, may be said to have moved about 150 miles to the Eastward,
giving a breadth of about 300 miles for each of the Westerly and Southerly
wind belts.

(110.) The accompanying quotation from a letter I received from Captain
R. Inglis, Marine Superintendent to the Cunard line of steamers, contains
the opinion of one who has had great experience in Atlantic weather. He
thinks that the Westerly winds of the Atlantic are caused by the meeting
of two currents of air; whether he be right or not, his facts are very in-
teresting. Writing from Liverpool, he says :—‘‘ Between this country and
New York is the route of which I have had most experience, and the

* “ Report on the Meteorology of the Nortn Atlantic, petween the parallels of 40° and
50° N.,”’ by Captain Henry Toynbee, 1869.

THE ANTI-TRADES OR PASSAGE WINDS. 179

locality in which we have the most interest here.” . . . ‘ Drawing a
line N.E. from the Caribbean Sea clear of the Coast of Florida, it would
cut our track to New York between the meridians of 40° and 50° W. ; this
will be found to be the Western limit of the great S.W. Equatorial current;
this current of air from the §.W. touching the earth is now brought into
contact with the North wind flowing to the Southward, and the steady
flow of the two currents, upper and lower, is interrupted; the Northerly
current in the latitude I have named will then have a course from nearly
due North, certainly not past N.N.E., the Southerly current of air will be
S.W., therefore, by coming into collision, an almost continuous Westerly
wind will blow between 40° W. and England.” ak cg Ue

‘“« Having accepted this theory, I determined to put it to a practical test,
when commanding the screw steamer Alp, in 1857. It so happened that
whilst making a passage from Havre to New York we fell in with a heavy
gale of wind from the Westward, and it occurred to me that the wind being
West I was in the line of contact, so that if my theory were correct, the
more I steered to the Northward the more the wind would norther. We
were steering West, so I put the ship’s head off to N.W., and set the fore
and aft sails; the ship’s way increased, and in twelve hours the wind
hauled sufficiently to the Northward to enable me to lay my course on the
starboard tack; by attending to this we beat the Africa, one of our powerful
mail boats, a whole day.

‘*¢ Aoain, coming from New York, we often fall in with a S.W. gale, with
the weather bright and clear; this will continue for one or two days, how
long depends upon the northing we are making; if the ship is going due
Kast she may carry the §.W. wind right across the Atlantic; if she is
making northing she will fall in with drizzling rain; when this occurs,
look owt, for the wind will fly round to N.W. suddenly. This has become
a saying with sailors navigating the Atlantic, and it is always so, for then
the ship is approaching the line of contact; the S.W. wind being warm
and laden with moisture is coming into contact with the cold North wind,
condensation ensues, and rain is the consequence. After the shift to N.W.
we have squalls of hail; finally, as the ship gets to the Northward, the
wind hauls to North, and we have fine clear weather.

«This, as a rule, is a true explanation of the steady gales we meet with
in the Atlantic, which, in mid-ocean, last for six or seven days; but this is
not always the form which these two currents take, very often we meet with
rotary storms of small circumference. When steaming out to the West-
ward we often meet with these circlets, if I may so name them; in them
we have the wind from all points of the compass during the twenty-four
hours, with rain and dirty weather, not blowing very hard, but still dis-
agreeable ; this may last three, four, or five days; now these rotary storms
are all going on ata rapid rate to the Hastward, and finally strike our coast;
they are occasioned by the opposing currents of air being of unequal force,
and would naturally resolve themselves into the rotary form.

‘‘Tt is a singular thing to note that this current of air very rarely touches
the Coast of Spain; the times in which they have aS.W. gale on the Coast
of Spain, South of Cape St. Vincent, during a year, might be counted on
your fingers.

180 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

“On the contrary, I have no hesitation in saying that during eleven
months of the year there is a strong Northerly wind blowing down the
Coasts of Spain and Portugal, and further the prevailing wind in the
Mediterranean is from the North, and this is the way I account for the
supply of air being kept up that is necessary to fill up the vacuum caused
by the air ascending near the Line.

‘Tf this theory be true, it follows that the great object of gathering the
data you wish our captains and others navigating the Atlantic to collect,
will be to determine where the line of contact is at the different seasons; of
course it will vary North or South according to the declination of the sun.

‘Tt would be of immense benefit to us to know that, on the passage out,
by keeping to the North we should ensure Northerly winds, and that
during the homeward passage a more Southerly course would keep our
ships in a South-Westerly wind.”

(111.) It seems quite clear that the steady Westerly winds spoken of by
Captain Inglis were experienced during the passage home, whilst the quick
changing circlets to which he alludes were met with on the outward passage,
which facts are borne out by Captain Martyn’s log; and the natural con-
clusion is that homeward the ship was moving with a wave or system of
weather, whilst outward she met several such waves.

(112.) Temperature, &c.—It is a curious coincidence that the spot which
Captain Inglis speaks of as the Western limit of the great South- Westerly
Equatorial current of air is the position of the Eastern edge of the first
cold water met with on the outward passage, and where Northerly dis-
turbances seem to be very common in the wind.

The effect of the Temperature of the surface water on the wind and
weather seems to be a phenomenon of universal occurrence; in the warm
water on the Eastern edge of the Agulhas Bank the wind is notoriously
unsteady, insomuch that however fresh and fair the wind may have been
toa ship coming from the Eastward, she is almost sure to get baffling
unsettled weather in this warm water, and the clouds have a more tropical
doldrum appearance : whereas, in the patchesof cold water in the Southern
Hemisphere, hail squalls from the 8.W. are common (see my paper on
the Specific Gravity, Temperature, and Currents of the seas passed through
during five voyages from England to India, read before the Royal Geo-
graphical Society, May 8th, 1865), just as hail and snow-storms from the
N.W. are common in the cold water to the Eastward of North America,
and ships are said to run out of it into the warm water of the Gulf Stream
to refit after a fight with a winter gale. In fact, over cold and warm
water in close proximity, we have the same forces in operation as those
which enable land and sea-breezes to reverse the prevailing wind of the
season ; and if atmospheric pressure relatively increases over cold water,
then according to Buys-Ballot’s Law, there would be a tendency to
Northerly winds on the Eastern edge of a patch of cold water in the
Northern Hemisphere, whilst Southerly winds would be more prevalent
on its Western edge, unless its effect be masked by greater influences.

It will be noticed that from England to about 40° W. and 47° N. the
surface temperature is very uniform; in diagrams 5 and 6 this uniform
temperature extends farther West; then in about 49° W. a patch of cold

THE ANTI-TRADES OR PASSAGE WINDS. 181

water generally exists, after which streaks of warm and cold water were
met with. On reaching longitude 65° W., a sudden decrease took place
in the temperature of the surface water, with water somewhat warmer
farther to the Westward.

The Specific Gravity is a difficult observation to make on board ship
when there is much motion. Captain Martyn and Captain Watson fre
quently found the water warmer at 20 feet deep than at the surface, which
taken together with the fact that the cold water has the least specific
gravity, makes it possible that the Gulf Stream passes under this cold
water on its way to the North-Hastward.*

(113.) The dry and damp bulbs show clearly that the West and N.W
winds were generally the driest experienced during the eight passages, but
there happened to have been very little Hasterly wind. There are some
striking instances of extreme dryness in air which, having passed over
cold, was then over warm water.

9. Storms In THE NortH ATLANTIC OCEAN, BETWEEN Lat. 40° & 55°.

(114.) A careful study of any series of the North Atlantic Weather
Charts will show that Northward of the Trades the general tendency of
atmospheric disturbances is from West to Hast, or from W.S.W. to H.N.E,
Nevertheless, there is no certainty that any Storm met with will follow
the usual path; it may suddenly turn off in a different direction, or may
disappear altogether. They also vary greatly in their area; one may cover
the whole extent of the Northern Atlantic Ocean, while another may be
of very limited dimensions. Many vessels widely apart may be involved
in the same disturbance, or two vessels, comparatively close together, may
meet with totally different weather. One may be experiencing a violent
gale, of which the other may be in complete ignorance. This variation,
in the shape and size of a Storm system, is one of the most harassing
uncertainties with which the navigator has to deal. He knows by careful
watching of his barometer that there is bad weather in his immediate
vicinity, he ultimately decides his position with regard to the approaching
disturbance, but the magnitude, limits, and intensity he can know nothing
of until he has experienced its extent and felt its violence.

Several storm areas travelling to the Eastward sometimes follow one
another in quick succession, moving along their path at an average speed
of 18 to 20 miles an hour. In this case, vessels bound in opposite direc-
tions would apparently meet with different weather at the same time in

* In Captain Watson’s last log I find the following entry :—March 27th, 1869, position
at noon, lat. 40° 42’ N., long. 63° 28’ W.
Noon, surfave temperature 67°; specific gravity 1:0270
2 p.m. ‘ 38°: x 1:0260
4 p.m. oF 38°; 7
5 p.m. “ 52°; 3 1:0265
(The ship was steaming to the Hastward).
Here there were two sudden changes of Temperature and Specific Gravity in a few
hours. The correction for Temperature has not been applied to the Specific Gravity
observations ; it would have increased the difference between those of the warm and
cold water.

182 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

the same place. A vessel bound from Europe to America would pass
through a succession of heavy gales, while a powerful steamer homeward
bound might outstrip the gale, or remain involved for days in one storm
system.

(115.) ‘‘ We are, then, in possession of facts to prove that between the
latitudes of 35° and 50° of both hemispheres the air commonly moves to
the Eastward in a series of gales or systems of wind, which commence
with an equatorial wind, increasing temperature, and decreasing pressure;
that during a heavy shower of rain, when the pressure is at its lowest, the
wind shifts suddenly to a Westerly or even more polar direction, accom-
panied by a sudden increase of pressure and decrease of temperature, and
commonly followed by finer weather. This isso thoroughly understood
by experienced seamen, that when the pressure is decreasing fast, with an
equatorial wind, and a heavy shower of rain comes on, accompanied fre-
quently by a lull in the wind, they prepare for the sudden shift of wind,
which generally comes in a gust.

‘Tt seems probable that these systems of wind, which have such regular
habits, are waves of air rolling along to the N.H. in the Northern, and to
the §.E. in the Southern Hemisphere ; that in their front the warm air is
rising, and losing part of its moisture and weight by condensation, until a
climax of low pressure comes, which is immediately followed by a downward
rush of cold air, forming a West or N.W. wind, causing the heavy shower
of rain or hail when it first comes in contact with the lower warm air; also
an increasing pressure and decreasing temperature.

“‘The North-EHasterly direction taken by these waves, would most likely
be due to the existence of a lower pressure over the Northern part of the
Atlantic than over the land to the Eastward of it; whereas the changes
of wind from South by the West to N.W. would be due to the internal
action of the wave as it sweeps along; a section of the wave would
represent a kind of revolving motion in the air, with its lower edge press-
ing on the earth’s surface, whilst its upper edge is well inclined towards
the Pole.

‘“‘ Professor Buys-Ballot says :—‘ It is certain that, if after an unfayvour-
able condition of pressure a S.W. wind has set in, which has veered with
stormy weather towards N.W., we find that generally a very unfavourable
condition, and usually the greatest difference, will be observed next day,
without being followed by fresh wind.’ May not this be because part of
the North-Westerly wind is a downward motion instead of its being
horizontal ?

“During Captain Martyn’s outward passages (to which reference has been
made in (108) ) he had a decreasing pressure with a Southerly wind, and
an increasing pressure with a Westerly and North-Westerly wind, show-
ing that he was meeting gales; whilst during his homeward passages he
had the pressure and wind steady for days together, showing that he was
either moving to the Eastward about as fast as the gale, or steaming faster
than the gale was moving, and had a decreasing pressure with a Northerly
wind, and an increasing pressure with a Southerly wind, caused by his
entering these systems of wind on the opposite side to what he did on the
passage out.

—

THE ANTI-TRADES OR PASSAGE WINDS. 183:

“The setting in of a Southerly wind with a decreasing pressure imme--
diately after a North-Westerly wind on the outward passage is illustrated
by the diagrams,* which explain the nautical saying that the wind backs to
blow. Experience shows that the common habit of the wind in these
latitudes is to back from N.W. to South, the exception being when it com-
pletes the circuit and goes to North and East.”

(116.) Captain Toynbee, in his pamphlet on ‘‘ Weather Forecasting,”
remarks :—Systems of low barometric pressure change their positions and
sometimes move very quickly, generally having a high barometer to their
right and a low barometer to their left as they proceed along their tracks.
Considering the general disposition of barometric pressure in the Northern
part of the Atlantic, which has been alluded to in (25), we have the reason
why the Atlantic storms generally move along an Easterly track, and
often diverge to the North-Hastward as they approach our islands; in fact,
they have a tendency to move as subsidiary systems round the South and
East sides of a prevailing area of low barometric pressure which has its
centre somewhere to the Southward of Iceland.

(117.) Cyclones and Anti-Cyclones.—Before proceeding farther with this
subject, it is necessary that some description should be given of the two
classes of atmospheric disturbance, to which several allusions have been
made in the preceding pages, especially in Section 2, on ‘‘ The Motions
and Pressure of the Atmosphere,” pages 108—124. Farther on, when we
describe the Winds of the British Isles, we shall give further particulars
respecting them, illustrated by diagrams showing the distribution of
Clouds and Weather.

(118.) Cyclones.—The term ‘‘ Cyclone,” says Mr. Ley, ‘‘ was originally
only applied to the Hurricanes of the lower latitudes, but since the laws
which connect the wind with the distribution of pressure have been shown
to be universal, it is obvious that around any area of reduced pressure the
wind must circulate in the same general way as it circulates in a Tropical
Hurricane. Now the areas of reduced pressure, though subject to great
variety of figure, approximate, generally speaking, to circular or oval forms,
as we should, from our general knowledge of the motion of fluids, expect
to be the case. All such systems of reduced pressure, and their co-existing
systems of currents, are therefore spoken of as ‘‘ Cyclonic.’’}

In a Cyclonic system, in the Northern Hemisphere, the wind blows
round a central area of low barometric pressure, in
a direction contrary to the hands of a watch, draw-
ing slightly inwards towards the centre, as shown
Area of Pressure in the accompanying diagram. From this the in-

apa ference is drawn that within a relatively low baro-

to that of metric area the air is ascending, consequent on the
gurrounding area. :
condensation of aqueous vapour over a large area,
while the surrounding air is forced in by the higher
pressure upon it.

* “Report on the Meteorology of the North Atlantic, between lat. 40° and 50° N.,”
by Captain H. Toynbee.
+ “ Aids to the Study and Forecast of Weather,” by W. Clement Ley, M.A,

184 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

Mr. Ley remarks :—‘ The district in which the condensation is most
active occupies the front of the Cyclone. A little consideration will show
that over the North Temperate Zone it is on the Eastern side of a Cyclone
that this condition will in ordinary cases occur, since it is on this side that
we have Southerly winds, while these winds, in moving from warm to
colder regions, experience a diminution in their capacity for holding water
vapour.

««A Cyclone must not therefore be regarded as a revolving disk, the
whole of which is propelled over the earth’s surface, but rather as an eddy
of spirally ascending air, which eddy is being constantly reproduced on one
side of its original position. Fresh portions of the atmosphere are thus
perpetually thrown into cyclonic circulation, and it is only by a metaphor
that a progressive Cyclone can be said to preserve its identity during its
progress.

‘Cyclonic systems exhibit the tendency to run in a series, a fact which
it is difficult to explain, if a Cyclone is regarded simply as a revolving disk.
When the atmosphere over an extensive district is much charged with
water vapour, the formation of a large nimbus is sufficient to originate a
Cyclonic system ; but a considerable portion of the atmosphere which is
drawn into the circulation never reaches the front of the Cyclone at all,
being left behind, as the Cyclone is rapidly developed over another part of
the earth’s surtace; this part of the atmosphere, therefore, falls calm before
it has parted with its aqueous vapour, and is in the condition favourable
for the propagation of another system.

«An objection to the condensation theory of Cyclones is occasionally
drawn from the fact that 7 some cases both heavy and extensive rainfall
is found to occur in the immediate rear of a centre of depression, when
travelling Eastwards. Recent investigations, however, render it probable
that the axis of a progressive Cyclone is commonly so inclined, that at the
height of a few thousand feet above the earth’s surface the area of least
pressure lags considerably behind the area of least pressure observed at
the earth’s surface. It will therefore occasionally happen that, over the
wind which blows in the rear of a depression, currents flow in nearly an
opposite direction to that wind. These latter currents consequently pre-
cipitate their water through the lower stratum of relatively dry air.”

Bearing of the Centre.—In accordance with Buys-Ballot’s Law, a person
standing with his back to the wind, in the Northern Hemisphere, near any
low barometric area, will have the centre about two points to the front of
his left hand, or, in other words, with a ship running before the wind,
about two points before the port beam. By the direction of the wind he
may know in what part of a Cyclonic area his vessel is; by his barometer
he can tell whether the centre is approaching or leaving him; and knowing
the usual track of such Storms he can manoeuvre so as to avoid the centre.
(See the Section on Hurricanes or Tropical Cyclones hereafter).

As the Cyclone moves along its course, it is evident that the barometer
will be falling more or less at every portion of the front, and rising more
or less everywhere in the rear, so that there must be aline of places some-
where across the Cyclone where the barometer has touched its lowest point
and is just going to rise. This line is called the ‘“ trough ” of the Cyclone,

THE ANTI-TRADES OR PASSAGE WINDS. 185

(119). Anti-Cyclones.—In (34) an Anti-Cyclonic system is described as
an area of relatively high barometric pressure,
around which, in the Northern Hemisphere, the
wind blows with watch-hands, 7.e., contrary to what
it does in a Cyclone, but drawing slightly owt from

Area of Pressure

relatively the centre, as shown in the adjoining diagram. It
pee is conjectured that within such an area the air is

surrounding area, descending from higher regions, and spreads out

over the lower barometric areas surrounding it,

Mr. Ley remarks :—“ An Anti-Cyclone represents
the position of a downward movement of the air,
which has lost the greater part of its water vapour in previous Cyclonic
circulations. In the district, therefore, near the central calm of an Anti-
Cyclone, the currents take up instead of precipitating vapour ; this explains
why it has no principle of progressive development (or forward movement).
The Anti-Cyclone presents a great contrast to the Cyclone in this respect,
that instead of shifting their geographical position rapidly, they are ex-
ceedingly sluggish in their movements; and, indeed, frequently remain
stationary for a very considerable period.

(120.) ‘‘Here the reader is warned against another possible misappre-
hension. ‘The terms ‘Cyclone’ and ‘ Anti-Cyclone’ do not refer to the
actual level of the barometer within the areas to which they are applied,
but to its level relatively to the level in surrounding districts. The observer
may find the mercury in his barometer above its mean height (23), and yet
may possibly be situated at the centre of a Cyclonic system at the time,
because the mercury may be still higher at all stations at a certain distance
from his own. Contrariwise he may find the mercury in his barometer below
the mean, and yet may be at the centre of an Anti-Cyclone, because the
barometers on all sides of his station may have lower readings at the time
than his own.”

(121.) Captain H. Toynbee, in his pamphlet ‘‘ Weather Forecasting for
the British Islands,’ published in 1890, remarks: ‘ It is clear that winds
from all directions blow in connection with each of these systems. For
instance, both have a South wind, but with very different characters. In
the case of a Cyclonic or low barometer system, the South wind is on the
Eastern side, where the air is rising and haying its vapour condensed into
cloud and rain, by which heat is given out. In the case of an Anti-
Cyclonic or high barometer area, the South wind is on the Western side,
where the air is descending and is comparatively cool and dry, haying a
tendency to take up moisture instead of giving it out.

‘‘ Between the South wind on the Western side of an Anti-Cyclone and
the South wind on the Hastern side of a distant Cyclonic area, there will
be a prevailing Southerly wind, and in passing from the high to the low
barometric area, a position will be come to where the air will cease to
descend. As the low pressure area is approached, the ascending air will
be entered, and clouds and rain will be experienced.

‘“‘Hixperience shows that when a storm-centre has passed away, it is
frequently followed by a mere ridge of relatively high barometer ; between

IVA Oe 25

186 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

which and the storm which has passed away the wind has veered from
S.W. to West and N.W., accompanied by a fast-rising barometer and
generally very fine weather. The first indication of there being another
storm to the Westward of the ridge is given by the appearance of cirrus
clouds, which generally move from the N.W. or West. When the crest of
the ridge has passed, the barometer begins to fall, and the wind backs to
the Southward of West as the Eastern side of the incoming storm-centre
approaches the observer.”

(122.) The following remarks are taken from the section on Cyclonic
Gales of the North Temperate Zone, given in the ‘‘ Barometer Manual.”

These gales generally commence at South, and end at West or N.W.,
with little or no Kast wind. The probable reason of this is that the areas
of low pressure to which they are related have steep gradients only on their
East, S.E., South, and §.W. sides, there being little or no difference of
pressure between their centre and the more permanent depression which
lies to the North of them.

Whenever areas of both high and low pressure are liable to pass over any
region it is obvious that the direction of the wind, taken alone, will not be
a sufficient guide as to what weather is to be expected. If, for instance,
in the Northern Hemisphere, an area of high pressure be passing off to the
Eastward, the wind in the rear of it will veer through 8.H. to South.
Although this direction of the wind shows that the barometrical readings
are lower to the Westward than to the Eastward, it is not by any means
an indication that a serious diminution of pressure, which may possibly
bring a Storm with it, is approaching, although the wind in front of such a
depression would be Southerly also. It is therefore necessary in such
circumstances to look for other signs, besides the mere direction of the
wind, when striving to foresee what is coming.

Moreover, it must always be remembered that, although it is most com-
monly in connexion with considerable falls of the barometer that severe
Storms are experienced, yet the sudden large increase of pressure which
not infrequently follows such depressions, or takes place in their proximity,
may be accompanied by very violent winds. Caution, therefore, will always
be requisite on the occasion of any sudden change of pressure, whether it
be in the direction of increase or decrease.

The Cyclonic Storms of the Temperate Zones do not often present the
phenomena of a central calm, with the winds blowing from nearly opposite
directions on each side of it. There is, therefore, not so much risk of being
taken aback asin the Tropical Cyclones; the tack on which it will be safest
to lie-to, if obliged to do so, will be the same as that for the Cyclones (to
the Chapter on which the reader is referred).

The most serious sudden shift of wind which is to be expected in these
Storms is that from 8.W. to N.W., in the Northern Hemisphere. This is
generally accompanied by heavy rain or hail, with thunder and lightning,
while the temperature falls several degrees with the first blast of the N.W.
wind.

In considering how to act in such circumstances, there are two matters
to which the seaman’s attention should be directed, as they seriously affect
the conclusions he should draw from his barometer readings.

THE ANTI-TRADES OR PASSAGE WINDS. 187

The first is that on the one tack his barometer has a tendency to rise, on
the other it has a tendency to fall. The tack of rising barometer is the
starboard in the Northern, the port in the Southern Hemisphere. This
may be explained as follows :—

According to Buys-Ballot’s Law, in the Northern Hemisphere, the lower
barometer is on your left when your back is turned to the wind, and as
when you are thus placed a ship on the starboard tack is advancing towards
your right, she goes towards the higher barometer and recedes from the
lower. In the Southern Hemisphere this is reversed. But this rule will
only be strictly applicable so long as no change takes place in the baro-
metric pressure, and it may so happen that a high pressure towards which
the ship is going may be receding from her faster than she sails, and a
lower pressure may be coming up astern and overtaking her ; or it may be
that a lower pressure towards which the ship is sailing may be moving
away faster than she sails.

Still the influence of the tack must always be felt, and on the whole it
may be said that in the Northern Hemisphere, a rising barometer on the
starboard tack is not a sufficient indication of improving weather, and other
signs should be looked for before trusting it. In all cases for the Northern
Hemisphere a rising barometer on the port tack is a valuable indication of
improving weather, while a falling barometer on the starboard tack is an
important warning in the other direction. This order is reversed in the
Southern Hemisphere.

The second point to consider is the relation which the course and speed
of the ship bear to the tracks and progress of the areas of low barometric
pressure and their corresponding wind systems, in parts of the ocean where
the general tracks of Storms are known.

Ships bound Westward across the Atlantic meet the advancing Storm
systems, and when homeward bound run with them; consequently, the
rapidity with which the barometer falls or rises and the wind shifts is pro-
portionately greater in the former case than in the latter.

(123.) From the same pamphlet we make the following extracts con-
cerning the ordinary Gales of the North Temperate Zone.

The ordinary gales of the North Temperate Zone commence at §.E. or
South and end at West or N.W. The following may be cited as an illus-
tration of what frequently occurs to a sailing ship. A homeward-bound
ship, in about lat. 45° N., long. 30° W., falls in with a fresh Southerly
wind, and from what has been said, the captain knows that there is a lower
pressure to the West of him, and he may safely consider that it is travelling
to the Eastward ; but his ship is also going East, and his barometer may
remain steady, or even rise if he is outstripping the low pressure in its
advance.

In the event of having to heave-to, the amount of fall in the barometer
per hour is a good though not certain guide ; a fall of -04 to -10 of an inch
per hour is usually considered to be a serious indication of the approach
of a Southerly gale, which may be followed by an equally fast rise, acecom-
panied by a West or N.W. gale.

With a Southerly wind and falling barometer, a ship bound to the West:
ward might gain by running to the Northward with the object of causing

188 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

the wind to back to the Eastward, but the type of gale in which this is
possible resembles a Cyclone, and does not represent the ordinary gales of
these latitudes which begin at South and end at West or N.W. Again, it
might be possible for a ship, with the first of the Southerly wind which
exists on the East side of the area of low pressure, to get less wind by
running to the North, but as the extent in latitude of the Cyclone area is
not known, and as there is no certainty that she would get into more
moderate weather by doing so, she might do herself more harm than good.

It seems, then, probable that a ship bound to the Southward or West-
ward must face one of these gales if she meets it. A weak ship, whose
object is to stem the sea and get safely through, without considering pro-
gress, should lie-to on the starboard tack, as the wind generally shifts from
South to S.W., West, and N.W. This would of course be the best plan for
any ship which found the gale too heavy for her. But a well-conditioned
ship, bound to the Westward, may keep on the port tack until the wind
shifts to West with a rising barometer, and then tack to the South-West-
ward. This plan would, of course, tend to bring her into the trough of the
sea, and she would be more likely to be caught aback as the wind changed,
but we are assuming that her captain will be prepared to meet these risks.

When the wind has shifted to N.W., the starboard tack takes her away
from the centre of such a disturbance, though she may soon sail into the
Southerly wind of the Eastern side of another low-pressure area coming
towards her. This would be a very common occurrence in winter.

(124.) Captain H. Toynbee, in the pamphlet mentioned in the note on
page 178, remarks :—There are some practical questions respecting these
gales which are of great importance to seamen, one of them being: When
a ship is bound to the Westward, and meets the Southerly wind on the
Eastern edge of one of these gales, can she bring about a more favourable
wind by running to the North, or otherwise mancuvring, or must she
undergo all its changes from South by the West to W.N.W. or N.W. as it
is sweeping by her to the Eastward ?

We are not without evidence leading to the supposition that there is a
polar limit to these Westerly gales ; for instance, Buchan, in his ‘‘ Handy
Book of Meteorology,” gives a Table of the prevailing winds in January,
which shows that Iceland has about an equal amount of wind from all
directions, whilst the prevailing wind in Greenland is Easterly, and in
Newfoundland North-Westerly. The Meteorological Journal of H.M.S.
Rattlesnake, Captain Trollope, R.N., shows that when she was frozen up
in Port Clarence, Behring Strait, during the winter of 1853 and 1854, she
experienced North-Hasterly winds for two-thirds of the time.

It seems probable that Westerly gales are not so common in 60° N. orS.
as they are in 40° or 50°, so that, other circumstances being equally favour-
able, the higher latitudes are the better for making westing. It is common
with seamen to call the zone between lat. 40° and 50° ‘‘the Roaring Forties,”
which seems to support the above idea.

If these Westerly gaies extend over several degrees of latitude, there
does not seem to be any chance for a ship bound Westward to bring about
a change by maneeuyring until they have swept by, and if the wind is not
so strong as to make a beam sea dangerous, the best plan seems to be to

THE ANTI-TRADES OR PASSAGE WINDS. 189

follow Captain Inglis’ example (110), and in the Northern Hemisphere to
stand on the port tack until the wind shifts to West or N.W., when the
starboard tack would be the most favourable.

Then, again, the strength of these gales certainly seems to bear some
relation to the amount of atmospheric depression ; but gales that com-
mence at South and end at West or N.W., with an absence of Hasterly
winds, cannot be dealt with as ordinary Cyclones, though there can be
little doubt that the starboard, being the ‘‘ coming up ”’ tack, is the best
to lie-to upon in the Northern Hemisphere, as it enables a ship to stem
the sea.

(125.) The Report of the Director of the New York Meteorological
Observatory for 1872 contains some interesting information respecting
Storms in the North Atlantic Ocean. Charts are constructed in the
Observatory, illustrating the progress and direction of barometrical and
thermometrical waves crossing the United States, and the influence exer-
cised by them on the regions which they pass, and endeavours have been
made to trace from these data the progress of American Storms across the
Atlantic, and to predict the time of their arrival on the European coasts.
For this purpose the registers at the New York Observatory were com-
pared with those kept at Valentia and Falmouth, distant about 3,100 miles,
and it was thus found that there are many atmospheric waves which
traverse the Atlantic, and that within certain limits the times of their
passage may be pretty accurately predicted. ‘If, in the case of a Westerly
wind, which is travelling about 200 miles in twenty-four hours, the
exact time be found at the lowest reading of the barometer, and the
speed be ascertained for 24 hours before and after that time, the mean of
these two numbers will give the true rate of the storm in 24 hours. Thus,
if 4,200 be divided by the number thus found, the result will be the number
of days which the Storm will take to cross from New York to Valentia or
Falmouth.” An actual example of the application of this rule is given,
and is worth quoting :—‘‘ On the 4th of October, 1869, there occurred a
low barometer at the New York Observatory at 1 p.m. In the 24 previous
hours the wind had travelled 313 miles ; and, in the 24 succeeding, it made
286 miles. The mean of these numbers is 299, by which, if 4,200 be divided,
the result is 14 days for the passage of the Storm across the Atlantic.”
This calculation was exactly right, for the Storm arrived at Falmouth on
the 18th of October.

It is stated in the report that, from the year 1869 to 1872, the computa-
tions made respecting 86 atmospheric disturbances expected to cross the
Atlantic failed in only three instances to give accurate results. ~ Further

* Tt is not within the province of this work to advise the commander how to manceuvre
his vessel in stormy weather, as he must naturally be the best judge of her behaviour
and capabilities under the stress of wind and sea. We may, however, call attention to a
correspondence in the ‘‘ Nautical Magazine,” 1882 and 1883, regarding the management
of screw steamers when lying-to, with engines stopped. The Illinois, wfth engines disabled
in a storm, safely lay-to for 12 hours, with the wind and sea from two to four points
abafit the beam, and on another occasion successfully repeated the same operation. See,
also, the Remarks on the Use of Oii in Storms at Sea, given hereafter.

190 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

experience since that date has not been so satisfactory, and our own
Meteorological Office has given up for the present any attempt at predict-
ing Storms crossing the Atlantic. It is impossible to say that any Storm
leaving the American shore will reach us, and, if it does, what part of the
Kuropean coast it will first strike.

Captain Hoffmeyer, of the Danish Meteorological Office, in a pamphlet
published in 1880, discussed 285 Storms, which occurred during a period
of 21 months. The results seem to show that only about 25 per cent. of
our Storms could possibly have been telegraphed from the United States.
Of 59 Storms which left the American coast in 1879, 37 (63 per cent.)
crossed to Europe, the time across averaging five days, or about 18 miles
an hour. The late Professor Loomis, the celebrated American meteorologist,
from his observations, considered that 47 per cent. of the Storms which
left the American coast arrived on the European coast, and he states, in
one of his Contributions to Meteorology, that ‘‘ when Storms from the
American continent enter upon the Atlantic Ocean, they generally undergo
important changes in a few days, and are frequently merged in other
Storms which appear to originate over the ocean, so that we can seldom
identify a Storm in its course entirely across the Atlantic.’’*

(126.) In the publication of the Meteorological Office mentioned below,t
and in any series of Weather Charts published, the fact of Storms travel-
ling Eastwards is very lucidly shown in the diagrams by the daily positions
of the isobars; and in the remarks given hereafter on the Winds of the
British Isles, some further remarks will be found, showing that the pro-
gress of the main body of the air is to the North-Eastward across the
British Isles. That it occasionally travels to the South-Westward is also
mentioned.

The chart for each one of the 11 days embraces the observations of about
30 ships, together with those of many land stations. Captain Toynbee
draws the following conclusions from the study of these charts.

1. As to the origin of the numerous gales experienced during the 11 days
with which we have been dealing.

By referring to the charts it will be seen that almost invariably there
was a Northerly wind on the American coast, and a Southerly wind at some
distance to the Eastward of that coast. This state of the wind, considered
in connection with Buys-Ballot’s Law (page 113), requires that there should
be a trough of low pressure between two high pressures. Buchan’s
Monthly Charts of Isobars,} giving the mean pressure over the globe, show
that the above is the case in the months of January and February. The
January chart shows the isobar of 30:2 over the American land, and again
over the sea just to the Northward of the N.E. Trades, and we know that
between these high pressures the hot Gulf Stream flows, which may well

‘
——

* «‘ American Journal of Science,”’ 1876.

+ “A Discussion of the Meteorology of the part of the North Atlantic lying North of
lat. 30° N. for the Eleven Days ending February 8th, 1870, by Captain Henry Toynbee.

t “The Mean Pressure of the Atmosphere and the Prevailing Winds over the Globe
ior tue Montus and for the Year.”” By A. Buchan, M.A., F.R.S.E. ‘“ Transactions of
the Royal Societv.’’ Edinburgh, vol. xxv.

THE ANTI-TRADES OR PASSAGE WINDS. 191

be supposed to cause an unusually low pressure, for, other circumstances
being the same, it is found that the barometer is lower over warm than
over cold water. For instance, the meteorological data of the 10° square
between the Equator and 10° N., and from 20° to 30° W., show that the
lowest pressure exists over the hottest water (62).*

Bermuda seems to be peculiarly placed with regard to the winds of which
we are speaking, for the observations given in the first number of the publi-
cations by this office, as well as those given by Buchan, together with others
sent by General Lefroy, which are quoted in this paper, show that these
islands are subject to alternations of Northerly and Southerly winds in
winter, whilst in summer scarcely any Northerly wind is recorded.

The fact of this alternation between Northerly and Southerly winds in
winter seems to show that the position of this area of low pressure may be
variable, and that it may sometimes lie to the Hastward, sometimes to the
Westward of the islands. When summer sets in, and an area of low
pressure takes the place of the high pressure over the land, the element
for a Northerly wind is taken away, so that Bermuda and the American
coast are subject to Southerly winds.

It will be readily understood how this alternation of high and low baro-
meter over the land in winter and summer accounts for the extremes of
cold and heat experienced by the East Coast of America, whilst we on the
Eastern side of the Atlantic are, in accordance with Buys-Ballot’s Law,
subject to Southerly winds in winter, the highest barometer being then to
the Eastward of us.

To return to our subject: If the trough of low pressure cannot be shown
to change its position, we have strong proof that frequent collisions take
place between the Northerly and Southerly winds which blow in its neigh-
bourhood, causing eddies, and that these eddies pass over Bermuda on a
North-Easterly route, producing first a South-Hasterly and then a North-
Westerly wind. We are thus led to the conclusion that these gales are
caused by a collision between opposing currents of air.

The few storms dealt with in this paper support the idea that most of
the winter snow-storms of the Coast of America are connected with these
gales. Besides the trough of low pressure over the Gulf Stream to which
we have alluded, Buchan’s charts show a larger area of depression in the
neighbourhood of Iceland at this season of the year, which is related to
the prevailing winds of winter. It is probable that this low pressure is
frequently intensified by the areas of low pressure which travel towards it
from the Hast Coast of America, and that these areas of low pressure, taken
in conjunction with the very high pressures which generally exist over the
land in winter, are the causes of our winter gales.

2. We will next consider the tracks of these gales. All the evidence
gained by studying the data for these 11 days shows that they move to the
North-Eastward, and probably at a mean rate of nearly 30 miles an hour.

To give a graphic representation of their progress, the last chart has been

* The conclusions derived from a study of the data for this region for J. anuary will be
found in the Report of the Meteorological Committee of the Royal Society for 1871.

192 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

constructed; it contains reductions of the whole 14, placed under each other
in the order of time. There it will be seen that the gale of the 30th of
January was South of Halifax at 8 a.m., had advanced towards Newfound-
land by 6 p.m., and was half across the Atlantic by 8 a.m. of the 31st,
when it seemed to be lost in the normal area of low pressure over the centre
of the Atlantic.

A similar gale appeared on the 2nd of February; it advanced to the
North-Eastward, and was lost by the 4th. On the 4th, a N.E. gale was
blowing on the American coast, and a moderate S.H. wind in 32° N. and
51° W. Unfortunately there was a large space of sea in the South-Western
quarter of the chart without ships, so that we have not such clear evidence
of the progress of this gale; still on the dth we find a very heavy gale and
remarkable low pressure in the middle of the Atlantic, with a heavy N.E.
gale blowing in Iceland and on the American coast, and an equally heavy
S.W. gale in about 30° W. There are reductions of three charts for the
5th, viz., at 8a.m., 3 p.m.,and 8 p.m. These show the North-Hasterly
progress of the area of lowest pressure.

On the charts of the 6th and 7th, the direction of the wind indicates that
another area of low pressure was advancing from the South-Westward,
which showed itself to the South-Eastward of Newfoundland on the 8th.
On this last chart three areas of low pressure are shown, the last just
appearing on the South-Western corner of the chart; this the extracts
prove to have been very severe, and to have advanced to the North-Hast-
ward, and it again was followed by another area of low pressure.

The point of lowest pressure and complete eddy may be formed just
where the counter-currents of air are in close contact, and its apparent
motion may be caused by the closing in on each other of these currents of
air, by which means the eddy is being constantly re-formed at the new
point of contact. The chart of 8 a.m., February 5th, is supposed to illus-
trate this idea.

{[f we consult Buchan’s Isobars of Mean Pressure for these months, we
find that they trend to the North-Eastward from the Coast of America to
England, and that the prevailing wind follows them, drawing rather towards
the area of lowest pressure in the neighbourhood of Iceland. Henee, it
seems fair to suppose that the tracks of these occasional eddies may be
influenced by the main stream of air which seems to be flowing to the
North-Eastward round and into the area of lowest pressure, just as an
eddy in a river is carried along by the main stream.

The data we have been dealing with prove that the points of lowest
pressure in these areas of low pressure do not generally cross the British
Islands; for instance, at 8 p.m., February 5th, the barometer was down to
97-38 in about 51° N. and 25° W., and at 8 a.m. of the 6th it was 28:22 in
about 55° N. and 18° W., with a hurricane blowing from S.S.W. This
direction of the wind indicates that there was a lower pressure to the West-
ward, hence we may conclude that the area of lowest pressure took a very
Northerly course. Still, its influence was felt at all the self-registering
observatories, taking Valentia first, and passing on to Aberdeen.

In the general remarks following the extracts for February 5th, we have
pointed out how the gale which Valentia experienced later in the day is

THE ANTI-TRADES OR PASSAGE WINDS. 193

pictured on our 8 a.m. chart. The reader will do well to study the remarks
published in the Quarterly Weather Report for February 4th to the 7th, as
well as its Plate VIII. There it is shown on page 10 how at 8 a.m. of the
5th, ‘‘ neither the daily chart nor the barograms showed any very serious
sign of disturbance.” On page 11 there is the following remark: ‘‘ The
facts appear to show that the gale which ensued on our coast was to the
full as much to be attributed to the advance of the high pressure Westward
from Russia, as to that of the low pressure Eastward from the Atlantic.”
The isobars on our charts for the 6th, 7th, and &th, seem to prove the force
of this remark.

Whatever may be the cause of these areas of lowest pressure, the five
diagrams which follow the charts, as well as a large number of others
received from the commanders of steamers to and from America, who are
observing for this office, show that very many of them are experienced in
the Atlantic, and the difference between the barometer curves of outward
and homeward bound steamers, as well as the extracts from logs, show
that they are travelling to the North-Eastward.

Normal state of Atmospheric Pressure and Wind between England and
North America in Winter.

Undulations of Barometric Presswre moving 30 to 40 miles an hour to the
North-Eastward, with their accompanying Winds.

We have, then, two important facts: 1. By consulting Buchan’s Isobars,
we find that during the winter months the normal state of pressure is high
over the land on each side, and low over the sea in the central part of the
Atlantic, also that the pressure gets lower as you go North from the Azores.
Let the line A B C in the diagram above be supposed to represent a section
of the normal state of pressure across the Atlantic, with a lower pressure
to the North than to the South of it, then the arrows may be supposed to
represent the normal direction of the wind.

2. Besides this normal state, we have, as it were, the crests and hollows
of waves of pressure moving to the North-Eastward. These (the diagrams

Na AsO 26

194 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

show) sometimes follow each other very closely, and may be represented
by the line DI. Keeping Buys-Ballot’s Law (page 113) in mind, let us
suppose that a ridge of high pressure (EK) be experienced travelling to the
North-Eastward, we know that it would be accompanied by corresponding
winds, viz., Northerly followed by Southerly.

If merely a Depression (F), then Southerly winds would precede
Northerly.

If a Ridge and Depression (G), then Northerly, Southerly, and Northerly,
would be the order of the winds.

If a Ridge and Depression be followed by another Fiidge (H), then
Northerly and Southerly changes would be twice experienced.

Now it is hardly possible to look at the diagrams which accompany this
paper without perceiving that they give sections of disturbances which could
be explained by some one of the above cases. We may also suppose that
after they have passed over a ship, the winds will be inclined to take up
the normal direction as shown on the line A B C.

If the reader can suppose such changes of pressure as are represented by
the line D I to be travelling to the North-Hastward over a sea which has
its normal pressure represented by the line A B C, he will get the idea we
wish to convey.

In the course of this paper it has frequently been remarked that with a
steamer bound to the Eastward, the barometer was falling with a Northerly
and rising with a Southerly wind. Now it is quite clear that this would
always be the case with a steamer steering to the Eastward, if the atmo-
spheric pressure over the Atlantic were always in the normal state repre-
sented by the line A B CG, and this order of rise and fall would be reversed
with a steamer bound to the Westward.

Again, suppose it were possible that a steamer could go to the North-
Eastward faster than an atmospheric disturbance represented by the
depression F, and so cut through it, then it is clear that she would have a
falling barometer with a Northerly, and a rising barometer with a Southerly
wind; but if these disturbances move ata speed of 30 miles an hour, it is
clear that a steamer could not outstrip them, but only keep longer under
their influence when steaming fast to the North-Eastward, than when
standing still or going to the Westward. Hence we may conclude that
when the barometer falls with a Northerly and rises with a Southerly wind,
as a ship steams to the Hastward, she is experiencing, either the normal
state of pressure, or a slowly moving disturbance.

We give only two instances of the barometer falling in a Northerly wind,
with a ship steaming to the Westward, and they were both in the great
gale of February 5th. They seem to indicate that the depression was
increasing in intensity faster than the ships could move away from it,
Such cases should be considered as important warnings.

The various extracts which follow the 8th of February, when an Easterly
wind set in on the North-Eastern part of the chart, and worked its way to
the South-Westward, seem to show that such a state of things does not
check the formation of cyclonic gales off the Coast of America, for they
were still experienced, and, judging from the Bermuda data, the North-
Westerly winds were stronger. The routes which the gales took seemed,

THE ANTI-TRADES OR PASSAGE WINDS. 195

however, to be more Northerly, as if the Easterly wind interfered with their
usual progress to the North-Eastward.

Considering the normal state of the wind, it seems clear that in so far
as the direction of the wind is concerned, a sailing ship bound from England
to America at this season of the year (February), should keep her yards
well in, and gain good way, even though she may get driven to the North-
ward by the South-Westerly winds which prevail on the Eastern side of
the Atlantic, for there is good reason to expect that the wind will draw to
the Northward of West as she gets over to the Westward. The chances
of meeting with ice, and other risks, would of course need careful con-
sideration.

The very little progress (360 miles in a direct line N.4E. from lat.
31° 30’ N., long. 72° 30’ W., to lat. 38° N., long. 71° 15’ W.), made during
the 11 days by No. 38 (the sailing ship Nicoline), bound from Santos to
New York, makes it probable that she would have gained by making her
northing several degrees farther to the Eastward, where the charts show
that a Southerly wind prevailed; instead of closing with the land, where
‘there was an almost constant fresh Northerly wind.

This paper gives sufficient evidence of the caution needed when a S.E.
wind sets in with a falling barometer. Captains used to the trade know
these gales well.*

It is not necessary to repeat here what has already been said in the
Barometer Manual, on the use of the barometer to seamen, and its various
action depending on a ship’s course and speed.

Mr. Meldrum, the meteorologist of the Mauritius, in pursuing a similar
enquiry with regard to the weather in the Southern Indian Ocean, finds
that there waves of high and low pressure follow each other on an Easterly
course at an average speed of about 20 miles per hour.

It wiil be remembered that we find these waves to travel at the rate of
30 or 40 miles per hour. When we consider how the Northern part of
the North Atlantic is much more surrounded by land than the Southern
part of the Indian Ocean, causing more sudden differences of temperature,
we may well suppose that the differences of pressure will be greater in the
North Atlantic, giving more activity to the changes of weather.

Mr. Meldrum also finds that the Hurricanes of the Southern Indian
Ocean take their origin in the district lying between the N.W. Monsoon
and §.E. Trade, where the barometer is generally lower than to the North-
ward and Southward, just as we have already stated that the winter gales

* In connection with barometric changes, we may here advert to the constitution of
the atmosphere, as mentioned (12) on page 102. To that statement we add the follow-
ing couelusions arrived at by rrofessor Dové, of Berlin, from his observations.

In the Northern Hemisphere, the Barometer falls during E.S.E. and East winds;
passes from falling to rising during S.W. winds; rises with those from W.N.W. and
North ; and has its maximum rise with a N.E. wind.

The Thermometer rises with E.S.K. and South winds; has its maximum with S.W.;
falls with W.N,W. and North; and has its minimum with N.E. winds.

The Elasticity of Vapour increases with E.S.H. and South winds ; has its maximum at
$.W.; and diminishes during the wind’s progress by West and N.W. to North; at N.E.
it has its minimum.

196 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

off the coast of North America take their origin over a lower pressure
between two areas of higher pressure.

(127.) In conclusion we give some extracts from an exhaustive examina-
tion of the records of Storms experienced by the steamers of the North
German Lloyd, contained in the pamphlet mentioned on page 171.

In this pamphlet, Storms are considered as violent winds of force 10, 11,
and 12 of Beaufort’s Scale (page 104), of which 829 were recorded in the
eight years (1860—1867) under discussion, between the parallels of 40°
and 52° N. Were those of force 9 included, the number would be raised
to about 2,500. The steamers experiencing them were barque or brig
rigged, and used their sails to the utmost. Consequently, it was an im-
portant question to determine the nature of the Storms in the zone fre-
quented by these ships, the directions they take in the different months of
the year, and whether they occur more frequently in certain zones and
between certain meridians than in others, taking into consideration the
number of ships observing, with the relative frequency of the gales.

The tabulated returns show that November, December, and January,
are the chief Storm months; in February, April, and October, they are not
half so numerous, and still less so in March and September. The calm
period is from May to August. January and February each show 19 per
cent. of the Storms occurring during these years ; November, 12 per cent. ;
February and April, each 9 per cent.; October, 8 per cent.; March and
September, each 6 per cent. (appearing to show that the Equinoxes are
not such stormy periods in the Northern part of the Atlantic as is generally
supposed) ; May, June, July, and August, each show 3 per cent.*

As regards the quarters from which these 829 Storms were experienced,
it was found that West to N.N.W. winds preponderate (482 out of the 829),
and next come the North to E.N.E. gales (158 in number); the least
number (107) being from Hast to §.5.W. But the most severe Storms
generally commence from the latter direction; the wind then falls calm,
and afterwards shifts through South, to break out with increasing fury
from S.W. to W.S.W.; it then veers rapidly to N.W., or rather, the
dense cold N.W. wind breaks with overwhelming power into the rarefied
S.W. current.

With regard to the longitude in which these 829 Storms were experienced,
it will be seen from the tabulated returns that the frequency of the gales
between 30° and 35° W. begins to increase in a very striking manner from
the directions West, W.N.W., N.W. especially, and North, and to hold in
an equal degree as far as 45° W. To the West of 55° W. most of the gales
are North-Easterly. This is a convincing proof that the cold water of the
Polar Current flowing over the Banks of Newfoundland brings with it a
mass of air which falls into the track of our steamers in a North- Westerly
direction as far as 35° W., and between 45° and 40° N., but beyond 50° W.

* These figures, however, do not coincide with those of the ‘‘ Charts of Relative Storm

Frequency,” published by the United States War Department. These charts are founded
on observations during the ten years 1874—1883, and show that March and April are
the months in which the greatest number of Storms occurred in the North Atlantic; the
fewest occurred in June and July.

THE ANTI-TRADES OR PASSAGE WINDS. 197

in the remaining portion of the track frequently breaks in as a N.E. wind.
In both cases it seeks out the warm 8.W. air current which accompanies
the warm Gulf Stream, and impinges on it at right angles, bringing the
wind vane quickly round, and it is followed by hail and sleet if the North
wind lasts, and by snow if the South wind returns. The barometer alter-
nately rises and falls while these invasions of the N.W. wind into the
region of the S.W. current, which is continually flowing on, are constantly
repeated, until at length the force of one current or the other enables it
to put an end to the struggle, at least for a time. In winter, the truce is
never of long duration. As soon as the differences of tension have again
become large enough, the conflict and the alternate displacement is
renewed.

The majority of Storms occur between long. 30° and 55° W., being 94
more than in the equally large space between 30° and 5° W., and 241 more
than in the district from 55° to 74° W., which is only 6° narrower. But
in this last third of the route, N.E. Storms are much more prevalent than
in the other sections, whilst in the first third, outside the Channel, the S.B.
Storms occur remarkably often; in the last third, however, they do not
disappear nearly so completely as the S.W. Storms do.

It is clear, however, that in the practice of steam navigation to and from
America, the Polar or Equatorial gales which allow a ship to lay her course
are less important than the Westerly or Easterly. Counting the total
number of N.W. and 8.W. Storms as Westerly; and the N.E. and S.E.
Storms as Hasterly ; we find that three-fifths of the Storms are from S.W.
to N.W., and one-third of the whole number take place in the three winter
months : on the other hand, about one-sixth of the total number blow from
an Easterly and Northerly direction respectively ; and only 6 per cent.
from a Southerly direction.

In examining the Tables to see whether the occurrence of Storms depends
in any way upon the latitude, it will be found that in December and Feb-
ruary the region of Storms, as far West as 35° W., lies uniformly about
50° N. ; from 35° to 77° W., decidedly between 50° and 45° N. InJ anuary,
as far as 35° W., to the North of 50° N.; from 35° W., first North then
South of 45° N. In March, decidedly between 50° and 45° N.

In April it is more uniformly distributed from above 50° N. to South of
45° N. In May, between 45° and 50° N., but on the whole there are but
few Storms. In June, North of 50° N. In July and August, between 45°
and 50° N.

In September it is uniformly distributed ; but the number of Storms is
increasing. In October, from 50° N. to 40° N. In November, North of
50° N. to 35° W., and afterwards pretty uniformly distributed ; generally
in October and November, no great differences observable in the distribu-
tion.

Between lat. 40° and 45° N., and long. 55° and 74° W,, Storms prevail
from October to March, being strongest in January; from April to Sep-
tember they very seldom occur in that district.

Referring toa remark that the cold Polar Current between 40° and 55° W.
forms the reservoir for the N.W. and N.E. Storms which break out from
that region, it is by no means to be inferred therefrom that all N.W. Storms

198 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS,

which blow to the Eastward of those meridians originate only within this
band. On the contrary, it is evident from the Tables that even if that
band forms the region where the Polar Current flows most strongly South-
wards, yet a quantity of narrower air currents take the same course, and
their interstices are filled up by currents of equatorial air of different
breadths, which flow more or less quietly side by side in opposite direc-
tions until the increasing differences of tension create a necessity for re-
storing equilibrium.

In those regions of atmosphere lying to the Eastward of an equatorial
wind (which comes up with a low barometer), an efflux of the air takes
place (therefore a rapid fall in the barometer) with winds backing to S.E.;
meanwhile the 8.W. wind advances, the barometer falls to its lowest point,
and the thermometer rises to its highest ; but the heavy rain which now
falls so lessens the tension of the Southern air, and the difference of pressure
becomes so great, that the polar current lying to the Westward rushes in
furiously, the wind vane quickly veers to West and N.W., and with rapidly
rising barometer equilibrium is restored amid electrical discharges, sleet,
and hail squalls.

In all these conditions, which find their outward expression in the change
of wind direction, pressure, and temperature, neither the cyclonic theory
of the Tropics nor the so-called laws of gyration are wanted, which, if we
consider them in the most favourable light, are neither more nor less than
expressions for long-established views.

(128.) British Isles—‘‘ Weather Charts and Storm Warnings” is the
title of a small work written by Mr. Robert H. Scott, M.A., F.R.S.,
Director of the Meteorological Office in London, as a help and guide to
the sailor in using the cone signals, and also to those studying the Weather
Charts now so generally inserted in the daily newspapers. In this book,
of which a revised edition was published in 1887, will be found all the
latest knowledge which has been gained relating to the Winds of the
British Isles. Another useful little work, giving much information in a
condensed form, is ‘‘ Weather Forecasting for the British Isles,” 1890, by
Captain Henry Toynbee, F.R.A.S8., &c., from which we have already made
several extracts. We give below a short summary of the most interest-
ing facts.

It has been found that nearly all our Storms are of a rotatory nature,
and travel from S.W. to N.E., or from the Westward towards the Eastward,
as is evidenced by the fact that out of twenty-three Storms felt in Hamburg
in the year 1869, twenty-two had previously passed over some portion of
the British Isles.

As before stated, when dealing with the Storms of the North Atlantic
Ocean (page 183), these Storms are divided into two classes—Cyclonic,
in which the wind revolves against watch-hands around a centre of low
barometric pressure, and Anti-Cyclonic, in which case the wind revolves
with watch-hands, or in the same direction as the hands of a watch, around
a central area of high barometric pressure. These terms are, however (as
before stated on page 185), only relative, having no reference to a high or
low level of the barometer, but to that level as compared with pressures in

THE BRITISH ISLES. 199

the surrounding regions. At the centre of a Cyclonic area the level may
be above 30 inches, and it may be below 29°5 inches at the centre of an
Anti-Cyclonic system.

Of these two classes, the latter is of rarer occurrence; and whereas
the Cyclonic Storms travel with some rapidity, Anti-Cyclonic areas travel
much more slowly. It is a remarkable fact worth mentioning, that in
some places the Anti-Cyclonic areas are noticed to remain as it were sta-
tionary ; this is frequently the case at the entrance of the English Channel,
especially in early autumn, when they have been known to remain for
days together in the same locality. The centres of the Storms generally
pass on the Northern side of the British Isles, hence we get more of the
S.W., West, and N.W. winds than of those Easterly winds which would
be found on the Northern side of the central area of lowest pressure. To
this fact we may attribute the prevalence of Westerly winds, shown in the
Table, drawn up from observations made at Liverpool. Owing to the
sinallness of the area covered by the British Isles, it is seldom that a
perfect rotatory gale can be traced in its passage, but inferences are drawn
from the observations made on small portions of such Storms, at stations
in these islands and on the Continent.

The best idea which we can gain, for practical purposes, of the winds
which affect us in these islands, is that the air over the Atlantic Ocean,
North of latitude 40° N., is constantly flowing from West to East, like a
gigantic river. If such a river be flowing rapidly, we often see on its
surface small waves, each with its own eddies and circulations, which are
carried on with the stream. If we could look at the upper surface of the
atmosphere, we should see much the same sort of conditions, except that
what corresponds to the hollow of the wave would be a patch of defective
pressure, while that which corresponds to the crest of the wave would be
an area of excessive pressure.

(129.) The more characteristic Winds of the West of Europe, and
especially of our own islands, are due to atmospheric disturbances pro-
ducing areas of high or low pressure; the rapidity and intensity of the
development of which, with the direction of their paths and their position,
determine the force of the Wind, the direction in which it blows, and the
manner in which it veers or backs, that is, changes its direction. But
how the changes of pressure are determined, and what causes the transfer of
the disturbed area (commonly under the form of an atmospheric eddy or
vortex, in a definite direction, usually from West to East), is still to be
ascertained ; though here, too, it is obvious that the distribution of the
land and sea areas, and of the ocean currents, on which the temperature
of the superincumbent air so immediately depends, combined with the
rotatory motion of the earth, are among the principal agencies at work.
The winds of our islands have commonly, more or less distinctly, the
gyratory character, which is one of the secondary results of the rotation
of the earth.*

* See ‘Lectures on Geography,” delivered before the University of Cambridge, by
Gencral R. Strachey, R.E., F.R.S., published in the Proceedings of the Royal Geogra-
phical Society, April, 1888, page 230.

200 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

(130.) Weather.—Regarding the Weather accompanying Cyclonic Storms
which cross the British Isles, the Hon. Ralph Abercromby has carefully
studied the Weather Charts issued by our Meteorological Office, and given
his conclusions in the work mentioned below,* as follows :—The broad
features of the Weather in a Cyclone are—a patch of rain near the centre,
a ring of cloud surrounding the rain, and blue sky outside the whole system,
The precise form and position of these areas vary with the type of pressure
distribution, with the intensity (wind force) of the Cyclone, and the rate
of its progress ; they are also influenced by local, diurnal, and seasonal
variations.

The weather and sky over the whole front of a Cyclone—+.e., all that
lies in front of the trough (118) is characterized by a muggy oppressive feel
of the air, and a dirty gloomy sky with clouds of a stratified type. The
line of the trough is often associated with a squall or heavy shower, com-
monly known as a ‘‘ clearing shower.’ The whole of the rear of a Cyclone
is characterized by a sharp brisk feel of the air, and a hard firm sky with
clouds of cumulus type, cirrus being almost unknown in the rear of a
cyclone-centre in the Temperate Zone.

It might obviously be expected that the weather in any part of a large
Cyclone, as, for instance, in one of those which completely cross the
Atlantic Ocean, would be very different from the weather in a small
Cyclone which perhaps only just crossed the British Isles, and this is fully
borne out by observation. In very large Cyclones, the steepest gradient,
and the bad weather which accompanies them, are always found at some
distance from the centre. Round the centre itself, when the gradients
are very steep, the sky is broken with hardish clouds, and there is a cold
pleasant feeling in the air. In small Cyclones the heaviest rain usually
surrounds the centre, and extends more or less to one end or the other,
according to the direction of the nearest area of high pressure, and the
steepest gradient.

The broad features of the Weather in an Anti-Cyclone, are— blue sky,
dry cold air, a hot sun, and hazy horizon, with very little wind—in fact,
the very antithesis of everything which characterizes a Cyclone. Synoptic
charts show great irregularity in the position of cloud, &c.

(131.) Mr. Ley, in his pamphlet already quoted on pp. 183, 184, makes
the following remarks, and by comparing these with the accompanying
diagram, a clear idea will be obtained of the distribution of Clouds and
Weather in a typical Cyclonic disturbance.

In the most general way it may be stated that foul weather charac-
terizes the Cyclonic, and fair weather the Anti-Cyclonic systems ; and it
will at once be seen that to this statement corresponds the old but loose
and vague rule that the barometer falls before rain or storm, and rises
before fine or calm weather.

In the extreme front of a large depression, there commonly stretches a
great bank or sheet of cirro-stratus cloud. The movement of the upper
current which carries the outlying parts of this elevated cloud-bank is

* « Weather, a Popular Exposition of the Nature of Weather Ohanges from Day to
Day,” by the Hon. R. Abercromby, F.R.M.S., &., 1887.

THE BRITISH ISLES. 201

often nearly tangential to the edge of the cloud-bank itself, and nearly
opposite to the direction of the wind which is presently about to spring
up at the earth’s surface, and in nearly all cases it makes a greater angle
than 90° with this wind. It is important to observe that when this move-
ment is very rapid, the approaching depression may be expected to be
“deep,” and probably attended by strong winds at the earth’s surface.
As the sheet extends over us, the upper current backs very quickly, and
continues to do so over the whole front half of the advancing system.

RO- ST
ciR RATy 9
Overcast
STRATO- CUMULUS
é Dirty Sky
loexacneo guy Petey Eee

STR ete Fs 290 vy STRATO-CUMULUS
x MUGGY

Bar.

BLUB “MULUS
WINDY CiKRUS

Distribution of Clouds and Weather in a typical Cyclonic Disturbance.

As the centre advances towards us, we commonly observe composite
cloud (ximbus), the rain or snow being accompanied by the new current of
air belonging to the depression. This cloud-bank extends in most instances
nearly over the whole front half of the system, both on the right hand and
left hand of the centre’s path, but its character differs very considerably
on the two sides.

If the centre is passing so as to leave our station onits right, the nimbus
usually continues until the centre has almost reached its nearest point to
us. Then, usually after a sudden increase of precipitation, the sky clears,
the cirro-stratus terminating in an abrupt line, while the wind at the
earth’s surface begins to veer. Up to this time the barometer will have
continued to fall, except in those cases in which the whole system is be-
coming rapidly shallower ; and the pressure now begins to rise, except in
those instances in which the depression is becoming rapidly deeper.

The appearance of the sky in the rear of the disturbance, but stil on
the right hand side of the centre’s course, is usually very unlike that in the
front. Comparatively few upper clouds are observed, and the movement

Ne ALO: 27

202 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

of these is commonly noticed to be nearly the same with that of the
current on the earth’s surface. In lieu of cirro-stratus we see fleecy cwmulus.
Shower-clouds are also common over this district. The atmosphere in
this part of the disturbance is in most cases clearer or more devoid of haze
than in the front, and temperature is also commonly lower; but marked
exceptions occur to both these rules. A rapid and excessive decrease of
temperature is not uncommon when the wind has begun to veer, particu-
larly near the centre of the Cyclonic circulation.

Let the reader now turn his attention to the other side of the Bec 8
path, and let him suppose the barometric minimum in its onward progress
to leave his station on the left of its course. Here the mimbus extends
over us, the wind after springing up commences to back, and continues to
do so throughout the passage of the disturbance. On this side we very
rarely experience the abrupt change from a rainy to a clear sky which is
so usual on the right hand side. As the centre passes, the higher cloud
forms gradually degenerate into banks of dreary stratus, often attended
with an increase rather than any diminution of haze. As the rear of the
system approaches us on this side the bolder forms of cwmulus are rarely
seen, and in place of the shower-clouds we commonly notice gloomy-looking
banks of condensed vapour in the middle and lower levels of the atmosphere,
while cirrus has usually almost or altogether disappeared.

In the actual centre of a large depression the sky is often comparatively
clear. Shower-clouds are frequently visible, but these have usually here a
thin soft and disintegrated aspect, while cwmulus tends to spread itself into
stratus, and cirrus lies in broken, though watery-looking patches.

CLOUDLES ss
Cold Air, Hot Sun,
& Frost

STRATUS

Distribution of Clouds and Weather in an Anti-Cyclonic Area.

(182.) The above diagram shows the general distribution of clouds anu
weather in a typical Anti-Cyclone, but the weather which characterizes

CHART OFTHE WIND
LIVERPOOL OBSERVATORY

1852.3.4.5.

eens BY 16.7 BS
Scale of 10,000 miles.

Mean of 4 years.

Birmingham -mean of 4 years.

_ = er ee? ee 6B ’

GREEN WICH—LIVERPOOL. 203

our Anti-Cyclones is subject to modification according to the seasons. In
summer, brilliant weather usually accompanies them, and in the central
districts particularly the sky is often nearly or totally devoid of cloud; at
other times light fleecy cirrus, whose motion is extremely slow, is the
principal cloud visible. In winter, dry weather stratus is the most common
form of cloud, occasionally covering nearly the whole of the Anti-Cyclonic
system with an unbroken canopy.

(133.) From statistics, recently prepared at the Meteorological Office,
of Gales and Storms occurring in the British Isles during the fifteen years
1870—1885, it appears that the most stormy area is at the entrance of the
English Channel. Agreeing with the experience of the North German
Lloyd steamers, as described on page 196, the summer is shown to be
nearly free from Storms, they being almost exclusively confined to the
winter half-year, the latter half of January being the stormiest period of
all. Contrary to the general idea, there is no marked stormy period at
either Equinox, though the frequency increases after the autumnal Equinox,
and decreases from January towards the vernal.

(134.) Greenwich.—The following Table gives the Mean Annual Number
of Days of Prevalence of the Different Winds during the forty-nine years
from 1841 to 1889, from the Records of the self-registering Osler Anemo-
meter at Greenwich Observatory.*

Mean 1841—1864 ............ 39 46 23 21 32 107 41 24 32
» 1865—1889 ............ 40 44 31 23 37 106 50 21 13
» 1841—1889 ........... 40 45 27 22 85 106 46 22 22

(135.) Liverpool At the former Liverpool Observatory, near the
Waterloo Dock, an Anemometer, the invention of Mr. A. Follett Osler,
F.R.S., registered the force, or rather the motion and direction of the air,
for the years 1852—1855. The lines thus drawn by the machine itself are
reduced on the adjoining diagram, and represent the actual direction and
distance, according to scale, travelled by the wind over the instrument.

Upon looking at these lines, except the general tendency to the Eastward,

there is no similarity between the years; yet, by taking the absolute motion
throughout the year of the wind from any quarter, and forming a single
diagram, there is seen to be a remarkable identity in them all.

Thus, the main direction of the wind in 1854 was rather to the Southward
of West; in 1852, it was to N.W.; and in the other two years, although
to the West, yet the wind was very devious.

Notwithstanding the wide difference in the lines formed in these different
years, yet if the whole amount of wind in each year is arranged graphically
for each point of the compass, they are very similar to each other, showing
that a fixed law prevails; which is still more evident if the duration of
their prevalence were taken instead of their quantity or velocity. This is
shown by the wind-stars on the diagram.

* On the Relative Prevalence of Different Winds at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich,
1841—1889, by William Ellis, F.R.A.S., published in the Quarterly Journal of the
Royal Meteorological Society, 1890, pp. 221—224.

204 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.
(136.) The total amount of the Horizontal Motion of the air at Liverpool,
as registered by the Anemometer, is also exceedingly alike in different

years, as shown by these figures :—

Rain.
Wind in Miles. Calms.

Quantity. Duration.
114,276 19 hours. 31:59 inches. 683 hours.
105,989 De at 22-47 ~,, 625 ,,
128,283 4 Doce, 53 gare
103,405 12.3 DIS O10.
112,989 15°5 hours. 24°67 inches. 597 hours or

24 days 21 hours.

The Seasons have an influence on the velocity of the wind; thus, these
observations show that in Winter (December to February), the mean rate
is 15-6 miles per hour; Spring (March to May), 12:1 miles per hour;
Summer (June to August), 11:8 miles per hour; and Autwmn (September

to November), 11:5 miles per hour. In the
day, winds are stronger than at night; thus,
at midnight, it travels 11:2 miles per hour ;
6 a.m., 11:8 miles per hour; 9 a.m., 12°9

Direction.

Miles
per hour.

miles per hour; noon, 13:2 miles per hour ; Ne eeeeeeeeeseeees 78
: INGNEHGccce-eeeseenene 6-2

3 p.m., 14:6 miles per hour; 6 p.m., 12:7 Ney Ca bn ee 6-6
miles per hour; and 9 p.m., 11°6 miles per tae steeeeconseoens Ae
hour. 7 | nei oe
But the more important generaldeduction j| S.B. ue. 11-6
to be derived from these observations is the | set: encessocenew ie
fact, as before alluded to (135), thatallwinds | s.S.W. wu... 118
having a Westerly bearing travel very much | eae veseeeseeenens ioe
the fastest; those from South to Hast pro- | Ww. 1 eg
ceed at a much slower rate; while such as WieIN a WWicg csscarceeneneae 19-0
come from the North and Hast average but oe ot ae an

little more than a third of the rate of the
Westerly winds. All this is made clear by
a glance at the column of figures in the annexed Table, which gives the
Mean Rate in Miles per Hour of the winds from the various directions ;
and will show further that the wind-roses and figures of Maury’s and other
charts do not give an accurate knowledge of this zone of winds, as the
Westerly winds, though by them made greatly to predominate, do not show
the actual amount of those winds by, perhaps, one-half or two-thirds of
their real quantity. All the strongest gales recorded in those years came
from Western quarters.

(137.) In continuation of the above observations, the Anemometer records
show the mean annual duration of winds from the various quarters, for
the twelve years 1852—1863 inclusive, to be as arranged in the following

LIVERPOOL. 205

Table, in which we also give the maximum and minimum number of days
occurring during that period.

Mean Number | Maximum Number] Minimum Number

Soete mae of Days. of Days. of Days.
1st. Winds between N. & E 51-4 75-0 in 1855 24-7 in 1863
Br, 4, eS 116-0 134-1 in 1861 93-9 in 1854
a. 4 ee San 84-5 125-0 in 1863 59-9 in 1855
4th. a ge WES IN 112-6 138-0 in 1854 92-8 in 1852

The mean duration of Calm for the twelve years was 0°8 day per annum,
varying between 0:2 day in 1857 and 1°6 day in 1858.

(138.) Notwithstanding that the results shown by the Liverpool Anemo-
meter are of the utmost value, and great labour and skill were exercised
in reducing them to a comprehensive form by the late Messrs. John
Hartnup, father and son, the able superintendents, yet they contain
evidence of the interference of land influences, as alluded to in (104), page
171. The self-recording anemometer showed that the winds from W.N.W.
and §.S8.H. were most prevalent, whereas the prevalent direction in England
as a whole is from the West; showing that the form of the valley of
the Mersey has much to do with diverting the normal direction of the
wind. Still the observations, as before stated, are most instructive and
important.*

(139.) About the year 1865, the site of the Observatory at the Docks
being wanted for other purposes, the instruments were removed to a new
Observatory on Bidston Hill, on the opposite side of the Mersey, at an
elevation of about 190 ft. above sea level. The increased elevation, and
more open character of the situation, doubtless give the records of the
Anemometer more reliability. We are indebted to the courtesy of the
Astronomer to the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board for copies of the
Reports issued from the Bidston Observatory, from which a similar Table
of the Winds recorded by the Anemometer has been drawn up. They
extend over a period of 20 years, from 1868—1887, and show a large
preponderance of winds in the §8.W. quadrant over the previous records at
the Docks.

Quadrant Mean Number |.laximum Number} Minimum Number

of Days. of Days. of Days.
ist. Winds between N. & E 55-0 74-4 in 1875 39-4 in 1874
2005 ~ 5, 5p E.&S§ 102-2 119-3 in 1872 85-7 in 1887
8rd. op S. & W. 114-7 138-1 in 1882 100-1 in 1870
4th. p et Nilo @9 NI 93-0 114-5 in 1869 77-8 in 1882

The mean duration of Calm for the 20 years was 0-3 day per annum,
varying from 0-1 to 0-7 day per annum.
* Report of the British Association, vol. xxv., pages 127—142; and, also, ‘‘ Report of
the Direction and Strength of the Wind at the Liverpool Observatory, 1852—1863.” It
is from these sources that the above facts and figures are derived.

206 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

For the 22 years from 1867 to 1888, the average annual Laim/fall was
29-235 inches, varying from 23°700 in 1873 to 45°664 in 1872.

(140.) There is one remark respecting land observations, which is im-
portant :—“ All the synoptic charts hitherto advanced at the Board of Trade
exhibit a marked diminution of force on land compared with that on the sea
coast. Indeed, the coast itself offers similar evidence in its stunted, sloping
trees and comparative barrenness.”* The trees in many localities form
excellent wind-vanes, as, by their growth, they show exactly the direction
from whence the most powerful and persistent winds come.

It would seem, also, that the land has a tendency to draw the wind
towards it, so as in some measure to make it appear that the prevalent
direction is more across the line of direction of that coast than is really
the case. Looking at the simultaneous observations now daily collected
and published for a great extent of coast, this is very apparent. All these
arguments tend to lessen the value, in some degree, of those extended and
accurate records of the wind on land. The mean direction of the wind,
derived from land observations, however, as given by Kamtz and Dovyé, is
as follows :—

Pmiptamd ) 24 a. acc tS. 65 We) Denmark”... eee S. 62° W.
France and Holland.... 8. 88° W. | Sweden ............. S.°77" We
Gerkmaly 2... ... ces aes S. 76° W. | N. part of United States 8. 86° W.

(141.) English Channel.—The following are the results of fifteen con-
secutive years observations upon the wind, taken by M. Nell de Bréauté,
at the Chapelle, near Dieppe, at an elevation of 490 feet above the sea :—

— ———eC—C—S——C—CCrr

|

Direction of Mean Number

the Wind. of Days. Bisscuori: Minimum.

South. 37 In 1828— 54 days. | 1820 and 1825—28 days.
S.W. 93 1823—121 __,, 1831—67 _,,
West. 48 1830— 72 ,, 1829—31 ,,
N.W. 52 1825— 72 ,, 1832—38 ,,

North. 36 1819-= 56) 4;, 1821—21 ,,
N.E. 41 1826— 54 ,, 1828—22 ,,
East. 23 1820— 41 ,, 1821—12_,,
S.E. 81 istg— 46 ,; 1827—19 ,,

Total, 361 days.

From this Table the following conclusions may be drawn ;—
In the 365 days of the year there are about 361 of wind, and 4 or 5 of dead calm,
If the horizon be divided into four equal parts, there will be—

135 days with the wind between South and West,t

94 . 5 between West and North,
fal bs Fe between North and East,
61 oA on between East and South.

* Third Number, Meteorological Papers, by Admiral FitzRoy, 1858, page 99.
+ Upon comparing this direction of West to South with the Liverpool observations, as
given in the diagrams, page 203, the disturbing action of the land will be evident.

ENGLISH CHANNEL. 207

The maximum of winds between S. and W. takes place in November and Dee,

The minimum rh May and June.

The maximum of winds pen W. and N. takes place in July and August.

The minimum a October and December
The maximum of winds Rereeen N. and E. takes place in May and June.

The minimum Pa October and November.
The maximum of winds hee EK. and S. takes place in December & January.
The minimum ' ue June and July.

Moderate winds from North and N.E. are those which bring fine weather. In
summer the N.E. wind blows more particularly in the afternoon; in the morning
the wind is S.E., a slight breeze, and towards noon it changes quickly to N.E.;
then it freshens, and towards the evening it sinks; at night it is calm, and the
coolness condenses the vapours. When this condensation does not take place, it
is a sign of a change of wind.

Dead calms are of rare occurrence, and do not last long, except during summer.
When they occur in winter, it is regarded as a precursor of bad weather. It is
always, in reality, an indication of a change in the direction of the wind.

(142.) The remarks made in the foregoing pages will be ample for the
purpose of giving the sailor an idea of the relative Duration, Force, and
Direction of the Wind in the Northern part of the North Atlantic Ocean.
Reverting to the observation made on page 203, it may be re-stated, that not-
withstanding the variable nature of its changes, and the great difference
that is found to occur between one period and another, yet, when these are
combined in a long series of observations, there is great similarity ; and
this will be accounted for in a measure by the researches of our own and
the United States Meteorological Offices, which have shown that there is
a systematic progress of air from the Westward to the Hastward in our
latitudes (see pp. 181—198 and pp. 198—199). For the service of the
mariner, in foretelling what weather is approaching, he is referred to
Section 2, on the Motions and Pressure of the Atmosphere, and for further
information he can consult the ‘‘ Barometer Manual for the use of Seamen”’,
or ‘‘ Instructions in the use of Meteorological Instruments,” issued by the
Meteorological Office, and to ‘‘ Weather Charts and Storm Warnings,” by
Robert H. Scott, M.A., F.R.S., &c.

The diagrams adjoining page 171 have been drawn up from Maury’s
Pilot Charts in the same manner as those given at page 135, to illustrate
the Trade Winds. They are selected from those parts of the ocean most
generally traversed by ships crossing it in the strength of these Westerly
winds. "heir localities are shown by the latitude and longitude assigned
to each diagram, which thus represents the wind in the region for 150 miles
around that position. But, as will be seen at a glance, there is a great
similarity in the general features of them all.

The principle upon which these Wind-roses are constructed is explained
on page 133 (57) ; and the six examples there given are analyzed in page
134. The remark in the note (*) should be particularly attended to in
connection with the observations in these Anti-Trade winds, as itis clearly
futile to endeavour to lay down any refined rule for their practical applica-

208 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

tion. As there certainly isa doubt as to the accuracy of the recorded
direction of the wind to the extent of two points—to lay down rules for
sailing over any area with a course limited to a few degrees, certainly
appears to be a needless refinement with the present data to argue upon,
but in future years extended knowledge may make it possible to lay down
such rules.

(143.) In comparing the observations, recorded by Mr. Osler’s self-
registering wind-guage at Liverpool, as shown in page 204, with the second
diagram adjoining page 171—that for lat. 52° N., and long. 15° W.—or off
the West Coast of Ireland, where we might expect to find some degree of
similarity, there appears to be scarcely any accordance at first sight. But
upon referring to the evidence of the greater force of the Westerly winds
over the Easterly, as shown by the figures (136), page 204, we arrive at a
reason why this apparent discrepancy exists. If the arrows on the West
(or windward) side of these diagrams were enlarged in proportion to the
relative force, and the Easterly arrows diminished in like manner, there
would be a much nearer approximation. This comparison will demon-
strate how the direction of the valley of the Mersey, and the line of docks
and walls at Liverpool around the observatory, diverted the true direction
of the winds. For the purpose of still further exemplifying this, the mean
of the observations recorded at Birmingham for four years, by another
anemometer of Mr. Osler’s, is given. Although this is inland, and neces-
sarily subject to land influences, the Westerly preponderance is clearly
marked, and serves to bear out the modern discovery of the progress of
Cyclonic disturbances across the British Isles from West to East, their
centres generally passing North of our islands.

The diagrams, as we give them, or the figures in Maury’s chart, must be
studied, should any greater exactness in the relative duration of any wind
be required than can be acquired at a cursory glance; and in the former
case, as was before explained, the length of the arrow applied to the scale
at the bottom of the plate will give the exact ratio per cent. of the wind
represented by that arrow.

One general remark only need be given; it is, that the greatest irregu-
larity in the direction of the wind in these latitudes appears to occur about
the Azores; during the summer months the wind is frequently from Northern
quarters, driving before it the colder water from the polar regions, and thus
abnormally reducing the temperature. Besides this, there appears to be
a conflict between this Southern and Western tendency, and the Trade
Wind which is established to the West of them.

(144.) Bay of Biscay.—The winds in the Northern part of the Bay of
Biscay do not differ greatly from those experienced in the entrance of the
English Channel. As we approach the head of the bight, however, it is
necessary to use great caution, and observe all indications of the change
of the wind.

The prevailing winds in the Bay of Biscay are those from N.W., West,
and S.W., with frequent severe gales from those quarters, accompanied by
rain, hail, and thick weather, and a mountainous sea. A low barometer,
a Westerly swell, and other threatening appearances, indicate the approacn
of one of these gales. Very often it commences at South or S.W., with

BAY OF BISCAY. 209

rain and thick weather, and then gradually veers round to West and N.W.,
with clearer weather, and may then, after a day or two, back to the 8.W.
and blow for several days from that direction.

EHasterly winds occur at intervals, being most common about the Equi-
noxes, especially in spring. In June, July, and August, fine weather pre-
vails, with light Southerly and 8.E. winds, though gales may occur from
Hast or West. In October and November dense fogs prevail, but seldom
last more than 24 hours.

Northerly winds prevail and are strongest on the parallel of the Pertuis;
thence they decrease in frequency and force in approaching the Pyrenees,
and the same in nearing the English Channel.

The greatest number of days of North-Hasterly winds is about on the
parallel of the Island of Groix, and on the island itself these winds are
much more frequent than those from the §8.EH. The days of N.E. wind
decrease as the Pyrenees are approached. The Hast winds blow equally
throughout.

The number of days of S8.E. wind is greatest at Brest, and least at the
Island of Aix; and the number of days of South wind increases as the
Spanish coast is approached ; at Biarritz it is three times as great as at
Brest.

The number of days of §.W. wind is about the same throughout (60 days
a year), with a slight increase at Brest, and this wind always brings bad
weather. N.W. winds are most frequent at Brest and least so at Biarritz.

The localities most affected by the different winds depend somewhat on
the contour of the coast; thus, the heaviest §8.W. gales are experienced
between Brest and the mouth of the Loire; the heaviest Westerly gales
abreast Pertuis and the Gironde district ; and the heaviest W.N.W. gales
in the lower portion of the bay.

In summer, the reigning winds on the coast at the head or 8.H. angle of
the bay, are those from N.H. and Hast, which become North and N.N.W.
in the Gulf of Bilbao. These alternate with N.W. and West winds, which
generally drop at night, during which they are replaced by the land breeze.

In autumn, Southerly winds prevail, and are usually very violent. They
last for two or three days, and sometimes for eight or nine days, the weather
being clear ; but as soon as they shift to §.5.W., the sky becomes covered
with heavy clouds, and almost immediately the ‘ Vendavale”’ or dirty
weather from §.W. and West comes on. This, after some days’ duration,
passes to N.W., with heavy rains and a stronger sea. This wind, much
dreaded by seamen, from the heavy surf which it sends in, and because it
debars entrance to the few harbours on the Biscayan coast, is very lasting.
It is nct uncommon to find it continue for fifteen days consecutively, with
only two or three days of even moderate weather. But with this N.W.
wind there is no fear of being drifted on to the coast, as it is never entirely
hidden, and there are sufficiently clear intervals to allow you to make out
the land.

It is not so with North and N.N.E. winds; they blow perpendicularly
on to the coast, and will not allow ships embayed to clear off shore. They
completely hide the land, and are accompanied by much rain and hail,

NSA. O; 28

210 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

which follow each other almost without interruption. They generally last
but a short time, and occur between the middle of December and the end
of February, or the beginning of March.

The N.E. wind is not frequent in winter, but it is accompanied by thick
fogs, in which case it blows heavily for two or three days, and is then called
Nord-Este Pardo (the dirty North-Easter). When it shifts to the 8.H., by
the East, you should as far as possible keep in with the coast, because the
wind will shortly come from South. When the South wind, after lasting
two or three days, veers to S.W., either get off the land or else enter some
harbour, because the N.W. wind will soon come on.

In the spring the winds are generally very light, and nearly always from
N.W. or 8.W., accompanied by rain. In some years these winds last until
July.

The ocean-swell from the N.W., coming from the open Atlantic, is the
heaviest and most dangerous on this coast; it penetrates every harbour and
creek, and there is no shelter from the waves inany of them until the bars
at the entrances become uncovered by the ebb tide. This dangerous state of
the sea commences in the middle of September or beginning of October,
and, with slight interruption, it continues through two-thirds of the year.
This swell is almost always a precursor of the wind from that direction,
and sometimes precedes it by twenty-four hours. Sometimes in the summer
season enormous waves are seen to set in during perfectly calm and serene
weather. They close every harbour, and dash on the coast like enormous
mountains of water, and break on the outlying banks with 20 to 40 fathoms
water over them. It is needless to state that these are most dangerous to a
ship close in with the shore. Captain FitzRoy states that they overtopped
the mainyard of the Thetis, 56 feet above the water-line.

In August there is a danger of encountering a peculiar squall or tornado,
called on the Biscayan coast Galerna. It is formed on the land by the sun’s
heat, and shifts by the S.W.; the horizon becomes obscured, and it quickly
increases in strength as it passes to N.W. Every precaution should be
taken against them; they are excessively violent, and last three or four
hours. They bring rain, and sink at night in the N.W. Sometimes,
especially in summer, the Galerna is a sudden shift from South to N.W.
without any notice, and in this case is very dangerous. It is also common
to see winds blowing at the same time from South and N.W., only separated
by a narrow belt of calm between the heavy waves they send up.

The South wind is foretold by the atmosphere being so clear that the
distant lands and inland peaks become very distinct, and apparently close-to.
If the high lands are very clear and distinct, with the wind from Kast, and
a line of ashy-coloured clouds should be seen on the peaks, the South wind
is coming on. The local sailors also can foretell the approach by the clouds
of dust raised inland, or by the direction of the smoke from the dwellings
on shore

‘«« Why should the sea be higher, or more dangerous, in the Bay of Biscay
than it is in the middle of the Atlantic or elsewhere? Is it really so? are
questions often asked.

‘T believe that there is a shorter, higher, and consequently worse sea,
in and near the Bay of Biscay, than is often found in other places, and

NORTH COAST OF SPAIN 211

attribute it to the effect of immense Atlantic waves rolling into a deep
bight, where they close upon each other, and receive vibratory undulations
from each shore; augmented, perhaps, by the peculiar formation of the
bottom of that bay, the variation in depth, and the effects of currents,
which, when running over uneven ground, or against the wind, alone cause
a heavy swell—a striking exemplification of which may be seen on the
Bank of Agulhas, near the Cape of Good Hope.”—Captain Litzhoy,
vol, ii., page 45.

(145.) North Coast of Spain—About Santander the prevalent winds in
winter are between South and N.W., by the West. With Southerly winds
the atmosphere remains clear for a few days, but they are then considered
to be the precursors of N.W. winds. They commence in October and cease
in February. When South winds bring clouds and rain they shift soon to
S.W., and then rapidly to West, always accompanied by fogs, and terminate
at N.W., blowing violently, and raising a heavy sea with strong gusts.
When they are at N.W. there are clear intervals which allow the sailor to
make out his position on the coast.

The heaviest gales generally commence at South very violent, and they
are the more strong according as the sky is clearest. When it is overcast
you may look for it from N.W. with squalls.

If the N.W. wind should shift suddenly to North and N.N.H. it becomes
very dangerous, because it will not allow vessels to find shelter, on account
of the rapidity with which it closes all the harbours.

If after two or three days of Northerly wind it returns to West, by the
N.W., it will increase in that direction ; but if it shifts to the N.H. the
weather will be more quiet, and there may be some days of fine weather.
When, after a continuation of N.E. winds, it should shift to S8.E., by the
Hast, you may expect Southerly winds soon, and with them bad weather
again. In autumn there is a continuation of fine weather, especially after
the bad weather which usually accompanies the Equinoxes.

The spring is almost always a continuation of the winter, during which
the Westerly winds prevail; they are not so strong, but the accompanying
rains are more abundant.

In summer, which generally begins in July, the prevalent wind is from
N.E. Close in with the land they haul to seaward, while the sun is above
the horizon, and to the land during the night.

The barometer rises with winds from West to N.E., by the North, and
falls with’all other winds.

(146.) Near Cape Pefias contrary winds are often met with, Hast or N.E.
winds in the offing becoming West or 8. W. near the cape, or vice versa. In
summer the prevalent winds are Easterly, and in winter between S.W.
and West, the latter bringing dirty weather. Northerly gales occur between
December and March, and are known as T'ravesias.

At Ferrol the prevalent winds are N.E. in summer, and 8.W. in winter,
the latter bringing bad weather even in summer.

(147.) West Coast of Spain and Portugal.—Captain J. McKirdy says :—
“T have usually found the winds off Spain and Portugal either up or down
the coast, and have heard them spoken of as the ‘ Portuguese Trades.’

212 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

Crossing the Bay of Biscay with a North-Westerly breeze, it is almost sure
to lead down the coast, and coming from the Southward with a §8.E. or
S.W. wind it will lead up. I have seen it once, in the summer time, blow-
ing right on shore, but it was only a moderate breeze, and the weather
was beautiful. I have noticed that if the weather is changing from fine to
bad, the sky remains clear long after the barometer has begun to go down;
say with a S.W. or S.H. breeze coming on, the glass indicates an approach-
ing disturbance, the wind pipes up and the sea rises, then small clouds
begin to fly, getting bigger every minute until rain falls, and the sky gets
quickly overcast, with heavy rain at intervals. When it is going to fly to
the N.W., a harder squall and a heavier shower seem to usher in the
change. The barometer springs up a little, then stops, and, as the squall
moderates, a thin patch is seen to the N.W., which quickly develops, and
soon the sky is cleared, possibly to become partially overcast again. Now
the barometer is rising briskly, and the sea goes down as quickly as it rose;
two or three hours will raise or allay a good heavy squall.

“There appears to be a perpetual swell coming from the Westward,
summer or winter, sunshine or storm. Any time I have passed up or down
this coast it has been here, sometimes long and low; at other times high
and hollow, but always perceptible, and often a nuisance; for, running
down with a North wind and accompanying sea, the two meeting make
a ship very uncomfortable.

‘“‘ Generally speaking, I notice that from whatever quarter the wind may
come, the sky keeps clear as long as the breeze is light to moderate in force,
but if it freshens it becomes overcast at once; blowing fresh from §.W. to
N.W., I may get a blink of the sun for sights, but a strong breeze away by
N.E. round to the Southward means a grey coating of clouds all over the
sky.” —Nautical Magazine, November, 1880, pp. 917—918.

We have no trustworthy observations on the prevailing winds on the
Coast of Portugal, as affected by local circumstances.

(148.) Cadiz—The sea breezes here vary from West to N.N.W., and
are generally strongest at the full and change of the moon, when they not
unfrequently blow during the whole night. They set in most commonly
with the flood, and are of less strength when the tide makes near noon;
indeed, at that period calms are not uncommon throughout the day. The
land wind seldom reaches the anchorage, although above Puntales Castle
there is scarcely a night without it.

The S.E. and East winds are most dreaded by the inhabitants, but they
are by no means so destructive in their effects as the 8.W. and Westerly
gales, which send a heavy sea into the bay; whereas the East being an
off-shore wind seldom creates any swell of consequence. These winds most
commonly set in at the full and change of the moon, particularly the former,
and blow with great violence ; they are seldom known in the winter months,
and generally commence in May or June, with intervals of a fortnight or
three weeks, and their average duration is three days, but at times five.

The inhabitants consider that when the hills of Ronda appear near and
distinct, it is a sign of an Easterly wind, but there are exceptions to this
rule. It may, however, be considered almost to a certainty, that when the
hills have the above appearance, an Easterly wind exists in the Strait of

BRITISH AMERICA. 213

Gibraltar. Whenever there,is southing in the wind, the atmosphere is
always hazy; and if to the Westward of South a dampness ensues, but if
to the Kastward of South it becomes hot and dry.

(149.) Strait of Gibraltar.—It may be said that two winds only prevail
constantly in the Strait of Gibraltar. They are those from East and West,
being called by local seamen Levante and Ponente. These winds are, gene-
rally speaking, the results of those from N.E. and S.E., as well as from
N.W. and §.W., that are blowing outside the two ends of the strait, and
which, on reaching the narrows of the strait, become Hast and West.
Nevertheless, strong South-Easters do not fail to blow in the strait, pro-
ducing serious damage in the Bay of Algeciras, particularly in winter ; as
well as South-Westers quite as severe, and commonly called Vendavales.
According to observations made at Gibraltar, it appears that Hasterly
winds prevail during July, August, September, March, and December;
and that in the other months Hast and West winds prevail alternately,
but mostly the latter.*

(150.) America—When navigating the Hast Coast of Newfoundland,
seamen should be on their guard against an indraught among the Fogo
and Wadham Islands into Sir Charles Hamilton Sound, Bonavista, Trinity,
and Conception Bays; with Easterly and N.K. winds, this indraught is
very strong, and these winds are accompanied by thick weather.—H.M.S.
Tenedos, 1885.

Tae Guur AND River or St. LAwRencE.—Rear-Admiral Bayfield states
that, during the navigable season, the prevailing winds are either directly
up or directly down the estuary of the St. Lawrence, following the course
of the chains of high lands on either side of the great valley of the river.
Thus, a 8.E. wind in the gulf becomes E.S.E. between Anticosti and the
South coast, E.N.E. above Point de Monts, and N.H. above Green Island.
The Westerly winds do not appear to be so much guided in direction by
the high lands, excepting along the South coast, where a W.S.W. wind at
the Isle Bic has been seen to become West, W.N.W., and N.W., on run-
ning down along the high and curved South coast, until it became a
N.N.W. wind at Cape Gaspé. These winds frequently blow strong for
three or four days in succession; the Westerly winds being almost always
accompanied with fine, dry, clear, and sunny weather ; the Hasterly winds
as frequently with the contrary, cold, wet, and foggy. In the spring, the
Easterly winds prevail most, frequently blowing for several weeks in succes-
sion. As the summer advances, the Westerly winds become more frequent,
and the S.W. wind may be said to be the prevailing wind in summer, in all
parts of the river and gulf. Light South winds take place occasionally ;
but North winds are not common in summer, although they sometimes
occur. Steady North winds do not blow frequently before September,
excepting for a few hours at a time, when they generally succeed Hasterly

* Further information on the Winds, &c., of the Strait of Gibraltar, will be found in
the Sailing Directions accompanying the Charts ,

214 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

winds which have died away to a calm, forming the commencement of
strong winds, and usually veering to the S.W. The N.W. wind is dry,
with bright clear sky, flying clouds, and showers.

After the autumnal Equinox, winds to the Northward of West become
more common, and are then often strong steady winds of considerable
duration. In the months of October and November, the N.W. wind fre-
quently blows with great violence, in heavy squalls, with passing showers
of hail and snow, and attended with sharp frost.

Thunder-storms are not uncommon in July and August; they seldom
last above an hour or two, but the wind proceeding from them is, in
general, violent and sudden, particularly when near the mountainous part
of the coast; sail should be fully and quickly reduced on their approach.

Strong winds seldom veer from one quarter of the compass to another
directly or nearly contrary ; in general they die away by degrees to a calm,
and are succeeded by a wind in the opposite direction. It is not here
meant that they may not veer to the amount of several points. N.W. winds
seldom veer round by North and N.E. to East and §.E.; but they do
frequently, by degrees, to the 8.W., after becoming moderate. 8.W. winds
seldom veer by the N.W. and North to the Eastward, but sometimes by
the South to §.H. and East. Easterly winds generally decrease to a calm,
succeeded by a wind from the opposite direction.

In the fine weather Westerly winds of summer, a fresh top-gallant breeze
will often decrease to a light breeze or calm at night, and spring up again
from the same quarter on the following morning ; under these circum-
stances only, may a land-breeze off the North coast be looked for. The
same has been observed off the South coast also, but not so decidedly, nor
extending so far off shore. Admiral Bayfield adds, I have occasionally
carried the North land-wind nearly over to the South coast just before
daylight; but have never observed the South land-wind extend more than
5 or 6 miles off, and that very rarely. Under the same circumstances,
that is, with a fine weather Westerly wind going down with the sun, a
S.W. land-breeze will frequently be found blowing off the North coast of
Anticosti at night and during the early part of the morning. If, however,
the weather be not settled fair, and the wind does not fall with the sun,
it will usually prove worse than useless to run a vessel close inshore at
night in the hope of a breeze off the land.

Such is the usual course of the winds in common seasons, in which a
very heavy gale of wind will probably not be experienced from May to
October, although close-reefed topsail breezes are usually common enough.
Occasionally, however, there are years, the character of which is decidedly
stormy. Gales of wind, of considerable strength, then follow each other
iN quick succession, and from opposite quarters.

Among the difficulties of the navigation in the Gulf of St. Lawrence are
the Fogs and Ice. In spring, the entrance and Hastern parts are frequently
covered with Ice, and vessels are sometimes beset for many days. Being
unfitted for contending with this danger, they often suffer from it, and are
occasionally lost. But all danger from Ice is far less than that which arises
from the prevalence of Fogs: these may occur at any time during the open
or navigable season, but are most frequent in the early part of summer,

BRITISH AMERICA. 215

They are rare, and never of long continuance, during Westerly winds, but
seldom fail to accompany an Easterly wind of any strength or duration.
This observation is, however, subject to restriction, according to locality
or season. Thus winds between South and West, which are usually clear
weather winds above Anticosti, are frequently accompanied with Fog in
the Eastern parts of the gulf. Winds between South and East are almost
always accompanied with rain and Fog in every part. E.N.E. winds
above Cape de Monts, at the mouth of the river, are often E.S.E. or S.E.
winds in the gulf, being changed in direction by the high lands of the
South coast, and have, therefore, in general the same fogey character.
This is said of winds of considerable strength and duration, and which
may extend over great distances. Moderate and partial fine weather winds
may occur without Fog at any season, and in any locality. In the early
part of the navigable season, especially in the months of April and May,
with clear weather, N.E. winds are of frequent occurrence, and they some-
times occur at other seasons, and in every part of the gulf and river.

The Fogs sometimes last several days in succession, and to a vessel either
running up or beating down, during their continuance, there is no safe
guide but the constant use of the deep-sea lead, with a chart containing
correct soundings.

The Fogs which accompany Easterly gales extend high up into the
atmosphere, and cannot be looked over from any part of the rigging of a
ship. They, however, are not so thick as those which occur in calms after
a strong wind, and which are often so dense as to conceal a vessel within
hail; whilst the former frequently admit the land or other objects to be
distinguished at the distance of half a mile or more, in the daytime.

The dense Fogs which occur in calms, and even in very light winds,
often extend only to small elevations above the sea; so that it sometimes
happens, when objects are hidden at the distance of 50 yards from the
deck, they can be plainly seen by a person 50 or 60 feet up the rigging.
In the months of October and November, the Fogs and rain that accom-
pany Easterly gales, are replaced by thick snow, which causes equal em-
barrassment to the navigator.

Nova Scoria.—The prevailing winds on all the §8.E. coast are from
W.S.W. to 8.W., nearly as steady as Trade Winds, excepting that during
the summer months they are rather more Southerly, accompanied with
but little intermission by fog, which requires a North-Westerly wind to
disperse it. It is, therefore, recommended not to leave an anchorage
without making arrangements for reaching another before dark; or with
appearances of a fog coming on, which, with a 8.W. wind, is so sudden,
that you are unawares enveloped in it; nor to keep at sea during the night,
if it can be avoided. Whenever the wind blows directly off the land the
fog is soon dispersed.

In the spring and summer months dense fogs or rain almost always
accompany all winds from the sea, from E.N.E., round South, to W.S.W.
In winter, the rain is frequently replaced by snow. During the autumnal
and winter months, winds from between North and West become more
frequent, and, being off the land, are always accompanied with clear
weather.

216 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

Strong gales of wind do not often occur in May, June, or July ; but after
the middle of August they are often of great strength, and it becomes the
more necessary to attend carefully to the indications of the barometer.
Strong winds from East, round South, to W.S.W., are always accompanied
by a falling barometer. When, therefore, these winds begin to abate, and
the barometer at the same time ceases to fall, a change of wind, more or
less sudden, to the opposite direction may be expected, with a rising
barometer and fine weather; and if it be winter, with intense frost, coat-
ing the vessel, her sails, and rigging, with ice.

Again, a high barometer, stationary or beginning to fall, indicates that
a S.E. or S.W. wind, with accompanying rain and fog, is not far distant ;
and if, at the same time, there be a bank of clouds rising above the North-
Western horizon, the indication is certain.

Bay or Funpy.—The prevailing winds in summer are from South to
S.W., in autumn from North to N.E. Winds from South to 8. W. generally
bring fog, which often comes on suddenly. In summer, the haze from
burning forests in Maine is almost as bad as fog.

SoutH Carouina, &c.—About this coast, if the wind blows hard from
the N.E. quarter, without rain, it commonly continues so for some time,
perhaps three or four days; but, if such winds are attended with rain,
they generally shift to the Hast, E.S.H., and $.H. S.E. winds blow right
in on the coast ; but they seldom blow dry, or continue long. In six, eight,
or ten hours after their commencement, the sky begins to look dirty, which
soon produces rain. When it comes to blow and rain very hard, you may
be sure the wind will fly round to the N.W. quarter, and blow hard for
twenty or thirty hours, with a clear sky.

North-West winds are always attended with clear weather ; they some-
times blow very hard, but seldom for longer than thirty hours. The most
lasting winds are those which blow from the S8.S8.W. and W.N.W., and
from the North to the E.N.E. The weather is most settled when the wind
is in any of these quarters.

In summer time thunder-gusts are very common on this coast; they
always come from the N.W. quarter, and are sometimes so heavy that no
canvas can withstand their fury; they come on so suddenly, that the
greatest precaution is necessary to guard against the effects of their
violence,

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9.—HURRICANES.

(151.) Among the most extraordinary phenomena of nature may be
classed those tremendous meteors, the Hurricanes and Tornados of the
Tropical Regions. There are various names applied to these storms :
Cyclones, Revolving Storms, Kotary Gales, Hurricanes, Tornados (Portu-
guese and expressive ‘‘re-turned”), Typhoons, &c.; but all are meant to
describe much the same thing. Up to within quite a recent period they
were very imperfectly understood, and were only regarded as terrible con-
vulsions of the aerial system, when all order seemed to be broken up.
But these, like many other apparent anomalies in nature, have been found
reducible to system; and their various seemingly capricious motions all
subject to general rules, which, in this case, have been aptly denominated
“The Law of Storms.”

(152.) Authorities.—The discussions on the progressive nature of Hurri-
canes appear to have originated in a paper, entitled ‘‘ Remarks on the
Prevailing Storms of the Atlantic Coast of the North American States,”
by William C. Redfield, of New York, 1831, which proved to be a very
important and valuable addition to nautical literature.* The subject,
adopting the ‘‘ Redfield Theory,” was afterwards amplified and illustrated
by Lieutenant-Colonel (afterwards Sir) William Reid, R.H., C.B., Governor
of the Bermudas and of Malta, in the volume entitled ‘‘ An Attempt to
Develop the Law of Storms by means of Facts, arranged according to
- Place and Time, and hence to point out a Cause for the Variable Winds,
with a view to practical use in Navigation,” 1838. As connected with this
subject, the names of Redfield and Reid will be imperishable.

We say that the discussion appears to have originated in the before-
mentioned works ; but, without deciding on the claims of priority, it must
be mentioned that, besides the names of Reid and Redfield, those of
Mr. Piddington, at Calcutta ; of Dr. Thom, and more recently Professor
Meldrum, in the Indian Ocean; of Mr. Espy, in America; and of Professor
Dové, at Berlin, must be enrolled with them, as the primary instigators
of the enquiry into the origin and nature of Storms. Mr. Piddington’s
‘“‘Hornbook” contains the most valuable information on this important
topic.

Among more recent writers on this subject we may mention the Padre

* The origin of the revolving theory has been attributed to others earlier in the field
then Redfield and Reid. Among others, to Colonel Capper, who published his well-known
work on Winds and Monsoons, in 1801; to Rom ne, a French author, in 1806; and to
several others. But these all fell short of establishing the law, inasmuch as they only
noticed the shifting character of the winds in one spot, and did not reach the conclusion
that these shifts had an invariable character, and that the whole meteor was progressive.

+ “My attention was first directed to the subject from having been employed at Bar-
badoes in re-establishing the Government buildings blown down in the Hurricane of
1831, when 1,477 persons lost their lives in the short space of seven hours. I was in-
duced to search everywhere for accounts of previous storms, in the hope of learning
something of their causes and mode of action.’’—Reid, ‘ Law of Storms.”

eA: 29

218 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

Vifies, of Havana; Professors Wojeikof, Mohn, and Hildebrandsson ;
Messrs. Blanford, Elliott, and Willson, in India; Dr. Doberck and Pére
Dechevrens, in China; Mr. Knipping, in Japan; Messrs. Birt, Jinman,
Evans, Scott, Buchan, Ley, and Toynbee; and Professor Ferrel and
Lieutenant Hayden, in the United States. The writings of these gentle-
men, with those of numerous others, are chiefly to be found in various
periodical publications, and have been used in the compilation of the
following remarks, which, it is hoped, will be found to contain the essence
of the subject, though there are difficulties in reconciling the many con-
tradictory and confusing statements.

(153.) Character.—Although the ‘‘ Law of Storms” is now fully recog-
nized, opinion is not yet unanimous as to the real character and con
dition of these remarkable meteors. Reid, Redfield, and others, contend
that they are real vortices—currents of air revolving round a progressive
centre ; others, as Thom and Meldrum, contend that the wind blows in
spirals around this centre; Espy, that the wind blows toward the centre ;
others, again, consider that the vertical motion of the air will explain many
of the phenomena. Jinman considers that, as the air is blowing away
from one area, another current necessarily blows towards and into that
area, causing the peculiar features of these Hurricanes. It would be out
of place, and far too discursive for this work, to discuss at length these
various propositions ; they may readily be found in the numerous works
extant.

One more remark may suffice. Is it not possible, nay, probable, that
each of these theories may be correct as to individual Cyclones, which
may be (and are) of such varied character as not to be reducible in all
cases to a fixed rule? However, it is certain that in many examples the
true Revolving Storm is the proper appellation.

(154.) Rotation—One fact with regard to these Storms appears to be
now all but indisputable, and that is the rotary or gyratory character of
the winds round a circular, or nearly circular, area or vortex of low baro-
metric pressure, which moves forward at the same time along certain
tracks, according to the locality in which it is found. Concerning the
rotary character of the winds, simultaneous observations at different
positions during the progress of these Storms show there can be no doubt
that the winds which formed them were rotating round central areas.
The way in which the wind veered at all the places over which it passed, .
cannot be explained on any other supposition. The depression of the
barometer within the areas of the storms, and the circumstance that the
depression was greatest everywhere at or near the centre, also indicates
another important feature, viz., that there is a diminished atmospheric
pressure within the whole area of a Cyclone, and lowest of all at the centre.
The diminished weight of the atmosphere at the places passed over by the
Cyclone may be accounted for by the suction which draws air towards it
from all quarters and the effect of which is necessarily to produce revolving
currents ascending spirally towards the area in the upper regions of the
atmosphere where a vacuum or great rarefaction originatoc.

In the paper referred to in (156) is a description of a Waterspout which
ws seen to extend upward to a height of 1,700 feet, and of several Dust

HURRICANES. 219

Storms which were more than double that height. If there be a close
analogy between Cyclones and these smaller whirls, it may be inferred that
the gigantic whirls composing the former are greatly higher, or perhaps
several miles in height, and consequently the direction of the wind expe-
rienced during a Cyclone may not always agree with the direction of the
progress of the scud above, which may be accounted for by the spiral
column not rising perpendicularly in the air. This will be referred to again
later on.

(155.) Incurvature of Wind —It is now considered that the wind only
blows circularly round the vicinity of the centre or vortex, while at parts
of the Storm farther away it does not blow in a strictly circular course
round the centre, but spirally or incurving towards it, as shown in the
illustrative diagrams. The curve which the wind describes is in reality
a spiral around the focus. If these were drawn, that for the Northern
Hemisphere would be curved in the same direction as the figure 6; for the
Southern it would be this figure reversed, or like the figure 6 on the back
of the paper, both beginning at the top.

This indraft or incurvature of the wind varies according to the latitude
and also the quadrant of the Storm. Padre Vifies found that, in the West
Indian Hurricanes which he had studied, in the front part of the Storm
the winds blew almost in a circle, while in the rear the inclination, or in-
draft, was so great that the winds blew almost towards the centre. When
in latitudes higher than 30°, however, the Hurricane may cover so great
an area as to render the indraft imperceptible. This indraft of course
affects the problem of finding the bearing of the centre, discussed hereafter.

(156.) Similes——Perhaps the idea of an ascending spiral whirl may be
the simplest simile to which to compare the circulation of the winds in a
Cyclone. In a paper by D. M. Holme, LL.D., published in the Journal of
the Scottish Meteorological Society, 1869, pages 8305—322, it was pointed
out that the whirls which frequently occur in the atmosphere, known as
Waterspouts, Whirlwinds, and Dust Storms, often originate in the upper
regions of the atmosphere, and descend in the form of an inverted cone to
the earth’s surface. They are. also formed by currents of air ascending
from tke earth’s surface spirally and rotating at the same time. These
ascending currents have'been distinctly noticed, by various articles (such
as hay, straw, branches of trees, and in some cases animals) being seen
carried up in the interior of the whirling cylinder. If it were possible to
have an aneroid in the interior of it, a depression indicating diminished
atmospheric pressure would most probably be observable. In this paper
it is attempted to prove that Cyclones have many features in common with
Waterspouts, Dust Storms, and Whirlwinds.

(157.) Origin.—The most difficult part of the Cyclone theory remains to
be mentioned. What causes the suction to which the indraught of air may
be attributed ? What determines the course which all these West India
Cyclones take in their passage over the earth’s surface? The latter question
is the less difficult of the two. If the Cyclones are formed, as they appear
to be in the Atlantic Ocean, a little to the North of the Equator, it ig
evident that they must move in the first instance to the Westward, haoaies
the general atmospheric current is in that direction. When they reach the

220 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

West India Islands they get into another current, which carries them first
N.W., then North, and ultimately N.E.

But how is the whirling cylindrical column of a Cyclone formed ? There
are several ways in which a whirl may be formed. (1.) If a tub be filled
with water, and a small orifice be made in the bottom, the water in the
tub as it runs out rotates. At first only the part over and near the orifice
rotates, but ultimately the rotation extends to more distant parts. (2.) If
a stream of water be made to flow through a body of water which is
quiescent, whirls or eddies will be formed which consist of columns more
or less vertical. They may be seen any day in rivers where the current
passes a point of rock projecting into the stream, and when that current
comes in contact with the body of the water sheltered by the rock. These
eddies are still more common where two currents, running in different
directions, touch one another ; along the line which separates them whirls
are formed, the rotation being in the direction of the stronger stream, and
its progressive motion being also in the same direction. (3.) If along glass
cylinder be immersed a little way into a body of water, and the air be
suddenly exhausted or rarefied by drawing it out at the top of the cylinder,
the water rises, and in rising rotates.

With regard to the cause of the air rising. There must frequently be, in
the upper regions of the Equatorial atmosphere, condensations of the warm
vapours which are carried up from the surface of the ocean by the ascend-
ing aerial currents. These condensations will produce great rarefaction,
and that rarefaction will draw towards it air from the lower regions of the
atmosphere, and in drawing it will probably cause rotation.*

Low pressure, violent winds, and heavy clouds and rain, are always
observed in well-defined Cyclones, and are closely dependent on one
another. A local decrease of pressure, from whatever initial cause, re-
quires the inflow of the surrounding air. The winds thus aroused acquire,
except close to the Equator, a rotation around the low pressure centre as
they approach it, because they are moving on a rotating sphere. Their
inward spiral motion thus begun must become more rapid near the centre
in accordance with the well-known mechanical law, as illustrated by a
whirlpool. The centrifugal force produced by the rotation causes a further
decrease of pressure at the centre, and thereby confirms the circulation of
the Storm. ie

The low pressure at the centre, in spite of the continual spiral inflow of
air, shows there must be a compensating escape of air by ascent and out-
flow above; the slowly-ascending air, still whirling around the centre, is
necessarily cooled by its own expansion as it rises, and thus vapour is con-
densed, and heavy clouds form giving rain. The latent heat given out by
the condensation of so much vapour retards the cooling of the ascending
air and maintains it at a higher temperature than that of the surrounding

ee

* To cause this rotation, the ascending current would appear to require a limited
space to pass through, and this hole, as it were, might be formed at a point of contact
of the upper and under layers of three strata of air. That it is possible for patches of
air of different consistencies to exist side by side, has been proved by the fog-signal —
experiments carried on by the Trinity House.—Ep.

HURRICANES. 221

air at the same altitude. This relative warmth of the cloudy storm area
maintains the outflow of the upper currents in the same way as the Equa-
torial warmth causes the Poleward flow of the lofty Anti-Trades.

(158.) Direction of Rotation, &c.—In the Northern Hemisphere, as
already explained on page 183, the winds in Cyclonic Storms, invariably
revolve from right to left, past the North, or against the sun, i.e. in the
opposite direction to the hands of a watch lying face upwards. Originating
within the Tropics, the Storm progresses bodily to the W.N.W., then
N.W., and North, forming a cycloidal curve in about lat. 30°, and runs off
to the N.E.

South of the Equator, or in the Southern Hemisphere, this rule is reversed,
the Storm revolving from left to right, or with watch-hands, passing onwards
in a 8.W., and finally in a §.E. course. These Storms, however, do not

seem to be encountered in the South Atlantic Ocean, within the S.E.
Trade Wind area.

The illustrative diagrams will give the reader a better idea of the
circulation of the wind in a Hurricane, North of the Equator, than any
written description. The spiral lines in that for low latitudes show the
course of the wind around the vortex, its direction at any point on this
diagram being the same as the curve at that point. By plotting arrows at
all points having the wind from the same direction, North for example,
and joining them by a dotted line, it will be found that this line curves
towards the centre. The angle of bearing of the centre therefore, supposing
the Cyclone to be of a normal character, gradually decreases from about
10 points (or it may be 11, 12, or 13 points, or even more) of the compass
at the margin to about 8 points nearer the vortex, where the “ Hight
Point Rule,” hereafter given, becomes correct.

(159.) Form, &c.—A Cyclonic area is rarely circular, but usually more
or less oval, seldom perfectly symmetrical, and the vortex or centre is
often displaced towards one side. The vortex also sometimes oscillates or
moves from one side of the area to the other. The longer axis of the oval
usually lies in a line with the path of the Storm, and its effect is as if the
circle had been distorted, thus giving a much greater preponderance of the
winds due to the longer sides of the oval. An irregular motion of the vortex,
as above described, will cause great perplexity and apparent want of regu-
larity, yet the Storm itself may be strictly a revolving one. Another cause
of complexity in revolving Storms is, that they have been known to separate
into two, and in other cases two or more Storms encountering each other
have coalesced.

The vortex or focus of a Cyclone, where reigns a calm accompanied by
heavy and confused seas, with a blue sky in the Tropics (known as the
“‘bull’s eye’’), may be of considerable size, from 10 to 30 miles in diameter
in some Storms, and in others, it is thought, may be next to nothing.
Here the barometer may read 2 inches or more below the normal. This
is the most dangerous part of a revolving Storm, asin its passage the wind
suddenly shifts from one point to the other, and here it is generally most
violent. Around this the wind circulates in an ever widening circle as it
progresses on its course, until the disturbance may cover an area of 1,000
miles or more in diameter.

422 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

There is a Jarge amount of variation, however, in the size, shape, and
velocity of these Storms. They are smallest and most violent in the
Tropics, where the cloud-ring averages about 500 miles in diameter, and
the region of stormy winds 300 miles, or even less.

Some examples of vessels passing through the vortex are given at the
end of this Section.

(160.) Though the circular theory is now so generally adopted, it is as
well here to notice that of Captain George Jinman, who thus expounds
his views :—Every Hurricane or Gale has two distinct sides, formed by
two currents of air flowing in opposite directions, and crossing each other
at two points. The two sides are nct always equally developed at the
earth’s surface—that is, the one often blows harder than the other; it is
but seldom, in fact, that the winds in the two sides are equal in force.
The greatest force will be found at either confluence, but rarely of equal
force at both. It may blow with hurricane violence at both confiuences,
and only a moderate gale at the sides.*

The centre of a Storm is not the most dangerous part. There are times
in which it would be possible for a steam-ship to pass from one side of the
gale to another, across the centre, and yet not experience more than a
moderate gale, whilst vessels on either side of her, under the confluences,
may be exposed to violent Hurricanes. A vessel may become embayed, as
it were, in a Storm, in such a position that it may be almost impossible
for her to escape altogether uninjured. There are many positions, indeed,
in which a ship, especially a dull sailing one, may be overtaken, and be
unable to escape.

One confluence is generally more distinctly marked than the other, espe-
cially in extra-tropical latitudes; so much so, indeed, that, for a long time, 3
imagined that there was but one ; which at that time I named the centre-
line, or core of the gale. The one on the West side of the centre, in either
Hemisphere, is always more marked than the one on the Hast side. When
I say more marked, I mean that the meeting of the two winds may be seen
more distinctly ; as, for instance, in the North Atlantic, when the wind
flies from 8.W. toN.W. This takes place at the confluence on the West
side of the centre. On the East side, where the winds forming a confluence
are from the S.E. and §S.W., their meeting is not so distinctly marked.
The wind seldom flies from S8.H. to 8.W. ; it more usually veers, but rather
more quickly than at any other part of the Storm. The reason is simply
this: the §.E. and 8.W. winds, flowing out from the Equator, are more
highly charged with vapour, and are warmer than a Westerly or Northerly
wind, and consequently have a greater tendency to ascend and to mix with
each other. A N.W. wind, on the contrary, is a dense, cold wind—a
descending wind; and on coming in contact with a S.W. wind, it con-
denses the vapour which the latter has taken up, thus producing torrents
of rain at their junction. Here we have one material proof that the winds
do not blow in circles ; for, on passing from one wind into another, as from

«I am satisfied that many of those Storms which have been described by some
writers as dowble Hurricanes or Cyclones, were nothing more than the two confluences
of the same Storm.

HURRICANES. 293

a S.W. into a N.W., a long bank of wimbus (rain-cloud) may often be seen
stretching away from S.W. to N.E., or with the wind just left, and at right
angles to the wind entered, before which it is being rapidly driven; showing
distinctly that the two winds are in contact, and blowing at right angles
to each other. This could not be the case if the wind blew in circles—if
it was one continuous current of air blowing round a centre.

(161.) Season.— West Indian Hurricanes, as Tropical Cyclones in the
North Atlantic Ocean are generally called, are especially liable to be en-
countered from July to October inclusive, though June may also be num-
bered among the Hurricane months. October, although the last month
of the Hurricane season, is one of the most dangerous. August is specially
liable to these dreaded Storms, the maximum being reached between the
middle of August and the middle of October. They are comparatively
rare during the other months, though not entirely unknown. The follow-
ing is a list of 8355, which occurred in the West Indies during a period of
363 years, arranged according to the months, taken from a chronological
Table drawn up by M. André Foey, of Havana, for the years from 1493

to 1855.
May | June | July | Aug. | Sept. | Oct.
5 10 | 42 96 80 69

June, too soon; July, stand by;
August, look out you must;
September, remember; October, all over.

Jan.

Feb. | Mar. | Apr.
5 6

7 ula 17 7 355

Nov. me a

This rhyme is true so far as the specially dangerous months are con-
cerned. The experience, however, of over 300 years records, shows that
June is not too soon, and that in October they are not all over.

(162.) Regions—West Indian Hurricanes originate in the Tropics,
usually to the Westward of long. 40° W., and rarely to the Southward of
lat. 10° N.* As a general rule, their origin seems to be about the Northern
edge of the belt of Equatorial rains and calms, to the Eastward of the
Windward Islands. Starting as whirlwinds on a gigantic scale, they at
first move bodily Westward, sometimes crossing the Gulf of Mexico and
reaching the coast of the United States with destructive violence; but
more often curving to the Northward and North-Hastward, following up
the Gulf Stream towards Newfoundland, and then inclining away to the
Eastward around the area of high pressure over mid-Atlantic.

Thus they may be encountered anywhere within the Tropical limits
given above; also over the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico; over a
broad belt curving North- Westward from about St. Thomas, including the
whole area from Bermuda to the United States coast and British America.
Farther to the North-Eastward these Storms gradually lose their distinctive
character, though their tracks can at times easily be traced across the
Atlantic towards Northern Europe

Cyclones are rarely, if ever, formed to the South of the mid North
Atlantic Anti-Cyclone, mentioned in (25), though they sometimes originate

* See Captain Henry Toynbee's remarks, given ante, on e 138,
P § pag

224 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS,

on its §.W. side. On the North side of this Anti-Cyclone, Cyclonic areas
frequently arise, moving away to the Eastward. On its §.E. side, near
Madeira, Cyclones are also occasionally formed ; these either work very
slowly to the S.W., or cross over towards the Strait of Gibraltar.*

The lowest latitude of any centre of low pressure which has been dis-
tinctly traced in the North Atlantic Ocean is 6° 6’ N., and there are eight
cases of Cyclonic Storms whose paths have been traced to points South of
lat. 10° N. Hard gales and violent squalls of wind sometimes occur
directly under the Equator.

(163.) Path or Track.—We have before stated (158), that besides its
circular motion the Cyclonic Storm also moves forward bodily along certain
tracks, according to the locality in which it is found. The investigation
of the records of a very large number of West Indian Hurricanes has led
to the following conclusions with regard to the tracks which they generally
follow, though, as will be seen from the practical examples hereafter given,
no dependence can be placed upon any Storm following a certain track, so
much depending upon the meteorologival conditions of the area surround-
ing it.

Professor W. Ferrel well describes the progressive motion of a Cyclone
as depending mostly upon the general motions of the atmosphere, but also
upon the tendency of the Cyclone to press towards the Pole. In the Trade
Wind latitudes the wind at the earth’s surface is Westward, or at least
has a large Westerly component, and hence the Cyclones in these latitudes
are carried Westward by this Westward motion of the air, especially at
certain seasons; and having likewise a tendency toward the Pole, the
resultant of the two is a Westward motion, inclined a little toward the
Poles, or in the Northern Hemisphere a motion about W.N.W. After
having arrived at the parallel of 20° to 33° or 35° in the Tropical calm
belt, where there is no Westward motion (according to the season), the
progressive motion is a Polar one mostly, but after progressing still nearer
the Pole, into the middle and higher latitudes, the general Hastward
motion of the atmosphere here, which is great in the upper regions, now
carries the Cyclone towards the East, and the direction of the progressive
motion, which is usually about E.N.E., is the resultant of this Eastward
motion and the motion towards the Pole. All well-developed Cyclones,
therefore, having their origin in the Tropics, have mostly a progressive
motion represented by a curve somewhat in the form of a parabola, as will
be seen from the diagram showing the courses of various Hurricanes.

Padre R. P. B. Viiies, of Havana, as the result of his study and long
experience of this subject, states that between lat. 10° and 15° N.a Hurri-
cane moves-almost due West.

In June and October its course changes rapidly to N.W. and North,
recurving about lat. 20° to 23°.

In July and September it continues on its N.W. course to lat. 27° to 29°
before recwrving.

In August it continues on its N.W. course to lat. 30° to 32° before re-
curving.

——_— ———

* « Weather,” by the Hon. R. Abercromby, 1887.
+ Prof. E. Loomis, ‘‘ On Areas of Low Pressure,” American Journal of Science, 1885,

STORM CARD _ NORTH’ HEMISPHERE.

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Diagram for finding a ship's positior relative to the
Storm centre, by means of the direction of the wmd
and fall of the Barometer. (See instructions on page 230)

wind 3

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NORMAL HURRICANE TRACK

face page 225.

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IN HIGH LATITUDES ee ©
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IN MIDDLE LATITUDES
J vie E.N-E. (Storm Recurving’)
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Dangerous semicircle
&-
en:

IN LOW LATITUDES

June & Oct.—10°_20°
July & Sept.— 10°27
August —— 10-30

Track __ Wb.Nto NNW.
Velocity, about 17m.an hour.

Navigable semicircle

HURRICANES. 225

At the beginning of the season some of the Hurricanes of June and July
keep well to the South and cross the Caribbean Sea, and at times also the
Island of Cuba, in a W. by N. direction approximately. From the begin-
ning of August to the end of September these Tropical Cyclones, in the first
part of their track, take generally a W.N.W. direction or a course between
W.N.W. and N.W., and all of them recurve outside of the Tropics, gene
rally between lat. 27° and 33°.

As the season advances, the initial direction of the tracks inclines more
to the Westward, the Hurricanes keep farther South and recurve in lower
latitudes, so that those of October, and even some at the end of September,
come to us (at Havana) from the Southern part of the Caribbean Sea, and
recurve in the vicinity of the Tropic of Cancer, or before reaching it, with
this peculiarity, that where several have come in succession, each one has
recurved not only in a lower latitude, but also farther West than the pre-
ceding. The interval in these cases from one to another is not legs than
twelve or fourteen days. These Hurricanes are without doubt the most
to be feared for the Western portion of the Island of Cuba.*

The illustrative diagrams, mainly derived from the United States Pilot
Chart of the North Atlantic Ocean, show the circulation of the winds
in a normal West Indian Hurricane. The large arrows show the direction
of the path along which the Storm is advancing, according to the latitude;
the small arrows fly with the wind, and show the indraft or incurve
towards the centre. The central shaded portion shows the specially
dangerous region, and the right hand side of this, facing the Storm’s path,
is che dangerous semicircle, about which more will be said later on.

(164.) Mr. Redfield says :—At stations within the Tropics, the changes of
wind, during the passage of the Hurricane, are sometimes known to exceed
those which pertain to the passage of a regular circuit of wind ; these changes
sometimes running through the entire circuit of the compass, and even
more. Again, they have been known to shift backward and forward, in
alternate and fitful changes, when near the crisis of the Storm. These
phenomena, so far from disproving the rotative character of these gales,
only prove something more, and afford, at least, probable evidence in
support of one or both.cf the following positions :—1. That high land and
other obstructions often produce sudden and fitful gusts and changes in
these violent winds. 2. That, in accordance with our observations of minor
vortices, the action of rotation is often impelled, excentrically, around a
smaller circuit, in the interior of the advancing Storm.

In the Northern inter-tropical latitudes the recession or departure of the
South-Eastern limb of the Storm appears to be followed, not unfrequently,
by strong squalls or gusts from the S.H., this being the true course of the
general Trade Wind which determines the track of the Storm. These gusts,
or squalls, if mistaken for the regular action of the Hurricane, may occasion
erroneous deductions in regard to the course of the Storm.

At stations apparently within the regular track of the Storm, there will

* « Apuntes relativos a los Huracanes de las Antillas en Setiembre y Octubre de 1875
y 1876,” by Padre R. P. B. Viiies.

N.A.O. 30

226 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDs.

sometimes be an absence of violent wind; or the violence will pertain to
only one of the phases, which the Storm presents, in its regular course
over such locality.

Some Storms are interrupted in their development by the near approach
of another Storm. Care must be taken, therefore, not to mistake the N.E.
wind of a Storm whose North-Western limb is thus intercepted by a
bordering Storm, and which hence is sometimes followed by the natural
current of air from the S.W. quarter, for the changes that pertain to the
centre of a rotary gale.

(165.) Velocity—The velocity or force of the wind in a Cyclonic Storm
varies according to the distance from the vortex, being least near the cir-
cumference, and greatest near the central calm space, where it has been
estimated sometimes to attain a speed of 125 to 150 miles an hour.

With regard to the rate of progression of the storm-field along its track,
the examination of a large number of records has led to the following
results. At its origin, and in low latitudes, its average rate of movement
is 17 miles an hour, but this is reduced to 10 or 5 miles an hour where the
storm recurves in middle latitudes, and here it has even been known to
become almost stationary for several days. As # bears off to the Hast-
ward its speed increases to 20 or 30 miles an hour, though Professor
Loomis, from his researches, finds they here attain an average speed of
only 18 miles an hour.

From their nature there must necessarily be considerable variation in the
course and velocity of these Storms, but the above figures give the average.

(166.) Indications.—The earliest and surest of all warnings of an
approaching Hurricane will be found in that invaluable, and seldom-failing
monitor, the Barometer ; the language of which, in the Torrid Zone, is
unmistakable, because there it is usually tranquil and undisturbed. When
any such warning symptoms are observed, in any quarter of the world, it
may be supposed that no time should be lost in making all due prepara-
tion, and especially if to such menacing appearances be added the confused
and troubled agitation of the sea which often precedes these revolving
storms, and always shows that they are at no great distance. But if these
combined prognostics should occur within the limits of those regions in
which these Cyclones occur, let the seaman immediately consider the pos-
sibility, at least, of his being about to encounter a storm of that revolving
type of which we have been treating.

The Barometer will be found an unerring indicator of the approach of
these meteors, provided proper attention be paid to its monitions. As a
general rule, the following will be its usual vibrations :—Just previous to
the commencement of the Hurricane, the mercury will suddenly rise above
its normal or ordinary level (see (23) and the accompanying diagrams of
Mean Barometric Pressure), accompanied by Anti-Cyclonic winds of some
duration, with cool, dry, bracing, and beautiful weather, a clear sky, and
very transparent atmosphere.* In a day or two, or sooner, it will begin
to fall, and the wind probably rises, showing that the Storm has begun.

* The Hurricane of September, 1885, was thus indicated at Havana, while it was yes
1,200 miles away.

HORRICANKS. 227

The mercurial column then begins to descend, rapidly at first, and then
more slowly, till the centre of the Hurricane has passed over, when it
begins gradually to rise, and the reverse of the commencement ensues ; it
attains a higher level, and then as suddenly falls to the mean height. This
1s if the whole of the meteor pass over it, and the centre be crossed.

Upon a little consideration, it will be evident that the form of the surface
of the revolving storm, or the section of the vortex, is described by the
variations in the barometric column. It by no means follows that, prac-
tically, this will always be found: a ship may only skirt the exterior of
the storm, and, consequently, the mercury will only rise, or oscillate,
according to the relative position of the Hurricane and the ship; but it
may be taken as an indication, when the barometer begins slowly to rise,
after being depressed, that the greatest danger has passed over, or that the
ship is steering away from it. Therefore, should there be any sudden
change in the barometer, either rising or falling, its indications should
never be neglected, especially during the period, and in the regions, subject
to these storms. The barometer sometimes sinks two inches during the
progress of a Hurricane.*

One great advantage in the Aneroid Barometer is, that its variations
occur simultaneously with their causes. In the Mercurial Barometer the
friction of the mercury on the tube, and other reasons, concur to make the
column rise or fall at some time after the change has occurred. In this the
Aneroid Barometer possesses great advantage, and it has another very great
claim to notice—that it clearly shows very minute changes, which the
oscillation or pumping motion of the mercury in very bad weather will not
allow to be estimated.

Another warning of the coming Storm is a long low swell from the direc-
tion in which it is approaching. In the open ocean, when the waves have
free action in deep water, the unbroken swell of the ocean travels with
immense velocity, rising at times to about 400 miles an hour. Any extra-
ordinary swell or rollers, more or less confused, may be taken as the
evidence of some distant Storm. Another early sign is when light feathery
cirrus clouds are seen radiating from a point on the horizon where a
whitish arc indicates the bearing of the centre, though it may still be
hundreds of miles away. Unmistakable signs are a falling barometer;
halos about the sun and moon; increasing swell; hot, moist weather,
with light variable winds; rolled and tufted forms of clouds, with deep
lurid red and violet tints at dawn and sunset; a heavy mountainous cloud-
bank,of a dark or leaden appearance, on the distant horizon, with darting
forks and threads of pale lightning.t This cloud-bank may be seen, perhaps,

* At midnight, December 22nd, 1892, the corrected reading of the barometer on board
the steamer Werkendam, was 27°75, near the centre of a Hurricane, in lat. 39° 41’ N.,
long. 30° 41’ W., one of the lowest readings recorded in the North Atlantic Ocean (see
page 111).

¢ Although it is true that the prognostics of a common coming storm are, in general,
sufficiently plain to be understood by a spectator, from the angry appearance of the
firmament, yet it is also true that there is no particular indication in any one quarter
of the horizon sufficiently marked, like the space occupied by the Black Squall panoply
of the Caribbean Sea, so that an acute seaman may say, ‘‘thence will the blast come.”
On the contrary, the clouds gather together (we speak from experience) in dense masses,

228 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

twelve hours before the wind comes on. The peculiar cirro-stratus clouds,
the invariable precursors of the Hurricane, soon appear, looking like white
and delicate feathers or great and showy plumes crossing the firmament.
These beautiful clouds remain fixed at times, and do not change their
forms for hours. The weather becomes heavy, the heat oppressive and
sticky, causing profuse perspiration, and the humidity of the air increases.
In a short time the cloud-bank of the Hurricane appears on the horizon,
the wind freshens every moment, and the first nimbus and broken cwmulus
clouds commence to disintegrate and fly about with gusts, light rains, and
passing squalls. These increase in number and intensity, with the more
rapid fall of the barometer, as the storm-centre approaches. Electrical
discharges are rarely seen at this period.

Lieutenant E. Hayden, U.S.N., remarks that one of the most important
indications of an approaching Hurricane is the marked cyclonic circulation
of the wind and the lower and upper clouds. A Cyclone is an ascending
spiral whirlwind, with a rotary motion against the hands of a watch in the
Northern Hemisphere. The surface wind blows spirally inward, being only
circular very near the centre; the current above, carrying the low scud
and rain clouds, blows in almost an exact circle around the centre; the
next higher current, with cwmulus cloud, in an outward spiral ; and so on,
up to the highest cirrus clouds, which radiate directly outward. The angle
of divergence between the successive currents is almost exactly two points
of the compass. Ordinarily, with the wind from North, the low clouds
come from North also, but on the edge of a Hurricane when the wind is
North, the low clouds come from N.N.E. mvariably. In the rear of a
Hurricane, the wind blows more nearly inward; thus, with a S.H. wind
the centre will bear about West, the low clouds coming from §.8.E.

Great activity of movement of the upper clouds, while the Storm is still
distant, indicates the Hurricane to be of great violence. If the radiating
cirrus plumes are faint and opalescent, fading gradually behind a slowly
thickening haze, the approaching Storm is an old one of large area; if of
snowy whiteness, against a clear blue sky, it is a young Cyclone of small
area but great intensity.

Padre Vifies’ remarks are given later on, in (169).

(167.) Storm Centre.—It will be very readily understood that the whole
care of the shipmaster, when he first encounters a Storm, is to know how
it may be avoided, or otherwise its destructive effects may pass over his
vessel in its utmost fury. When the first force of the expected Hurricane
reaches his ship, the first point that requires to be known is on what part
of the circumference the vessel may be; that being ascertained, it is
usually comparatively easy to get out of its way, or at least to avoid its
worst effects. Occasional disasters must occur, in spite of all human fore-

of a cinereous hue, in every direction, until the whole canopy of heaven is overspread,
and the gloom at last becomes so intense that, even at mid-day, to speak within bounds,
beyond a quarter of a mile no object can be even indistinctly seen. There are, however,
some degrees of variation in the intensity of the obscurity; but we all know that the
measure of distance by the eye upon such an exciting occasion is not likely to be very
exact; at one period in a Hurricane, just as the ship was dismasted, at the crisis, near
noon, we could not clearly distinguish the end of the bowsprit from the quarter-deck.—
Lieutenant Evans.

HURRICANKS. 229

sight; but a careful study of what has been stated, together with the .
following remarks and rules, should enable any shipmaster to see the
approach of one of these dreaded Storms with some amount of equanimity.’
When there is abundance of sea-room, the danger of these Hurricanes
becomes very much diminished, and the mariner is left much more free to
choose the best course for avoiding their fury.

There is one position in which a ship may enter a revolving Storm which
is attended with the utmost danger, that is directly in its path. Im ‘this
case the wind will not shift, as it would on either side of the line of pro-
gress, but will continue in its first direction until the centre or focus be
passed, when it would suddenly shift to exactly the opposite point, a change
which the seaman would dread. The focus, as before mentioned, is'the
most dangerous part of the Hurricane, as there the strength of the wind
concentrates, sudden shifts of wind take place, and heavy and confused
seas break. It is obvious that the nearer the vortex is approached the
quicker the shift of wind will be, and vice versa. Here, too, the sea
becomes confused ; the waves raised by the opposing winds surrounding it
here interfere with each other, and the appearance, as described by some,
is that of the water rising and falling in pyramidal heaps, the usual succes-
sion of waves being obliterated. Sometimes the sea rises or subsides in a
very sudden manner.

(168.) Bearing of the Centre——The description of these Storms must
be carefully studied, to avoid getting entangled in the central regions of
the Cyclone, where fierce squalls and heavy seas often make it dangerous
for any vessel, even a high-powered steamer, to manceuvre in such a way
as to run out of the Storm.

The natural inference from what has been stated in the foregoing pages,
concerning the form and movements of these Storms, is that the ship-'
master’s first care must be to avoid their centre and path, and, to do this,
certain clear rules have been evolved, by which the bearing of the centre
and the track of the Storm may be readily ascertained with some amount
of certainty. For, as we have already stated, it is one of the remarkable
laws of these storms that in opposite Hemispheres they revolve in opposite
directions—in North latitudes against the course of the sun, that is to say
from right to left, or in a direction contrary to the movement of the hands
of a watch ; and in Sowth latitudes from left to right ; and, secondly, it is
known that, no matter how great or how little may be the size of the storm-
field, the wind continually blows in a more or less circular course round
and round a centre or vortex. It therefore necessarily and demonstratively
follows that this centre must always be more or less at right angles to that
circular course ; or, in other words, that the bearing of the centre lies from
eight to thirteen (or more) points of the compass from the direction of the
wind, as stated in (158). In (155) it is also shown that in the rear of a
Cyclonic Storm the wind sometimes blows nearly directly towards the
centre.

The diagram facing p. 225 is taken from the United States Pilot Chart
of the North Atlantic Ocean, September, 1887, and may be used as a
general guide for action when a Hurricane of normal character is met with
Here dotted lines are drawn frym each wind-arrow at the margin to the

23C OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

centre, in the way explained in (158), so that to find the direction of the
wind at any point follow the dotted line out to the margin and read it
there. The circles are Jsobars, see (24), and the barometer falls ‘20 inch
trom one of these circles to the next. This illustrates very clearly the rate
at which the barometer falls as you approach the centre—-at first slowly,
as the broad outer ring is traversed, then more and more rapidly. Near
the centre, where the Isobars are very close together, it has been known to
fall an inch in 50 miles. Of course, as you recede from the centre, the
barometer rises as you pass from one Isobar to the next.

Lieutenant E. Hayden, U.S.N., gives the following example to show the
use of this diagram.

Suppose that on a certain day at 4 p.m., for instance, the wind is E.S.E.,
and the barometer -20 inch below the normal: Find at the margin of the
diagram the wind-arrow marked E.S.E., and fo'low the dotted line in
toward the centre as far as the Isobar marked ‘‘:20 inch below normal! ;”
this intersection (marked a) is your position on the diagram ; for, by the
method of construction just explained, this is the place, and the only place,
where, at the same time, the wind is E.S.E., and the barometer ‘20 inch
below the normal. Referring to the compass and scale which accompany
the diagram, you will find that the centre (Low) bears S.W. by S., distant
250 miles. Plot this 4 p.m. position of the centre on your track chart, from
the 4 p.m. position of your vessel.

Later in the day, say 8 p.m., suppose that the wind is S.H. by E., and
the barometer is ‘30 inch below the normal (having fallen -10 during the
interval): With this wind your position must be half-way between the
dotted lines leading in towards the centre from the arrows marked S.E.

and E.8.E., and with this barometer reading it must be half-way between -

the Isobars marked ‘:20 inch below normal” and ‘:40 below;’’ it is
therefore at the point marked 6, and the centre bears S.W., distant 200
miles. Plot this 8 p.m. position of the Cyclone centre on your track chart
in the same way as before.

You thus have the position of the Cyclone centre at 4 p.m. and at 8p.m.
plotted on your chart, and the line joining the two positions is the track
of the centre and the distance it has moved in 4 hours.

Suppose, again, that at 10 p.m. the wind is still from S.H. by E., but
the barometer stands :40 inch below normal, having fallen -10 in 2 hours.
Your position is now at the point marked ¢ on the diagram, found by
exactly the same course of reasoning as before, and the centre now bears
S.W., distant about 175 miles. Plot this 10 p.m. position in the same way
on your track chart. If you have been lying-to, this will evidently indicate
hat the storm’s track has recurved, and that you are directly in front of
the centre. But no matter whether you have been lying-to or not, your
vessel’s track and position at any time, and the track and position of the
cyclone centre, are both plotted on your chart, and you can closely watch
every change of relative position in order to avoid the centre and dangerous
semicircle of the Hurricane.

With regard to the use of this and similar diagrams, the Hon. R. Aber-
cromby remarks :*—Sometimes good results are thus obtained, but I am

* “ Journal of the Scottish Meteorological Society,” 1889, page 328.

HURRICANES 231

of opinion, considering the oval and varying nature of a Cyclone’s form,
and the great differences in the rate of barometric fall, that the application
of any such calculation or projection must be illusory.

(169.) Padre Vifies, of Havana, in the pamphlet mentioned in the note
on page 225, remarks as follows :—For an observer who has to rely solely
on his own personal observations, as is the case with seamen, it is of the
greatest importance to be able to determine with the closest possible
approximation the bearing of the centre at different times and during
different phases of the Hurricane. The following indications, deduced
from the appearance and disposition of the clouds, and from the direction
of the air currents, will be of great utility.

1. As soon as the upper region commences to cloud over, the cirrus veil
appears most dense in a particular part of the horizon where a whitish arc
is formed which, when the sun rises and sets, changes to an intense dark
red. This cirrus arc forms part of a misty aureole which surrounds the
Hurricane, and is, consequently, the first indication which enables us to
fix its bearing.

2. It has been observed that the cirro-stratus clouds (166) are so situated
that their focus of radiation or divergence nearly corresponds to the bear-
ing of the centre. This is considered a very good indication, and is forti-
fied by numerous observations.

To readily determine the position of this focus, it is only necessary to
observe that when several of these cirro-stratus clouds diverge materially,
and consequently are at some distance from the zenith, we must suppose
them prolonged to the point of meeting. This should also be done when
the cirro-stratus clouds show a slight curvature due to rotation, which has
been observed in a few instances.

3. The cloud-bank of the Hurricane presents itself above the horizon so
that its centre nearly corresponds to the bearing of the storm centre. In
order to distinguish it easily and not confound it with the squall clouds,
particularly when the horizon is indistinguishable, it is necessary to note
the following indications :—

The cloud-bank of the Hurricane is distinguished from any other cloud
by its appearance, by its relate fixity of position, by the movements of the
squalls, and by the direction which the scud takes in relation to it.

Its appearance is that of a cwmulo-stratus cloud, which is formed in its
upper part by a combination of rounded and cone-shaped clouds, while its
lower part consists of a very dark nimbus cloud, whose base cannot be seen.
The nimbus of the squall has no particular form ; its base, however, is some-
times well defined, forming a dark band above the horizon.

As to its relative fixity of position, it is evident that the cloud-bank of
the Hurricane does not move readily from one point of the horizon to
another, but remains for a long time in one position, or moves very slowly,
particularly during its first phases. The clouds of a squall, on the con-
trary, appear in different parts of the horizon and change position fre-
quently.

With respect to the movements of the squalls, it is seen that these at
first disengage themselves from the cloud-bank, and then diverge. The
cumulus clouds, which are first seen near the middle of the cloud-bank,

232 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

assume gigantic proportions as they rise towards the zenith, gradually
spreading out and covering the sky. Very soon appears the base of the
cloud forming above the horizon the dark band characteristic of the squall.
With this cloud comes the rain, when the wind freshens and veers imme-
diately to the right, blowing sometimes almost directly from the cloud-bank,
which, when the squall has passed, is seen in the same point of the horizon
as before. Later, the squalls arise from one extreme of the cloud-bank and
follow more or less closely the general movement of rotation.

Finally, if the direction of the scud above the cloud-bank be noticed, it
will be seen that it flies parallel to it as it rotates, so that an observer who
is looking at the cloud-bank sees the clouds fly always from left to right in
horizontal lines ; thus, if the cloud-bank bears South, the clouds above it
fly horizontally from East to West. This does not happen when the
observer looks at any other point of the horizon where there may be a
heavy cloud, as he will soon see that the scud does not fly in horizontal
lines, nor does it move from left to right relatively to himsell.

The low clouds in the interior of the Hurricane fly ordinarily in directions
nearly perpendicular to the bearing of the centre, and consequently, apply-
ing the Law of Storms to the direction of these clouds, a much closer
approximation will be obtained in the determination of the bearing of the
centre than if the same Law be applied to the direction of the winds on
the outer edge of the Hurricane. The same may be said of the violent
gusts of the squalls if the wind veers always to the right, and its con-
vergence is lessened or done away with altogether.

The cumulus, cirro-cumulus, and cirrus clouds which precede the Hurri-
cane generally diverge, that is to say, their direction forms, with the bear-
ing of the centre, an angle less than eight points, with the very noticeable
peculiarity that if different strata are observed it will be seen that the
_ divergence increases with the elevation. The gusts of the first squalls
which break away from the cloud-bank also diverge.

The following Table shows graphically the approximate bearing of the
centre, according to the observed direction of the movement of nimbus
clouds and squalls ; in fact, it is the old Hight Point Rule applied to them.
The bearings for the intermediate points can easily be found.

Ii the niméus clouds and squalls move North, the centre will bear East.

” ” N.E. ” S.E

” ” Hast ” South
” ” S E. ”» S.W

5 s South Fs West
” ” S.W. ” N.W
. r West ” North
” ” N.W. ” N.E

(170.) Rules, &c.—Having endeavoured in the foregoing pages to give a
succinct account of Hurricanes and their attendant phenomena, we now
proceed to the rules and directions which have been given by various
authorities to avoid their violence, as deduced from the barometer and
weather phenomena.

On the first suspicion of a Hurricane, lie-to or stop the engines, and
make everything fast. Being stationary, the shifts of wind are more easily

HURRICANKS. 233

observed, so as to determine in what part of the Storm the vessel is involved,
and the approximate bearing of the centre. Also carefully and frequently
observe and record the changes of the barometer, and the direction of the
wind and lower clouds.

First and foremost we give the old time honoured Hight Point Rule for
finding the approximate bearing of the centre, though, as previously stated
in (155), from recent advances in our knowledge of these Storms, the old
rules for dealing with them need revision, especially in low latitudes.
Rules based upon the strictly circular theory of the wind (see ‘‘ Storm
Card ”’ diagram, page 225) may be reliable near the centre and in high
latitudes, but nearer the Equator become unreliable.

Eight Point Rule—Look to the wind’s eye—note its bearing by the
compass—take the eighth point to the RIGHT thereof—and that will be
the bearing of the centre of the storm if in North latitude; or, if in South
latitude, it will be the eighth point to the LEFT of the direction of the
wind. For example: Suppose the vessel to be in lat. 14° N., with a gale
of wind from E.8.E., and the barometer and sky indicating a Cyclone—
then look at the compass, take the eighth point to the right of H.S.E.,
and §.S.W. will be the bearing of the brewing storm, 7f it be of a revolving
type; or, under similar appearances of the weather, in lat. 14°58., with
the wind §.W., take eight points to the left of S.W., and S.E. will conse-
quently be the direction of the centre of the impending gale. In the former
case, the vessel will be on the Northern edge of the storm-field ; and in the
latter, she will be somewhere in its North-Western segment.

The Hight Point Rule gives only an approximate idea of the bearing of
the centre, and it is probably less reliable in the dangerous than in the
navigable semicircle. For instance, with the wind from N.H., the centre
may bear anywhere from South to S.E. ; with the wind Kast, it may bear
from §.W. to South; and with the wind S.H., it may bear 8.W., West, or
even W.N.W. in the Tropics.

The best rule is that :—The centre bears about eight points to the right
of the direction from which the low clouds come, or, what is the same
thing, eight points to the right of the wind at the moment of a sudden
shift in a heavy squall. After such a shift, the wind will remain steady
in direction for a time, but the centre is meanwhile moving along, and
the angle of bearing changes until the next shift, when it becomes eight
points again.

(171.) Line of Progression—Having ascertained approximately the
bearing of the centre, the next step is to ascertain its probable distance,
and the path along which it is moving, for which the reader is referred to
the diagrams, and the remarks on pages 229—232.

(172.) Dangerous and Navigable Semicircles—From what has been
stated, it needs but little consideration to show that, for a sailing vessel
especially, one part of the Storm must be more dangerous than the other,
and that is the right-hand semicircle facing its path, as here the winds
may drive her in front of the Storm’s track, where she may be over-
whelmed by the vortex. A steamer, on the other hand, with plenty of.
sea-room, should have no difficulty in manceuvring so as to avoid it.

Wir 30. 31

234 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

By the diagrams it will be seen that the winds of the Dangerous and
Navigable Semicircles of a Revolving Storm depend much upon the latitude;
at any given position in the Dangerous Semicircle, with a vessel hove-to,
the winds will be found to veer, while they back in the Navigable Semi-
circle. It is especially dangerous to encounter a Hurricane during its re-
curve, as it then slows down and sometimes remains almost stationary for
several days, the spirally in-blowing winds tending to involve a vessel
deeper and deeper in the Storm.

Cool weather is characteristic, in extra-tropical regions, of the Navigable
Semicircle, owing to the indraught from the North-Westward. Warm
weather, on the contrary, indicates the Dangerous Semicircle where the air
is drawn from the South-Eastward.

The Hon. R. Abercromby remarks :—The so-called Dangerous Semicircle
owes part of its bad reputation to the fact that the weather is usually
more severe on that side than the other. The reason ordinarily assigned
for the epithet ‘‘dangerous” is that a ship running before the wind in
that semicircle will cross the path of the Storm in front of the vortex ;
while a scudding ship in the other semicircle will cross behind the vortex.
This is perfectly true; but the whole character of the weather is also more
severe, because the highest pressure, strongest wind, and worst weather are
usually found on the side of the Dangerous Semicircle.*

Mr. Meldrum, the well-known meteorologist, has established the fact that
when a Hurricane occurs in the Trade Wind area, a belt of intensified wind
is usually formed on its Polar side, in which there is a falling barometer
with increasing wind, making it difficult to discover whether the vessel is
really involved in the Storm. In this case, not until the barometer has
fallen at least six-tenths of an inch, is it safe to assume that, because the
Trade Wind increases in force and remains steady in direction, you are on
the line of advance of the Storm. By attempting, under this impression,
too early to cross its track, running free as soon as the wind begins to
freshen, you are liable to plunge directly into the vortex.

(173.) In order to simplify the remarks concerning the shifts of wind
which a vessel hove-to will experience during the progress of a Cyclone,
and to render them perfectly clear, a copy of the figure on page 235, by
the late Lieutenant Evans, who wrote on this subject under the name of
‘Stormy Jack,” may be drawn on thick paper or card-board. The outer
circle, to be fixed, represents the points of the horizon; the inner circle,
to be movable, and attached, with a button in the centre, so as to revolve
on the outer or under circle; thus the inner circle may represent the
phases of the wind, as it gyrates round a centre, the arrows showing the
revolution of the aerial current from right to left. The movable circle is
sub-divided into four quadrants, with the phases of the wind marked on
the rim, for the purpose of facilitating the mode of operation.

(174.) To use the instrument, formed as above, place the movable circle
upon the under one, East in juxtaposition with the North point of the
horizon. @ The vessel’s position may be marked as a stationary spot on the
outer circle—say under the N.N.W. verge, where the wind, as shown by

* « Journal of the Scottish Meteorological Society,” 1888, pages 316—317.

HURRICANES. 235

the arrow and corresponding line on the inner or movable circle, will be
from E.N.E. ; then revolve the upper circle in the direction of the arrows,
and the changes of the wind will be seen as they occur progressively on
the spot marked, supposing the storm to be encountered in low latitudes,
when on its line of progression to the North-Westward. It will thus be
seen that on the N.E. verge of the Hurricane, the wind will come from
the §.E.; on the North verge the wind will be East; and if on the West
it will be Northerly, as shown in the figure. Thus, the changes of the wind
will be to the Kastward, going round to the 8.E. and South, and ending
with it at about 8.W. by 8. The subject, when considered, will be readily

understood ; only bearing in mind that the shifts of wind will appear,
in most cases, to be from left to right, while the wind is actually revolving
in the contrary direction.

The direction of the wind is almost independent of the progression of the
Storm; and as the current of air sweeps round the ccntre in a more or less
circular path, it follows that, under every point of the horizon, there will

236 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

be experienced a wind blowing at an angle of eight points or more to it
(158). Thus, were the Cyclone really circular (which seldom or never
happens), under the North point of the horizon there will be an East
wind ; under the South point, a West wind; and: under the Hast point, a
South wind. So that, were the Storm stationary, a ship seudding round
the entire circle, from any given position, would experience the wind from
every point of the compass in regular succession ; but this can very rarely,
if ever, happen, on account of the progressive movement of the entire
meteor,

As these Storms do not pursue a uniform velocity (226), the rate of their
actual progression can be arrived at only after they have ceased to act on
any two or more stationary spots, or upon two ships, by noting the exact
time each experienced the first shock of the Hurricane, and also the time
of its departure respectively. Some cause, or causes, operate to accelerate
the rate at one time, and retard it at another.

It again becomes necessary here to observe that, although the general
course of the Hurricane in the West Indies has been found to be N.W. or
W.N.W., yet in two or three instances we have reason for believing that
either a deviation in particular parts of its course, or a vibration or oscilla-
tion of the entire meteor, has taken place. Any deviation, however, from
the general course pursued by these Storms can easily be detected, from
the veering of the wind; as that ought to be regular, when the progressive
path of the Storm is regular, except at or near the vortex. For instance,
if the Hurricane commences at E.N.E., and the wind does not follow the
regular successive changes, as noted above, we may be assured that the
Storm is not pursuing a course to the N.W.; and the true line of progres-
sion may be ascertained by the circle, so as to gain the corresponding
points of change to those which occur.

(175.) Again, if the Storm commences at North, the wind ought to veer
(under the same progressive direction: of N.W.) to the N.W., West, and
end with it about W. by 8. or W.S.W. But if, after the wind has got to
West, the Storm should end with it at South (as it did at Antigua, 1804),
we shall be assured that a deviation had taken place to the Westward in
the progression, or otherwise a vibration or oscillation to the Southward.

The uncertainty of these aberrations should not deter the navigator from
placing confidence in the general remarks here given, as these (based on
Mr. Redfield’s theory) have been arrived at from experience, from facts
which are incontrovertible, and from a careful study of the subject; and
besides, should these variations not happen, and toa certainty they do not
always occur (at least on the ocean), he may benefit by them ; whilst under
a, case of their occurrence, no rules can possibly be given for his guidance ;
he must place his vessel in the best position his judgment points out, and
passively await the result.

As the Storm progresses into higher latitudes, the line of progression
almost invariably changes to the North and N.H. (224), and then the
sequence of the shifts of wind would naturally be different to what they
are when the course of the Storm is W.N.W. or N.W., as will easily be
seen by a reference to the illustrative diagrams.

We shall now endeavour to explain, in the plainest manner we can, the

HURRICANES. 237

operation of the wind, and its effect on a vessel in each of the quadrants of
the Storm, when the line of progression is to the N.W.

(176.) First, or N.H. Quadrant.—Wind from South to Hast. The
changes of wind, 1f a vessel be lying-to, will appear to take place from left
to right, throughout ; as the wind will seem to draw round from the Hast-
ward toward the South, although it is in fact proceeding the contrary way,
or from right to left.

The navigator’s attention is particularly directed to this apparent paradox;
for, whilst he notes the wind down in his journal as veering with the sun,
it is all the time, as remarked before, going the contrary way. The delusion
is occasioned by the progression of the Hurricane to the N.W., which, by
receding from the vessel’s position, has the effect of bringing up the more
Southerly phases of the wind in succession, and, consequently, imparting
to these an apparent contrary direction to that which the whole current of
air is actually pursuing. This deceptory process is somewhat similar to
the well-known astronomical illusion every day before our eyes ; we allude
to the apparent course of the great luminary. Not only can we imagine,
from the evidence of our sense of seeing (not at all times to be depended
upon), that the sun is moving from Hast to West, but, in common parlance,
such an idea is invariably expressed ; yet everybody knows that this is only
apparent, and that the delusion is occasioned by the diurnal rotation
of the earth round its axis from West to Hast. This point, however, once
‘clearly understood, will no longer perplex us.

We now proceed with the First Quadrant. Ifa ship scuds to the North-
ward, the direction of the alteration of the wind will in a great measure
depend upon her velocity, as she is crossing the course of the progression
obliquely ; if she keeps pace with the Northerly advance of the Storm, the
wind will remain the same; if she exceeds it, the wind will draw round to
the Eastward ; and if the progression outstrips her, the changes will be to
the Southward. In either of the latter cases the variations will be few, in
all probability ; and the Westerly progress may be expected to cause the
ship to be speedily thrown out of the circle of operations.

A ship is likely to enter this quadrant only under the Northern verge
from the North to the N.E. point: if she happens to be standing to the
Southward, within the limits of the Trade Wind, she will be liable to be
taken aback ; but if standing to the Northward, of course she will not.

(177.) Second, or S.H. Quadrant.—Wind from West to South. With a
ship lying-to, and the wind from any point between South and §.W., the
shifts will be from the Southward toward the West, apparently from left
to right. If the wind be between S.W. and West, there will be few if any
changes, as the ship will be near the posterior line of the progression; what
changes may happen will probably be from West towards the South. The
vessel will soon be clear of the commotion. It seems pretty evident that a
sailing vessel will not, in the first instance, be liable to fall under the S.E.
verge in this quadrant, for this reason—that she cannot overtake the
Hurricane, as its velocity, in all probability, at any time would exceed her
rate of sailing. She may, however, just touch laterally about the Southern
verge, where she should get the wind from the West. To enter this
quadrant, therefore, a ship must pass through some other.

238 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

(178.) Third, or S.W. Quadrant.—Wind from North to West. With
a ship lying-to, with the wind from the Northward, as the Storm pro-
gresses it will draw round to the Westward, from right to left, truly as
apparently so. As a ship scuds to the Southward and Eastward, the wind
will draw round in the same manner as mentioned above. It appears
obvious, that a vessel falling into the Storm, under any point in this
quadrant, would merely feel the “ brush’’ but she will be liable to be
taken aback if standing to the Northward or North-Westward on first
entering the scene of operation, supposing her to be within the limits of
the Trade Wind.

(179.) Fourth, or N.W. Quadrant.—Wind from East to North. If a
ship lies-to, with the wind at any point between Hast and N.E., it will
appear to draw round from left to right, or from N.E. by E. to Hast. If
she lies-to with the wind between N.E. and North, the shifts will be from
right to left, or from N.E. by N. to North. Under the N.W. verge (where
the wind is at N.E.), a ship, being then in the line of the anterior pro-
gression, will drift, probably, into or very near to the centre of the Storm,
which, on account of the sudden shifting of the wind there (167), should,
if possible, be avoided, as there the greatest danger may correctly be con-
sidered as existing.

If a ship scuds, under the same circumstances of winds, the changes will
appear the same as above given; but slower in the first instance, and
quicker in the second, for these reasons: that in the one case, the points
of change are receding from her as she advances; and, in the other, they
draw toward her approach, her velocity through the water accelerating the
alterations; and this difference is occasioned by the progression of the
Storm to the N.W.

Within the limits of the Trade Wind, if a ship be standing to the South-
ward, she will not be liable to be taken aback, on striking the Storm in this
quadrant, but she would be so if steering to the Northward.

(180.) It should be constantly held in remembrance, that, under all cir-
cumstances, the wind remains the same; or, in other words, that under
any given point of the horizon, the wind will be found to blow from a par-
ticular direction unchangeable, so that there is actually no shifting: the
changes observable being occasioned by the progression of the Storm to
the N.W., and the movements of the vessel.

From this peculiar character of the tempest, the course which a ship will
pursue through the circle of operations, as also the successive changes of
the wind, as these appear to take place, become an easy problem to solve,
after having noted the point from which the first wind or the first shift, if
felt (provided no divergency in the course, or vibratory motion of the
meteor), takes place.

(181.) No general rules can be laid down for the guidance of the mariner
for placing his ship in such a position as to ensure her not being taken
aback when the Storm shall be first felt, because until that moment arrives,
when the direction of the first blast is to become his “polar star,” he
cannot, with unerring certainty, anticipate his position with respect to the
particular verge of the Hurricane that is approaching him.

Under such unavoidable circumstances, he must use his best judgment

_ HURRICANES. 239

in preparation for meeting the worst, and be ready to lay his vessel to, or
to scud, according to the direction of the wind first experienced. To be
quite sure of what he is about to do, perhaps the safest plan would be to
wait until the first shift takes place after the commencement of the Storm;
by which measure his position would be confirmed, a point of material con-
sequence to arrive at.

Every experienced seaman, after having given the theory his best atten-
tion, and made himself familiar with the whole working of the wonderful
meteor, will of course follow the dictates of his own nature and judgment,
upon an occasion that will assuredly call forth the full exercise of it.
Without, therefore, presuming or desiring to obtrude upon him the manner
we ourselves should act under a case of such uncertainty, which would
demand all the resources of mind of the individual commander, for the first
time placed in such a dilemma, we shall nevertheless offer it here as a mere
illustration.

Let us, then, suppose that we are steering to the Northward in our ship,
within the limits of the Trade Wind (call it E.N.H.), and that certain
prognostics appear, which our judgment informs us forebode a Storm. If
it happens to be the Hurricane season, we are bound by prudence to pre-
pare the ship for encountering a tempest of that nature, even though
appearances may induce us to think that such would not eventually happen;
for, whether a mere common gale or a Hurricane should follow, every
sensible person will admit that, during that season, it is the wisest as it is
the safest plan, to be prepared to meet the worst that may happen under
such appearances. It must be recollected that nature herself proclaims the
warning, and her admonitions are not to be disregarded with impunity.

Without loss of time, we make the ship snug, hatches battened down, &c.
This done, we should bring her to the wind on the starboard tack, with
her head to the Northward, with a fore and a mizen storm stay-sail. We
cannot, as we said before, anticipate under what verge of the Storm we
shall enter, but we shall have done all that prudence can dictate, by lying-
to without square sails, and of course making up our minds to have the
fore-and-afters blown to shreds by the new wind, come from whatsoever
quarter it may. In this position we must wait patiently until the first
shift of wind takes place. If this should be from E.N.H. to E. by N. and
East, we should make ourselves easy in the position obtained, with refer-
ence to the particular verge of the Storm, as well as in what we had placed
the ship; having the assurance (from the shift of wind) that the anterior
verge which had struck us would be now running away at the rate of from
15 to 20 miles an hour, whilst our drift to the Westward would not exceed
3+ miles in the same time; so that every point that the wind drew round
toward the South would tell as plainly as if a map of the whole operations
were suspended in the heavens overhead, for our consolation, that our exit
from the commotion was rapidly drawing nearer and nearer; and that, if
the ship proved equal to contend with the crisis, and no vibration occurred,
we should escape the centre.

This may sound, in the style of the celebrated Francis Moore, of pre-
dicting memory, very like “taking a peep into futurity.” We are not,
however, studying the doctrine of probabilities. As far as we at present

240 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

know of the matter, and (thanks to Mr. Redfield) we have gained a pretty
general insight into it, there appear but two circumstances at all likeiy
to upset our calculations and foresight of what is to happen, and these are,
as intimated before, a divergency in the line of progression, or a vibration
of the entire meteor ; and here we are taught that, with all the wide and
searching capacity of our minds, there is a point beyond which it is not
permitted man to peer. We have been allowed, however, to glean enough of
the economy of this wonderful phenomenon to excite our unfeigned grati-
tude to Him ‘‘ who rules the whirlwind and the storm.” We proceed—

On the other hand, if the shift of wind was to the N.E., or even a point
on either side, we should immediately know that we were ‘“‘in the very
jaws of the lion ;’’ and to escape being overwhelmed in the vortex, we must
run for it.* On this occasion, every moment is of importance, when we
bear in mind that we are now in the path which the centre will follow. To
the 8.W., therefore, we start away, not without an impressive dread, as
the wind comes veering round and round toward North, of a too close ap-
proximation to the vortex, toward which the curve the ship makes inclines.
If we could tell the exact diameter of the Hurricane, and its precise rate
of progression, we could calculate pretty accurately whether, and at what
distance, we should pass the centre ; but as these data can never be ob-
tained, we have nothing otherwise than prudence to guide us in this par-
ticular case, the most perilous that can occur.

There is a very nice point to be determined upon at this juncture, and
one, although there will be but a few minutes for decision, that should not
be rashly settled; a sort of choice between the scalping-knife and the toma-
hawk—a very forlorn hope, take which measure you please—it is this:
whether to scud under square sail, or to run with bare poles? Now, how-
ever desirable it is that topsail should be carried in a storm (where the
waves rise to a great height, and break in heavy surf, and a ship’s way is
lessened as she drops into the trough), to prevent her from being pooped,
yet, we say, although it should be practicable to set a close-reefed main-
topsail, the propriety of so doing is questionable until the wind has drawn
round to the Westward of North (and then it might as well be left alone),
for not before that will the dreaded centre have been passed ; and as there
can be no certainty of a ship’s safety until that ‘‘ consummation” has
been accomplished, the chance of being taken aback with square sail
deserves the most serious consideration of the commander. The danger
in both cases is imminent; but, in determining for ourselves, we should
run with bare poles, until finally thrown out of the Storm. Indeed, after
all the judgment, care, anxiety, and apprehension which may be displayed
and felt on so trying an occasion, our approximation, notwithstanding the
vessel’s dash of 12 or 13 knots, may be so near the vortex as that every
stick shall be blown out of her. And we impressively declare our convic-
tion, that hitherto the majority, if not all, of the vessels that have been lost
in Hurricanes and Typhoons, have foundered by falling into the centre

* When the line of progression is to the W.N.W. (a direction which some of the most
Southern Storms have pursued), it would be wrong to scud with the wind at N.E.; but
when at N.N.E., it would be proper to do so.

HURRICANES. - 24]

with square sail set whilst scudding. On lying-to, no sail would stand the
disruptive puffs for five seconds !

We have ourselves, in utter ignorance of the operations as they occur
and are here stated, been scudding in a frigate, partly dismasted, with
reeled main-sail (the only sail available), before the furious blast of a
Hurricane, after the wind had veered to the §.W. As it happened, we had
fortunately dropped into the second quadrant, and were drawing near our
exit, but we knew nothing of that; and if it had happened in the fourth
quadrant, and we had got into the centre, there is no doubt but that the
ship must have foundered. But to proceed :—

No other resource is available to us under such circumstances as de-
scribed above: and no other alternative remains except the desperate one
of heaving-to, defying the fury of the Storm, and taking the chance of
being thrown directly into the centre of commotion ; where, if the ship do
not founder, she would, there is scarcely a doubt, lose her masts, and be
otherwise completely assailed at all points by the raging elements.

The N.W. verge of the Hurricane, whilst it advances in that direction,
is the ‘‘very head and front” of the danger, the nucleus of which follows,
in a direct line, the advance of that point. The consequences, be they the
foundering of the ship, or the loss of her masts, &c., are inevitable, if
prompt and active measures are not taken to get out of that position.

Should the wind, at first, keep steady at E.N.E. for some time, which
it would do (if the storm is of great extent) when a ship enters under the
N.N.W. verge, the navigator may be a little puzzled how to act, as antici-
pating a shift, to determine his position; he need be under no apprehen-
sion; the shift will come in due time (according to the extent of the cir-
cumference) from the H. by N., and so gradually round (but quickening
as he approaches the centre) to the Southward : he may, however, expect
to lose some of his spars when the crisis arrives.

We have dwelt longer upon the action of the wind in the fourth or N.W.
quadrant, because under this anterior verge the greatest peril may follow;
and we may now be permitted to express a hope that mariners may derive
some little advantage from the perusal of this paper, as the writer has
devoted his best attention to the subject with the sole view of rendering
them, as brother sailors, a service. JOHN Evans.

(182.) We will close this portion of our remarks with some genciai
observations on the subject by Captain Richard Leighton, of Montrose, to
whom we are indebted for numerous additions to hydrography :—

‘1st. Outward-bound ships. As the S.E. storm-wind is generally nearly
directly in front of the Storm, on meeting with that wind and a falling
barometer, &c., you should bear off freely to the North- Westward, that is,
nearly at right angles with the route of the gale, and all that you run that
way will increase your distance from the centre when it passes you; whilst,
if you run Westward, you will pass so near to the centre that you will be
taken aback by the wind flying into the North-Westward ; the object is to
skirt the gale, and haul more Westerly as the wind veers to the Eastward.

«2nd. When the wind is to the Southward of §.H., it appears that you

ALO; 32

242 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

must pass through the right-hand semicircle, and should haul-to and hold
all the southing that you can; lay down the bearing and distance of the
centre, and as soon as practicable, by a second bearing and distance,
estimate the route of the gale and its progress (168).

“3rd. Estimate your distance, and the course that you are likely to
make, clear of leeway, and some veering in the wind, and this will give
you an idea at what distance you are likely to pass the centre, and what
is likely to occur. Knowledge is power. Most carry sail long enough, but
many don’t set it soon enough.

‘4th. The farther the wind is to the Southward, the nearer you must
pass to the centre, and as the wind veers and breaks her off, she will lay
in the trough of the sea, and is most likely to get damage in that way, so
that if the wind gets loose, it is time to be upon the right tack (that is, the
starboard tack, with Westerly winds, in the Atlantic, being in the right-
hand semicircle). Every one knows best what his own ship will bear, and
what she will perform ; however, if you will go ahead till the last minute,
whon the barometer stops falling, it is high tume to have her round upon
the right tack, as there is generally a tremendous gust shortly after the
barometer stops falling, or when it has made a slight rise ; and the ship
should be upon the starboard tack, that she may come up and bow the sea
when she takes it.

“‘ 5th. To wait for ‘the lull,’ or the ‘ sky to the Westward lighting up,
to indicate the shift,’ will often be too late.”

(183.) We have given the above explanatory remarks of Lieutenant
Evans and Captain Leighton in full, as they are still worthy of study.
We now, howé ver, proceed to give the results of the researches of the latest
authorities on this subject, in as condensed and simple a form as possible.

A Northward-bound vessel, after encountering a Hurricane in the Tropics,
is liable to encounter the same Storm again in higher latitudes, after it
has recurved. If, when lying-to, the Storm wind begins to shift in the
opposite direction to what it did at first, it is evidence that the Storm track
is recurving, and your semicircle is changed. Immediate action must be
taken to suit the new conditions. If your vessel is making any great
headway, it may give you a shift of wind contrary to what you would
have if lying-to.

If on its approach the wind veers, or changes with the sun, through
North, East, and South, the observer is on the right of the Storm track,
and the centre will pass to the right of the direction in which it was first
determined. When the wind backs, or changes through North, West, and
South, the observer is on the left of the path, and the centre will move to
the left of its first direction.

(184.) Sir W. Reid's Rule for Laying Ships to im a Hurricane.—That
tack on which a ship should be laid-to in a Hurricane has hitherto been a
problem to be solved, and is one which seamen have long considered im-
portant to have explained. In these tempests, when a vessel is lying-to,
and the wind veers by the ship’s head, she is in danger of getting stern-
way, even when no sail is set ; for in a Hurricane the wind’s force upon
the masta and yards alone will produce this effect should the wind veer
ahead; and it is supposed that vessels have often foundered from this

HURRICANES. 243

cause. When the wind veers aft, as it is called, or by the stern, this
danger is avoided, and a ship then comes up to the wind, instead of having
to break off from it.

If these great Storms obey fixed laws, and the explanation of them in
this work be the true one, then the rule for laying a ship to follows like
the corollary of a problem already solved. In order to define the two sides
of a Storm, that side will be called the Right-hand Semicircle which is on
the right of a Storm’s course, as we look in the direction in which it is
moving, just as we speak of the right bank of a river.

The Rule for laying a ship to will be :—When in the Right-hand Semi-
circle to Heave-to on the Starboard Tack ; and when in the Left-hand Semi-
circle to Heave-to on the Port Tack, in both hemispheres.*

True North,
and Wind Kast.

Dangerous Semicircle.
Ship on Starboard Vuck.

“YR4ON PUY pup
18944 ONAL
True East,

und Wind South.

Navigable Semicirele.
Ship on Port Tack.

True South,
and Wind West.

In the above diagram, showing a typical Cyclonic Storm progressing to
N.W. by N., in the direction of the great arrow drawn across it, the black
ships are on their proper tack, the white ships being on the wrong. If we
look at the black ships in the left-hand or navigable semicircle of the
figure, it will be seen that they point with their heads to the Storm’s
centre. If they forge ahead, they will draw towards the Storm’s central
track.

(185.) Rules for Action—1. Watch carefully for earliest indications,
observing and recording observations of barometer, thermometer, wind, and
weather, at frequent intervals, for reference. When the approach of a
Hurricane is suspected, consider your latitude and the month, to decide
your position with regard to the probable direction and recurve of the
Storm (163).

* “ An attempt to Develop the Law of Storms,” 3rd (last) edition, 1850, page 509;
and ‘The Progress, &c., of the Law of Storms and of Variable Winds,” 1849, page 25.

244 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

2. When a decided fall of the barometer, freshening rain squalls, and
other unmistakable signs (166) indicate the close approach of the Cyclone,
observe the shifts of wind very carefully to determine your position with
regard to the Storm track. It is sometimes best to lie-to when thus
observing the shifts of wind, or you may be led into serious error: a fast
steamer may run into the dangerous semicircle of a slow-moving Cyclone,
and yet get shifts of wind characteristic of the navigable semicircle.

3. If the freshening gale remain steady in direction, you are in front of
the track of the advancing Storm. Square away at all hazards, and run
with the wind on the starboard quarter, keeping your compass course as
the wind shifts. If obliged to lie-to, do so on the port tack.

4. If the wind shift to the right, you are-to the right of the Storm track,
in the dangerous semicircle. Put the ship on the starboard tack, to head
the ship away from the centre, and make as much headway as possible.
If obliged to lie-to, do so on the starboard tack, and make all the head-
way you can.

5. If the wind shift to the left, you are to the left of the Storm track,
and in the navigable semicircle. Bring the wind on the starboard quarter,
and keep your compass course if possible. If obliged to lie-to, do so on
the port tack, when the ship will head towards the centre, and should make
as little headway as possible.

6. Any attempt to cross the Storm track is dangerous. If you decide it
must be attempted, crowd sail and keep the wind well on the starboard
quarter.

7. In scudding, always keep the wind well on the starboard quarter, in
order to run out of the Storm. If obliged to lie-to, always do so on the
coming-up tack, so that the wind will shift aft and not take you aback.

8. Should you get into the central calm of a Tropical Hurricane, look
out for a terrific squall from a point of the compass almost exactly opposite
to that from which the wind was blowing when it fell calm.

9. To prevent heavy seas breaking on board, use oil, about which more
will be said later on.

(186.) Meldrum’s Brief Rules for Action.—1. If the squalls freshen with-
out any shift of wind, you are on or near the Storm track. Heave-to on
the starboard tack, and watch for some indications of a shift, observing
the low clouds particularly. If the barometer fall decidedly, say half an
inch, without any shift, and if wind and sea permit, run off with the wind
on the starboard quarter, and keep your compass course.

2, If the wind shift to the right, you are to the right of the Storm track,
and in the dangerous semicircle. Put the ship on the starboard tack, and
make as much headway as possible until obliged to lie-to, which do on the
starboard tack.

3. If the wind shift to the left, you are to the left of the Storm track,
and in the navigable semicircle. Bring the wind on the starboard quarter,
and keep your compass course. If obliged to lie-to, do so on the port tack.

4. In scudding, always keep the wind well on the starboard quarter, in
order to run out of the Storm.

5, Always lie-to on the coming-up tack.

Experience has shown that any attempt on the part of a sailing vessel

HURRICANKS. 245

to cross in front of a Cyclone, and so get into the navigable semicircle, is
fraught with the greatest danger, and should never be done except as a
last resort.

(187.) Practical Hints for the Benefit of Vessels leaving the Port of
Havana, or Navigating in the West Indies, during the Hurricane Season.—
We cannot do better in closing this subject than to quote the excellent
advice given by Padre Viiies, of Havana, translated from the pamphlet
mentioned in the note on p. 225.—/ Nautical Magazine, November, 1885.)

When there are Indications of a Hurricane to Windward :—

1, From Havana to the Hastward, navigation is very dangerous in
August and September, but not so much so in October, as the Hurricanes
then come in lower latitudes. In this last case, a sailing vessel should
wait until the Hurricane has passed into the third quadrant, or bears
somewhere between South and West, in order to take advantage of the
winds from the S.E. shifting to South and S.W.

2. Navigation to the Northward is also very dangerous in this case. No
sailing ship should try it, but a steamer can do so if sure to have time to
get out of Florida Strait and away from the coast before the storm can
reach her. If the captain resolves to do this he should go at full speed,
to get clear of the strait and as far away as possible from the coast of
Florida and the Gulf Stream, in order to have plenty of sea-room. He
should do this from the moment he observes the first indications of the
Hurricane, which may possibly be close upon him.

This is, without doubt, one of the regions of greatest danger, not only
on account of the many storms which cross it with various directions and
velocities, but also because in the bight between Cape Cafaveral and Cape
Fear there is scarcely a manceuvre possible which is not dangerous.

In this part of the ocean it is preferable for a vessel to be in the dangerous
semicircle of the storm, because at least there is always left the expedient
of getting out by lying-to with the ship’s head to the N.E., East, or S.E.,
as the occasion demands, while in the navigable semicircle the ship is
squeezed between the track and the coast without space to run. Innu-
merable are the ships which in the last few years have been wrecked on
this coast. If the steamer is going to Spain, by making an Hasterly course
South of the Bermudas after leaving the Strait, she soon leaves the zone
where the storms occur. She will probably have headwinds at first, which
‘will somewhat retard her voyage, and which would prevent a sailing vessel
from following the course indicated. .

3. Navigation to the Westward in the case supposed is scarcely attended
with any danger, on account of the few Hurricanes which cross the Gulf
of Mexico on the first branch of their track, and in case of curving well to
the Southward they do not enter the Gulf very far. They give plenty of
time, so that captains, being forewarned and having enough sea-room, can
easily keep clear of the Hurricane in case of necessity.

If the Hurricane presents itself from the S.S.E. to South or S.W., or
with Easterly winds shifting to the Southward :—

1. Navigation to the Hastward presents no danger.

2. The voyage to Vera Cruz and New Orleans may be very dangerous,

246 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

and the same may be said of navigation to the Northward, for these
Hurricanes cross the Eastern portion of the Gulf and the Southern States
with great velocity after curving, and frequently surprise ships which are
sailing Westward, and reach those which a short time before left for the
North.

When the Hurricane is to the North of Havana, or bears between West
and North :—

1. Navigation to the Hastward is not only without danger, but also has
the advantage of favourable winds.

2. Navigation to the North or to the West is also without danger if the
Hurricane has already curved, because then the Storm travels faster than
a ship and outstrips her rapidly. But if the Hurricane is curving, although
navigation to the Westward is without danger in some cases, it will always
be disadvantageous, because it is necessary to struggle against headwinds
and heavy seas, wasting time, consuming coal uselessly, and straining the
vessel without advancing much. To start North, this case presents no
danger, but there may be danger in continuing in that direction. At all
events the case is very simple, and if the captain has not intentionally put
himself into the storm, or does not get in front of it, it is very certain that
it will not seek him. It is evident, then, that he should not venture to
pass Florida Strait in the storm, and leave the centre to the West or bear-
ing between West and South, but rather wait until it has finished curving
and disappears to the Northward, or between North and Kast.

(188.) Captains of vessels making the voyage from Spain to Cuba by
way of Puerto Rico, from July to the end of October, on entering the zone
of storms should keep a good look-out for the first indications of the Hurri-
cane, in order not to be surprised and perhaps overwhelmed. This refers
to storms in their first branch, distant from their origin and from the curve
of their track, and which are violent, of short radius, and advance with
great rapidity. If the first indications show that the bearing of the centre
is South or S.W., by laying the ship to or slowing down, the storm will
withdraw to the Westward or between West and North. If it appears
between §.E. and South, it will not be prudent to go on, or at least it will
be necessary to use much caution, moderating the speed as long as the
storm does not move off to the 8. W.

If the first indications show the centre to bear 8.E., or S.E. by E., the
ship is in a much more critical situation, perhaps in the track itself, and
not very distant from the centre in the dangerous semicircle. She should
be laid-to immediately, and allowed to reach N.E. as much as possible,
utilizing for this purpose the diverging gusts of the first squalls even before
the Cyclonic winds of the body of the storm are well established. If,
during this manceuvre, it is seen that the centre moves towards the South,
keep on lying-to, always on the starboard tack, luffing as the wind shifts
to the right until it blows from the third or fourth quadrant.

If, having laid his ship to at the first indication of the storm, and it
veers towards the first quadrant, the captain should see that the centre
maintains the same bearing, that the barometer falls rapidly, and the wind
increases in strength every moment, then the ship is in front of the track

HURRICANES. 247

of the centre, or very close to it. Only in this extreme case, and when the
captain is very certain of his observations, is it deemed prudent to bear up
and risk running before the storm in order not to be overwhelmed. In
performing this manoeuvre, taking into consideration the convergence of
the superficial or outer currents of the Cyclone, it is considered better
tudgment not to run directly before the wind, but to keep it always on the
starboard quarter.

If the centre is first seen bearing E.S.E., or between Hast and E.S.E.,
it is probable that the ship is either im the track itself or in the navigable
semicircle. To lie-to, in this case, would be a loss of precious time. It
would be best, therefore, to run without losing a-single moment, on a course
petween South and West, thus giving a chance for the Hurricane to with-
draw in the direction of the first or fourth quadrant, or between Hast and
West, through North.

Finally, if the Hurricane bears East, or E.N.E., run on a course between
South and West, providing the wind freshens and the barometer falls.
This case is almost free from danger, and presents no difficulties in
manoeuvring, as long as the ship is well away from the coast.

(189.) Ships bound from South America to Havana, in August and
September, should go South of Cuba, entering the Caribbean Sea in the
vicinity of Trinidad, and make their longitude without going much to the
Northward before reaching the meridian of Cape San Antonio. If, while
crossing the Caribbean Sea, they should have indications of a Hurricane
to the Eastward, they should run immediately to the Southward as far as
possible.

From the end of September to the beginning of November, on the con-
trary, the navigation of the Caribbean Sea is very dangerous, particularly
in the vicinity of Cape San Antonio, while the voyage to the North of Cuba
is less dangerous than during the preceding months. During October,
ships should go well to the Eastward of the Windward Islands and to
the North of Puerto Rico, and endeavour to make their latitude as soon
as possible, as far as the parallel of 20°, between the meridians of 40° to 50°.
Considering the track generally taken by Hurricanes in October, steamers
starting for Spain during this month will go safer by way of Puerto Rico
than to the Northward. Steamers from Cape San Antonio to Havana, in
October, as soon as indications of a Hurricane are observed, if they are
near Cape San Antonio, will do well to run for the Bank of Yucatan, and
wait there, or else run out of their course to the Westward until the storm
has passed, and take advantage of the favourable winds which follow it
to continue their voyage.

If, on the first indications of a Hurricane, the ship finds herself between
Cape San Antonio and Havana, the first thing to do is to get clear of the
coast and the currents ; when this done, if the centre bears between East
and South, which is the most probable, continue running with the gale to
W.S.W., and when the storm has passed to the N.E., the winds which
follow it can be utilized to continue the voyage. If, when well away from
the coast, the centre bears in the third quadrant, or between South and
West, lie-to for some time, in order to observe if the centre remains on the
game bearing, or veers towards the second quadrant. If either is the case,

248 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

run immediately with the wind on the starboard quarter; but if it is seen
that it veers to the Westward, the wind shifting to the right, lie-to with
the head to the Eastward. This last case is exceedingly dangerous, and
navigation in these waters should be avoided as much as possible during
the month of October.

Knowing that occasions may arise when these observations will be of
use, they are recorded here in the hope that they may prove of benefit in
some emergency. The danger of navigating these waters is great, the
difficulties many and often insuperable, the losses and shipwrecks all too
frequent. If by means of these incomplete notes a single disaster should
be averted, they will not have been written in vain.—P. V.

(190.) The Storm-Wave—the result of the Cyclone or Hurricane—and,
perhaps, the greatest terror to seamen, almost always appears in the
character of a heavy cross-sea, the period of which is irregular and uncer-
tain. The disturbance within the area of the Cyclone is not confined to
the air, but extends also to the Ocean, producing first a rolling swell, which
eventually culminates in a tremendous pyramidal sea and a series of storm-
waves, the undulations of which are propagated to an extraordinary dis-
tance behind, before, and on each side of the storm-field.*

(191.) Oil on Rough Seas.—In conclusion, as being intimately connected
‘with the subject of Storms, we here call attention to the beneficial use of
Oil in allaying the roughness of the sea, when applied in a proper manner.
At the end of this work will be found a special article on this subject, with
examples of its use by vessels in distress and otherwise.

(192.) EXAMPLES.—To illustrate the preceding remarks and directions,
accounts of a series of Revolving Storms are given, illustrated by the
diagram, before alluded to, at the commencement of this section.

Routes on the Chart.—No. I. Trinidad to Yucatan, over the middle of
the Caribbean Sea; June 23 to 28, 1831.

No. II. Barbadoes to the Mississippi; August 10 to 17, 1831.

No. III. Guadaloupe to the Bank of Newfoundland; August 17 to 29,
1827.

No. IV. Guadaloupe and Antigua to Charleston, and thence to the Bay
of Fundy ; September 3 to 10, 1804.

No. V. Antigua, passing over Cuba, to the coast of Texas; August 12
to 18, 1835.

No. VI. Barbuda to Charleston, and thence to the Bank of Newfound-
land; August 12 to 19, 1830.

No. VII. From the intersection of lat. 20° N. and long. 60° W. (N.E. of
Barbuda), passing to the West of Bermuda, and thence N.E. to the parallel
of 424°; September 29 to October 2, 1830.

No. VIII. From the parallel of 22° (North of Porto Rico) to Cape Hat-
teras and the coast of Maine; September 1 to 5, 1821.

No. IX. From near the same spot as No. VIII., on a similar route, but
more to the Eastward ; August 22 to 27, 1830.

No. X. From the parallel of 30° N., on the East side of the Gulf Stream,
to ce Sable of Nova Scotia ; January 13 to 16, 1831.

® « Remarks on » Waves,” i in the Nautical Magazine, September, 1887, puge 759,

—=

HURRICANES. 249

No. XI. Inland Storm, over the Lakes, and thence to the Gulf of St.
Lawrence; November 10 to 12, 1835.

No. XII. From near the meridian of 50° W. to the Northern part of
Cuba, thence progressing to the Sowth of West to Vera Cruz; August 30
to September 7, 1883.

No. XIII. From Martinique to Porto Rico, Turks Islands, and the
Southern part of Florida; August 18 to 25, 1891.
No. XIV. From 21° N. and 47° W. to Bermuda, and thence to the East-
ward ; September 16 to 26, 1891.

No. XV. From near 39° N. and 51° W. to the North-Eastward and then
Northward ; June 8 to 10, 1891.

No. XVI. From 234° N. and 57° W. to 20° N. and 60° W., and then re-
curving to the Northward, passing over Newfoundland; August 15 to 23,
1892.

The route designated as No. I. is that of the Hurricane which visited the Islands
of Trinidad, Tobago, and Grenada, on June 23rd, 1831. Pursuing its course
through the Caribbean Sea, it was subsequently encountered by H.M. schooner
Minx, and other vessels, and its swell was thrown with great force upon the South-
Eastern shores of Jamaica on the 25th, while passing that island, where the wind
at this time was light from the Northward. After sweeping through the Caribbean
Sea, the Hurricane entered upon the coast of Yucatan, on the night of the 27th,
having moved over the entire route from Trinidad to the Western shore of the
Bay of Honduras, in a little more than 100 hours, a distance of nearly 1,700 miles,
equal to 17 miles an hour.

Track No. IT. is that of the Hurricane which desolated Barbadoes in the night
of August 10th, 1831; and which passed Porto Rico on the 12th; Aux Cayes, in
Hayti, and §. Iago de Cuba, on the 13th; Matanzas on the 14th; was encountered
off the Tortugas on the 15th; in the Mexican Sea on the 16th; and was at Mobile,
Pensacola, and New Orleans, on the 17th; a distance of 2,000 miles in about 150
hours, exceeding 13} miles an hour. Its course, until it crossed the Tropie of
Cancer, was nearly W.N.W. Mr. Redfield adds—* In pursuing its Northern course,
after leaving the ocean level, it must have encountered the mountain region of
the Alleghanies, and was perhaps disorganized by the resistance opposed by these
elevations. It appears, however, to have caused heavy rains in a large extent of
country North-Eastward of the Mexican Sea.”

Track No. III. is that of the destructive Hurricane which swept over the Wind-
ward Islands, August 17th, 1827; visited St. Martin and St. Thomas on the 18th;
passed the N.E. coast of Hayti on the 19th; Turks Islands on the 20th; the
Bahamas on the 21st and 22nd; was encountered on the coast of Florida and
South Carolina on the 23rd and 24th; off Cape Hatteras on the 25th; off the
Delaware on the 26th ; off Nantucket on the 27th ; and off Sable Isle and Bank
on the 28th. Its ascertained course and progress were nearly 3,000 miles in about
eleven days; or at the average rate of about 11 miles an hour. The direction of
its route, before crossing the Tropic, nearly N. 61° W., and in lat. 40°, while
moving Eastward, N. 58° E.

Track No. IV. The extensive Hurricane of September, 1804, which swept over
the Windward Islands on the 8rd of that month; the Virgin Islands and Porto
Rico on the 4th; Turks Islands on the 5th; the Bahamas and the Strait of Florida
on the 6th; the coast of Georgia and the Carolinas on the 7th; Chesapeake and
Delaware, with the contiguous portions of Virginia, Maryland, and New Jersey,
on the 8th ; and the States of Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Maine, on the

ALO. 33

250 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

9th; being on the high lands of New Hampshire a violent snow-storm. The
destructive action of this storm was widely extended on both sides of the track
indicated upon the chart, and the same fact pertains in a greater or less degree
to the other storms herein mentioned. It appears to have passed from Martinique
and the other Windward Islands to Boston, by the usual curvilinear route, in about
six days, a distance of more than 2,200 miles, at an average progress of about 15}
miles an hour.

Track No. V. The route of the Hurricane which ravaged Antigua, Nevis, and
St. Kitt’s, in the afternoon and night of August 12th, 1835 ; St. Thomas, St. Croix,
and Porto Rico, on the 13th; Hayti and Turks Islands on the 14th; the vicinity
of Matanzas and Havana on the 15th; was encountered off the Tortugas, on the
Bank of Florida, on the 16th ; in lat. 27° 21’, long. 94°, and other points, on the
17th and 18th; and at Matamoras, near the Mexican shore, lat. 26° 4’, on the
18th, where it was most violent during the succeeding night. It also passed over
Galveston Bay, in Texas, and there blew with violence from the S.E.; while at
the mouths of the Mississippi and along the Northern shores of the gulf, the gale
was not felt. This storm is remarkable, as moving more directly and farther to
the West than is usual for storms which pass near the West Indian Islands, it
having reached the Mexican shores before commencing its sweep to the North-
ward. Course about N. 73° W.; progress more than 2,200 miles in six days;
nearly equal to 15} miles an hour.

Track No. VI. The memorable gale of August, 1830, described hereafter, which,
passing close by the Windward Islands, visited St. Thomas on the 12th, was near
Turks Islands on the 13th; at the Bahamas on the 14th; Eastern coast of Florida
on the 15th ; coasts of Georgia and the Carolinas on the 16th; off Virginia, Mary-
land, New Jersey, and New York, on the 17th; off George’s Bank and Cape Sable
on the 18th; and over the Newfoundland Bank on the 19th; having occupied
about seven days in its ascertained course from near the Windward Islands, a
distance of more than 8,000 miles; the rate of its progress being equal to 18 miles
an hour. If, adds Mr. Redfield, we suppose the actual velocity of the wind, in its
rotatory movement, to be five times greater than this rate of progress, which is
not beyond the known velocity of such winds, it will be found equal, in this
period, to a rectilinear course of 15,000 miles. The same remark applies, in sub-
stance, to all the storms which are now passing under review.

Track No. VII. This storm was encountered to the Northward of the Caribbee
Islands on September 22nd, 1830; its route was to the Eastward of all those pre-
viously described, and was found on the Grand Bank of Newfoundland, October
2nd, having caused great damage and destruction, on its widely-extended track, to
the many vessels which fell in its way. The ascertained route may be estimated
at 1,800 miles, and the average progress 25 miles an hour.

Track No. VIII. Experienced in September, 1821, as more fully shown here-
after, this Hurricane was extremely violent: it was encountered to the North-
Eastward of Turks Islands, on the Ist of the month; to the Northward of the
Bahamas and near the latitude of 30° on the 2nd; on the coast of the Carolinas
early in the morning of the 8rd; and from thence, in the course of that day, along
the coast of New York and Long Island; and it is represented to have continued
its course across the States of Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and
Maine. The diameter of the storm appears to have exceeded 100 miles; its
ascertained route and progress about 1,800 miles in sixty hours, equal to 30 miles
an hour.

A similar but less violent storm swept along the same portion of the coast of the
United States on April 28th, 1835.

Track No. IX. The route of a violent and extensive Hurricane, which wasen- .
countered to the Northward of Turks Islands, August 22nd, 1830; Northward of |
the Bahamas on the 23rd; and off the coast of the United States on the 24th,

HURRICANES. 251

25th, and 26th of the same month. It produced much damage, but scarcely reached
the American shores. Its duration was about forty hours, and progress more
tardy than some others.

Track No. X. A violent Hurricane and snow-storm, which swept along the
American coast from the parallel of 30° N., on December 5th and 6th, 1830. This
track corresponds to another storm of similar character, which swept along the
coast on the 13th, 14th, and 15th of January, 1831. These violent winter storms
exhibited nearly the same phases of wind and general characteristics as those
which appear in the summer and autumn.

Track No. XI. The violent inland storm which passed over the Lakes Erie and
Ontario on November 11th, 1835. This storm was very extensive, spreading from
the sea-coast of Virginia into the Canadas, to a limit unknown. The anterior
portion of this gale was but moderately felt, and its access was noted chiefly by
the direction of the wind and the great fall of the barometer; the violence of the
storm being exhibited chiefly by the posterior and colder portion of the gale, as is
common with extensive overland storms. The regular progression of the storm,
in an Hasterly direction, was established by facts collected by Mr. Redfield, from
the borders of Lake Michigan to the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the coasts of New
England and Nova Scotia.

Jn pursuing the descriptions above, it isto be noted that the lines on the chart,
representing the routes, are given by Mr. Redfield as but approximations to the
centre of the track or course of the several storms; and the gales are to be con-
sidered as extending their rotative circuit from 50 to 300 miles or more, on each
side of the delineations; the superficial extent of the storm being estimated both
by actual information and by its duration at any point near the central portion
of its route, as compared with its average rate of progress.

The circular figure which appears upon the chart, on Tracks Nos. I., V., and
VII., will serve, in some degree, to illustrate the course of the wind in the various
portions of the superficies covered by the storm, and also to explain the changes
in the direction of the wind, which occur successively at various points, during
the regular progress of the gale.

(193.) The tracks and descriptions of these storms, which occurred so
many years ago, are still reliable and typical of those encountered in more
recent years. We therefore let them remain, only giving here some more
modern instances of irregularity in their phenomena.

Track No. XII. On September 4th and 5th, 1888, the Northern part of Cuba
was devastated by one of the most destructive Hurricanes recorded. It originated
in the N.E. Trade Wind belt, Eastward of the meridian of 60°, on August 30th
and 31st. On September 1st, its centre was near lat. 20° N., long. 60° W., moving
to W. by N. at about 16 miles an hour. Thence it passed Northward of San
Domingo, and on the night of September 3rd it struck the Cuban coast near
Sagua La Grande with devastating force. Continuing its course, it passed over
the island, to the Southward of Havana, and then developed a most remarkable
feature, changing its course to the South of West. After leaving the West end of
Cuba on the 5th, it took a W.S.W. direction, skirting the North coast of Yucatan,
and reached Vera Cruz on the 7th, where it did much damage to the shipping.

In connection with this Storm, it is reported that the master of the Spanish
mail steamer Cataluna, about to sail from Puerto Rico for Havana, seeing unmis-
takable signs of an approaching Hurricane, quickened his departure and put his
vessel on her course at full speed, keeping the North wind as nearly abeam as
possible, and arrived at his destination in advance of the Hurricane, which had
not gained a mile on him. This action, though very risky, is mentioned in order
to show how a skilful navigator, thoroughly understanding the Law of Storms,

252 OBSSHRVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

may not only escape them, but may avail himself of their strong winds to assist
him on his passage.

Track No, XIIT. On August 18th, 1891, a most destructive Hurricane was ex-
perienced at Martinique, of which further particulars are given later on. This
storm took a somewhat irregular course, crossing over Porto Rico, the Caicos,
Crooked Island, and lower Florida, finally dying out in the N.E. part of the Gulf.
This unusual course, and its failure to recurve, are remarkable, probably one
to areas of high pressure to the Northward.

Track No. XIV. shows the course of a Hurricane which passed near Bermuda,
September 21st, 1891. Here, after recurving, it bcre rapidly away to the Eastward.

Track No. XV. shows the abnormal course of a Hurricane which passed about
500 miles East of Newfoundland on June 9th and 10th, 1891. This was probably
due to an Anti-Cyclonic area of high pressure lying to the Eastward.

Track No. XVI. shows the unusual track of a Hurricane experienced in the
Tropics, between August 15th and 19th, 1892. Observations seem to indicate
that it moved in a South- Westerly direction towards St. Thomas, before following
the track usually taken by these storms in the Tropics. This Hurricane was of
small area, but most violent in energy.

(194.) The Great Hurricane, which commenced at Barbadoes on October 10th,
1780,* was preceded in the evening of the 9th by weather remarkably calm, but
the sky surprisingly red and fiery, and during the night much rain fell. The storm
approached from the 8.E., and the ships of the squadron stationed here experienced
the Hurricane, each in turn, according to the place she was in. A letter from
Dr. Blane, dated from the Sandwich, Sir George Rodney’s flagship, stated that it
was not previously apprehended that there would be anything more than such a
gale as they experience from time to time at that season; but, on the evening of
the 10th, the wind rose to such a degree of violence as clearly to amount to what
is called a Hurricane. At 8 p.m. it began to make an impression on all the
houses, by tearing off the roofs, and overthrowing some of the walls. As the
inhabitants had never been accustomed to such a convulsion of nature, they re-
mained for some time in security, but they now began to be in the utmost con-
sternation. * * * * It was thought to be at its greatest height at midnight,
and did not abate considerably until eight next morning. During all this time,
most of the inhabitants had deserted their houses, to avoid being buried in the
ruins ; and every age, sex, and condition, were exposed in the fields to the impe-
tuous wind, incessant torrents of rain, and the terrors of thunder and lightning.
Many were overwhelmed in the ruins, either by clinging for shelter too long in
the buildings, or attempting to save what was valuable, or by unavoidable accidents
in the fall of walls, roofs, and furniture, the materials of which were projected to
great distances. Even the bodies of men and cattle were lifted off and carried
above the ground. From an estimate of the number of deaths reported to the
governor, they amounted to more than 3,000. All the fruits of the earth were
destroyed: most of the trees torn up by the roots, and many of them stripped of
their bark. The sea rose so high as to destroy the fort, carrying the great guns
many yards from the platform, and demolishing the houses near the beach. A
ship was driven on shore against one of the buildings of the naval hospital, which,
by this shock, and by the impetuosity of the wind and sea, was entirely destroyed
and swept away. * * * * The mole-head was swept away; and ridges of
coral rock were thrown up to above the surface of the water ; but the harbour and
roadstead were, upon the whole, improved, having deepened in some places 6 feet,
in others many fathoms. The crust of coral, which had been the work of ages,

* The track of this Hurricane is shown on the Chart, commencing between Nos. i.
and ii.

HURRICANES. 253

was broken up, leaving a soft oasy bottom, and many shells and fish were found
ashore, which had been previously unknown.

The Hurricane passed, in succession, over the Islands of St. Vincent, St. Lucia,
Martinique, and Dominica, and included within its area those of Guadaloupe, St.
Christopher, St. Eustatius, &e. At St. Vincent, every building was blown down,
and the town destroyed. At St. Lucia, which was near the centre of the Hurricane,
all the barracks and other buildings were blown down and the ships driven to sea.
At Martinique, likewise, all the ships that had brought troops and provisions were
blown off the island. On the 12th, four ships with their crews foundered in Fort
Royal Bay. The other ships were blown out of the roads. In the town of St. Pierre,
on the N.W. coast, every house was blown down, and more than 1,000 people
perished. At Fort Royal, the cathedral, seven churches, other religious edifices,
many public buildings and 1,000 houses, were blown down, as well as the hospital
of Notre Dame, in which were 1,600 sick and wounded, the greater part of whom
were buried in the ruins. The number of persons who perished in Martinique is
said to have been 9,000. Dominica likewise suffered greatly, and Guadaloupe was
within the Northern verge of the Hurricane.

At St. Eustatius, although not far within the N.E. verge, the loss was very great.
On the 10th of October, at 11 a.m., the sky on a sudden blackened all round; it
looked as dismal as night, attended with the most violent rains, thunder, lightning,
and wind. In the afternoon the gale increased; seven ships were driven on shore
near the North point, dashed to pieces on the rocks, and their crews perished.
Nineteen vessels cut their cables and went to sea. In the night every house to
the Northward and Southward was blown down, or washed away with the inhabit-
ants into the sea, a few only escaping. The houses to the East and West were
not so much hurt till the afternoon of the 11th, when the wind, on a sudden, shifted
to the Eastward ; and at night it blew with redoubled fury, and swept away every
house; but the forts, barracks, hospital, cathedral, and four churches remained.
Here between 4,000 and 5,000 persons are supposed to have lost their lives.

Advancing North-Westward, the centre of the Hurricane on the 14th had
reached to the Mona Passage, on the West of Porto Rico. Here the Ulysses and
Pomona, with a fleet under their convoy, suffered greatly, and here the Deal Cast/c
frigate was wrecked. Another frigate, the Diamond, fell within the Western verge
of the storm on the 15th, but happily escaped by passing Alta Vela, on the South
side of Haiti. Above the parallel of 20°, the Stirling Castle was lost on Silver Kay
Bank, and most of her crew perished. On the 18th we find, in about 221° N., and
69° W., the Trident, Ruby, Bristol, Hector, and Grafton, men-of-war, on the S.W.
verge of the storm. The ship last-mentioned, on the 16th, at noon, was -in
lat. 263°, long. (by estimation) 71° 30’; heavy gales and cloudy weather ; lying-
to under trysails; the gales split the sails to ribands. On the 18th, lying-to;
strong gales and heavy squalls.—17th to 18th, carried rapidly to the South-East-
ward, when the Trident, Ruby, and Hector, came in sight as above; at 11 a.m.,
spoke the latter, in great distress. ;

The Ruby, Trident, and Bristol on the 15th, were as high as 274° N., and they,
tioo, from the Western border of the Hurricane, were driven to the Southward.
until they joined company.

Here the detail becomes imperfect, until we reach the Bermudas; but to the
N.E. of these isles we find the Berwick, on the 19th, which had fallen, on the
17th, within the border of the Hurricane from a position to the W.N.W., near the
latitude of 35°. This ship had previously been one of Rear-Admiral Rowley’s
squadron ; she was proceeding to England under jury-masts, and had reached to
the North of the latitude of the Bermudas, when the Hurricane overtook her. On
the 16th, at 11 a.m., during calm, there was a great swell from the Eastward. On
the 17ta, at 1 p.m., she was taken aback; wore ship and handed topsails; at 3,
equally, with rain ; loosed the topsails ; 6 to 8 p.m., wind E. by N., fresh gales. On

254 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

‘

the 18th, winds variable from the Eastward, E. by N. to E.S.E. ; after midnight,
strong gales and heavy squalls. At noon, by estimation, Bermudas S. 53° E., 93
miles. 19th, at 1 a.m., weather moderate, and the ship proceeded on her course.

On the 18th, about fifty vessels were driven on shore at Bermuda.

We have been the more particular in giving these details, from having formerly
been misled by imperfect data. In the delineation of the “Great Hurricane,”
given by Colonel Reid, he first assumes a circle having a radius of about 170 miles,
which gradually expands, on its N.W., North, and N.E. course, to 270 miles, with,
we may presume, a diminished and proportionate momentum, on the parallel of
Bermuda. The colonel observes that, on reading the logs and the various accounts
of this Hurricane, and comparing the different reports of the wind, it will be found

hat no storm yet deseribed, proves more strongly than this, the rotatory nature
ot Hurricanes.

(195.) Trinidad, June, 1831.—(No. I. on the Chart.;\—On June 23rd, 1831,
Trinidad, in the parallel of 104° N., experienced one of the most awful storms of
wind and rain ever remembered by the oldest inhabitant. The gale commenced
at 5 o’clock on Thursday morning, and continued till 11. The wind, after shifting
from East, North, West, and South, finally settled at S.W., and blew without inter-
mission until 3 in the afternoon. FEleven or twelve vessels were driven on shore,
and several of them severely damaged.

It was subsequently stated that the Hurricane was felt at all the Southern
islands, where the loss it occasioned was very great. Such a storm had not
happened at Grenada since the year 1780; the devastation was extensive and
dreadful; and the loss in that colony was estimated at £80,000. Its course to
Yucatan is described hereafter.

(196.) Barbadoes, August, 1831.—( No. II. on the Chart.)—In the night following
August 10th, one of the most devastating Hurricanes that had ever been expe-
rieneed visited Barbadoes. Not a single house was left uninjured, and the greater
part were levelled with the ground. On the 11th it passed over the Islands of
St. Vincent and St. Lucia, extending a portion of its influence to Martinique and
islands to the N.W., and to Grenada on the South, but exhibiting its principal
violence between 124° and 14° N., or the parallels of Barbadoes and Martinique.
On the 12th it arrived on the Southern coast of Porto Rico; from the 12th to the
13th it swept over the South side of Hayti, and extended its influence as far
Southward as Jamaica. On the 13th it raged on the Eastern portion of Cuba,
sweeping in its course over large districts. The town of Aux Cayes, in Hayti,
was almost destroyed by its force, and that of St. Iago de Cuba was very much
damaged. On the 14th it was at Havana and toward the West end of Cuba. On
the 15th it praceeded North- Westward, and on the 16th and 17th it arrived on the
Northern shores of the Mexican Sea, in about the 30th degree of latitude, raging
simultaneously at Pensacola, Mobile, and New Orleans, where its effects were
continued till the 18th. At New Orleans, on the 17th, it came on in dreadful
gales, from N.E. to S.E., accompanied with torrents of rain. Almost all the
shipping in the river were driven on shore, and very few of the smaller craft
escaped total wreck. The back part of the city was completely inundated. The
sugar-canes, above and below the city, were laid flat, and the loss was enormous.
The gale was felt at Natchez, 300 miles up the river ; and hereabout it spent itself
in heavy rains, after having oecupied a period of six days in the cycloidal course
from Barbadoes.

At most of the istands, during the Hurricane, the winds in the earlier part of
the storm were from a Northern quarter, and in its later periods from a Southern
quarter, of the horizon; from which it results, that the gyratory action was from
right to left, as in the storms which pass to the Northward of the great islands,
and along the Western coast of the ocean.

The distance passed over by the storm, in its passage from Barbadoes to New

HURRICANKS. 255

Orleans, is equal to 2,100 nautie miles. The average rate of progress about 14
miles an hour.

(197.) Hurricane of 1830.—The storm which passed the city of New York, on
August 17th, 1830, was there, and along all the coast Northward of Cape Hatteras,
considered as a North-East storm.—(Sce Chart, Route VII.)

It appears that this storm commenced at the Island of St. Thomas, on the night
between the 12th and 13th of August. On its progress, in the afternoon of the
14th, it commenced at the Bahama Islands, and continued during the succeeding
night, the wind almost round the compass during the existence of the storm. On
the 15th, in the Florida Channel, its effects were very disastrous. Without the
strait, in lat. 26° 51’, long. 79° 40’, the gale was severe from N.N.E. to S.W.
Late on the same day, off St. Augustin, it was equally so. At 20 miles North of
St. Mary’s, from 8 p.m. on the 15th, to 2 a.m. on the 16th, it was from an Eastern
quarter, then changed to 8. W.

Off Tybee and at Savanna, on the night of the 15th, it changed to N.W. at
9 a.m., on the 16th, and blew till 12. On the 18th, at Charleston, the gale was
from §.E. and East, till 4 p.m.; then N.E. and round to N.W. At Wilmington
(North Carolina) the storm was from the East, and veered subsequently to the
West. In the vicinity of Cape Hatteras, at sea, the storm was very heavy from
§.E., and shifted to N.W.

Early in the morning of the 17th, the gale was felt severely in the Chesapeake,
from the N.E. Off the Capes of Virginia, on the 17th, lat. 36° 20’, long. 74° 2’,
‘*a perfect hurricane,” from South to §.8.E., from 5 a.m. to 2 p.m., then shifted
to N.W.

Off Cape May, lat. 32°, long. 74° 15’, in the afternoon of the 17th, a heavy gale
from E.N.E. Coast of New Jersey, same afternoon, heavy at N.E. Again, in
lat. 89°, long. 73°, at E.N.E. In the same latitude, long. 70° 30’, a ‘‘ tremendous
gale,” commencing at S.S.E., and veering to North.

Afternoon and evening of the 17th, at New York and in Long Island Sound,
gale at N.N.E. and N.E. Off Nantucket Shoals, at 8 p.m., severe at N.E. by E.
In the night of the 17th, off Nantucket, and in the Gulf Stream, lat. 38° 15’ long.
67° 30’, ‘‘ tremendous,” commencing at South, and veering, with increasing
severity, to S.W., West, and N.W. Peninsula of Cape Cod, in the night between
the 17th and 18th, severe at N.E.; 18th, at Salem and Newbury, heavy gale from
N.E. In Iat. 39° 51’, long. 69°, severe from S.E., suddenly shifting to North. In
lat. 41° 20’, long. 60° 25’, *“‘ tremendous hurricane” from N.N.E. |

Off Sable Island, in the night of the 18th, lat. 48°, long. 594°, “* tremendous heavy
gale,” from South and S.W. to West and N.W. In lat. 48°, long. 48°, a severe
gale from the South; the manner of change not reported.

This remarkable storm appears to have passed over the whole route above
described in about six days, at an average of about 16 miles an hour; the duration
of its most violent portion, at the several points over which it passed, may be stated
at from 7 to 12 hours; and the width of its track is supposed to have been from
150 to 200 miles.

‘On the Western part of the Atlantic Ocean, between the parallel of New York
and the Northern limit of the Trade Wind, the prevailing winds, for a consider-
able period, both previously and subsequently to the occurrence of this storm,
were South- Westerly, or fromthe Southern quarter; and over the whole breadth
of the Atlantic, on the route frequented by ships in the European trade, fresh
South- Westerly or Westerly winds also prevailed at the same period, for many
weeks, These facts are well established by numerous marine journals, which
have been consulted in relation to this subject.”

Of the vorticular or rotative character of the storm, striking evidence was
afforded by the journals of two ships, the Britannia and the I llinovis, both bound
from America to Europe ; the particulars of which are fully given by Mr. Redfield.

256 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

(198.) In about a week after the storm last described, another occurred, which
passed New York on the 26th and 27th of August, and which was, also, on this
coast, a N.E. storm, of about three days duration. From the Eastward of the
Bahamas it appears to have passed Northwardly between the Florida Stream and
the Bermudas ; and touching the American shore near Cape Hatteras, raged with
great fury for about forty hours at each locality, as it swept the great central curve
of the coast; and passing from thence, continued its course over George’s Bank,
in a North-Easterly direction. It was evidently of greater compass, and slower
progress, than the preceding storm, as proved by a collation of the various reports
of mariners; and its long duration, and its effects were almost equally violent.

The next remarkable series of Hurricanes appear to have originated in the
vicinity of the Windward Islands, near the close of September, 1830, and which,
passing Westward of the Bermudas, on a course nearly North, assumed thence a
more Easterly course, toward the Southern edge of the Grand Bank of Newfound-
land.—(See the Chart, Route VII.)

This storm was very disastrous. In lat. 203°, long. 63°, it commenced, on Sep-
tember 22nd, at 1 p.m., and continued till 6" 30™ p.m., from N.E. and §.W.
alternately. On the same day it passed through lat. 22° 46’, long. 65°. Atnight, on
the 30th, in lat. 26° 7’, long. 663°, ‘‘ very heavy,” for five hours and a half. On the
1st of October it arrived at lat. 30° 38’, long. 63°; severe at S.E., shifted to N.W.;
thence it was found in lat. 33°, long. 663°; lat. 34° 9’, long. 66° 12’; lat. 35°, long,
68°; lat. 38°, long. 68°; lat. 384°, long. 57°; lat. 40°, long. 61°; lat. 40° 25’, long.
58° 24’; lat. 41°, long. 55°, and very severe. By an average estimate of rates and
distances, it appears to have proceeded at the rate of about 27 miles an hour.

The extensive Hurricane of 1804, which swept over most of the Windward
Islands in the West Indies, commenced at Martinique, on the 3rd of September,
reached Savanna on the 7th, Boston on the 9th, and became a snow-storm on its
arrival in the interior of New Hampshire.

The great gale of 1815 commenced at St. Bartholomew’s on the 11th of Sep-
tember, and reached Rhode Island on the morning of the 23rd, where it was
awfully destructive from the S8.E., while in the South-Eastern parts of Massa-
chusetts, it was then blowing at South; at New London, from East to 8.E. ; and
at New York, from North to N.N.W.

(199.) 4 S.E. storm in Septersber, 1821—(see Chart, Track VIII.)—was expe-
rienced in the central parts of Connecticut, commenced blowing violently from
E.S.E. and S.E., at about 6 p.m. on the 3rd of September, having been preceded
by afresh wind from the Southern quarter, and flying clouds. It continued blowing
in heavy gusts, and with increasing fury, till about 10 p.m., when the wind sud-
denly subsided. A calm or lull, of perhaps fifteen minutes duration, ensued, but
was terminated by a violent gust from the N.W., which continued till about 11 p.m.,
and then gradually abated. Much damage was sustained, and fruit-trees, corn,
&e., were uniformly prostrated toward the N.W.

At New York the same storm was experienced, with at least equal violence,
about three hours earlier than in Connecticut, but blowing from a more Eastern
quarter. In the North-Eastern parts of Massachusetts it was experienced some
hours later ; and at Providence, in Rhode Island, the storm was felt in the South-
Eastern quarter, but not severely; as was also the case in the South-Eastern
parts of Connecticut. In the N.W. portions of the latter state, and the adjacent
towns of Massachusetts, the gale blew with its chief violence from the N.W.
quarter, and the trees and corn were uniformly prostrated toward the S.E.

At New York the gale was from N.E. to East, and commenced blowing with
violence at 5 p.m., continued with great fury for three hours, and then changed
to West. More damage was sustained in two hours than was ever before witnessed
in the city, the wind increasing during the afternoon, and at sunset wus « slurricdne.
At the time of low water the wharfs were overflowed, the water having risen 18 feet

HURRICANES. 257

in an hour. Previous to the setting in of the gale, the wind was from South to
§.E., but changed to the N.E. at the commencement of the storm, and blew with
great fury till evening, and then shifted to the Westward.

(200.) The Cyclone of August, 1870,* took the following course. The calm centre
passed Antigua on August 21, at 6" 40™ a.m. ; St. Kitt’s, at 9" a.m.; St. Eustatius,
at noon; St. Thomas, at 5" 15™ p.m.; Turks Island, August 22, at midnight ;
Long Island, August 23, at 5" 30™ p.m. ; Great Exuma, at 8" 30™ p.m.; Nassau,
August 24, at 4" 80" p.m. ; and reached the vicinity of Key West, about 8" p.m.,
on the same day.

The rate of progress of this Cyclone, in passing Antigua, was 18 miles per hour.
At St. Thomas it slackened to 13} miles per hour. In Florida it was only 8} miles
per hour, and farther North only 5 miles per hour. This diminution in the pro-
gressive movement may probably be accounted for by the obstruction to the
Cyclone created by the hills in several of the islands over or round which it had
to pass.

With regard to the diameter of the Cyclone, Mr. Jahncke, of St. Thomas, who
seems to have studied the whole phenomena most scientifically, estimated what
he calls the ‘‘inner or furious part,” at about 180 or 200 miles ; the entire diameter
was about 300 miles. Others, however, judging from the track marked on some
of the islands by the damage done, estimated the diameter at only 50 or 60 miles.
As to the central part, where a comparative calm existed, that of course was
formed by the meeting of opposite winds, just as near the Equator a calm region
prevails from the same cause. The diameter of this central cyclonic calm may
be estimated ; for if it lasted half an hour at any place passed by the Cyclone, and
the Cyclone itself was moving forward at the rate of 18 miles an hour, the calm
centre must have been about 9 miles in diameter.

The following shows the barometric depression and direction of wind at St.
Thomas :—August 21, noon, 29°83, wind N.E.; 1 p.m., 29°57, N.N.E.; 2 p.m.,
29°19, N.N.E.; 3 p.m., 29°17, North; 4 p.m., 28°85, N.N.W.; 5 p.m., 28°68, West;
5> 35™ p.m., calm; 6 p.m., wind 8.W.; 7 p.m., wind 8.8.W. The barometer rose
gradually after the calm.

This Cyclone is stated to have been divided into two portions in passing the high
ground (6,000 feet) of Puerto Rico. One part of the Cyclone diverged to the
N.N.W., and the other and larger portion proceeded onward W.N.W. The first
part of the Cyclone, Mr. Jahncke states, went towards Bermuda, and was encoun-
tered by the brig Ada, in lat. 26°, long. 69°.

(201.) Mr. Keevil, United States Consul at Martinique, gives the following
account of the severe Hurricane which occurred there on August 18th, 1891 (see
Track No. XIII. on diagram) :—

Early in the morning the sky presented a very leaden appearance, decidedly
threatening, with occasional gusts of variable winds, mostly from E.N.E. The
temperature was very oppressive during the entire day. The barometer varied
only slightly, but was a little higher than usual until the afternoon, when it com-
menced to fall, at first gradually, and then very rapidly.

It is stated by fishermen, who were in the vicinity of Caraval Rock at 10 a.m.,
that an immense wave, about 100 feet high, passed from the direction of St. Lucia,
closely followed by another smaller one, although the sea in the vicinity was quite
calm at the time.

The storm struck the East side of the island at about 6 p.m:, rushing through
the ravines with terrible force, and destroying everything in its path On the
elevated plains the ruin was most complete. One very peculiar feature of the

* Notes on West India Cyclones, by D. Milne Holme, LL.D. “Journal of the Scottish
Meteorological Society,” 1874. See alsc page 219.

N. A. 0: 34

258 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

Hurricane was the deafness experienced by every one during the storm (possibly
the result of the reduced barometric pressure). During the Cyclone the wind
veered from E.N.E. to § S.E., the latter being the most destructive. During the
storm there were incessant flashes of sheet lightning, unaccompanied by thunder,
and immediately after the storm there were two distinct shocks of earthquake, at
intervals of about five seconds. Early in September I visited Trinité, and all the
way the destruction was most complete, the trees and vegetation looking as though
there had been a forest fire, although without the charred appearance. The
factories and distilleries appear to have been more completely destroyed than
other property.

The thermometer ranged from 90° to 100° Fahrenheit during the storm. There
was a deluge of rain, one account stating that over 4 inches fell in a few hours
that evening. My own residence was unroofed and flooded with water, as was
the case with nine-tenths of the buildings in St. Pierre and throughout the island;
the loss of life was small in St. Pierre, but large in the interior towns, notably in
Morne Rouge, where eight in one family lost their lives. The total loss of life, so
far as reliable information can be obtained, was 700, and the loss of property was
enormous. All the fruit, the main reliance of the labouring class, was destroyed,
and prices of provisions advanced 300 per cent. Every vessel was wrecked or
badly damaged, about fifty sail in all. The scene the island presents would be
difficult to describe. Such a night of terror the imagination can scarcely picture.

(202.) Examples of vessels passing through the Vortex.—In August, 1887, the
American steamer Knickerbocker was steered right into the heart of a Hurricane.
Passing Cape Hatteras, bound South, at midnight, on the 21st, at noon, it was
blowing a stiff breeze from E.S.E., with a heavy sea. The course was continued,
and on the 23rd, in lat. 80° 10’, long. 77° 28’, a fierce gale from E.S.E. was en- .
countered, with immense cross sea; at 4" p.m., blowing a Hurricane from East
to E.S.E., heavy rain, sea a mass of foam; 9» p.m., wind suddenly lulled, baro-
meter 28:90; 10" 15" p.m., wind suddenly came out from W.N.W. to West, in a
fearful Cyclone, ship hove-to, terrific rain, the sea lashed to foam. 24th, 1" 30™
a.m., frightful Cyclone from W.N.W., immense cross sea, barometer 28°20. At
3" a.m., it began to moderate, the barometer rising gradually.

Captain Roggeveen, of the steamer Veendam, reports :—At 8" a.m., December
ist, 1890, in lat. 41° 13’ N., long. 59° 58’ W., wind E.S.E., force 9, barometer
28°19 ; long, high-rolling sea, dark stormy-looking sky. At 3° 45™ p.m., lat. 42° 42’,
long. 60° 42’, it fell calm with enormously high seas rolling in from S.E. At once
the wind came from W.N.W., blowing a full hurricane; barometer 27:95.

ON MAKING USE OF HURRICANKS.

(203.) Mr. Piddington suggested that it might be possible to make use
of these Storms, by taking advantage of the favourable wind which some
portions of their circumference offer for expediting the voyage. This was
also proposed by Sir W. Reid, in his ‘‘ Law of Storms.” Mr. Piddington
gave rules for this, in the regions he made more particularly his study—
the Indian and China Seas.

In order to benefit by the Hurricane, several conditions are necessary ;
and it need not be again insisted on, that any error or ignorance of the
centre of rotation may be fatal. Of course, the first consideration is, in
what part of the circumference is the ship, and in what bearing is its
centre ?—then, at what rate, and in what direction, is it travelling ?—and

HURRICANKS. 259

is it so violent that the ship cannot weather it? All these things must be
weighed well by the mariner, before he endeavours to lay his ship on that
tack which will appear the best to forward his voyage. Should the Storm
be advancing in the same direction as his course, and the position of the
ship be upon the anterior verge, should it travel at a rate above that which
he can keep up, it is evident that it will pass over him, and the consequence
need not be remarked upon. Should the vessel be upon the posterior verge
of the Hurricane, it will, if travelling at 20 or 30 miles an hour, soon leave
her, and then no advantage can follow; and if the Storm be travelling
slowly, a vessel in this position might run into the heart of it, owing to the
great indraft of the winds, as explained in (155).

Thus, to ‘‘make use of a Hurricane,” several conditions are absolutely
necessary: these are—‘‘1l. The ship must get into the Storm precisely
where the wind blows fair for the prosecution of the voyage—which is quite
a matter of chance. 2. If she happen to do so, she must, to derive benefit,
regulate her speed exactly to that of the meteor. Can she do that at
pleasure? There would be no difficulty in ascertaining the fact of her pre-
serving her station, or not, by the wind remaining steady, or veering ; but
there is a necessity that would bind her, and which cannot be evaded with
impunity when a high sea follows ; she must carry a certain proportion of
sail to prevent her from being pooped. Now this sail may give her a
greater velocity than the meteor at the time; hence she would run ahead
of it. Again, the rate of the meteor may be greater than her utmost speed;
hence she would be ejected.”

Again, as stated in (163), vessels, making use of the favourable wind on
the Eastern side of a Cyclone, must take steps to avoid the Storm at its
point of recurving from N.W. to N.K. A vessel steering to the Northward,
having the wind aft, may possibly keep up with the progress of the Hurri-
cane ; but on reaching its point of recurving would be in danger of haying
the vortex pass over her.

SQUALLS AND TORNADOS.

(204.) Captain Andrew Livingston, of Liverpool, to whom we are in-
debted for much valuable information, gives the following description.

‘Squalls are generally of three kinds. That called the Arched Squall is
frequently experienced, and usually rises from the horizon in the form of
an arch; but sometimes it assumes the appearance of a dense dark cloud,
particularly when highly charged with rain, or electric matter. From the
time that the arch or cloud is first seen above the horizon, its motion is
sometimes very quick to the zenith, the interval being scarcely sufficient ta
allow a ship to reduce the necessary sail before the wind reaches her, which
happens when the cloud has approached the zenith. At other times the
motion of the cloud is very slow, and not unfrequently it disappears, or is
dispersed, the impulse of the wind being not then sufficient to reach a ship.
As a general rule, it may be observed, that if in these squalls there be rain
preceding the wind, the latter will probably follow the rain in-sudden severe

260 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

gusts; whereas, if the wind precedes the rain, the squalls are seldom so
furious, and terminate in moderate showers of rain. The general rule,
however, is often interrupted by the operation of local causes.

‘The Descending Squall is not so easily discerned as the former, because
it issues from clouds which are formed in the lower parts of the atmosphere,
near the observer; and when clouds are thus formed, they generally pro-
duce showers of rain, and successive squalls of wind. In the Mexican Sea,
heavy and very sudden descending squalls come at times from very small
clouds. These are scarcely felt until the cloud is almost right over the
ship’s masts.

“The White Squall is not often experienced; but it sometimes happens
near to, or within, the Tropics, particularly in the vicinity of mountainous
land. This squall generally blows very violently for a short time; and, as
it is liable to happen when the weather is clear, without any appearance
in the atmosphere to indicate its approach, it is consequently very dan-
gerous. The only mark that accompanies it is the wind.”

(205.) Captain FitzRoy says :—‘‘ Undoubtedly the worst wind, next to
a Hurricane, which a vessel can encounter, is a violent White Squall, so
called because it is accompanied by no cloud or peculiar appearance in the
sky, and because of its tearing up the surface of the sea, and sweeping it
along so as to make a white sheet of foam. Of Squalls of this description,
frequent in the West Indies, and occasionally felt in other parts of the
world, no notice will be given much above the horizon ; but, by consulting
a good barometer or sympiesometer, and frequently watching the surface
of the sea itself, even a White Squall may be guarded against in sufficient
time.

‘“‘Dark clouds, hard mixed with soft, and inky fragments in rapid motion
beneath them, accompanied, perhaps, by lightning and distant thunder, are
the forerunners of a heavy squall. Soft shapeless clouds, in which it is
impossible to point out a definite edge, usually bring rain, but not wind ;
and, generally speaking, the more distinctly defined the edges of the
clouds are, the more wind they foretell. A little attention to these simple
observations, so familiar to persons who have been some time at sea, may
save young officers unnecessary anxiety in one case, and prompt them to
shorten sail at a proper time in the other.’’—(‘‘ Voyage of the Beagle,”
vol. ii., page 49.) |

(206.) Mr. F. A. Jahncke,* of St. Thomas, says on this subject :—
White Squalls are sometimes terribly destructive to vessels, either capsizing
them, or carrying away their masts. They occur with fine weather and a
good breeze, but I have not heard that they happen on land, but always
at sea. It must be a rapid descent of the Equatorial Wind met below by
the Trade Wind, which arrests its circular motion; that must be the cause,
as their duration is only for a few moments.

Captain Toynbee remarks that he has been struck by the frequency of
Squalls from the direction of the upper current of air in parts of the sea
where the lower wind was from nearly an opposite direction. In studying

* General Remarks on West India Cyclones, by F. A. Jahnoke, see “‘ Quarterly Journal
of the Meteorological Society,’’ No. 10, April, 1874.

HURRICANES. 261

Square 3 (see Sections on Trade Winds and Passages), he found that at
the Northern verge of the S.EH. Trade the upper clouds very frequently
moved from N.H., and Squalls would come from N.H., though the steady
lower wind was always S.H. or Southerly, as if the upper current of air
sometimes forced its way downward through the lower current, causing
the Squall, and then rose again. »«

Wiute Squall.—On November 14th, 1878, when 160 miles off Cape Sable,
the barque Bel Stwart was struck by a White Squall, in a comparatively
smooth sea and clear sky. At 6 p.m., all hands being on deck, a strange
sighing of the wind was noticed, and the sky became suddenly threaten-
ing, though the barometer showed arising tendency. Without a moment’s
notice, the sea forward seemed to swell up to meet the lowering sky, and
swept across the bows, doing much damage to the masts and spars. Ina
moment the barque was left a comparative wreck wallowing in the trough
of the tremendous seas. This seems to show that the vessel ran into an
incipient Tornado and Waterspout.

(207.) Tornados are formed in a similar manner to Cyclones, from which
they differ chiefly in size. Both have a gyratory and forward motion, but
a Tornado is much less in area, very rarely attaining a diameter of 1 mile.
It consists of an ascending column of air rotating around a region of very
low pressure, sometimes the direction and rotation being with watch-
hands, but mostly the reverse, according to the researches of Mr. Finley
on 600 Tornados occurring in the United States. When these Tornados
pass over the land, the central pressure is so low, that the air contained
in closed dwellings has been known to burst the doors and windows out-
ward, while the enormous velocity of the wind itself sweeps everything
before it.

The Tornado derives its appellation from the Portuguese, signifying a
whirlwind. It is known on all the coast of Africa, between the Rio Nunez,
in lat. 104° N., and the Equator, but is most severely felt on the Windward
Coast, and seems intended by Divine Providence to expel the noxious
matter with which the air is so frequently charged. The Tornado first
announces itself by the appearance of a small silvery cloud in the zenith,
which gradually increases and descends towards the horizon, and the scene
becomes veiled over with the most impenetrable darkness. At this moment
the functions of nature seem to be paralyzed, and the elements to have
ceased their operations; the most profound and solemn stillness reigns
around, with scarcely a breath of air from the heavens, in consequence of
which the whole physical system feels oppressed with sensations of
approaching suffocation; violent and reverberated peals of distant thunder
and lightning commence, gradually advancing and increasing to an extreme
not easy to describe ; the atmosphere, at times, in a continued blaze for
minutes, without intermission. At length the gust arrives with sometimes
the greatest irresistible violence, the impulse of which no gails can fre-
quently withstand. It is fortunately not of long duration, extending from
one to three hours, and concludes with a furious deluge of rain, which
descends rather in columns than in drops. The great danger is in the
sudden impulse of the gust, which would immediately dismast or overturn
a vessel unprepared for the event. Nothing can be more exquisitely de-

262 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

lightful than the subsequent clear and pure state of the air, creating an
apparent regeneration of the animal as well as of the vegetable world.

Commander E. G. Bourke, R.N., says :—Tornados are met with as far
as 10° S., and almost always come from the Eastward, or dead against the
prevailing winds: they do not appear to have any rotatory motion, and
have scarcely any effect on the barometer; if they cause any change, it is
a slight rise on their approach. This is to be looked for, as they work dead
against the usual wind, and the two currents of air seem to meet; certain
it is that the S.W. wind blows till the squall reaches the observer, when a
sudden change occurs to the N.E. It appears to me that the cold upper
current of air forces its way against and under the exceedingly hot and
moist lower one, forcing it upwards, where it is rapidly condensed into
angry-looking clouds which fringe these storms, the Tornade being in this
way constantly fed with rain and electricity as it progresses. On the
approach of a Tornado, the temperature frequently falls 15° in 3 or 4
minutes. I traced the path of one for 120 miles along the Gulf of Guinea,
which travelled that distance in 4 hours, and its course was W.S.W. true.
This Tornado I observed on shore at Accra, and by referring to the logs of
the men-of-war which were at anchor off other places, I discovered its rate
of progression.

Tornados are most violent and frequent in the neighbourhood of Sierra
Leone, and also at the island of Fernando Po: they are most frequent at
the commencement and close of the rainy season (June to September), and
are most violent at the former period; they do, however, occur occasion-
ally throughout the dry season, but I have never seen one during the rainy
season proper. They extend a long distance to seaward, in fact, all over
the region of the 8.W. Monsoon, but diminish in frequency as the distance
from land increases. During the rainy season (June to September), espe-
cially in the Gulf of Guinea, the S.W. Monsoon (it then being at its greatest
strength) frequently blows home to the coast, obliterating the sea and land
breezes. On these occasions the weather is most oppressive, as the night
temperature remains very high, the diurnal range being but 3° or 4°.—
Journal of the Meteorological Society, vol. iv., 1878, page 26.

(208.) Captain Henry Toynbee, in his remarks accompanying the
Monthly Charts, mentioned in the note on page 136, states as follows :—
In April, Tornados occur on the S.W. coast of North Africa. They gene-
rally commence with a South-Hasterly gust, and then back to the Hast-
ward, sometimes working round until they end at 8.W.; but their action
does not seem to be always the same. They occur where the Northerly
wind is giving way to the Southerly, or the Southerly to the Northerly, as
these winds work their way to the Northward or Southward, so that their
season varies with the latitude; but they may be said to begin on the
Southern part of this coast in April, and to work their way Northward
during the summer months ; then as the Northerly wind advances to the
Southward, they are felt again on the Southern part of the coast in October.

(209.) Dr. A. Borius, of the French Navy, gives the following account,
trom his experiences of a great number of Tornados in Senegal :*—

* « Récherches sur le Climat du Sénégal,” par Dr. A. Borius.

HURRICANES. 262

The Tornado usually follows a day of calm, and of overpowering heat-
The South-Westerly breeze, which prevails during the winter season, has:
given place to calms and light airs from North to N.E. Owing to this.
direction of the wind, the sky is completely clear of clouds, yet the Southern
part of the horizon becomes dark, a small cloudy black mass appears to
the South and S8.E., and foretells the formation of a Tornado. After a time,
which varies from two to four hours, this black mass begins to move and
to approach the zenith. This motion is slow, and I have always seen it
in a direction nearly from South to North. When the mass of nimbus has
risen to about 25° above the horizon, it forms a regular semicircle there,
beneath which the sky can sometimes be seen. The edge of this moving
black mass shows sharply on the blue sky, which is mottled by a few white
fleecy clouds, moving with the North-Easterly winds which have become
rather more energetic in the lower regions of the air.

When at about 45° from the zenith, this accumulation of clouds pre-
sents a most characteristic appearance. It is a vast black circle, a sort of
mushroom without a stalk, seen in a three-quarters view from below; its
outline clearly defined in front, and to the right and left edges, but il}
defined behind in the part which touches the horizon. These clouds are
sometimes, but rarely, furrowed by lightning, and in general no thunder
is heard. Below the most distant part of this black mass, large white
clouds are seen.

Sometimes the motion of the meteor is so slow, that it takes half an hour
to reach the zenith ; sometimes scarcely five minutes elapse from the time
when the clouds are seen to begin to move until they are fairly overhead.
The meteoric mass seen from below has no longer any definite form, the
sky being quickly invaded by clouds which seem to move in complete
disorder.

It is generally at the moment when the front edge of the Tornado reaches

the zenith, often a little sooner, and sometimes only when two-thirds of
the sky are covered, that a wind of extreme violence comes from a South-
Easterly direction.
- This storm lasts at the most for a quarter of an hour, during which time
the wind backs to Kast, then to N.E., North, and finally to N.W. ; it then
passes to the S.W., lighter at first, but regaining its energies at S.W. The
change of wind is not always so regular as this, for sometimes it freshens
up again from §.E. Sometimes it gets lighter and lighter until it becomes
N.W., and never goes beyond that quarter. In some Tornados the wind
stops at North, the Tornado disappears, calm and rain succeed, and then
light steady South-Westerly winds. The only constant thing is, the greater
force of the wind at the beginning of the Tornado. Its force is only really
dangerous quite at the beginning, and when the wind is from the §.E.
Sometimes the meteor disappears in 10 or 15 minutes; it then only con-
sists in this rapid motion of the wind, and this passage of black clouds,
without rain, or thunder-storm. This is the least frequent form, and is
called a Dry Tornado.

Generally, when the wind passes to 8. W., a thunder-storm bursts, the
rain falls with extreme violence for a quarter of an hour, then becomes
moderate, and the wind remains light at South or S.W.

264 OBSERVATIONS ON THE WINDS.

It must be remarked that, even when the Tornado is dry, it is always
followed by a fallin the temperature, very sensible to the thermometer.
This proves that it is not formed at the level of the soil or of the sea, but
in the higher regions of the atmosphere, and that the axis of its gyratory
movement is not vertical, or that the motion of the air is rather spiral
than circular.

Some remarks on Tornados, as experienced off the West Coast of Africa,
are given previously, on pages 158—16s.

10.—WATERSPOUTS.

(210.) The well-known phenomenon, called a Waterspout, which is fre-
quently seen on the Atlantic, proceeding from black dense clouds, always
uppears in warm weather, generally in calms, or with little wind; but they
nave been seen during a fresh gale. It has been shown, by the celebrated
Dr. Franklin, and other writers, that a Whirlwind on land, and a Water-
spout at sea, arise from the same general causes, and may be considered
as one and the same. At sea they are commonly harmless, unless ships
happen to be immediately under them ; but if, in the progressive motion
of the whirl, it passes from the sea over the land, and there suddenly
breaks, violent and mischievous torrents are the consequence. At sea,
after the spout breaks, the water descends in the form of very heavy rain.
In the vicinity of a spout, the wind commonly flies round in sudden gusts,
and all ships should therefore take in their square sails.

That a Waterspout and Whirlwind are identical has been amply demon-
strated by those who have seen this meteor pass from the sea to land, and
‘the contrary. They have both a progressive as well as circular motion;
they usually appear after calms and great heats, and mostly happen in
the warmer latitudes.

(211.) The general principles underlying the formation of Whirlwinds,
Tornados, and Waterspouts, are described as follows by Lieutenant EH.
Hayden, U.S.N.

A layer of warm moist air at the surface of the sea happens to have
above it a layer of cooler and drier air, and sooner or later the warm light
air ascends through the cooler heavier air above. Sometimes this takes
place over large areas; at other times it is more local, and the lower layer
attempts to escape through a break or opening in the upper layer as
through a funnel. Under favourable conditions this action becomes very
intense, being increased by the moisture of the ascending column becoming
condensed, thus liberating latent heat. As the warm air rushes up, it
takes a whirling motion, and a suction or partial vacuum is created at the
centre, which often draws water for some distance up the centre. The
direction of rotation is not always uniform as with Cyclones.

When a Waterspout is forming, its upper portion is often visible first,

WATERSPOUTS. 265

appearing to descend from the clouds, but by closely examining it with a
telescope it will be seen that the motion is upwards ; the moisture in the
rising air becoming condensed lower and lower down, thus making it
appear to be actually descending.

The area from the North coast of Cuba to lat. 40° N., between the
United States coast and Bermuda, is pre-eminently a region where Water-
spouts are liable to occur. This is owing largely to the warm moist air
over the Gulf Stream, and the cool dry air brought over it by the North-
Westerly winds coming off the coast.

(212.) Marine Waterspouts, therefore, are caused by the action of atmo-
spheric currents. Malté-Brun thus describes them :—‘‘ Underneath a dense
cloud, the sea becomes agitated by violent commotions, the waves dart
rapidly toward the centre of the agitated mass of water, on arriving at
which they are dispersed into aqueous vapours, and rise whirling round, in
a spiral direction, toward the cloud. This conical ascending column is met
by another descending column, which leans toward the water, and joins
with it. In many cases the marine column is from 50 to 80 fathoms in
diameter near its base. Both columns, however, diminish toward the
middle, where they unite; so that here they do not extend more than 8 to
4 feet in diameter. The entire column presents itself in the shape of a
hollow cylinder or tube of glass, empty within. It glides over the sea
without any wind being felt; indeed, several have been seen at once fol-
lowing different directions. When the cloud and the marine base of the
Waterspout move with unequal velocities, the lower cone is often seen to
incline sideways, or even to bend, and finally to burst in pieces. A noise
is then heard, like the noise of a cataract falling in a deep valley; light-
ning frequently issues from the very bosom of the Waterspout, particularly
when it breaks, but no thunder is ever heard.”’

In order to prevent the danger which a vessel would be exposed to by
coming in contact with these tremendous columns, it is the practice, where
possible, to discharge upon them a cannon-ball, which, passing through
them, causes them to burst, and consequently removes all chances of
injury connected with them. This phenomenon is accounted for in the
following manner :—T'wo winds meet—a vortex ensues; any cloud which
happens to be between them is condensed into a conical form, and turned
round with great velocity ; this whirling motion drives from the centre of
the cloud all the particles contained in it; a vacuum is thereby produced,
and water, or any other body lying beneath this vacuum, is carried into it
upon the usual and well-known principle. The cannon-ball, breaking this
cylinder, which is always partly hollow, causes it to fall to pieces, in the
same manner as a touch upon the surface of a bubble reduces the re-
splendent mass to a drop of common water.

(213.) The following description of a Waterspout, seen during a fresh gale
upon the coast of North America, was written by Mr. Murdo Downie.

‘‘ Upon the forenoon of the 9th of October, 1795, while cruising in His
Majesty’s ship Resolution (then bearing the flag of the late Admiral
Murray), in company with H.M.S. Africa, commanded by the late Admiral,
then Captain, Home, in lat. 32°, and long. 664° W., having the wind at

NvA. 0: 35

266 WATERSPOUTS.

N.N.W. blowing a fresh gale, and the ship steering by the wind Hast for
the Islands of Bermuda, we were surprised by a Waterspout, formed in an
instant, directly to leeward, at about 2 miles, or little more, distant. Both
the Africa and we fired several 18-pound shot at it, which fell a little short;
and, although some of the shot fell very near, yet they had no visible effect
upon it. Its appearance was that of a long slender pillar, with the upper
end spreading into a large dense cloud, of which it seemed to form a pant,
and the lower end reached to within about 20 or 30 feet of the sea, where
it was obscured from the sight by water being violently thrown up and
agitated, so as to resemble a number of fountains or water-engines playing
perpendicularly round the lower end of the spout. The pillar became more
transparent in proportion as it decreased in size from the cloud downward,
until at the lower end, where it was almost perfectly so; and a small
column, of an equal diameter, and more transparent than the rest, appeared
up through the middle, so that at about the lower end it resembled an
empty glass tube in appearance; from thence the transparent column in
the middle became gradually obscured, the higher up, by the opacity of
the outside, until it altogether disappeared near the cloud. The spout
appeared at its full size, or nearly so, when first seen, and began to de-
crease shortly after, and in a short time vanished in a slight shower.

‘“« We were too intently gazing at this extraordinary phenomenon to mark
the exact time it lasted, but supposed it to continue ten or fifteen minutes;
and its distance from the ship was pretty accurately ascertained by the
shot fired at it nearly reaching ; but what appeared most remarkable was,
that, although the wind blew so strong a gale, that the ship could carry
only reefed topsails (from which the velocity of the wind cannot be esti-
mated at less than 30 or 40 miles an hour), yet the Waterspout seemed to
move but very little from the place where it was first seen. The ship was
going at the rate of 54 miles an hour, and increasing her distance from the
spout; yet, after continuing the above-mentioned time, it was considerably
within the verge of the visible horizon (about 6 miles), as seen from the
quarter-deck, when it vanished. Now, allowing the ship to have increased
her distance from the spot half a mile during its continuance, and that it
vanished a mile within the verge of the visible horizon, leaves 24 miles for
the spout to move in ten minutes; whereas the wind must have gone at
least 5 miles in that time, and consequently 24 miles faster than the Water-
spout. Indeed, it is very probable the Waterspout did not move so much,
in proportion to the wind, as the above calculation gives the least difference
between their motions that could have been allowed from the observations;
the intention of this calculation befng principally to prove that the Water-
spout in some measure resisted the force of the wind.

‘“‘T have always observed that Waterspouts, Lightning, and other elec-
trical phenomena, are far less frequent toward the middle of the ocean
than they are upon the land, or near it, and when they happen upon the
sea, the cloud that contains them is generally observed to have come from
off the land; from which reason we find that electrical phenomena are
more frequent, and are found to reach to a greater distance, upon the sea
bordering the East coast of North America, than upon that bordering the
West coast of Europe; because of the prevailing Westerly winds carrying

WATERSPOUTS. 267

the clouds charged with electric fluid off the land upon the sea near the
American coast; whereas, upon the European coast, these winds confine
the clouds upon the land. It is also a known fact, that within the limits
of the N.E. Trade Winds, and half-way between the Cape Verde and
Windward West India Islands, more especially in the latitude of these
islands, scarcely any of these electrical appearances ever happen ; whereas,
upon the shores of Africa and America, in the same climate, they frequently
rage with great fury.”

(214.) Description of Waterspouts by Mr. George Maxwell.—There can
be no doubt that Waterspouts have, in most cases, been accompanied with
electrical phenomena; and it is equally certain that the spiral and ascend-
ing motion of the water has been produced by a gyratory movement in the
air, arising from the meeting of two opposite winds. Mr. Maxwell had
opportunities, during several voyages to the Congo, of frequently witness-
ing this interesting phenomenon; and in a drawing, from which the sub-
joined figure has been made, he represented the different states of a Water-
snout, as they commonly occur.

At their first formation, Mr. Maxwell says, they appear as at A, where
the black cloud drops from a level surface into a conical form, before the
disturbance at the surface of the sea, as shown at D, is observed. The
effect produced at D is like that of a smoking furnace. The black conical
cloud now continues to descend, as shown at B, till it almost reaches the
surface of the sea, and the smoke-like appearance rises higher and higher,
till it forms a connection with the cloud from which the spout appears to be
suspended. In this condition it is said to put on its most terrific appear-
ance to vessels which have the misfortune to be in its neighbourhood.
When the spout begins to disperse, it assumes the appearance shown at ©.
The black cloud generally draws itself up in a ragged form, but leaves a

968 WATERSPOUTS.

thin transparent tube, CH, which reaches the water, where the smoke-like
commotion still prevails. Mr. Maxwell observed, at this time, in the upper
part of the tube, a very curious motion.

This singular fact, of the existence of a transparent tube, confirms a
description, by Mr. Alexander Stewart, of Waterspouts which he saw in
the Mediterranean, in 1701. ‘‘ It was observable of all of them, but chiefly
of the large pillar, that toward the end it began to appear like a hollow
canal, only black in the borders, but white in the middle; and though at
first it was altogether black and opaque, yet one could very distinctly per-
ceive the sea-water to fly up along the middle of this canal as smoke does up
a chimney, and that with great swiftness, and a very perceptible motion;
and then, soon after, the spout or canal burst in the middle, and dis-
appeared by little and little; the boiling up and the pillar-like form of the
sea-water continuing always the last, even for some considerable time after
the spout disappeared, and perhaps till the spout appeared again, or re-
formed itself, which it commonly did in the same place as before, break-
ing and forming itself again several times in a quarter or half an hour,” —
Philosophical Transactions, 1702.

Admiral William H. Smyth, in his interesting volume on Sicily and the
Sicilian Islands, remarks that ‘‘ Waterspouts and various singular meteoric
phenomena occur in that neighbourhood. Among the latter, on a warm,
‘cloudy, and hazy day, the 19th of March, 1814, it began to rain in large
drops, that appeared muddy, and they deposited a very minute sand of a
yellowish red colour. The wind, on the day before, had been blowing
strongly from the §.8.W. to the N.E.; and, during the time the rain fell,
was fromthe §.W., which leads to the supposition that it was transported
from the deserts of Africa.”” This remark accords with a number of others
on the sand from the Sahara or Desert, which is carried by the wind over
the Atlantic, to an almost incredible distance from the Western coast.*

(215.) To the preceding descriptions we annex another, as given by the
Honourable Captain Napier, R.N., F.R.S.E., in 1814.

“On the 6th of September, 1814, in lat. 30° 47’ N., long. 62° 40’ W.
(about 140 miles to the S.H. of the Bermudas), at 1" 30" p.m., the wind
being variable between W.N.W. and N.N.E., the ship steering S.E., an
extraordinary sort of whirlwind was observed to form about 3 cables’
lengths from the starboard bow of H.M.S. Hrne. It carried the water up
along with it in a cylindrical form, in diameter, to appearance, like that of
a water-butt, gradually rising in height, increasing in bulk, advancing in a
Southerly direction, and, when at the distance of a mile from the ship, it
continued stationary for several minutes, boiling and foaming at the base,
discharging an immense column of water, with a rushing or hissing noise,
into the overhanging clouds; turning itself with a quick spiral motion,
constantly bending and straightening, according as it was affected by the
variable winds, which now prevailed from all points of the compass. It
next returned to the Northward, in direct opposition to the then prevail-
ing wind, and right upon the ship’s starboard beam, whose course was

i

@ Colonel Reid, in his ‘Law of Storms,” gives a chapter (xi.) on “ Waterspouts and
Whirlwinds,” with several beautiful figures of the same. ;

WATERSPOUTS. 269

altered to East, in hopes of letting it pass astern. Its approach, however,
was so rapid, that we were obliged to resort to the usual expedient of a
broadside, for the purpose of averting any danger that might be appre-
hended ; when, after firing several shots, and one, in particular, having
passed right through it, at the distance of one-third from its base, it
appeared for a minute as if cut horizontally in two parts, the divisions
waving to and fro in different directions, as agitated by opposite winds,
till they again joined for a time, and at last dissipated in an immense dark
cloud or shower of rain. The near edge showered in large heavy drops on
the ship’s deck, until the cloud was quite exhausted.

«« At the time of its being separated by the effect of the shot, or more
probably by the agitation occasioned in the air by the discharge of several
guns, its base was considerably within half a mile of the ship, covering a
portion of the surface of the water at least half a furlong, or 300 feet in
diameter, from one extreme circumference of ebullition to the other; and
the neck of the cloud into which it discharged itself appeared to have an
altitude of 40° of the quadrant, while the cloud itself extended overhead,
and all around, to a very considerable distance.

‘“‘ Allowing, then, from the ship, a base of little more than one-third of
a nautic mile, say 2,050 feet, and an angle of 40° to the top of the neck,
we shall then have, for the perpendicular height of the spout, about 1,720
feet, or very nearly one-third of a statute mile. A little before it burst,
two other Waterspouts, of an inferior size, were observed to the South-
ward, but their continuance was of short duration.

‘‘ When danger was no longer to be apprehended, I observed the baro-
meter, and found it at 30-1 inches, with the surface of the mercury very
convex ; an appearance which it had not assumed when at the same height
at noon, about two hours before ; the thermometer stood at 82°, having
risen 1° since that time.

“ During the continuance of the Waterspout, and the subsequent rain,
which might be a little more than half an hour, the wind blew from all
points of the compass at different times, generally shifting at opposite
points, never longer than a fresh breeze for a moment, but in most in-
stances quite light. It was unattended with any thunder or lightning,
and the water that fell from the cloud was perfectly fresh.

‘«« Although this phenomenon was rather terrific in appearance, yet I am
not inclined to think it would have been attended with any serious calamity
to the ship, had even the whole quantity fallen on board, allowing the
loftier sails to have been taken in, the hatches battened down, and scup-
pers open. The cylinder or spout, coming in contact with the masts and
rigging, would naturally be destroyed; and the air rushing in, instanta-
taneously, to restore the equilibrium, the torrent would thus be checked
in its fall by the mere weight or force of a tropical descent. I have heard
many reports of ravages committed by these aqueous meteors, but never
yet met a person who had actually witnessed or experienced any such
distressing effects.”

(216.) Numerous instances of vessels meeting with Waterspouts, are
recorded on the United States Monthly Pilot Charts of the North Atlantic
Ocean, from which the following accounts are taken.

270 WATERSPOUTS.

In December, 1886, when in a position to the South of the Mississippi,
the sailing vessel Strwan reported that the clouds suddenly dispersed, and
the vessel was surrounded by Waterspouts, no less than eighteen being
counted near the vessel. They were eventually dispersed by a squall.

Casualties —On January 14th, 1887, Captain Scott, of the barque
Autocrat, when in lat. 32° 13’ N., long. 76° 9’ W., had his vessel struck by
a Waterspout, which threw her on her beam ends, and did some damage
to the deck fittings. On February 9th, 1887, the barque Winomah, when
in lat. 22° N., long. 40° W., was struck by a Waterspout, and had all her
yards broken. On March 25th, 1887, the schooner Jose Olaverri, when in
lat. 36° N., long. 61° 20’ W., was struck amidships by a large Waterspout,
which tore the fore and main sails, and flooded the decks. On February
11th, 1888, in lat. 32° 4’ N., long. 76° 6’ W., the barque Reindeer, Captain
Strandt, was under full sail, when a heavy Waterspout passed over her,
completely dismasting her below the heads of the three lower masts. No
previous warning was received ; the weather was apparently clear at the
time, and the whole affair was over in a few minutes.

Captain Cleary, of the steamer River Avon, states that on January 28th,
1888, in lat. 39° 30’ N., long. 57° 20’ W., he saw what he took to be a
heavy squall to the S.E. Upon looking at it with his glass, he saw that
it was a whirlwind, raising the water to a great height. It must have
been over a mile in diameter, but he hesitates to even estimate the height
to which the water was raised or the size of the spout, although it must
have had terrific power. Shortly afterwards a smaller one passed close to
the ship, whirling along the water and raising the spray to a height of
fully a hundred feet.

On April 25th, 1891, when in about lat. 30° 30’ N., longitude 76° W.,
the schooner Baltic was suddenly struck by a Waterspout, and thrown on
her beam ends. A boat was carried away, and the mainmast had to be
cut away to right the vessel. On April 10th, 1888, in lat. 41° 59’ N.,
long. 47° 30’ W., Captain McKay, of the steamer Pavonia, observed a
large Waterspout, accompanied by several smaller ones, travelling to the
N.E. at the rate of 30 miles an hour, and the vessel’s course had to be
changed to avoid them. It was in shape like a huge hour-glass, accom-
panied by a terrific roaring, and the water at its base churned into such a
commotion that it shook the great steamer. The spout broke amid light-
ning, thunder, hail, and rain; and pieces of ice, some 4 to 6 inches in
diameter, fell on deck.

On April 29th, 1889, at about 6".30™ a.m., when situated about 4 miles
to the North of Royal Island of the Bahamas, Mr. C. L. Calloway, chief
officer of the steamer Santiago, observed a Waterspout from off the star-
board bow, which broke about 30 yards from the ship, and sali water fell
in drops on the deck. The whirlpool appeared from 50 to 70 yards in
diameter, the water circling from West to East, or against the sun. The
water was whirling very rapidly for several minutes after the break, show-
ing what tremendous circular force there must have been.

ee

( 271 )

Il—THE TIDES.

(217.) As introductory to a General Table of the Tides, we shall give a
few passages from M. Malté-Brun, explanatory of the subject; and also the
results of the extensive observations and profound researches of Professors
Airy and Whewell and the late Sir John Lubbock.

The water of the sea yields to the slightest impression; and, although its
density and weight combine to retain it in constant equilibrium, it is
agitated to a certain depth by rapid and varied motions. These motions
may be classed according to the manner in which the particles move, and
according to the nature of the agents which cause the motion.

Three kinds of motion may be distinguished in the sea, considered in
reference to their causes. The Tides are sidereal motions, because they
depend upon the influence of the heavenly bodies. General Currents, and
the greater number of Particular Currents, have their causes in the very
element that is agitated by them; these, then, are motions of the sea ttself.
The third kind comprehends Atmospheric motions, produced by the action
of the Winds.

The TrpEs are regular and periodical oscillations, which the seas
undergo from the attraction of the celestial bodies, principally those of
the moon and sun.

(218.) Action of the Moon.—Let us first consider the single action of the
moon upon the sea; supposing that luminary to be in the plane of the
Equator. It is evident that, if the moon exerted upon all the particles of
the sea an equal attraction, and parallel to the earth’s centre of gravity,
the entire system of the globe, and of the waters which cover it, would be
influenced by a common motion, and their relative equilibrium would not
suffer any change. The equilibrium is disturbed only by the difference
between the attractions which the moon exerts, and the inequality of their
directions. Some parts of the globe are directly attracted by the moon;
others only obliquely. The former are in conjunction with the moon ; and
a line drawn from the centre of the two planets would pass through their
zenith. The latter are in quadrature with the moon—that is to say, a line
drawn from the terrestrial centre to their zenith would make an angle of
90° with the line which connects the centres of the two planets. The
attracting force acting obliquely is decomposed by the obliquity of its angle
of incidence; thus the parts in conjunction being more strongly attracted
than those in quadrature, the weight of their particles is diminished. It
is necessary, then, to there being an equilibrium in all parts of the sea,
that the waters should rise under the moon, in order that the excess of
weight of the particles in quadrature, above those in conjunction, may be
compensated by the greater height of the latter.

The waters, however, rise, not only on the side where the attracting
planet is, but also on the opposite side; because, if the planet attract the
superior waters more than it attracts the centre of the earth, it also attracts
this centre more than it attracts the inferior waters in the opposite hemi-

272 THE TIDES.

sphere. These waters will then approach less toward the attracting planet,
than the centre of the earth approaches to it. They will remain as far off,
from and behind the centre, as the superior waters advance from it on the
side of the moon.

Two promontories, or eminences of water, will therefore be formed by
the action of the moon upon the earth; one on the side toward the moon;
the other on the side opposite to it; which gives the sea an appearance of
an elongated spheroid, whose great axis will pass through the centre of
the moon and of the earth. It is High Tide under the moon and in the
opposite point at 180° of distance ; consequently, in the two intermediate
points, or at 90° of distance from the moon, the tide will be Low.

The earth, by its rotatory motion, successively presents to the moon,
in the space of twenty-four hours, all its meridians, which, consequently,
are found by turns, and at an interval of six hours, sometimes under the
moon, and sometimes at a distance of 90° from it; hence it follows that,
during the time which passes between the departure of the moon from one
meridian, and its return to the same meridian, that is, in the space of a
lunar day (which exceeds the solar day by about 503 minutes), the waters
of the sea will ebb twice, and flow twice, in every part of the earth,
although in a manner almost insensible in those places which are distant
from the path or orbit of the moon.

(219.) Action of the Sun.—lIf we now imagine the sun to be in the plane
of the Equator, it is evident that, as its action is similar to that of the
moon, it should excite in the ocean an agitation similar to the lunar Tides,
Thus the sea would ebb twice, and flow twice, during a solar day; but, on
account of the immense distance from the sun, those solar Tides will be
much smaller than those which result from the action of the moon.

On account of the inequality which exists between the solar and lunar
days, the action of the sun will sometimes change the position of the lunar
Tides, and at other times will unite its influence with that of the moon.
In the syzigies, or conjunctions, the action of the moon concurs with that
of the sun to raise the waters. This is the reason why the highest Tides
happen at new and full moon; or when the moon is in its first and third
quarters. In the quadratures, the waters of the sea are depressed by the
action of the sun, at the same point where the action of the moon raises
them, and reciprocally. Thus the Tides of the quadratures ought to be
less.

(220.) The. Height of the Tidal Wave produced by the moon is to that
produced by the sun as 100 to 38. When combined, of course, they pro-
duce the spring tide; opposed, they make neaps. The range of these tides
is as 138 to 62, or nearly as 7 to 3; Newton (from the Severn tides)
made it 4:48 to 1, which is far toolarge. Laplace (from the Brest obser-
vations) made it 2°90 to 1; and the late Sir John Lubbock and Dr.
Whewell, about 2°66 to 1. Ofcourse, these relations are very much con-
trolled in action by the configuration of the coast or channel.

(221.) What we have already explained regards the position of the sun
and moon on the Equator. Let us now consider these heavenly bodies in
their various declinations, and we shall see the elevation vary in the
inverse ratio of the cube of the distance of tne water.

THE TIDES. 273

Without entering into details, which would require mathematical demon-
strations, we shall remark only, that the proximity of the sun and moon
seems to be the cause to which we must refer the extraordinary equinoctial
tides, which happen most frequently, the one before the vernal equinoz,
and the other after the awtwmnal ; that is, both of them at the time when
the sun, passing through the meridional signs, is nearest us. But this does
not happen every year, because there are sometimes variations produced
by the situation of the orbit of the moon, and by the distance of the
syzigies from the equinoxes.

(222.) This, then, is the general Theory of the Tides, and from these
observations their general laws may be inferred ; but it has been reserved
for later times to pursue the inquiry into detail, and to develop the minor
effects which modify, and in some places totally change, the character of
the Tides. It is chiefly to the late Rev. Dr. Whewell, Master of Trinity
College, Cambridge, and to the late Sir John Lubbock, that our present
knowledge of the Tide laws is owing, and from their observations we will
give some extracts.

(223.) In the Rev. Dr. Whewell’s papers on the subject of the Tides, he
commences :—‘‘ Ever since the time of Nrewron, his explanation of the
general phenomena of the Tides, by means of the action of the moon and
the sun, has been assented to by all philosophers who have given their
attention to the subject. But, even up to the present day, this general
explanation has not been pursued into its results in detail, so as to show
its bearing on the special phenomena of particular places—to connect the
actual Tides of all the different parts of the world—and to account for their
seeming anomalies. With regard to this alone, of all the consequences of
the law of universal gravitation, the task of bringing the developed theory
into comparison with multiplied and extensive observation is still incom-
plete; we might say, is still to be begun.*

(224.) The Tidal Wave.—The tidal wave is not owing to the transfer of
the body of water, which would be a current, but to an elevation of its
surface. This motion is, as may be readily conceived, compatible with
immense velocity ; and it may be taken as a rule, that the broader the
wave, the greater will be its velocity. If the earth were in equilibrium,
and its surface entirely covered with water, and under the influence of the
moon’s attraction, it would assume the form of an ellipsoid, having the
semi-axis directed towards the moon longer by about 58 inches than that
transverse to it; that is, the water would become higher by that amount.
This is merely adduced to show what may be the amount of the luni-tidal
wave, without entering into any other considerations.

(225.) Velocity of the Tidal Wave.—As the whole of the tidal wave must
circulate around the globe in twenty-four hours nearly, the velocity must
be very great; but it is greatly modified. In the middle of the Atlantic
it would appear to travel at the rate of about 700 miles an hour, but on

* « Hssay towards a First Approximation te a Map of Cotidal Lines ;” Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society, 1833, page 147.

N. A. 0. ‘ 36

274 THE TIDES.

the coast it is widely different ; hence its velocity along the Eastern coast
of England varies from 35 miles to 160 miles per hour.

In the open ocean, where nothing intervenes to obstruct the course of
the tidal wave, it travels probably with regularity ; and it may be presumed
that its height is also inconsiderable. But when this wave, from an open
ocean, approaches a narrow channel—such as the Bristol or English
Channel—from being hemmed in, as it were, it forms a tide cwrrent.
Now, along the centre of such a channel the tidal wave would travel with
much greater speed than on the sides. Hence the distances at which the
hour-marks represent high water will be wide apart in the centre, and
transverse to its general direction ; while, on the shores, the direction of
the wave would be altered, and it will approach parallel to the shore ;
hence the hour-marks will be close together, and parallel to the general
direction of the main tide-current.

The tide-wave, advancing through the contracting channel, towards the
end becomes of great height, and, as at Bristol, and in the Bay of Fundy,
sometimes rises to the enormous height of 50 or 70 feet; just in the same
manner that the surf runs up a shelving beach.

The variation in the height of the Tide (as is found to be the case in
some parts of the coast of France) between places near each other, and
having high water at the same time, is to be accounted for by the con-
vex form of the tidal wave.

In some parts of the world, as in Australia, Kamschatka, &c., the Tides
offer very singular anomalies. At Adelaide, in South Australia, it is high
water only once in the twenty-four hours, and that during the night. This
arises from what are called interferences, whereby two distinct sets of tidal
waves, in their combination, produce apparent rest.*

(226.) One of the most important circumstances of this subject is, that,
in an open channel, the flood current (the current which runs till high
water) will continue running for three hours afterwards, or till half-ebb ;
and the ebb current, which then begins, will run after low water till half-
flood. The time of slack water is intermediate between the times of high
water and low water. In proportion as the channel is obstructed at the
farther end, the flood current runs for a shorter time after flood; and in a
closed creek, the flood current ends at high water.t

Another error to correct is this :—‘‘ That the time of the change of
current, or the time of slack water, as it may be termed, never coincides
with the time of high water, except close inshore, and within its influence ;
the interval is generally considerable. Great confusion has arisen from
these two times not being properly distinguished.”—Piul. Trans., 1833,
page 162.

(227.) The Establishment of the Port.—The vulgar establishment of the
port is the interval of time by which the time of high water follows the
moon’s transit on the day of the new and full moon. This is, corrected, the
mean value of the interval, freed from the semi-menstrual inequality. Its
value at the London Docks is 1" 26™ minutes, by the mean of all the obser-
vations.—Phil. Trans., 1834, page 19.

* Phil. Trans., 1833, page 154. + Phil. Trans., 1833, page 215.

THE TIDES. 275

The Corrected Establishment.—The mean luni-tidal interval, or corrected
establishment of each place, differs from the vulgar establishment, or time
of high water for new and full moon; for the time of high water at syzigy
is affected by the semi-menstrual inequality belonging to the moon’s posi-
tion one or two days earlier, and is therefore later by about thirty minutes
than the mean interval would give it.*

(228.) Semi-menstrual Inequality—The interval of tide and moon’s
transit is affected by a considerable inequality, which goes through its
period twece in the space of one month; it may be considered as depending
upon the moon’s distance from the sun in right ascension, or, which is the
same thing, on the solar time of the moon’s transit. The difference of the
greatest and least intervals at London is 1* 28™.+

(229.) The Age of the Tide.—The Tide does not depend upon the passage
of the moon upon that particular day or hour, but from some previous
transit ; hence the Tide is observed to take place at London at two o’clock
on the days of new and full moon; therefore, as the Tide of London is
found to be determined by the position of the sun and moon upon two
days and a half before it occurs, 1" 26™ is the corrected establishment for
London, as explained in (227).

(230.) Difference of the Two Diurnal Tides.—It has been remarked in
various places, by separate observers, that the evening Tide is higher than
the morning Tide in one part of the year, and lower at another. This is
thus explained by Newton. From the vernal to the autumnal equinox, the
sun has North declination ; and as the moon’s orbit is never much inclined
to the sun’s, a line drawn from the earth’s centre to the moon would meet
the earth’s surface, on the side towards the sun, in North latitude. Now,
such a line is the axis of the tide-spheroid, supposing the Tide to be
always under the moon ; and the Tide taking place when the moon in the
meridian is higher, as the place is nearer to the vertices or points where
the axis of the tide-spheroid meets the earth’s surface. Hence, in this
case, the Tides which occur on the side of the earth next the sun, or the
day Tides, would be larger for a place in North latitude than the Tides on
the opposite side. For a similar reason, the night Tides would be higher
in winter. :

(231.) Height of Mean Water.—The mean between high and low water
is found to be constant and permanent, however much may be the differ-
ence of high and low water. It has been found, from a great number of
observations on the South coast of England, not to vary more than 2 or 3
inches ; therefore all heights ought to be referred to the mean level of the
sea, instead of the vague and uncertain data of high or low water.

The refined surveying operations have demonstrated one singular fact,
which could only have been elicited in the laborious and exact processes
carried on during the Ordnance Survey. It is, that the mean level of the
sea, aS We assume it, is not a level, from whatever cause it may arise, and
it is difficult to assign one. It is found that the mean level of the sea
around Ireland is lower on the South than it is on the North coast

* Phil. Trans. (Whewell), 1836, page 292. ¢ Phil. Trans., 1834, page 19,
t Phil. Trans., 1839, page 154.

276 THE TIDES.

Taking Courtown in Wicklow as the standard—a spot remarkable as the
node or axis of the great tidal wave of the St. George’s Channel, and where
there is little or no rise or fall; at Ballycastle on the North, the mean sea
level is higher by 0-881 foot, and lower on the South at Castle Townsend
by 0-938 foot, than it is at Courtown. Thus the mean level is nearly 1 foot
10 inches higher on the North than it is on the South of Ireland. Of
course this fact has no bearing upon the seaman’s application of tidal
phenomena, but it is curious.

(232.) It has been found that a low barometer causes a higher Tide and
the reverse. This element in the disturbance of the regular Tides, the
effects of atmospheric pressure, has been estimated by different observers,
and its amount has been ascertained with considerable accuracy. Thus,
at Liverpool, there is a difference in the height of high water of 10-1 inches
for a variation of 0:91 in the barometer ; and at London it has been caleu-
lated by Mr. Dessiou that the water rises 6:3 inches for -90 depression of
the barometer. M. Dausssy has ascertained that, at Brest, the ocean rises
-223 metre, or 8°78 inches, for a depression of 0°158 metre, or -622 inch, in
the barometer.* These results are nearly identical with those ascertained
by Sir James Ross in the Arctic regions, in 1848, by means of the steady
level of the winter ice. These refinements in tidal calculations are, perhaps,
of little practical value for the mariner when at sea; they may be useful
in entering a dock ; but they are of the utmost service in generalizing the
phenomena of the Tides, upon which so little, it may be said, is known
that may be applied.

(233.) The foregoing are the principal effects of the causes which produce
the Tides in reference to their rise and fall. There is another branch of
the subject, however, which is of great importance to the navigator ; that
is, the currents formed by the alternate elevation and depression of the
ocean. As before mentioned, in the open sea it may be considered that
there is no tidal current, and that the tidal wave is propagated without
any actual displacement in the particles of the water. But when this wave
approaches the coast, the case is widely different, and the wave must
necessarily form a current, sometimes flowing in one direction, and at
others in the opposite one. This variation in the progress of the flood and
ebb tide-wave must vary with every locality, and is influenced by the par-
ticular configuration of the coasts, &c., by which it passes. The question
of the form and transmission of waves is so complicated, and involving
mathematical analysis of so high an order, that it cannot be usefully dwelt
on here.

Upon the direction in which the great tidal wave is propagated, we at
present have much to learn. It was supposed by the late Sir J. Lubbock,
that it travels from the Cape of Good Hope to Gibraltar in twelve hours ;
from Gibraltar to Edinburgh in about twelve hours; and from Edinburgh
to London in about twelve hours,} which is in accordance with Bernouilli’s
theory. Passing North-Eastward from the South Atlantic, it strikes the
S.W. shores of Great Britain and Ireland, and becomes divided by these

* Phil. Trans., 1836, pp. 220, 221; and Conn. des Temps, 1834,
t Phil. Trans,, 1836, page 218,

THE TIDES. 277

lands; one portion of the great wave passes Northward to the West of
Ireland, a portion of it enters by the North Channel, and meets a large
portion from the South which has passed up the St. George’s Channel;
another passes up the English Channel passing on to the North Sea along
the Dutch and German coasts, and with another portion of the Western
branch which enters the North Sea between Norway and Scotland, causes
a circulation of tides which is still involved in some obscurity, but which
is elucidated elsewhere ; the remainder passes North-HKastward along the
Norway coast on to the Polar basin. Along the American coast the great
waye passes from South to North, making high water at a later hour con-
tinually, and entering the various bays and outlets in the same manner.
It may at once be mentioned that in low latitudes the rise and fall of the
Tide is very inconsiderable, and therefore comparatively unimportant.

(234.) In 1834, from the recommendation of the Rev. Professor Whewell,
a series of Tide observations were made, during a fortnight in the month
of June, at the coastguard stations in Great Britain and Ireland; and in
the following year a much more extensive series was taken simultaneously
between the 8th and 28th of June. ‘‘ Thechain of places of observation
extended from the mouth of the Mississippi round the Cays of Florida,
along the coast of North America, as far as Nova Scotia; and from the
Straits of Gibraltar, along the shores of Europe, to the North Cape of
Norway. The number of places of observation was twenty-eight in America,
seven in Spain, seven in Portugal, sixteen in France, five in Belgium,
eighteen in the Netherlands, twenty-four in Denmark, and twenty-four in
Norway; and observations were made by the coastguard of this country
at 318 places in England and Scotland, and at 219 places in Ireland.”’
This large number of observations was also undertaken at the instigation
of Professor Whewell, and their reduction was made by Mr. Dessiou and
assistants, under his directions. The details and results are given in the
‘¢ Philosophical Transactions,” 1836, page 289, et seq.

These observations gave a far greater insight into the nature of the tidal
progress than was had previously. A still more refined series was carried
on for the English Channel by Admiral Beechey, as hereafter shown.

(235.) In the ensuing Tide Table for the North Atlantic Ocean, the
vulgar establishment (227) is given as the tidal hour at full and change.
These figures are taken chiefly from the various Government Nautical
Surveys and the special observations which have been made in various
places, as given in the Tables published by the Hydrographic Department
of the Admiralty, the United States Coast Survey, &c.

The height of the tide is here quoted as the vertical rise above the mean
low-water level of spring tides.

Attached to the Table are some brief remarks on peculiarities of the
tidal phenomena, in the form of notes.

( 278 )

TIDE TABLE,

The Figures in Brackets (1), (2), €c., refer to the subjoined Notes.

eee
Place. Full and
Change.

England— Thames and
South Coast. Ace
London Bridge (1)... 1 58
London Docks ...... it &p)
Gravesend .........6++ ho
INOLOl eestecsccsreseses 0 30
Margate ........sec0e- 11 45
Ramsgate ........0++ 11 44
Done ccccesssccecs ens 11 15
Dover (2) ......eeeee- 11 12
Folkestone ......-.+06+ Tbe
Dungeness ........0++- 10 45
Rye Bay ....sereeee Ao | al)
Hastings .......secseees 10 53
Beachy Head......... 11 20
Newhaven .......ceee- iit Gul
Shoreham ........000. 11 34
Littlehampton Bar 11 20
Selseaailli een scsccecre 11 45

Portsmouth Dock

Wiigsl paetaodoaconocs 11 41
Southampton (8) ... { i a
West Cowes .......+- { e

10 0
Hurst, Camber ...... { Soba
Needles Point ...... 9 46
; 9 0
Christchurch ......... { 11 30
Poole, entrance...... { . ee
Portland Breakwater} 7 1
Bridport ............... 6 5
Exmouth ............ 6 21
MOLDAY.......-sscseeeres 6 0
Dartmouth............ 6 16
Devonport Dock

Wii ciseccesecsecvnee 5 48
Plymouth Break-

WELK mescecsosceeuces 5 37
FOWEY ..--ceceeceesceees 5 14
Falmouth ..........2- 4 57
cETUVOWessscesesseses sess a)
Thre Gras eo sahecoco eno’ 5 0
PenZANCE ........000- 4 30
Scilly Isles,St.Agnes, 4 30
England and Wales—

West Coast.
St. Ives ..cccccces 4 44
Padstow cecccscccccccce 5 138

Lundy Island (4) ... 5 15

Place,

Barnstaple Bar......
1Bytslertordsl Gappaseoacoscce
fracombe ............
Bridgewater Bar ...
Flatholm Island ...
King Road............
IByetsiol ageccocosaccsos
Sharpness .......ceeee
Chepstow ..cccccesece
Newport ......-.eceeees
Cardiff, Penarth ...
Barry Island .........
Porthcawl ............
Swansea, Mumbles
Llanelly Bar .........
AUB TA ON? Soogcon-ostecenes-

Cardigan (5) .........
Aberystwith .........
St. Tudwall Road...
Bardsey Island ......
Caernarvon.........0.
Holyhead ............
Beaumaris .-..--c--0.
River Dee, Air Point
WHesterines.ccssscoene-
North-West Light-

Play ®) aedeconcanoncdonn:
Liverpool ............
Formby Point ......
Ribble Lighthouse...
Fleetwood, Wyre Lut.

Ort isascacsacshsesecs
Toaneaster «<..ivescucss
Poulton-le-Sands ...
Piel Harbour (Pier)
Whitehaven .........
Workington .........
Maryport ............
Port Carlisle .........
Southerness ......... ;
Annan Foot .........

Isle of Man.

Port St. Mary ......
Castletown ......cccess

|

RON PAS Sg! TAR D:

Place,

High
Water,

Full and
Change.

TIDE TABLE.

Place,

Scotland, West Coast.

Kirkcudbright ......
Port Patrick .........

Largs
Greenock <...........
Port Glasgow.........
Dumbarton
Glasgow
Burnt Isles, Kyles
of Bute
Ardrishaig,
SHV AAC venatee tess svssss
HA VOLATY <.-<-cesess0ces
Gigha Sound .........
Jura, Hast Coast ...
Easdale Sound ......
Crinan

Ceeccsccccce

Coe cessesesecee

Soe ceeesesesecoeses

Tobermory, Mull ...
Portree, I. of Skye
Kyle Akin ............
Ullapool, LochBroom
Poolewe, Loch Ewe
Berneray, Island of

Harris
Stornoway .....e.eeees
Cape Wrath .........
POMTEYS Os assiaasscneseessee
Stroma, South side
Swona, Fast side ...

West side .........
Great Skerry, East

BIGO. ceeescescteees aose

Orkneys.

Stromness ..
WSUKGWA Ecc sccsuedoenoee
Deer Sound .
Widewall ..... noone
Otterswick ...... Bese

Shetland Isles.

cee reercecsscoesee

Scalloway ...........
Sumburgh Head ...
Bae TRG 5 comnics sce.

Scotland, East Coast.

Duncansby Ness ...
Wick: (osvesacesccesseces
Cromarty
Dingwall

‘Orwell River,

Inverness
Peterhead
Aberdeen
Montrose
Arbroath .....c0000cers-

Ce er)

woeeceeseere
ececccersose
weeeeecesere

eeercoceocees

[eith, qetecsat<
AMO svsseseseeee

woacceseeseoese

England, East Coast.

Holy Island Harb.
Blyth
Tyne River Bar......

Newcastle
Hartlepool
Sunderland
Tees River, Bar......

eeseecere

eeceessseses

Wihithy kt ote tcc: |

Scarborough
Flamborough Head
Humber Riv., Spurn

Point

eoecceeseessens

eeereecee

eooeesesases

Goole

ececsoseesseces

Cromer
Leman and Ower

Lightvessel.........
Yarmouth Haven...
Lowestoft
Orfordness
Woodbridge Haven,

Bar
Harwich Harbour...
Ips-

eee ree eeesceces

eeeeceseecee

Bearer recess eseese

wich”
Gunfleet Sand, N.E.
ODO iicncssssdacevcres
MeN aie... ccccenerssse
Maplin Lighthouse

ecaeeesesereeee

Ireland, South and
East Coasts.

Cape Clear ............
Baltimore
Kinsale
Queenstown
@orkseicessncoee eae
Ballycottin.........+6.
Youghal
Ballinacourty, Dun-

QATVAN ....ceseeseeees
Waterford, Duncan-

eeesecece

DHWHHHNHHEDHOOF

= fe
KF © OCF HOON AD AOon BPRWWwWHWmHD

=
or

n oboe

be OF SA

“280 TIDE TABLE.
Place, sl ea Place. Full saith |
Change Sps. | Nps. Change. Sps. | Nps,
legten, || sam, || a: bom: «4 fie ee
ATL OW ssc ss csccsesessss 8 0 4 23 | Crookhaven ........ 4 9 93 | 8
Wicklow ......-seceeeee 10 29 9 64 | Skull ..........sscceeee 4 2 9% | Th
Dalkey Island ...... 10 45 | 13 | 11 | Cape Clear............ 4 0 9 64
Kingstown ........+++. 11 12 | 114) 82
Dublin Bar.-...-:<0.<. 11 12 |12-14| 9-11
Howth Harbour GL) jpg} jy ak) eaeey, ae
Balbriggam ..........+. 10 40 | 13 Iceland, Reikiavik... 5 O | 17% | 134
Dundalk esc ccweceseces 10 56 | 15 | 114} Feroe Islands, Fu-
Carlingford Bavr...... PEO | Gy sre gloe Fiord ...... 11 15 64 | 44
Ardglass ...........0.0. Om 6 12 Leervig Fiord 0 30 64 | 43
Lough Strangford, Waagoe Fiord .. 6 0 94 | 7
Killard Point...| 1053 | 14 | 113 Hides Fiord ...... 11 0 93 74
Strangford Quay 0 31 | 103 | 8%] Archangel ............ 7 28 24
Sviatoi Nos ......... 915 | 14
Ireland, North and ees |
OSE Lofoten Islands 081 | Oa
Donaghadee ......... 11:13 | 112 | OF] Veerd .......cc.0seceeee noon 9 ve’
Belfast......c0cccecssees 10 43 93 | 8 | Tre Islands ......... 11 45 7
Lough Larne......... 10 48 63 | 6}] Trondhjem Bay...... 11 14 | 8:9
Red Bay, pier ...... 10 31 4 4 | Romsdals Islands... | 10 45 6 |
Ballycastle Bay...... 6 25 3 Del Bergenie-ccsnsere sees 1 30 &
Port Rush ............ 6 8 54 | 34
Coleraine ............ 6 24 6 A
Lough Foyle, Mo- 4 North Sea, E. Coast.
Will G)c.cc-sesssenss 7 6 7% | 54 | Skagen or the Skaw 5 56 1
Londonderry ...... 8 1 73 | 53%] Blaavand Point 1 44 LPH) ote
Rathmullen, Lough Teh Graney pcseanocsecaase 2 45 43 |
Swilly .....ccccscceee 5 42 | 124 | 9 | Hider, Tonning...... 155 | 114
Sheephaven ......... 5 32 | 112 | 84] Elbe, Hamburg...... 5 10 64
Gweedore Bay ...... 5) GPA || lil 8 Cuxhaven ......... 049 | 103
Donegal Harbour... 518 | 115 | 8% Entrance ......... noon 11
RGMDO GS/s: 5 c02scelecses- 5 16 | 114] 84] Helgoland ............ 11 48 9 \.2
Ballyshannon Bar 518 | 113 | 84] Weser, outer light-
Sligo Bay, Oyster VOSSGL “<.:ccscsecssece 0 20 93
PUAN joes edenncaseres 5 23 | 114 | 84] Bremerhaven......... 1 4 | 102
Killala Bay ......... 5 22 | 104| 8 | Wilhelmshaven 0 52 | 113 |
Broadhaven Har- Wangeroog ......... 11 37 8t |
[OTHE 66 -crprcostosnsnes 5 O | 103} 74] Borkum .............. 10 30 7
Achillbeg ............ 5 14 | 1023 | 8 | Ameland Gat......... 9 30 64 |
Westport.........eesees 4 57 | 122 | 94] Terschelling (West) 8 40 6 |
inishbofin’ <-.-2.--.--- 4 34 | 123 | 94] Harlingen ............ 9 0 54
Roundstone ......... 4 28 | 134 | 10} | Amsterdam ......... 8.0 | dea
Greatman Bay ...... 4 39 | 153 | 112 |] Nieuwediep ......... 7 27 4 |
Killeany, Arran Is. 4 28 | 134 | 10) | @exel Bar \-.-...- 20... 6 0 44 3a
GALWAY we ctocqncoauces 4085142 Td”) Yandans ..-cccnsses 3 0 5}
Liscanor Bay......... 4 23 | 1382/10 | Rotterdam............ 3 45 x ee
River Shannon, Li- Brtelle.itcsscccseceeooes 3 0 5
SHOVICK res .cn ssc 6 10 | 18% | 134 | Hellevoetsluis ...... 2 30 54
Foynes Island 5 385 | 154 | 12 | Flushing ............ 0 54 | 15 | 11
LAEDOLG, Secccsoscens 4 57 | 144 | 10$ | Antwerp ...........000. 425 | 15 |
Malbaha %.ccccsecess 416 | 13 OA 1) OSGONO Sa ..0c0.ssenseees 025 |15 ; 11
Smerwick ............ 3 50 | 114 | 8 | Nieuport............... 018 | 16 | 18
Castlemaine ......... 430 | 144) 9% {
POM UG ce serceedeene neni 351 | 1023 | 7% ny
Valentia Harbour... 3 42 | 11 8 shige Peay ihe
Kenmare River, Dunkerque ......... O 8 | 16% | 134
West Cove ......... 3 52 | 10 7% | Gravelines ............ noon 19 | 15}
Bantry Harbour ... 3 47 | 10 VE ORB rece peesenss esc ans 11 49 | alae
Castletown, Bear- Cape Grisnez......... 1 2h en 16}
A VOM foc esccceacenere 414 93 | 7%} Boulogne .......0. | 11 28 | 253 | 193
Black Ball Harbour| 3 40 9% | 74] Cayeux ........ cooveee | 11 14 | 28% | 22
Dunmanus Harbour 3 57 94 | 7] Dieppe.......... abessess 11 8 1 27a me

TIDE TABLE. 281

Place. Full oe
Change.
beam!

Fécamp ......sseereee | 10 47
TTAVEE: —- cvscecssssee 15 918
TONGUE chscbceceses | 9 99
FSREAOUL cccccoccoveesse | 8 59
Cherbourg ............ 0)
FICOLNOVN serccsicncees | 6 46
Guernsey, St. Pater | 6 37
Jersey, St. Helier...; 6 29
Oerteret, <...0.c08as-~s lea Giny
St. Germain ......... | 6 20
Régneville ............ ; 6 20
Granville: <2cccccseess | 6 9
Tles de Chausey...... 6 14
Wancaleltescciecssscces | 6 20
Les Minquiers ...... 6 6
Ste Malo tisisscevseeces i GED
IBLOURbL Pe scseccseansses heiep rol
Héaux Lighthouse 5 45
ME GOUION , onooseccre ene Wary ta aoe
Ploumanach ......... 55
Morlaix Road......... | 4 58
Heder Bas: 2..c.cese00. i
Abervrac’h ............ | 414
Wehanti 9s eivecec _ 3 46
France, West Coast. |
IS COSWc ieerescuserevees | _ 38 47
Tle de Sein ............ Hoe Oe
Concarneau ......... 3 12
Port Louis, L’Orient 3 11
St. Nazaire............ oe Bh ek
Tle de Noirmoutier 3) 1
Tle d’Oleron ......... BO
La Rochelle ......... 3° (45
MROCNELOIG .o0cccceces Lid O
MIG QUAI). csceeseesess | Gh Bs
Gironde River, Cor- |
douan Lt. rouse 3 55
Bariiliaicnecssscesces | By 20)
IBOLdeaAUX ...0..0.. | 6°50
Arcachon, entrance 4 10
Adour Riv., Boucaut | 3 53
Bayonne .........+. | 38 46
St. Jean de Luz | 3 6
Spain and Portugal.
Port Passages ...... 3 20
Bilbao, Bar............ | care 0
EROWM) ‘ossicconcees ses 3 20
Santander ............ 3 30
GoOminn a) <2... .s0sscce<e hy sooNO
Cape Finisterre...... 3 0
MAIS oooudbactannoseen 3.0
Minho River ......... 2 30
Oporto aecssss +. 5s | 2 30
Pemichels-ccsscsseseoss 1 54
NIShONy DaAveesedercses 2 30
Setubal’ s.cctecccseces 2 30
TERY} Grogsoccoqonecpon: Ph i
EVtrel wa ccceresese ACE 1 54
Cadiz esserccceee ovoveve | 1 56
N.A. 0,

| Rise.
Sps. | Nps.
ath We tite
234 | 18
22 18
23 | 18
17 134
172 | 13
174 | 123
26 | 183
314 | 23
31 | 223
34 | 25
35 | 26
87 | 274
35 =| 26
37 «| 27
35 | 26
36} | 253
31 | 234
31 | 234
23 | 184
244 | 183
24 18
23 17
22 | 16
19} | 133
19% 14}
174 | 12
13 | 94
18) | 93
17 13
146 |heals)
ifs} = |
164 | 114
162 | 18
163 | 13
162 | 103
18} | 113
18 114
123 | 93
83 | 54
12 Ps
13 | 93
jaa 9
| 13
9
15 | 12
fo
12-13
if
10 8
12 9
VIL i
13. |
14
12 3

High Rise.
Ww
Plase. Pull and
Change. | Sps. | Nps.
h. m. | bse tt.
Gibraltar, New Mola | |
SOE EE oc atere] ay eae: 24
IMalagaiNnraccadecesses 2 30 3
Atlantie Islands.
Madeira, Funchal
BAY aes etecune sass 0 48 7
Azores, St. Michael 0 30 6
MCLCOIPA Css esccseses- 0 32 44
VEE caopondaopdopac 11 45 t
Canary Ids., Santa
Cruz, Tenerife 1 30 8 6
Gran Canaria Id.,
Puerto de la Luz 0 52 10
Cape Verde Islands,
Porto Grande... 6 0 34
Sal eiceocceneccn snes 7 45 5
MaiyOimasteennececsnas 6 30 5
Bermuda, Ireland
Island, Dock Yard | 7 14 4
Africa
Cota | bseccsisess 2 6 33 | 24
an PlOtiesccsercsse nsec 1 42 84 5
ReaD AGM che actcoseokecs 146 | 9-12
IMogadoriescccncsacescss 118 {10-12
Cape Bojador......... noon 8?
Cape Blanco ......... 11 46 6
Portengikyeseerss sect 1050 6 |
Senegal River, Bar 8 42 63 |
Goreesiet sess 8 8 5
Cape Verde ......... 7 45 3
River Gambia ...... 9 10 64 | 5
Bijouga Ids., Orango
@Ohanneleeeece. es 10 0 11
River Nunez ......... 10: 0 |, 15 yay
Isles de Los ......... | 635 [13-17
Mellacoree River ... 7 40 iil
Scarcies Rivers ...... 7 10 10
Sierra Leone ......... 7 50 124?
Banana Islands...... 8 15 9
Sherbro River, entr. 6 0 11
Gallinas River ...... 6 45 4
} eMOnFOViay eeescsecess 6 0 6
Sestos Bay............ 5 20 4
Cape Palmas ......... 4 30 4
Grand Lahou ...... 4 20 4
ASTM Meas cath oeeeee 4 30 4
Cape Three Points 4 0 id
St. George d’Elmina 4 30 6
Cape Coast Castle... 4 30 6
River Lagos Bar ... 5 0 3
Foreados River ...... 4 22 5
Benin River ......... 4 30 7 44
Niger, Nun entrance 4 15 5 34
Bonny and New Ca.- |
labar Rivers ...... 4 50 6 4
Opobo River ......... 5 15 6? | 5?
Old Calabar River... 5 0 64} 5
Cameroons River... 5 15 a 5
Fernando Po......0. 4 0 7 |

5)
pie

282 TIDE TABLE.
7 Pf be | a
High Rise. ah Rise
ater,
ee. Pull and 7 a, Full and Rr
Change. | Sps. | Nps Change Sps. | Nps,
| |
; ease hen) ) ae | ft.
Princes Island ...... 3 58 3 | 14] Bic Island ............ 215 | 14 8
St. Thomas Island 3 25 44 Saguenay River, Ta-
Anno Bom Island... 3 45 5 COUSAC......-..20. 245 /17 | 10
Chicoutimi......... 411 | 12 8
Green Island......... 245 | 16 9
Newfoundland (11). Brandy Pots ......... 3 0 lay age
Quirpon Harbour...| 7 5 5 12 | Orignaux Point...... 347 | 173 | 18
Canada or Canary | Tle aux Coudres...... 425 |16 |
iS Vpeeacrsestessceres 6 46 5Z | 1h | Pillars......cceeeeceres 5 0 | Sheen
Little Bay ............ 7 22 44 | 3 | North Traverse ...... 5 40 | 17 | 138
Fortune Harbour...| 7 14 4 3 QUCDEG | .:..cccrcsoeese 649 | 174 | 12
Toulinguet Harbour a8 4 33 | Port Neuf ............ 8 30 | 14 9
Fogo Harbour ...... 7 15 44, 3 Three Rivers ......-+- 11 30 1
Barrow Harbour ...; 6 13 44 | 23
Bonavista .....sceeee Vee yf bits: 3 23
Catalina Harbour... oO ee e GE as Sta laren:
Trinity Harbour ... 7 10 s 2 St. Paul Island...... 8 0 5 3
Hearts Content...... ess 4 | 234 Magdalen Islands... 8 20 3 2
@anbonear <2--:.-.--- 7 20 44} 2 Gaspé Basin ......... 2 40 5 3
Harbour Grace ...... | 7 25 44 | 2 Carleton Point ...... 3: (OF t/iae 4
St. John’s Harbour 7 30 3 | 34] Campbell Town, Ris-
Cape Race ............ | iaeO 64, 5 tigouche River ... 4 0 | 10 7
Cape St. Mary ...... 8 30 Wf 1) 5) | | We Govt dotstsonencoene 230 | 5 3
Burin Harbour ...... | 8 45 64 | 4%] Miramichi Bar...... 4 45 5 13
St. Pierre 5..----.---- 8283 64 | 44] Richibucto River ... 330 | 4 24
Miquelon Road ...... 1. (3 a5 34 Point Escumenac... 4 10 4 24
Brunet Island ...... 93 64 43] Jourimain Island... 9 30 6 3
Long Harbour ...... 8 50 7 54
Pare Bay cesccoecoces 8 38 4 ;
La Poile Bay......... 9 0 6 fe Eas Ee |
Codroy Road ......... 9 15 6 4 | East Point............ 8 30 34] 2
St. George Harbour} 10 3 63 | 43] Cardigan Bay......... 8 40 5 33
Port au Choix ...... 10 40 74 Hillsborough Bay... | 10 45 5 32
Old Férolle Harbour 9 46 5? Charlottetown ... | 10 45 94 | 8
Ste. Geneviéve Bay} 10 43 63 | 4 | Bedeque Harbour... | 10 16 1 5
St. Barbe Bay ...... 10 0 GUT |) BY) | iBieasavoroi gees Mogscosene 3.0 4 2
Pistolet Bay ......... ey ass) 34 | 24 | Cascumpeque Harb. 5 40 3 2
Mra Cadi@/sedsccrceecssss 7 0 34 | 2
Tacbrader ond Guif of | St. Peter Harbour... 8 30 - 24
St. Lawrence. |
St. Lewis Cape ...... 6 30 Saal Cape Breton Island.
Chatean Bay ......... 7 35 31 | 1 | GutofCanso,N.entr.| 9 15 EY 2
Red Bay. :.s.s-b.0ve0s 7 45 34| 14] Sydney Harbour . 8 15 5 4
Bradore Bay ......... 8 45 4 2 | St. Anne Bay......... 8 34 6 44
Belles Amours Bay 9 0 44 | 22] Louisburg Harbour 8 0 5 L
Kegashka Bay ...... 10 45 5 3
Clearwater Point ...| 11 30 5 3 ne
Mingan Harbour ... 1 16 6 4 rte bape a gna
Bay of Seven Islands 1 40 9 5 yale
Anticosti Id., W. pt. 2 (0) 6 4 |} Shediac Harbour ... noon 4? 3?
Hast Cape ............ 0 5 8 | Bay Verte ............ 10 0 | 9. i ae
Egg Island ..........0 DYE X ie \tealat 6 Wallace Harbour... | 10 30 8 5
Magdalen River...... 115 | 6-8 | 3-4 | Caribou Harbour... | 10 0 | 6 | 4
Pictou Harbour...... 10 0 | 6 4
: Antigonish Harbour 9 0 4 | 2
secs Gans Galle | Fagor ok 748 | Gt! 43
). Island Harbour...... 740 | 64 | 5%
Point de Monts...... noon | 12 | 6 | Ship Harbour ...... 7 54 63 | 4
Cape Chatte ......... noon | 13 8 | Jedore Harbour 7 45 64 a
St.NicholasHarbour| 1 55 | 12 | 7 | Halifax Harbour ... 7 49 6 5
Matane River ...... | Paley ala | 7 Sable Island, S. side 6 30 4
Bersimis River ...... tL DOR aos alot North side ......... | 7 80 4

Poser,

Mahone Bay ..........
Liverpool Bay ......
Shelburne ............
Negro Harbour......

Bay of Fundy, Nova
Scotia.

Cape Sable, Barring-
ton Bay .........
Seal Island.........
PSTD WICO) ssiscissacescsves

PEDOLUC ..2.000..-.-0--
Wein Aogesseccoce
West Port, Grand
PASSA) coc cnc5+ 0
St. Mary Bay, West
Sandy Cove
East Sandy Cove
Annapolis ............
Gulliver Hole.........
Disby. Gut) ...:......-.
Young Cove Point...
Port George .........
Isle Haute ............
Black Rock Lt.-ho.
Spencer Anchorage
Basin of Mines, Pars-
borough W. Bay
Horton Bluff ......
Noel Bay _.........

New Brunswick.

Cumberland Basin,
Sackville .........
Cape Chignecto,
Spicers Cove (13)
eUACOtesasescsceesccsses
St. John Harbour
Campobello ....... i.
West Quoddy.........
Passamaquoddy ...
Grand Harb., Grand

Machias, Seal Ids.

United States. *—Port-
land to New York.

Mount Desert Id. (14)
Ortland .:5....00c00s02
_ Portsmouth .........
Newburyport.........
3 UG Rae ee
Marblehead .........
Boston Lighthouse
Navy Yard .........
Ply mou ee-e.cess ces
Barnstable ............

.
ene |

TIDE TABLE. 283

High Rise. High Rise,
Water, Water,
Ful) and Place, Full and
Change Sps. | Nps Change Sps Nps

5 | Monomoy Point...... NT 4 34

54 | St. George Shoals... | 10 30 7

53 ) Nantucket (15) ...... 12 37 She |) oe
Edgartown ......... 12 24 2 13
Holmes Hole......... 11 43 13| 13

Gay Head .......s..0. 7 39 3+ | 23
Tarpaulin Cove...... 7 59 25 | 24
Bird Island Light... 8 3 43 | 33
8 27 84 | 63 | New Bedford, entr. 8 5 44 | 4
9°49 12s) 10+ |) Newport...2.-........-- 7 53 Ad ex
9 25 | 12 | 10 | Point Judith ......... 7 40 34 | 2%
953 | 13 | 103 | Montauk Point...... 8 28 2 13
LOWES |b ss ie Sandyitdook teats. 7 43 5 44
8

16 | 18 New, York <.sssssesa.s 16 43) 4

ee pethe | tt amas ie fte ol tt,
7 45 74 | 6 | RacePoint,CapeCod| 11 28 94 | 8}
7 50 8
8 4 7
8 12 uf

ra Miele) | Long Island Sound.
LO 47) 2819" 1) Throgs Neck ....2.... 11 30 8 63
10 33 | 213 | 17$ | Sands Point ......... | dels 9 72
LS O) | 302 Oyster Bay............ fala ats 8 64
10 51 | 26 | 213 | Bridgeport ............ waka 8 63
11 0 | 274 | 23° | New Haven ......... 11 16 64 | 54
11 14 | 32 | 28 New London ......... iS) Bil 3 24
AL 32) I-28 Stonington ............ oy ey 3 24
I at 133 i 28% 1 Watch Hall... cscs... 8 57 3 24
iG WS) |) als) || sal
POI ea) C8 Delaware Bay and
017 | 43 | 37a aoe |
0 30 | 48 | 40 | Philadelphia ......... I ee de 59 63 54
0 41 | 504 | 433 | New Casile............ | Bae Serle re wins
Mahons River ...... aeOe 19 64 | 54
Cape Henlopen ...... 8 0 44) 3
| Cape May .....s.cse0 8 25 5 4}
DelawareBreakwater | 8 24 5 4
11 55 | 454 | 38
Chesapeake Bay and
11 35 | 37 | 30; .
11 35 | 30 | 25° oe ey |
11 21 | 27 | 93 | Richmond ............ 446 | 43| 33
11 21 | 233 | 20 | JamesRiver,CityPt., 2 11 3 23
Bt) || PALE Wy aly, || deteulnbaekeyge) or sechorosce |, 6 47 Lee el
11 30 | 25 Cape Henry ......... | 8 1 8 24
Annapolis... ......... | 4 50 1 2
11 7 | 21 | 174 } Point Lookout ...... il 1% | 13
1; 5 | 18 | 142 | Cape Charles......... 8 11 8 93
Old Pcint Comfort 8 54 23 | 24
North Carolina to
11 18 | 193 | 103 fee: |
11 25 | 93) 84] Hatteras Inlet ...... fi i eS | Oe le ag
1ST ei 20 84 | Cape Hatteras ...... F705
11 31 83 | 74] Ocracoke Inlet ...... 7 14 2 1%
11 23 93 | 84] Beaufort............... 7 31 3 23
11 16 92 | 84] Smithville ............ fants) 6 49
LLG = | 9 | Cape Fear ............ 0 (ae
11 36 | 103) 9 Georgetown ......... 8 49 33 | 34
di 4) }10;| 84}. Charleston ............ 7 B45) 5a Nae
11 22 (10 | S| Savannah ......:..... | 822 | 68| 62

* Chiefly from the United States Coast Survey Tide Tables, for the year 1892.

284 | TIDE TABLE.

High Rise. High | Rise.

yy t . J <
ee, Full and — Pull and
Change. | Sps. } Nps. Change. Sps. | Nps,
h. m. | ft. | ft. : h.m. | Sheps
Cape Fiorida......... 8 43 14 | 13] Nassau, New Provi-
Sand Kay ............ 8 49 17] 1 dence (17) ....ss-0 7 30 4 3
Kay West (16) ...... 9 39 14 | 1 | Guinchos Kay ...... 7 40 3
Tampa Bay ......... 1G 12} 14] Clarence Harbour,
Pensacola, sccccocccess 2, Long Island ...... 8 30 4 34
WHOIS Sqaacoccnsonsan 2 ERMINE eoses oseseseece 7 20 24
Mississippi,S.W.Pass 13 Crooked Island ...... TO 23
Galveston ............ 4 MONO WA) fos teeseetessens 8 0 34] 2
San Juan, Porto
: ; TRICE). Goo ceackoos sou Bae 1
GO" Cae: Mona Island ......... 6 15 re
Wiers Ortiz -oseccecn= 2-4 Virgin Islands, St. |
AVarpaelly) aooceonscese 14 Thomas Harbour | irreg. il
Campeche ............ 1 45 24 | 2 | Christianstad, Santa |
Cape Catouche ...... 9 30 14 (Or Zatenedesseeecssers 30 4
Wozumelyecccscsc +0 8 30 13 Anegada, ...........000 9 0 14
Royal Harb., Ruatan| 7 45 34 Guadeloupe, Pointe
Cape Gracias Harb.| 10 30 2 By JEAIGE= bop oaoqesoHan 10 0 1}
Man of War Kay ... 8 10 2 Martinique, Fort
Blewfields ............ IV 50h si TROY allies eeaeses cee 4 0 | 1-14
Greytown! .-......... | $) Ox | 2.9 St. Lucia, Port Cas-
Colon eracncs trcicecees lone UIT codagsodne cos cene 2 36 2?
Barbados, Carlisle
> : BAN, (aseaeecarsoseces 3 0 3 1
West India Islands. | St. Lopes Kings- 2
Cuba, Havanua...... 8 14 3 GOW! osc cnseeeences a0 LAS) ok
Bahia de Cadiz Grenada, St. George
TEN ensasoaoaoocce 9 20 3 Ea DOUN eeceesscates 2 40 14 2.
Port Baracoa...... 7 23 2 MODSSO) We eccescesccesses 3 0 4 2
Santiago de Cuba 8 30 2 Trinidad, Boca
Manzanillo......... 10 40 4 Grande ......... 3 30 4 24
Santa Cruz......... noon | 4 Port of Spain...... 4 30 4 8
Port Xagua ...... 4 57 2 Icacos Point ...... 4 14 7 +
St. Domingo, Cape Gulf of Maracaibo 5 15 25
Haytien ......... (0) 3 Cartagena ............ LO Tea al
Port au Prince ... Sy (Oe? | vale? Caledonia Harbour | 11 40 14) 2
St. Domingo ...... irreg. 2? Orinoco River, entr. 6 0 3
Samana Bay ...... 9 30?|] 3? Demerara River ... 4 28 9 6
Fort Dauphin ... 0 54 | 34] Berbice ............... 4 30 | 8-10) 6
Jamaica, Port Royal} 11 0 1 Corentyn River...... 5 10 84 | 54
Grand Cayman ...... 9 25 14 SUNIN AM feodsecscasesers 6 O | 9-10} 5-6
Goring ayy Wee cense sees 8 30 3 Maroni River ...... 5 0 9 6
NDACOUee castccdeone seer 8 0 3 Cayenne River ...... | 4 37 | 5-7

REMARKS ON THE TIDE TABLE.

The following notes draw attention to peculiarities of the Tides as met
with in various regions of the North Atlantic Ocean, of which more full
and detailed accounts will be found in the Sailing Directions which accom-
pany the Charts of the various coasts.

(1.) River Thames.—During strong North-Westerly gales, the Tide
marks high water earlier in the River Thames than otherwise, and does
not give so much water, whilst the ebb tide runs out later, and marks
lower; but, upon the gales abating and the weather moderating, the
Tides put in and rise much higher, whilst they also run longer before high
water is marked, and with more velocity of current, nor do they run out
so long or so low.

REMARKS ON THE TIDE TABLE. 285

(2.) English Channel.—The Tides of the English Channel were but im-
perfectly understood till Rear-Admiral Beechey, R.N., investigated a mass
of observations which had been made about the year 1847, and which
demonstrated that there was a great resemblance in the characteristics of
the tidal phenomena of the English and Irish Channels, and this investi-
gation led to a more extensive series of observations throughout the
English Channel, which were also discussed by Admiral Beechey. From
his valuable contribution to science and the mariner, in the ‘‘ Philosophical
Transactions” for 1848 and 1851, we make the following extract :—

Instead of the progressive changes of stream turning progressively later
as the Tide advances up the strait, they cease at a certain point, which is,
in the English Channel, between the Start and Gulf of St. Malo; and in
the North Sea, between the Texel and the Estuary of Lynn. Between
these spots there is a Tide peculiar to the Channel, quite distinct from
that of the seas on either side of it, which are always running in contrary
directions.

When these streams meet, the Tide is ever varying in its direction,
according as the strength of one stream prevails over that of the other,
giving to the water a rotary motion, with scarcely an interval of slack
water; in the space between them the Tide sets steadily towards Dover,
while the water is rising there, and away from it while it is falling at that
place. This ‘‘trwe Channel Stream”’ is about 180 miles in extent in either
direction, from the point of union of the Tides in the Strait of Dover to
the region of rotatory Tides off Lynn, and off the Start and St. Malo.

As the true Channel Streams are always running in opposite courses,
there is necessarily a point where they meet and separate, and this occurs
in the Strait of Dover. But im this strait, the stream, although it first
obeys one tide and then another, does not slack with the Channel Streams,
but is found to be still running at high and low water on the shore, at
which times those streams are at rest, so that the Strait of Dover never
has slack water throughout its whole extent at any time. I have, in con-
quence, called this an intermediate tide.

The limits of neither of the streams appear to be stationary, but range
to and fro as the tide rises and falls at Dover, travelling to the Hastward
on both sides, and at high and low water suddenly shifting 60 miles to the
Westward to recommence their Easterly course with the next tide; and,
although so far apart, they possess the remarkable peculiarity of shifting
together ; so that the Channel Streams preserve, as nearly as possible, the
same relative dimensions.

In the Strait of Dover, this line of meeting and of separation oscillates
between Beachy Head and the North Foreland, a distance of about 60
miles. When the water on the shore at Dover begins to fall, a separation
of the Channel Streams begins off Beachy Head. As the fall continues,
this line creeps to the Eastward ; at two hours after high water it has
reached Hastings ; at three hours, Rye ; and thus it travels on, until at
low water by the shore it has arrived nearly at the North Foreland on one
side of the strait, and at Dunkirk on the other. At this time the Channel
Streams on both sides slack, but in that portion which I call the inter-
mediate stream, in the Strait of Dover, the water is still running to the

286 REMARKS ON THE TIDE TABLE.

Westward ; and when the new Channel Streams make, as the water rises
on the shore, this intermediate portion is found to unite with, or to oppose,
one or the other of these streams, according as it was before the reverse ;
so that, as before mentioned, the line of meeting at low water appears off
Beachy Head to recommence its Hasterly course. This intermediate stream
forms a remarkable feature in the tidal system of the Channel; it is well
established, as the line of meeting and of separation occupies a very limited
space, and it seems to be entirely due to the contracted form of the Channel
in this immediate locality preventing the free escape of the water.

Admiral W. Bullock, in order to test the point of separation, anchored
two vessels a mile apart, between Beachy Head and Dungeness, and found
both vessels at the same time to ride with their heads in opposite directions
in obedience to the streams, which were then running opposite ways.

The Channel Stream, which I have described as running between the
intermediate stream and the rotatory or mixed streams at the outer ex-
tremities of the Channel, pursues a steady course along the main trunk of
the strait, slacking only towards high and low water at Dover, when it is pre-
paring to invert its course; and, contrary to the generally received opinion
of a progressive slack water in a strait having a progressive establishment,
this stream has the peculiarity of slacking throughout its whole extent at
nearly the same time; and this time, as was anticipated in my former
paper (‘‘ Phil. Trans.,” 1848), corresponds nearly with the time of high
and low water on the shore at Dover, the site of the combined wave, and
the virtual head of the tide.

A simple rule thus su‘lices to guide the sailor up the main Channel
Stream. It is, that the stream runs toward Dover while the water is rising
there, and away from it while falling. The tidal hours for Dover, there-
fore, answer for the whole of the Channel.

The meeting of the stream off the Casquets and the Start in the English
Channel, and the direction there given to the water at a particular time
of the tide, will fully answer for the numerous wrecks about the Channel
Islands ; whilst near the Strait of Dover, an unexpected set of the stream
directly down upon the Somme, and in a part of the Channel where, from
its narrowness, a true stream might be expected, is evidence of the danger
of approaching this part of the Channel, if ignorant of the set of the stream.
And, most singularly, this occurs exactly in the spot where those disastrous
wrecks of the Conqueror and Reliance took place, and where the Cwragoa,
one of H.M. frigates, so narrowly escaped a similar fate.

Further particulars on the Tides of the English Channel will be found in
the Sailing Directions accompanying the Chart.

(3.) Southampton, &c.—This port has the singular advantage of having
two high waters, which adds not a little to its dock facilities. The same
phenomenon is also found in other places within the Isle of Wight, and is
owing to the Channel Tide passing round either end of the Isle of Wight,
and arriving at the port at different times.

It will be observed that at Poole the rise and fall is insignificant, while
on the opposite side of the Channel we have the gigantic tides of the Bay
of St. Malo, a similar feature to that which is found in the Bristol
Channel.

REMARKS ON THE TIDE TABLE. 287

(4.) Bristol Channel.—The Tides of the Bristol Channel are remarkable
for their magnitude and rapidity. There are few places in the world where
they are exceeded. The Bay of Fundy, Nova Scotia, and the Bay of Mont
St. Michel, on the French coast, are somewhat analogous. The effect of
these rushing waters is to alter the channels and shift the banks in the
upper portion of the Bristol Channel in a most extraordinary manner.
Some idea is given in our Sailing Directions for the Bristol Channel.

Outside the Bristol Channel, spring tides rise from 22 to 24 and 26 feet;
but as that channel narrows, or contracts in its breadth, the velocity and
vertical rise increase in proportion ; and so much that, in King Road, it
rises to the height of 40 feet and upwards.* Between Nash Point and
Bridgewater Bay, past Hurlstone Point, &c., the Tide sets with great
velocity over the Culver Sand, into Bridgewater Bay and River. Through
Caldy Sound, the stream from Caermarthen Bay makes Westward nearly
two hours before the flood has done running without the island; and the
stream makes Hastward through the sound, as well as between the Hel-
wick Sand and Worm’s Head, nearly two hours before the Channel ebb
ceases.

At Lundy Island, ordinary spring tides rise 27 feet, equinoctial springs
31 feet, and neaps 13 feet. In Barnstaple Bay, ordinary springs rise 25 feet,
equinoctial 28 feet, and neaps 15 feet. In this bay, at from 2 to 3 miles
from shore, a gentle stream sets to the Eastward, from the time of low
water to four hours flood, and then to the Westward until low water again.
In mid-channel, between this bay and Lundy Island, the streams of flood
and ebb set tide and tide each way, according to the time of flowing on
the shore, at the rate of 3 miles an hour on springs and 2 miles upon the
neaps, allowing half an hour for slacking and veering out.

It should be understood that, within the range of Swansea Bay and its
offing, at about 5 miles West of the Scarweathers, the first-quarter flood
sets directly toward them; after which, and until half-flood, it sweeps
1 mile outside, nearing the West end of the Nash Sands; and ultimately
setting, till high water, 8.S.E. by compass, which points well outside of
all. It averages a rate of 4.and 5 knots on springs,.and 3 knots upon
neaps, and changes exactly at the same time that it ceases to rise on the
shore ; but slack water always lasts half an hour.

It has been observed that, over the shoals, and through the different
channels, the velocity of the tides is greatly increased, and there is reason
for believing that on springs the rate is nearly 6 knots.

There is always a strong tide under these shoals, which is, of course,
increased or decreased according to the vertical rise. This is of consequence
when working up near them, as some advantage may, in the daytime, be
taken of it, by keeping on the proper side. Its influence will be manifest
to any vessel thus situated, as she would nearly make her course good

seneeaoenemmerenpaee ces 25 ee Ml echt tate ity See a) es Ba Sie ld ey

* Captain Andrew Livingston, ef Liverpool, to whom our eailier editions of this work
were much indebted for many valuable and useful communications, informed us
that he actually measured fully 50 feet rise of water, in November, 1813, at King Road,
in a spring tide, At Chepstow, above, on the opposite side, the vertical rise of a spring

tide also averages 50 feet, not uncommonly attaining 60 feet, and has even been known
to reach 72 feet.

288 REMARKS ON THE TIDE TABLE.

when under their lee, but be swept away furiously on opening the different
passages. Should it be desirable to have the true tide, it will therefore be
requisite to keep on the North or South side of all the shoals, according to
the ebb or flood.

(5.) St. George’s Channel.—Much that has been said of the English
Channel Tides is applicable to those of the St. George’s Channel, a full
description of which is given in the Sailing Directions accompanying the
Chart.

In the St. George’s or Irish Channel, experiments have shown that, not-
withstanding the variety of times of high water throughout the channel,
ihe turn of the stream over all that part which may be called the fair
navigable portion of the channel is nearly simultaneous; that the Northern
and Southern streams in both channels commence and end in all parts
(practically speaking) at nearly the same time; and that time happens to
correspond nearly with the time of high and low water on the shore at the
entrance of Liverpool and of Morecambe Bay, a spot remarkable as being
the point where the opposite tides, coming round the extremities of Ireland,
terminate. So that it is necessary only to know the times of high and low
water at either of these places to determine the hour when the stream of
either tide wll commence or terninate in any part of the channel. For this
purpose the Liverpool Tide Table may be used, subtracting 18 minutes
from the times there given, in consequence of the George Pier being later
in its high water than the point which is considered the head of the Tide.

The Tide from the Atlantic enters the St. George’s Channel by two
channels; of which Carnsore Point, the S.E. point of Ireland, and St.
David’s Head, the S.E. point of Wales, are the limits of the Southern one;
and Rathlin and the Mull of Cantyre the boundaries of the Northern.

The central portion of the stream of flood or ingoing stream, runs nearly
in a line from a point midway between the Tuskar and the Bishops, to a
position 16 miles due West of Holyhead; beyond which it begins to expand
Eastward and Westward; but its main body preserves its direction straight
forward towards the Calf of Man and on towards Maughold Head. Here it
is arrested by the flood or Southern stream from the North Channel coming
1ound the Point of Ayr, and is first turned round to the Eastward by it,
3nd then goes on with it at an easy rate direct from Morecambe Bay; thus
shanging its direction nearly eight points.

The outer portions of the stream are necessarily deflected from the course
of the great body of the water by the impediments of the banks on the
Irish side of the channel, and by the tortuous form of the coast on the
Welsh side. The Eastern portion rushes with great rapidity between the
Smalls, Grassholm, and Milford Haven towards the Bishops, which it
passes at a rate of between 4 and 5 knots; sets sharply round those rocks
in an E.N.E. direction, right over the Bass Bank, and into Cardigan Bay;
makes the circuit of that bay, and sets out again towards Bardsey, at the
other extremity of it; the streams still continuing outside towards the
South Stack, which it rounds, setting towards the Skerries at a rate of
upwards of 4 knots; and, finally, turns sharp round those rocks for Liyver-
pool and Morecambe Bay; completing on its way the high water in the
Menai, and filling the Dee, the Mersey, and the Ribble.

REMARKS ON THE TIDE TABLE. 285

(6.) The Western portion of the stream, after passing the Saltees, runs
nearly in the direction of the Tuskar, sets sharply round it, and then takes a
N.E. 4 N. direction, setting fairly along the coast, but over the banks
skirting the shore; so that vessels tacking near the inner edge of the sands
on the flood, and on the outer edge on the ebb, have been carried upon
them and lost, especially upon the Arklow and Codling Banks. Abreast
of the Arklow is situated that remarkable spot in the Irish Channel, where
the tide scarcely rises or falls. The stream, notwithstanding, sweeps past
it at the rate of 4 knots at the springs, and reaches the parallel of Wicklow
Head. Here it encounters an extensive projection of the Codling Bank ;
and while the outer portion takes the circuit of the bank, the inner stream
sweeps over it, occasioning an overfall and strong rippling all round the
edge, by which the bank may generally be discovered. Beyond this point
the streams unite and flow on towards Howth and Lambay, growing gra-
dually weaker as they proceed, until they ultimately expend themselves
in a large space of still water situated between the Isle of Man and Car-
lingford. There we have not been able to detect any stream; for there
another remarkable phenomenon occurs—the water rising and falling,
without having any perceptible stream. This space of still water is marked
by a bottom of blue mud. Such is the course of the flowing water at the
Southern Channel.

In the North Channel, the stream enters between the Mull of Cantyre
and Rathlin Island simultaneously with that passing the Tuskar into the
Southern Channel, but flows in the contrary direction. It runs at the rate
of 3 knots at the springs, increasing to 5 knots near the Mull, and to 4
knots near Tor Point, on the opposite side of the channel. The main body
sweeps to the S. by E., taking nearly the general direction of the channel,
but pressing more heavily on the Wigtonshire coast.

The central portion, midway between the Mull of Galloway and the
Copeland Islands, presses on towards the Northern half of the Isle of Man;
and while one portion of it flows towards the Point of Ayre, the other
makes for Contrary Head, and is there turned back to the N.E. nearly at
a right angle to its early course. Passing Jurby Point, it re-unites with
the other portion of the stream, and they jointly rush with a rapidity of
from 4 to 5 knots round the Point of Ayre, and directly across all the
banks lying off there, and catching up the stream from the South Channel
off Maughold Head, they hurry on together towards that great point of
union, Morecambe Bay. This bay, the grand receptacle of the streams
from both channels, is notorious for its huge banks of sand, and also
remarkable for a deep channel scoured out by the stream, and known
as the Lune Deep, which is the great haven to all vessels bound to Fleet-
wood, &e.

Such is a general description of the streams in the Irish Channel, which
are produced by the flowing of the water, or which, for the purpose of
distinction, we may designate the ingoing streams.

The ebbing, or outgoing streams, do not materially differ from the reverse
of those, except that in the Southern Channel they press rather more over
towards the Irish coast.

Na ARO; 38

290 REMARKS ON THE TIDE TABLE.

(7.) Havre.—Here high water remains stationary for 1®, and only rises
or falls 13 inches for the space of 3", much facilitating the use of the docks.

(8.) Bay of Biscay.—On the coasts of the Bay, the tidal wave advancing
from the Westward, makes high water almost at the same hour all around
its shores ; and the range also does not vary greatly.

(9.) Strait of Gibraltar—In the middle of the Strait of Gibraltar, the
surface current mostly and generally sets to the Hast; but on each side the
flood tide sets to the Westward. On the European side, West of the Isle
of Tarifa, it is high water at eleven oclock, but the stream without con-
tinues to run until two o’clock. On the opposite shore of Africa, it is high
water at ten o’clock, and the stream continues to run until one o’clock ;
after which periods it changes on either side, and runs Eastward with the
general current. Near the shores are many changes, counter-currents, and
whirlpools, caused by, and varying with, the winds.*

(10.) West Coast of Africa.—The currents on the African coast (hereafter
explained) render the given times of high water uncertain.

Between Cape Cantin and Cape Blanco they are strong, and set as shown
on the chart.

In the road oft the Senegal, the current sets chiefly to the S.W. From
the bar, strong freshes come down after the rains, and a powerful current
of fresh water sets from the river to some distance out to sea.

In the Bay of Yof, to the N.E. of Cape Verde, the currents set rapidly,
and sometimes in very dangerous whirls.

At the mouth of the Gambia, the greatest rise in the dry season is not
more than 6 feet. Here the tide continues to run on the surface for an
hour and a half after it ceases flowing on the shore.

The level of the sea, in the vicinity of Cape Coast Castle, is higher, by
at least 6 feet, in the rainy season (which is the season of the strong 5. W.
and Southerly winds, between April and September), than in the more
serene weather of the dry season.

In the rainy season, or S.W. Monsoon, trunks of trees are frequently
carried on shore, and found at 6 or 8 feet above the level of the sea in the
dry season. In the rainy season, also, the tides ebb and flow regularly in
the several rivers; but, in the dry season, the same rivers run ebb con-
stantly, the level of the sea being then too low to allow the tide-waters to
enter their mouths.

(11.) Newfoundland.—On the coasts of Newfoundland the Tides are very
irregular, being greatly influenced by the prevailing wind. On all the
Eastern coast they have nearly the same rise; springs about 6 feet, neaps
4 feet. At the entrance of St. John’s they set-in in a bore.

Between Cape La Hune and Cape Ray the flood sets to the Westward
in the offing very irregularly, but generally two or three hours after high
water on shore. See more particularly our ‘‘ British American Navigator,”

* Commander Gorringe, U.S.N., when examining the bank he discovered in 1876,
lying 130 miles West of Cape St. Vincent, found the Tides setting regularly N.E. and
S.W., at the rate of 14 mile an hour. When examined by the officers of H.M.S. Salamis,
in March, 1877, they were found to be the same.

REMARKS ON THE TIDE TABLE. 291

in which also will be found a full account of the Tides of the River St.
Lawrence, &c., of which a condensed account follows.

(12.) River St. Lawrence.—The flood tide, entering the River St. Law-
cence, proceeds upwards in the wide and deep channel of the estuary, till
it is obstructed by the contracted breadth of the river near Red Island, and
the sudden shallowing of it near this part; from this cause it is prevented
from continuing in its upward course, and in consequence of the quantity
of water here collected not finding a sufficient outlet, it is reverted, and
forms an eddy-flood. The stream of flood, therefore, runs in opposite direc-
tions, on either side of the river. This stream coming from the Eastward,
as it approaches the Northern part of Red Island Bank, runs very strong,
sometimes at a rate of 4 knots, bearing round at this part, and proceeding
in a different direction towards Razade Islands, with a velocity of from
2 to 3 miles per hour, and then proceeds onward with a constant current
downwards, thus adding to the current of water from the river itself, and
increasing its strength. It is strongest inshore, and extends about half-
way over, diminishing in strength towards the middle; and from this
difference in its velocity, and the unequal depth of the river, occasioning
those violent whirls and ripples which occur in its strongest parts.

On the South coasts of that part of the river between Cape Gaspé and
Green Island, there is no upward current from the tides that is available
for navigation; during the floods at spring tides, there is a Westerly
current felt close inshore, the line between the two streams being marked
by strong rippling.

Off Point de Monts there is very little or no stream of flood, excepting
close inshore, and the downward current is constant off that point. The
point diverts the current to the §.5.E., which runs at arate of from 1 to 2
miles an hour, so that it is difficult for a vessel to beat round it with a
Westerly wind.

During the ebb tide the stream runs down on both sides, strongest on
the South, and weakest in the middle of the estuary. On the North shore
it is turned to the Southward by the projecting points at the Bay de Mille
Vaches, Port Bersimis, the Peninsula of Manicougan, and Point de Monts;
this fact is important, and ought to be attended to, as this Southern ten-
dency is increased at these points, by the water brought down by the large
rivers between them.

On the South side the stream of the ebb tide is also increased, by the
efflux of water from the Saguenay River, which, setting with great velocity
across the tail of Red Island Bank, adds to the downward course of the
stream.

At 9 miles below Tadousac, or the Saguenay, is the eddy of the flood,
and the stream on the surface always sets thence downward. Off Tadousac,
the tide ebbs six hours eight minutes. Both streams here run three-
quarters of an hour after high water. At Green Island it ebbs six hours
twenty-four minutes, and flows six hours.

At the Isle aux Coudres it ebbs six hours twenty minutes, and flows six
hours. Here the ebb stream continues an hour and a quarter after low
water, and the flood three-quarters of an hour after high water. Within
the Pillars, off St. Jean, the tide ebbs six hours fifty minutes, and flows

292 REMARKS ON THE TIDE TABLE.

five hours twenty-five minutes. Both streams continue to run an hour
after high and low water by the shore, but they are influenced in duration
by strong winds.

At the Isle of Orleans the stream ebbs seven hours, and flows five hours
twenty minutes. At Quebec it flows four hours forty-five minutes only,
but the ebb runs seven hours and forty minutes.

From Green Island to Quebec the Tides rise irregularly, but very con
siderably. From Coudre to Quebec the water falls 4 feet before the tide
makes down. At the Isle of Coudre, in spring tides, the ebb runs at the
rate of 2 knots; in extraordinary high tides, assisted by winds, the ebb
has here been known to run quite 7 knots, and the flood 6 knots. Between
Apple and Basque Isles, the ebb of the River Saguenay uniting here, it
runs full 7 knots in the spring tides; yet, although the ebb is so strong,
the flood is scarcely perceptible; and below the Isle of Bic there is no
appearance of a flood tide.

(13.) Bay of Fundy.—Off Cape Sable the Tide runs at the rate of 3, and
sometimes 4 miles an hour; and in the Bay of Fundy the Tides are very
rapid, but uncertain both in velocity and direction. Cape d’Or and Cape
Chignecto are high lands, with very steep cliffs and deep water close under
them. The same kind of shore continues to the head of Chignecto Bay,
where very extensive flats of mud and quicksands are left to dry at low
water. Here the Tides come in a bore, rushing in with great rapidity ;
they are known to flow at the Equinoxes from 60 to 70 feet perpendicular;
and it is remarkable that, at the same time, they rise in the Bay Verte,
on the Northern side of the isthmus, only 8 feet.

(14.) Mount Desert Rock.—At Mount Desert Rock the stream of flood
divides to run Eastward and Westward. With the Skuttock Hills about
N.N.E., and within 12 or 15 miles of those of Mount Desert, the flood
stream sets E.N.E., and the ebb W.S.W.; but, at the distance of 27 or 30
miles from the land, the current, in general, sets to the 8.W. and more
Westward. From Mount Desert Rock to the Fox Islands, at the entrance
of the Bay of Penobscot, the flood stream sets W.S.W. along shore; but it
nevertheless runs up to the Northward into Isle Haute Bay, &c.

(15.) Nantucket, &c.—Off this island and its vicinity is that remarkable
but dangerous collection of shoals, which are so well known to all who
navigate these waters. Their form and situation, and also the peculiarities
of the Cape Cod Peninsula, lead to the inference that these characteristics
are owing to some singular effect of the Tides and Currents. This subject
has been partially investigated by the United States Coast Survey.

‘The region about Nantucket and Martha’s Vineyard is the dividing
space between the cotidal hours of xii. and xv., and in this locality the
combination of two apparently distinct tide-waves is observed. This com-
bination presents the most singular forms, giving at times four high tides -
in one day near the junction of Nantucket and Martha’s Vineyard Sounds,
and distorting the tide-wave generally, not only in these sounds, but also
on the open sea-coast of Nantucket and Martha’s Vineyard and Islands,
and in Muskeget Channel. The great disturbance of the ocean level thus
produced gives rise to those remarkable currents so peculiar to this neigh-

b ourhood, and so disastrous to commerce.”

REMARKS ON THE TIDE TABLE. 293

(16.) Florida, &c.—Near Kay West, on the Florida Reef, the Tides are,
in some measure, regular within the reef; the flood setting to the West-
ward, and the ebb contrary. To the Westward, between the Tortugas and
Cayo Marques, the flood sets variably through to the Northward, and the
ebb to the E.S.H.

It is remarkable that, on the South side of these kays, the flood comes
from the South-Hastward; but on the North side of them, all the way
from Kay West, the flood runs to the Hastward, along the edge of the
bank, and to the Southward, through the little channels, in order to fill
up the intermediate bays and lagoons, with the assistance of the flood
from the Southward.

Westward of Kay West there is a general current to the South-West-
ward, along the reef, and to some distance to the South side of it.

In Chatham Bay it runs tide and half-tide ; viz., three hours flood, then
three hours ebb ; next nine hours flood, &. Here, in some places, it is a
mere fall; but in some of the channels it is as much as four men can do
to stem the current with a boat.

During a S.E. gale or storm, the water in the bays and rivers of West
Florida has been known to rise 7 feet perpendicular, and vessels of burden
_ have been driven in among the pine trees, at some distance from shore.

From Cape Roman, Northward and Westward, the tide seems to ebb
and flow only once in the twenty-four hours; but it is irregular, and much
governed by the winds. Yet the effects in a dry season are very perceptible
in the rivers at a distance from the sea.

(17.) Bahamas, &c.—Although at the Bahamas the rise and fall are
inconsiderable, the tide of flood sets an indraught on the Northern part of
the Little Bahama Bank from every point of the compass, which renders
an approach very dangerous. The tide sets with some force directly on
and off the Western side of the Grand Bank of Bahama, particularly at
the full and change of the moon. It is high water at half-past seven or
thereabout, and the rise is 3 or 4 feet. On the Middle Ground of this bank
the tides set in every direction.

In Providence N.W. Channel the current runs generally to the Eastward,
about 2 miles an hour.

Near Egg Island, to the N.W. of Eleuthera, it is, however, uncertain,
and great attention should be paid to the lead. In the passage within
ligg Island the tide runs at the rate of 4 miles, and rises about 4 feet, the
flood setting Eastward, and strongly over the reefs.

About the Berry Islands and Providence the water rises 2 feet higher
when the sun comes to the Northward of the Line, than it does when the
sun is to the Southward, and its strength is in a similar proportion. Here
and at the Bemini Isles the flood sets to the N.H.

fe ( 294 )

III —THE CURRENTS.

(286.) General Remarks.—A Current is to be understood as a stream
on, or a particular set in the direction of, the surface of the sea, occa-
sioned by Winds and other impulses, exclusive of (but which may be
influenced by) the causes of the Tides. It is an observation of Dampier,
that Currents are scarcely ever felt but at sea, and Tides only upon the
coasts ; and it certainly is an established fact that Currents prevail mostly
in those parts where the Tides are weak and scarcely perceptible, or where
the sea, apparently little influenced by the causes of the Tides, is disposed
to a quiescent state. This will be obvious by an attentive consideration
of the following descriptions. The necessity of attention to the silent,
imperceptible, and therefore dangerous operation of Currents, will be
equally apparent.

(237.) The usual method of estimating the existence, direction, and
velocity of a Current, is the comparison between the observed position of
a ship and that obtained by dead-reckoning. It may be as well to observe
in the outset, that this method of observation involves some amount of
fallacy, as a Current will be the general receiver of all errors or imper-
fections of observation, and beyond doubt the strength of Currents hag
been frequently exaggerated from this very cause. Now, as the latitude
is attained far more easily and accurately than the longitude, it follows
that this exaggeration has been chiefly shown in those Currents supposed
to move to East and West. Still, by combining a large number of obser-
vations, we may safely conclude that they will neutralize each other’s
errors, and afford something like an accurate conclusion.

(238.) An excellent repository of a vast number of early Current obser-
vations is found in the elaborate charts of Major Rennell, a great mine for
facts in surface Current theory. Commander Maury’s charts, and the more
recent ones of our own and other Meteorological Offices, likewise afford a
great addition to our stock of knowledge. This is also increased by
numerous detached observations scattered through many works. All these,
as far as attainable, were integrated at a great expenditure of labour, in
the Chart of the North Atlantic Ocean, published by Mr. Laurie, which
this work particularly elucidates.

(239.) But since that chart was constructed, a much more extensive
series of observations has been incorporated with those just named, in a
set of charts, one for each month of the year, published by the Meteorolo-
gical Office in 1872. They were contained in the first 800 registers col-
lected by that office, and were reduced by Mr. R. Strachan. In addition
to these registers, the whole of the available data in Rennell’s and Maury’s
charts were integrated with them, and thus gave a far more perfect view
of the Atlantic Currents, between the Equator and 40° N., and from the
African coast to the Gulf of Mexico, than was before attainable. A portion
of the information then collected was shown by Admiral FitzRoy, in 1859,
on the Wind Charts published by the Meteorological Department, which

face page 295

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THE CURRENTS. 295

showed the phenomena for the months of February, May, August, and
November, being the middle month of each seasonal quarter.

The discussion and integration of Current observations involve a great
amount of tedious labour, and there is no question but that the data used
by Rennell and others required much revision, as each succeeding and
better estimate gives a lower rate of progress to the movement of the
surface waters, though previous discussions as to their nature have been
confirmed. In the remarks on the Meteorological Office Current Charts,
Mr. R. H. Scott, the Director, says:—The number of observations em-
ployed in the construction of the General Chart exceeded 7,500, each of
which took 24 hours to make, so that some idea may be formed of the
length of time required to accumulate them, and the great difficulty which
is experienced in collecting information about Currents.

(240.) In this book, limited as it necessarily is to generalities, space
could not be afforded to give the introduction of these Monthly Charts,
but in the subsequent descriptions of each branch of Ocean Circulation in
the North Atlantic we shall add the notes which elucidate the Current
Charts, and which were also drawn up by Mr. R. Strachan.

In pursuing these calculations, it was found that in many localities the
Currents were represented as most devious and erratic, frequently of great
strength, and yet, on a mean, showing that there was no continued set of
the waters in any special direction. The diagrams of the direction of the
Wind at the Liverpool Observatory (page 203), in their more complicated
parts, give a good notion of their motions, as their paths, when traced,
resemble each other much. In other parts, as in the great Equatorial
Current, the motion, as estimated, is remarkably uniform, and this demon-
strates that these observations generally are entitled to confidence.

(241.) In founding any theories of circulation or movement of the ocean
waters upon the basis of the (acknowledged to be) imperfect observations
used by Major Rennell, it may be objected that many of them are now old,
and therefore still less trustworthy. To this it may be replied, that they
were mostly taken in wooden ships (with very little iron in them to affect
the compasses) by careful navigators, in an age when great pains were taken
with the dead-reckoning. A doubt may very fairly be expressed whether
the observations of an equal number of modern ships would give as trust-
worthy results; their greater speed, and less attention to D.R., more refined
astronomy superseding it ; and errors in the compass owing to the iron
used in the construction or cargo of the modern ship, all tend to give con-
fidence in these old observations.

(242.) There is one general result in discussing any large number or
collection of Current observations. They show that the surface water
moves at a much lower velocity than has been attributed to Current motion
generally. Perhaps this may in some degree arise from the fact that only
those of remarkable strength have been selected, without properly taking
into account the greater number of observations which would give a much
more moderate rate.

(243.) Bottles—It has heen a well-known practice for many years to
send these floating messengers as indicators of Currents. In 1843, Captain
A. B. Becher, R.N., drew up a very interesting chart of the North Atlantic

296 THE CURRENTS.

with the points of ‘‘despatch and arrival” of a very large number of these
Current Bottles. The practice and the accuracy of the teaching of these
Bottles led to a long controversy, which, however, did not tend to over-
turn their authority, so it need not be longer adverted to here, than to say
that the principal objection to them was, that they were rather impelled
by the prevailing Wind than drifted in the Current. But this is also a
demonstration of what can be otherwise proved, that the Winds and sur-
face Currents of the Atlantic and other Oceans obey the same laws, and
move very much in the same circuits. These Bottles, then, will form an
important part of the subsequent demonstrations of the direction and rate
of Currents. Captain Becher’s chart bears intrinsic evidence of its trust-
worthy character, as in each region the Bottles obey precisely the law
which would, 4 priori, be laid down for them.

In July, 1891, the United States Hydrographic Office published a chart
showing the tracks of a large number of Current Bottles* and Floats which
had been recorded during recent years. This, also, confirms the accepted
theory of the circulation of the Ocean.

(244.) Prince Albert of Monaco, assisted by Professor Pouchet, and a grant
from the Paris Municipal Council, during the years 1885, 1886, and 1887,
made a series of current experiments on board his sailing yacht Hirondelie,
the results of which he communicated to the Paris Academy of Sciences,
who published them in the ‘“‘Comptes Rendus.”” He also furnished a
resumé of them to the meeting of the British Association, at Edinburgh,
in 1892, published in the ‘‘ Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society,”
September, 1892.+

The floats used were casks, pence globes, and bottles, weed to pre-
vent their being acted on by wind, and containing the usual document.
In 1885, floats Tenia 169 were launched along a line of 170 miles in
a N. 14° W. direction from a position 110 miles N.W. of Corvo, Azores.
In the next year, 510 floats were launched nearly along the meridian of
17° 40' W., between lat. 42° 34’ and 50° N. In 1887, floats numbering
931 were launched along a line from the Azores to the Banks of Newfound-
land, and 63 others in mid-Atlantic, between the Banks and the coast of
Treland.

Of these floats, 227 had come to hand again, and their tracks, as shown
on the chart drawn up by the Prince, appear to confirm the usual theory
of the North Atlantic Currents. From them he concludes that the mean
daily velocity of the Ocean currents is as follows :—The region comprised
between the Azores, Ireland, and Norway, 3°97 miles ; between the Azores,
France, Portugal, and the Canaries, 5:18 miles; from the Canaries to the
West Indies, the Bahamas, and even to Bermuda, it attains a daily speed
of 10:11 miles; and in the Eastern portion of the arc, which extends from
Bermuda to the Azores, it falls again to 6°42 miles. The mean velocity
which the combined results give for the surface circulation of the North
Atlantic Ocean is 4°48 nautical miles in twenty-four hours.

* Bottles used far this purpose should be painted some conspicuous colour, weighted
$9 43 to keep the corks out of the water, and securely sealed.

¢ Professor Pouchat published his observations in a book entitled “Courants de
)’ Atlantique,”

face page 297.

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GENERAL DESCRIPTION. 297

It is apparent that circulation is more active on the Western semicircle
of the vortex than on the Eastern one; and this is explained by the com-
bined action of various causes, as the Trade Winds, the Equatorial Currents,
and the Gulf Stream, also the powerful evaporation which in the Tropics
stimulates the circulation of the waters.

The accompanying diagram shows graphically the drift of some of the
more remarkable Bottles, Derelicts, &c., recorded in the U.S. Pilot Charts.

(245.) It may be observed that this section deals chiefly with the Surface
Currents of the North Atlantic Ocean, as that is the only feature which
affects navigation. But this superficial action is not the only point to be
considered in relation to Ocean Currents, as it will not explain many
phenomena known to exist.e The researches carried on in H.M. Ships
Inghtning and Porcupine, in 1868—1870, and Challenger, 1873—1876,
under the superintendence of Dr. Carpenter, Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys, F.R.S.,
and Professor Wyville Thomson, LL.D., F.R.S., together with the more
recent explorations carried out by government and private vessels of our
own and various other nations, have thrown much light on the temperature,
condition, and probable movements of the lower beds of ocean water, which
will be alluded to at the end of this work. Indeed, this may be considered
as a comparatively new branch of terrestrial physics, from which many
most important facts will be derived.

(246.) That the waters of the Ocean do circulate over and intermingle
with every portion of the water-surface of the globe is certain. Its com-
position and character are syerywhere, in every region, almost exactly the
same. This universality of character can only be accounted for by infer-
ring that the Ocean waiters are continually being intermingled, as is the
case with the atmosphere, before described (2), page 98.

It may be objected thst the specific gravity of the surface water varies
considerably in different regions, and that it is therefore an argument
against this intermingling of the sea-waters. But it will be found that
there are local causes which affect the saltness of the surface water. In
the Arctic regions, where it is frequently found of great density, or in-
creased saltness, it is doubtless caused by the formation of Ice, subtract-
ing the fresh water from the surface. Again, in the Equatorial regions, it
is usually found of low specific gravity, or containing less salt, which may
also be accounted for by the great rain-fall which, by intermingling the
light fresh water with the surface, lowers its density. Very much specula-
tion has been used on this variation in the surface density and on its
dynamic effects, in producing currents and other phenomena.

But it is deferentially urged against this reasoning, that almost all the
experiments made upon the density of the water at any considerable depth
(above 20 or 30 fathoms) show a remarkable uniformity in the density in
all regions, varying within very narrow limits, from 1:024 to 1:028 ata
temperature of 60° F’., as will be shown in a later part of this book; and
that, therefore, the real character of sea-water, below local influences, is
everywhere nearly the same.

But we have remarkable proofs that not only the upper stratum, but also
the whole Ocean to its bed is of one universal character. In recent deep-

IN. Ae Or 39

298 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

sea exploring expeditions, samples of water have been brought up from
the greatest and intermediate depths, and on analysis the components
have been found to be in all cases almost identical, the exception being
that at great depths the proportion of lime is larger. Animal life, also, is
found at great depths, adapted to the great pressure under which it exists.
Dtring the voyage of H.M.S. Bulldog, in the summer of 1860, when nearly
midway between Ireland and Greenland, there were brought up from a
depth of 1,260 fathoms, or nearly 14 statute mile, several live starfish, which
had clasped their slender arms round that part of the sounding line which
lay on the bottom. Now, as the process of winding this line in would
occupy upwards of an hour, had the water varied in character even in a
slight degree, they would have loosened their hold and died.

It is needless to pursue this subject further now. It will be found more
amplified hereafter, when the question of the Depth of the Atlantic is dis-
cussed. It is only here cited in order that should the mariner in the course
of his voyage be able, from his own observations, to add to our knowledge
of this subject, it will afford him great interest, and be beneficial to the
rest of the world.

(247.) The subject of the Temperature of the Ocean will also be treated
of specially hereafter. It is of importance in some localities, as it will
indicate the changing from one Current to another, as from the Gulf Stream
into the cold Arctic Current within it, or the reverse. It was formerly
thought that a decrease of temperature was a sure indication of approach-
ing shoal water, and its study was therefore inculcated as a precautionary
measure. This point, however, has been shown to be in general fallacious.
It arose from the fact that vessels crossing the Gulf Stream, or attaining
soundings on the American coast, experienced a very sudden decrease of
heat in the water. This is now accounted for in a very different way;
therefore this topic is not of so much importance in the practice of navi-
gation as it was formerly thought to be.

(248.) Leaving for future Sections (those on the Gulf Stream, and on the
Depth, Temperature, and Circulation of the Ocean) the remarks on the
origin and causes of Ocean Currents, it may be here briefly remarked that
the action of the Wind seems to be a main cause of the general swrface
circulation. Doubtless there are several other forces which combine with
or help to neutralize the action of the Wind, such as the Tidal Wave, the
rotation of the earth, the differing effects of Temperature, of Specific
Gravity on the surface, and of the very difficult subject of wave-action,
which should be taken into consideration. But the tiny ripple raised by a
breath of air on the surface of still water, enlarged by accumulation into
an oscillating wave by a more powerful wind, may be driven forward into
a wave of translation, and thus the Wind becomes the real origin of a
Drift and finally a Stream Current, which may be satisfactorily traced over
a great portion of the Ocean surface.

(249.) There are many evidences that the general surface Currents,
which alone control a ship’s movements, have but very little depth. A very
few fathoms below the surface their velocity and power become much
decreased, and it is more than probable that at a moderate depth, com-
pared with the dimensions which have been usually attributed to them,

GENERAL DESCRIPTION. 299

they cease altogether, or become imperceptible to ordinary means of
measurement. This has been found to be eminently the case in the expe-
rience gained in laying submarine telegraph cables. If the motion of the
surface water were continued to any great depth, or if there were change-
able and varying sub-surface streams, it would very greatly interfere with
the success of these enterprises, but no such obstacles have shown them-
selves to be of any magnitude.

(250.) Of Currents there are two distinctions :—1. The Drift Current ;
2. The Stream Current.

The Drift, or Drift Current, is the mere effect of a constant or very pre-
valent Wind on the surface water, impelling it to leeward until it meets
with some obstacle which stops it, and occasions an accumulation and
consequent Stream of Current. It matters not whether the obstacle be
land or banks, or a Stream of Current already formed. The Drift Current
is generally shallow, and at a mean, perhaps, of no more than half a mile
an hour, when the wind is constant and a good breeze. Such a Current,
from a predominance of Westerly winds, occupies the Northern region of
the North Atlantic, from the N.W. and West to the E.N.E. and S.E.;
and such, likewise, is that occupying the central portion of the Ocean under
the influence of the Trade Winds.

The Stream Current is formed by the accumulated waters of a Drift
Current. It is more limited, but it may be of any bulk, or depth, or
velocity. Of such is the temporary stream setting at times from the Bay
of Biscay to the West of Ireland ; and of such is the Gulf Stream, setting
from the Mexican Sea to the Banks of Newfoundland, and terminating to
the West of the Azores.

In some parts the Current is compounded of Drift and Stream; for a
Stream, already formed, may pass through the region of a prevalent wind,
in a direction according with that of its Drift Current, and receive an
acceleration of motion from it accordingly. Of such are the Equatorial
Currents, which will be presently noticed.

(251.) The illustrative chart at the commencement of this section, page
295, will best explain the general Current system of the North Atlantic
Ocean. Although this gives the mean of all observations throughout the
year, and therefore would require considerable modification in various
parts, if it were made to show what is to be expected at any special time
or season, yet it will correctly represent that circulatory system which is
found to be common to all the Oceans.

There appear to be two gyrations of the water of the North Atlantic
Ocean. Around a central area, crossed by the parallel of 30° N. latitude,
and termed the Sargasso Sea, the whole of the water between lat. 10° N.
and 42° or 43° N., limits varying with the seasons, revolves against the
apparent course of the sun. To the North of this, a portion of the water
is deflected to the N.E., and revolves around some point not very far from
Iceland, though some have considered that, after circulating around the
Arctic basin, it re-enters the area on the West.

As the meteorological Equator, or the division between the phenomena
of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, lies to the North of the
terrestrial Equator, we find that a reverse current, of varying magnitude

300 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

and force, runs from West to Hast on this division, or from 2° or 3° to
8° N., across the whole breadth of the Ocean, and along the African coast ;
while, to the South of it, the Westerly Current of the South Atlantic runs
across the Ocean and along the Northern face of the South American
continent, a portion thus entering the Northern circulatory system.

There is then some difficulty in assigning a separate designation for each
part of what is almost a continuous stream, and in former times when the .
subject was much less understood, some inappropriate terms were applied
to various portions, and have become recognized and followed throughout.
For the present, therefore, we are compelled to use a somewhat confused
nomenclature, but it will be sufficiently explanatory till a general revision
of the science may impose a new terminology.

As before stated, the charts drawn up by Mr. R. Strachan, for the
Meteorological Office, will be considered as the ground-work of this section,
but with some modifications of the nomenclature used.

(252.) Of the Current regions of the North Atlantic Ocean, the first in
order, from the Land’s End of England, is Rennell’s Current, a temporary
but extensive stream, which sets at times from the Bay of Biscay to the
Westward and N.W., athwart the entrance of the English and St. George’s
Channels, and to the Westward of Cape Clear.

Second.—The Easterly and S.H. Currents to the coasts of Hurope and
Africa, and Southerly to the coast of Guinea, where it may be termed the
North African Current, flowing to the Westward of South, and merging
into the Westerly Drift.*

Third.—The Guinea Current, an Easterly stream across the Atlantic,
between 5° and 8° N., and continuing along the coast of Africa, into the
Bights of Benin and Biafra.t

Fourth.—The Sargasso Sea, or central area between the Azores, Canaries,
and Bermudas, &c., in which it seems that there is no particular drift or
very various and nee currents, and it is covered with the well-known
Sargasso or Gulf-Weed.

Fifth.—The North and South Equatorial Currents, the vast streams
caused by the Trade Winds. That of the N.H. Trade, running from
between the Tropic and Cape Verde, on the Hastern side, towards the
Caribbee Islands, having a general Westward tendency; and that from
the S.E. Trade, which is usually found to the North of the Equator, pass-
ing strongly to the Westward, South of the counter or Hasterly Guinea

* This Southern set along the coast of Portugal and N.W. Africa is a faint converse
of the Gulf Stream on the opposite side of the circulatory system. The Northern portion
of it was termed by Rennell the North Atlantic Current, as trending from the termina-
tion of the Gulf Stream to the coasts of Europe, &c. (Investigation, &c., page 53). In
the Meteorological Office Work, 1872, it is called the North African Current. For the
present, the name which has been applied in former editions of this work is provisionally
retained.

+ Since it has been established that this Guinea Current has a different origin and
character to that assigned it by Rennell and others, who argued that it was a continua-
tion of the North African Current, the term in some degree is a misnomer. It is an
Equatorial Cownter-Current, which is found in some seasons to run across all Oceans,
This origin was first intimated by the author in 1853.

RENNELL’S CURRENT. 301

Current, and then strongly to the W.N.W. along the Guayana and Colom-
bian coasts, part joining the N.E. Trade Wind Current Northward of
Tobago.

Sixth.—The Currents of the Colombian or Caribbean Sea, a continuation
of the Great Equatorial Streams into the Mexican Sea, from the South-
Eastward and Hastward.

Seventh.—The Gulf Stream, an outset from the Mexican Sea, setting
thence to the North-Hastward, through the Strait of Florida, and thence
Eastward toward the Newfoundland Banks, &e.

Highth.—The North-East Drift, which passes over the Eastern side of
the Atlantic, from the area East and South of the Newfoundland Banks
towards and past the N.W. Coast of Europe and into the Arctic Basin.

Ninth.—The Arctic or Labrador Current, passing Southwards from
Davis Strait down the coast of Labrador, round Newfoundland, and
thence South-Westward past Nova Scotia and the coast of the United
States inside the Gulf Stream.

In explaining this subject, we shall endeavour, in the first place, to
establish the facts which prove the existence of these Currents, and then
attempt to deduce the causes, according to the given description.

(253.) Masters of vessels are sometimes disappointed in not finding the
expected set and velocity of the normal Currents. At times the set may
be directly opposite to that looked for, or no Current at all may be found,
even in the area traversed by the Gulf Stream ; but these irregularities
are usually of short duration, being due to abnormal meteorological con-
ditions and other causes.

-1.—RENNELL’S CURRENT.

(254.) In the Bay of Biscay, the prevalence of N.W., West, and S.W.
winds causes a heavy swell and considerable current, needing due con-
sideration. The waters of this gulf have a vast gyratory movement, irre-
gular in outline, and variable in velocity, on account of the considerable
effect of different winds. The S.H. current, setting on to the N.W. point
of the Spanish peninsula, is divided there into two branches, one setting
South along the Portuguese coast, and then turning to the Eastward about
Cape St. Vincent; the other setting East along the North coast of Spain,
and North along the West coast of France, where it is 15 or 20 miles
across, and is felt at 30 or 40 miles off shore: it becomes wider as it pro-
ceeds Northward, and is probably joined at times by the streams from the
rivers of France. On the parallel of about 48° 20’ N. it is about 80 miles
across, and the set, following the coast line, is nearly W.N.W., passing 15
or 20 miles from Ushant and across the entrance to the English Channel,
where it is called Rennell’s Current. The commotion of the waters at the
time of the flood tide in the Channel, all along the line of separation, has

302 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURREWTS.

undoubtedly given rise to most, if not to all, the reports, formerly quite
frequent, of rocks and broken water in this vicinity. It is hardly necessary
to add that all search for such dangers has been unavailing.

The currents on the N.E. extremity of Spain, about Corufia, where the
Eastward drift is separated into two branches by the projection of the land,
are generally governed by the winds. The coast is thus dangerous in those
which come from North to West, and where they are light and the sea
heavy it is best to keep well off shore, otherwise the outer rocks may be
passed at 2 miles distance.

To the Eastward of Cape Ortegal, and at a considerable distance from
shore, but at what distance cannot be well defined, the Easterly or N.E.
current is constant, and it also runs with great velocity, quite overpower-
ing the effect of the tide. With N.E. winds, but not with others, this
Easterly drift is found close inshore. The current very rarely runs to the
Westward.

The drifts are more sensible to the East of Cape Penas than to the
West. They generally run to W.N.W. in the summer, and to Hast and
E.N.E. constantly in the winter. A strong Easterly current is a sure pre-
monitor of a N.E. gale.

On the Biscayan coast the drift is to the Kast during the winter season,
impelled by the constant S.W. and N.W. winds.

The current frequently attains a rate of more than 3 miles an hour, when
a strong gale from N.W. has occurred. A strong Easterly current during
calm and serene weather is generally the precursor or indication of a gale.
or squall from N.W. From the same cause a very high tide may be
looked for in all the harbours.

In summer the current often runs to West and W.N.W., but with little
velocity, so that it may be taken almost as a general rule that the current
is constantly to the Hast at a certain distance off the land, as before stated.

The farther you proceed up the Bay of Biscay towards Bayonne, the
currents increase in strength, and turn to N.H. and North up the coast of
France. Their rate is much increased by a N.W. gale, when they attain
a velocity of 4 miles, and sometimes more than 5 miles an hour, accord-
ing to the local seamen. The rapid drift of this Northerly current during
winter gales, which always blow from $.W., will explain how the innu-
merable wrecks occur on the banks off Arcachon and Cape Breton.

(255.) Rennell’s Current, which is occasionally of considerable breadth
and strength, frequently sets athwart the entrances of the English and
St. George’s Channels to the N.W. and W.N.W., at some distance to the
Westward of the Isles of Ushant and Scilly. As it apparently depends
on temporary circumstances, it is considered as a temporary stream ; and,
although a certain quantity of Northerly indraughtis always to be allowed
for, with the tide of flood, on approaching the Scilly Islands, on the Ocean
the Current, unless with particular winds, will be scarcely, if at all, per-
ceptible.

The general causes of Currents, so far as they depend upon the state of
the Winds, &c., are generally known to seamen; and that a long-continued
wind, in one particular direction, will either produce a stream where no
obstruction exists, or cause an accumulation of the water against an

RENNELL’S CURRENT. 303

opposing coast, until a reverberation takes place, needs no demonstration.
The latter appears to be the case in the present instanee. A long and
continual prevalence of Westerly and South-Westerly winds, in combina-
tion with a current that commonly sets into the Southern part of the
Bay of Biscay, occasions an accumulation of water in the Bay, which seeks
an escape, by setting to the N.W. or W.N.W.

It would be very difficult to understand that the great preponderance
of winds from the Westward of North and South, which prevail in the
latitudes off Cape Finisterre, should not have some effect in forcing the
water toward the coast ; and, if so, what can become of it, unless it forms
some Current, which we should very naturally expect to find would follow
the trend of the coast against which it is propelled.

That such a Current does actually prevail is too well known to be doubted.
Mr. Kelly, the author of a treatise on Navigation, in two volumes, pub-
lished in 1733, gave a particular instance of it (Vol. i., page 434); by
which he shows that a ship becalmed with her sails furled for forty-eight
hours, was in that time carried by the current 46 miles to the Northward;
and we have many subsequent examples of vessels which have been set,
by the,course of the stream, to the Northward, or upon the rocks, of Scilly.
But the writer to whom we are more particularly indebted for an elucida-
tion of the subject, is the late Major RENNELL,* who gave an illustration
of it, which placed it beyond all controversy ; and from whose paper, pub-
lished in the ‘‘ Philosophical Transactions” of the year 1793, we extract
the following observations :—

‘Tn crossing the Eastern part of the Atlantic, the Hector, Kast India ship,

* From the name of this gentleman, the Current is now generally denominated
RENNELL’s CURRENT. The Currents of the Ocean appear to have attracted the atten-
tion of Major Rennell at an early period, and they continued to occupy his attention
until the last ebb of his honourable life. The results appeared before the world in five
large charts, with a descriptive volume, dedicated to his Majesty King William the
Fourth, under the editorship of Mr. John Purdy, the original author of this volume.

The Major’s first Chart and Remarks on the Agulhas or South African Current
appeared in the year 1778, and the important pamphlet on the Scilly or ’thwart Channel
Current, in the year 1793. In the meantime, and subsequently, some cursory remarks
on the same subject were introduced in the ‘Illustration of the Geography of Herc-
dotus,’”’ the Philosophical Journals, &c. In or about the year 1810, on the suggestion of
a friend (Mr. Purdy), who expressed a wish to see all his writings on this subject com-
bined and republished, he commenced his Cwrrent Charts of the Atlantie Ocean, and col-
lected from the journals of his numerous friends a gleaning of information which, at
length, from repeated accumulations, presented a most beautiful and singular instance
of successful perseverance, on a subject never before attempted upon a plan so compre-
hensive. To an ordinary mind such a topic would have been regarded as dull, unin-
viting, and impracticable ; by the author it was appreciated according to its importance
and usefulness to mankind, and he treated it accordingly. He had long lamented the
general ignorance prevalent on this subject, and which had, from time to time, produced
so much loss of lifeand treasure, especially in relation to his native country. It is true
that, in later times, practice and experience had taught the mariner, in many cases,
how to shape his course to the best advantage ; but still he was deficient in theory, and
knew not the rationale, the why and wherefore, of the courses which he adopted, and the
variations which might be most advantageously made in his outward or homeward
passages, according to the fluctuations of season and circumstances. Such knowledge
is now, in a great measure, supplied.

304 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

Captain Williams, in 1788, encountered, between the parallels of 42° and
49°, very strong Westerly gales; but particularly between the 16th and 24th
of January, when, at intervals, it blew with uncommon violence. It varied
two or more points, both to the North and 8.W., but blew longest from
the Northern point; and extended, as subsequently appeared, from the
coast of Nova Scotia to that of Spain.

“Within 60 or 70 leagues of the meridian of Scilly, on the 30th of
January, between the parallels of 49° and 50°, the effect of the Current was
first experienced, which set the ship to the North of her intended parallel,
by nearly half a degree, in the interval between two observations of latitude;
namely, in two days. The wind, ever afterward, prevented the ship from
regaining the parallel; for although the Northern set was trifling, from the
31st until she arrived near Scilly, yet the wind, being scant and light,
never enabled her to overcome the tendency of the Current. It is also to
be observed that the direction of the Current was much more Westerly
than Northerly; the ship crossed it on so very oblique a course as to be
in it a long time, and was driven, as it appears, nearly 90 miles to the
West by it; having soundings in 73 fathoms, in the latitude of Scilly, and
afterwards ran 150 miles by the log, directly East, before she reached the
length of the Islands; running, in effect, 120 miles, and shallowed the
water only 9 fathoms.

«The Current was not only sensible by the observations of latitude, but
by ripplings on the surface of the water, and by the direction of the lead
line. In consequence of all, the ship was driven to the North of Scilly,
and barely able to lay a course through the passage between those islands
and the Land’s End.

“There being no timekeeper on board, the longitude was uncertain ;
but it was concluded that the Current, at times, extends to 180 miles West
of Scilly, and runs close to the West of the islands. The breadth of the
stream, where the Hector crossed over it, was supposed to be about 90
miles.

‘A journal of the Atlas, East India ship, Captain Cooper, furnishes
much clearer proofs, both of the existence of the Current, and the rate of
its motion. This ship, outward bound, in January, 1787, had advanced
55 leagues to the Westward of Ushant, when violent gales began at South,
and for four days continued between that point and W. by 8.; during

Among the names of the contributors to the work on the Currents, that of General
Edward Sabine is conspicuous. In the year 1825, this gentleman published his Account
of Experiments to determine the Figure of the Earth by means of a Pendulum vibrating seconds
in different Latitudes, as well as on various subjects of philosophical enquiry, in which he
refers to the subject of Ocean Currents in the following terms :—

“On a general review of the Currents particularized on the Pheasant's progress (in
1822) in her voyage, commencing at Sierra Leone and terminating at New York, it was
found that she was indebted to their aid, on the balance of the whole account, and in
the direction of her course from port to port, not less than sixteen hundred geographical
miles, the whole distance being nine thousand, affording a very striking exemplification
of the importance of a correct knowledge of the Currents of the Qcean to persons
engaged in its navigation; and, consequently, of the value of the information in the
acquisition ard arrangement of which Major Rennell passed the latter years of his most
useful life.”

RENNELL’S CURRENT. 305

which time the ship was lying-to, with her head N.W. On the fifth day
the wind abated, but was S.W.; stormy weather then ensued for nine
days, the wind blowing from all points between South and §.8.W., but
chiefly, and most violently, from W.S.W. and 8.W.; and when the ship
then proceeded Southward on her voyage, she was, by reckoning, only 23°
of longitude West of Cape Finisterre; but, by timekeepers, more than 44°.

‘On the day the gale commenced, the reckoning was within fourteen
minutes of that by the timekeepers ; the latter beimg more Westerly, owing
to the current. On the third day after, the difference was about twenty-
four minutes, when the ship was 75 miles §.W. from Scilly, in soundings
of 76 fathoms. The ship, in longitude 8° 28’, had entered into the stream;
and, her course being opposite to that of the Hector, it facilitated her pro-
gress, and carried her clear of the S.W. coast of Ireland.

‘« After this, in the course of fifty-one hours, the ship had set two whole
degrees to the Westward of her reckoning ; and in the forty-five hours fol-
lowing, she had a further set of twenty-three minutes; so that, in four days
only, she had been carried by the Current no less than 2° 23'; and, since
the gale began, 2° 32’ of longitude, or 93 nautic miles.

‘“‘ Tt consequently appears that the Atlas experienced a Westerly Current,
from about 72 miles W.S.W. of Scilly, to near 4° of longitude West of the
meridian of Cape Clear, where its effect was imperceptible. It may, there-
fore, be inferred, that the stream goes off to the N.W. in the parallel of
51°; between long. 14° and 15°, and the S.W. coast of Ireland.

‘‘No Northern set is indicated in the journal of the Atlas. This would
have been remarkable, had the weather permitted nice attention to the
reckoning; but it is to be remarked, that observations on the latitude were
not regularly made; and, besides, that the great distance of 36 miles was
allowed for only twenty hours’ drift to the N.W., when the ship was
lying-to.

‘From the nature of this Current it must be obvious that its velocity
will always be proportionate with the strength and direction of the wind,
by which its direction will always be eared and that the middle of the
stream will preserve its original course in a greater degree than its borders.
The direction of this appears to be N.W. by W.; the Eastern border more
North; and the Western more West; so that the Northerly current is
stronger close to the West of Scilly than more to the Westward.

‘‘From the foregoing observations may be deduced the following in-
ferences :—

“1st. That ships, which cross the Current obliquely, steering a true
E. by 8S. course or more Southerly, will continue longer in it, and be more
affected by it, than those which steer more directly across it. In crossing
it with light winds, the effect will be the same. Allowance must be made
for the more Northerly direction of the Eastern edge of the Current.

“9nd. That, after the continuance of Westerly gales, even should a good
observation of latitude be made, it would be imprudent to run Eastward
from the Atlantic during a long night. For a ship might remain in the
Current so long as to be drifted from a parallel, deemed a very safe one, to
that of the Rocks of Scilly. It is, therefore, recommended that vessels, at

N. AO: 40

306 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

such times, should keep, at the highest, 48° 45’, because in 49° 30’ the
whole effect of the current may be experienced in the worst situation. But
from the Current in 48° 45’, a Southerly wind will set the ship into the
Channel. Coming from the Atlantic, it would be still better to make
Ushant.

“3rd. That ships, bound to the Westward from the Channel, with a
South-Westerly wind, so that it may appear indifferent which tack they
go on, should prefer the port tack, as they will then have the benefit of the
Current.”

(256.) In a Supplementary Paper on the effects of Westerly Winds in
raising the level of the English Channel, dated 22nd June, 1809, Major
Rennell stated :—

‘‘ In the observations on a Current that often prevails to the Westward
of Scilly, which I had the honour to lay before the Royal Society many
years ago, I slightly mentioned, as connected with the same subject, the
effects of strong Westerly winds, in raising the level of the English Channel,
and the escape of the superincumbent waters, through the Strait of Dover,
into the then lower level of the North Sea.

‘‘ The fact of the high level of the Channel, during strong winds between
the West and §.W., cannot be doubted; because the increased height of
the tides in the Southern ports, at such times, is obvious to every discern-
ing eye. Indeed, the form of the upper part of the Channel, in particular,
is such as to receive and retain, for a time, the principal part of the water
forced in, as may be seen by the chart; and as a part of this water is con-
tinually escaping by the Strait of Dover, it will produce a Current, which
must greatly disturb the reckonings of such ships as navigate the Strait,
when thick weather prevents the land, or the lights of the Forelands and
the Goodwin, from being seen.

‘There is another circumstance to be taken into the account, which is
that the shore of Boulogne, presenting a direct obstacle to the water im-
pelled by the Westerly winds, will occasion a higher level of the sea there
than elsewhere ; and, of course, a stronger line of the Current toward the
Goodwin.

‘Tt must, therefore, be inferred, that a ship passing the Strait of Dover,
at the back of the Goodwin Sands, during the prevalence of strong West
or S.W. winds, will be carried many miles to the Northward of her reckon-
ing; and, if compelled to depend on it, may be subject to great hazard
from the Goodwins.

‘Tt will be understood, of course, that although the stream of Current
alone has been considered here (in order to simplify the subject), yet that,
in the application of these remarks, the regular Tides must also be taken
into the account. But, from my ignorance of their detail, I can say no more
than that I conceive the great body of the Tide from the Channel must be
subject to much the same laws as the Current itself. The opposite Tide
will, doubtless, occasion various inflections of the Current, as it blends
itself with it—or may absolutely suspend it; and the subject can never be
perfectly understood without a particular attention to the velocity and direc-
tion of the Tides in moderate weather, to serve as a good groundwork.”

(257.) After the publication of the first paper on the Currents of the

RENNEULL’S CURRENT. 307

English Channel, and the supplementary paper immediately preceding,
Major Rennell published some further important observations upon it,
which were read before the Royal Society, April 13th, 1813, and from
which the following extracts are taken :—

‘‘ During the interval of twenty-one years, since the Society did me the
honour to receive my Observations on the Current to the Westward of Scilly,
more facts relating to that Current have been collected, as well as obser-
vations on its effects, in different parts of its course, between Cape Finis-
terre and Scilly, the whole tending to confirmation of the general system
set forth in 1793 ; and, in one instance, affording perhaps a clearer proof
of the strength of the stream, in respect to its Northerly direction, than
any of eco adduced on the former occasion.

‘In pursuing the detail of these facts and observations, I shall noeae in
the neighbourhood of Cape Finisterre, and proceed with the course of the
Current along the Bay of Biscay ; and thence across the mouth of the
English Channel to Scilly, and the entrance of St. George’s Channel.

‘“‘ The first three facts (not detailed here) regard the Current from the
open sea, setting into the South side of the Bay of Biscay, and along the
North coast of Spain ; which Current was supposed, in the former paper,
to be occasioned by the prevalent Westerly winds, which force the water
near the shore into the bay, and along the Southern coast of it. The water
80 displaced would be followed, of course, by the adjacent water behind it,
in the open sea; and so on successively, to a certain extent. This cause
must surely be referred to as the origin of the Scilly Current. The three
facts converge, as it were, to one point; that is, in the proof that the
waters of the Atlantic flow into the Bay of Biscay, along the North coast
of Spain.

‘Tt would seem that the North-Westerly current, by Scilly, did not, at
least in many cases, balance the Easterly current round Cape Ortegal and
the land of Finisterre.* The loss of His Majesty’s frigate Apollo, with most
of her convoy, may surely be attributed to the operation of this Current.
Captain (afterwards Commissioner) Wallace assured me, that after having
made, as he supposed, ample allowance for clearing Finisterre, yet, in the
night, he had a very narrow escape from shipwreck. Very many others
have been brought into the same kind of danger; so that the land of Finis-
terre, were it not discernible at a considerable distance, and its offing clear
of rocks and shallows, and, moreover, situated in a finer climate, would
prove a kind of Scilly to mariners.

“‘T have not been able to obtain any proofs on record concerning the
course of the Current rownd the Bay of Biscay. I formerly collected some
information from a French commander respecting it. He said that the
setting of the Current along the coast of France, to the North and N.W.,
was a fact well understood, and even acted on, by many in the choice of the
tack, on which the Current gave the greatest advantage with head winds.

* Nor, admitting an equal rate in both places, could it well be. For the Current
enters the Bay of Biscay in an Kast direction, but goes off from it V.W.; so that, if a
ship were carried 50 miles to the N.W. from Ushant, she would only have made about
35 miles westing ; but, in the other case, she would be carried tha whole 50 miles East-
ward, toward the Bay and Cape Finisterre.

308 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

“‘ One circumstance, and that a very striking one, in respect to this par-
ticular, is, that the soundings in the Bay of Biscay show little or no muddy
bottom to the Southward of the Gironde Riwer, but everywhere to the
Northward. This seems to show that the mud of the Gironde, Charente,
Loire, &c., &c., is all carried to the Northward ; and by what cause but a
Northerly current? Had the motion of the sea been variable, the mud
would surely have been distributed to the South, as well as to the North,
of the mouth of the Gironde. The alluvial embouchwres of the rivers in
general here, and the positions of the banks formed by them in the sea,
point to the North or N.W.; apparently the effect of the same sea-

current.’’*

(258.) From experiments made by Prince Albert of Monaco, in his
yacht Hirondelle, in the summers of 1885, 1886, 1887, and 1888, with
floats of peculiar construction, he considers that during the summer there
is no current setting East along the North coast of Spain, and thence to
the Northward. On the contrary, his experiments show that the Current
sets §.S.E. into the Bay of Biscay, and then due West along the North
coast of Spain around Cape Finisterre. As before stated, there is no doubt
that this Current largely depends upon the prevailing winds.

(259.) Caution—Great caution is necessary when approaching the
parallel of Cape Finisterre from the Northward, on account of the pro-
bable indraught into the Bay of Biscay, and no favourable opportunity
should be lost for ascertaining the error, if any, of the navigating compass.
Great loss of life and property annually occurs on this coast,+ through

* From a view of the Chart of Soundings between Spain and Ireland, one might be
led to suppose that the deep water and steep shore along the North coast of Spain had
been partly occasioned by the water driven in from the Atlantic, in Westerly storms,
along that coast ; and which had gradually worn away the matter there, and deposited
it on the bank which extends from Bayonne to the Westward of Ireland. For the bank
seems to expand, as it goes Northward, in like manner as the Current; and the water
is shallower than might be expected, in proportion to the depths farther in.

+ During the five years 1888—1892 inclusive, 176 British merchant vessels were
wrecked on the North and West coasts of Spain and Portugal.

Our readers will not fail to remember the loss of H.M.S. Serpent, with only three sur-
vivors out of the crew of 176. She struck at 10.30 p.m., November 10th, 1890, under
Cape Villano, and at once broke up. The finding of the Court Martial which investi-
gated the loss was, that it arose from ‘‘an efror in judgment of those responsible for
the navigation of the ship, in not having shaped a course sufficiently to the Westward.”

In connection with this, it may be stated that H.M.S. Lapwing, on the following
night, unexpectedly made the land near Cape Villano, having previously during the day
ascertained by a momentary glimpse of the sun that the vessel had been set 60 miles
out of her course into the Bay.

Again, early in the morning of February 7th, 1893, the Anchor Line steamer
Trimacria was wrecked in the same locality, from the same cause, with the loss of thirty-
four lives, only seven of the crew and oae passenger being saved by swimming ashore.
The vessel was on the rocks and amidst the breakers almost before those on board had
time to apprehend danger.

Case after case could be recorded, showing that though the dangerous character of
the current hereabout is known, due allowance for it is not always made, in some cases
with fatal resuits. Some further remarks and cautions are given hereafter, in the
Section on Passages, showing that danger might be averted by the use of the deep-sea
lead.

RENNELL’S CURREN®. 309

vessels crossing the Bay, on their course to the Southward, trusting
blindly to the course set to clear all danger, even at night, while the
insidious force of the Easterly Current has set them many miles to the
Eastward of their supposed position. Disasters have occurred here, both
by day and night, to all kinds of vessels, from the small coaster, with its
imperfect appliances, to the British man-of-war with every aid to naviga-
tion at its disposal, and this within the last few years.

Some have considered that these losses might be due to local attraction
of the compass, but numerous observations by officers of the French navy
and others have established the fact that no such irregularity in the devia-
tion exists hereabout.

Captain C. MacMahon, of the Clan Line steamer Clan MacArthur, in
the Standard of March 18th, 1893, remarks :—‘‘ The interest which has
been aroused by the late wrecks about Cape Finisterre and on the coast
of Portugal is, by public inquiry, demanding the cause of these disasters.

“There can be no doubt that the primary cause is bad weather and
overcast sky, when crossing the Bay, preventing commanders of vessels
getting sun or stars to fix their position or correct their compasses by.
The secondary cause is the difference of opinion among nautical men about
the amount of indraught into the Bay caused by the Easterly Atlantic
current and increased’ by Westerly winds and gales. To this is added the
leeway a vessel makes. To get an approximate value of the combined in-
draught and leeway is of the utmost importance. A most favourable
instance occurred with this vessel on her present voyage for testing the
indraught and leeway at its maximum point.

“We left Liverpool on the 16th ult. Until 6 a.m. on the 19th we had
strong Southerly and South-Westerly gales, with high seas, Westerly
swells, and overcast weather. The wind shifted to N.N.W. on the 19th,
so that we got a good position by observation at noon, lat. 44° 24’ N.,
long. 9° 49' W. From this position, a straight line due South true passes
23 miles West of Cape Finisterre (90 miles South) and 12 miles West of
the Burlings. It was blowing a fresh gale at the time, with a high sea and
Westerly swell.

‘“« At 9.32 p.m. on the 19th, Cape Finisterre bore S. 83° E. true, distant
12 miles. I had allowed 8°, or three-quarters of a point, for leeway and
indraught to make a trwe South course. In other words, since noon, in a
90 miles run, with an allowance of three-quarters of a point for all causes,
Twas set towards the land 11 miles, passing Finisterre 12 miles West
instead of 23 miles. This, I think, was a fair test of the maximum in-
draught and leeway about Finisterre.”’

EXPERIMENTS ON RENNELL’S CURRENT.

(260.) Inset into the Bay of Biscay.—A Bottle from the Lady Louisa, bound to
St. Michael’s, in lat. 45°, long. 13° 45’, February 2nd, 1830, was found on the coast
of Lit, in the province of Bayonne, October 14th, in the same year.

Channel Soundings into the Bay.—A Bottle from the brig Hope, from Havannah,
March 81st, 1838, in lat. 50° 10’, long. 9° 43’; wind strong from the Eastward for
three days ; was found on June 1st, 1838, on the coast of Rochefort, having pro-

310 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

bably been first impelled to the S.W. by the ebb tide and prevalent wind, and
thence following the general inset to the South and East.

From Channel Soundings to the West of Scotland.—A Bottle thrown from the
ship Duke of Marlborough, Captain Jeffery, by Mr. George Thom, near the Sole
- Bank, in lat. 48° 38’, long. 9° W., was found on the shore of Carsaig, near the
middle of the South side of the Island of Mull, April 14th, 1821, and made known
by Mr. Hector Maclean. At the time this Bottle was thrown into the sea, the
ship was bound to London from the Cape of Good Hope, and an allowance was
made for Current to the N.W. of 12 miles in the twenty-four hours. From the
spot in which it was dropped, it seems unquestionable that the Bottle was carried
by the Current to the West and North of Ireland, and thence between Islay and
Mull, to the place in which it was found. It, therefore, well answered Mr. Thom’s
purpose of confirming Rennell’s Current.

Bay of Biscay to the North of Scotland.—A Bottle, enclosing a song composed
on board, from the Great Western steamer, on her voyage to New York, at mid-
night of September 10th, 1838, in lat. 48° 3’ N., long. 9° 52’ W., was picked up by
Captain Thornton, of the Ceres, in passing through the Pentland Firth, on the
16th of the same month. It must, therefore, have drifted to the North- Westward
and Northward, off the Western coast of Ireland, and thence to the N.E. and
East, by the general drift from the Greenland Seas.

St. George's Channel.—A Bottle from the ship Osprey, of Glasgow, Alexander
M‘Gill, master, which sailed from Greenock. This Bottle (No. 310) was thrown
into the sea, March 1st, 1822, on the ship’s return from Calcutta, in lat. 49° 54’ N.,
long. 12° 20’ W. It was found on the shore, upon the South side of Milford Haven,
on the 6th of the following month.

Easterly Current to Bristol Channel.—A Bottle from the brig Albert, R. L.
Robertson, master, lat. 47° 20’ N., long. 22° W., January 24th, 1822, on the pas-
sage from Virginia to England, the wind then about W.N.W., and had so pre-
vailed for two or three days. Found in Rockham Bay, about 4 miles West from
Ilfracombe, July 29th, 1822, and attested by the agents to Lloyd's.

Bay of Biscay, North Side—A Bottle thrown from the ship Graham Moore,
July 6th, 1821, in lat. 47° 47’ N., long. 7° 51’ W., was found September 15th, 1821,
on the coast of St. Jean de Mont, arrondissement of Sables d'Olonne, department
of La Vendée ; and made known by the Journal de Paris. This bottle was im-
pelled in an E.S.E. direction, the North- Westerly current not then prevailing, and
was within the influence of the Tide. ”

By Captain Livingston’s Journal, November 28th, 1820, ‘It appears that in
24 hours, ending at noon of yesterday (on the passage from Gibraltar), we made
about 15 miles North by current ; and in 24 hours, ending at noon this day, about
13 miles North, and in the two days rather more than 20’ E. Therefore, about
N. 403° E., 87 miles, in the 48 hours.”

Inset to, and Outset from, the Bay of Biscay.—A Bottle from the Jris, Captain
Skinner, in lat. 47°, long. 21°, September 9th, 1802, was found at the Isle of Skye
(lat. 57° 15’, long. 6° 20’), February 22nd, 1803. (Probably carried into the Bay
on an Eastern direction, subsequently Northward by Rennell’s Current, and thence
by the Eastern Drift to Scotland).

The ship Jessie, Bevan, master, left London for the Bahamas, about November
18th, 1833. She was struck by lightning, and abandoned by her crew, in lat. 45°,
Jong. 14°, and on February 5th, 1834, drove on the Isle de Groiz, near L’Orient,
and was immediately dashed to pieces.

Inset ; Bay of Biscay.—A Bottle from the Carshalton Park, Lieutenant J. Steele
Park, July 27th, 1827, in lat. 48° 39’, long. 10° 24’, was picked up, December 21st,
1827, on the shore of Pembron Road, near the Loire, in the Bay of Biscay, lat.
47° 19', long. 2° 30’ W.

A Eottie from H.M.S. Arrow, in lat. 48° 30’, long. 9° 25’, July 14th, 1838 ; wind

RENNELL’S CURRENT. 311

from S.W. for five days, a fresh gale, and then S.W. Another Bottle from the
Maitland, transport, in lat. 49° 5’, long. 18° 19’, March 10th, 1888. Both found,
on the 25th of February, 1839, on the shore of Arcachon, in the Bay, lat. about
44° 40’ N.

A metal cylinder, cast from H.M.S. Chanticleer, Captain H. T. Austin, May 8rd,
1831, in lat. 44° 383’, long. 11° 4’ W., was found near Vivero, on the North coast:

of Spain, 12th of September following, at about 150 miles from the spot where it
was dropped into the sea. .

A Bottle from the bark Mary, of London, Abyah Locke, master, April 12th,
1832, in lat. 48° 30’, long. 16° 56’, was found on the coast of Jart, lat. 36° 26’,
March 4th, 1833. |

Another Bottle from the same vessel, April 1st, 1832, in lat. 46° 15’, long. 17°58’,
was found near Cape Ferret, 44° 38’, February 21st, 1833.’

A Bottle thrown over from the Wellington, August 23rd, 1837, in lat. 45° 10’ N.,
long. 12° 58’ W., was thrown on the South coast of the Isle of Ré, probably about
the end of February, 1838; found March 2nd, 1838.

Tide Water on Soundings.—A Bottle from the bark Wallace, of Alloa, bound to
Van Dieman’s Land, April 12th, 1835, in lat. 52° 13’, long. 15°, was picked up at
5 miles from Ushant, August 21st, 1835.

A Bottle from the Kent, troop ship, in lat. 50° 20’, long. 19° 0’ W., August 19th,
1836, was picked up near Cape Blancnez, a few miles from Boulogne, December
20th, in the same year.

Bay of Biscay, South Side.—A Bottle from the schooner Morning Star, of Liver-
pool, Captain Andrew Livingston, October 7th, 1821, lat. 42° 45’ 39” N., long.
13° 3’ 21” W., was found about 22 miles to the Northward of Bayonne, lat.
43° 58’ N., long. 1° 20’ W., and made known in the Moniteur of January 24th,
1822.

One of the most singular routes of the kind that we have met with was a Bottle
covered with barnacles, picked up at Mizen Head, on the 8.W. coast of Ireland,
October 19th, 1837. Its enclosed note stated that it was dropped off Cape Horn,
from the Salem, R. Crukers, master, of the United States, in lat. 53° 3’ S., long.
67° 5' W., on June 24th, 1830.

(261.) Velocity.—The daily rate of the inset into the Bay of Biscay, as
estimated from the drift of the Bottles quoted in Captain Becher’s chart,
(243), is as follows :—(The numbers refer to Bottle Chart in the Nautical
Magazine for November, 1852)—No. 2 (drifted 250 miles) 4-8 miles per day;
No. 3 (230 m.) 3°3 m.; No. 3a (270 m.), 455 m.; No. 5 (420 m.), 1:8 m.;
No. 11 (150 m.), 0°7 m.; No. lla (100 m.), 3 m.; No. 16 (200 m.), 1-2 m.;
No. 28 (700 m.), 4-5 m.; No. 28a (700 m.), 2°2 m.; No. 33 (650 m.), 4-1 m.;
No. 37a (680 m.), 2m.; No. 40 (980 m.), 3:1 m. It will be seen that the
longest courses have the quickest rates, so we may suppose that when the
' Bottles become entangled in the shore tides and devious drifts, they do
not travel so fast in direct distance. The mean rate of all these Bottles
is 3:26 miles per day. The rate of those which travel up the English
Channel is very much greater, averaging 11 to 14 miles per day.

The foregoing are the principal arguments and facts from which the
existence of the ‘thwart Channel Current is inferred. That there is some
cause for the drifting of the various vessels, &c., in a Northward and West-
ward direction, there can be no doubt; nor can there. be any doubt that

312 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

the stream varies both in strength and in direction. Without enquiring
into the sufficiency of the cause to produce these effects, or of the correct-
ness af the views promulgated by Major Rennell, the foregoing remarks
have been repeated, as originally given; and here we would add, that they
were formed long before any correct knowledge of the Tides or of the
Tidal Currents was acquired, and also that a very just estimate of the
amount of derangement of the regular Tides, or of the set of the Current
across the mouths of the English and St. George’s Channels, is formed
from his dissertations. The remarkable revolution of the tidal streams at
the entrance of the English Channel, caused by the cross-action of that
wave proceeding up the English Channel with that of the wave coming
Northward, has been well developed in the observations discussed by
Admiral Beechey, as stated on page 285.

2.—THE EASTERLY AND SOUTH-EAST DRIFT-CURRENTS
TO THE COASTS OF EUROPE AND AFRICA.

(262.) The Currents on the shores of the North Atlantic Ocean seem to
have different tendencies to the South and North of the English Channel.
They are certainly very devious and uncertain ; but along the West coast
of Ireland and Scotland, as well as in the offing, the general set is to the
Northward. Off the Southern part of the Bay of Biscay there is a well-
marked Current to the S.E. and Sowthward, not only during those periods
when the Westerly winds have been prevalent, and causing the Rennell’s
Current, last described, but it appears to be constantly met with; and,
\herefore, in sailing Southward from British ports, this tendency of the
waters should be carefully considered, especially when the shores are
neared, for there they run strongest.

(263.) As stated hereafter, this well-marked Current was considered to
be a portion of a stream, which, running to the Southward and Hastward
along the African coast to the Bight of Biafra, was the head of the Guinea
Current. But in a discussion on the general system of Ocean Currents,*
it was shown to be exactly analogous to an Equatorial Counter-Current,
setting from Kast to West, between lats. 5° and 8° or 10° North, across
the entire breadth of the Pacific Ocean. In an examination of the then
existing data, it was found that this well-known Guinea Current was but
an extension of this Cownter-Current, which might then be traced nearly
over to the American coast.

In the much more extensive series of Current observations collected in
the Meteorological Office, and arranged by Mr. R. Strachan, the character
of this Current is fully established in accordance with the views expressed

* On Oceanic Currents, &c., by A. G. Findlay, in the Journal of the Royal Geogra-
phical Society, vol. xxiii., 1853, pages 222, 233, &c.

THE NORTH AFRICAN CURRENT. 313

in 1853. As the charts contained in that work* embrace a much wider
range of observation than was before attainable, we shall quote on this
Current, as on the other branches of the subject, the general remarks based
on the results obtained for each month.

(264.) By a careful calculation of the Currents experienced by the ships
cited in Maury’s and Rennell’s Charts, they appear to set with great regu-
larity, and constantly to the South-Hastward. The experience of eighty-
two ships for the year gives a mean direction and rate of 9:1 miles per day
to BE. 34° S., for the offing of 350 miles off Cape Finisterre and the Northern
part of Portugal. The average of the months is greater than this :—
January, 9°4 miles to 8. 40° E.; February, March, April, 11, 15-9, and
12°8 miles per day to H. 24°8.; May, July, 12°8 and 10 miles per day to
8. 25° E.; August, October, November, 20°2, 10°5, and 16-7 miles per day
to 8.S.E. These, compared with the drift of Bottles, show that the latter
must be affected by surface causes, as their rate of travelling is much less.t
All these observations are integrated on the Chart of the North Atlantic
Ocean, referred to previously.

(265.) We now give the remarks drawn up by Mr. Strachan on this
Current in the work before quoted, first those for the annual mean, and
then for each month in succession.

The North African Current.—lIf a line be traced from the Azores to
Madeira, and thence to the African coast, in lat. 28° N. (Canary Islands),
it will be seen that to the Northward, as far as lat. 40° N., the average
general direction of the Current is to the S.H., at from 3 to 12 miles a day,
the rate being strongest between long. 10° and 15° W. Hastward of the
10th meridian the direction becomes more Hasterly toward the Straits of
Gibraltar, but counter-currents have been experienced off the coasts of
Spain and Morocco. It is to be noticed that the resultant rate close to the
coast of Portugal is only 1:4 mile a day, arising from the variation in
direction of the observations here. South of Madeira the Current, between
the coast and the 20th meridian, turns to the South, and then to S.S.W.,
down to lat. 10° N., its rates ranging from 3 to 13 miles per day. Between
the meridians of 10° and 20° W., and the parallels of 30° and 10° N., this
Current appears to slough off to the $.S.W., S.W., W.S.W., and finally
merges with the Westerly drift of the North Equatorial Current about the
meridian of 20° W., the rate being about 6 to 9 miles a day.

On the whole it does not appear that the waters of the North African
Current mingle to a great extent with those of the Guinea Current. On
the contrary, it would seem that they are finally forced towards the West
by the superior strength of the Guinea Current. Even the portion of the
Current which passes Eastward of the Cape Verde Islands does not appear

* Currents and Surface Temperature of the North Atlantic Ocean, from the Equator
to lat. 40° N., for each month of the year.

+ Beane the set of the Current by Captain Becher’s Bottle Chart, mentioned
on page 295, we get the following :—Bottle No. 7 (drift 500 miles), 3-2 miles per day;
No. 8, the carcase of a dead whale (220 miles), 8 miles; No. 9 (300 miles), 12 miles;
No. 13 (250 miles), 4-1 miles; No. 18 (1,000 miles), 3 miles; No. 136 (550 miles),
5-5 miles per day, giving an average of nearly 6 miles per day.

NVA. O: 41

314 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

in general to mingle with the Guinea Current. The general tendency
Northward, which the Guinea Current exhibits off Sierra Leone, must lead
rather to the inference that some of the water of this Current finds its way
into the Westerly Drift (North Equatorial Current), mingling with the
receding North African Current about lat. 10° N.

Off the African coast, from 10° to 17° N., the Current is a variable one,
at times setting to the Northward, fed by the Guinea Current, but more
frequently to the Southward, fed by the North African Current. Here,
therefore, the general rate comes out low, being from 3 to 6 miles, though
the seasonal rates are much higher. Among the Cape Verde Islands the
rate is also extremely trifling, and this is probably accounted for by the
effect of tides upon a ship’s course near the land, as sets in various direc-
tions have been reported here.

January.—The North African Current, flowing to the Southward between
Portugal and long. 18° W., acquires an Easterly tendency towards the
Mediterranean Sea. After passing Madeira, it flows to the Westward of
South, extending to long. 25° W. in the latitude of the Cape Verde Islands,
where it merges into the Westerly Drift. The portion which passes between
these islands and the continent merges into the Guinea Current about
lat. 10° N. The daily rate of this Current is from 6 to 18 miles.

February.—The North African Current, between the parallels of 40° and
30° N., extends from the coast to long. 18° W. Here it appears to be fed
by a drift from the W.N.W., which is traceable to long. 35° W., anda
tendency towards the Mediterranean is apparent. The daily rate is from
9 to 22 miles. Southward, to the 20th parallel, observations are deficient,
but between 20° and 10° N. the Current, though very feeble, is still per-
- ceptible. Eastward of the Cape Verde Islands it tends towards the land
while drifting onward to join the Guinea Current in lat. 10° N. Westward
of these islands it soon becomes lost in the Westerly Drift. From the
20th to the 5th degrees of latitude the rate of this Current varies from 8
to 19 miles per day.

March.—The North African Current does not appear to have a decided
Southerly set near the land as much as along the 20th meridian, where it
travels 20 or 30 miles a day abreast Cape Verde. The Easterly tendency
towards the Mediterranean is well marked at from 7 to 20 miles per day.
To the North of the Canary Islands there is evidence of a counter Westerly
set at the rate of 10 to 14 miles. From lat. 15° N., long. 20° W., to 5° N.,
15° W., a North-Westerly set has at times been experienced of 17 to 23
miles daily, considerably stronger than the South-Hasterly sets, which are
reported there in this month. From 20° to 10° N., and 25° to 27° W,, the
Currents appear to be uncertain, but to the Westward the Westerly Drift
seems established.

April.—The North African Current exhibits more decided southing than
in March, but the inset to the Mediterranean is scarcely perceptible. It
extends about 10° from the land, from lat. 40° to 8° N., where it joins the
Guinea Current on the right, and the Westerly Drift on the left,

May.—The tendency of the Current towards the Mediterranean is still
evident, but the flow Southward is more decided than in April. From
40° N. to the Canary Islands the rate is from 7 to 21 miles. This Current

THE NORTH AFRICAN CURRENT. 315

extends generally about 10° from the land. South of the Canary Islands
the Current tends towards the West. It mingles with the Guinea Current
about lat. 7° N., and with the Westerly Drift along the meridian of 25° W.,
reaching as far South as 7° N. As a South-Westerly current its rate is
about 12 miles.

June.—The North African Current can be traced from lat. 40° to 9° N.
It still sends an Easterly current towards the Mediterranean, at a rate of
6 to 18 miles. Between the Canary and Cape Verde Islands its direction
is South-Westerly, but the stream is feeble, the rate being from 6 to 18
miles. It does not pass between the Cape Verde Islands and the coast,
but lies entirely to the Westward of these islands, where it soon becomes
merged in the Westerly Drift. Between lats. 20° and 9° N., longs.
23° and 30° W., it is stronger than elsewhere, its velocity ranging from
8 to 19 miles per day.

In July the Current appears to be feeble and unsettled, and the indraught
to the Mediterranean is barely traceable.

In August it does not seem that the Current is well maintained, nor is
there decided evidence of a set towards the Mediterranean; however, the
observations in this month are deficient.

September.—The North African Current can be traced to the Cape Verde
Islands, but it is feeble throughout its course. Very little tendency is
apparent towards the Mediterrnean ; indeed, the direction of the set is
sometimes opposite. ;

In October the Current reaches to lat. 10° N., but it is feeble and irregular,
being best defined close to the coast.

In November the Current is str onger and more regular than in September
and October. Off Portugal its set is E.S.E. » and rate about 12 miles. It

can be traced as far South as lat. 9° N.

In December the North African Current has become a steady flow, and
can be traced at times from lat. 40° N. to 10° N. In the region of the
Cape Verde Islands it loses force, and becomes less regular.

(266.) Im addition to these remarks we give, as in previous editions, the
particulars of various Bottles and other experiments, which are very in-
teresting, and will be serviceable in estimates of what amount of Current
may be expected in this part of the voyage.

Toward the Bay of Biscay.—The ship Carshalton Park, Captain J. S. Park, on
returning from Jamaica to London, July, 1824, in lat. 48°, long. 18°, got into a
stream setting to the Southward, and which thence operated so strongly against
the ship, that some difficulty was found in getting sufficiently far to the Northward
for a good Channel track. The wind shifted suddenly from 8.W. to North; the
vessel immediately hauled up E. by S.; and although the weather was fine, and
the water quite smooth, she made no better than a true E. by N. course.*

South-Easterly Current off Channel Soundings.—In August, 1826, Captain Living-
ston, in the Jane, between lat. 48° 53’, long. 16° 7’, and Cape Clear, had a set of

* The same ship, on the 10th of July, was on Channel soundings, the latitude by
meridian altitude of the sun, 48° 53’; the longitude, by chronometer and lunar, 9° 44’
and 9° 56’ respectively, ‘‘kept the ship EK. 4 S. and generally Hast till 11.51 p.m., when,
by the moon’s meridian altitude, it was found that the latitude was 49° 21’. We had

316 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

1° 14’ S. and 1° 54’ E. So that in four days the vessel was set, by a counter-current,
74 miles South and 65 miles East, or nearly S. 41° E., about 99 miles; equal to a
daily average of 24? miles.

Off the Coast of Portugal.—A Bottle from the brig Freeland, Captain T. Midgley
(from Liverpool to Africa), in lat. 41° 50’ N., long. 14° 23’ W., February 11th, 1833,
was picked up close to the shore, off the Harbour of Vigo, on March 1st following,
having traversed, in a true E. } N. direction, about 240 miles.

St. George’s Channel to Cape St. Vincent.—On August 14th, 1823, Captain Living-
ston, in the sloop Favourite, on his passage from Liverpool to Gibraltar, took his
departure from the Smalls Lighthouse, and thence he regularly made observations
on the Current, &c., so far as adverse weather permitted. On the 23rd he had
arrived on the parallel of 46° 23’; previously to which the course seems to have
been materially affected by the Tide, but here the differences amounted to 51’ 55”
Southerly, and only 4’ 39” Northerly. From lat. 46° 23’, on August 23rd, to lat.
36° 52’, on August 31st, the Current invariably predominated to the Southward,
and between these parallels amounted to 89 miles in the eight days.

At 4" 53™ of August 31st, with Cape St. Vincent bearing true North, an excellent
meridian altitude of the planet Saturn gave lat. 36° 52’8”. The total Southing to
this point gave 2° 18’, and the difference of longitude between dead-reckoning and
that by landfall gave 1° 42’ 7” of Easting.

In the brig Friends, of Glasgow, August 24th, 1820, Captain Livingston states—
“The current set us round Cape St. Vincent without our having seen the cape,
though we steered courses for the purpose of seeing it, and we were looking out
for it, when I got a lunar, and ascertained thes we were then past it. Immediately
after this the sea became smooth, being broken off by the cape.”

Between Cape Finisterre and the Azores, the general drift of the surface of the
sea appears to be to the South-Eastward; varying, however, to the East and West,
and even to the Northward, as the winds operate, either one way or the other,
more especially during winter, as already noticed.

H.M.S. Pactolus, in May, 1816, experienced a current South a little East, at the
average rate of 30 miles a day, from the English Channel to St. Michael’s.

Captain Charles Hare, in the brig Ward, from New Brunswick, September, 1823,
with Westerly winds, which had prevailed for fourteen days, between lat. 43° 40’
and 45° 20’, long. 222° to 16°, found the current E.S.K., 14 mile in the hour.

Between Portugal and the Western Islands.—Captain George Cheveley, in June,
1830, lat. 44° to 27°, long. 11° to 21°, found the Current set S.E., three-quarters
of a mile an hour.

The Current along the Coast of Portugal appears to set nearly in the direction of
that coast. On the 25th of October, 1810, a gunboat for the service of Cadiz, being
in tow of the Rebuff gun brig, broke adrift in a gale of wind, in lat. 39° 44’, long.
9° 38’ W. On the 19th of November following, his Majesty’s sloop of war Colum-
bine, when cruizing 8 or 9 miles to the Westward of Cadiz Lighthouse, observed
a gunboat to leeward, which proved to be the identical boat that twenty-five days
before had broken adrift from the Rebuff. The distance traversed by the boat was
about 350 miles, or 14 miles a day, chiefly by the Current, the wind in the mean-
time being so various as nearly to render the drift negative, or, if anything, against
the set of the Current.

On the Currents setting toward the Bay of Biscay and the Strait of Gibraltar,
Captain, afterward Admiral, Sir Erasmus Gower made observations in five passages
gone, during this interval of 114 51™, 68 miles by the log, carefully attended to, in
smooth water. Now, allowing 24 points of variation, we ought to have made 26’ of
northing ; whereas, in point of fact, we made 13’ only.”

Influenced, probably, by the Channel ebb, the Current appeared also to have a ten-
‘dency to the West.

COAST OF PORTUGAL, ETC. 317

to Madeira, from which he concluded the most general direction to be to the $.E.,
and the mean yelocity about 11 miles in every 150 miles.*

In proceeding to Tenerife, Sir Erasmus Gower observed a constant Current set-
ting to the Southward at the rate of a mile an hour; equal to 22 miles in the
distance between Madeira and that island.

Captain Mackintosh, of the Hindostan, who had made twenty passages in this
route, generally experienced a Current from the 39th degree of latitude to that of
the Canaries. Jn this part of the ocean he generally found, from repeated and
accurate observations, that this Current sets to the E.S.E. He found it strongest
opposite to the entrance into the Mediterranean or Strait of Gibraltar; and, in
one voyage, the Current was computed, by his chronometer, to set about 40 miles
per day. This current inclines more Southerly as it approaches the Canaries. It
strikes on the coast of Morocco, and takes, about Cape Boiador, a different direc-
tion. Nearly inshore, from an indefinite point, one part of the stream sets North-
ward toward the Strait of Gibraltar, and the other part sets to the Southward.

M. le Baron Roussin, in the corvette Bayadére, bound from Rochefort to Brasil,
in February, 1819, after passing Cape Finisterre, found the prevailing Winds from
noon to noon, and Currents, as follow :—

Latitude. Longitude. Winds. Currents.
° ? ” ce) , uW
February 22 ... 42 43 38... 1140 6... N.—W.N.W.... S.S.E. 24 miles.
~ 23 ....40 3 28... 13 4417 ... N.—N.E. see Oe ae) SL ee
+ 24.%.. 3% 3 49)... 18 85 30... N-E. Perichrep) tet) Reser
5 25 ... 3413 11 ... 14.10 80 ... N.K.—S.E..... S.E. Gi 3s

26) ...):82 917 x 15114 40... Nuand N.E., 2 §.10°R19

But on arriving at the Canaries, with the wind North and N.E., the Current
had changed.

* The effect of a Current setting to the South-Eastward, and the necessity of a com-
petent knowledge of Currents in general, cannot in any way be more forcibly shown
than by noticing the melancholy catastrophe of His Majesty’s ship Apollo, Captain
J. W. T. Dixon, and the merchant ships under her convoy, on the 2nd of April, 1804.
The Apollo, with sixty-nine ships for the West Indies, sailed from the Cove of Cork on
the 26th of March. With a fair wind, blowing strong, they steered about W.S.W.
until the 31st, when the wind changed more to the Westward. At noon, on the Ist of
April, latitude observed, 40° 51’ N., longitude, by account, 12° 29’. At 8 p.m. the wind
shifted to S.W., and increased to a gale, with a heavy sea. The convoy stood to the
§.S.E., and, at half-past three next morning, struck on the coast of Portugal, in about
40° 22' N., 9 miles to the Northward of Cape Mondego. Captain Dixon, and about sixty
men of the Ayolio, perished in their endeavours to reach the shore; the other part of
the crew remained two days clinging to a fixed part of the wreck, without nourishment.
About forty sail of merchantmen were wrecked about the same time; some sank with
all their crews, and most of them lost several men. This lamentable event was
attributed to want of chronometric observations, and the consequent ignorance of the
set of the Current, which must certainly have been very strong.

“The immediate cause of the loss of so many of the Aypollo’s convoy appears to have
been the blind confidence with which the commanders followed their commodore;
either keeping no reckoning themselves, or believing his more accurate than their own.
Several ships were saved by leaving the convoy, and it is said that the commander of a
Clyde ship warned the commodore of his danger in time to have avoided it.” —4. L.

A more recent example of the fatal effects of this current being disregarded is the loss
of the Anchor Line steamer Rowmania. On the night of October 28th, 1892, she sud-
denly ran aground near Peniche, on the coast of Portugal, only two passengers and six
lascars saving their lives out of a total complement of 112 crew and passengers.

318 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

On the course of the same vessel, from Brest to Brasil, in October, 1821, the
Current had set in the last 24 hours (October 6th), lat. 40° 24’ 36”, long. 14° 29’30",
§.. 15° E., 20 miles; on the three following days, nearly in the same direction, but
with less than half the strength. In lat. 35° 20’ 50”, long. 12° 54’ 40”, 15 miles
S.E. In lat. 33° 54’, long. 12° 48’, it had set only 6 miles S. 5° E.; but, on the
next day, in 34° 18’ 24” N., and 12° 21’ W., 25 miles 8. 25° E.; and again in
34° 14’ 34” N., 12° 13’ W., South, 20 miles. Off the African coast, lat. 32° 56’ 20’,
long. 13° 16’ 20’, it had set 32 miles to the S.W., or in a direction nearly parallel
with the shore.

At about 222 miles W. 4 S. from Cape Mondego, on the 9th of June, 1799,
M. de Humboldt, in the sloop Pizarro, was on his voyage to the West Indies; and,
on this day, in lat. 39° 50’, long. 13° 50’, he says that they began to feel the effects
of the Current setting toward the Strait of Gibraltar, &c. From the parallel of 37°
to that of 30°, the vessel was sometimes carried, in twenty-four hours, from 18 to
26 miles to the Eastward. The direction of the Current was, at first, E. by S8.;
but nearer the strait it became due East, and it assumed a more Southerly direc-
tion on the passage towards Tenerife. ‘‘Several pilots, who frequent the Canary
Islands, have found themselves on the coast of Lanzarote, when they expected to
make good their landing on Tenerife.”

Don Vicente Tofino sailed on the 27th of April, 1785, in the Luca, from Cadiz,
for Mogador, and on the lst of May, before mid-day, arrived at the last-named
port. On the 5th he sailed from it, and on the morning of the 8th anchored again
in Cadiz. On his voyage out, he found that the Current, in four days, had set
him 214 miles S. 18° E., and on his return §. 49° W., 39 miles. This variation of
the Current shows, that the waters throughout all this extent do not always run
to the S.E., but that they vary, with the line of coast, to the South- Westward also.

H.M.S. Pique was once set to the §.E., 98 miles in five days, between Cape
Finisterre and Madeira. H.M.S. Raleigh, August, 1826, found the Current from
off Cape St. Mary, toward the Strait, to set W. 34° S., 26 miles in the twenty-four
hours.

(267.) The following observations on the Currents between the Canary and Cape
Verde Islands, are selected from Commander Maury’s “ Sailing Directions‘” 1859,
vol. ii. The experience of all the ships whose logs are there recorded, is nearly
unanimous in stating the Southerly and Easterly drift. Of course, the vibration
of the Trade Winds with the seasons has much to do with the Southern limit of
this Southerly set, as will be seen below :—

Ship Jenny Pitts, Captain J. L. Snow, December 27th, 1853, lat. 30° 3’ N., long.
20° 0’ W., current 8 miles 8S. by W.; 28th, 28° 52’ N., 18° 10’ W., 6 miles 8.S.W.;
30th, 25° 26’ N., 18° 26’ W., 8 miles S. by E.; January Ist, 1854, 19° 51’ N.,
22° 55' W., 8 miles S. by E.; 2nd, 16° 42’ N., 21° 23’ W., 10 miles South; 3rd.
13° 42' N., 22° W., 8 miles South.

Ship Margaret Mitchell, Captain T. Jameson, January 11th, 1854, lat. 30° 16’ N.,
long. 17° 35’ W., 22 miles E. by 8.; 13th, 26° 7’ N., long. 20° 24’ W., S. 39° W., 14
miles; 14th, 24° 15’ N., 20° 11’ W., 12 miles E. by 8.; 16th, 20° 18’ N., 20° 34’ W.,
18 miles 8S. } W.

Ship Romance of the Sea, Captain W. W. Henry, February 18th, 1855, lat.
30° 10’ N., long. 18° 10’ W., 14 knot an hour N.E.; 19th, 29° 20’ N., 19° 0’ W., 1}
knot N.E.; 20th, 26° 0’ N., 19° 28’ W., 1 knot H.N.E.

Ship Gloriana, Captain Henry Toynbee, from London to Sydney, April 22nd,
1855, 30° 18’ N., 19° 20’ W., 12} miles S. 5° W.; 24th, 26° 3’ N., 21° 32’ W., 8}
miles N. 25° E. ; 25th, 23° 88’ N., 22° 50’ W., 44 miles N. 12° W.; 26th, 20° 37’ N.,
24° 22' W., 64 miles N. 15° E.; 27th, 17° 22’ N., 26° 4’ W., 94 miles 8. 57° W.;
28th, 14° 5’ N., 26° 23’ W., 16 miles S. 60° W.; 29th, 11° 12’ N., 26° 36’ W., 20
miles 8. 9° W.

Ship Resolute, Captain D. McKenzie, June 17th, 1864, lat. 29° 54’ N., 21° 12’ W.,

COAST OF MAROCCO, ETC. 319

12 miles S. 60° E.; 19th, 26’ 1' N., 24° 2’ W., 12 miles S. 13° E.; 2st, 21° 44’ N.,
26° 22° W., 12 miles W.S.W.

Ship Orion, Captain H. Libbey, July 3rd, 1856, lat. 29° 5’ N., long. 23° 30° W.,
12 miles South.

Ship Panther, Captain N. G. Weeks, August 10th, 1854, lat. 28° 9’ N., 22” 30’ W.,
12 miles W.S.W.; 12th, 23° 32’ N., 25° 38’ W., 15 miles W.S.W., dc. Mote.—The
ship was at this time in the N.E. Trades, which have during the summer reached
to the higher latitude.

Ship Hurricane, Captain St. Very, August 22nd, 1855, lat. 30° 31’ N., 18° 0’ W.,
12 miles S.W.; 23rd, 27° 11’ N., 19° 15’ W., 8 miles 8.4 W.; 24th, 23° 50’ N.,
19° 25' W., 11 miles S. by W.; 25th, 21° N., 194° W., 6 miles S. 4 W.; 26th,
18° 4’ N., 19° 45’ W., 7 miles S. 4 W.

Barque Mea, Captain B. Buxton, August 17th, 1859, lat. 25° 41’ N., 21° 14’ W.,
12 miles South; 18th, 23° 16’ N., 22° 54’ W., 8 miles South.

Barque Adler, Captain E. Thiel, October 27th, 1849, lat. 25° 17’ N., 23° 33° W.,
27 miles S. 31° W. for two days; 30th, 18° 13’ N., 25° 49° W., 13 miles 8.W.; 31st,
15° 45’ N., 26° 35’ W., 12 miles S.W. 4 W. (Trade Wind).

Ship Colorado, Captain Ricker, October 19th, 1855, lat. 31° 15’ N., 16° 49' W.,
12 miles 8.E.; 20th, 28° 33’ N., 18° 47’ W., 24 miles 8.S.E.; 21st, 26° 16’ N.,
20° 11' W., 12 miles S.W.; 24° 22’ N., 21° 15’ W., 6 miles §.W.

(268.) Mr. James Grey Jackson, in his valuable ‘‘ Account of the Empire of
Morocco,” stated that the coast, between the latitude of 20° and 32° North, is a
desert country, interspersed with immense hills of loose sand, which are, from
time to time, driven by the wind into different forms, and so impregnate the air
with sand, for many miles out to sea, as to give the atmosphere an appearance of
hazy weather. Navigators, not aware of the circumstance, never suspect, during
such appearances, that they are near land, until they discover the breakers on the
coast, which is, in some parts, so extremely flat, that a person may walk a mile
into the sea without being over the knees; so that ships strike when at a con-
siderable distance from the beach. Added to this, there is a current, which sets
in from the West towards Africa with inconceivable force and rapidity, with which
the navigator being generally unacquainted, he loses his reckoning, and, in the
course of a night, perhaps, when he expects to clear the African coast, in his
passage Southward, he is alarmed with the appearance of shoal water; and, before
he has time to recover himself, finds his ship aground on a desert shore, where
neither habitation nor human being is visible. In this state his fears are soon in-
creased by a persuasion that he must either perish in fighting a horde of wild
Arabs, or submit to become their captive; for soon after a ship strikes, some
wandering Arabs, strolling from their duar in the desert, perceive the masts from
the sand-hills ; and, without coming to the shore, repair to their horde, perhaps
30 or 40 miles off, to apprise them of the wreck, when they immediately assemble,
arming themselves with daggers, guns, and cudgels. Sometimes two or three
days or more elapse before they make their appearance on the coast, where they
await the usual alternative of the crew either delivering themselves up, rather
than perish with hunger, or throwing themselves into the sea.t

* London, quarto, 1809. See, also, the affecting ‘“‘ Narrative of the Shipwreck and
Captivity of M. de Brisson,’ in 1787; and that of Robert Adams, wrecked in the
American ship Charles, John Horton, master, 1810. This subject is noticed more par-
ticularly in the description of the coasts of Africa, hereafter.

+ Even at the present time, as more fully described hereafter, it is necessary to
remember the merciless character of these Arabs. On August 20th, 1892, the Spanish
trading cutter Icod, when anchored at Parchel, near Cape Bojador, was boarded and
looted by Moorish corsairs, who carried off eleven of the crew as prisoners, the other
five escaping in the cutter’s boat.

320 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

The Elza, commanded by John Searchwell, sailed from Cork for Rio Janeiro
with settlers, on the 12th of August, 1627, and ran ashore on the coast of Africa,
during a fog, on the 25th of the same month. Whilst making signals of distress,
three fishing boats from Canary came to her assistance, and succeeded in saving
all the lives on board, consisting of 18 mariners, 244 men, 46 women, and 42
children ; in all, 350 persons, who arrived at Canary on the 3rd of September.

About the end of October, in the same year, the Olymphe, trom Havre fot
Buenos Ayres, with colonists, was cast away on the same part of the African
coast. The passengers, about 300 in number, consisting of French, English,
Germans, and Swiss, were taken from the shore, saved from captivity by Canarian
fishing-boats, and conveyed to the Grand Canary, where they were landed on the
7th of November. Such have been the effects of the Current!

(269.) The ship Montezuma, of Liverpool, Knubly, master, sailed on the 26th of
October, 1810, from Brazil, but was wrecked on the 28rd of the next month, at
3 am., on the African coast, somewhere between Capes Noon and Bojador.
Among the crew, who were taken and sold by the Arabs, was Alexander Scott, an
apprentice. This person was detained in the country for nearly six years; and a
very interesting account of his captivity, drawn up by Dr. Traill, with geogra-
phical observations on his routes, and remarks on the Currents which produced
the catastrophe, by Major Rennell, were given in the fourth volume of the ‘“ Edin-
burgh Philosophical Journal.” As these remarks give a very clear notion of the
movement of the waters, derived from observation, we repeat them as heretofore.

(270). Major Rennell, in 1819, remarks on the Currents between Cape
Finisterre and the Canary Islands :—‘‘I should consider myself highly
culpable if I neglected to state, by way of caution to navigators, the result
of my inquiries respecting the Currents which appear to have caused the
shipwreck of the Montezwma, and of a great number of other ships of our
own and other nations, on the Western coast of Barbary, having examined
a multitude of journals of ships that have sailed in that track, with time-
keepers on board, and which have also, when opportunities presented
themselves, had their rate checked by celestial observations.

“The general result is, that navigators who depart from the parallel of
the Southern part of the Bay of Biscay (or say 45°), and sail in the usual
track Southward, will be assailed first by a S.#. current, and then by an
Easterly one, until they have passed the parallel of Cape Finisterre, when
the Current will again turn to the South of East, and gradually become a
S.E. Current, till, having passed Cape St. Vincent, it becomes Easterly
again, owing, no doubt, to the indraught of the Strait of Gibraltar; and
this Easterly Current is pretty general across the mouth of the bay between
Cape St. Vincent and Cape Cantin.

‘Beyond this bay (which may be termed the funnel, of which the Strait
itself is the spout) the Current again becomes 8.E., or rather more
Southerly (as it is more Easterly toward Cape Finisterre), and continues
as far as the parallel of 25°, and is, moreover, far beyond Madeira West-
ward ; that is, at least 390 miles from the coast of Africa, beyond which a
S.W. Current takes place, owing to the operation of the N.E. Trade Wind.

«The rate of motion of this Current varies very considerably at different
times; that is, from 12 to 20 or more miles in 24 hours.—I consider 16 miles
as rather below the mean rate. I have one example of 140 miles in eight
days, in one of His Majesty’s ships, equal to 174 miles per day; and, i»

BETWEEN ENGLAND AND THE CANARY ISLANDS. 39)

another, of only 12 miles; and in a very well kept East India ship’s
journal, 170 miles in nine days to Madeira, or 19 miles per day. The
direction of the stream likewise varies, but is commonly more toward the
South than the East, after passing the mouth of the Strait.

‘‘ Near the coasts of Spain and Portugal, commonly called the Wall,
the Current is always very much Southerly, owing, perhaps, to the falling
in, obliquely on the shore, of the great mass of water brought by the S.E.
Current ; which can run off only toward the South, and round Cape St.
Vincent toward the Strait’s mouth. Amongst the Canary Islands, and
between them and the coast of Barbary, the Currents are less regular.

‘Tt may be taken for granted that the whole surface of that part of the
Atlantic Ocean, from the parallel of 40° to 45° at least, and to 300 to 400
miles off shore, is in motion toward the mouth of the Strait of Gibraltar.

“ According to what has been said, in the course of the above remarks,
it must be expected that a ship, sailing in the usual track to Madeira or
the Canaries, will be carried to the South-Hastward, at the rate of 16 miles
per day; that is, even if she has a fair wind, she will be carried by the
Current 150 or 160 miles to the South-Eastward, in the course of a voyage
to Madeira or the Canaries ; and, consequently, on a S.H. by S. course,
will be carried 80 or 90 miles to the Eastward of her intended port. If
we suppose a S.H. course, the error in easting will be no less than 109
miles; which distance, if they are bound to Tenerife, would carry them to
Allegranza or Forteventura ; and, if intending to make Allegranza, would
place them on shore on the coast of Barbary. The French and Spaniards
report that their ships have often made Allegranza when they supposed
themselves on the line toward Tenerife. It must be added that, if a ship
had a long passage, the error would be greater in proportion, and might
possibly amount to 200 miles of easting.

“It would seem advisable, therefore, that every ship going to the
Canaries, or intending to sail between those islands and the mainland of
» Africa, if without timekeepers, should, to every day’s reckoning, add ten
miles of easting. This would, in the first instance, prevent them from
decewing themselves as they went forward ; in like manner, as it is better
to set a clock forward at once, than to charge one’s memory continually
with its being too slow. Ten miles does not seem too much as a cautionary
measure, as a ship has very lately been carried 99 miles to the Hast in
eight days in that track. What would not have been the error had she
had even a moderately long passage ?”’

The preceding description of the Currents between the English Channel
and the Canary Islands was corroborated, 1826, by Captain R. H. N ewby,
in the Napoleon schooner, which left Dartmouth on the 21st of July, and
was set to the Eastward of her reckoning, while crossing the Bay of Biscay,
1° 21’ of longitude in 48 hours. On Monday, the 25th of the same month,
the entrance of Ribadeo bore S.W. by compass, about 15 miles, and the
vessel was then in about 6° 55’ W.

The effect of the Easterly Current was proved by the bearings of a re-
markable mountain inland, and some whitish cliffs on the shore; and
Captain Newby says, the schooner was setting to the Eastward as fasi as

IN Aa) 4 s 43

322, OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

he had noticed a ship to lose ground to the Eastward while standing in-
shore of Beachy Head during a strong flood tide and moderate Westerly
breeze. At about 5 p.m. the wind veered to the N.E., and even then,
although the vessel was going at the rate of 34 knots through the water,
she made very little way to the Westward till toward sun-down, when
the breeze freshened to 7 or 8 knots. During the night, passed Cape
Ortegal; and the next morning, at 6 a.m., the light tower at the entrance
of Coruiia bore South.

Upon going over the two days’ work, July 27th and 28th, it appeared
that, instead of passing, as supposed, to the Westward of Madeira, the
Napoleon was actually out of sight of the island to the Hastward ; and
had the vessel been involved in fog, or have been bound to Lanzarote or
Fuerteventura, and steering, by reckoning, a fair course for them, the
consequence must have been that she must have fallen into broken water
when least expected, or have grounded on the mainland, somewhere
between Cape Ghir and Cape Noon, and property, if not life, would have
been lost.

(271.) Coasts of Spain and Portugal.—Besides the Northern branch of
the Atlantic Hasterly drift which sets into the Bay of Biscay, there is a
Southern branch, which from Cape Ortegal turns gradually to the 8.H.
and Southward along the coast, and, after passing Cape St. Vincent, sets
Hastward towards the Strait of Gibraltar. This is in ordinary weather,
but with strong Westerly winds it sets towards the land, and this unsus-
pected drift has led to the loss of numerous vessels, as detailed previously
on page 317. With strong Southerly winds, the current may be found
setting Northward.

Due attention to the soundings, when the position is uncertain, should
keep a vessel clear of danger along this coast, bearing in mind the Hasterly
onshore current usually accompanying N.W. and Westerly winds, and the
effects of the heave of the sea affecting the steering.

(272.) The following remarks on the Currents on the Western coast of
the Spanish Peninsula are given in the Anuario Hidrografico for 1867 :—

On the Western shore of the Peninsula the Currents are strong, and in
its immediate neighbourhood run from South to North, and North to South,
according to the prevailing wind. But in the offing they incline to the
N.E. or 8.E., according as the wind may be S.W. or N.W. Against these
onshore winds vessels must therefore take precaution, for if the S.W. wind
is blowing, or even the N.W. also, the vessel will drift to the shore. Expe-
rience has shown that allowance must be made for drift by steering more
Westerly courses than the lay of the coast would require to keep clear of
it, especially when it is blowing hard.

It is observed on the coast of Galicia, and the same would naturally
occur on the coast of Portugal, that, on one or even two days previous to
a gale, the Current sets towards that point of the horizon from which it
will eventually come; that is, when the Current sets to the South without
any apparent cause, the Vendaval (144) will come in a gale, and a similar
result follows when the Current sets to the North. So that the fishermen,
who have most to do with allowing for Currents, know very well by them
when a N.E. or S.W. wind is about to set in.

NORTH-WEST COAST OF AFRICA, ETC. 323

The Current generally produced by the wind sets to the N.E. and North,
when that is from any point between South and West, and it sets to the
South when the wind is anywhere between West and East from the North-
ward. In winter, the Current sets mostly from some point between North
and East, and in summer from some one between North and West; and
its hourly rate is about 2 miles, and even more, with a strong Vendaval.

The navigator who finds himself off Cape Finisterre with a Vendaval to
beat against, must be careful of the shore in bad weather, for he will be
drifted insensibly to leeward until he has passed Cape Prior.

With respect to ships off Cape St. Vincent, bound towards Cape Finisterre
with fresh N.H. winds, they will find enough to do, to overcome the Current
they will meet with along the coast. And with fresh N.W. or S.W. winds
there is also a rise in the level of the sea, in all the estuaries and ports of
the Peninsula, the reverse of what takes place at Cadiz and in the Bay of
Biscay with N.E. winds.

(273.) Tue Baron Roussrin’s Remarks ON THE CURRENTS BETWEEN
Care Bosapor AND THE IsuES DE Los.

The general Currents on the African coast, between Cape Bojador and
the Isles de Los, with the exception of some places subject to a more or
less regular tide, are uniform during the eight months which comprise the
fine season. They follow exactly the trend of the coast from North to
South.

From Cape Bojador to the Bay of St. Cyprian (lat. 22° 20’) they there-
fore set to the S.S.W.; from that bay to Cape Blanco, and along the whole
extent of the Bank of Arguin to its Western point, which is in the parallel
of 20° 6’ 20” N., they set S. by W. To the Southward or this point the
waters, being no longer guided by the edge of the bank, which turns
abruptly to the S.H., do not follow in a body, within a certain space, any
fixed or determined direction. One part of their mass experiences a number.
of irregular windings, until, finding itself in the active body of the general
Current, which left the bank at its most salient point, it rejoins it, and is
carried on as before.

In the vicinity of Tanit Bay, in the parallel of 19°10’ N., it again resumes
its former direction, and follows the trend of the coast, thus setting to the
Southward as far as near Portandik, and from thence S.S.W. to the
Marigot of Musquitos. It then sets S. 4 W. till abreast of the Bar of the
Senegal, where, in a space of 12 miles in circumference, it is disturbed by
the stream of that river. This stream is so strong as to oblige vessels at
the anchorage off the bar to trend to it, in spite of the strongest winds.
The Current, joined by the waters ot the senegal, pursues its course along
the coast, which trends to the 8.W., observing a very gentle curve, which
forms the Bay of Yof, and which terminates at Cape Verde. The strong
Currents hitherto pretended to set into the Bay of Yof are, therefore,
merely chimerical. Cape Verde being the most Western point of Africa,
and hence forming an obstruction to the general direction of the waters
which flow along that coast, must occasion a great variety of Currents in

324 OBSERVATIONS ON TiiK CURRENTS.

its vicinity. This is,in fact, what takes place, and it would, therefore, be
difficult to define a particular one. This only appears certain: vessels
passing in sight of Cape Verde are not carried on it, as is generally sup-
posed ; but, on the contrary, they are swept off by the prevailing tendency
which the waters have to flow to seaward. In running close to Almadie
Rocks, this repulsion is sensibly felt during the eight months which I have
mentioned. It appears that the Current rushes between the rocks, and
spreads itself in different directions.

Immediately to the Southward of Cape Verde the Current is almost imper-
ceptible, and it is scarcely possible to assign any particular direction to it
as far as Cape Naze. The whole of the coast lying between this cape and '
Cape Manuel forms a well defined bay, totally free from Current, and in
which there is not a single river. The same is observed with respect to the
roadstead of Goree, although, according to the observations of Mr. Adanson,
a regular tide exists there, with a rise and fall of 24 feet. In the offing of
Cape Verde the Current has been always found to set to the Southward.
From Cape Naze it again follows the direction of the coast, interrupted
only at the mouths of the principal rivers, which lie between this cape and
Cape Roxo. From this point, localities of a very different nature produce |
particular effects in the Current. The Archipelago of the Bissagos here
succeeds the straight coast which extends to the Northward. Large rivers
empty themselves amongst these islands, forming various channels, more
or less encumbered with sand-banks. These obstacles cause a variety of
Currents, which will be explained when treating on the Bissagos.

Strength of the General Current.—The rate of the general Current on
the African coast, deduced from numerous observations, has never exceeded
14 mile per hour on the coast itself, and on the outer edge of the banks;
and more frequently it has been found from seven to nine-tenths of a mile.
This is diminished one-third, and frequently one-half, at a distance of 12
miles from the coast. Should a sailing vessel have run past her port, there
is no fear of her not stemming this Current, and, by long boards, easily
regaining her destination.

In the Rainy Season, which is from the commencement of June to the
end of October, as the wind blows from various directions, the Currents
are no longer regular, and it is impossible to establish any positive law
respecting them; but, even under these circumstances, their strength 1s
not so great but that it may be surmounted.

( 325 )

8.—THE GUINEA CURRENT.

BEING AN EASTERLY STREAM ACROSS THE ATLANTIC, AND ALONG THE
COAST OF AFRICA, INTO THE BIGHTS OF BENIN AND BIAFRA,

(274.) In the description of the Winds (6), page 99, and (80, 81), page
157, and in the diagram illustrating the Best Monthly Routes Across the
Equator, it is shown, that between the N.E. and §.H. Trade Winds there
is a Belt of Calms and Variable Winds, which, on the African coast,
assume the character of monsoons, as, during the summer months espe-
cially, the wind blows more or less toward the African coast.

In the Currents there appears to be an analogous system, as there is an
Easterly Current flowing with considerable velocity Eastward, in an oppo-
site direction to the great Equatorial Drifts on either side of it. Its
existence and character along the Guinea Coast has been long known. It
was formeriy thought to be a continuation of that Current which we have
just described as passing Southward from Western Europe, but later inves-
tigations seem to point to the fact that it is a flowing back of the waters
heaped up to the Westward by the prevalent winds. In tracing the
Currents of the Pacific Ocean,* we find that there exists a precisely similar
Current in that great ocean setting into the Bay of Panama, in the same
latitude. This Current is traced very far to the Westward—in fact, nearly
across the ocean.f

(275.) Commencing with the ordinary Westernmost part traversed by
vessels crossing the Equator, we select from Commander Maury’s Sailing
Directions the following facts :—

Captain H. T. Walter, barque Phantom, says :—In July, 1853, between lat. 5°
and 8° N., and about long. 36° and 38° W., the Current set us fast to the
Eastward. Again, in August, 1854, about the same latitude and longitude, the
Current set us 110 miles N.N.E. in three days. Capt. Millet writes :—December 25,
1855, lat. 4° N., long. 29° W., have experienced an Easterly Current these last
two days. I have always noticed such along these latitudes, sometimes more to
the Northward than this, and in lat. 1° N., and long. 44°.

We have here examples at opposite seasons of this Current in the Western
crossing of the Atlantic.

Ship James Brown, Captain C. W. Kerlin, January 12, 1856, lat. 8° 43’ N., long.
31° 37’ W.; current 20 miles Easterly. 18th, lat. 5° 30’ N., long. 80° 21’ W., 28
miles Easterly. Crossed the Equator on the 16th, and experienced no Westerly
Current.

Ship Margaret Mitchell, Captain T. Jameson, January 23, 1854, lat. 4° 36’ N.,
long. 22° 25’ W., 18 miles E. by S. 24th, lat. 8° 1’ N., long. 22° 80’ W., S. by E.
20 miles.

* See Directory for the North Pacific Ocean, by A. G. Findlay, and also Journal ot
the Royal Geographical Society, vol. xxiii., pp. 222, &c., as before quoted on page 312.

+ The non-continuity of this Guinea Current with that which flows Southward from
Portugal and N.W. Africa, the North African Current, was demonstrated by the author
many years ago, and its analogy with the Equatorial Counter-Current in the Pacific,
and also with a periodical Easterly Current in the Indian Ocean.

326 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

Ship Gravina, Captain C. Sprague, March 4, 1855, lat. 2° 48’ N., long. 26° 46’ W.,
S. 34° E.17 miles. 6th, lat. 1° 22’ N., long. 27° 43’ W., 12 miles N. by E.

Barque Eglantine, Captain Gleason, April 7, 1855, lat. 11° 28’ N., long. 24° 25’ W.;
Current setting to Eastward, though the ship was steering S. by W. 4 W.

Ship Mary L. Sutton, Captain P. E. Rowland, April 24, 1856, lat. 16° 4’ N.,
long. 88° 80’ W.; Current East 45 miles. 25th, lat. 12° 40’ N., long. 32° 32’ W.,
East 10 miles. 26th, lat. 9° 22’ N., long. 31° 20’ W., East 10 miles. (This is more
to the Northward than usual).

Ship -detos, Captain D. McLaughlin, May 18, 1856, lat. 5° 43’ N., long. 24° 44’ W.,
24 miles E. by N. 19th, lat. 3° 39’ N., long. 24° 10’ W., 14 miles E.N.E. 20th,
lat. 2° 56’ N., long. 24° 0’ W., 15 miles E.N.E. 21st, lat. 2° 15’ N., long. 23° 34’ W.,
15 miles E.N.E. 22nd, lat. 1° 20’ N., long. 25° 15’ W., 10 miles N.E.

Ship Edwin Flye, Captain W. Flye, June 27, 1856, lat. 5° 38’ N., long. 26° 17' W.,
N. 8° E., rate 1:2 mile per hour. 28th, lat. 4° 45’ N., long. 27° 29’ W., N. 18° E.,
1 mile per hour. 29th, lat. 3° 52’ N., long. 25° 12’ W., N. 22° E., rate 1:3 mile
per hour.

Ship Panther, Captain N. G. Weeks, August 19, 1854, lat. 7° 57’ N., long.
25° 54’ W., 24 miles E. by S. 20th, lat. 6° 55’ N., long. 23° 28’ W., N.E. 3 E. 48
miles. 21st, lat. 5° 41’ N., long. 20° 30’ W., 48 miles N.E. by E.3 EH. 22nd,
lat. 4° 56’ N., long. 18° 7’ W., E. by N., 1°2 mile per hour. 23rd, lat. 2° 41’ N.,
long. 20° 4’ W., 1 mile per hour 8.E. by 8S.

Barque Wea, Captain B. Buxton, August 27, 1849, lat. 5° 57'N., long. 19° 32’ W.,
half knot per hour N.E. 28th, lat. 4° 12’ N., long. 17° 33’ W., half knot N.E.
29th, lat. 4° 0’ N., long. 19° 47’ W., 6 miles E.N.E. in the day.

Brig Director, Captain Skinner, writes :—‘‘ You perceive that I had a strong
Current between lat. 7° and 5° N., on September 7—10. Not getting an observa-
tion for four days, I found the brig nearly 38° farther Hast than I expected;
whether I had it in one, two, three, or on the fourth day, I cannot say, but suppose
I had some each day. I was speaking with several captains, and they say that
they have always found a strong Current about them going to the Eastward.”

Captain Maury adds :—‘‘ An Eastwardly Current is often found North of the
Line in summer and fall; and at those seasons it may be counted on with some
degree of certainty.” (This refers to the Western crossing of the Equator recom-
mended by Captain Maury).

Ship Flying Dutchman, Captain A. Hubbard, October 12, 1854, lat. 8° 55’ N.,
long. 40° 52’ W.—‘‘I notice for the last two days (from lat. 11° 28’) the lines of
agitated water, previously noticed, appear all to run nearly E.N.K. and W.S.W.,
and follow each other at regular intervals of some 4 or 5 miles; the motion of the
waves running at right angles to the line of rip. October 14, lat. 6° 46’ N., long.
39° 4’ W., Current East, 1 knot. 15th, lat. 6° 50’ N., long. 37° 26’ W., Current
East, 14 knot. One year ago last July I experienced a similar Current in the
same latitude, but some 10° farther East. October 16th, lat. 6° 49’ N., long.
36° 25’ W., East 1} knot. 17th, lat. 6° 29’ N., long. 35° 18’ W., S. 79° E. 2 knots.
18th, lat. 5° 59’ N., long. 34° 19’ W., Hast, Northerly, 1 knot. 19th, lat. 5° 43’ N.,
long. 33° 33’ W., East, Southerly, 14 knot, slight current rips. 20th, no Current.
All these days generally calm, or light variable airs.”

Ship Raven, Captain J. Crocker, October 27, 1855, lat. 6° 18’ N., long. 29° 50’ W.,
Current N.E.1 mile. 28th, lat. 5° 24' N., long. 29° 50’ W., N.E. 1 mile. 29th,
lat. 5° 10’ N., long. 30° 0’ W., N.E. 1 mile. 30th, lat. 4° 40’ N., long. 80° 0’ W.,
N.E. 2 miles.

Ship Robert Patten, Captain G. 8. Paine, October 30, 1856, lat. 10° 14’N., long.
88° 50’ W., ‘‘ tremendous tide-rips, the strongest I ever saw.” October 31, lat,
8° 26’ N., long. 382° 38’ W., Current changes to Eastward, $ knot per hour.

Ship Scargo, Captain N. Crowell, October 4, 1856, lat. 6° 53 N., long. 25°18’ W.,
Owrrent 24 miles East. 5th, lat. 6° 25’ N., long. 24° 42’ W., 18 miles E. by §.

THE GUINEA CURRENT. 327

6th, iat. 5° 36’ N., long. 23° 59’ W., 18 miles E. by S. 7th, lat. 4° 48’ N., long.
238° 29’ W., 18 miles E. by S.

Schooner Thomas A. Ward, Captain J. D. Hoff, October 30, 1855, lat. 6° 5’ N.,
long. 27° 40’ W., the last twenty-four hours have been the most calm that I ever
saw, not a breath from any quarter, and a terrible rolling sea. We drifted S.E.
35 miles.

Ship Colorado, Captain Ricker, November 1, 1855, lat. 5°51'N., long. 21° 54’ W..
Current 20 miles 8.K. 2nd, lat. 5° 22' N., long. 20° 55’ W., 20 miles S.E.

Barque Clara, Captain EK. Cook, December 9, 1854, lat. 6° 48’ N., long. 26° 56’ W.,
1:3 knot per hour N. 35° E. 10th, lat. 6° 9’ N., long. 27° 57’ W., 1 knot N. 62° FE.
11th, lat. 6° 10’ N., long. 26° 46’ W.. 0°8 knot N. 37° E.

The foregoing are the principal notices of the Easterly Current as re-
corded in Captain Maury’s Sailing Directions, vol. ii., 1859, and, in fact,
is nearly all that is mentioned on Currents, as but very few, if any, of the
abstract logs quoted in that work mentioned any Westerly or other Currents,
the only exception being that in some very few cases a Northerly set is
noticed. Besides this, there is frequent mention of current or tide-rips,
often of a very formidable character, denoting great activity and change
in the Currents of this troublesome region.

(276.) Some records of more recent Bottles are given below :—

A Bottle from the ship Douro, in long. 31° 5' W., on the Equator, June 28rd,
1880, was picked up on the beach near the entrance of the. River Niger, in lat.
4° 43’ N., long. 6° 35’ K., in April, 1881. The least distance traversed was about
2,300 miles, in 10 months. (See Drift diagram, page 297).

A Bottle from the ship Patriarch, in lat. 2° 46’ N., long. 22° 3’ W., December
11th, 1884, was picked up on the beach near Grand Popo, in May, 1885, having
drifted about 1,200 miles in five months. (See Drift diagram).

Four Bottles from the steamer Buccaneer :—One, in lat. 6° 40’ N., long. 12°82’ W.,
January 6th, 1886, was washed ashore, March 5th, 1886, 10 miles from Addah,
in lat. 5° 47 N., long. 0° 35' E., having drifted 862 miles in 58 days, or 15 miles
a day.

Another, in lat. 4° 49’ N., long. 9° 38’ W., January 8th, 1886, was found on the
beach at New Sierra Leone, lat. 6° 8’ N., long. 1° 17’ E., March 2nd, 1886, having
drifted 690 miles in 53 days, averaging 13 miles a day.

Another, in lat. 6° 25’ N., long. 14° 31’ W., March 14th, 1886, was washed
ashore on the beach, in lat. 4° 45° N., long. 8° 31’ W., May 12th, 1886, having
drifted 372 miles in 59 days, at the rate of 6°3 miles a day. (See diagram).

Another, in lat. 0° 21 N., long. 7 36 E., January 29th, 1886, was picked up on
June 25th, 1886, in lat. 3° 14 N., long. 9° 57 E., having drifted 230 miles in 147
days, or only 1°6 mile a day. (See Drift diagram).

The first two were thrown overboard to the West of Cape Palmas, and were
carried very rapidly to the Eastward. The third was also thrown over to the
Westward of Cape Palmas, but much farther off shore, and in the month of
March. It was drifted right across the routes of the first two, and was cast up
on the Kroo coast. Had the same current prevailed in March as did in January,
on arriving in the track of these it ought to have been carried, like them, into
the Bight; instead of this, it never even passed Cape Palmas. The fourth was
thrown over between the Gaboon River and St. Thomé, and drifted very slowly in
a North-Easterly direction, and stranded near Cameroon River, having required
147 days to make good a distance of 230 miles. No doubt it covered a great deal
more ground, being drifted backwards and forwards by the very conflicting
currents of this region. J

328 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

(277.) One of the most remarkable examples of this Easterly Current
recorded, and one which unmistakably demonstrates its existence and
activity, was encountered by John Alexander Mann, Hsq., F.R.G.S. and
F.R.A.S.* He left Cayenne in French Guayana, in the brigantine Monte
Christo, 120 tons, bound for Paranahyba, on July 26th, 1862, the day of
the new moon; the wind blowing from the Kast. A direct Northerly
course was steered until the 30th, when the ship was in 7° N., and the.
log, by dead reckoning, was the same as Cayenne, 7.e. 52° 14’, On
August 7th, spoke the Austrian brig Rarita, which gave longitude 27° 14’;
that of the dead reckoning of the Monte Christo gave 42° 14’, so that the
vessel had been drifted nine hundred miles to the Eastward, and for eight
consecutive days she had been drifted 32 knots an hour to the H.S.H.
There was a great doubt as to the accuracy of the longitude, but at noon
of the 15th, in lat. 0° 45' S., they spoke a Dutch brig, which gave the
longitude as 27° 8’, while the D.R. placed them in 44° 0’, which, com-
pared with the position on the 7th, shows that they were drifted 120
miles farther to the Eastward. In fact, had the ship been left to the
Current, it would have soon reached the African coast, having drifted
1,020 miles in 20 days.

Throughout the remainder of the voyage, which lasted 14 days longer,
the same Current was experienced. The captain of the Loyal, which
arrived some days after, abandoned his chronometer from the same cause,
believing it to be out of order. Afterwards, in sailing from Surinam to
Cayenne, in the Alecton, French man-of-war steamer, Mr. Mann met with
the same phenomenon.

(278.) These facts are very important, in connection with the Westerly
crossing of the Equator, which has been strenuously advocated, and the
influence of this powerful Current, which appears to have much constancy
during the Northern summer months, may have much to do with the
readiness with which vessels, having reached too far to the Westward,
contrive to weather the Hastern extremity of Brasil. This will be adverted
to hereafter.

(279.) The Kasterly Current thus passing across the Atlantic strikes the
coast of Africa about Sierra Leone and the coast of Liberia. Of course,
when near the shore, it assumes its direction to the S.E., and runs with
great velocity. As is shown by the Chart of the Currents, at page 295, its
mean annual velocity is between 14:1 miles and 26°5 miles per day,
strongest in the summer months.

Its mean direction off Cape Palmas and Cape Coast Castle is E. 12° N.,
and its calculated velocity from Major Rennell’s and Captain Maury’s
observations is—for January, 17°4 miles to 27°6 miles; February, 26 miles
to 32 miles; April, 11:5 miles to 33-7 miles; May, 22°7 miles to 36 miles;
June, 30 miles; July, 18:2 miles; August, 15°7 miles to 26-4 miles per
day. These are from the records of 75 observations.

(280.) Its Southern edge appears to be in about 24° to 2° N. up to the
head of the Bight, and as the Southern streams set in an opposite direction,
they are serviceable in making a return passage as presently explained.

* See Proceedings of the Royal Geographioal Society, Vol. VII., 1863, pages 50, 51,

THE GUINEA CURRENT. 329

The temperature of the Guinea Current is high, and demonstrates its
Equatorial origin, although the branch of it which comes from the North-
ward past Cape Verde has probably a lower temperature as coming from
a higher latitude. The Equatorial Current to the Southward of the
Guinea Current is also of a lower temperature, coming direct along the
African coast from the Southern Polar regions. The mean summer tem-
perature is about 78°, but in our winter and autumn months it is higher,
being from 82:6° to 83° as a mean, and sometimes it is found higher than
this.

(281.) H.M.S. Challenger, in crossing this Current, August 10th to 21st,
1873, made the following observations on the Temperature of the sea at
different depths. From the Cape Verde Islands, 300 miles West of Cape
Verde, her track was in a general South-Hasterly direction for 88 miles to
& position 150 miles §.5.W. of Sierra Leone; thence, in the next two
days, she proceeded to a position 160 miles to the 8.S.W., or 310 miles
from Sierra Leone.

Temperature Observations, in Degrees (Fahrenheit), by H.M.S. Challenger,
while crossing the Guinea Current, in August, 1878.

|
| POSITION OF SHIP,
DEFTH.

. A {
. > : ae | :
ae [2b [se 22 ee 28 oe | ue [ee | ae
So | St | oa | aS) SS! as SE TRS | | ae
man nN nN maa aN | a _ | ioe | -
At the Surface...| 74 | 74 | 79 | 79 | 78 | 78 | 78 | 79 | 79 | 78
» 25fathoms | — | — | — | 60 | 69 | 65Z; — | — | 72 | —
a eee Se GaN es Pad. eno ie ser Ni G8ehroGis 6Rwnenme
BRERA 55 Se ee ee ay Mea am partes yey ae NR ala 5.
me, S72.| 62 | 52 | BL) | 58 1 5k 1 BB ea) 56. pon
Paton 544 | 52 4 50 | 483 | 483 | 47 | 50 | 492] 58 | 51
00. . 55 560 | 47 | 46 | 46 | 43 | 45 | 45 | 43 | 43 | 42
AO) «4, AGa 49° | 42 | 42) 40 | ar ay oa ol 40
meee", ABR naa (uO | a0 | 40!) 48 va 40 | 40 | 38
P1000: 43 EEE TUT cay ors cad agers ol hers (cg gree tad ene Ween (care ea Bre
ADs: 55 — 36 | 36 —|— — — | 37 — | 36

The above Table, it must be remembered, refers to the time of year
when the Guinea Current is at its greatest power. Subsequently, in
returning home, the Challenger, in the passage from Ascension to the
Cape Verdes, in April, 1876, found the surface temperature in lat. 2° 30’ S.
to be 824°; in 0° 15’ S., 814°. In lat. 3° N., long. 15° W., 300 miles S.W.
of Cape Mesurado, the temperature was 83° on the surface, in the same
position in which a temperature of 78° only was found in August, but the
warm water did not penetrate to so great a depth. At 50 fathoms, 65° was
found in August, but only 59° in April. Sir Wyville Thomson remarks :—
‘* Where the rate of the current is highest, we have as usual a rapid fall
in the temperature below the surface. This is caused by the cooler water
rising to supply the place of the hot surface water, which is being rapidly
drifted and evaporated away.”

Nu A. OC: 43

330 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

(282.) At the distance of about 177 miles South of Cape Palmas (long.
73° W.) the outer border of the Guinea Current sets to the East; and it
continues in the same direction to a similar distance South of Cape Three
Points (long. 2° W.); we thence, at 2° North of the Line, find it take a
more Northerly course, toward the Bight of Benin and the Bight of Biafra;
in the latter it mixes with the waters of the South African Current, which,
coming from the South, sets thence to the North and N.W., and both,
uniting, form a head in the bight. From this bight and Southward of the
Equator the Currents thus blended set to the S.W., W.N.W., and N.W.
in one expanding and united stream, which greatly facilitates the passage
of ships from Fernando Po to Sierra Leone.

The prevalence of the Harmattan wind, described on pages 164—168,
must interrupt the course of this Current ; but its existence, at other times,
nearly as described, has long been confirmed, and is incontestable.

(283.) Near Cape Mount the Current sets in towards the shore as above
stated. The ship Charles, a French whaler, in 1833, was wrecked on the
coast of Liberia, about 90 miles to the S.E. of Cape Mesurado, probably
on the reefs near the River Sestros. This vessel had left the port of Havre
for the fishery near Tristan da Cunha, in the Southern Ocean, but the
captain, intending to run along the coast beyond Cape Palmas, in the hope
of falling in with whales, unfortunately lost his reckoning, by being
deprived, for forty-eight hours, of all means of taking observations; and
was moving at the estimated rate of 7 miles an hour, when he found him-
self close on shore in the midst of breakers, which in the course of the
night forced him on the reef, and dashed the ship to pieces. The captain
and crew got safe to land, but were soon stripped by the blacks. In this
condition they made their way along the shore to the N.W., until they
reached Cape Mesurado, where they were received with all kindness by
the colonial agent of Liberia. The catastrophe is evidently attributable
to this Easterly Current.

Captain C. T. Rudge, ship Jane Black, December, 1856, says :—“ It is
my opinion that the current along the coast from the Bissagos Shoals to
Cape Palmas is variable ; and in the parallel of Cape Mount, coming from
the Westward with S.W. winds, I have always found northing in the set,
let the current be Easterly or Westerly. Ten miles off the land the current
runs parallel to the land either way, strongest off the capes. I have com-
manded ships on the West coast of Africa 12 years, and have found the
currents very variable at all times.”

On the Western side of Cape Palmas it sets along shore with such force
to the S.E., that ships which do not steer a point nearer than the true
course will be carried from the land. About Cape Three Points, likewise,
the stream runs strongly to the Eastward, and frequently sets directly in
upon the reefs about that cape. Hastward of this cape the Current has
carried many experienced mariners, bound to Cape Coast or Annamaboe,
to leeward of those ports, and occasioned much trouble, with delay, in
beating up again. About Zerra Formosa, in July and August, the Current
has also been found to set strongly to the Hastward.*

* In the Derrotero de las Antillas the following remarks are said to have been found

THE GUINEA CURRENT. 33!

(284.) Enseigne C. Martin states that from the experiences of French
cruisers on the West coast of Africa, it is found that between the Canaries
and Cape Palmas the current is very weak and close to the coast, being
rarely felt Westward of long. 16°. From Cape Palmas to Cape Formosa
it follows the trend of the coast, and appears to divide against the latter
cape, a weak portion continuing its course between the Niger and Fer-
nando Po, the main body appearing to trend off to the South and 8.W.
In the channel separating Fernando Po, Princes, and St. Thomas Islands
from the coast, the current was generally found running N.W., perhaps
due to the outflow of the River Congo. Here this seems to meet the 8.W.
branch of the Guinea Current, and the two combining bear off to the
Westward as the Equatorial Current.*

(285.) Mr. J. Y. Buchanan, F.R.S., gave a paper at the British Associa-
tion, 1892, ‘‘ On the Temperature, Density, and Motion of the Waters of
the Gulf of Guinea,” from observations made in the telegraph steamer
Buccaneer, in January, February, July, August, and September, 1886. He
states that the surface-water of high temperature all over the Gulf of
Guinea forms a layer of generally not over 30 fathoms in thickness. A
moderate breeze off shore easily blows it away, and its place is taken by
the denser and colder water immediately below it. Generally, the current
along the Guinea coast was found to set strongly to the Eastward, as the
well-known Guinea Current, and this was confirmed by the current bottles
thrown overboard and afterwards found. In the Bight, near the Island of
St. Thomé, the current set in a North-Westerly direction and was strong
enough to set the ship back, while heaving in the sounding wire, by about
as much as she steamed forward between soundings.

Between Ascension and Conakry, some interesting current observations
were made in the neighbourhood of the Equator. Here a strong current
to the Eastward was found at 50 fathoms, as much as 1°3 knot per hour,
the surface-water setting to the Westward at about 0°5 knot per hour; so
that the net Easterly current below was at least 0°8 knot per hour.

The change in the character of the Current at different times is shown
by the fact that from the Equator towards Sierra Leone, in March, the
Buccaneer experienced no Easterly curreut, and a bottle thrown overboard
was washed ashore on the Kroo Coast, whereas, if the same current had
prevailed in both March and January, the bottle would have been carried
round Cape Palmas and into the Gulf of Guinea.

(286.) Thus far, we give a general description of this remarkable Current.
What follows is from the Meteorological Office Monthly Analysis, 1872,
with which is incorporated further information gained from a study of
Captain Toynbee’s work on the Meteorology of the Area included between

among the papers of the deceased Admiral Don Josef Varela. ‘‘ At Prince’s Island, and
in its vicinity, the waters generally run to the North, which circumstance ought to be
kept in mind in making the island, and steering for the anchorage. There are also
currents to the South, but they are not so strong, nor of so long duration. The pilots of
the place say that the currents depend on the phases of the moon, but we found that
they were irregular.”” From this we may infer that there is some irregularity in the
outset or revolving current ; for which, consequently, every precaution should be taken.
* “Revue Maritime et Coloniale,”’ tome 65, 1880, pp. 5—22.

332 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

lat. 20° N. and 10° S., and long. 10° to 40° W., published by the Meteoro-
logical Office, in 1876. (See the Diagrams illustrating the Best Monthly
Routes Across the Equator).

The observations made on the Western portion of the Guinea Current
are neither as complete nor as numerous as might be wished, nevertheless
they lead to the conclusion that from the 20th meridian Westward this
Current undergoes periodical changes. We shall make this evident from a
tabular statement of the information yielded by the charts illustrating the
above-mentioned works.

GUINEA CURRENT.

On 20th meridian flows

Chart. Commences in— between latitudes—
Gonoralieess core scsctesecerees ieee | 50° W. 8° N. 8° and 10° N,
URINE TAY oeaqcdundeosocosonesucnecss 25 6 2 53) eo
iglercistinvad 2. evs cp> -¢-camasseaces | 26 10 ¥4. 04,5
WIE Ze) os) W oaorencaacenenacasconcoses 28 13 | A eae
A\FaystI” sprsssaeobeinsesosenapasseaSoss 25 6 PA vee 1,
WieiVeenheerccesseene>ee ser eaeeneasees 35 2 See et)
SUNG Sie eccsmecccesets-ciescensnneons 30 6 Bikes
Salyer cco asec ceeeeereeee 42 oe gs ae
AUBUSE .......ccccesccsercsccrcsas 1 45 tf BTS eo
September ..........ssccccseserees | 37? 8 Oh ale
Geto nerin eo Sho ecvoree | 50? 7 So aie
INOVOMI Pero scsccccesssacenccesees 30 6 3 OD e16
December jicscdesosacshocceessneoss 23 5 73.34 40

Tt thus appears that the Guinea Current has its maximum extent in
August, reaching to 45° W., and occupying 11° on the meridian of 20° W.;
and having its minimum extent in December, attaining long. 23° W., and
having a width of only 7° on the meridian of 20° W. From December to
August it is extending its longitude Westward, and widening Northward ;
and from August to February it is losing its extension Westward, and its
Northern limit is retreating Southward again.

(287.) In January the Guinea Current appears to originate about long.
25° W., lat. 6° N.; at long. 20° W. it extends from lat. 2° to 10° N. Here
it is joined by the North African Current, which checks its tendency to
the Northward, and the united waters flow Eastward along the coast of
Guinea, being traceable nearly to Fernando Po. From its origin to Cape
Palmas its rate is from 10 to 15 miles per day, but off this cape it acquires
a greater velocity, ranging from 13 to 35 miles per day, which it maintains
until it reaches the meridian of 5° E. The Southern limit of this Current
is probably about lat. 2° N., but observations are here wanting.

In February it commences in long. 25° W., lat. 10° N., but is seldom
felt so far West. From the 20th meridian it is well defined up to Fernando
Po, trending Southward to St. Thomas, its Southern limit being about

* During February and December, frequent Westerly Currents have also been re
ported here.

THE GUINEA CURRENT. 333

lat. 2° N. From 20° to 10° W. it has a rate of about 10 to 20 miles in the
24 hours, and seems to be occasionally reversed ; from 7° to 0° W., its rate
has been observed to be as much as 44 miles, though this can hardly be
usual; farther Eastward the rate varies from 13 to 24 miles. An eddy
current is indicated in the Bight of Benin.

In March the Guinea Current can be traced from lat. 13° N., long. 28° W.
At first it appears as a weak current having a rate of 5 to 10 miles in the
24 hours; but near the African coast, and in about the region of 2° N. and
18° W.., its velocity increases to 20, 30, and 40 miles, the strongest current
being marked on its Southern limit.

In April it commences in about 6° N., 25° W., and rapidly widens till
it extends from 8° N. to 2° N. on the 20th meridian, with a rate of 12 to
23 miles. It maintains about the same rate to long. 8° W. Between 5°
and 0° W. its rate is from 26 to 36 miles; farther Eastward it loses
strength, and either dies out in the vicinity of Fernando Po, or is deflected
Southward, and drawn in with the Equatorial Current. The Current has
been observed to run strongly to the Southward, in lat. 12° N., 28° W.

In May it seems to be felt at times as far West as 35° W., about lat. 2°
to 5°N. In 30° W. it is farther North, and on the 20th meridian it lies
between lat. 3° and 10° N. Along this route its rate is from 13 to 33 miles.
As it nears the African coast, it is felt at times as a Northerly Current,
probably influenced by the wind. Here, too, its rate is from 12 to 13 miles.
In the Gulf of Guinea it is Easterly, the rates varying from 16 to 45 miles.

In June the Guinea Current probably commences about lat. 6° N., long.
30° W. hence it spreads Northward and Southward, so that when it
crosses the 20th meridian its width is from lat. 3° to 8° N. Its rate thus
far is from 15 to 20 miles. Between 20° and 25° W. the North African
Current is running strongly to the Southward between lat. 8° and 18° N.
The Southern portion of the Guinea Current finds its way, but with con-
siderable northing, into the Gulf of Guinea. Here its rate is strong, from
16 to 36 miles, and it appears to be confined within narrow limits of lati-
tude. A counter-current has been observed in the Bight of Biafra. Captain
Toynbee remarks :—‘‘ The Easterly Current on the coast of Africa has
become stronger since May. Perhaps this may be accounted for by the
fact that the N.E. Trade extends much farther North than in the winter,
drawing more water off Africa, whilst there are fewer Westerly gales in
the North to heap water against Africa, hence the deficiency must be made
up by an increased Hasterly current near to the Equator. It will be seen
that it does increase in amount, and becomes more North-Easterly near
the coast of Africa as the summer advances.”

In July it is indicated about 6° N. and 42° W., if the observations here
are trustworthy. Observations are wanting to the Eastward till it crosses
the 35th meridian, between lat. 7° and 11° N. In long. 20° W. it extends
from 4° to 12° N., its rate being from 15 to 20 miles a day. A portion of
‘ts waters is turned to the N.W. by the coast about lat. 10°N., and passes
io the Northward past Cape Verde, but the main current passes into the
Gulf of Guinea, attaining a rate of 28 miles. Between the meridians of
10° W. and 0° there are no observations of this Current, but it is shown
Eastward, between the coast and lat. 2° N., where its rate is from 32 to il

334 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

miles. Although the Western limit of this Current is not well defined, the
data show that its rate and extent are remarkable.

In August the Guinea Current is indicated between lat. 8° and 10° N.,
in long. 45° W., and from 40° to 30° W. there are but few observations.
It appears, however, to be running at a velocity of from 15 to 20 miles
day in this region to the Southward and Northward of Hast. At 30° W.
it extends from 5° to 12° N. latitude, and at 20° W. from lat. 4° to 15° N.
At this part its rate is between 10 and 25 miles per day. Farther Hast-
ward it is stronger, and off Sierra Leone has a velocity of 50 miles, with
direction Northward of East. Abreast Cape Verde it neutralizes the North
African Current.

In September it can be traced to 37° W. longitude. In long. 30° W. it
extends from 5° to 10° N. latitude; in 20° W., from 3° to 14° N., and its
rate is from 8 to 32 miles. It maintains about the same rate in the Gulf
of Guinea, where its Southern limit is about lat. 1° or 2°. N. Its velocity
is increased to 30 and 40 miles in the 24 hours in rounding the Coast of
Liberia. It appears to neutralize the North African Current in about lat.
12° N., Southward of Cape Verde.

In October it has been noticed in 50° W., between 5° and 10° N. Thenee
to 30° W. there are only a few observations. At 30° W. it extends from
6° to 10° N., and at 20° W. from 3° to 10° N. Both the rate and set are
variable, though the general tendency towards Africa is evident. Between
15° and 20° W., and 4° and 8° N., it appears as a strong Current, with a
velocity of 30 to 40 miles in the 24 hours. In the Gulf of Guinea its rate
is greater than in 20° W., but nowhere exceeds 23 miles. The isotherm of
80°, in lat. 3° N., seems to mark the border of this Current.

In November it cannot be traced farther than 32° W. At 30° W. it
extends from about 4° to 10° N., and at 20° W. from 3° to 10° N. It appears
to be now losing strength and regularity. From 20° to 10° W. the obser-
vations are deficient in number. Off the Coast of Africa it runs more
to the Southward of East than in previous months, indicating the effect of
the Westerly winds North of the N.H. Trade, driving water against Africa,
which runs to the Southward. In the Gulf of Guinea it is also feeble and
unsettled as to direction.

In December the Guinea Current is indicated in 23° W., latitude 4° to
6° N. The set is irregular, and the rate feeble, from 11 to 14 miles. It
has contracted in breadth since November. At longitude 18° W., its
breadth is probably from 3° to 10° N. latitude. Thence to longitude
10° W. observations are wanted. The Current has been observed far to
the Westward in this month, in one or two instances between lat. 6° and
8° N., and long. 35° and 40° W., and also in 47° W. and 5° N. In the
Gulf of Guinea it flows between the coast and lat. 24° N., at a rate vary-
ing from 20 to 36 miles,

( 335 )

4.THE SARGASSO SEA.

(288.) The central portion of the North Atlantic Ocean, which is com-
prised between the Trade Wind and Anti-Trade Wind systems (42), page
124, also bounded on the South by the Westerly Drifts of the Trade
Winds, and to the North by the Easterly Current, presently described,
appears to be in a different physical condition to the other portions of the
Atlantic Ocean, and indeed from any other portion of the globe.

Its apparently chief characteristic is well expressed by the name now
usually applied to it—the Sargasso, or Weedy Sea. The well-known gu/f-
weed, which is found more or less over its whole area, seems to be quite
peculiar to it. There may be a somewhat analogous physical condition in
the North Pacific Ocean, but this is not so easily defined. This gulf-weed
is constantly found, in greater or less quantity, scattered over its whole
area, and when it is found in places not its usual habitat, it may be safely
inferred that it has drifted out of this extensive area by the action of the
Current.

(289.) It is very difficult to define the limits within which this gulf-weed
is found. The fluctuations of the seasons greatly affect them, as they do
the limits of the Trade Winds and intervening Calms, the more particularly
as it is to the varying Currents caused by these winds that the weed is
retained in its locality. Consequently, we may look for its North and
South boundaries more to the Southward during the Northern winter
months, and the reverse during the summer. The Tropic, or about the
parallel of 23° N., may be its Southern edge in the longitude of the Azores,
from whence this limit extends to the Virgin Islands and the Bahamas.
Its Northern edge runs from the Azores to the outer edge of the Gulf
Stream off Cape Hatteras. This will give a breadth of 1,000 miles in its
Eastern part, and a length of 3,000 miles from East to West. As before
stated, its limits may change greatly at different times, but it may always
be looked for within this area, that is between the Southern edge of the
Gulf Stream and the Northern limit of the Equatorial Current.

According to the investigations of Dr. O. Kriimmel,* the area of maximum
weediness (where the weed covers from 10 to 25 per cent. of the surface)
forms an ellipse between lat. 25° and 35° N., and long. 40° to 73° W.
The weed has been found as far North as lat. 52°, in long. 45° W., and as
far South as 15° N., but it is only found Northward of lat. 45° N. in late
summer and autumn.

(290.) There has been much speculation as to the causes and conditions
which have made and retained this peculiar area in its integrity.

* A good account of this weedy sea, which is called by the French ‘‘ Mer de Varec’h,”
by Captain Leps, of the French Navy, is given in the “ Annales Hydrographiques,’
1857, page 565, &c.; another more recent account, illustrated by a map, is given by
Dr. O. Kriimmel, in Petermann’s “ Mitteilungen,” 1891, pp. 129—141. As the con-
clusions there arrived at entirely accord with the particulars given in this volume, it has
not been thought necessary to quote from them to any large extent,

336 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

Major Rennell says:—It has been observed that the waters of the
Atlantic have a greater tendency toward the middle of the Ocean than
otherwise, and this seems to indicate a reduced level, forming a kind of
hollow space or depressed surface. It is certain that the setting of the
Currents is such as might be expected to take place if such a hollow existed;
for the Currents do really set into the Sargasso Sea from the North and
from the South; whilst in the middle part, although within the region of
the Trade Wind, the Currents are not regular, but indicate a kind of
vortex.*

By others it is considered as an immense eddy or whirlpool, formed by
the inclination of the water to the Westward, caused by the influence of
the Trade Winds and the Gulf Stream.

Others, again, argue that it is a raised surface, maintained in a quiescent
condition by the surrounding currents, and retaining all floating matter
that is poured into it by the surrounding influences.

It is also considered as the grand receptacle of the Gulf Stream, which,
recurving at the Azores, here turns into this space ail that it has trans-
ported through its long course.

All these theories have some facts to bear them up in some degree, but
others can be adduced to show their futility.

(291.) Itis here urged that a simple explanation can be given of this
curious region, in the analogous condition of the atmosphere, so powerful
an agent in the production or alteration of Ocean Drifts and Currents.

By referring to Maury’s Trade Wind Charts, cited on page 128 (48), it
will be seen that there is an uncertainty about meeting with the Northern
edge of the N.E. Trade Winds through an extent of at least 10° of latitude;
add to this the vibration of this zone of Trade Winds consequent on the
motion of the sun in the Ecliptic, which amounts to from 5° to 8° in
latitude, as exemplified in the diagram of the limits of the Trade Winds at
page 125, and we have a range of 15° to 18° of latitude over which, during
some portion of the year, and over a large section of it throughout the
year, there is nothing but light airs and variable winds, being, in fact, the
‘Horse Latitudes,” see page 168 (96 to 100).

Under this zone, therefore, the sea is subject to no continued or regular
drift, and, consequently, whatever is thrown on to its surface will remain
for a long time, and the Sargasso, or gulf-weed, being one of the few marine
plants which lives when broken from its rocky bed, may exist here for a
very long period, and thus accumulate by the fresh additions constantly
brought by the outer or Eastern edge of the Gulf Stream, as well as that
drifted around the Northern part of the Atlantic, and passing with the S.E.
current by the Azores (262) into this quiescent zone. That the Gulf Stream
is the primary feeder to this weedy sea will be shown presently.

(292.) There is another condition, also, which favours the maintenance
and growth of this peculiar plant. The temperature of this water is very
equable, less warm than that under the more vertical sun, and not varying
more than 6° or 7° Fahr. throughout the year in the Eastern part, or 8° or
9° in the Western part. This temperature is, as said, lower than that of

* Rennell’s “Investigation,” page 72.

THE SARGASSO SEA. 337

the Southern part of the great Equatorial streams to the South of it, but
it is higher than that of the Current which sets S.E. and South between
the Azores and Spain, and lower than that of the surface of the Gulf of
Mexico and the early course of the Gulf Stream. It may, therefore, be
considered that it approximates to the water-climate of the bottom near
the shores of the Gulf of Mexico, that of the sea around the Bahamas, &c.,
where it is known that this weed grows naturally.

(293.) The Sargasso or Gulf-weed, which is the peculiar characteristic
of this area, is one of the few plants, aquatic or terrestrial, which will live
and flourish when separated from its native stem. Its appearance is too
well known to require any detail. The sea was called Sargagao by the
early Portuguese navigators, from the weed bearing berries like grapes,
‘“‘garga.”’ This term has thus been corrupted into Sargasso, and been
applied. to the plant itself instead of the place it grows on. There are
more than one species of it known to botanists, as sargasswm vulgare, &c.,
distinguished from each other by the form of the leaves and the fructifica-
tion. These different species are more or less abundant in different localities.
It is frequently called fucus natans—floating sea-weed; and is known to
sailors as gulf-weed, that famous stream being always more or less marked
with it.

(294.) The old story of Columbus, wno had much difficulty with his men,
when they declared that even the sea changed its nature into terrestrial
to prevent his proceeding on his discovery voyage to America, has been
oft repeated. In his account he stated that ‘‘sometimes the weed comes
in such compact masses as to cause the sea to look like a coagulated mass.”

The sea is commonly studded over, like an inundated meadow, with the
bushes, which arein some places very abundant, and in others more dis-
persed. If we imagine the surface of a wide extended moor, covered
with water, the furze and heath bushes would appear something like the
clusters of fucus scattered over the thickest part of this sea.

The fructification of all sea-weeds is peculiar, but they require a fixed
basis to vegetate. Although apparently flourishing in vast areas in the
Sargasso Sea, they can only be looked on as cut flowers rather than as
complete plants, although their constitution enables them to live a long
period without being fixed to their parent rock like most other alge. They
are found in every state of decay, and when old they become covered with
minute and beautiful parasitic growths, which deserve much attention by
those who have the leisure and taste to examine them, especially with the
microscope, which in this region reveals a vast and little known world.
Besides this, too, the tufts afford protection and shelter to a vast quantity
and variety of minute fishes, crabs, and other crustacea and animalcule,
which will afford an inexhaustible fund of interest to the observer.
Naturally enough, there is a limit to its separate existence, and when
subjected to any change of temperature, or difference of locality unsuitable,
by a continuous wind or current, large areas become decayed, die, and sink
to the bottom, to be renewed by the continual fresh importations from the
Gulf of Mexico.

It is sometimes drifted on to the shores of the British Isles and Western

Noa. @. 44

338 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

Kurope, and appears among the other sea-weeds in the various works on
algology, but it is accepted as a shipwrecked stranger, not as a native of
our shores.

(295.) The Gulf of Mexico abounds with the native growths of the Sar-
gasso weed. It is found attached to the rocks, at the bottom, in most parts
of it. The soundings on the Campeche Bank, Chiriqui, the Andros Islands,
on the Bahama Banks, New Providence, &c., all furnish the supply of
growing plants. The spores (or seeds) of these become attached to these
rocks in the manner usual with all algz, and the young plant grows, not
from a root, because the attachment to the rock is not of that nature, till
it attains some size, when offering greater resistance to the progress of the
continual current than the stalk is able to bear, it becomes detached, rises
to the surface, and then is borne onward by the stream till it emerges
through the Gulf of Florida by the Gulf Stream. As will be shown here-
after, this stream has a tendency to throw all floating bodies off to the
right-hand of its course; it follows, that this weed is gradually cast off into
this central area, aided probably by the Westerly prevalence of the winds
which at times occur in this part.

One opinion may be safely controverted, that which assigns the depths
of the Atlantic over which it is found as its native place. The great depth
and consequent cold disproving the possibility of a plant living in such
extremes of temperature.

In the Paper mentioned in the note on page 335, Dr. Kriimmel ecaleu-
lates that after leaving Florida Strait or its vicinity, it would take about
six months for this weed to reach a position West of the Azores. It then
moves away very slowly, and gradually decays and sinks.

(296.) H.M.S. Challenger, in crossing the Sargasso Sea (June 14th to
July 1st, 1873), found the Current variable, both in strength and direction ;
in 63° W. 19 miles N.E.; in 59° W.12 m. N.E.; in 538° W. 6 m. §.8.E. ;
in 504° W. 17m. E. by, N.; in 49° W.-18 m. N-N.E.; in 46° WoaGiae
West; in 42° W. 22 m. N.W. ; in 38° W. 27 m. North; in 36° W. 4 m.
North; in 35° W. 16 m. E.S.E., and in 32° W. 8 m. S.W. The depth
westward of 38° W. was between 2,000 and 3,000 fathoms, with a bottom
of oaze, and with no signs of weed, disproving entirely the idea of some
naturalists that the weed grows in this locality. Hastward of 38° W., the
depth varied from 1,675 to 1,000 fathoms. The temperatures of the sea
surface were greater in the Western part of the district, 734°, than in the
Eastern, where it was generally found to be about 71°; at 100 fathoms the
temperature was about 66°; at 500 fathoms about 483°; and at 1,000
fathoms about 374° Fahrenheit.

“The floating islands of the gulf-weed, with which we had become very
familiar, as we had now nearly made the circuit of the ‘Sargasso Sea,’ are
usually from a couple of feet to two or three yards in diameter, sometimes
much larger; we have seen, on one or two occasions, fields several acres
in extent, and such expanses are probably more frequent nearer the centre
of its area of distribution. The general effect of a number of such fields
and patches of weed, in abrupt and yet harmonious contrast with the lanes
of intense indigo which separate them, is very pleasing. These floating
islands have inhabitants peculiar to them, and I know of no more perfect

THE SARGASSO SKA. 339

example of protective resemblance than that which is -hown in tha gulf-
weed fauna.” —Sir Wyville Thomson, ‘‘ Voyage of the Challenger,” vol. ii.,
pp. 9—10.

(297.) Captain Andrew Livingston, on his way from New Orleans to the
Strait of Florida, saw large quantities of it; and every one who has navi-
gated the Gulf Stream has remarked the weed in it, or along its borders.
Sir Philip Broke and the Baron Alexander von Humboldt say that the
stream contains a great deal. Sir Philip says, ‘‘ We were always surrounded
with gulf-weed.”’ Major Rennell adds, ‘‘ He spoke of that part of the Gulf
Stream out in the Atlantic; the others might speak of other parts.”

In the “Sailing Directory for the Windward and Gulf Passages, the
Bahama Islands, &c.,” by A. G. Findlay, is a description of Andros Island,
and it is there shown, that in the great sponging district, upon the Bahama
Bank, West of Andros, vast quantities of the gulf-weed are produced ; and
this is one of the beds from which the ocean has been supplied.

On this subject, we have the following remarks by Captain Livingston,
whose name has so frequently occurred in the preceding pages :—

‘« Many persons suppose that the gulf-weed (fucus natans) grows upon
the rocks about the Bermudas; others, that it originates among the
Florida Reefs ; and a third party, that it grows upon the water without
ever adhering to anything fixed.

‘* All these positions seem to me equally wide of truth. Neither on the
Bermuda Rocks, nor among the Florida Reefs, has a single branch of gulf-
weed ever been found growing upon the rocks; and, among all the gulf-
weed met on the ocean, no person has ever found a single tuft with roots,
or that, on mature examination, could be supposed, by any person of sound
judgment, to have grown on the surface of the water. On the contrary,
every stalk of the weed seems to have been broken off short from some-
thing to which it firmly grew, and all the ends of these stalks are uniformly
decayed, or dried up, from the end to a short distance.

‘Tt has been stated, as a well-known fact, that the fucus natams grows
on the rocks along the Gulf of Paria, and on the coasts of Caraccas, &c.
If this be the case, it is rather strange that it should not rather grow on
other rocks and coasts of the West Indies. It has also been stated, that
in the whole sea of floating bushes, Mar do Sargasso, not a withered plant
is ever discovered. This is not true, as I have seen abundance of fucus
natans in a state of great decay. I note the following from my journal of
the Brilliant, from Gibraltar towards Havanna: February 8th, 1819, ‘the
weed much decayed ;’ 9th, a.m., ‘weed passed through, much decayed ;’
10th, p.m., ‘ passed through much decayed weed; I remark, that the
farther we run to the Westward, the more decayed is the gulf-weed;’ 13th,
‘the gulf-weed begins to look fresher.’*

‘« These particulars have been given in order to show that I have not
spoken at random; on the contrary, actually made my remarks on the spot.

* On the 8th of February, the Brilliant was in 24° 17’ N. and 65° 1’ W. On the 9th,
in 24° 34’ N. and 66° 59’ W. On the 10th, in 24° 51’ N. and 68° 39’ W. On the 12th, in
25° 34’ N. and 71° 5’ W. On the 9th, the ship passed the meridian of Porto Rico, and
was hence proceeding toward Providence Channel, Bahama. The decayed weed, wa
have no doubt, had drifted from the central area of the ocean.—Fin.

340 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

Some of the weed was quite brown, and in small fragments, evidently
separated into such by its state of decay. It is true that the weed soon
decays when it is taken out of the water, as I have often tried the experi-
ment. The weed is never of a verdant green colour, but seems as if
blanched from having been, in some degree, hid from light; I suppose
from vegetating under water.”

(298.) Mr. Turner, and many other botanists, thought that the greater
part of the fuci (weeds) which we gather on the surface of the ocean, and
which, from the 28rd to the 35th degree of latitude, appear to the mariner
like a vast inundated meadow, grow primitively at the bottom of the ocean,
and float only in their ripened state, when they are torn off by the motion
of the waves.

«The causes that uproot these weeds, at depths where it is generally
thought the sea is but slightly agitated, are not sufficiently known. It has
been said, that if the fucus adheres to the rocks with the greatest firmness
before the display of its fructification, it separates with great facility after
this period, or during the season which suspends its vegetation, like that
of the terrestrial plants. The fish and the mollusce that gnaw the stems
of the sea-weeds no doubt contribute also to detach them from their roots.

‘“«On proceeding hence, toward the West Indies, from the 22nd degree
of latitude, we found the surface of the sea covered with flying-fish, which
threw themselves up into the air 12, 15, or 18 feet high, and fell down on
the deck. I do not hesitate to speak of an object, of which voyagers
discourse as frequently as of dolphins, sharks, sea-sickness, and the phos-
phorescence of the ocean. None of these objects can fail of affording
interesting observations to those who make them their study.”’

(299.) Captain Bourke, in the brig Archibald, December, 1815, found
large quantities of the weed near the parallel of 20°, to the Northward of
the Island Porto Rico, and of the Eastern part of Hayti; but on the
passage through the Bahama Channel, Eastward of the meridian of 70°,
and on the North sides of Hayti and Cuba, none of the weed was seen.
This may be accounted for on the supposition that it was drifted by the
current from the great bed of weed to the N.E., as before explained.

Lieutenant John Evans, R.N., states:—‘‘In November, 1810, H.M.S.
Belvedere, in the centre of the Atlantic, lat. 33° 20’, long. 41° 37’, passed
through prodigious quantities of fucus natans, in line North and South, as
far as the eye could see; and, notwithstanding that there prevailed a very
heavy swell from the North, their position was not altered. The quantity
of this weed met with between the 30th and 36th degrees of latitude is
really astonishing ; at times you may sail for leagues through it, covering,
as a mantle, the surface of the sea. I have often seen it in lines about
300 or 400 fathoms in length (sometimes only a few yards), and frequently
in large and small patches of irregular shape, but generally in a circular
form. The deep-sea line should be put over the side frequently in this
particular part of the Atlantic.”

On the 17th of April, 1828, at noon, in the Mexican Sea, a vessel, under
the command of Lieutenant John Evans, was in lat, 26° 52’, long. 89° 17’.
On this day fucus natans, or gulf-weed, was seen, in parallel lines, 8.8.E.
and N.N.W. It was in flower, and completely covered with young bar-

THE SARGASSO SHA. 341

~

nacles. ‘‘ From lat. 25° to 28° in this sea we met with fucus in parallel
lines, S.S.E. and N.N.W.; it flowers like fern and other cryptogamia. In
calms, the fuci float near the surface, some of the leaves appearing above
water; the patches seen in the Florida Stream, and the bunches examined,
were old, brown, and covered with young barnacles.”

In the year 1825, the brig Hrin, from the Pacific Ocean to Liverpool,
when to the Westward of the Azores, passed compact parallels of fucus
natans, in lat. 39° 59’, long. 33° 46’. The weed was less broken than any
they had before seen; the medules large and of a deep yellow-brown colour,
and the lines extending, as far as the eye could reach, in a direction about
S. by E., being nearly at right angles with the vessel’s line, which was
K. by N. The wind was 8.E. by S., strong gales and a heavy sea.

(300.) The fucus natans is found in localities to the Hastward of the
Sargasso Sea. For the following communication we are indebted to the
late Captain Thomas Midgley, and it is a great acquisition to our know-
ledge of the wide range that this plant has :—

“On my outward passage to Africa, in a perfect calm, at daylight on the
morning of the 18th of January, 1841, in lat. 6° 46’ N., long. 14° 56’ W.,
I found the ship amongst a number of small bunches of weed, and many
cuttle-fish shells.

‘On carefully examining some of the bunches of weed, I was surprised
to find it the true fucus natans, or Sargasso or gulf-weed, being in every
respect precisely the same as that found in the N.E. Trades, but apparently
much fresher, having exactly the same kind of oblong, narrow, serrated
leaf, same stem, same nodules, and just the same pale yellow colour. The
pods were also surrounded with a very fine kind of network (flustra), and
there were a very few minute barnacles attached to the stem, which
scarcely showed any marks of decay; indeed, the two bunches brought
on board (which were each about 4 inches in diameter) appeared to hava
been but very recently separated from the parent stem, and they each
contained a small but very lively crab.

‘“« The lively fresh appearance of the weed, and the two crabs, induced
ne to try for soundings, and, as the weather was perfectly calm and the
water smooth, I was enabled to get a perpendicular cast of 112 fathoms,
with a well-armed heavy lead, but found no bottom.

‘The weed was in detached and small bunches, and could only have
tended over a comparative limited space; for when a breeze of wind sprang
up, and the vessel had sailed 20 miles to the Eastward, there was not a
single sprig or bunch to be seen.

‘This weed appears to be unknown upon the Kroo coast, for I had two
intelligent natives of Sangwin and Grand Sestros on board at the time I
picked the weed up, and they severally declared they had never seen it
upon any part of the coast.

‘The vessel had been perfectly becalmed for fourteen hours previous
and two hours subsequent to the time of picking up the weed, so that she
gradually drifted amongst it by a current, which I found, by good observa-
tions and carefully-kept reckoning, to set E. by S. by compass, very nearly
three-quarters of a mile per hour. Temperature of water, when weed was
picked up at daylight, 79°, and at noon, 81° F

342 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

(It had evidently been drifted out of the area by the Guinea Current,
described on pages 325—334. Its not being known farther East is probably
owing to the difference in the temperature of the sea, which kills the weed
before it can arrive there).

(301.) Mr. Luccock, in his ‘‘ Notes on Brasil,” likewise described the
Green or Weedy Sea. He states that it extends from 11° to 35° of North
latitude, and from 30° of longitude to an indefinite distance Westward.
“Here,” he says, ‘‘the ocean is covered by nodules of sea-weed, from 3 to
18 inches in diameter, somewhat resembling in form a cauliflower when
stripped of its leaves. They float lightly on the water, in parallel lines, at
a very few yards from each other, and have a yellow-brown colour, like the
long stringy fibre which is sometimes seen floating in the English Channel,
and which I suppose to be the natural colour of all marine plants, growing
deeply beneath the surface of the water. These nodules, or spherules, are
composed of a vast number of small branches, about half an inch long,
which shoot from each other at an angle of about 40°; hence they multiply
continually towards the superficies of the sphere; and each extreme point
produces a round seed-vessel. This is little more than one-tenth part of
an inch in diameter, is hollow, and contains a small reddish-brown seed,
scarcely occupying one-fifth part of the husk. The leaf of the plant springs
from the joints of the branches, is oblong, indented at the edges, about
14 inch long, and a quarter of an inch broad.

‘“‘ When the nodule is dexterously taken up, all the branches may be
traced to one principal stalk; and this invariably shows a fracture, the
part by which it has been joined to some larger stem. This fracture is
frequently quite fresh, and, in large and vigorous plants, shows distinctly
a woody part and a cortex. On the edges of the latter, the first symptoms
of decay appear. They become brown, and separate themselves from the
wood. This, also, then assumes a darker colour, and exhibits the regular
process of disorganization, just in the same manner as does a slip from a
currant or gooseberry bush. In process of time, the whole of the plant
assumes a darker hue; and, as it decays, floats considerably lower than it
did. When kept out of the water for a few hours, it becomes harsh and
brown, and acquires the peculiar smell of marine vegetables in a state of
putrefaction.

“A great number of very minute barnacles are found upon the leaves
and stalks. The seed-pod is usually enveloped in a sort of honeycomb
work, which may be taken from it, and, when examined by a lens, resem-
“bles in appearance the network of a fly’s eye. (This is.called flustra).
Among other inhabitants of the plant is frequently a number of small
crabs, perfectly formed, and evidently young, yet vigorous and active ; and
when a nodule, taken fresh from the water at night, is hung up in a small
cabin, it emits phosphorescent light enough to render objects visible.

“The singular arrangement of the plants, in parallel lines, is evidently
owing to the wind, whose direction they always observe. Each nodule
places itself under the lee of its more windward neighbour, and thus ob-
serves the law of floating bodies when exposed to a current of air. Should |
the wind suddenly change, as it sometimes does, a point or two, in this
part of the Atlantic, and blow strong, these lines become broken, and form

THE NORTH EQUATORIAL CURRENT. 343

what are commonly called fields of weed. These, however, are generally
small, and seldom, I suspect, remain long so disarranged.”

Mr. Luccock was of opinion that the weed grew on the bottom in the
area where it is found floating, but more recent explorations have disproved
this; as before stated.

5.—THE NORTH EQUATORIAL CURRENT.

(302.) The name which is usually given to the great Drifts of the Trade
Winds, having as wide a range of latitude as 50° or 60°, is scarcely expres-
sive. The Hguatorial Current, strictly speaking, is the counter-current
we have just described. However, the Drift which is intended passes to
the S.W. and West of the Azores and Canaries, and from the Coast of
Africa to the Gulf of Mexico, Northward of the Easterly Counter-Current
in the North Atlantic; while the great Drift of the S.E. Trade Wind,
crossing the Equator Southward of the Counter-Current, and running
strongly to the N.N.W., along the coast of Guayana, joins its strength to
the Northern portion, and thus, together, they pass between the islands
and through the Caribbean Sea.

The Drift of the N.E. Trade is not so poueee as that of the 8.E. Trade,
as the interference of the land causes such a great change in the regularity
of the winds which certainly must be taken as the greatest cause in the
production of these currents. In general, it is a very feeble current, and
the mean rate has been over-estimated in former times by many observers.
In its Northern limits in the open ocean its annual average, from a careful
calculation, amounts from 8:2 miles to 11:6 miles per day; in its Southern
and stronger portion it is from 16 to 22-4 miles per day. Westward of
the Cape Verde Islands, its mean direction is nearly due West, which is
remarkable, considering the northing of the Trade Wind. It would seem
scarcely necessary to enlarge much upon the rate and extent of this well-
known current; but, as it may be interesting to compare individual ex-
perience with that of preceding voyages, we give as heretofore a series
of examples by which the ordinary rate and circumstances may be
reckoned on,

(303.) H.M.S. Challenger (February 15th—March 14th, 1873), in cross-
ing the North Atlantic directly between the Canary Islands and Sombrero,
the Northern extreme of the Caribbee Islands, found the Current to flow
as indicated in the Current Chart, page 295 ; the velocities, however, were
greater in places. In long. 19° W. the Current flowed to the 8. by W. at
a rate of 10 miles in the 24 hours; in 22° W., 9 miles 8.8.W.; in 25° W.,
13 or 14 miles W. by S.; in 31° W., 10 miles W.S.W.; in 33° W., 21
miles W.S.W. ; in 35° W., 14 miles W.S.W.; in 37° W., 8 miles W.S.W. ;
between 39° and 42° W., 11 or 12 miles W.S.W.; between 42° and 45° W.,
16 miles W. by S.; in long. 463° W., 12 miles 8.8.W.; in 483° W., 11
miles W.N.W.; in 51° W., 7 miles W.S.W.; in 53° W., 4 miles W.S.W. ;
in 54° W., 18 miles West; in 554° W., 15 miles W.S.W. ; in 573° W., 16

344 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

miles West ; in 604° W., 16 miles W.S.W.; in 62° W. (70 miles N.N.E.
from Barbuda), 10 miles N.W. ; and off Sombrero, 7 miles W.N.W.

The wind observed was about N.E., between the Canary Islands and
35° W.; thence Kast, with a little South in it as the Caribbee Islands were
approached.

The temperature of the sea surface was 64° F. at the Canaries, and
increased, as the voyage proceeded, to 75° at Sombrero. A temperature
of about 464° was found right across, at a depth of about 500 fathoms,
and at 1,000 fathoms the temperature varied from 37° to 39°. Bottom
temperature, 34° to 36°.

(304.) As it would be beyond the scope of this work to give a series
of monthly charts, like those published by our Meteorological Office,
although they are very interesting and most important, our remarks must
be limited to those verbal extracts from that work, such as have been
given previously.

The Westerly Drift.*—Under this name are included the Currents of
the vast central expanse of the North Atlantic Ocean, bounded on the
East by the North African Current, on the South by the Guinea Current,
on the West by the chain of the West India Islands, and the Northerly
and North-Easterly portion of the Gulf Stream, and on the North by the
Easterly part of the Gulf Stream.

The Westerly set may be considered to commence at the 30th meridian.
T’rom lat. 8° N., as its mean Southern limit, to the parallel of 20° N., the
get is more constant and steadier than it is farther Northward. Indeed,
as the latitude increases, the regularity of the set and the rate decrease.
Here the latter averages from 12 to 24 miles a day, and this part of the
Drift enters the Caribbean Sea with the Equatorial Current. Between
the parallels of 20° and 25° N. the Drift averages from 8 to 12 miles, and
can be traced to about long. 63° W. From 25° to 30° N. the set is
irregular, and the rate from 4 to 1 miles, traceable also to long. 63° W.
Between 30° and 40° N. the set is so irregular in direction and feeble in
force as to lead to the conclusion that here the true Westerly Drift does
not exist.

From lat. 36° N., long. 65° W., to the Bahamas, along the right edg

of the Gulf Stream, we find evidence of a counter-current setting to the
S.W., and then to the South, at about 12 miles a day; and about lat
28° N., long. 78° W., turning to the S.E., in conformity with the contout
of the Bahama Shoals. This South-Hasterly Current is probably periodical
and seems at times to extend to long. 63° W., in lat. 34° N., its greatest
rate not exceeding 15 miles a day. About long. 64° W., from lat. 20° to
27° N., there is a feeble Northerly set, but not supported by many obser-
vations.

(305.) In Janwary the Westerly Drift of the North Equatorial Current
seems cvnfined to the Torrid zone, and to vary from 6 to 24 miles per day.
‘There are indications of an Easterly Drift in lat. 23° N. Farther North
the observations are deficient and conflicting, but indicate a Drift to the

‘Southward of West.

* By this term it is to be understood that what we call the North Equatorial Currant

or Drift is meant.

THE NORTH EQUATORIAL CURRENT. 345

In February the vast central area of the Atlantic Ocean appears to have
variable currents, judging from the very few observations recorded for
February. The Westerly Drift of the Tropics, if it exists at all, must be
very feeble, not averaging more than 8 or 12 miles daily. Between lat 30°
and 37° N., long. 42° to 65° W., the Drift seems to be Northerly, but the
observations are not numerous. (See, however, the remarks relating to
H.M.S. Challenger, on pages 343—344).

In March it does not appear to extend beyond lat. 25° N. Between
27° and 55° W. observations fairly represent the general: Westerly set,
while they give its rate at from 6 to 35 miles; it has its greatest rates in
lat. 5° N.

In April the Westerly Drift may be said to extend to 30° N. The obser-
vations differ greatly as to the rate, though they agree in indicating greater
strength in the lower latitudes. In mid-ocean, between 30° and 40° N.,
the directions are variable, and the rates feeble.

*In May, North of the Equatorial Current to lat. 30° N., and from
25° W. to the West Indies, the general movement of the ocean seems to
be to the Westward, at a rate of from 6 to 18 miles. In the Western
portion of this region observations are, as usual, deficient.

In June it appears in mid-ocean and towards the Bahamas. It does not
extend Northward of 30° N. The rates are various, ‘and the observations
are altogether scanty, as they are for July, August, September, and October.*

In November it exhibits a decided set to the Southward, between 25°
and 30° N., and 40° to 60° W.

In December the Westerly Drift seems to maintain its usual gentle flow,
but from lat. 20° to 40° N., long. 40° to 70° W., there are scarcely any data.

(306.) In the work (before mentioned in the note, page 136) by Captain
Toynbee, avery full discussion of the direction and strength of the Currents
between 10° S. and 20° N., and from long. 10° to 40° W., is given. Any
verbal description of this work would give but a poor idea of its utility,
and it has been thought best to give the information in the diagrams
relating to the Best Monthly Routes Across the Equator, given hereafter,
to which therefore the reader is referred.

(307.) It will be scarcely necessary to recapitulate the evidence upon
which the mean rate was set down in the chart of the North Atlantic
Ocean, before referred to (see (48) page 128). The General Chart of the
Currents, at page 295, will, with the foregoing remarks, fully explain this
part of the subject. As the Current is well established, we need not
extract the numerous observations given by Captain Maury, as they
almost all tend to the same conclusion. But the Drift of Bottles is so
marked an evidence, that we give a number of instances which will be
very instructive.

* Between September 4th and 10th, 1887, in lat. 23° 30'N., long. 34° to 48° W., Easterly
and South-Hasterly currents, of 7 to 21 miles a day, were experienced by three ships of
the United States training squadron, where a decided Westerly drift is almost invariably
reported. On the 11th, this Easterly set was lost, and the usual drift (W.N.W., 18
miles,) met with. The Trades were fresh, with no unusual meteorological conditions.

Ne Ad. 45

346 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

(308.) Bottles—The following have been selected from Captain Becher’s
list, explaining his Bottle Chart, in the ‘‘ Nautical Magazine,’ of Novem-
ber, 1852. It has been before quoted in (243), pages 295—296 :—

Nl : ;
| Where jeft. | Se
a vc
Ship. | Signature. | — Where found. | 3 |S Ey
a Latitude | Long. i ZA 2
> N W. 5 A a
Aint A lea Maid ea Means de a GO. ai ms
° ° Stata
Thunder .......ce000] OWEN .......4 1833; 28-4 25-5 | Bahamas ......... 506/2750) 5
OSPICY Pe cashacteas weet nase ences cess 1822) 13-3 39-2 | Bahamas ......... 216/2610} 12.
C. Dunmore ...... Rebertson.../1828} 27-4 28-ON i Cubaiecsecsesseccess 4387/2530) 5
Kaboreasesssserveccnss Creswell .../1825) 24-0 19-0 | Mosquitia......... 519|3300} 6
Wellington........ .| Liddell ...... 1836; 17-9 29:0) )||PADRCO) caeweecceess 265|4000) 15.
CHO cnet ccaceeucdes | Belcher ....+. 1837 17-3 36-6 | Antigua ......... 196|1410; 7
Stratford ......... WOGCKEY.. cscs 1836} 14-5 34-4 | Jamaica ......... 278)/2460| 8
OS IRS) /cadcaceceanceca REneenpaartectaces 1820 4-1 24-3 | Barbadoes ...... 139}2220} 16
William Lockerby| Parker ...... 1838} 14-1 25-2 | Grenadines ...... 169/2110} 12.
WDEDINGYcaanecece cacve laceenseeseasasieal 1820 5-2 24-7 | Martinique ...... 322)2300! 7
1S 2 Re 11822 6-2 15-6 | Trinidad .........| 192/2920) 15.
C. McCarthy ...... Biel @iiedssena 1824; 22-0 53-5 | San Salvador ...| 226)1200) 5
Harlequin ......... Cunningham)1851; 24-7 30-4 | Turks Island ...| 300/2300) 7
Walligner.c2s-2.00. EGuipexeea 1843} 19-2 30:8: ||P CaleOs wecccactesacee 375|2250| 6
MworBrothers....2.|ta.cccbaesomeccsss 1826] C. Verde Islands} Crooked Island | 3822800) 7
Duke of Marlboro’| Thorn ...... 1820) C. Verde Islands; Hayti ............ 283)2610) 9
INTE Ghoobentecadnc ISRGGYS neces. 1842) 14-5 34-4 | Martinique ...... 277|2100| 7
Minny (esneiike | Locke... 1836 14-5 | 34-4 | Barbuda ......... 278|1700| 6-
Enterprise ......... Collinson .../1850 1-1 26-8 | Honduras......... 367/3800) 10-
Investigator ...... | McClure ...;1850| 12-4 26-1 | Ambergris Kay | 186/3610) 20.
TREN IS) Aoq5dodocsanGar Messum......)1852 0-5 8. | 22-6 | Martinique ...... 155)/2430) 15.
SOPMIA cvowssnarcennes Saxony sas) 11848) 5:2 40:3 | Grenada ......... 151)1320) 8
Race-horse ......... Js (o100(: eee 11835} 8.6 52-0 | St. Vincent ...... 35] 610) 17
Race-horse ......... | Home ...... 11835 Ths) 47-8 | Tobago ::..c0..000 50}1000| 20
Race-horse ......... lomienerereses 1835} 11-5 61-5. | Maracaibo ...... 17| 240) 14-

The mean rate of travelling of all these Bottles is 10°6 miles per day. But this:
average requires several qualifications which will make it considerably higher.
The distances are measured direct, but it is most probable that these messengers
pursued a more or less devious course. Again, it will be seen that the Bottles
thrown out on the Northern part of this Trade Wind drift have travelled much
slower to their destination than those which started from near the Equator.

(309.) Besides the above, we add the following examples of Bottle drifts :—

Central Drift to the Virgin Isles.—A Bottle from the Emerald, Captain Nockells,
bound to Jamaica, December 17th, 1831, in lat. 36° 40’, long., by chron., 12° 32.
Found on the North side of Anegada, January 8th, 1833. The winds for the last
three days, previous to the 17th of December, were from North and N.W. to 8.W. -
For eight days preceding these it blew a continued and heavy gale from S.W. and
W.N.W.; the barque lying-to the whole time, and drifting from lat. 41° 28, 227
miles to the Northward.

Equatorial Current to Tobago—A Bottle from the-schooner Julia, William
Davidson, master, in lat. 6° N., and loug. 40° W., November 6th, 1821. Found
March 7th, 1822, near the shore of Little Rocky Bay, Tobago.

Central Drift and Equatorial Currents.—A Bottle from the ship Gambia, in the
River Gambia, lat. 18}° N., in the latter part of 1831, was picked up on the
Southern side of Virgin Gorda, lat. 18° 30.

Central Drift and Equatorial Currents—A Bottle from the Two Brothers, of
Baltimore, in lat. 17° N., long. 26° W. (off St. Antonio), November 21st, 1826,

THE NORTH EQUATORIAL CURRENT. 347

was found at Acklin or South Crooked Island, in Jat. 22° 12’ N., long. 74° 18’, on
Deceinber 8th, 1827. Hence it appears to have drifted, in a W. by N. direction,
from the vicinity of the Cape Verde Isles to the West Indies, under the influence
of the drift from the N.E. and the Equatorial Current, probably, in the first
instance, W.S.W. and thence W.N.W.

Madeira to the West Indies.—A Bottle from the ship Symmetry, of Scarborough,
Captain Smith, on her way from Leith to Buenos Ayres, off Madeira, June 9th,
1825. Picked up at Salt Kay, Turks Islands, after a lapse of ten years, June 9th,
1835.

Cape Verde Islands to Brasil_—The Hazard, of Greenock, August 4th, 1812, lost
the N.E. Trade in lat. 11° N., long. 25° W.; and the wind, until the 12th, varied
from West to S.W. ; from the 12th to the 17th it generally blew from South, never
exceeding one point Easterly. Gained the 8.E. Trade on the 17th, in lat. 2’ N.,
long. 27° 30’ W.; the Trade kept Southward between Penedo de San Pedro, or
St. Paul’s Islets, and the coast of Brasil (at Rio Doce), and experienced a Westerly
current amounting to nearly four degrees. Attested by Captain J. W. Monteath.

Between Madeira and Brasil.—In the Jane, Captain Livingston, April and May,
1824, found a surplus effect of currents, between Madeira and Brasilian Trinidad
in thirty-nine days, equal to 1° 19’ 47” S., and 6° 3’ W.

A Bottle from the ship Hesperus, about lat. 37° N., long. 28° W., May 12th,
1878, was picked up at Mobile Bay, May 22nd, 1880, having covered a distance
of about 5,500 miles, at the mean rate of 8 miles a day.

A Bottle from the ship Patriarch, in lat. 18° 29’ N., long. 27° 8’ W., December
23rd, 1884, was picked up in 1887 (? date), on the Eastern side of Caicos Bank,
having drifted 2,523 miles to W. 4 N.

(310.) The foregoing is a sufficient elucidation of the features, velocity,
and limits of the N.E. Trade Wind Drift of the Atlantic Ocean, but, as
before mentioned, particularly in (53 to 60), pages 131—135, the division
between the Northern and Southern systems of Wind, and consequently
of Current, being to the Northward of the Equator, the South Equatorial
Current ultimately combines with the North Equatorial Current, part of
their united waters entering the Caribbean Sea, and forming the origin of
the Gulf Stream, and the rest appears to trend off to the Northward out-
side the islands, as explained hereafter, in the Section dealing with the
Gulf Stream.

6.—THE SOUTH EQUATORIAL CURRENT.

(311.) The South Equatorial Current, which passes over the Equator in
its Northern portion, in its direction is, like that of the Northern Equato-
rial Current, nearly due West. Setting upon the Northern coast of South
America, it runs with great velocity close in-shore at times, sometimes
reaching 100 miles per day, and not unusually 60 miles. It is scarcely
necessary to dilate on this Current, as it appears to be regularly and con-
stantly met with. Arrived to the Northward of Tobago, it combines with
the North Equatorial Current, and the united streams thence proceed as
described above. Its progress through the Caribbean Sea, &c., will be

348 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

dealt with in the next Section. For an idea of its strength and direction
in the Equatorial region, between the longitudes of 10° and 40° W., the
reader is referred to the diagrams illustrating the Best Monthly Routes
Across the Equator.

(312.) It will be seen that, throughout the breadth of this Ocean, the
set of the stream is not to S.W. or N.W., as might be expected from the
direction of the Trade Winds, which may be taken as the prime mover of
these mighty drifts, but Westward. This fact would seem to indicate that
the rotation of the earth on its axis has more to do with its motion than
has usually been attributed to it. But our present knowledge of the sub-
ject is not sufficiently extensive or accurate to define what amount of
action is due to that source, or how much to the wind, lunar influences,
or temperature, all of which combine to produce the phenomena we are
considering. Theoretical speculations, however, are not necessary in a
practical work, although they may be interesting.

(318.) In the “Sailing Directory for the Caribbee or West India
Islands,” by A. G. Findlay, will be found ‘‘ Remarks on the Currents of
the Atlantic and West Indies, made by Lieutenant A. H. Bisschop
Greevelink, in the Echo, a brig of the Dutch Royal Navy, during four
years of service, 1833—1837,” and which describes the route of that vessel
from England to Surinam, in August and September, 1833. ‘On the
evening of the 13th of the month, the Echo, having arrived in lat. 17° N.,
and long. 35° W., lost the Trade Wind, and the wind then shifted to the
N.W., with a strong breeze; gloomy weather, and much rain, during the
twenty-four hours. The following day the wind, diminishing, passed to
the §.W. and §.S.E., and terminated in a calm; currents weak and
variable to the §.W. and Eastward.

‘On the morning of the 16th, in lat. 14° 40’, long. 30° 20’, a light breeze
sprang up from the 8.E., and from that time till we reached the coast we
had to struggle with a never-ceasing variety of wind and weather, continual
rains with squalls, and scarce a day passing without lightning in one or
other quarter of the horizon. On the 18th we passed by several ripplings
or eddies, being then in lat. 12°, and long. 39°30' W. They usually stretched
from East to West, and were often seen to cover the whole surface, every-
where boiling and bubbling as in a cauldron. Current always weak, and
during the last forty-eight hours to the West and W.N.W. at a rate of half
a mile an hour.

«« After losing the Trade Wind we had to creep over more than 900 miles,
as the wind had left us, in every appearance, for ever; the rains were
copious and continual in this space, and lightning was seen very frequently.
On the 18th (lat. 11° 52’, long. 39° 25’), we passed through a number of
eddies; and on the 24th (lat. 8° 3’, long. 45° 37’), the first indication of a
change in the colour of the sea became visible; yet it was slight, and may
be attributed to a branch of the Northerly current observed in the succeed-
ing day. On the 27th (lat. 5° 52’, long. 48° 38’), we received a gentle S.H.
breeze, which brought us, though slowly, toward the coast. In the night
of the 28th (lat. 5° 7’, long. 49° 56’), we crossed the edge of meeting currents
from the Ethiopic Ocean and Brasilian shore, and from the Marajion;
after which, we entered the boundary of the tides. In the evening of

THE SOUTH EQUATORIAL CURRENT. 349

September 30th, came to anchor in 53 fathoms. In the night, observed
longitude by chronometer, 54° 11’ 45”.

‘« Although we had not seen land since we lost sight of the Lizard, by
which to examine our timekeepers, I felt not the least doubt about their
rate (the one a Knebel, and the other a Parkinson and Frodsham), by their
reciprocal conformity, corroborated by my lunar observations (which,
by-the-bye, I think are never to be neglected); and as I was desirous to
obtain some observations about the Currents, so peculiarly remarkable in
these seas, I took every opportunity which circumstances allowed to satisfy
my curiosity.

“On the 22nd of September and subsequent days, the ripplings became
less in number; and on the 24th, in the afternoon, about the 8th degree
of latitude and 46th of longitude, we perceived the first change in the
colour of the water from the common blue to a somewhat darker hue; and,
as this was somewhat an uncommon case, I attributed it to a branch of
Current observed the following day at noon, setting due North, at the rate
of more than a mile an hour, straight across a South-Hasterly Current
observed during the preceding days, mingling the muddy waters of the
Maraiion and other rivers with those of the ocean. From the 24th to the
28th nothing particular occurred; we were always steering to the S.W.
with light variable winds, and a continuance of rain sufficient to penetrate
our very bones. Currents, weak and changeable, being lastly observed to
run N. by W., 18 miles in twenty-four hours. This, at present, I call weak,
being afterward accustomed to fall in with a velocity of twice and thrice
that number of miles. At noon we altered our course to W.S.W., being
then in lat. 5° 7’, and long. 49° 45’ 55”.

‘Tn the night, however, having a lunar altitude, we were not a little
surprised at finding the ship thrown 35 miles to the Northward of her sup-
posed situation, although I may say to have been prepared for this occur-
rence by Captain Edward Sabine’s relation in the ‘‘ Memoir,”’ whose track
we were crossing just then, in the same month.

«« At break of day we saw the water totally altered in colour, and thickly
mingled with mud, as if we were sailing in a flood of ochre; hove the lead,
and found 45 fathoms, fine sand, white and black. At seven in the morn-
ing, by chronometric observations, I found the Westerly offset 33’ 38”;
and finally, at noon, in lat. 5° 21’ 49”, long. 51° 46’ 15”, it appeared evident
that the Current, in the last twenty-four hours, had been running with the
rapidity of 67 miles to the N. 30° W. In the afternoon we perceived the
land toward the 8.W. by S., being the Family Islands of Cayenne, and at
the same time we entered the boundary of the tides.

‘‘ This, indeed, seems to confirm the opinion of those seamen who attri-
bute the principal strength of Currents hereabout to the waters of the
Marafion, &c., predominating over those of the ocean; but this is to be
admitted in a partial degree only; for, as operating on the general direc-
tion of the Equatorial Current, I esteem it as of no influence at all.”

(314.) The numerous voyages made by the Echo, in the West Indian
Seas, with a particular detail of each, more especially in regard to the
Currents, are given in the volume before mentioned ; and from these voyages
and experiments the general inductions are, that between the Caribbee

300 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

Islands and the Coast of Guayana, in the months of August, September,
and October, the Current veered to the Northward of N.W., and in other
months more Westerly, or even to the Southward of West, as in November
and December, 1834; but we learn, also, that the greatest velocity of
Current has been observed in August and September, when the Marajion
is at its lowest level, as well as in December and March, when this river
begins to increase, and attains its greatest height ; even on examining the
details, in order to discover any regularity in its force, we find an irregu-
larity reconcileable only with that of the wind; and, more generally, by
applying the theory of Trade Winds, and their influence upon the surface
water of the Ocean.

After having once rebounded from the Brasilian Coast, the united
Equatorial and Ethiopic Currents are again compelled to retire Westward
by the influence of the S.H. Trade Wind (apparently, also, by the dispo-
sition of the waters in these regions to retire Westward) ; and, although
at passing the Marajion, which disembogues towards the N.E., the com-
bined Current may, in some degree, according to its variable form and
strength, derive an impulse to the Northward, yet it soon yields to the
force of the N.E. Trade Wind, and the South-Westerly Drift thereby pro-
duced, which sets toward the Caribbee Islands.

In proportion to the force and extent of these winds, the general current
is pressed toward the shore of Guayana, as in December, 1835, and
November and December, 1834; or allowed to expand freely to the North,
as in August, September, and October; even to the N.E., as in March,
1837, especially when preceded by long and violent indraughts, and followed
by calm weather. .

By the influence of the Maranon waters, the general Current is pre-
vented from sweeping the coast to the Westward of Cape North; as the
stream of this great river, being unobstructed, seems to gather all its
strength, and force the Western boundary of that gigantic drift to an un-
certain distance from shore. In this manner we may account for the weak
Westerly Current, creeping along that part of the coast comprehended be-
tween the Marafion and Gulf of Paria, called the region of the tides, and
which is produced by the remaining effluxion of the Marafon, confined
between the Western border of the general Current and the muddy banks
of Guayana. It is incorrect to fix this border in 9 fathoms, as I have
found it in twice and thrice that depth ; but, on the other hand, I think
that if what has been supposed by Admiral Cosmé de Churruca should
ever happen again—I mean the destroying of the Equatorial Current by
the action of the rivers—the Atlantic will be found of a whitish hue, so far
as these Currents shall reach, because their thick muddy waters never
mingle with those of the ocean until they have been subdued by, and are
at rest with them.*

* The great force of the Marajion current was observed by Captain W. Code, in the
ship Albion. He says :—On October 8th, 1857, at noon, lat. 5° 14’ N., long. 50° 1’ W.,
current North, 18 miles. This current must be caused from the waters of the Riyer
Maraiion. The water is not salt, merely brackish taste, the sea boiling and making a
great noise, which I have found seldom to occur when the currents are strong.—
«Meteorological Report,” 1872, page 30.

THE SOUTH EQUATORIAL CURRENT. 351

(315.) H.M.S. Challenger (August 21st—September 6th, 1873) crossed
the South Equatorial Current from lat. 3° 25’ N., long. 15° W., 420 miles
W.S.W. from Cape Palmas, to Cape San Roque; visiting on the way St.
Paul’s Rocks and Fernando Noronha. She found the Currents much as
represented in the illustrative diagram, page 295, but having generally a
greater velocity ; thus, in lat. 3° 25' N., long. 15° W., the Current flowed
9 miles to W.S.W. in the twenty-four hours. Thence she steered direct
for St. Paul’s Rocks, and in long. 17° 30' W. found the Current setting 23
- miles to the N.W. in twenty-four hours; in long. 20° W., 20 m. W.N.W.:
in 22° 30’ W., 17 m. N.W.; in 24° 30’ W., 26 m. W.N.W.; in 26° 30’, 21 m.
W. by N.; in 29° W. (50 miles E.N.E. from St. Paul’s Rocks) the high
velocity of 39 m. to W. by N. was found; at 70 miles S.W. of St. Paul’s
Rocks, 29 m. W.N.W.; midway between St. Paul’s Rocks and Fernando
Noronha, 25 m. §.W.; near Fernando Noronha, 21 m. West: at 60 miles
S.W. of Fernando Noronha, 27 m. N.W.; at 90 miles East of Cape San
Roque, 30 m. W.N.W. ; and on the coast of Brasil the Currents were gene-
rally found flowing to the N.W. and West, as far as 15° S.

The wind at the commencement of this passage blew from the §.8.E., but
afterwards came more from the Eastward. At Cape San Roque its direc-
tion was from the S.E., varying in force from 3 to 5 (Beaufort scale, see
page 104). The temperature of the surface water observed in this passage
varied from 77° to 78°. At a depth of 10 fathoms in the Eastern and cen-
tral part of the region traversed, the temperature of the water was 78°,
while near St. Paul’s Rocks at this depth it was only 77°, and near Fer-
nando Noronha only 75°. At 50 fathoms, in the central part of the district,
it was 62° to 63°, and in the Western 67°. At 100 fathoms the tempera-
tures were from 55° to 57°, and at 1,000 fathoms 36° to 37°. The higher
temperature at 50 fathoms in the Western than in the Eastern part of the
district, seems to indicate the banking up of the warm water to the West-
waid by the prevalent wind.

(316.) On this Current the following is extracted from Mr. R. Strachan’s
remarks in the Meteorological Report, 1872 :—

The South Equatorial Current commences on the African coast, and
seems to extend at times as far as to 3° N. lat., though more commonly
here it is not found beyond 1° N. To the first meridian its rate is from 12
to 17 miles. It now extends generally to lat. 3° N., and maintains this
limit to long. 25° W., during a course nearly West of over 1,500 miles, at
rates changing from 26 to 12 miles per day. It now has a tendency to the
N.W., and attains lat. 6° or 7° N., and, as a general result, maintains this
limit until it reaches the coast of Brasil. Near the Equator the mean rate
is less than 24 miles per day, and this becomes lower as the latitude in-
creases, so that in lat. 5° N. its velocity is less than 18 miles. For nearly
300 miles from the coast of Brasil and Guayana the direction of the Current
is affected by the land. Off Brasil, the rate is from 62 to 37 miles per day;
off Guayana, it is from 31 to 24 miles. Having passed the 50th meridian,
the Northern edge merges with the Westerly Drift of the North Equatorial
Current, though in some months this is effected in longitudes more to tha
Eastward, even so far as the meridian of 25° W.

(317.) Commander J. R. Bartlett, U.S.N., from examinations made in

362 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

the surveying steamer Blake, in 1879, concluded that ‘‘ the Equatorial
Current, which sets directly against the Windward Islands, is by them and
their connected ridges deflected Northward, and so following their outer
edge passes around the Virgin Islands to the Westward and through the
deep channel to the Northward of San Domingo.” He suggests, also, that
on reaching Cuba the current divides, a part flowing N.W. through the Old
Bahama Channel, and a part through the Windward Passage between
Cuba and San Domingo, and thus by Cape San Antonio into the Gulf of
Mexico.

He also remarks :—‘‘ The. Current, always found flowing North along
the BHastern side of South America, on reaching Tobago divides, part join-
ing the Equatorial Current setting North along the chain of islands; the
remainder following the coast-line of Trinidad and the Spanish Main, and
so around the entire circumference of the Caribbean Sea, finding at last an
outlet at the Mona Passage and Anegada Channel, to join the Equatorial
Current on its way to the Gulf of Mexico.”

Both these theories are quite contrary to that founded on later inves-
tigations made in the same vessel by Lieutenant Pillsbury and other officers.
Professor Alexander Agassiz, who accompanied Commander Bartlett,
says :—‘‘ In the present state of our knowledge it is. difficult to trace the
path of the Equatorial water as it is forced into the Eastern Caribbean.”*

(317.) Lieutenant Pillsbury states that, from his observations, the Current
caused by the S.E. Trade Wind sets towards the Windward Islands with
varying strength, and leaves the island of Tobago with a course about
N.N.W., joining the current caused by the N.E. Trade 8.W. of Barbados.
The united flow is then between the islands, the strongest being in the
passage South of St. Lucia, and lessening in velocity in the passages to the
Northward as the latitude increases. Beneath the Westerly surface current
in these passages is an underflow setting out to the Kastward.

(318.) Bottles.—A bottle from the ship Patriarch, in lat. 12° 47’ N., long.
24° 47' W., December 20th, 1884, was picked up afloat at Colon, February
1st, 1886. It had thus traversed a distance of about 3,500 miles in 408
days, or at the rate of over 9 miles a day.

A bottle, thrown from the steamer Patrician, December 12th, 1887, in
lat. 1° 10’ S., long. 27° 3’ W., was picked up February 10th, 1888, in lat.
9° 19' §., long. 42° W., a drift of about 900 miles to W. 4+ S. in 60 days,
at the rate of 15 miles a day. (See Drift diagram, page 297).

A bottle, thrown overboard off Pernambuco, Brasil, July 28th, 1885, was
picked up on the beach at Little Cayman Isiand, West Indies, March Ist,
1888, where it had probably lain more than 2 years.

(319.) An example of an extraordinary velocity on the Northern edge of
this Current,is given by Captain W. Code, ship Albion: 1857, from August
5th, noon, lat. 0° 36’ N., long. 43° 21’ W., to 6th, noon, lat. 1° 51' N., long.
45° 59' W., experienced a Current of N. 72° W. 73 miles, although not the
slightest rippling or agitation of the sea was visible.

On the 7th, at noon, lat. 3° 50’ N., long. 48° 40’ W., the Current was

Pe a reverie ee

* «Three Oruises on the United States Coast Survey Steamer /'/ahe, 1877—1880.” by
Ajexander Agassiz, 2 vols., 1888.

THE CARIBBEAN SEA. — 353

tound to have been N. 61° W. 108 miles. Surprising current ; measured
log lines and log glasses which are correct, so EBete is no doubt that. oe
current has carried the ship the distance saanh

7.—THE CURRENTS OF THE COLOMBIAN OR CARIBBEAN SEA,
THE GULF OF MEXICO, ETC.

(320.) We have previously mentioned (302) that the combined streams
of the North and South Equatorial Currents impinge upon the Eastern
side of the Caribbee Islands, and some part passing to the Westward
through the channels between them causes the Westerly Drift through
the Caribbean Sea, which is not so persistent as it is in the Ocean to the
Kastward, as will be presently explained. We first give particulars of the
currents in the channels between the islands, and then proceed to describe
those within.

(321.) In all the passages of the Windward. Teal a Westerly surface
inflow prevails to a greater or less extent, but in those on the Northern
side of the Caribbean Sea there is no fixed current. In addition to this
flow there is a large volume of water entering _ the ee from the
break of the waves.

Mr. R. Strachan, in his observations upon the Meteorological Office
Current Charts, 1872, states that the Westerly Current, which enters the
Caribbean Sea, has a rate of 37 to 46 miles a day North of Trinidad, but
the rate decreases in the other passages as the latitude increases, and in
lat. 17° N. it is only 12 miles a day.

In Grenada Passage, between Trinidad and Grenada, according to the
Spanish Derrotero de las Antillas, &., the Current has been found to set
nearly West; on the South side half a point Southerly, and on the North
side half a point Northerly, its velocity being from 1 to 14 and 2 miles per
hour. Commander Heyerman, U.S.S. Yantic, January 28th, 1888, in pro-
ceeding from lat. 11° 59’ N., long. 60° 52’ W., to Port of Spain, Trinidad,
found a current of 23 knots an hour setting W. 1° 8.

Observations taken in February, 1889, by the United States Coast
Survey steamer Blake, tended to show, however, that there was no per-
manent Westerly current in this passage, but that the surface currents
were variable, with an under-current setting out to the Eastward, at a
considerable depth. This deep under-current was also found in the passages
to the Northward. Between Tobago and Barbados the mean direction of
the surface current was North, although the Trades were blowing with a
force of 2 to 7 Beaufort Scale.

Between Grenada and St. Vincent, among the Grenadines, the Currents
are devious; but the general inset appears to be W. by N.

In St. Lucia Passage, between St. Vincent and St. Lucia, the Current
gets in from the Eastward, but runs more Northerly ; and within, on the

NW. ASG: 46

354 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

West, it has been found setting to the N.W. Its velocity was found to be
greater here than in the passages more to the Northward, as already stated
At some distance below the surface the Blake found a tidal current, below
which the water set out to the Hastward.

In Martinique Passage, between St. Lucia and Martinique, the current
has been found to run nearly North, but very variable on the Western side
of Martinique.

The U.S.S. Kearsarge, on March 19th and 20th, 1889, to the South-
Eastward of Barbados, found a South-Hasterly current, of 30 and 20
knots a day respectively ; on the 29th, between Barbados and Martinique,
the current set due North, 10 knots in 14 hours ; and between Martinique
and Santa Lucia, 4 knots in 1 hour, and 8 knots in 4 hours.

In Dominica, Guadaloupe, and Antigua Passages, there is usually a gentle
Westerly current. In Dominica Passage, between Martinique and Domi-
nica, it has also been found to run nearly North, and between Montserrat
and Antigua N.W.

At the distance of about 60 miles, within (or Westward of) the range of
the Caribbee Islands, and to the Virgin Islands, the Current has been found
setting, in general, to the W.N.W., from 1 to 14 mile an hour. On the
leeward side of the Virgin Isles devious currents are found, frequently to
the South-Eastward. The same have been observed on the Western side
of St. Christopher's, &c.

(322.) On the Northern coasi vj Haytt, and in the Windward Passages,
there does not appear to be any general Current. On the North side of
Cuba the case is nearly the same; but in the channel there is a regular
tide throughout the year, subject, however, to certain variations.

In Anegada and Mona Passages, the Blake found irregular and weak
tidal currents, with probably a slightly preponderating current out of the
Caribbean Sea on their Eastern sides, and into it on their Western sides.

Other observers state that in Mona Passage, between Porto Rico and
Hayti, the Current has been marked as frequently setting to the N.W., and
we have instances of a set through to the §8.W.; but Captain Monteath, in
February, 1816, when proceeding Southward toward Porto Rico, from lat.
934° to 22°, long. 64° to 65°, found the Current setting N.N.H. at the rate
of 20 miles in the 24 hours; and he says, that off the N.W. point of Porto
Rico it invariably sets from the Caribbean Sea to the North and N.N.H.
On the Western side of the passage it set North, 2 miles an hour ; but there
have been instances of an inset from the N.W.

In the Windward Passage, between Hayti and Cuba, the Blake found
the currents to be the same as in Anegada and Mona Passages, but more
decided in velocity, probably depending upon the strength of the wind.

In the Bahama Passages the Currents are devious; both weather and lee
currents having been found. These, also, appear to be influenced by the
tidal causes; for the tides are operative on the banks, and sometimes set
strongly.

In Bahama Old Channel and St. Nicolas Channel the current has been
found to run North-Westward and South-Eastward, its direction depend-
ing mainly upon the prevailing wind. In Santaren Channel it is very weak
and irregular.

BAHAMA ISLANDS, ETC. 359

(323.) Bahama Islands.—The following remarks by Captain W. C. Berry
are extracted from Captain Maury’s “ Sailing Directions,” 8th edition,
vol. ii., page 19. He says :—‘‘ Having had long experience in the trade
between New York and New Orleans, I herewith furnish you with a few
remarks on Winds and Currents. For the last six years I have commanded
the ship Vicksburgh, constantly trading between these two ports. In
making the passage out, after passing the Hole-in-the-Wall, I have fre-
quently found a Current, from 1 to 3 miles per hour, setting to the Hast-
ward through the N.W. Providence Channel, particularly after the wind
has prevailed from the Westward a few days. This, no doubt, has been the
cause of putting a number of vessels on shore among the Berry Islands. I
have latterly made it a point to take the last bearings of the light on the
Hole-in-the- Wall, and either haul up or keep off as I found the current ;
generally running on a West course until quite down with Little Stirrup
Kays, then steering W. by N.4N., by compass, if in the night, until I was
up with the Great Isaacs.”

(324.) Lieutenant G. C. Hanus, U.S.S. Enterprise, states that in No-
vember, 1890, when off the Bahama Islands, a current of about half a knot
an hour was found, setting W.N.W. Between Castle Island and Cape
Maysi, Cuba, the current encountered was slight at first, setting to the
Westward, but, on approaching Cape Maysi, and after sighting the light, a
current was found of about 14 knot per hour setting to the Westward, and
gradually decreasing in force until after the light bore West, when the
current changed to the Southward and Westward with gradually diminished
force.

(325.) Of the Currents in the vicinity of Anegada and the Virgin Islands,
Sir Robert Schomburgk says :—

.“¢Tt is well known that the Tropical Current, caused by the earth’s rota-
tion, sets to the Westward, and its grand movement in these latitudes is
directed through the Caribbean Sea; but it is probable that a branch of it,
turned aside by the North-Eastern coast of South America, sweeps along
the Caribbean Islands to the N.W. till it reaches the Bahamas; and it is
this branch which at present attracts my particular attention, and in proof
of the existence of which I adduce the following remarks :—

‘*‘ Vessels bound from America to the West Indies, and chiefly to St.
Thomas’s, frequently find themselves to the North of the Virgin Islands ;
and this deviation from their intended course has but too often proved fatal,
having brought them on the reefs of Anegada when they thought them-
selves far to the Southward of that dangerous island. Nor can repeated
occurrences like these be attributed exclusively to errors in the observations
for determining the latitude, or to false reckoning.”

The American brig William and Thomas left New York October 28th,
1829; made Bermuda on the seventh day after her departure, when, con-
trary winds retarding her course, land was discovered in the morning of
November 15th. According to reckoning, it was supposed to be St. Martin’s,
but it was fortunately known, on approaching, to be Virgin Gorda, or pro-
bably, in the night, the vessel would have gone on the reefs oi Anegada.

The English brig Francis, bound from Nassau, in New Providence, to
trinidad, cloudy weather having precluded an observation for several days,

356 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

was supposed to be far distant from Anegada; but making land in the
evening, supposed to be St. Martin’s, was wrecked at 11 p.m. on the reefs
of Anegada.*

The American brig Lewis, bound from Philadelphia to St. Thomas’s wa
Maracaybo, and supposed on the day previous to be on the parallel of St.
Thomas’s, was wrecked on the South-Hastern reef of Anegada, April 9th,
1831.

During his continuance at Anegada, Sir Robert Schomburgk ee
additional proofs of the existence of a North-Westerly Current. He found
on the South-Eastern reef several buoys with tyer (coir) ropes attached to
them, which appeared to have come from St. Martin’s. On September 24th,
1831, after a severe gale, two buoys were found on the same reef, which
had probably been attached to anchors on some ground to the 8.H.

On sounding between Virgin Gorda and Anegada, Sir Robt. Schomburgk
threw the log every thirty minutes, and, taking bearings of some remark-
able objects, the drift was found to be always Westerly; and the result
appeared to be the same whether the tides set North or South. On one
day he left his anchorage, and sailed 10 miles to the Northward of Anegada,
where the boat was lowered, and rendered stationary by means of a kettle
filled with stones, it being then Southern tide; in spite of which the log
was carried N.W. by W. A similar experiment was made in the waters
between Virgin Gorda and Anegada, with the advantage of anchoring ; and
the set was always the same, the drift being nearly 1 knot.

The North-Western or ebb tide between Anegada and Tortola is much
stronger than the flood to the 8.E.; undoubtedly from the circumstance
that tide and current work the same way.

On these circumstances Sir R. Schomburgk observes, that the wind, from
March to June, frequently blows from the South and S.E., and the velocity
of the N.W. Current will be thus increased; in consequence of which,
vessels bound during that time for these islands are more subject to error
in their course than at any other period; and lighter bodies being more
influenced by the currents than heavier ones, may be taken as the specific
cause of the last remark.

(326.) The Rollers, or Heavy Ground Swell, off the North-Eastern
portion of the Antillas, which has from time to time produced so much
mischief, was first described by Sir R. H. Schomburgk, as shown in the
Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, 1835, to which the reader is
referred for a complete explication of the subject.

The phenomenon appears to be caused by the meeting and combination
of the Drift from the N.E., and the Equatorial Current from the S.E. or
E.8.H. It rises, rages, and subsides, says Sir R. H. Schomburgk, when
the air is calm, when there has been no indication whatever of a previous
gale, or even when light airs have, for a considerable period preceding,
come from the Southward of East. The waves approach in gentle undu-
lations, but suddenly swell against the shore, and break with the greatest

* A great quantity of cork shavings are annually washed ashore on the North side
of Anegada. They are considered to be drifted by the Equatorial Current from the
coasts of Spain and Portugal.

THE ROLLERS OR GROUND SEA. 357

impetuosity. The rise takes place sometimes gradually, but more frequently
quite unexpectedly, the waves reaching an uncommon height.

/ Aheavy “Ground Sea” is distinguished by something grand and sublime.
The sea approaches in undulating masses, which suddenly rise to large
ridges, crested with foam, and form billows that burst upon the beach with
the greatest impetuosity ; the spray flying, where the waves dash against
cliffs, often more than 100 feet high, attended with loud roarings resembling
thunder, which subside into a rumbling noise, caused by the nodules and
fragments of rock with which the breaker was charged when advancing,
which on its retreat roll backward, and are again driven forward by the
next surge. Wave then follows upon wave in quick succession, there being,
apparently, only a short interval after the third. The sea, for many miles
from shore, assumes a peculiar aspect, different tints of blue, from the
lightest to the darkest, forming a strong contrast with the snowy foam of
the breaking waves, when they strike against a hidden rock, or with the
white line visible along the whole coast. The Hastern Bahamas, the North-
Eastern coast of Jamaica and Hayti, but chiefly Porto Rico and the Virgin
Islands, and, in a less degree, the Northern Caribbee Islands, are subjected
to this Ground Sea.

It may be considered, as a rule, that whenever the wind gets to the
Northward of East for a day or two, there will be a Grownd Sea on the
Northern side of the islands. The friction of the wind on the surface of
the water causes little elevations or ridges, which, by continuance of the
force, gradually increase, chiefly when the wind sweeps over a great extent
of water. Finding no resistance, and having sufficient depth to sink directly
down, they proceed with the direction of the wind, and remain natural
waves, until they meet repercussion from dashing against the shore, when
they rise to an elevation much above their natural state.

The period when the Ground Sea sets in is generally in October, and it
continues, though with some intermission, till April and May. The wind
accompanying or preceding a Ground Sea is, generally, from the Hast of
North; the waves are, therefore, propelled, more or less, in a Western as
well as Southern direction, and the Bahamas, and even Bermuda, may
escape, whilst the islands from Barbadoes to Porto Rico, but more particu-
larly the latter and the Virgin Islands, receive their first impulse.

A Southern gale will likewise produce a heavy swell on the Southern
side of these islands; and, during the gale of August 30th and 31st, 1833,
this was felt with great violence on the Southern shore. But, generally
speaking, ueither in force nor duration are these surges to be compared
with those of the Northern side; the group of the Virgin Islands being
protected, in this direction, by the Caribbee Islands or by the Colombian
coasts, and not exposed to the swell of the main ocean.

To one who crosses during a severe Ground Sea, from the Southern side
of Tortola to the Northern, where the breadth of the island is inconsider-
able, the singular spectacle is afforded of the sea, which on the Southern
side is perhaps ‘‘as smooth as glass,’ on the Northern shore tossing,
foaming, and roaring, as if agitated by a severe gale. The effect is most
curious, and if it were not for the warning that is heard long before the
cause becomes visible, one might fancy the wand of a magician in action.

358 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

The Northern coast of Porto Rico is subjected to a Ground Sea, of scarcely
less force, and which has had the same effect on its coast as that of the
Virgin Isles. The old ‘‘ English Pilot” observes, that the sea along the
North coast of Porto Rico ‘‘ beats sometimes very ragingly.”’ The force of
the waves that batter against the cliffs on which the Morro stands is
amazing; and any observer will admit that the spray is sometimes carried
more than 100 feet high. It has been said that, several years ago, a brig,
in consequence of carelessness, here became unmanageable, and was soon
dashed to pieces against the cliffs, but few of the crew escaping.

(327.) Caribbean Sea.— Within or Westward of the Windward Islandy
there is a prevailing Westerly drift, weak and uncertain in the Eastern
part of the sea, but gradually increasing in strength to the Westward.
This drift, passing from the Atlantic through the Caribbean Sea into the
Gulf of Mexico to feed the Gulf Stream, is not nearly so constant nor so
strong as might be argued, a priori, from the apparent magnitude of that
mighty current. Not only is it inconstant even in the mid-channel, but it
is diverted by local causes and land configurations into opposite directions
as hereafter is shown to be the case along the Colombian coast and in tha
great Bays of Guatemala and Honduras. It appears to combine with the
Tides in some degree, especially about the coasts of Cuba, Jamaica, and
Hayti.

Upon referring to the description of the Guinea or Equatorial Counter-
Current, as recited in pages 325 to 334, it is shown that it extends much
tarther to the Westward, during the period when the sun is in Northern
signs. The Western extension of the Guinea Current, coincident with the
increase of the Belt of Equatorial Calms (75), page 152, and (83), page
158, may owe its origin to the same causes, hitherto almost unexplained,
as those to which this uncertainty of the Westerly Drift across the Carib-
bean Sea is owing.

Whether it is owing to the influence of the moon and the Tide, the effect
of barometric variations and distant and local Winds, or of Temperature
and the changes of the seasons, or of some hitherto unexplained effect of
the earth’s rotation, has yet to be argued. It is probable that hereafter a
systematic examination of these apparently contradictory phenomena will
lead to some important conclusions in the general subject of Meteorology.

(328.) Mr. R. Strachan, from his investigations, found the average daily
Westerly drift in this sea to be about 20 miles. In the Spanish Derrotero
de las Antillas it is stated that in crossing from the Southern coast, or
from Cartagena, to the Northern islands, it has been discovered that from
La Guayra to the Eastern pert of Hayti, on a voyage made in December,
a difference of 106 miles to the Westward was tound during the seven days
the voyage lasted.

(329.) Lieutenant G. C. Hanus, of the U.S.S. Enterprise, states that in
November, 1890, when in the fairway of the Caribbean Sea, between lat.
14° 40’ N., long. 75° 28’ W., and lat. 13° 32’ N., long. 77° 4’ W.; the
current was found to run about 14 knot per hour, setting about W.N.W.;
* but, from this latter position the Westerly set was rapidly lost, and the
next day a slight Easterly current was found, which gradually increased
as the coast was approached near Colon.

THE CARIBBEAN SEA. 359

(330.) Lieutenant A. H. Bisschop Greevelink, in cormmand of the Dutch
Royal Navy brig Echo, 1833—1837, from his four years experience in these
seas, came to the following conclusions::—‘‘ The direction of Currents ini
the Atlantic is reconcileable with the force and direction of the Trade
Winds, but the height of the water-level in the Caribbean Sea will some-
times baffle every calculation both within and without the range of islands,
as shown indubitably by experiments founded, not only upon the method
of ascertaining Currents at sea, but also within sight of land, and obser-
vations made on shore along the coasts. It has also been found that during
calm weather, even with strong HKasterly winds, the Currents have some-
times been running for days together to the Eastward, especially in the
latter parts of January and July, when, by the then prevailing strong
winds, the water is heaped up in a very uncommon degree, and the inner
part of the Caribbean Sea, most probably overcharged, succeeds in re-
establishing its equilibrium by forsaking the power of its wrathful driver.
In this manner, I think, we ought to reconcile those circumstances men-
tioned (314) by the illustrious Spanish commander, Admiral Cosmé de
Churruca.

‘In the Caribbean Sea the force and direction of the Currents are more
distinctly modified by the direction of the wind. With continual light
winds and smooth water the Currents are generally weak, augmenting only
in proportion to the increasing wind. This may serve as a proof that,
among other less perceptible causes, under which they are governed here,
Wind is the most powerful agent ; for the indraught through the channels
appears plainly to proceed from the force and extent of the Trade Winds.
In this sea, from the Windward Islands Westward, to 72° of longitude,
the general direction of Currents, observed during our four years cruize,
was N.W. and Westerly ; the weakest in October, November, April, and
May; the strongest in December, January, February, and March, along
the coast of Venezuela, and in July and August in the Northern parts;
- but, in general, so much always depended on the force of the wind, that,
with few exceptions, almost every voyage was affected by a force of current
corresponding to that of the prevailing wind.”

(331.) From Trinidad, Westward, and off the North side of the Leeward
Isles, the Current has been found setting West and S.W. to the Gulf of
Maracaybo ; thence 8.W. also to Cartagena. From Cartagena toward
the Channel of Yucatan it has been found N.N.W., N.W., W.N.W., and
N.W. by N., from 1 to nearly 2 miles, and then decreasing to 13 mile per
hour. On these coasts it has also been found setting to the Eastward, as
shown, in the following pages.

‘¢Qn the Colombian (now Venezuelan) Coast,’ according to the Derrotero
de las Antillas, ‘‘from Trinidad to Cape la Vela, the Westerly Current
sweeps the frontier islands, inclining something to the South, according
to the strait which it comes from, and running about 14 mile an hour,
with little difference. Between the islands and the coast, and particularly
in the proximity of the latter, it has been remarked that the Current at
times runs to the West, and at others to the Hast. From Cape la Vela
the principal part of the Current runs W.N.W.; and, as it spreads, its
velocity diminishes. ‘There is, however, a branch, which runs with the

360 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

velocity of about a mile an hour, directing itself toward the coast about
Cartagena. From this point, and in the space of sea comprehended be-
tween lat. 14° and the coast (the Bay of Guatemala), it has, however, been
observed, that in the dry season the current runs to the Westward, and
in the season of the rains, to the Hastward.

“On the, Mosquito Shore, and in the Bay of Honduras, no rule ca be
given for the alterations of the Current. All that can be said is, at a good
distance from land, it has generally been found setting towards the N.W.”

(332.) The Baron Alexander von Humboldt, in describing his passage
from Cumana, Westward, to La Guayra, said :—‘‘ The general motion of
the waters between the Tropics towards the West is felt strongly on the
coast during two-thirds of the year only. In the months of September,
October, and November, the Current often flows toward the Hast, for
fifteen or twenty days in succession. Vessels on their way from La Guayra
to Port Cabello have been known to be unable to stem the current that
runs from West to Kast, although they had the wind astern. The cause
of these anomalies is not yet discovered. The pilots think that they are
the effect of some gales of wind from the N.W. in the Gulf of Mexico ;
yet these gales are much more violent in spring than in autumn. It is
also remarkable, that the Current to the East precedes the change of the
wind. It begins to be felt, at first, during a calm ; and, after some days,
the wind itself follows the Current, and becomes fixed in the West.’—
Personal Narrative, vol. iii, page 378.

(333.) Captain C. S. Cochrane, R.N., in his Journal, March 16th, 1823,
‘says :—‘‘ In the afternoon we perceived high land through the haze, and
hauled up for it, wishing to make a point about 50 miles to windward
of Santa Marta; but on getting inshore, we found that we were 7 miles to
leeward of that place, the Current from the Hastward having been run-
ning for the last twenty-four hours upward of 2 knots an hour; which
agrees with Baron Humboldt’s account, that the Current runs from 1} to
2 knots an hour, according to the force of the wind and season of the
year. The natives say, that the moon likewise has a considerable effect
on this Current, which, at the changes of new and full, runs to the Hast-
ward for twenty-four hours.

‘« Here I must caution all captains of ships navigating on this line of
coast to allow for the Current, in general, at least 14 knot per hour on an
average, with an increase in proportion to the strength of the breeze, and
an abatement at the new and full moons; otherwise, vessels heavily laden,
overshooting their ports, may lose as much as three weeks by having to
stand away nearly to the Antillas before they can get sufficiently to wind-
ward to gain the port they have missed; and even men-of-war run a risk
of carrying away spars and masts in beating up.’’—Vol. i., page 52.

(334.) The following extracts from the J ournals of Lieutenant Greevelink
will be found of interest :—

‘In January, 1834, the Hcho, in crossing the Caribbean Sea, from
Curacao to windward, experienced a drift of 40 miles to the West, and
escaped only by running straight for the coast of Hayti, beating to wind-
ward along that and the coast of Porto Rico, with the best success, and
even assisted by weak Hasterly currents when near the shore. The wind

THE CARIBBEAN SHA. 361

was from the E.N.E., sometimes blowing a gale; but, when sheltered by
the land, the water was tolerably smooth.

‘‘In December, 1836, the Hcho, then on her passage from Surinam to
Curacao, with sharp breezes, found the Current sweeping through the
channel between Tobago and Grenada ; and, farther on, along the Leeward
Islands, with a velocity of more than 2 miles an hour to the W. by N.;
but, in October, 1836, on the same route, with light wind and calms, the
water ran for days together to the Northward, at the rate of only half a
mile an hour.

‘In March, 1836, the same vessel, from Curacao to La Guayra, with
very strong winds, spent six days in beating up against a Current of 40
miles mean daily strength; and on April 8th left La Guayra for Porto
Cabello, in the bight to the Westward, when, instead of making this passage
in some hours, she had, during three days, to contend with light, variable,
and even Westerly winds, and Currents to the N.K. 15 miles daily.

“The Baron von Humboldt’s remark about the increase of the Currents
near the Testigos proved true on our approach to the same islands, in
December, 1835.* In the morning of the 12th, the longitude observed was
62° 45' 15”, and the difference West in twenty-four hours appeared to be
32’ 15”; shortly after, the cluster of rocks came in sight; and at noon, at
the very moment that the sun passed the meridian, the 8.W. island, placed
by Don J. F. Fidalgo in 63° 12’, bore East, distance 1 mile, having run by
log 20 miles to the W. 3 N.; so that, during these last four hours, the
Westerly difference amounted to 8 miles, whereas, in former watches, it
was only 54 miles.

‘“‘ A similar circumstance, we have reason to believe, also takes place at
other groups of this range of sunken islands, and near such capes as are
low and reaching far out, so as to obstruct the motion of the water beneath,
and thereby redouble the force of the surface current, as denoted by the
many instances of shipwreck and carcases of vessels (sad admonishers of
precaution) spread among these flat, barren rocks, and produced solely by
the irregularity of currents, which baffle every calculation, even those of
the coast traders.

‘But this variety in the Westerly Currents here is not the only cause of
danger. The total change in the setting of the Currents from West to Hast
is of a nature which requires the utmost care and attention, as they not
only occasionally happen with calms, but also sometimes with fresh breezes
from the Hastward. One of the first mentioned instances, particularly
remarkable, we observed during our passage in October, from Surinam,
through the Channel of Grenada, toward Curagao. On the 7th and 8th,
between the Island of Tobago and Cape Malapasqua, the water flowed to
the N. by H. and N. by W., with a trifling force; when suddenly, on the
oth, we had a difference of 17’ 54” North, and 34’ West; and, on the follow-

* The remark is as follows. The Baron, on approaching the Testigos, July 14th, 1799,
says :—‘‘ During a calm, the Current drew us on rapidly toward the West. Its velocity
was 3 miles an hour, and increased as we approached the meridian of the Testigos, a
heap of rocks, which rise up amid the waters.”’

N. And: 47

362 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

ing day, at the new moon, we were driven 11’ 12” to the North, and 35’ 54”
to the Hastward of our supposed situation. This case was too singular not
to excite our attention, as the high mountains of Caraccas showed us,
almost hourly, the East or Westerly direction in which we were driven,
the weather being perfectly calm, and the water constantly smooth, by
which means we were able to verify our chronometrical observations, and
to remove every doubt respecting the truth of so extraordinary a circum-
stance, the result whereof was as follows :—

‘“« By the Westerly Current we drifted in sight of the high land near La
Guayra, and kept working up against the strong Easterly set the whole
following day. On the 10th, from seven in the morning till four in the
afternoon, we had 14 miles difference West, agreeing with the bearing of
Monte Avila. From that time till six in the evening, when that mountain,
of which we had lost sight for a moment by drifting to the Westward, again
became visible, the water flowed again to the Eastward; and on the 11th,
at six in the morning, with an observed latitude, and the said mountain
bearing 8.E. by S., we were in long. 67° 21'; and this by calculation being
67° 47', we found a difference of 26 miles to the Eastward in sixteen hours.
From this time till four in the afternoon, again 10 miles to the West; and
from thence until the following morning, 22 miles Easterly difference.
During the night we hove-to to the Southward of Caraccas Bay, Curagao,
and were obliged to keep Little Cwragao in mind, as the Current was set-
ting strongly to the Eastward.

‘‘ Whether this flux and reflux were caused by the moon (then new), or
by any other agent, I shall not attempt to determine. Indisputably there
occasionally appear satisfactory reasons for ascribing to that luminary some
influence over the Currents in these regions, and the above-mentioned case
is probably one of them ; but, as Captain Livingston says on the subject,
‘the Winds have a still more powerful influence.’ Indeed, when roving in
these seas, studying the ‘Memoir’ and the ‘Colombian Navigator,’ and
enjoying the pleasure of reading all that science and skill have ever pro-
duced in the description of these regions, we always meet with Captain
Livingston’s remarks as so many illustrations, and feel a continued increase
of respect for so accomplished a navigator.

“‘The reflux of the Current to the Eastward, for some hours daily, we
had also occasion to observe, in January, 1834, near the coast of Hayti,
Porto Rico, and even in the Atlantic, while working up with smart breezes,
and even with very strong winds; and once, in May, 1835, a merchant
vessel, steering for Curacao, with her mainmast broken, passed in thé night
to the Southward of Buen Ayre and Little Curagao without seeing the land,
being totally unacquainted with any existing Current, and consequently
with her real situation. At daybreak, finding herself opposite the Kastern
part of Curacao, and supposing it to be the Island of Buen Ayre, she stood
to the West for Curacao, as she thought ; but on her passing the Harbour
of St. Anna she guessed her error, and tried to gain the entrance, in which
she succeeded toward sunset, after hard struggling with a strong wind and
a rough sea, but assisted by a Current to the Eastward.

“Tt should be borne in mind that the captain of this vessel was unpro-
wided with a time-keeper, from want of which he knew nothing about

THE CARIBBEAN SHA. 363

Hasterly or Westerly Currents; and if, on his approaching Buen Ayre, he
had accidentally stood a few miles to the N.W., so as to make its Northern
coast, he would have found a watery grave, designated, perhaps, only by
some piece of floating timber, a splinter, or broken spar.

‘The uninterrupted Easterly Currents alluded to have already been
mentioned by Baron A. von Humboldt; and, whenever I witnessed them,
T found them just as described by that celebrated traveller. It may, how-
ever, be remarked that although this change in the general motion of the
water is most common in the three months quoted, and chiefly along the
Colombian coast, yet sometimes it also happens in other months, and in
other parts of the Caribbean Sea; as we, in fact, once experienced it in
December, once in April, near the coast above mentioned, and once in
March, on our passage from Guadaloupe to Barbadoes, during whieh,
vessels from St. Vincent’s made their way toward the same islands in a
few hours.”

(335.) Observations taken in February, 1889, by the officers of the United
States Survey steamer Blake, showed that South of Curagao the current
generally ran to the Westward on the surface, and to the Eastward under-
neath, but the under-current is of such volume that it is lable at times to
entirely overcome the surface set.

(336.) In the Bays of Guatemala and Honduras, the Currents are fre-
quently found to be running rapidly from West to Hast, especially near the
shores. This counter-current is seldom encountered outside the lines which
join their outer points. From Cape la Vela, or Northward of the Bay of
Guatemala, the Current generally sets to the N.W. toward the Channel of
Yucatan, as before remarked.

‘In the space between Cape Gracias 4 Dios and Cape de la Vela, off-
shoots and eddies from the great Equatorial Current are found. This
assertion is not merely grounded on those of former navigators, or on the
examination of the coast outline, but on actual experience.’’—Captain
W. S. Smith, R.N., H.M.S. Larne, 1833.

(337.) Mr. Town, in his “ Directions for the Colombian Coast,” has
said :—‘‘ Although between the Island of Jamaica and the Spanish Main,
Westerly Currents are most frequent, yet they do not always prevail; for
ships have been known to be driven by the Current from 50 to 60 miles to
the Hastward in four or five days. From the beginning of May till No-
vember (the Rainy Season), the sea-breeze seldom or never blows home to
the Main; and. ships going there should never go to the Southward of
latitude 11° until they are at least 40 or 50 miles to the Westward of their
intended port; after which they make a South course, as the land-breeze,
which is generally from the 8.W., and the strong Hasterly Current, will
set you to the Eastward of your intended port; if great care be not taken.
When to the Eastward, if light winds prevail, you must stand to the North-
ward until you meet the sea-breeze, which will lie between the latitudes of
10° and 11°, and then run to the Westward.

‘“« Being off Porto Bello, in H.M.S. Salisbury, on August 12th, 1816, and
being a little to the Eastward of that port, with light variable winds for
several days, the ship was set to the Hastward, at the rate of 30 miles per
day ; and, being afterwards placed in the same situation, I found it necessary

364 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

to make the land well to the Westward, and to keep close to it. From No-
vember until May (the Dry Season) you should endeavour to make the land
well to the Eastward, and run along shore; as the sea breezes generally
blow very strongly, and the Current sets to the Westward at the rate of
about 2 miles an hour.

Between Chagres and Porto Bello, during the rainy season, there is
generally a Northerly Current, at the rate of 14 to 24 miles an hour. After
the end of the rainy season the Current sets to the Southward and West-
ward, and strong Southerly and Easterly gales prevail here. From No-
vember until May (the Dry Season) the Southerly and Westerly are very
light winds, except in squalls, which end with heavy rain.

“Tf at Chagres, at any time during the rainy season (May till November),
and bound to the Eastward, endeavour to get 12 or 15 miles from the land
as soon as you can; for the winds are, in general, very light, and the
Current very strong. The latter sets from Chagres directly on the rocks of
Porto Bello, and thence along the land K. by N., E.N.E., E.S.H., and
according as the land lies; its general rate being from 14 to 24 miles an
hour. Great care should be taken when near the land, if a heavy squall
and rain appear to be coming on. During this you will have the wind from
all points of the compass, and often so strong that all sail must be taken in.

“In crossing the Gulf of Darien, little or no Current will be found ;
wherever there is any, it sets about South, S. by W., or S. by H., up the
Gulf.

“Near Cartagena the Current generally goes with the wind ; but off the
Islands of Rosarito it sets to the N.W. and N.N.W., from 1 to 2 miles an
hour. Between Cartagena and the Magdalena, in the rainy season, you
cannot put any dependence on the winds or current ; but from November
to May the Trade Wind blows home.

‘«« T should recommend, if turning to windward, with strong Trade Winds,
to keep the shore close-to; whereas, by going off from t4e land, you will
not only have a heavy sea, but also a strong N.W. Current. If you have
light variable winds, approach no nearer to the land than 12 or 15 miles,
as you may be certain of an Hasterly Current.”

Captain Livingston says :—‘‘ During five weeks in which I remained
at Cartagena, in June and July, 1817, the Current inshore set constantly
and strongly to the Northward, at the rate, I am convinced, of not less
than 14 mile an hour, or nearly as strong as the Mississippi at New Orleans.
I have seen the Esk, sloop of war, current-rode against a very fresh sea-
breeze, when at anchor, nearly West from the city, distant about half a
mile.”

On July 31st, 1889, Captain Daniels, of the steamer Caribbean, between
Cartagena and Colon, particularly off Farallon Sucio, observed the current
to set E.N.E., 5 miles an hour!

Off Point Manzanillo, numerous tide-rips were observed from the U.S.S.
Enterprise, in November, 1890, and a current of 14 knot per hour setting
to the Eastward. Captain James Lockwood, of the Pacific Mail Steam-
ship Company, states that he has often found a current close in to the
coast as strong as 24 knots per hour.

As the land back of Manzanillo is high, and can be seen from 40 to 60

THE CARIBBEAN SEA. 365

miles off, according to the state of the atmosphere, it forms a splendid
landmark, and no allowance for the Easterly set is made by most of the
captains of mail steamers, as, should the current happen to be slight, or
no current at all be encountered, as sometimes happens, and allowance
were made for the Easterly current, a vessel would make the low land to
the Westward of Colon, where it is difficult to recognize.. By making no
allowance, a vessel is sure to make the high land of Manzanillo or that
between Manzanillo and Colon.

(338.) Captain Lima, of the Pacific Mail steamship Newport, stated, in
1891, that in ninety voyages from New York to Aspinwall he always made
Farallon Sucio, off Cape Manzanilla, bearing S. by W. to S. by W. 4 W.,
even in the rainy season, when no observations could be obtained. His
invariable rule is to change his course, so as to allow for the Easterly set
near this coast, as soon as he sights logs, trees, and driftwood. At his
speed of 12 knots he allows one-half to three-quarters of a point, according
to the quantity of driftwood encountered. If the quantity of driftwood is
very great, and the discolorization of the water very marked, he sometimes
allows as much as 14 point. If he encounters no drift, he makes no allow-
ance, and assumes that there is no current.—United States Notice to
Mariners, No. 9 of 1891.

Some remarks on this Easterly set will also be found on pages 148—149.

(339.) In the Bay of Honduras there is no permanent current, but out-
side its limits it generally sets to the N.W. With respect to this, Captain
W. J. Capes forwarded the following remarks to Mr. Purdy. He says :—
‘“« Between Jamaica and Bonacca the Current generally sets to the North-
ward and Westward. Here, in May, 1816, I was set 60 miles to the West-
ward by the Current, and found that it set rather Northerly, from one-
quarter to half a mile an hour. Between Janiaica and Bonacca are the
islands called the Swan Islands. I would not advise any one bound to the
Bay of Honduras to make these islands, for it cannot be of service, and the
current is so very irregular about them ; and by falling in with them in a
dark night, a ship would be in danger of running on shore, as the land is
very low. About the Southern Fowr Kays the currents are very uncertain.
I have known three ships to be lost on these kays by lying-to for the
night, after they have made them; for, at all times, the currents set
strongly on them.

“Tf a ship be lying-to, under Rattan, it will not be amiss to try the
Current. It is my opinion that the Current about Bonacca takes two
different directions; one part setting to the N.W., and the other part
branching to the §.8.W. I have found it so on several trials, which is the
reason that I prefer taking a departure (for the bay) from the middle or
Hast end of Rattan ; for, if a ship take her departure from the West end,
her course will be N.N.W. (1816); but it very frequently happens that
ships get down on the reefs of the Southern Four Kays when they take
their departure from the West end. The reason is this—a ship steering
N.W. from the West end has more of the Current on her beam, which
sweeps round the end of Rattan very strong at times ; consequently, ships
that take their departure from the East or middle part do not feel so much
of the Current.”

366 OBSERVATIONS ON TEE CURRENTS.

(340.) General Description of the Currents in the Bay of Guatemala, by
Captain W. S. Smith, R.N.—Captain Mackellar, R.N., a writer worthy of
great respect, remarks :—‘‘The Current between the island of Jamaica
and the Spanish Main, or coast of Colombia, is not always to be depended
upon as setting to the Westward, as is generally supposed ; for, in cross-
ing from Jamaica to the Main, ships have been known to be driven to the
Eastward by the Current.” This circumstance must be of rare occurrence
at the Northern part of the passage, and is here mentioned to make known
its possibility. I myself have made runs across between Jamaica and the
opposite Main at many times and seasons, and am, therefore, governed by
practice as well as theory in the following remarks.

1. Local Current between the South side of Jamaica, the Morant Kays,
and Pedro Shoals.—This is very uncertain, both in rate and direction. Its
rate may be from 0 to 14 knot per hour ; and its direction, either North,
East, or West, according to circumstances. At the Morant Kays, the
Current is known to be variable. Over Pedro Shoals it is supposed almost
ever to runin a Westerly direction. Between these two dangers, there-
fore, it behoves a ship at night to be full of precaution, and not to rely on
the continuance of any current she may have ascertained when either to
the Northward or Southward of her then situation.

2. Current Southward of the Morant Kays and Pedro Bank, or between
the parallels of 17° and 15°. This Current runs, perhaps always, true West
to N.W. by W., from 20 to 55 miles per day.

Among the Mosquito Shoals the Currents are equally strong and more
uncertain. Between latitude 15° and a line extending from Cape de la
Vela to Cape Gracias 4 Dios, including some of the Mosquito Kays, the
direction is W.S.W. to N.W., 20 to 40 miles per day.

3. In the Bay of Guatemala, Southward of a line between the Capes de
la Vela and Gracias 4 Dios, and to the distance of 30 miles from the coast,
the sets are so very variable as to baffle all system. Sometimes no current
whatever is felt; at other periods it may run North, South, East, or West,
35 miles a day. Let it be borne in mind, however, that their direction is
very seldom toward the Hast, but generally toward the West. St. Andrew's
Isle and the frontier rocks of the Mosquito Bank are equally beset by
changeable currents, of velocities amounting to fifty miles a day.

4. Between Cape Manzanillo, near Porto Bello, and San Juan de Nicara-
gua, the Inshore or Land Current sets from Westward to Eastward. It is an
eddy, striking out from the Westerly Caribbean Current at Gracias 4 Dios,
and eventually returning into it, with a broken and divided force, to the
North of Cartagena. The breadth of this Current extends from the land to
a distance of about 30 miles in the offing. Its rate is from 1 to 2 knots,
and its direction parallel to the curvature of the coast and capes.

The streams out of numerous rivers, entering this Current, seem to in-
increase its rapidity ; for close inshore, between the rivers, the rate is seldom
less than 2 knots; at 6 miles off the land it runs about 1 knot; and ata
greater distance the same.

(341.) On January 9th, 1892, Captain Reynholds, of the barque Hévding,
when in the vicinity of Morant Kays, states that his vessel was set out of
her course 15 miles to the Northward by a strong Northerly current.

THE CARIBBEAN SEA. 367

The United States directions say that the drift current, off Morant
Kays, sets towards West and N.N.W., three-quarters of a knot an hour,
after the Trade Wind has been blowing fresh for a day or two. When the
Trade is lighter a current setting to the N.E. of Kast is frequently ex-
perienced. Vessels having occasion to pass near Morant Kays at night
should keep Northward of them.

In March, 1889, the steamer Blake, when between Jamaica and Hon-
duras, to the S.W. of Pedro Bank, found the surface current running to
S.W. by W., gradually changing to the Westward to a depth of 130
fathoms, and tidal below that depth. Between Pedro Bank and Jamaica
a tidal or eddy current was found, setting to the Eastward.

(342.) From Cape Antonio, the western extremity of Cuba, the Current
sets, at times, to the E.S.E., past the Isle of Pines. Captain Livingston
informed us that, in March, 1818, he found the current between the Great
Cayman and Isle of Pines to set in that direction, at the rate of fully 24
miles an hour, or 60 miles in the 24 hours. In August, 1817, he found the
set nearly the same, but the Current not half so strong. The Spanish
‘« Derrotero’’ says :—‘‘ From Cape de Cruz, on the South side of Cuba, it
is noticed that there is a-constant Current to the Westward, with some
inclination to the Southward or Northward, and which has been known
sometimes to set 20 miles in a single day.’’ In opposition to this the
exact words of Captain Livingston are—‘‘I have twice experienced a
strong Current, setting about E.S.E., between the Caymans and Isle of
Pines ; and on the latter of these occasions both my mate and myself
separately calculated it to set about about 60 miles per day, or 24 miles
per hour. This, however, J incline to think is a very particular case, such
as may but seldom occur. The winds at this time were light and Westerly.
On the other occasion, so far as I recollect, it set about 12 or 14 miles
per day only. All my papers on these subjects have been lost; but the
first instance was too remarkable to be forgotten.”

A further evidence of this is given by Captain Harry Miles, ship
Illustrious. ‘‘ December 29th, 1858, in rounding Cape Antonio, I could
not detect any current. At times I have found it strong to 8.H.”

(343.) Off the South side of Cuba, between Cape Antonio and Cape
Maysi, the current has frequently been found setting to the Hastward when
the moon is increasing, or in her first two quarters. It is represented
that it runs to the Eastward for a fortnight, and then to the Westward
about the same time. Coasters from the Caymans commonly take advan
tage of the Easterly Current for making their passage to Jamaica.

From this information we may conjecture that the Current, which has
been described as setting to the E.S.H. from Cape Antonio to Cape
Maysi, is not permanent, but, at times, on the contrary, imperceptible,
according to the age of the moon; and this has, we believe, been verified,
in several instances, while the cause has remained unknown.

Captain Manderson stated, that when a strong Hasterly wind has been
blowing between Cuba and Florida, vessels heaving-to off the South side of
Cape Antonio, at about 6 miles from the shore, have, in the course of one
night, been carried against a strong sea breeze, nearly as high as Cape
Corrientes, being a distance of 80 miles. Captain Rowland Bourke, once

a

368 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

when lying-to in the Archibald, for the night, off Cape Antonio, also found
himself, next morning, off Cape Corrientes.

Captain Monteath stated:—‘‘In the months of May, 1814 and 1815
(two voyages in which I was chief mate of the ship Prince Regent from
Kingston) ; in June, 1817, in the ship Fame ; and in April and December,
1820, in the ship Mary; between Grand Cayman Island and Cape
Antonio, I invariably found the current setting strong to the Eastward, or
E.S.E.; and I have heard it generally remarked that vessels shaping a
course from the Caymans for Cape Antonio have found themselves off, or
even to the Eastward of, Cape Corrientes: this has, in the above cases,
invariably happened to myself.”

Captain Dunsterville has said, ‘‘I am firmly established in an opinion,
from twelve years observation, that not only are the Winds and the
Weather on the West India station influenced by the change of the moon,
but the Currents also; and it is frequently found that, if the waters run
to the Eastward, it is at the change and full of the moon.’

On this subject Captain Livingston says, ‘It is a prevailing opinion
with many, that the moon governs entirely the Currents among the West
India Islands. No doubt the moon has some effect on them, but the
Winds have a still more powerful influence.

‘“‘ Tt is rarely, indeed, on the North side otf the island of Jamaica that
there is a Westerly Current when the North and N.W. winds prevail ; the
Current then always, or almost always, sets to the Hastward.

‘‘ On the South side of Cuba, when the wind is Westerly, which it often
is, you are always certain of a reflowing current round Cape Antonio.
This is easily accounted for; as when the fresh Trade Wind ceases, and
the Westerly wind sets in, the barrier, which confined the waters in the
Mexican Sea, is in some degree removed, and they seek to regain their
level as well by the Channel of Yucatan as by the Strait of Florida.”

Between the Isle of Pines and the main land of Cuba is a strong North-
Easterly indraught, generally running from 1 to 14 mile an hour, and
which has caused the loss of many vessels on St. Felipe Kays and the
dangerous bank stretching therefrom to the Westward.

In the Windward Channel of Jamaica, the Current generally sets with
the wind to leeward or 8.W.; yet both here and at Jamaica it is variable.
Some have affirmed that, when a Current runs to leeward on the South
side of Jamaica, there is frequently one setting Eastward on the North
side; and, at other times, no current is to be perceived; also that, when
a lee current runs on the North shore, the same circumstances may be
perceived on the South shore as were before observed on the North.

(344.) Current Bottles—The following records, though old, of the drift
of Bottles within the limits of the Caribbean Sea, will prove of interest :—

Caribbean Sea to Yucatan.—A Bottle from H.M.S. Chanticleer, in lat. 15° 29',
long. 76° 8', to the Southward of Jamaica, at noon February 23rd, 1831, was
picked up on April 20th following, upon the Eastern coast of Yucatan, after
having traversed a distance of nearly 700 miles, at the rate of 28 miles per day.

Serranilla to Yucatan.—A Bottle from a boat belonging to H.M. surveying-ship
Thunder, ab anchor under Serranilla West Kay, March 10th, 1884, was picked up

THE CHANNEL OF YUCATAN. 369

at Half-Moon Kay, in the Bay of Honduras, on the 23rd of the next month, April ;
‘ate 10 miles per day.

Tobago to the Cayman.—A Bottle from the American brig Emma, June 17th,
1838, in lat. 11° 4’, long. 58° 50’, was picked up on the 27th of the following.
August, upon the Eastern shore of the Grand Cayman; distance 2,000 miles, at
the rate of 28°6 miles per day.

Windward Channel, between Jamaica and Hayti.—A Bottle from H.M.S. Thunder,
in lat. 18° 56’, long. 74° 56’, April 7th, 1839; current then setting S.W. by S. half
a knot; was picked up in the Grand Anse, near Jérémie (long. 74°1’), on the 24th
of the same month.

Hayti to Florida.—A Bottle, from the ship Robert, Captain Coulter, Eastward
of Alta Vela, on the South coast of Hayti, was picked up about thirteen months
afterward on the shore near St. Mary’s, in Florida.

Some Bottles enumerated in Captain Becher’s list: Ship Racehorse, Captain
Home, thrown over in lat. 12° 12’, long. 65° 50’, April 17th, 1836 ; picked up April
22nd, at Bonaire, 150 miles in 5 days. Ship Chanticleer, Captain Austen, thrown
over February 23rd, 1831, in lat. 15° 30’, long. 76°; picked up on the East coast
of Yucatan, April 30th, 680 miles in 56 days. H.M.S. Thunder, Captain Barnett,
thrown over at Chagres, April 22nd, 1840; reached Belize, October 1st, 1840.
H.M.S. Thunder, March 10th, 1834, thrown over at Serranilla Bank; picked up
near Belize, April 23rd; 575 miles in 44 days.

(345.) The Channel of Yucatan, connecting the Caribbean Sea with
the Gulf of Mexico, is 105 miles in width, between Cape Antonio and
Contoy Island, lying Eastward of Cape Catoche, the N.E. point of
Yucatan. The Current most uSually sets with considerable rapidity to
the Northward through it, and according to the calculation of observations
derived from Major Rennell, Commander Maury, &c., the following is the
mean rate of the Current in the various months :—January, 33 miles per
day; February, 34 miles per day ; March, 36 miles; April, 33 miles ; May,
17 miles; June, 26 miles; July, 29 miles; August, 31 miles ; September,
30 miles; October, 38 miles; November, 36 miles; December, 48 miles
per day. The annual mean of all these observations is 32:7 miles per
day. ‘These velocities are much inferior to what might be supposed from
the magnitude of the outset of the Gulf Stream, as will be seen hereafter.

From the monthly results given in the Current Charts drawn up by the
Meteorological Office, the annual mean is given as 33°9 miles per day.
Mr. R. Strachan remarks :—The mean velocity of the Yucatan Current is
34 miles, but it flows into the Gulf of Mexico, towards N.W. by N., with
a velocity of 41 miles; and at times the Current seems to be carried right
across the Gulf. To the North and Hast there is no escape for it, owing
to the Gulf Stream ; hence the check felt in issuing from the Yucatan
Channel bears it off to the Westward, but not until it has attained its
maximum strength in about lat. 23° N., long. 86° W. There are times,
probably, when the Yucatan Current is weaker than the Gulf Stream ;
then a counter-current, an overflow from the Gulf Stream, flows round
Cape Antonio towards the Isle of Pines.

Captain Monteath stated as follows :—‘‘ In my passage from Kingston
toward Campeché, in the ship Fame, June, 1817, between Cape Antonio
and Cape Catoche, I found the current to set due North, 27 miles, ina
run of eighteen hours.”

N. A. O. 48

370 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

(346.) The Currents in this channel were carefully observed by the
officers of the United States Coast Survey steamer Blake, in March and
April, 1887. We here give the results of these investigations, as detailed
by Lieutenant J. E. Pillsbury, U.S.N.

It was found that the Northerly current did not fill the whole channel,
and the surface currents on either side were variable in their direction.
On the Eastern side of the channel, within 20 miles of Cape San Antonio,
there was a light but persistent flow into the Caribbean Sea, its direction
varying according to the declination of the moon. At the time of low
declination its direction was between N.E. by N. and E.S.E., the mean
being N.E. by E.; at high declination it was between Hast and 8.E. by5.,
the mean E.S.E. The average velocity at 34 fathoms was only from
0:50 to 0°75 knot per hour. At high declination an eddy current was
found setting from off Cape Antonio along the Colorado Reefs, but at 30
miles off shore it set to the Northward and Eastward.

On the Western side of the channel, in 23 fathoms, 5 miles inside the
100-fathoms line of Yucatan Bank, the interference of the stream current
with the tidal current was very noticeable ; the flood tide running about
N.W. for 18 hours, and on the ebb it ran to the Kastward.

In mid-channel the current varied but little from North, the average
being N.E. by BE. The axis, or part of greatest velocity, was found to be
West of mid-channel, with a bodily movement to right and left, according
to the moon’s declination. The velocity averaged about 2 knots, the
maximum (about 3 knots) being experienced 10 hours before the moon’s
transit.

The Blake was anchored at various distances between Cape San Antonio
and Contoy Island, when the mean surface velocity of the Northerly
current was as follows :—At 25 miles East of Contoy, 3°65 knots an hour ;
at 30 miles, 3°25 knots; at 35 miles, 2°37 knots; at 45 miles, 2°79 knots ;
at 60 miles, 1:56 knot ; at 76 miles, 1:07 knot; and at 90 miles 0°51 knot.

At the first position, which is 5 miles off the 100-fathoms line of
Yucatan Bank, an extreme daily variation in speed of 3°95 knots was
found at high declination of the moon. It is stated in the ‘“ Annales
Hydrographiques,” 1889, page 236, that on one occasion it here attained
a velocity of 6} knots an hour.

(347.) Gulf of Mexico. The Mexican Sea appears to be the receptacle
and terminus of all the waters flowing Westward. It was formerly con-
sidered that the Current through the Yucatan Channel diverging Hast-
ward and Westward, the Western branch circulated around the whole of
the Gulf to Westward and Northward, and thence flowing Eastward and
South-Eastward, at rates varying from 14 to 31 miles per day, that it
formed what was known as the ‘‘ Great Whirlpool ’’* of the Mexican Gulf,
and then joined the Eastern, and perhaps principal, branch of the Yucatan
Current, torming the mighty Gulf Stream. Later investigations have
shown that the general circulation of the water of the Gulf of Mexico is
erratic in direction and feeble in force. Observations at twelve anchorages

Society, Philadelphia,” vol. i., p. 250.

THE GULF OF MEXICO. 371

of the Blake, between the Mississippi Delta and Yucatan Bank, show a
predominating direction to the Southward and Westward in the Northern
half of the Gulf and close to Yucatan Bank, while between the two the
flow is to the Hastward. The passage of water into the Straits of Florida
ig sometimes from the Gulf and sometimes from the Yucatan Passage ; at
high declination of the moon it is from the latter, and at low declination
it is from the former.

(348.) In Captain Maury’s ‘Sailing Directions,” 8th edition, vol. ii.,
p. 17, it is stated :—

There is a constant set from the Caribbean Sea into the Mexican Gulf
to form the Gulf Stream, and vessels passing up to the Northward may
take advantage of it. It is bifurcated just after entering the Gulf. The
Bottle-paper of the Hermes followed this Yucatan Current to the ‘ fork,”
and then took the Western branch.

‘‘H.M.S. Hermes, April 15th, 1856, lat. 17° 59’ N., long. 78° 50’ W..,
H. Congton, commander, J. EK. Solfleet, master. This Bottle, thrown over
at the West end of Jamaica, was found on the South side of Padre Island,
lat. 26° 5’ N., long. 97° 10’ W., August 23rd, 1857, and forwarded by Mr.
J. R. Butler, who says, ‘The drift shown by the course of this Bottle
confirms my own observations since I have been here, viz., that the
Current divides between Cape Antonio and Cape Catoche, the Eastern
part rounding Cape Antonio, and passing out by the Gulf Stream, while
the Western part keeps a Westerly course until it reaches the coast
between San Fernandino on the coast of Mexico, and Corpus Christi on
Texas, where it meets the South-Westerly Current frem the coast of
Florida and Louisiana. And it is strange to remark the mixture of
floating objects thrown on the beach of this coast by the meeting of the
Currents. Flat-boats, oars, saw-logs, clap-boards, old skiffs, &c., from the
Mississippi, mixed up with branches of mangrove, mahogany, bay-cedar,
young cocoa-nuts, canoe paddles of mahogany, &c., from the Caribbean
Sea and Coast of Honduras.’

‘“« Tt may be remarked on this that the Easterly winds may have some-
to do with the Westerly drift from the Mississippi of objects which float
high out of the water.

‘« Another Bottle, from the ship Admiral, S. Picken, commander, thrown
over on the Equator, long. 30° 45’ W., February 17th, 1856, came ashore
at Aransas Pass, Texas, October 24th, 1856, 250 days afterwards, having
drifted 4,300 miles, or 16 miles per day.’’

(349.) It is difficult to define the separation between the Currents which
pass Hastward and Westward to the Northward of the Yucatan Channel.
It is certain that they set with considerable velocity to the Southward
and South-Kastward over the Tortugas Bank, and also to the 8.H. from
the Mississippi. Perhaps a line might be drawn from the centre of the
strait to the mouth of the Mississippi, to the West of which it may be
found that the streams have westing in them, and to the Hast of it that
they set towards the Gulf of Florida.

(350.) Mr. R. Strachan, in his remarks upon the Meteorological Office
Current Charts, 1872, says :—The waters of the Equatorial Current find a
passage Westward and Northward round the Gulf of Mexico, and they

372 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

keep up a well-defined movement of its water. Probably, in or about lat.
27° N., long. 90° W., a considerable portion of the Current which passed
through the Yucatan Channel finds its way into the Gulf Stream. Here-
abouts it would appear that the Currents are intricate, and difficult to
ascertain by a day’s run, from their conflicting influence upon the ship’s
course.

(351.) In the Supplement No. 2, 1891, to the Sailing Directions for the
Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico, published by the United States Hydro-
graphic Office, it states, the Current coming up through the Yucatan
Channel, takes a general North- Westerly direction, and then runs North-
ward to about the latitude of the Rio Grande. Thence it flows Easterly
until off the Delta of the Mississippi, where it is diverted to the §.E., and
continues on to the Straits of Florida. Off the mouth of the Rio Grande,
and thence to Vera Cruz; anywhere within 100 miles from the land,a —
Southerly counter-current is usually found. When off the mouths of the
Mississippi, within about 50 miles from the shore, a Westerly current is .
almost invariably encountered. This Current varies from 1 to 2 knots per
hour, growing stronger as the land is neared, and must be allowed for by
vessels approaching the passes. A strong, or long-continued Westerly
wind, however, occasionally has the effect of neutralizing this current, and
sometimes, though rarely, reverses it. A strong and long-continued
Norther may have the effect of producing a general Southerly set all over
the Gulf. In the centre of the Gulf there is seldom any current except in
the case of a heavy Norther.

(352.) The following refers to the Currents on Tortugas Bank. Captain
H. Miles, ship Illustrious, states :—‘‘ April 16th, 1859, at noon, in lat.
25° 36’ N., long. 83° 33’ W.; at 8 p.m. sounded in 38, 35, 33, and 32
fathoms, bottom at first depth coarse white sand, with broken shells, and
gradually becoming of a greenish hue as the water shoaled. The wind
being shy from §.W., I anxiously anticipated the Current which Blunt
assures us ‘runs lively to the Southward along the edge of Tortugas
soundings,’ in lieu of which, by a series of first-class observations, verified
on making Bush Kay Light, I ascertained the set N.N.E., 14 mile per
hour, since striking soundings. In fact, coupled with former experience,
I am convinced that, although during the influence of Northerly and
Easterly winds, a S.E. Current of considerable strength most certainly
exists, yet with a Southerly breeze it is not only neutralized, but, as in
the present instance, may set in a contrary direction, or to N.H.”

(353.) The mean temperature of the water of the Gulf of Mexico is pro-
bably as high as any part of the Ocean, from several manifest causes, and
hence it is, on the shores of this sea, that some of those nurseries of the
Sargasso weed exist (292), which, torn from its habitat by the force of the
current, &c., is drifted into that great central area of the Atlantic, to
which it gives the characteristic peculiarity.

It is also probable that animal life is peculiar and abundant in these
iepid waters. « Lieutenant Evans remarks :—‘ The phosphorescent lights
»bserved in the Mexican Sea shine with greater brilliancy (April) than I
had noticed elsewhere; some of these were very large, and flashed like
the vriming of a gun, sometimes at a long distance from the ship. I

THE GULF STREAM. 373

observed that the little shining spiracies were confined to the sides of
the vessel and her wake, and that the waves, when they broke into foam,
did not (as in other parts of the ocean) sparkle.

‘“‘ The colour of the water in the Sea of Mexico is of a dark indigo,
darker or more intense than that of the ocean generally ; the colour of the
sea in the Florida Channel is a fine blue, not so dark as that of the Sea of
Mexico, or of the ocean generally.”’

8. THE GULF STREAM.

(354.) The following description of the Gulf Stream is founded ona
Paper by the late A. G. Findlay, F.R.G.S.,* with which we have incor-
porated much later information from various sources, but chiefly from the
Reports of the United States Coast Survey.t There is much that is
apparently contradictory in the observations of the various explorers,
tending to show, that like most other terrestrial phenomena, this great
Ocean Current is subject in its course to various vicissitudes, both in velocity
and direction. The whole subject is fraught with many difficulties.

In the section on Passages to and from the West Indies, hereafter, are
some remarks for the use of vessels being navigated within its influence,
within and near the Strait of Florida.

(355.) The Florida or Gulf Stream has received more attention, has
been the subject of more speculation, and has served as the basis of more
theories than all the other Currents of the Ocean collectively. Although
modern research, conducted with all refinement, in contradistinction to
the imperfect observation of the passing seaman in former years, has shorn
it of much of the grandeur and magnitude with which it was formerly
invested, still it is a mighty and majestic Current, well worthy of ail the
laborious investigation which the philosopher and mariner have bestowed
upon it.

The investigations carried out by the United States Government sur-
veyors have dissipated all preconceived notions of its enormous magnitude;
these were commenced in 1845, and when the first reports on the nar-
rower portion, at the commencement of the stream, were published, sub-
sequent to 1855, they were so startling as to be received almost with
incredulity. But the subsequent most careful measurements of its Depth,
Velocity, Temperature, and other collateral features, down to the present
time, have tended to confirm, to some extent, the statement first made by
Commander Craven in 1855, that the narrowest is the shallowest part of

* See Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, vol. xiii., 1869, pp. 102—112,
**On the Gulf Stream,” by A. G. Findlay ; and the Journal of the Royal United Service
Institution, vol. xiv., 1870.

t See the Annual Reports of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, especially
that for 1890, Appendix 10 of which consists of a description of the Gulf Stream, by
Lieutenant J. HK. Pillsbury, U.S.N., being an account of his explorations daring five
yoars, when in command of the steamer Blake.

374 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

its course. From the numerous sections which have been examined, on
lines transverse to its course, between the Caribbean Sea and the banks
off Nantucket, we are enabled to calculate with some approach to exact-
ness, what is the amount, velocity, and temperature of the volume of
water which is transported by it into colder latitudes.

As these investigations have been made in the spring and summer
months, the conclusions arrived at may be incorrect for the other seasons,
though there are no good reasons for supposing such to be the case.

(356.) It may seem, therefore, somewhat surprising, that—in the face of
its now known much smaller volume and much slower rate of travelling,
and also of the well-ascertained interferences it has to encounter—a much
more extended area should be claimed by some to be under its influence,
than was considered to be when very much less was known of its real
character. When Major Rennell’s ‘‘ Investigation” was published in
1832, containing a digest of all that was then known, the conclusion was
arrived at, ‘‘that as a Current, it may be said to terminate at ordinary
times at the Western side of the Azores ;” and this is the sum of all the
arguments subsequently used, with the exceptions that Dr. Franklin, in
November, 1776, on approaching the Huropean coast, was never appa-
rently out of the warm water of the Gulf Stream; and that Colonel E.
Sabine, in 1822, found an abnormal warmth of the ocean water in the
Eastern part of the North Atlantic, which he attributed to the unusual
strength of the Gulf Stream that season.

It was only after the acquisition of our comparatively exact knowledge
of the Gulf Stream proper, between Florida and the Newfoundland Banks,
that the argument was advanced—that it is the Gulf Stream, which, after
Araversing the intervening space of the North Atlantic Ocean, transports

V the amenity of climate over the whole of the North-Western shores of
Europe; and also that in entering the Polar basin, past and around
Spitzbergen, it keeps an open sea there, and by its warmth maintains a
constant circulation around the North Pole.

(357.) It was during active researches in the Arctic regions, when the
progress and fate of Sir John Franklin and Captain Crozier, with their
ships’ crews, were involved in such profound obscurity, that it was claimed
for the Gulf Stream to have volume and power sufficient to have vast
influence in ameliorating the Arctic climate. The failure of every attempt
to penetrate the mystery, which had been so zealously directed towards the
channels West of Baffin’s Bay prior to 1851—1852, led Dr. Augustus
Petermann to examine into the possibility of reaching the neighbourhood
of Behring Strait by the way of Spitzbergen and Novaya Zemlia, and the
elaborate and most useful investigations he then carried on led him to the
conclusion that the varied phenomena he then elucidated, the abundance
of animal life, the temperature of sea and climate, and certain features in
almost every department of physics, could only be attributed to a warm
North-Easterly Current, which he considered was an extension of the Gulf
Stream.*

* See Parliamentary Papers on the Arctic Expeditions; Further Oorrespondence, &c.,

1852, pp. 142, et seq.; also Journal of the Roya! Geographical Society, xxii., pp. 118—128,
on the Distribution of Animal Life in the Arctic Regions, by A. Petermann, F.R.G.S.

THE GULF STREAM. 375

(358.) To this last conclusion we still firmly demur, as in previous
editions of this book, subsequent to the time when we were first made
acquainted with the true dimensions of the Gulf Stream proper. In saying
this, it must be distinctly understood that the effects claimed for it on the
Eastern side of the Atlantic are not for a moment questioned. There can
be no difference of opinion as to the facts which Dr. Petermann and many
others bring forward in the elaborate memoir which he published.* It is
rather a question of nomenclature, for the connection between these phe-
nomena and the Gulf Stream proper is not shown.

The facts are incontrovertible, but it is strongly affirmed that these
effects cannot be produced or effected by the Gulf Stream as now known,
or by any fluctuations in its character. A very much wider field of action
must be brought to bear on the subject; and it is contended that this
North-Easterly drift or indraught, along the Scandinavian coast, should
have a distinct name, as being an independent Current, having its origin
somewhere between the coast of Europe and the Great Banks, and pro-
pelled Northward by the §.W. winds which prevail throughout the year
on this part of the Atlantic, or by some greater cause. But in thus stating
the case, it must be qualified in a degree by the fact that the Gulf Stream
water forms a small part of this Current, but it is so cooled down and inter-
mingled with the Arctic Current, that if any direct connection does exist,
it is with both of these Currents, and that, perhaps, in an equal degree.

(359.) In the preceding Sections we have traced the course of the waters
from the shores of Europe down to the great set or Tropical Drift, and
thence through the Channel of Yucatan to the Western entrance of the
narrow channel between the North shore of Cuba and the Florida Kays.
Here may be said to be the commencement of the Gulf Stream as an inde-
pendent Current, as it flows swiftly hence to the Hastward in opposition
to its previous course, and then Northward through the Narrows between
Cape Florida and the Bemini Isles. Keeping this direction with its high
velocity and temperature, it is deflected to the N.E. by the form of the
American coast ; then assuming a more Hasterly direction, and gradually
spreading its warmer waters over a broader area, through an immense
region of perpetual fogs rising from its tepid waters, it pursues its course
with a gradually decreasing rate and temperature, until it reaches the

Southern part of the Banks of Newfoundland. At this part it encounters , /

the Arctic Current, which crosses its track and imports into it the influences ~
of an Arctic temperature ; owing to this, and the counteracting effects of
an adverse current upon its diminished force and much decreased volume,
it ceases to maintain its character as the Gulf Stream or an independent
Current.

(360.) History.—The Gulf Stream was known by its present name, and
in its now known form, from very early times. The Northern Equatorial
Drift was noticed by Columbus, September 13th, 1492, when in lat. 27° N.,
long. 40° W., and this is the first Ocean Current observation. In his sub-

* Geographische Mittheilungen, Gotha, Justus Perthes, vol. xvi., 1870, parts 6 and 7.
This most valuable essay, with ample references, was translated for the United States
Hydrographic Office.

376 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

sequent voyages, in 1502-3, he observed the strength of the streams in the
Caribbean Sea.* The first voyage through the Gulf of Florida was that by
Poncé de Leon, in 1512 or 1513, and this gave the first account of the
Stream itself, and he named the present Cape Cafiaveral el Cabo de Cor-
rientes, from the circumstance. Several other Spanish voyagers, about this
period, also experienced its effects, especially the pilot Antonio de Alaminos,
who sailed through it in 1519. In Mr. Kohl’s exhaustive and most in-
teresting Monograph,} these and very many other earlier voyages are
noticed, and the whole history of the subject dilated on.

(361.) That excellent observer, William Dampier, in his “‘ Discourses on
the Trade Winds,” &c., published in 1690, page 105, gives the following
observations :—

“And ’tis as probable that the current, which sets to leeward on all the
coast from Cape St. Augustine to Cape Catoch, never enters the Bay of
Mezico, but bends still to the Northward, till ’tis checked by the Florida
shore; and then wheels about to the Hast, till it comes nearer the Gulph’s
Mouth, and there joyning with the soaking current that draws down on
the North sides of Hispaniola and Cuba, passes altogether with great
strength through the Gulph of Florida, which is the most remarkable
Gulph in the World for its Currents, because it always sets very strong to
the North. Yet, near the shores on each side this Gulph there are tides,
especially on the Florida shore; and Ships may pass which way they
please, if they are acquainted.

“Tt has formerly been accounted very dangerous to meet with a North
in this Gulph; and for that reason our Jamaica ships, to avoid them, have
rather chosen to go to the Kastward and pass through the Cacuses (Caycos)
in the season that Norths do blow. The Cacuses are sands that lie off the
N.W. end of Hispaniola. Those that went from Port Royal in Jamaica had
good reason for this; for if a North took them at their going out, it would
help them forward in their way, which, should they have been going
towards the Gulph, it would obstruct them. Then besides, if a North take
a ship in the Gulph, the wind blowing against the Current makes an ex-
traordinary Sea, and so thick come the Waves, one after another, that a
ship can’t possibly live in it, yet of late they go through at all times of the
Year, and if a North takes them in the Gulph, they put away right before
the Wind and Sea, with a small head sail; yet the Current is then as
strong or stronger than at other times, and forces them back, stern fore-
most, against both Wind and Sea; for though the surface of the Sea is
raised in Waves and driven violently with the Winds to the Southward,
yet the Current underneath runs still to the Northward ; neither is it any
strange thing to see two different Currents at one place and time, the super-
ficial Water running one way, and that underneath running quite contrary;
for sometimes at an anchor I have seen the Cable carryed thus by two

* He remarks:—‘I hold it for certain that the waters of the sea move from Hast to
West, and that in passing this tract (the Windward Islands) they hold a more rapid
course, and have thus carried away large tracts of land, and that from hence has re-
sulted the great number of islands.’ Recent observations do not seem to bear out this
theory.

+ Geschichte des SoHetroms und seiner Erforsohung. J.G. Kohl. Bremen, 1868.

THE GULF STREAM. 377

different Streams, the under part having been doubled one way, and the
upper part the contrary.”’

It is, therefore, somewhat surprising that a claim should have been
made for Dr. Franklin as the real discoverer of its nature and its warmth
in 1770. The tale is this :—Being in London in that year, he was con-
sulted by the Treasury as to why the Falmouth packets were generally a
fortnight longer to New York than common traders were from London to
Providence, Rhode Island? He therefore consulted a Nantucket whaler,
who laid its course on a chart, and explained that the Rhode Island cap-
tains, being acquainted with the Gulf Stream, avoided it, while the Fal-
mouth commanders, being ignorant of it, were set back 60 or 70 (!!) miles
a day by it. Without stopping to refute this altogether, which may be
done by Dampier and his predecessors, it will be evident that something
else than the Gulf Stream must have retarded them 60 or 70 miles a day
in that latitude, if they were thus delayed.

(362.) Causes—We have already given some general remarks (248, 249)
on the origin and causes of surface currents. There have been very many
speculations as to the cause of this great river in the Ocean, but they were
_ promulgated before there was any increase of knowledge upon which to
found arguments, and, as said before, recent investigations have overturned
most of those which have been advanced. It has been supposed that it
runs out of the Gulf of Mexico from the superior level of that sea, and
facts are not wanting for such an assumption. Captain Manderson, R.N.,
gave an opinion in his ‘Examination as to the true course of the Florida
Stream,” that it was owing to the Mississippi and the floods from the
other rivers falling into the Gulf of Mexico. It was still further argued
that the velocity of the Gulf Stream might be determined by the floods
from thes rivers. But Captain Andrew Livingston, in our earlier editions,
overturned this hypothesis by showing that what is poured into the sea by
the River Mississippi is not a three-thousandth part of the volume of the
Gulf Stream. He thought that it might be accounted for by the motion of
the sun in the ecliptic, and its influence on the Atlantic waters.

The effect of Temperature is also advanced as the prime mover ; in-
creasing its heat, the water expands, and thus becomes higher than the
cooler waters beyond it, and as the Gulf of Mexico has the highest tem-
perature, here is the head water of the Gulf Stream on that account. Sir
John Herschel says on this point :—‘ Let us see what this declivity, formed
by unequal temperature, would amount to. The Hquatorial surface-water
has a temperature of 84° F.; at 7,200 feet the temperature is 39°, the level
of which temperature rises to the surface in lat. 56°. Taking the dilata-
bility of sea-water to be the same as fresh, a uniformly progressive increase
of temperature from 39° to 84° would dilate a column of 7,200 feet by 10
feet (or 9:971 feet more exactly), to which height, therefore, above the
spheroid of equilibrium (or above the sea level in 56°), the Equatorial
surface is actually raised by this dilatation. An are of 56° on the earth’s
surface measures 3,360 geographical miles, so that (were the water to run
direct North) we have a slope of 1-28th part of an inch per mile for the
water so raised to run down. As the accelerating force corresponding to

N. A. O. 49

378 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

such a slope (of 1-10th of a second, 0-1” of arc), is less than one two-
millionth part of gravity, we may dismiss this as a cause capable of creat-
ing only a very trifling surface drift, not worth considering, even were it
the proper direction to form, by concentration, a current from Hast to
West; which it would not be, but the very reverse.” *

With regard to this, Lieutenant Pillsbury, U.S.N., states that the tem-
perature of the Ocean in the vicinity of the Equator reaches 37° F., at a
depth of about 1,000 fathoms, below which the changes are slight to the
bottom. The surface has » temperature not far from 80°. The expansion
of the water due to this change in temperature is about ‘005, which for the
column of 1,000 fathoms would be about 30 feet, giving a grade from the
Equator to the Poles of about -06 inch to a mile, an infinitesimal difference.

Professor Ferrel considers that the effect of a difference of Temperature
in the water of the Ocean between the Equatorial and Polar regions is
similar to its effect on the atmosphere. The initial effect, before motion
ensues, is to raise the surface of the Ocean at the Equator above that of
the Polar regions (calculated by Mr. Croll to be 44 feet), thus giving rise
to a motion poleward, compensated by an under-flow from the Poles to the
Equator. He also denies that the Winds are the origin of the Currents,
and holds that they are primarily due to differences of Temperature, acted
on by the effect of the earth’s rotation.f

We may here draw attection to an ingenious theory advanced by General
H. Mathiesen, of the Danish Army, founded on the study of special surface
temperature charts. He combats the generally accepted idea of the circu-
lation of the waters of the Ocean, holding that the surface isothermal lines
(about which more will be said at the end of this work) indicate warm
currents from the Equator towards the Poles, and cold currents from the
Poles towards the Equator, the former being of a clear blue colour, and the
latter discoloured by various organic substances. He argues that the Winds
cannot be considered as the cause of the permanent Oceanic Currents.{

Evaporation has been assumed as another cause, but it can be shown
that the lines of maximum evaporation are near the Tropics, that is, near
to the point from which the Gulf Stream removes and flows away, instead
of running towards, if this be taken as a sole cause. But the line of greatest
precipitation is near the Equator, and therefore the surface water of the
Ocean is there lighter, or of less specific gravity, than under the evapo-
rating Tropical influences ; this source of instability will cause the waters
to flow directly towards this line, throughout the whole circuit, and not in
the form of a partial stream. Besides this, it is shown by the experiments
of deep-sea exploring vessels, that the density of sea-water, at some fathoms
below the surface, is very nearly the same all over the ocean (246), so that
surface experiments afford but imperfect data, upon which little or nothing
can be grounded in the present state of our knowledge.

(363.) There have been so many objections raised to the plain fact that

* « Physical Geography,” by Sir John F. W. Herschel, 1861.

+ “Recent Advances in Meteorology,” by William Ferrel, M.A., Ph. D., Washington,
U.S., 1886.

~ “ B'tude sur les Courants et sur la Température des Eaux de la Mer dans |’Océan
“Atlantique,” par le Général H. Mathiesen ; Christiania, 1892.

THE GULF STREAM. 379

the Trade and Anti-Trade Winds will account for many or most of the
phenomena of oceanic circulation, that it would be far too discursive for a
practical work like this to enter into such a field of speculation. All further
theory must be sought for in those works which deal with speculative
acience. As stated in (2) page 98, the winds and water of the North Atlantic
Ocean seem to follow much the same law, as far as their different natures
will allow; that is, they circulate more or less around a central axis or
area—the Calms of Cancer in the one case, and the Sargasso Sea in the
other.

Captain Maury adduced arguments against the theory of assuming the ~
Trade Winds as the prime cause of the Gulf Stream, in opposition to the
line of reasoning followed by Sir John Herschel. He drew up several
Tables to show that the §.E. Trades have a greater preponderating force
over the N.E. Trades in the Atlantic, but he proceeds on the assumption
of the Hquator being the division between the two systems. This basis,
which he elsewhere disproved, will very inadequately explain the relative
force and duration of the two Trade Winds, as shown in (49), page 129.
In fact, from arguing in this way, he endeavoured to prove, that from the
much greater force (nearly twice) of the Southern Trades, from their much
greater constancy, and still further, that from the greater preponderance of
Westerly winds within the Tropics, on the North side of the Equator, that
the North-East Trade Wind scarcely blows at all in the North Atlantic
Ocean ; & position which is disproved by his Pilot Charts, and by the ex-
perience of all sailors. The statement need scarcely be argued against, that
the §.E. Trades have quadruple the force, and nearly dowble the duration
of the N.E. Trades, making them eight times as important.

But besides this, the Wind and Current Charts demonstrate that the
Northern edge of the S.E. Trades, and their consequent drift, are almost
always felt throughout nearly the whole year, to the North of the Equator,
and, in fact, send a large proportion of the water into the Caribbean Sea
(13), page (102).

The Trade Winds may therefore be held to be a great cause of the Gulf
Stream, and this opinion is strengthened by the results of the latest explora-
tions made by the United States surveyors.*

(364.) From careful observations made in the steamer Blake, Lieutenant

* “Tt is well known how easily a Current may be induced by the action of the Wind,
and how a strong S.W., a N.W., or even a N.E. wind, on our own coasts, raises the tide
to an extraordinary height in the English Channel, the River Thames, &c., as those
winds respectively prevail. The late Mr. Smeaton ascertained, by experiment, that in
a canal of 4 miles in length, the water was kept up 4 inches higher at one end than at
the other, merely by the action of the wind along the canal. The Baltic is kept up 2
feet at least by a strong N.W. wind of any continuance ; and the Caspian Sea is higher,
by several feet, at either end, as a strong Northerly or Southerly wind prevails. It is
likewise known, that a large piece of water, 10 miles broad, and generally only 3 feet
deep, has, by a strong wind, had its waters driven to one side, and sustained so as to
become 6 feet deep, while the windward side was laid dry. Therefore, as water pent
up so that it cannot escape, acquires a higher level, so, in a place where it can escape,
the same operation produces a current, and this current will extend to a greater or less
distance, according to the force by which it is produced or kept up by the wind.”—
Major Renneli, on the Thwart-Channel Current. 5

380 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

Pillsbury, U.S.N., concludes that the Gulf Stream receives its water from
the Atlantic, partly by means of the current driven by the force of the 8.E.
Trade Winds along the N.E. coast of South America, and partly by the
current from the N.E. Trades. The water, as a current, flows through the
passages between the Windward Islands, only, and not through the Ane-
gada, Mona, or Windward Passages. Not all the water-entering the
Caribbean as described flows the length of that sea as a Current, but a
portion of it returns to the Kastward through the passages, usually as an
under-current. In addition, there is a large body of water thrown by the
waves into the Caribbean Sea through all the passages. The Current found
along the coast, between Trinidad and Curagao, is chiefly produced by the
escape of water thrown there by the waves, no large body permanently
entering the sea through the passage South of Grenada. The flow of water
across the Caribbean Sea is of the same character as that found outside
the islands, a scarcely perceptible current on the surface at first, but in-
creasing in its velocity farther West.

The water thus accumulated in the Western part of the Caribbean Sea
escapes into the Gulf of Mexico, raising its surface level above that of the
Atlantic. The reported difference of about 40 inches in level between the
Gulf of Mexico, at Biloxi, and Sandy Hook, is probably largely in excess
of the actual difference, though it is probably many inches. The evidence
is that the small periodic changes of level of the Gulf of Mexico (0-3 to
0:41 foot) follow the changes in the Trade Winds, the highest level coming
at the time when the winds are throwing the greatest amount of water
into the Caribbean Sea, and also that the yearly variation in the Stream’s
velocity follows the change in the level of the Gulf.

Lieutenant Pillsbury continues :—‘ The average of all the Westerly flow
between the islands, from St. Vincent to Antigua, gives a volume equal to
about one-half that found in the narrowest part of the Straits of Florida.
What, then, can account for the other half? I am convinced that it is
the water thrown to leeward by the waves. Once in the Caribbean Sea,
every wave formed gives the surface current an additional push by its
momentum, so that by the time the part S.W. of Jamaica is reached, the
flow has greater velocity than in any of the passages between the islands.”

(365.) In previous pages, describing the Equatorial Currents, it was
shown (302) to (317), pp. 348 to 352, that the united streams of the Northern
Equatorial Drift and the much more powerful stream from the South
Equatorial regions, when passing Cape San Roque and the Northern coast
of Brasil, have a breadth of not less than 2,000 to 2,200 miles, and these
flow with a velocity varying at times from 60 to 80 miles per day in the
Southern part, to 10 or 15 miles in the Northern part of the drift. This
Equatorial stream, which has a mean annual temperature of 77°6° (varying
between 72°5° and 81:4°) on the Hastern or African side, and increasing to
80:°6° (from 79°7° to 84:2°) on the American side, covers an area of not less
than 5,400,000 square geographical miles of Tropically heated water. The
whole of this moving surface impinges on the Eastern face of the Caribbee
Islands, and here another difficulty awaits us. The line of islands diminish
the water-way, the openings between Barbuda and Trinidad being in tha
aggregate not 230 miles in width, or less than one-half of the range. So

THE GULF STREAM. 381

that, theoretically, the stream should rush through the openings between
the islands with redoubled velocity, but no such phenomenon occurs.
The Currents here are constant, but not more violent than in the Ocean
to the East. Moreover, it is shown on pages 358 to 368 (327) to (343),
that the current has not sufficient power in the Caribbean Sea to maintain
a persistent Westwardly course, but that it is liable to frequent interrup-
tions, and is sometimes even reversed.

(366.) That part of the stream which fails to enter the passages is now
considered to be deflected to the North-Westward, and to join the Gulf
Stream after it has issued from the Straits of Florida. It is, however, but
ill-defined and of small velocity, and from the evidence of floating bottles
and other observations it has been considered that part of this drift forms
a recurving current to the Southward and 8.E., along the N.E. side of the
Bahamas. So indefinite is this drift, that in the previous edition of this
work it was stated that one half of this great drift therefore appears to die
out on reaching the obstacle formed by the islands, and no clue has as yet
been given to its extinction, but it shows one thing, that the movement
must be very superficial, or it would be impossible for a great body of water
to be thus quietly arrested.* The only outlet it appears to have is the
comparatively puny Gulf Stream with a breadth of not more than one six-
hundredth part of the parent source.

Lieutenant Pillsbury remarks that it seems evident there are two con-
tributions to be found which tend to force the Stream onward, after it has
left the Straits of Florida. One the current outside the islands, and the
other the prevailing Westerly direction of the Anti-Trades. We have
direct evidence of the flow outside the islands in the observations taken
between Great Abaco Island and Cape Hatteras. At anchor about 60 miles
from the Bahamas, the currents were all to the Northward and Westward,
at the surface N.W., and at a depth of 200 fathoms N.W. by N. Midway
between it was found that a slow movement reached to a great depth; the
directions here were nearly all between N.N.E. and N.E. by E.

The meeting of the current outside the Bahamas with the Gulf Stream
varies in position. We have no means of knowing the width of this out-
side stream, except by temperature observations, and these give over 200
miles. It is slower in movement, but of much higher temperature than the
Gulf Stream.

We have previously given (325), pages 355—356, Sir Robert Schom-
burgk’s remarks on this outer current.

Having thus endeavoured to trace the origin of the water of the Gulf
Stream, we now proceed to give some account of its peculiarities in the
various regions it traverses, premising, however, that in no sense can it be
considered as constant, and it is fairly open to doubt whether Lieutenant
Pillsbury, U.S.N., is to be considered as infallible when he affirms :—
“ That this wonderful Stream is governed by law in all its motions there

* There is an exactly analogous case in the abrupt termination to the Guinea Cur-
rent in the Bight of Biafra. It is traced up to the coast itself, and with a mean rate
of 15 or 16 miles per day, and then disappears; it does not apparently unite with the
South African Current setting to the Northward.

382 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

can be no doubt. It has its daily and monthly variations in Veloclty,
Direction, and Temp2rature, changing with as perfect regularity as the
tides in a harbour.” :

(367.) The Gulf Stream has had from the earliest times a very bad repu-
tation among ship-masters for its dangerous character, and the hundreds
of wrecks and millions of property which have bestrewed its margin have
given good occasion for such a description. For not only is it to be dreaded
for its stormy nature, but also for its violent stream, which renders a sail-
ing vessel quite unmanageable during a calm. At these times, should hazy
weather occur, and the sameness of the shores mislead the stranger, he is
is open to many difficulties and dangers. But the excellent system of
beaconage along the Florida Reefs, and the fine lights which direct by
night, have very much reduced its bad character, and diminished the
employment of that enterprising race, the wreckers of Kay West and the
Florida Reefs.

(368.) The Channel of the Gulf Stream.—The peculiar and dangerous
character of the shores of the Straits of Florida, and the necessity which
existed for the establishment of some means of averting the mischief the
Gulf Stream annually occasioned, led to a minute examination of its fea-
tures so geologically and geographically interesting, which has been made
practically useful by the erection of a fine line of beacons and the necessary
lighthouses upon the Florida Reefs.

Professor Agassiz, who investigated this subject, has shown that the
Florida Kays and Reefs are essentially of coral formation in various stages
of existence. At Kay West, the basis of this is shown to be a coarse oolitic
rock with cross stratifications, and dipping at various angles in different
directions. The formation of coral upon this rock extends not only over the
Kays, but also to the mainland of Florida, and by a careful process of in-
quiry and reasoning it may be inferred that a very different order of things
existed at no very remote period of the world’s history.

We have a peninsula—a narrow, flat strip of land, projecting for about
5 degrees from the mainland, between the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of
Mexico, and forming an effective barrier between the waters of the two seas,
which otherwise, even by the change of a few feet in the relative level of
the intervening peninsula, would communicate freely with one another ;
and this peninsula we now know to have been added to the continent, step
by step, in a Southerly direction.

We know that the time cannot be far behind us when the present reef,
with its few kays, did not exist, and when the channel, therefore, was
broader, and the Gulf Stream flowed directly along the main range of kays.
We know, further, that at some earlier period the kays themselves were not
yet formed, and that the channel between Cuba and Florida was wider still,
washing freely over the grounds now known as the mud-flats, between the
kays and the mainland, and that there was then nothing to impede a free
communication between the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean.

If it is true that the Gulf Stream and the South-West winds have an in-
fluence in determining the course of the isothermal lines upon the two
sides of the Atlantic, and of raising beyond their normal altitude the mean
annual temperatures of North-West Europe, then we may look to the

THE GULF STREAM. 383

physical changes which have occurred on the South-Hastern extremity of
the North American continent for the cause, or at least a partial cause, of
those changes of temperature which have taken place in the beginning
of the present period, in those very North-Western portions of Europe
which are now so much warmer than the corresponding latitudes on the
Kastern side of the American continent; and which, soon after the
accumulation of the glacial drift, had as low a mean annual temperature
as the coasts of Labrador, Nova Scotia, and New England in our day.

The present condition of the Florida country then is this :—On the
outer edge we have the ‘‘ Reef,” a submerged line of danger to the
navigator, which rises nearly to the surface of the water, on which every
variety of coral life is developed. It follows the line of kays within it in
a perfectly parallel curve, and forms the boundary to the Ship Channel
inside it for hundreds of miles. Upon this line and space are small patches
which rise above the surface, of course of dead coral, and upon these is
gradually heaped the débris of the reef, in the form of sand and broken
coral, till it attains a permanent level above the surface. Within this
reef is a channel with depths of 2 to 7 and 8 fathoms, which, with care and
some knowledge, may be navigated, and which has various openings to it
through the reef.

These kays consist generally of coral boulders and the fragments of coral
and shells heaped up by the action of the waves, and which have become
agglutinated by some obscure process, till they become firm land, not by
the upheaval of old coral growths, but by the action of a stormy sea and
tremendous waves. They are generally level, and it is only at times that
the water rises sufficiently to account for their elevation. On a later
page is given an instance of an extraordinary rise in the waters.

In the year 1846, the water rose 8} feet above high-water mark at Kay
Vaccas. Kay West was entirely inundated during the same gale; and
though it is somewhat protected by the reef, the rushes, driven upon it by
the flood, might be seen among the trees and bushes, at a height almost
equal to its loftiest summit. In 1841 the water rose 10 feet above high-
water mark at Cape Romaine, on the Western shore of the peninsula.

Proceeding still farther Northward, we find an important result of the
operation of the Gulf Stream, in the formation of the range of the Sea
Islands of Georgia, so famous for the growth of its peculiar cotton. These
low alluvial deposits are the results of gradual accretion still going on,
and afford a genial soil for the cotton plant, while the tepid water of the
Gulf Stream, which rushes past them, tempers the Easterly winds which
blow on this seaboard, and add their important influences to the peculiar
growth of this cotton plant.

(369.) Characteristics.—The Indications of the Stream are the appearance
and the temperature of the water. In its lower latitudes and usual course,
where it flows uninterrupted, it may be known in fair weather by its
smooth and clear blue surface. Outside the line formed by a ripple on its
edge, the water in some places appears like boiling water of a blue colour;
and, in other places, it foams like the waters of a cataract, even in dead
calms, and in deep water.

On the outer or §.E. edge of the Stream, especially in fair weather,

384 OBSEBVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

tnere are great ripplings, which are very perceptible. The appearance ot
the sea-weed, by day, is an indication of this edge of the Stream ; this
weed being, commonly, on the outer edge of the Stream, in greater quantity
and larger clusters than within it.

On its inner or N.W. edge the contrast between its clear blue water
and the greenish coloured water of the cold Arctic Current is often
very marked, besides the great difference in temperature of the two
streams.

It has been stated by some observers that the water within the Stream
does not sparkle in the night. That observant navigator, Captain Living-
ston, says that, though this is a common, it is a misconceived, idea :—‘‘ I
have frequently seen it sparkle much; even last night it sparkled con-
siderably, when we were in about 25° N., and 80° or 79° 40’ W.; and off
Cape Roman, Cape Fear, Cape Hatteras, and the entrance of the Delaware,
I have seen the water sparkle pretty much, though I think not equal to
what it does in many other parts of the Ocean.”—(In the Stream, Sep-
tember 10th, 1818.)

Mr. Ellicott said (Journal, 1803) :—‘‘ It has been mentioned by Dr.
Franklin, that the water of the Gulf Stream does not sparkle in the night.
This, so far as my observations go, is incorrect: I saw but little or no
difference between that and the other water on the coast; but if there was
any, that of the Gulf Stream was the most sparkling and luminous. It
may, however, be observed, that the same water is very different, at
different times, in this respect.

‘The same ingenious writer and philosopher likewise observes, that the
Gulf-weed is a sign of being in the Stream. This is in part true, but by
no means to be considered as a general rule, because the water on the
borders of the Stream is constantly mixing with the adjoining water, and
leaving some of the weed behind, which consequently falls into the eddy
currents, and is carried off many miles.”

Lieutenant John Evans remarks :—Phosphorescent lights are equally
abundant in the Florida Stream as in the Gulf of Mexico, some unusually
large and brilliant; and some of the small lights appeared to spring out
of the water with a sweeping motion, which I had never before observed ;
the temperature of the water was 79°, that of the air 76°.

(370.) Extent.—The Gulf Stream may be said to commence its great
career between the Tortugas Bank and the Coast of Cuba, and the line
joining the Dry Tortugas and Havana may be taken as its starting point.
The channel is here 95 miles wide. Between Kay Sal Bank and Sombrero
Kay the channel is only 54 miles wide; off Cape Florida, its narrowest
and shallowest part, it is 44 miles in width; and between Jupiter Inlet and
the N.W. part of Little Bahama Bank the channel is 47 miles wide. This
confined part of the Gulf Stream, before it shoots off uncontrolled into the
Atlantic, is 330 miles long.

Pursuing its way Northward, its warmest waters and strongest current
keep near the edge of the bank of soundings which fronts the coasts of
Georgia and the Carolinas, following the general curve very strictly, and
in its main strength keeping 35 to 50 miles off Cape Hatteras, where the
whole area occupied by the cold and warm bands may be included in a

THE GULF STREAM. 385

breadth of 150 miles. This portion of its course, from the channel within
the Matanilla, is about 590 miles in length.

To the Northward of this, its N.W. edge still follows the edge of the
bank of soundings, and being diverted more to the Hast by the obstacles
lying off it, gradually winds more to the Eastward towards the parallel of
40°, to a line transverse to its course trending 8.H. from Cape Cod, which
will be about 480 miles beyond the Cape Hatteras section. It is here
from 250 to 300 miles broad. Beyond this it pursues an Easterly course
for 1,150 miles to the meridian of 40° W., which is 350 miles East of the
Great Newfoundland Bank. After skirting the Southern edge of the Banks
of Newfoundland, it proceeds with diminished velocity and temperature
to about the meridian of 40° W. just named, when its farther drift to
the Eastward cannot be distinguished from that of the whole surface
of the Ocean to the North and South of it. The total distance we have
thus gone over will be about 2,600 miles, throughout the whole of which
its characteristics may be distinctly traced, although its lateral boundaries
are not so easily defined.

It has been usual to extend its independent existence some 1,200 or 1,500
miles farther to the shores of Western Europe, as before stated, but when
its volume in the outset, or in its narrowest part, is considered, it will be
no great sacrifice of previously formed opinions to curtail it of its more
extended features. Although thus deprived of a large portion of the
magnitude with which it was formerly believed to be invested, it is not the
less a wonderful stream, as it is able, so expanded and thinned out, to
maintain its course and character unimpaired over the counter-currents of
a totally different origin and nature wnich flow beneath it.

(371.) Throughout the latter part of its course its left-hand margin
carries the greatest strength. In the Gulf of Florida its Southern side is
the most powerful. Northward of the Gulf its Eastern and South-Eastern
side is difficult to define, as it is found that the Gulf Stream may be said
to consist of several longitudinal bands of water of different temperatures
as presently described. To the Southward of British North America its
force gradually disappears till it is lost in the central still water of the
Sargasso Sea. ;

The diagram of the Currents, which elucidates this section, will give a
clearer idea of its relation to the great circulatory system, than any long
description can do.

(872.) Breadth.—As stated above, it is difficult to define the exact
boundaries of the Gulf Stream, especially its Southern side, where, owing
to the accession of the warm drift outside the islands (366), temperature
observations form no guide. Whilst the more minute examinations which
have been made have added much to our knowledge of its features, they
have not hitherto been sufficiently extensive to fix its limits, either by an
average, or to give us the position of its margin in different seasons. How-
ever, aS numerous observations have been given on its drifts, we may give
a rude approximation to its extent from the positions where the drift has
been found to be appreciable. In the narrowest part it is about 40 miles
broad—a breadth it maintains to abreast Cape Canaveral. Off Charleston

Nx Aw O8 50

386 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

it may be about 70 miles; off Cape Look-out, 100 miles; off Cape Hatteras,
150 miles ; while off Nantucket, it has probably expanded to 300 miles,
so that it has widened to more than seven times the breadth it com-
menced with.

With regard to its breadth off Cape Hatteras, Lieutenant Pillsbury,
U.S.N., states from his observations, taken in May and June, 1887, 1889,
and 1890, that the axis of the Stream was found about 10 miles outside
the 100-fathoms line, or about 40 miles off the cape, the surface width
being then practically the same as in the Narrows of Florida Strait. He
considers that between Jupiter Inlet and Cape Hatteras, it is probable the
average position of the strongest current will be found between 11 and 20
miles outside the 100-fathoms line. Off and beyond Cape Hatteras, it is,
however, liable to more fluctuation in direction, particularly along its
edges ; and in its progress to the Hastward, by the time the Newfound-
land Banks are reached, it is probable that these fluctuations entirely
obliterate the Stream as a body distinguishable from its mate, which has
come by the outside passage from the Trade region.

Lieutenant G. C. Hanus, of the U.S.S8. Hnterprise, which sailed from
New York, October 30th, 1890, for Aspinwall (Colon), says they steered
South from Scotland lightship, and entered the Gulf Stream in lat.
36° 30’ N., long. 73° 20' W., about 125 miles North-Eastward of Cape
Hatteras, the temperature of the water changing from 61° F. to 75° in
one hour. The width of the Stream was found to be from 130 to 150
miles, as nearly as could be estimated. The time of leaving the Stream
could not be determined by the temperature of the water on the 8.H. edge,
as the temperature changed but slightly, and gradually increased, with
slight variations, as the vessel proceeded South. After leaving the Stream,
a slight set to the Westward was encountered, which continued until the
island of San Salvador was made.

That the Southern side of the Gulf Stream, to the Northward of Ber-
muda, is very ill-defined, will be best understood by studying the tem-
peratures taken by H.M.S. Challenger in April and May, 1873 (see
later on). It will be observed that the temperature was higher at Ber-
muda than at most stations to the Northward, both at the surface and
below. Only in two observations between Bermuda and Halifax was the
surface temperature found to exceed that at Bermuda, and then only by
1°. The direction of the currents in the passage between Halifax and
Bermuda (May 20—28) also indicate that the Stream here was weak in
power. As far as 374° N. the current was observed to flow in a Southerly
direction between S.W. and S.E., at rates varying from 10 to 26 miles in
the 24 hours. In 37° N. the current flowed strong to the Eastward 32
miles. In 364° N. only 7 miles N.E.; in 35° N. 7 miles E. by N.; and
at 60 miles North of Bermuda a weak current of 3 miles flowed to the
N.W. The wind in this passage, Southward of 40° N., was generally from
the N.E., and varied in force from 3 to 7 Beaufort Scale (p. 104); between
40° N. and 36° N., Southward of this, it was very light.

(373.) Depth—Deep-sea sounding is now conducted with such pre-
cision and certainty that any doubts which were formerly held on this
topic must be abandoned. It is true that the labour and appliances can,

THE GULF STREAM. 387

in their extended use, only be at the command of Government vessels; but
the United States Navy officers have done well to maintain their national
honour in their endeavours to elucidate their famous Current.

Between the years 1845 and 1859, the United States Coast Department
instituted a series of soundings and temperature observations along and
across the course of the Stream, the operations being conducted in the
Corwin by Lieutenants Craven and Maffit, and Commander Sands. Their
observations in the Straits of Florida were so remarkable as to over-turn
all preconceived notions of the great depth and volume of the Stream,
though later investigation has shown that their work had need of revision.

The first reliable soundings of the bed of the Stream, from Florida
Strait to George’s Bank, were made by Commander Bartlett, U.S.N., in
the Blake, in 1881 and 1882. Those previously made were with rope or
registering devices, which in strong currents or great depths are unreliable.
The latest soundings have been made with wire, by which the depth
can in all cases be ascertained with certainty and accuracy.

The general plan of exploration of the Gulf Stream, laid down in 1845,
was to observe the phenomena on sections perpendicular to its axis
from well determined points on the coast. In pursuance of this design,
numerous sections have since been run between the Western part of
Florida Strait and the shoals off Nantucket, extending from the shore to
beyond its outer limits. It is difficult to explain the nature of these
soundings and their results without diagrams; but they are, of course,
of more utility to the physical geographer than to the sailor. What
follows on this head is mainly derived from the Annual Reports of the
United States Coast and Geodetic Survey.

(374.) In the Straits of Florida, as in the bend of a river, it is found
that the deepest water is along its concave or Southern and Western sides,
as will be readily seen by reference to the chart, and here the Stream
runs strongest. The following particulars of the more important sections
are taken from the latest (1893) charts published by the United States
Hydrographic Office.

Between Kay West and Havana, sounding operations were carried on
under Professor Mitchell in 1866 and 1867, in connection with laying
a telegraph cable. The distance between Sand Kay and Havana is 823
miles, and the following are the depths shown upon the chart at distances
of about 10 miles apart, going from N.N.E. to $.S.W. :—

136 369 508 862 936 924 968 472 fathoms.

It will be seen that the deepest water is on the Cuban side, over 900
fathoms being found within 7 miles of Havana. This characteristic is
followed all the way along the Cuban side and that of the Great Banks.
At Havana, as above shown, there is an abrupt descent of nearly a mile
within 7 miles of the shore, while on the side of the Tortugas and Kay
West the water is comparatively shallow and the descent gradual.

Of this breadth of 82 miles, the Gulf Stream was found not to occupy
more than 40 miles on the Southern side of the channel, and Professor
Mitchell was led to conclude that the Gulf Stream here has a nearly
uniform velocity for a depth of 600 fathoms, although its temperature

388 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

varies in this depth 40° F. At the surface it was from 81° to 82°; ata
depth of 274 fathoms, 59°; at 492 fathoms, 45°; and at 555 fathoms, 424°.
This at once overturned all former speculations as to its enormous depth,
and high temperature to all depths.

Besides the remarks hereafter given, a single fact will also suffice to
show that the Gulf Stream does not fill this channel. Between 1857 and
1862 Captain E. B. Hunt, of the United States Ungineers, was employed
at Kay West, on the threshold of the Stream.* His careful observations
fully bore out the elaborate geological survey by Professor Agassiz in
1850-51, and demonstrate that these kays and reefs are slowly, but
surely, extending to the Westward by the mechanical agency of a counter-
current North of the Gulf Stream, in direct opposition to the strongest
part of its course, which will be more fully dilated on hereafter. During
bad weather, the sea about the reefs becomes milky, or ‘‘ white water,”
from the bottom being stirred up by the waves. This white water is
invariably drifted to the Westward, and the matter it carries is slowly ~
deposited both North and South of the line of kays, and to 30 and 40 miles
to the Southward of them.

(375.) Between Sombrero Kay and Salt Kay Bank, avout 85 miles Hast-
ward of the previous section, the Strait narrows to 54 miles, and the
soundings across, at distances of about 10 miles apart, are as follow :—

112 239 370 500 385 fathoms.

The depth of 385 fathoms is found within 9 miles of North Elbow Kay,
and it will be noticed how much the depth has decreased from the pre-
vious section, and that the descent from the Florida Reefs is much more
gradual.

(376.) Between Carysfort Reef and Orange Kay, Great Bahama Bank,
the channel is 60 miles in width, the soundings, about 10 miles apart,
being as follow :—

118 365 475 465 435 200 fathome.

The depth of 200 fathoms is found within 4 miles of Orange Kay, and
the deepest water lies nearer the centre of the Strait.

(377.) Across the Narrows of the Straits of Florida, between Fowey
Rocks and Gun Kay, the channel is 42 miles in width, and this is the
most interesting section of the Stream, as careful observations taken
within these comparatively narrow limits render calculations of the volume
of the Stream to be within approximate limits of the truth. The earlier
series of soundings made this to be also the shallowest part of its course,
the greatest depth near the centre being stated to be 370 fathoms.
Soundings taken at distances of about 5 miles apart from Cape Florida,
are as follow :—

21 195 248 214 320 425 -481 481 156 fathoms.
(3%8.) Between Jupiter Inlet and Litile Memory Rock, Little Bahama

* American Journal of Science, &c., vol. xxxv., pp. 197—210; and pp. 388—396.
+ Professor L. Agassiz in the Report of the United States Coast Survey, 1851.

THK GULE.STREAM. 389

Bank, just before the Stream runs off uncontrolled into the Atlantic, the
strait is 53 miles in width, and the soundings, at distances of about 5 miles
apart, are as follow :—

20 95 176 250 341 416 439 395 347 294 100 fathoms.

The depth of 100 fathoms is found within 1 mile of Memory Rock, and
it will be noticed that here, as elsewhere in the Straits, the Eastern side
of the channel is the deeper.

(379.) The Stream emerges from the Straits over a bank which appears
to have still shallower soundings than on the last section, and with refer-
ence to this, Commander Bartlett, U.S.N., makes the following remarks :—
‘Instead of a deep: channel which had previously been reported, our
soundings show a nearly level plateau extending from a point to the
Eastward of the Bahama Banks to Cape Hatteras. Off Cape Carfia-
veral it is nearly 200 miles wide, and gradually decreases in width to the
Northward until reaching Hatteras, where a depth of more than 1,000
fathoms is found 30 miles off shore. This plateau has a general depth of
400 fathoms, suddenly dropping on its Hastern edge to 2,000 fathoms.

“‘ The course of the Gulf Stream can almost be traced by the character
of the bottom. On each side the sounding cylinder brought up ooze, but
in the strength of the current the hard bottom was washed nearly bare,
the specimens being small broken pieces of disintegrated coral rock.’’*

Northward of the Straits some curious variations of temperature are
found in crossing the axis of the Stream, as will be presently explained.

Lieutenant Craven, U.S.N., was under the impression, from his series
of soundings off Charleston and Cape Cajiaveral, in the Corwin, in 1853,
that the bed of the ocean was here of an undulating character, with two
ranges of submarine hills at 96 and 136 miles off Charleston, and 1,800
and 1,500 feet high respectively. On the Cafiaveral section the inner range
was said to be 68 miles from the coast. As stated above, no trace of these
submarine hills could be found when more perfect apparatus was used,
but the bottom was found to be a plateau.

Lieutenant Craven noticed ripples on the Charleston section, thought
to be in connexion with the irregularities of the bottom. Similar ripples
were observed on the Sandy Hook section and on the Montauk section in
1845, and were compared to the “rips” on the Nantucket Shoals.

(380.) From Florida Strait, then, nearly as far as Cape Hatteras, the
axis of the Gulf Stream has been found to run over a plateau with a general
depth of 400 fathoms. To the Northward of this, the ocean is very deep.
At 200 miles Kastward of Cape Hatteras the depth is 2,500 fathoms; at
150 miles Hastward of Cape Henlopen, 1,500 fathoms ; at 180 miles E.S.E.
of Nantucket, off the S.H. point of George Shoal, 1,350 fathoms; at 230
miles Kastward of Nantucket, off the Hastern edge of George Shoal, 1,340
fathoms ; and at 180 miles Southward of Halifax, and 40 or 50 miles
8.S.E. of Le Have Bank, 1,250 fathoms. Between this latter sounding
and Bermuda the depths vary between 2,000 and 3,000 fathoms. These

* United States Coast Survey Report, 1882, Appendix 11,

390 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

are depths to which the Gulf Stream has little or no influence, as shown
by the Temperatures taken by H.M.S. Challenger, hereafter quoted.

(381.) Velocity—As would naturally be expected, from the difficulty of
making accurate current observations from vessels in motion, there is great
divergence between various observers as to the Velocity of the Gulf Stream.
We consider it better, therefore, to repeat much that appeared on this
subject in the previous editions of this work, and to give, in conclusion,
the results recently obtained from the United States Coast Survey steamer
Blake, when at anchor in various parts of the Stream’s course.

Our knowledge of the velocity of the Gulf Stream is not sufficiently ex-
tensive to pronounce absolutely at what rate it flows as a mean for the
whole year. It is very irregular in all parts, and there has been no sys-
tematic collection of observations recorded on the subject; those inyes-
tigated show there are more variations than can be reconcilable with the
change of the seasons. It is stated that the latter part of the month of
August and beginning of September is the period in which it attains its
greatest strength and highest temperature, and it is weakest and lowest
in February, but fluctuates in all seasons according to circumstances. The
strength of its Western and Northern borders, in its entire and vast extent.
is much greater than those on the Hast and South, which have invariably
a tendency to spread over the ocean in whirls or eddies, and are, therefore,
comparatively weak.

Major Rennell estimated the Gulf Stream to move in the Narrows at
from 82 to 96 and 120 miles per day. A more rigid calculation of his and
other older data gives 65:4 miles per day as an annual average. This last
estimate is much reduced by the investigation carried out by the Meteor-
ological Office in 1872, which gives a mean annual rate of only 48 miles
per day. The investigations carried out by the United States authorities
appear to confirm the earlier figures.

(382.) Captain Livingston stated :—‘‘ The calculations of the velocity of
the Gulf Stream are not to be depended on. I have found it setting at the
rate of 5 knots, and even upwards; this was on the 16th and 17th of
August, 1817. On the 19th and 20th of February, 1819, it seemed to be
almost imperceptible. In September, 1819, it set at much about the rate
described in the charts.”

One remarkable instance of its diverging from the usually supposed velo-
city is given in a communication of Captain Giles, of the barque Charles,
who found it to run 5 and 53 knots, in January, 1843. ‘‘ The first day I
began to make any material progress was with the Tortugas bearing about
§.E. ; the following day I had a current of 53 miles S.E. by S.; the next
day, 60 miles S.S.E.} E. I was then in lat. 24° 10’, long. 83° W. The
weather would not permit our sighting the Tortugas, though we passed
them very closely. The next day we made, by very good observations, 75
miles of due Easterly current, which, with the ship’s work, placed her in
lat. 24° 12’, long. 81° 33’ W. The succeeding day, towards dark, the wind
being strong from E.S.E., and considering myself in the vicinity of the in-
draught of the Great Inlet, I put the ship's head to the Southward, under
close-reefed topsails, and nothing more set, and reached her to till daylight,
that being twelve hours good. Towards noon it fell calm; I then found

THE GULF STREAM. 391

that we had been set nearly in the direction that the elbow of the land
trends one hundred and ten miles, we being at noon in lat. 25° 15’ N., long.
79° 45' W. The following day we had light, variable airs and calms,
heavy rain, much thunder and lightning, and very thick weather (as it
had been the day previously). We picked ourselves up at noon, lat.
27° 20' N., long. 79° 30’ W., having had the current N. by E. one hundred
and twenty miles. I intended to pass through the Providence N.W.
Channel, but the current swept us past the mouth of it in the light airs
which we had on the last two days of our passage.”’

(383.) Captain (afterwards General) Sabine, F.R.S., said :—‘‘ There can
be little hesitation in attributing the unusual extension of the Stream in
particular years to its greater initial velocity.

‘““On the 5th of December, 1822, the Pheasant, bound to New York,
quitted the Northern boundary of the Stream in lat. 364°, long. 724°. In
the Stream, in lat. 36° 14’, long. 72° 25’, the temperature of the surface
water was 74°, and of the air, 65°. Between 10 a.m. and noon, the tem-
perature had fallen from 74° to 62°4°, being a difference of 11:6°. The
surface water on which the ship entered was in motion to the Westward,
at the average rate of 16 miles in the following twenty-four hours, and
generally to the West and S.W. between the Northern side of the Stream
and the banks on the coast of Maryland. This motion may be more pro-
perly characterized as a drift current, occasioned by the prevalence and
strength of recent Northerly gales, than as a cownter-current. In approach-
ing the bank of soundings, the surface water at 8 a.m. and at noon, on the
7th of December, was 59°5°; at 3 p.m. it had fallen to 54:2°; on which,
upon sounding, bottom was found in 33 fathoms. On the following morning,
in 30 fathoms, the surface was 53°5°, and at 8 a.m. on the 19th, in 12
fathoms, but still with no land in sight (being 20 miles off the coast), 41.5°.
In the afternoon of the same day, when about 2 miles distant from Sandy
Hook (New York Harbour), the water had finally lowered to 45°. Thus,
in a space of the ocean scarcely exceeding 200 miles in direct distance, the
heat of the surface progressively diminished from 74° to 45°.”

(384.) From the work of the Meteorological Office, before quoted (239), we
take the following general, and then the monthly observations on the
Gulf Stream, as far as the parallel of 40° N., before mentioned.

The Gulf Stream, as far as the observations on these charts go, may be
considered to commence near the Delta of the Mississippi. A Current
setting N.E. by N., averaging 20 miles a day, in lat. 26° to 28° N., long.
95° to 90° W., appears to cross the 90th meridian, and unite with the Gulf
Stream, which takes a direct course to the Florida Reefs, setting 8.E., its
rate increasing from 9 to 29 miles per day, in a distance of about 500 miles.
On the right it has the Yucatan Current, which it forces Westwird. At
times, part of this §.H. Current finds its way round the West end of Cuba
into the Caribbean Sea, as previously explained (345) On the left there
appears to be an off-flow towards the E.N.E..; and North of the Florida
Isles, about lat. 26° N., long. 83° W., the configuration of the land occa-
sions a sort of eddy, and the currents experienced there are extremely
variable in direction.

There being no outlet for the waters towards the N.E., and the Yucatan

392 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS

Current confining it on the §.W., the main part of the stream is forced
into the Straits of Florida, turning to the N.E. by E. in its passage be-
tween the Florida Reefs and Cuba at a mean rate of 39 miles. About
lat. 25° N. the straits between Florida and the Bahama Banks become
contracted, part being known as the Narrows. Here the set becomes
almost due North, and its rate greater, averaging 48 miles. This rate and
set is maintained to lat. 30°N. Thence to lat, 32° or 33°N., the direction
of the set is N.E. by N., while the rate has decreased to 40 miles. Now
the set changes to N.E., and is maintained to lat. 38° N., long. 70° W.,
the mean rate of the main stream being from 48 to 43 miles. The Stream
is strongest towards the land side, being pressed upon by the Arctic
Current, which probably causes the very high velocities sometimes ex-
perienced about lat. 36° to 38° N., long. 74° to 70° W.

On the right side the Stream is free to spread out, being only resisted
by a feeble Westerly drift. Here accordingly we find the current weaker,
even down to 10 to 20 miles a day. It must be remarked, howeyer, that
the observations made on the right edge of the Stream must frequently be
in part due to the influence of the Westerly, or rather South-Westerly,
drift, upon the ship’s run in 24 hours, the final result depending on the
preponderance of one or the other current during the interval. Whenever
this has been suspected the observations have been separated from those
believed to have been made entirely in the Gulf Stream, and averaged by
themselves. In long. 70° W. the width of the Stream averages about 120
miles, extending from lat. 36° to 38° N. Thence its set becomes H.N.E.,
and its main portion seems to pass North of lat. 40° N., near long. 60° W.
Between 70° and 60° W. the rate is from 37 to 27 miles per day. The
Southern edge of the Stream can be traced to long. 45° W., about lat.
38° N., but the rate is feeble and the set variable.

In January the Gulf Stream may be traced from about long. 87° W.
between lat. 25° and 30° N. Thence it flows to the 8.H. and East between
the Florida Reefs and Cuba, and is forced to the Northward by the Florida
Channel, where its rate is 39 miles. Beyond this, observations are
deficient, but they indicate the Stream as far as 37° N., 70° W.

In February it can be traced from the 85th meridian, between lat. 23°
and 27° N., through the Gulf of Florida, Northward to lat. 32° N.; thence
North-Eastward to lat. 37° N., in long. 72° W.; data are wanting beyond
this. Its rate, North of Cuba, is 33 miles; through the Narrows, 53 miles;
thence to lat. 32° N., 48 miles; beyond this, observations vary from 70 to
21 miles per day. A counter-current to the South-Westward is indicated
from 35° to 30° N., which appears to become deflected to the E.S.H. by
the Bahamas, but its force is inconsiderable, and it is probably variable in
direction as well as in rate.

In March it seems to commence about lat. 28° N., long. 90° W., whence
it flows S.E., rapidly increasing in velocity, passing around Florida at the
mean rate of 40 miles, which it maintains up to 30°N. Farther North-
ward observations are not so numerous, and while they indicate a current
to the N.E., and then E.N.E., up to lat. 37° N., long. 62° W., they assign
to it extraordinary differences of rate. One observer vouches for a rate
af 106 miles in 24 hours, about mean position 37° N., 72° W. From

THE GULF STREAM. 393

30° to 35° N., the Stream is reported to be unusually weak in this month.
There is evidence of a Southerly set between 27° and 30° N., Eastward
of the Gulf Stream, as far as long. 70° W.

In April the Gulf Stream appears to commence at the mouth of the
Mississippi, flowing South-Hastwardly towards Cuba, where it is turned
Eastward, and then to the N.E. and North round Florida, Commencing
with a rate of 22 miles, it becomes 36 miles off Cuba, and 48 miles off
Florida, maintaining this rate to lat. 32° N. Its direction is now to the
N.E., but its rate is undiminished to lat. 35° N. Beyond this, observa-
tions indicate the current to long. 58° W. in 38° N. It appears to extend
from the coast to 65° W. on the parallel of 36° N. The counter-current
to the S.W. is shown considerably farther Hastward than in the previous
months, being to the East of the 70th meridian in lat. 31° N. Its rate is
from 11 to 22 miles.

In May it may be considered to commence from the Delta of the Missis-
sippi, with a rate of only 16 miles, but flowing S.S.K. it becomes 27 miles;
then E.S.E. 35 miles; and passes between Florida Reefs and Cuba at the
rate of 44 miles. Between Florida and the Bahamas it has the greatest
mean strength yet noticed, 64 miles. Thence it continues North, N.N.E.,
N.E., and E.N.E., at a mean rate of 40 miles, until it reaches lat. 37° N.,
long. 70° W. Eastward there are indications of this current across the
Atlantic, as far as the Azores, the rates given varying from 6 to 29 miles.
On the whole, the Stream appears to be stronger, and to extend farther
into the open ocean, than in April. There is evidence of a remarkable
overflow from the Gulf Stream, setting E.S.H., at from 14 to 22 miles per
day, between lat. 28° and 33° N., shown as far as 70° W.; also into the
Santaren Channel, as if all the water could not pass with the main
stream,

In June it may be considered to commence off the Mississippi at 12 miles
per day. Thence it flows S.H. towards Cuba, at from 17 to 38 miles, then
East between Florida Reefs and Cuba, at 50 miles. From lat. 25° to 30° N.
there are no observations of it. From lat. 30° N. it flows North-Hasterly
to lat. 35° N., at from 46 to 63 miles. Between 35° and 40° N. it becomes
more Easterly, and its rate is variously given from 14 to 48 miles. It can
be traced -to long. 45° W. in lat. 37° N. There is no evidence that it
reaches the Azores. It has greater extension Southward between long.
55° and 70° W. than has been noted hitherto. There is no evidence of an
overflow North of the Bahamas, although the Stream appears to be quite
ag strong as in May.

In July the Gulf Stream may still be traced from the Mississippi, flowing
South-Hasterly towards Cuba, at a rate of about 24 miles. Between
Florida Reefs and Cuba it attains 51 miles, and from 25° to 30° N. it has
been found to average 72 miles nearly due North. Thence it flows Hast-
ward of North to lat. 36° N. in long. 70° W., at a rate of 30 to 43 miles.
Its set is now Hastward, and can be traced to long. 35° W., but the obser-
vations are neither numerous nor consistent. On the whole it appears
that the Gulf Stream is very strong this month, and that its Southern
limit is in lat. 36° N., between long. 40° and 72° W.

Ne AAO; a3 |

394 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

In August the Gulf Stream, also, is not represented from its origin to
lat. 835° N. From 35° to 40° N., and between 75° and 55° W., it appears
to be strong, the rates varying from 12 to 56 miles. In the same latitudes,
between long. 45° and 30° W., there is decided evidence of a Southerly set.

In September it is traceable from lat. 30° N., long. 80° W., at 72 miles a
day, to 38° N., 63° W., at 31 miles. Between 60° and 70° W. it does not
appear to extend farther South than about 37° N.

In October it passes through the Straits of Florida at 37 miles per day,
but the observations are deficient in number.

In November, to the East of Florida, it has a rate of 70 to 53 miles ;
in lat. 84° N., it is 46 miles. Hlsewhere there are no data.

In December the Gulf Stream is well shown from long. 87° to 67° W.
In its South-Hasterly flow to the West of Florida its rate is from 10 to 20
miles. East of Florida it flows due North, at from 50 to 54 miles.
Thence to lat. 38° N., in its North-Hasterly course, it maintains the rate
of from 38 to 58 miles.

The Arctic Current, between the Gulf Stream and the coast, has been
frequently experienced, its rate being from 10 to 15 miles. It may be the
pressure of this cold water which causes the remarkable increase in the
rapidity of the Stream about lat. 37° N.

(385.) Action of the Wind.—In the Strait of Florida, within the
Bahamas, the wind probably retards or accelerates the Velocity. A N.E.
gale in the Atlantic will probably bank up the water of the Stream,
lowering its Velocity materially, and afterwards the flow will by reaction
be greatly increased over the normal speed. There is no evidence of any
change in the position of the axis due to the wind in the Strait.

Variations in atmospheric pressure in the Gulf of Mexico also cause
a considerable retardation or acceleration of the current.

When a Northerly gale, increased to a storm, opposes the Stream in its
course, this adverse power causes it to fill all the channels and openings
amongst the Martyr Isles and Reefs, and to overflow all the low coast.
Shipping have even been carried over the low kays, and left dry on shore.
During these times, Florida Strait exhibits a scene beyond description.

In September, 1769, there was an inundation, which covered the tops of
the highest trees on the Cayo Largo, &c., and during which the Ledbury,
snow, John Lorain, master, was carried over the reef by the N.W. current
of the Stream, caused by a gale from the N.E. The vessel bilged in
shallow water, but an anchor was thrown out, and the next day she was
found to have grounded on Elliot Kay, with the anchor among the trees.
The water is supposed at times to have risen to the height of 30 feet, and
to have been running against the fury of the winds at the rate of 7 miles
an hour.

(386.) Action of the Moon.—Besides the effect which different winds
have upon the Stream, it is subject to another power which also directs it
toward or from the coast ; and that is, the moon, which, according to her
position, has different effects upon it, not, however, in equa! power with
those of the wind; but the disposition of the Stream is increased to its
extreme, if the effect of both the wind and the moon are combined. For
at this time, the ocean rising highest, this regulates the flood and ebb

THE GULF STREAM. 395

and divides them in proportionate times ; consequently it directs and in-
creases them, with an Easterly moon and wind to the West, and with a
Westerly moon and wind to the East ; so that the West and East shores
are at times deprived of, and at other times overflowed by, Tides, occa-
sioned by these vicissitudes.

The boisterous East, N.E., and North winds, which affect the Gulf
Stream, generally begin in September, and continue until March; when,
if the moon happens just at the time to be on the full or change, they
commonly end with a Hurricane.

(387.) The United States Coast Survey authorities, in order to render
the investigations of their steamer Blake more reliable, decided in 1885 to
make the attempt to anchor this schooner-rigged vessel of 218 tons register,
along the axis of the Gulf Stream, and there make observations on its
Velocity, Temperature, &¢., at various depths. This was successfully
accomplished, and much information added to our knowledge, a special
form of current meter being used, devised by Lieutenant Pillsbury.*

Commander Bartlett, U.S.N., who was in charge of the Blake, between
1877—1880, before any attempt had been made to anchor in great depths,
came to the conclusion that 3 knots an hour was a general average to allow
for the whole Stream, but between the Bahamas and Florida, in the axis
of the Stream, it was as high as 5:4 miles an hour.

Mr. Agassiz, who accompanied Commander Bartlett, states in his book,
mentioned in the note on page 352, that the Gulf Stream flows at the rate
of about one-fourth (sic) of a mile an hour through Yucatan Channel.
Through the Straits of Bimini it has a velocity of 4 to 5 miles, but this
velocity rapidly decreases as we go North. Off St. Augustine it is rarely
more than 4 miles; from thence to New York it decreases to 24 miles an
hour; off the Banks of Newfoundland it is reduced to 14 or 2 miles an
hour ; and at a distance of 300 miles to the Eastward the velocity of the
Gulf Stream, which has constantly been spreading out fan-shaped, is
scarcely perceptible.

General H. Mathiesen, in the work mentioned in the note on page 378,
states that from his researches he considers the mean velocity of the Gulf
Stream, throughout its course, to be about 58 miles a day, varying from
61 miles as a mean of January, February, and March, to 52:7 miles as a
mean of July, August, and September,

(388.) Lieutenant Pillsbury’s Investigations—We have already men-
tioned, in the note on page 373, the valuable contribution to our know-
ledge of the Gulf Stream, drawn up by Lieutenant J. E. Pillsbury, U.S.N.,
and we now proceed to give information gained from its perusal.

During the spring and summer months of the years 1885—1889, the
steamer Blake was employed in making observations on six sections across
the Gulf Stream, as follow :—1l. Cape San Antonio to Yucatan Bank.
2. Across the extreme Western part of Florida Strait, near the meridian

* A wire half-inch rope was used for this purpose, the length of rope used varying
with the bottom, current, and depth, In less than 600 fathoms two to three times the
depth was required, and in 2,000 fathoms 3,000 fathoms of rope was generally sufficient.
She could remain at anchor with the wind blowing at a force of 6 or more, unless with
a heavy sea. The deepest water anchored in was 2,180 fathoms,

396 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

of 84° W. 8. Rebecca Shoal to Havana. 4. Fowey Rocks to Gun Kay.
5. Jupiter Inlet to Memory Rock, Bahama Bank. 6. Cape Hatteras Shoals
towards the 8.H.

For those navigating the Gulf Stream, the most important questions to
be answered are :—What is the surface Strength of the Current, and the
Direction of the flow. It is well known that these vary at many if not at
all parts of the Stream.

Section 4. Between Fowey Rocks and Gun Kay.—As the labours of two
seasons, 1888 and 1889, were concentrated on this Section, the results are
more complete than at the others, and in studying these results carefully
we find the key to the solution of many of the apparent anomalies at points
where there are fewer observations on which to base conclusions.

The whole width of the strait here is 43 miles, or 39 miles between the
100-fathoms lines. On the East side the bank is abrupt, 100 fathoms being
found within 1 mile of Gun Kay ; the current sometimes runs in as far as
the depth of 10 fathoms, but generally it is farther off shore. On the West
side the slope is more gradual, but the current is frequently found quite
close to Fowey Rocks. The bottom varies, coral, clay, and mud being
found.

The following Table gives the observations, which were only taken down
to the depth of 130 fathoms :—

Average Velocity in Miles per Hour.

Anchorages,
Miles Fastof Fowey) (ict tio! wo 2 oie See eee
Rocks. , Temperature.
33 fms. | 15 fms. | 30 fms. | 65 fms. |130 fms. |
8 in 205 fathoms. 2-661 | 2-346 | 2-252 | 1-590 | 0-634 | 80-24
113 in 260 » 3-461 2-895 2-936 2-421 1-611 | 81-60
15 in 400 7 3.156 3-062 3.182 2-947 2-202 | 80-33
22 in 480 9 2-727 | 2-667 | 2-695 | 2-503 | 1-860 | 80-38
29 in 420 > 2-123 2-099 2-116 1-975 1-450 79-66
36 in 380 99 1-707 | 1-572 | 1-489 | 1-565 | 1-449 | 78-65

From the above it will be seen that the greatest surface velocity was
found at 114 miles East of Fowey Rocks, and this is its average position,
but its flow is not at all times superior. The position of the maximum at
different times during the month is intimately associated with the changes
in the declination of the moon, and, indeed, not only the position, but the
velocity and width of the whole Stream as well. In mid-channel the
current appeared to flow to a depth of 325 fathoms.

Monthly Variation.—Following the changes in the declination of the
moon, the velocity of the Stream at any given point in the Narrows is
accelerated or diminished, but while it is running faster at one place, at
another it is running slower. It is, in fact, a reduction in velocity at the
sides accompanying an increase in velocity at the axis, and the reverse;
or, in effect, an alternate expansion and contraction of the Stream in
width. This is not marked on the East side of the Straits, but is very
marked on the West side of the Stream.

It seems to be abundantly proved that the Monthly Variation in the
Straits of Florida consists of an expansion at high declination, and a con-

THE GULF STREAM. 397

traction with an increased localized speed at low declination, That at the
time of the contraction there is a deepening of the current at its axis, and
that at its expansion it has diminished in depth, but has increased its
velocity on the sides. The most marked movement at high declination is
an increased speed toward the left side, and but little towards the right
side of the Stream.

The Daily Variation in velocity, also governed by the moon, sometimes
amounts to 24 knots, and is most marked on the surface, being far greater
on the West side than on the Hast side of the Stream. It is greatest at
the point of greatest average velocity. This difference in rate has taken
place within 3 or 4 hours, as if a large wave travelled up the Stream, its
front face being steep, and its rear lessinclined. The change has been seen
to be accompanied by a tide-rip when the wind was favourable for its
formation, and within 5 minutes the speed of the current advanced over
half a knot.

There are, in reality, two periods of increase and two of decrease during
the lunar day, the first or highest maximum about 9 hours before the upper
transit, and the lesser at 9 hours before the lower transit. Lieutenant
Pillsbury thinks the popular belief that the axis of the Stream changes
with the wind, is almost wholly due to the Daily Variation.

At the time of the monthly increase, the minimum current for the day
follows the greatest maximum by about 6 hours. In the next 6 hours
there is an increase in velocity equal to, or perhaps greater than, the pre-
ceding maximum. In the third interval there is a fall in speed, to be
succeeded by a still greater maximum 9 hours before the next upper transit.
At the time of the monthly decrease in velocity the conditions are reversed,
the minimum preceding the maximum, and each succeeding maximum or
minimum is less than the preceding. In the interval of change there is a
short time of irregular velocities, when the maximum for the day arrives
before the lower transit instead of the upper.

Section 1, between Cape San Antonio and Yucatan Bank, has been
already described in (346), page 370, and the flow of the Equatorial Current
from the Atlantic through the Caribbean Sea, on pages 358—368.

Section 2. Across the Western entrance of Florida Strait.—This section,
125 miles in extent, may be considered the real starting point of the Gulf
Stream. Its currents vary greatly in direction, and owing to its great
width the velocity is more feeble, and the characteristics which mark the
other sections less pronounced. The eddy or counter-current, found on the
North side (hereafter described), sometimes reaches this section.

Section 8. Between Rebecca Shoal and Havana the Straits are about 73
miles in width between the 100-fathoms lines. Being near the beginning
of the Gulf Stream proper, the current does not fill the strait, but on its
Northern side has a neutral zone of varying width, in which, at times, an
eddy current sets to the Westward. The observations obtained here show
that when the moon is near the Equator, the currents are more Easterly
than Westerly, and when near the highest declination they are the reverse,
although so weak that for the purposes of navigation they are not of much
value.

Between Rebecca Shoal and Cuba the Currents have been long known

398 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

to be extremely erratic. Vessels sometimes have an Easterly current along
the Florida Banks, and sometimes a Westerly. Sometimes they set towards
the banks, and at other times towards the middle of the strait. These
variable currents are to be expected West of the Elbow, but the width of
the variable zone is wider West of American Shoal than it is to the East.
Vessels passing across the channel between Rebecca Shoal and Tortugas
generally experience a Northerly or Southerly set.*

Section 4. Already described, pages 396—397.

Section 5. Between Jupiter Inlet and Memory Rock, the observations
showed a change in velocity accompanying the changes in the moon’s
declination, as at section 4. At 34 fathoms the temperature varied between
82° and 83°3°; at 30 fathoms, between 62:2° and 70°3°; and at 85 fathoms,
between 60° and 63°.

Section 6. From Cape Hatteras Shoals towards the S.H.—Here the
abnormal state of the weather rendered the observations unreliable, but
the same dependence on the moon’s declination was observed. The
strength of the current, about 25 miles off Cape Hatteras and 5 miles out-
side the 100-fathoms line, was found on the surface, on two occasions
running to the Northward and Eastward, and on the third to the South-
Westward. Ata depth of 200 fathoms the direction of the current was
found to change regularly, as though tidal, running for about 7 hours
S.E. by 8. 45S., and about 5 hours N.W. by N. 4 N.

Observations, taken in this position in the years 1887, 1888, and 1890,
showed that at high declination the current ran strong to the N.H. ; at
mid-declination also to the N.E., but with much less volume; and at zero
declination the set was S.W. ‘The five other anchorages extended to a
distance of 76 miles South-Eastward of Cape Hatteras. For about two-
thirds of this distance the currents were found to be mostly to the North-
ward and Eastward at all depths, while at the two outer stations only
the stratum below 65 fathoms was flowing steadily in that direction.
Evidence of the movement of the axis of the Stream to right and left were
also found in this section.

The following Table gives the particulars of the observations::—

Anchorage, haoree Temperature in Degrees Fahrenheit.

ae ed Date. Direction at == Lee ha Peed Fe a ae a a eee

Cape Hatteras. the Surface. | 33 tms.|15 fms. | 30 fms. | 65 fms. | 180 fms. | 200 fma,
25 May, 1887. N.E. 3 E. 77-28 | 75-60 | 72-38 | 59-40 | 51-67 | 46-50
25 May, 1889. | N. by E.4 E. | 75-06 | 74-39 72-12 | 64-69 | 538-06 | ......
25 June, 1889. S.W. by 8 80-19 | 76-19 | 69-13 | 58-13 | 49-56 | 44-75
80 May, 1889. |N.E. by N. 4 N.| 79-80 | 79-50 | 79-00 73-20): | | seseectl il eeeanes
47 May, 1887. | N.E. by EH. | 78-56 | ...02. | ssscse | ceveee | cescee | ceeeee
47 May, 1889. i. by N. 77-90 | 75-79 | 74-38 | 70-94 | 64-50 | 62-63

.|¢ Variable,

523 May, 1989." {i by we. | 74-48 | 73-90 | 71-64 | 67-21 | 64-28 | .....
6b May, 1889. { Variable, | 74.82 | 78-20 | 71-88 | 70-83 | 65.06 | 61-11
76 May, 1889, West. 77-50 | 76-70 | 74-85 | 70-81 | 64-50 | 62-20

The temperatures show how absolutely unreliable is the commonly

© Lieutenant Pillsbury, U.S.N., United States Coast Survey Report, 1887, page 174,

THE GULF STREAM. 399

accepted idea, that the warmer the water the stronger the current from
the South.

The following Table gives the position of the Axis of the Stream, where
the greatest Velocity may be found, on the third day after the moon’s
highest and after zero declination.

Position of Axis. At High Declination.| At Low Declination. | Mean.

|
East of Contoy Island......... 25 miles. 45 miles. | 35 Miles.
INOrtnvof FaVandl...cc...ccsseces GW ys, 84> 5; Rass oe
East of Fowey Rocks ......... Tues fay ett sp igs 1 ea
East of Jupiter Lighthouse a Usye Sa GiB} | h9) Fe
$.E. of Cape Hatteras......... SIE ys 0 RS oleae Laka hee Fost

Passing through the Straits of Florida, the axis of the Stream off Havana
is nearest the Southern edge, but after making the bend between Salt Kay
and Florida Reefs the axis is from 44 to 114 miles outside the 100-fathoms
line on the West side. From Jupiter Inlet to Hatteras the average posi-
tion of the axis is probably from 11 to 20 miles outside the 100-fathoms
line.

The data obtained off Hatteras are not sufficient to decide positively how
much the movement of the axis is. The width of the Stream at high
declination is about 40 miles, reckoning from the 100-fathoms line, which
is about the same width as in the narrowest parts of the Straits of Florida.
It is probable that at high declination the position of the axis at Cape
Hatteras is not more than 12 or 15 miles farther off shore than the mean
position, but the conditions of the current outside the Stream at this point
cause a slow surface-flow at times, which may lead to the belief that the
Stream itself is very broad.

Daily Variation.—When the flow of the Stream is in the vicinity of the
land, there is a marked daily variation in the velocity, caused by the ele-
vation or depression due to the attraction of the moon and sun. There is
a retardation of about 3 hours in the effect produced by this tidal influence.
More exactly, the maximum Current near Tobago and St. Lucia occurs
6" 10™ after the moon’s transit; in the Yucatan Passage, about 2 26";
in the Straits-of Florida, off Havana, 3" 4™; off Cape Florida, 3" 26". In
the open sea the daily variation is not marked.

In the vicinity of Barbadoes the time of high water is about 3 hours
after the transit of the moon, giving a retardation of 3" 10™ in the maximum
flow. The maximum in the Straits of Florida is the reverse of that of the
Equatorial Current, its arrival being 2" 15" after mean low water at the
Southern Atlantic ports of the United States.

In the Straits of Florida, off Cape Florida, there is but one prominent
maximum daily variation of velocity, usually arriving 9 hours before the
upper transit of the moon. South of Rebecca Shoal Lighthouse, at a
distance of 20 miles, the mean surface velocity is 0:30 knot, with a
maximum daily variation of 0:62 (giving at times a Westerly current of
0:32 knot) and a mean daily variation of 0:49; at 35 miles, 0°74, 1:15,
and 0°77 ; at 50 miles, 2:24, 0°65, and 0°62; at 68 miles, 2-23, 0°80, anJ

400 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

0:46; and at 86 miles, 0°77, 0°82, and 0°61. East of Fowey Rocks, at
8 miles, 2°66, 2°38, and 1:07; at 114 miles, 3°46, 1:83, and 1:64; at 15
miles, 3:16, 1:67, and 0:92; at 22 miles, 2°73, 0°36, and ; at 29 miles,
2:12, 0:58, and 0:42; at 36 miles, 1:71, 0-95, and 0°55. At the edges of the
Stream in both cases, the surface directions of the currents incline toward
the axis at times of low declination, but run nearly parallel to it at high
declination.

Directions.—Lieutenant Pillsbury, in conclusion, gives the following
directions:—A steamer bound from the Northward to Havana or the Gulf
ports crosses the Stream off Cape Hatteras; a fair allowance to make in
crossing it at right angles is 14 knot per hour, for a vessel’s speed of 5
knots, for a distance of 40 miles from the 100-fathoms line. From the
Southern edge of the Stream to Matanilla Shoal no allowance for current
can be given. Upon sighting Bahama Bank, time will be saved by running
down the Stream on the Hast side as far as Gun Kay, instead of crossing
at Jupiter Inlet and running the latitude down on the Florida side. The
current is weak on the Bahama side, though this route will be difficult by
night until a lighthouse is built at Matanilla. From Gun Kay, an
allowance for current of 24 knots an hour (the average velocity of the
Stream) will make a course of West good to Fowey Rocke for a 5-knot
vessel. The weakest current will be experienced about 3 hours before the
transit of the moon. At high declination the strongest current will be
found at 7 miles off Fowey Rocks lighthouse, while at low declination it
will be found 4 or 5 miles farther Eastward.

A vessel running inside the Stream should keep inside the 100-fathoms
line from Hatteras to Canaveral, and then as close to the Florida shore as
prudence will allow. Crossing the Stream at Havana, a fair allowance
for the average current between the 100-fathoms lines is 1:1 knot per
hour for a 5-knot vessel.

(889.) We here give the remarks by Captain W. C. Berry, on the naviga-
tion of the Gulf Stream, in continuation of those previously given on
page 355. Bound from New York to New Orleans, he passed through
Providence N.W. Channel. He says:—‘‘ The last three voyages, having
reached the vicinity of the Little Isaacs in the day time, I have hauled in
on the bank between Western Little Isaacs and East Brother Rock, and
steered S.W. by W. by compass, which has brought me out in good
passing distance from Moselle Shoal. During one of my summer passages
out, after passing the above shoal, I was compelled to anchor, and
remained there for six days. The wind during all this time was light
from the Southward, and I could not help remarking the regularity of the
Current setting along the Bemini Islands, ebb and flow, about 2 miles
per hour. This continues as far as Gun Kay; when close in, little or no
Current is experienced, except the ebb and flow, which is directly off
the bank.

“In Santaren Channel, the Current is governed greatly by the winds;
with strong Southerly winds the Current sets about N.N.W., 2 miles
per hour; on the other hand, with strong Northerly winds, little or no
Current is felt. After leaving Double-headed-Shot Kay, I have generally
hauled over for Florida Reef, and in the day time kept close-in, when I

THE GULF STREAM. 401

have frequently found an eddy-current setting to the Westward from 1 to
14 mile per hour. After passing the Tortugas, I have invariably felt a
Southerly Current until I had reached the longitude of 84° 30' W., and
even further that this at times, particularly in November, 1848.

“Returning from New Orleans, I have always made it a point to
keep to the Westward until I had reached longitude 85°, latitude 28°,
before keeping off. My object in doing this is, that the Wind here
generally prevails from the Northward and Hastward, and that the
Current generally sets to the Southward and Eastward, which generally
facilitates the passage. After rounding the Tortugas, with the wind from
the Eastward, I have generally beat down on the Florida side, knowing
that the strongest Current prevails on that shore, unless too close in.
From Carysfort Reef to Matanilla, I have always endeavoured to keep in
the middle of the Stream. During all my voyages, I have made it a rule
to steer N. by W. from Matanilla to latitude 22°, and then North to
latitude 31°, before hauling up N.E. by N.; by so doing I have, witha
few exceptions, kept the strongest current. On some other occasions, I
have hauled up on a N.E. by N. course, when in lat. 30°, long. 79° 40’, and
have soon found myself on the Eastern edge of the Gulf Stream. After
rounding Cape Hatteras, itis advisable to keep to the Westward, especially
in the winter season, on account of the prevailing Westerly winds.”

(390.) Surface Temperature.—The high temperature of the Gulf Stream
is one of its chief characteristics, and has attracted from very early times
almost as much attention as its velocity. Some remarks on this subject
will be found in previous pages. A work, entitled ‘ Thermometrical
Navigation,” written by Colonel Jonathan Williams, was published at
Philadelphia, 1799, from which the following extracts are given. It will
be seen, however, from what is stated later on, that the thermometer
cannot be regarded as a completely reliable guide to its navigation.

Commodore Truxton says :—‘‘ In the Stream the water is much warmer
than the air; indeed, I have known it 10° warmer; but as soon as you get
within the Stream (that is, between it and the coast), the water becomes
colder than the air; and the more as you get on soundings, and approach
the shore. If mariners, who have not the opportunity of determining
their longitude by celestial observations, will only carry with them a good
thermometer, and try the temperature of the water, and compare it with
that of the air every two hours, they may always know when they come
into or go out of, the Gulf Stream. Indeed, I have always made a prac-
tice, when at sea, of comparing the temperature of the water and air
daily, and often very frequently, during the day, throughout the voyage ;
whereby I immediately discovered anything of a current that was going,
and afterward found its strength and direction by observations for the
latitude and longitude. It is of the utmost consequence in making a
passage to and from Europe to be acquainted with this Gulf Stream ; as,
by keeping in it, when bound Hastward, you shorten your voyage; and by
avoiding it, when returning to the Westward, you facilitate it incon-
ceivably ; so much so, that I have frequently, when bound from Europe
to America, spoke European ships, unacquainted with the strength and

N. A. O. 52

402 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

extent of it, off the Banks of Newfoundland, and been in port a very con-
siderable time before them, by keeping out of the Stream ; whereas they
lengthened their passage by keeping in it.

‘The general course of the Gulf Stream being marked on the chart, I
would advise those who make the Northern passage from Europe never to
come nearer the inner line of it, by choice, than 30 to 45 miles ; and then
the probability will be that their passage will be assisted by the help of a
counter-current, which runs within it. In coming off a voyage from the
Southward, be sure to steer N.W. when approaching the Stream, if the
wind will permit you, and continue that course until you are within it,
which may be easily known by the temperature of the water, as before
mentioned. I have always considered it of the utmost consequence, when
bound in, to cross the Stream as speedily as possible, lest I should be
visited by calms or adverse winds, and driven far out of my way, which
would prolong the voyage considerably, especially in the winter.”

(391.) From the fact that when crossing the Gulf Stream from Hast to
West, the temperature suddenly fell when its Western edge was passed,
that is, coincidently with obtaining soundings, it was argued by Colonel
Williams, and long maintained, that the thermometer would certainly
indicate the approach to soundings by a fall in the temperature of the
water, in any part of the ocean.

From the facts quoted, he infers that, ‘‘ By the coincidence of these three
journals, at so great a distance of time, and without any connection with
each other, this important fact seems to be established :—A navigator may
discover his approach toward objects of danger, when he is at such a distance
as to be able easily to avoid them, by attentively examining the temperature
of the sea; the water over banks and shoals, in these regions, being colder,
in general, than that of the deep ocean.”

Now although this remark holds good as to this portion of the American
coast, and in some other parts of the world, under similar influences, yet
it is founded on a fallacy, and certainly has not that universal application
which former observers endeavoured to claim for it. This question is now
generally well understood, and it is only necessary thus to refer to it, as a
memorial of past times. When it was first promulgated, the extension of
the Arctic Current to the Southward in such a remarkable manner inside
the Galf Stream was not suspected. And although Mr. Redfield’s views,
given hereafter, are now fully maintained, yet the more extended observa-
tions of the United States Coast Survey have revealed such singular facts,
that even now we must confess our knowledge of the compensating
system of the Ocean to be exceedingly imperfect.

His investigations in the Blake led Lieutenant Pillsbury to remark :—“T
wish to particularly accentuate the fallacy of the idea, that the thermo-
meter may be relied upon to indicate the presence of a current. I can
see no way of utilizing it for the purposes of accurate navigation, nor
indeed of using it to indicate with certainty that the current is favourable,
or the reverse. The inner edge of the Stream is not necessarily marked
by a change of temperature. An abrupt difference may be encountered at
the true edge of the current, but the cold water may be moving N.KH., or
the warm water flowing 5. W.”

THE GULF STREAM. 403

(392.) The Mean Surface Temperature of the Gulf Stream, in the early
part of its course may be ascertained from the vast and confused mass of
figures contained in Captain Maury’s Thermal Charts. The temperatures
thus recorded, however, show large variations between themselves in the
same periods. This may arise from two causes—the one from the varia-
tion known to exist in the Stream itself, and which is frequently con-
siderable ; and the other from the imperfection of the thermometers used,
and this, as many of the observations appear to have been derived from
voyages made before standard thermometers were employed, may include
a considerable portion of the discrepancies which exist. Another and
very important addition to this branch of the subject, is the work of
Lieutenant Andrau, ‘‘ Onderzoekingen met den Zeethermometer,” pub-
lished by the Netherlands Royal Meteorological Institute, Utrecht, 1861.

The following are the results of the calculations for the temperature of
the main strength of the Current from the Narrows of the Little Bahama
Bank to the meridian of Halifax. To the Eastward of this, or of long. 60°,
the temperature, especially in winter and spring, becomes rapidly lower
and very irregular, as will be presently alluded to, and therefore our
comparison will now be limited to this section, which comprises a
distance of about 1,200 miles, and which is traversed by the Stream in
from 25 to 35 days.

Winter.—Off Matanilla Reefs, 77°2° ; off Charleston, 75-9° ; off Cape Fear, 73°6°;
off Cape Hatteras, 71:0° ; off the Capes of Virginia, 71°0° ; S.E. of New York, 70°5;
S.E. of Nantucket, 67:9°; South of Halifax, 62°5°. It has thus cooled 14:7° F.
in its passage.

Spring.—In Florida Strait, 77°5° ; off Charleston, 76°5°; off Cape Fear, 74:7°;
off Cape Hatteras, 72°0° ; off the Capes of Virginia, 72°0° ; S.E. of New York, 70°5;
S.E. of Nantucket, 67:4°; South of Halifax, 63 5°. In the latter part of its course
it is cooler in the spring than its ratio to the earlier part, owing to the higher
velocity of the Arctic Current, which flows under and mixes with it.

Summer.—In Florida Strait, 83°2° ; off Charleston, 82:4; off Cape Fear, 81:2°;
off Cape Hatteras, 79°8°; off the Chesapeake, 79°8°; S.E. of New York, 79:2°;
S.E. of Nantucket, 80°0° ; South of Nova Scotia, 77°9°. Here the water preserves
its heat without much diminution, being only 5°3° colder than when it leaves the
Gulf.

Autumn.—In Florida Strait, 81:7° ; off Charleston, 81°6°; off Cape Fear, 78-0° ;
off Cape Hatteras, 75°5°; off the Chesapeake, 75°5°; off New York, 73°0°; off
Nantucket, 71°5° ; South of Nova Scotia, 69°2°.

Upon comparing these temperatures, which are carried so many miles
unimpaired by the Gulf Stream, with those of the inner Arctic Current
between the Stream and the shores of Virginia, New Jersey, New York,
&c., a surprising difference will be seen, especially in the spring months,
when the difference is at a mean 30°, and in other seasons from 15° to 23°.
This will be more fully entered into in the next section.

(393.) It has been found that the temperature of the Stream varies in a
greater degree than could be accounted for by the climates it had passed
through, being sometimes warmer to the North, and cooler to the South,
of any particular position. This seems to be accounted for by the varia-
bility of the source of the Stream in the Gulf of Mexico and elsewhere,
which it would be very difficult to follow up to any specific determination.

404 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

The temperature of the Caribbean Sea is above 80° F. from July to
October; during the rest of the year it is below 80°, the minimum, about
75°, occurring in February and March. In the same latitudes, 10° to 20° N.,
off the African coast, the lowest temperature occurs in January, and the
highest in July, when it rises to above 80°, as in the Caribbean Sea; but
with this exception these Eastern waters are always from 3° to 7° colder
than the Western. It will be noticed that the maximum and the minimum
temperatures take place later in the year in the Caribbean Sea than off
the African coast. This circumstance is probably due to the prevalent
currents.

The Gulf Stream keeps the sea off the Southern States, from the Missis-
sippi to Cape Hatteras, at a temperature above 80°, from June to October;
above 70° during January, February, and March; and above 75° during
the intervening months, April and May, November and December.

In striking contrast to this high and equable temperature of the seas off
the Southern States, is the low and variable temperature of the seaboard
of the Northern States, from lat. 40° to 36° N., due to the presence of the
cold Arctic Current. Here in January, February, and March, the tem-
perature of the sea falls below 50°; in April and May, and also in
November and December, it is below 60°; in June and October it is
below 70°; and in July, August, and September, it attains to 75°.

Sea Temperature in Lon. 74° W. Sea Temperature in Lon. 20° W. |

Change.in | Change in
Months. 300 Miles. 1,800 Miles,
Lat.40°N. | Lat. 35°N. Lat. 40° N. Lat. 10° N.

° ° °o ° ° °

January ... 49 68 19 60 70 10

February 39 67 28 57 73 14

March...... 45 70 25 58 78 20

April eccees 50 70 20 57 78 21

May 54 77 23 - 58 76 18

June ....... 62 79 17 62 80 18

Ctl hy eeansoeee 69 82 13 66 76 10

August... 2 78 6 70 80 10

September 65 78 13 {fal 81 10

October ...j 62 75 13 69 82 13

November. 56 72 16 65 80 15

December. 50 71 | 21 60 80 20
|

Average ...| 56 74 18 63 78: (s/o See
|

Where the warm waters of the Gulf Stream intermingle with, or flow
side by side with, the cold Arctic Current, the changes in the temperature
of the sea are large and sudden, and are noticed by all navigators of that
region. If we contrast these extreme changes of temperature off the
American coast with the slow change observed off the coast of Africa, the
influence of Currents in modifying the temperature of the sea and deter-
mining climatic peculiarities becomes strikingly evident. With this view
the above tabular statement has been compiled from the Charts, from which
it appears that on the meridian of 74° W., the change of temperature from
lat. 40° to 85° N., or in 300 miles, is on an average 18°; while on the

THE GULF STREAM. 405

meridian ot 20° W., from lat. 40° to 10° N., a distance six times as great,
the average change in the temperature of the sea is but 15°.

(394.) The investigations carried out by the United States Survey
steamer Blake, have thrown some light on this subject. Commander
Bartlett, U.S.N., who was in charge between 1877—1884, found that the
average surface temperature in the axis of the Stream rarely exceeded 83°
in June and July. On one or two occasions the thermometer read as
high as 86°, and once 89° at high noon ina dead calm. The temperature
at 5 fathoms did not range above the average of 814°.

In 1881, in the Stream off Charleston, at a depth of 350 fathoms, the
temperature was 50°, but in a hole of 500 fathoms it fell as low as 38°.
The general average temperature of the bottom of the Stream was 45°.

In 1882, near Cape Hatteras, the temperature in deep water was found
to be the same as in the Gulf of Mexico, but farther Northward, where
the Stream spreads out, the depths of equal temperatures approached
nearer the surface.

Lieutenant Pillsbury found that in the Narrows of Florida Strait
the temperature of the Stream varied slightly according to the moon’s
declination. Here the highest average temperature is at the axis of the
Stream, but there are times during the month when the sides are warmer
than the axis was-at some other recent time. Isolated observations are
of but very little value, for at the same place the variations are great, even
in an interval of a few days or perhaps hours. All that we can say
positively is that cold surface water comes from either a polar direction or
from a lower stratum, and the direction of its flow may be toward any
point of the compass.

In the Atlantic, the inner edge of the Stream is not necessarily marked
by a change of temperature. An abrupt difference may be met at the
true edge of the current, and the cold water may be moving N.E. or tne
warm water may be flowing 8.W. It is probable, however, that at about
the time of high declination, warm water off Cape Hatteras indicates a
N.E. current, and that at low declination the edge of the warm water has
a set in the opposite direction.

In running lines of soundings from the coast as far as the 100-
fathoms line, at intervals, from Cape Hatteras to beyond George’s Bank, it
has generally been noticed that in the vicinity of a depth from 40 to 80
fathoms, the temperature of the water suddenly changes, the colder being
always found on the land side. The tidal impulse being about normal to
the coast, and the Stream’s course at right angles to it, Lieutenant Pills-
bury believes that to this we may look for the cause of the lesser thermo-
metrical variations, owing to the vibratory movement thus produced on
the ocean’s surface.

(395.) Warm and Cold Bands.—After leaving the Strait of Florida, the
Gulf Stream was found, in the early operations of its investigation in
1845-48, to consist of a series of alternate bands of cold and warm water,
a fact which was very surprising at the time, but the results of succeeding
explorations to some extent confirmed the former ones in this respect.
Between Cape Florida and New York the Stream was found to be divided
into several bands of higher and lower temperatures, of which the axis

406 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

was the warmest, the temperature falling rapidly inshore, and more slowly
outside. This was not only the case at the surface, but, with modifica-
tions easily understood, at considerable depths, and must be owing to the
meeting of the warm waters of the Stream with the cold water of the
Arctic Current.

From observations taken under his direction, between 1854—1860, Pro-
fessor Bache, Director of the United States Coast Survey, drew up a
Table showing the relative distances off shore of these bands (three warm
and four cold, varying from 25 to 75 miles in width, within 300 miles
from Cape Hatteras) at ten sections between Cape Florida and Sandy
Hook. He was led to believe they were caused by irregularities in the
bed of the ocean, but by more improved methods of sounding it has since
been shown that the bottom is not divided into hills and valleys along
the United States Coast.

Later investigation with the steamer Blake, on some occasions, has
shown an absence of these bands, and, in 1881, Commander Bartlett
found no warm or cold bands till he came off Hatteras, and he considered
that the work of the Blake seemed to show that the cold bands have no
regularity, and only represent the unceasing conflict going on between
layers of water of different velocities, and of different temperatures, as
reported by Lieutenants Craven and Maffit, U.S.N., and dilated on in the
previous edition of this work. In the seasons of 1883 and 1884, the tem-
perature of the surface water was taken every mile on the twelve sections
between Jupiter Inlet and Currituck, and in no case were any alternate
warm and cold bands found, nor was any layer of cold water found at the
bottom.

The earlier observations on the Hatteras, Cape Fear, and Charleston
sections showed a counter-current where the cold streaks were found, but
as stated in (391) Lieutenant Pillsbury clearly proved that from his obser-
vations the temperature of these warm and cold bands gave no clue as
to the direction of their flow.

(396.) The “Cold Wall.”—The separation between the warm, deep blue
Water of the Gulf Stream and the inner green water of the cold Arctic
Counter-Current is sometimes so well marked, that ‘one end of a ship is
seen in the one, and the other end in the other current.’’* Although it
does not follow that this line of demarcation is so distinct as Captain
Maury says, as above, yet a remarkable feature has been elucidated by the
United States Coast Survey, so often quoted here. It is, that between the
coast and the Gulf Stream there is a fall in temperature so abrupt that it
has aptly been called the ‘‘Cold Wall ;” this extends, with varying dimen-
sions and changes of its peculiar features, along the coast from Cape Florida,
Northward, as far as examined. Professor Bache stated that inside this
“ Wall” was another band of water of increased temperature, whilst out-
side the warmest band, which is next the ‘‘ Cold Wall,” was another warm
and one other cold band.

This ‘‘ Cold Wall,” from later investigations, cannot be considered as

* H.M.S. Nile is reported to have once found a surface temperature of 46°F. at her
bow, while it was 70° at her stern.

THE GULF STREAM. 407

permanent, as on some sections its absence was in some years conspicuous.
Lieutenant Pillsbury says:—‘‘I am convinced that the so-called ‘ Cold
Wall” is not the inner edge of the Stream, but is near the dividing line
between the Stream proper and the outside Atlantic current, and that the
maximum velocity will always be found some miles Northward of it.
The current outside the Stream is not comparable with the latter in point
of velocity; its speed probably is never much over 1 knot, and usually
much less.”

(397.) The earlier surveyors were of opinion that the ‘‘ Cold Wall”
appeared at the line separating the Gulf Stream from the Arctic Current,
their observations showing the separation between the two currents to be

_ 80 well marked beneath the surface, and to the greatest depths, as to have
obtained for it the title of the ‘‘Cold Wall,” being, in fact, an upright
division between them. This peculiarity was found to exist almost along
the whole coast of the United States, where the Stream skirts the bank of
soundings. Without diagrams the features cannot be made quite intelligible ;
but the main fact, so interesting to the physical geographer, is as above
stated—that there appears to be a marked non-aflinity between the waters
of the two currents.

It was at first supposed the ‘‘ Cold Wall” was cut off at Cape Hatteras,
but subsequent researches have qualified this notion. The cold water has
been traced as far as the Tortugas. Off Sombrero Kay, in some of the
earlier researches, the ‘‘Cold Wall’’ was strongly marked at depths vary-
ing from 70 to 100 fathoms, while everywhere the warm water overflowed
the ‘Cold Wall,” and reached quite to the shore.

(398.) Subsurface Temperatures.—It was formerly held that the Gulf
Stream flowed on in one majestic current of warm water from its surface
to its bed. The magnitude of its effects, and the extent of the area attri-
buted to it, seemed to leave room for no other conclusion. But the first
observation of ice-cold water at a small depth, in its narrowest and strongest
part, followed by the discovery of the parallel warm and cold bands, over-
turned all these hypotheses, and left philosophers in a most perplexed
condition to know where to look for an explanation.* How this cold
water, flowing directly contrary to the course of the upper strata, should
preserve its Polar characteristic almost unimpaired to such an enormous
distance from its origin, and under such apparently adverse circumstances,

* In the earlier experiments made by the United States Coast Survey, the tempera-
ture was gained at all depths, from the surface down to 600 fathoms. At great depths
a peculiar thermometer was used, constructed for the purpose, whose principle of action
depended on the differing expansion of two metals. It is a spiral coil, composed of two
strips of silver and platinum soldered together, which, from their unequal contraction
and expansion by the effects of temperature, act on an index, which registers the ex-
treme temperatures.

But later experiments have shown that many of these results are fallacious, both as
respects this differential evil, and especially with the ordinary thermometer with un-
protected bulb as formerly used ; and, therefore, all of them will require revision, as the
probability, nay certainty, is that the recorded temperatures at great depths have been
placed much too high. Of this more hereafter. The more recent investigations have
been carried on with the Miller-Casella Thermometer and with Siemens’ Electricas
Thermometer.

408 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

could not then be explained. Again, by what power, or source of action,
are the lower strata made to move in an opposite direction to those super-
incumbent upon them, and which, it might be supposed, would be acted
on by the same laws and move in the same manner ?

The accuracy with which deep-sea sounding is now carried on has
afforded a clue to this mystery. There seems to be a slow movement of
the cold waters on the bed of the Ocean from the Arctic and Antarctic
regions towards the Equator, forming one of the most remarkable evidences
of that grand compensating system by which the Great Creator has ordained
that all the harmonies of the universe shall be maintained—which keeps
the atmosphere and ocean in a perpetual condition of interchange, and thus
makes them fit for the sustenance of his creatures.

We have alluded to this universal intermingling of the ocean waters
before (246). Of the presence of Polar water in these Tropical regions there
can be no doubt. The following extracts from one of the earlier Reports
of the United States Coast Survey* will place it beyond question :—

‘The Southern sections present, on a small scale, the same phenomena
which we formerly traced over a large expanse in the more Northern ones.
Examining the Cafiaveral section, which is the farthest South, we see the
Cold Wall almost as plainly as on that from Sandy Hook; the curve,
showing the mean results between 70 and 100 fathoms, rises some 17° from ~
574° to 744° F., in the distance of 23 nautical miles. The warm water,
overlying the cold, is deeper in its overflow towards the shore—that is all.
Passing the warmest water, there is a fall of temperature of several degrees,
followed by a rise. On the St. Simon’s section, the Cold Wall is again
well shown, and is the first of those distinct bands of minimum temperature
dividing four maxima, of which the greatest body of warm water of the
Gulf Stream is the second from the shore. Near the surface the first and
fourth maxima are the highest; at 15 fathoms, the first and second; at
150 fathoms, the successive maxima rise as they recede from the shore.
The Charleston section presents, as a general feature, between 25 fathoms
and 250 fathoms, four minima and three maxima. Within the Cold Wall
minimum is a decided warm belt, and probably farther on inshore is a cold
one. The rise in the mean of the temperature, at 20 and 30 fathoms, is
11° F., namely from 64° to 75°. The advantage of not relying on surface
temperatures, or those near the surface, where the distribution is so much
less regular and marked than below, will be recognized in all these results,
and was early provided for in my instructions.

‘The underlying cold water from the Northern regions is as plain in the
Southern section as it was in the more Northern. At 400 fathoms ver-
tically below the warmest water of the Gulf Stream, on the Cape Henlopen
section, in August, 1846, the temperature was 49° F., and in the same
position off Cape Cajiaveral, in June, 18538, it was 483°.t The latitude

* Professor A. D. Bache, United States Coast Survey Report, 1853, pp. 48—49.

+ Reference may be again made to the note on the previous page relating to these
deep sea temperatures. The comparisons with more recent observations show that
these temperatures are too high by 2° or 8° at 500 fathoms, and perhaps as much ag
6° or 10° at 2,000 fathoms. This is owing to the great pressure of the water on the
wnprotected bulb of the thermometer forcing up the mercury.

THE GULF STREAM. 409

corresponding to the first temperature was about 37° 20’, and to the last
about 28° 20’. Lieutenant Charles H. Davis, in October, 1845, found a
temperature of 40° at 1,000 fathoms, in lat. 39° 25’, long. 69° 1’, and
Lieutenant George M. Bache 40° at 2,160 fathoms, in lat. 34° 13’, long.
68° 5’. Lieutenant 8. P. Lee, in August, 1847, found 37° below the Gulf
Stream, at the depth of 1,000 fathoms, in lat. 35° 26’, long. 73° 12’; and
again 48° beyond the Gulf Stream, at the same depth, in lat. 30° 10’, long.
68° 9’. Lieutenant Richard Bache, in July, 1848, found a temperature of
42° at 1,000 fathoms, in lat. 35° 6’, long. 74° 7’, below the surface of the
Gulf Stream.

‘“‘ The fact that the side limits of the Polar Current recede from the shore
as the depth increases, is clearly marked on all the sections. Directly down
below the maximum surface temperature, we soon plunge into this cold
current, the warmer water receding from the shore, and at 400 fathoms
reach temperatures, the differences between which, at the North and South,
are of an order corresponding to the variations of the ocean waters in
different years and at different seasons. For example, at the depth of 400
fathoms, on the Sandy Hook section, in 1846, vertically below the crest of
the Gulf Stream the temperature was 51° F.; on the Henlopen section, at
the corresponding point, 51°; on the Cape Henry section, 544°; in 1848,
on the Cape Henry section, 524°; and on the Hatteras section, 52°; in
1853, on the Hatteras section, 51°; and on the Cape Fear section, 54°; all
the foregoing observations being made in July and August of the several
years. In June, 1853, the temperature at the point and depth before noted
on the Charleston section, was 55°, and near Cape Florida, 14 miles E.N.E.
from the light, was 51°, varying from 54° to 46° in the intermediate localities
The low temperature of 46° was observed on the Cajiaveral section. The
temperature at 400 fathoms, near Cape Florida, is the same as observed on
the Sandy Hook section in July, 1846, viz., 49°.

“‘T remarked that these differences came within the annual changes near
the surface. Not to complicate the examination with surface irregularities,
if we compare the maximum temperatures at 12 or 15 fathoms below the
surface of the different sections, in the same year, we shail find, as a general
rule, an increase of temperature in passing Southward, as 81°, 83°, 82°,
from the Sandy Hook to the Cape Henry section; in 1846, 754°, 76°, 774°,
794°, from the Charleston section to that of Cape Cafiaveral. But in succes-
sive years we have for the highest temperature at 12 fathoms, on the Cape
Henry section, higher than that of Hatteras ; and the temperature in July,
1846, on the axis of the Gulf Stream, higher at Sandy Hook than in June,
1853, at Cafiaveral, by 14°, and higher than Charleston by 54°. It is
obvious that here an interesting field of enquiry opens, requiring careful
research.”

(399.) Counter-Currents.—Besides the great Arctic Current which flows
Southward inside the Gulf Stream, and to be described in the next Section,
there are some other counter-currents on each side of the Stream which
require notice here. They appear in the first part of its course in the Gulf
of Florida, where they have been known to flow from the earliest times, and
alluded to in (374), page 388.

N, A. O. 53

410 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

(400.) The Counter-Current along the Florida Reefs is marked on all the
old surveys of these reefs, and is, during the summer months especially,
frequently met with. It may be readily accounted for. On page 387 (374)
it will be seen that the main strength of the Gulf Stream runs past the
coast of Cuba, and that the channel is by much the deepest close to the
South side, and slopes more gradually from the North. On the shallower
water, but not within the reefs, this counter-current runs, by which a vessel
may with ease and knowledge work to the Westward. It may be taken
as an eddy, aided by the Trade Wind, which may give it an additional
impetus. It was well elucidated by Lieutenant E. B. Hunt, U.S. Engineers,
who, having stayed in the neighbourhood for some time, obtained some
particulars from the well-informed residents of these Kays.*

(401.) Captain Geiger, who for some thirty years observed the waters of
this vicinity, most of that time having acted as a pilot off Kay West Har-
bour, and who was, perhaps, better acquainted than any other person with
the Currents there prevailing, gave the following statement of facts :—

A strong North or N.E. wind keeps the Gulf Stream back, and makes
a Westerly current near the shore. During June, July, and August, the
Westerly current prevails more than the Easterly current from 5 to 15
miles from the reef. The direction of the current depends mostly on the
wind. The Westerly current prevails from one-third to two-fifths the
entire time from year to year, for 2 to 15 miles outside the reef off the
West. He had known it 25 to 30 miles off Sand Kay.

When the Gulf Stream is strongest on the Cuba shore, the Westerly
current is strongest on the North side; and when it is weakest along the
Cuba shore, the Gulf Stream sets close along the reef. He had found the
Westerly current as far up as Carysfort Reef, but not frequently, and not
broad or strong. The current broadens from Carysfort Reef to the West-
ward, and continues about constant along its course.

The Tides on the two sides of the reef are about six hours apart on an
average, but set, on the whole, as much one way as the other over the reef.
Sometimes there is a narrow Easterly current for a mile from the reef, then
a Westerly current, and then the Gulf Stream. A considerable number of
the Gulf traders know of, and make use of, this current in going Westward.
After Northers, the Westerly current may be expected. Sometimes in cross-
ing to Havana no Gulf Stream indications are found, and sometimes a
Westerly current is found along the North shore of Cuba.

Notwithstanding Captain Geiger’s long observation of these Currents, he
was quite unable to reduce them to rule, or in any way to know before-
hand how the current will be found to set.

Captain Richardson, pilot, of the United States Coast Survey steamer
Corwen, says:—‘‘The Westerly current appears irregularly, chiefly in
winter, but sometimes during the prevalence of the regular Trades. It
extends from 10 to 15 miles off from Sand Kay, and runs sometimes 2 miles
per hour. It never prevails over the reef proper. It spreads farther from
the reef as it goes West. Off Indian Kay it sometimes extends 7 miles

* Silliman’s American Journal, vol. xxvii., pp. 207—214. See also the remarks on
page 388, relating to the ‘“‘ White Water” of the Tortugas.

THE GULY STREAM. 411

from the edge of the reef; at Bahia Honda, sometimes 10 miles; and at
Sand Kay, from 10 to 15 miles. Some years (as in the winter of 1856-7)
there was very little of this current. The Gulf Stream usually runs stronger
on the Cuban side. In one case, in 1852, two vessels bound East passed
the Tortugas, and separated about 100 miles in twenty-four hours, one
captain knowing this current and the channel, while the other kept in the
Westerly or counter-current. The tide below the Quicksands and Tortugas
sets flood N.N.E., and ebb §.8.E., differing from the Charts.”

Lieutenant Pillsbury, U.S.N., remarks on this counter-current as fol-
lows :—‘‘ Along the Florida Reefs the neutral zone which borders the
Northern edge of the Stream probably begins in the vicinity of ‘The Elbow,’
near Carysfort Reef, and gradually widens until off Rebecca Shoal, where
it extends from 15 to 20 miles outside the 100-fathoms line. It is narrowest
at high declination of the moon, at which time it probably begins at some
point to the Westward of ‘The Elbow.’ The direction of the current in
this zone is ordinarily tidal in its character, but it is easily overcome by
an abnormal current caused by difference in atmospheric pressure within
and without the Gulf.”

(402.) But this counter-current, also, is felt on the Cuban side some-
times, probably all the way from the Bahama Old Channel. Of this we
have several instances from the communications of Captain Livingston and
others. The most singular of these, however, is that of Captain Loudon,
of the brig Perry, on returning, in the latter part of November, 1827, from
New Orleans to Liverpool. Captain Loudon had made the Iron Hills in
Cuba; shortly after noon he tacked ship to the Northward and Westward
about 8 or 9 miles off shore; next day he kept beating to windward, as
near to the middle of the strait as he could judge, and without sighting
the land on either side, the wind then blowing a fresh gale from the North-
ward; and he continued beating in the same manner until about 8 a.m. of
the second day, when, by reckoning, he ought to have been near the Salt
Kays ; but obtaining a lunar observation, it showed, to his astonishment,
his longitude to be to the Westward of 83°. Supposing his observation to
be erroneous, he took a second set of lunar distances, which gave a similar
result. Still, however, doubtful, he stood on, and in a short time after-
ward gained soundings on the Tortugas Bank! The Northerly gale had
now abated, and he worked his vessel in, on soundings, to the Northward
of the Dry Tortugas. With a favourable wind he ran through the Tortugas
Channel ; but as light and baffling winds succeeded, he made for the Stream
as it became dusk, and with such winds got through the strait in the two
following days, having, on his way, found the current very rapid along the
Martyrs or Florida Reefs. Captain Loudon justly remarked, that so extra-
ordinary a circumstance, of which he was positively certain, ought to be
generally known.

“Masters of vessels from: Vera Cruz, &c., to Havana, often lengthen
their voyage by keeping away too much to the Southward after rounding
the Dry Tortugas, fearful of being carried away to the Eastward of Tlavana
by the strength of the Florida Stream. Some have fetched in about the
Port of Honda, the Cock’s Comb, and one vessel even as low as Cape
Antonio,” —Lieutenant John Evans.

412 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

(403.) Easterly Drift from the Gulf Stream, on the North and N.E. sides
of the Bahamas, éc.—The Gulf Stream about the Bahamas appears to have
a drift or tendency to the Eastward; and there is reason to believe that
an off-set of the Stream, from without the Matanilla Bank, sets, if not
generally, very frequently, to the Eastward and 8.H. It would seem as it
the Stream, in passing Eastward along the Southern Florida Kays, still kept
on this Easterly course with a considerable rate over the shallow Bahama
Banks, and in the deep channels to cause very uncertain streams.

Captain Livingston said :—‘ The notices we have, tend to prove that an
Easterly set-off from the Gulf Stream sets to the Northward of the
Bahamas; of this I am so firmly convinced, that if in charge of a ship
from Havana, or even New Orleans, bound to Jamaica, I should, if allowed
to follow my own plan, run out of the Strait of Florida, and attempt
making my passage with the aid of this set-off. This is to be understood,
in case I should not have Westerly winds in the Southern parallels; for
such winds are, I am told, more frequent than formerly ; and I know that
they are by no means of rare occurrence on the 8.W. of Cuba.”

(404.) The latter remarks would be adduced by many to prove that the
surface of the Gulf Stream is roof-shaped, higher in the centre than at the
sides, and that any floating body remaining inactive on it has a tendency
to drift to its margins, especially to the Hastward and South-Hastward.
How far this assumption will be borne out by more exact observation, it
is difficult to judge, but there certainly seems to be some ground for the
opinion, as its edges especially are marked by a larger collection of Gulf-
weed and other drift matter than are found in the centre. Again, there
seems to be a tendency for vessels to be floated to the East and S.H. with-
out their knowing it. It has been urged by Captain Maury that this may
be owing to the effect of the earth’s rotation, which runs the current from
under the ship, in the same way, as he says, the tendency of a railway
train going North or South, is to run off the rails to the Hastward of its
route. This was made the subject of experiment by M. Foucault and
others; but we know so little that it were futile to argue on it.

(405.) In the Northern regions of the Stream, when the cold upon the
land is in winter most intense, which is generally between December and
March, heavy and continued gales very frequently prevail, which commonly
proceed from between the North and West, across the course of the Stream,
from Cape Hatteras until past George’s Shoal, and bend its direction to
the Eastward. Being aided at the same time by the discharge of the great
bays and rivers, increased by the force of the wind blowing down them,
and the constant supply of Stream along the coast of Carolina, the whole
produces so strong a current to the Eastward as to render it impossible for
a sailing ship to approach the coast until a change of wind commences.

During the prevalence of a Southerly or Hasterly wind, which is not so
common here, it has been found that the Current is forced close to, and in
some parts upon, the edge of soundings ; being thus pent in between the
wind and the shoal grounds near shore, the breadth is greatly diminished,
and the velocity proportionately increased. This circumstance has been
in particular observed from about the longitude of Block Island, along the
edge of the Nantucket Bank, thence beyond George’s Bank, and also along

THE GULF STREAM. 413

the coasts of Georgia and part of South Carolina. In the first instance,
the Southerly winds forced the Current to the edge of soundings, where
it then ran from 1} to 2 knots; and in the latter instance, the Easterly
wind forced the Current upon soundings. With West and N.W. winds,
the Stream would be removed some miles farther off.

The Survey steamer Blake, in July, 1880, when South-Hastwurd of
Cape Romain, for 15 miles or more from the 100-fathoms line, experienced
a strong current running to the S.W., dragging the vessel, with her trawl
down in 142 fathoms, at the rate of 2 knots an hour. The same thing
occurred in June, 1886.

From what has been said, it is clear that the eddies about the edges
of the Stream must vary according to the circumstances above explained.
Along these edges, but more particularly along the outer edge, there is
generally a current in a different direction, which is accelerated by the
wind in proportion to its strength, when blowing contrary to the Stream,
and retarded, and perhaps altogether obstructed, by the wind blowing in
the direction of the Stream. In the latter case the limits of the Stream
will be extended.

In December, 1887, the barque Grenada, bound from Laguna to New
York, found no current whatever in the Gulf Stream, experiencing strong
head winds. Between February 14th—18th, 1888, the schooner Elbridge
Souther, crossed the Gulf Stream area several times between lat. 28° and
33° N., and experienced no current, with N.W. and N.E. winds.

(406.) Conclusion—We have thus described this famous Stream, per-
haps at greater length than is needed, from its origin in the Caribbean Sea
and Mexican Gulf to the offings of Cape Cod and Nantucket, a portion of
its course much better known than any other, and more easy of definition,
which is not the case with its farther progress.

The width of the Stream, between the Tortugas and Havana, has been
estimated to average only about 40 miles, and not 1,200 feet deep,
travelling with a mean annual velocity on the surface of 32:7 miles per
day, as previously estimated in this work, or of 30°7 miles as calculated
from the Meteorological Office charts.

Passing onwards to the Narrows of the Gulf, between the Bemini
Islands and Cape Florida, distant 215 miles from the first section, we
come to that part which, beyond contradiction, decides the whole cha-
racter of the Gulf Stream, as the whole of it passes over this OUTFALL.
‘The Stream is here 394 miles wide, and the water above the temperature
of 60° is about 1,200 feet deep in the centre of the Stream. The sectional
area of the Stream in this part may therefore be taken at about 6:64
square miles.

Its Velocity here was calculated, in former editions of this work, to be
about 65°4 miles per day on an annual mean ; but the data of the Meteor-
ological Department (1872) gave an annual mean of 48-0 miles per day (in
Spring, 43°6 miles ; Summer, 45:1 miles; Awtwmn, 46°8 miles; and Winter,
53:4 miles per day); which is contrary to previous calculations. The
later American investigations make it about 72 miles a day in the axis.

Now, as the inference is that the colder substratum of the Gulf Stream
is moving in a direction opposite to its course, that is, Sowthwardly, there

414 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

is some point where there is no movement. Making all possible allowance
for the decrease in velocity from 48:0 miles on the surface to 0:0 at the
bottom (and this must be done in an empirical manner, and may be much
overrated) the mean velocity of the whole mass will not exceed 36:25 miles
per day. The sectional area of the Stream not exceeding 6°64 square miles,
it follows that there are not more than 240-7 cubic miles of water passing
per day over a given line in this part of its course.

Its mean rate of progress, when passing Cape Hatteras, is given as
nearly the same as in the Narrows, 47:2 miles per day, though this is in
excess of the velocities given at intermediate points. The surface water
will take 134 days to pass from Cape Florida to Cape Hatteras, 630 miles
apart ; but if the whole mass maintains the same rate, it will not pasg
over under 17 days, and will be, at the annual mean, only 4:2° Fahrenheit
cooler (varying from 10° to 1:2°). Off New York, it will be 10° cooler
(varying from 17° in winter to 3-9° in August). Off Cape Hatteras the
breadth of the Stream may be 120 miles, therefore it has expanded to a
breadth of more than three times (3:3) its width at the Outfall, and its
whole mass will make a bed of water 366 feet thick.

From this line to that of the section running 8.H. of Nantaeketl the
distance is about 480 miles. On and near this section temperature sound-
ings were taken by the United States Coast Surveyors, Commander Craven
in 1854, Davis in 1845, and Bache in 1846, and their observations place
us in a difficulty; for the warmer waters were not found to exist North-
ward of the parallel of 38° N.; the ‘‘Cold Wall” showed itself to the
North of this, and then two less warm beds as far as 40° N. But the
observations for current motion show its Eastern progress much farther
than this, in fact up to 41° N. If we accept the lower estimate of its rate
made by the Meteorologial Office, it will take 16 days to move the whole
mass from Hatteras to Nantucket, or 33 days from the Outfall, though its
temperature has only reduced from 12° to 18° since it left the Gulf of
Florida. It is this rapid course, and consequent preservation of its original
warmth, that has always made it so remarkable.

But while it has thus carried the Tropical heat so near to, and amidst
the Arctic cold, its volume must be spread over a very much wider space,
for its somewhat undefined breadth off Nantucket may be assumed at
300 miles, or seven times its original breadth; and if its velocity through-
out were equal, it could only be 170 feet deep, but as its rate has some-
what diminished it may be taken as 200 feet; but then its surface has
much cooled down, and the body of warm water cannot be assumed even
as high as this calculation makes it.

The investigations in the Blake led Lieutenant Pillsbury to infer the
volume of warm water passing the Narrows in 1 hour to be 89,872,000,000
tons, almost exactly one-half of this flow being within 100 fathoms of the
surface. At the rate of 35 cubic feet of sea-water to the ton, this would
amount to close upon 350 cubic miles of water per day, a considerable
increase on the figures given above, but still insufficient to affect the
argument to any appreciable degree.

(407.) This brings this wonderful Current down to the new phase of its
character. Hitherto it has been a rapid heat-bearing stream, pressing on

THE GULF STREAM. 415

to the American coast, beyond the usual limits of where the division lies in
other Oceans between the Westward tendency of sea and air within the
Tropics, and the Hastward movements of extra-Tropical latitudes. Hence-
forth it leaves the coast on a due Hastward course to the South of the
great collection of banks which lie off the British American possessions,
-and this portion of the Stream will be considered in the following pages.

(408.) Eastern Extension between about 68° and 48° W.—In examining
the condition of the Gulf Stream, in the next 850 miles, we encounter
many difficulties. Its physical features, the interferences it encounters,
the opposing streams which neutralize its onward course, and the ever-
varying rate of its current, have all to be taken into consideration. By
confining the observations to those made, in the summer season, by the
United States officers, off Nantucket, and to the current observations
integrated by the Meteorological Office, it might almost be inferred that
the Gulf Stream ceased between Nantucket and the S.W. part of Nova
Scotia; for while the first makes the whole bulk of its warmer water to lie
South of lat. 38° hereabout, the current observations show no Eastward
drift to the Northward of that parallel in the same region. But the vary-
ing Hasterly drifts, and the generally much warmer water which is found
than is due to the latitude, will point to its origin. By the rapid transport
of heated water into these regions by its Northern course, one feature is
brought into existence which has not been sufficiently considered—that of
the Fogs which characterizes the whole section now to be discussed. The
Nova Scotia and Nantucket Banks, as well as the Newfoundland Great
Bank, are proverbially regions of dense mist. The cool winds condense
the evaporation from the warm Gulf Stream waters over thousands of
square miles ; and this process, as well known, is one of the most effective
methods of cooling that can be imagined.

In addition, therefore, to the inter-mixture of an enormous bulk of cold
Arctic water* in this part of its course, it has the no less active atmo-
spheric agents at work on its surface in bringing down its waters to less
than the normal temperature due to the latitude. The area, always more
or less enveloped in fogs, and densely so when the prevalent N.W. winds
blow, is not less than 20,000 square geographic miles in the offing between
Nantucket and the Grand Banks, and this is leaving out of the reckoning
all the other areas subject to the same chilling influences.

H.M.S. Challenger, in her deep-sea exploring expedition, twice crossed
the course of the Gulf Stream in its Eastern portion; the late Sir Wyville
Thomson remarked that where they crossed it, about 250 miles Eastward
of the Chesapeake, the Stream was 60 miles in width and 100 fathoms
deep. We presume that he considered the Stream had a river-like
appearance to this extent.

* Commander W. Chimmo, R.N., in 1868, found that the Arctic Current swept the
rocky bottom bare on the Grand Bank and on the Flemish Cap, at the depth of 250
fathoms. He also found that the under-stratum of cold water was universal, and
that the Gulf Stream was very superficial ; thus, in lat. 44° 8’ N., long. 48° 7’ W., whiah
would be in the main strength of the Stream, while the surface temperature was Al?
at 50 fathoms it was 43°, or 18° colder, and this in July. See Proceedings of the Roya
Geographical Society, vol. xiii.

416 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS. /

Lemperatures (Fahrenheit) observed in crossing and recrossing the Gulf
Stream, by H.M.S. Challenger, April and May, 1873.

Bermuda towards Sandy Hook. Halifax towards Bermuda,
Depth. Ep : -
2 EAE | ae ee
fe} o Oo °o Oo A =
a | fires | eet aa ce
oO)1nS | aod | amo
° ° ° °
At the Surface ... 59 67 |! 72 71
50 fathoms ~~ — 62 —
100 gs 6 55 65 | 64 65
150 — — | 64 —
200 3 47 64 64 64
250 ” oe, = a =e
300 3 42 61 60 62
400 is 39 52 54 55
500 a 39 46 45 —
1000 i 37 — — —_—
1500 a 36 36 36 —
Bottom .. wes 35 35 35 —
(2850) (1750)| (1240)} (1250)| (2020)| (2800); (2650)! (2650
fms. fms. | fms. | fms. | fms. | fms. | fms. | fms.

Taking a general view of the temperatures between St. Thomas and
Halifax (each of which places lies on about the same meridian as Bermuda),
it is to be noticed that the surface temperature gradually increased to the
Northward and Southward of Bermuda; to the Northward by reason of
the warm water of the Gulf Stream, till a maximum of 72° is found in
364° N.; and to the Southward by reason of the lower latitude and the
Equatorial Currents, until the surface temperature is found to be 79° at
St. Thomas. Below the surface, however, a state of affairs was found to
exist as follows :—At 100 fathoms below the surface—at Bermuda, a tem-
perature of 66° was found ; at St. Thomas, 70°; in 364° N., 664°. At 200
fathoms—at Bermuda, 634°; at St. Thomas, 63°; in 364° N. to 40° N.,
63°. At 500 fathoms—at Bermuda, 464°, which temperature continued
the same to 40° N.; but at the same depth, in proceeding to the South-
ward, the temperature gradually decreased till at St. Thomas it was only
432°, or 3° colder than that found 21 degrees of latitude to the Northward.
This, although a small difference, must be due to the effects of the Gulf
Stream. Proceeding to the Eastward from Bermuda, towards the Azores
the temperature of the surface water decreased gradually, and that at S00
fathoms remained pretty constant at 464° for 700 miles.

Commander Bartlett states that the temperatures taken by the Blake,
between Montauk Point and Bermuda, did not indicate, in August, 1882,
any bifurcation of the Stream into warm and cold bands. The surface
temperature increased gradually from 68° F. near the 100-fathoms line to
75°, and remained at 74° and 75° until the Stream was entered, when it
ruse as high as 80° and 81°, and continued at nearly the same temperature
ali the way to Bermuda. The bottom temperature in 266 fathoms was

THE GULF STREAM. 417

403°; at 1,174 fathoms, 374°; at 1,500 fathoms, 36° to 364°; and below
this, 36° and 352°, the lowest found.

Between Bermuda and Bahama, the surface temperature gradually
increased from 68° to 77°, the bottom temperature being about 36°.

Series of temperatures, from the surface to the bottom, were taken
during the summer of 1884, between Block Island and Bermuda, and
thence to Hatteras. The isothermals showed the Labrador Current until
nearing the Stream, when they descended gradually, and in the Stream
itself abruptly, to the greatest depths. Instead of the warm Stream-water
thinning away as it was reported to do when spread out, it was not much
over 50 miles in width at the time of their crossing, as shown by the
current and high surface temperatures.

The temperatures below the surface were much higher than at the same
depths off the coast. The ordinary temperature at the bottom off
Savannah and Charleston in 400 fathoms was 45°; at the same depth in
the Stream, between Block Island and Bermuda, it was as high as 55°.
To the Southward, the isothermals remained at almost the same depth as
in the Stream, on the entire line to Bermuda. Just North of the Stream
the temperature at 400 fathoms was 394° and 40°. Ata point well in the
Labrador Current away from the Stream, the temperature at 400 fathoms
was 384°.

From Bermuda to Hatteras the isothermals were at the same depths as
South of the Stream on the previous line, but when in the current off
Hatteras, where the Stream trends to the Kastward, they rose to the same
depth as off Charleston and Savannah on the plateau. These ¢empera-
tures below the surface seem to suggest that the Labrador Current under-
runs the Stream at Hatteras, but at no other point. It probably keeps its
Western boundary along the 1,000-fathoms line, and thus around the
plateau towards the Equator.

The Velocity of the Gulf Stream in the section now under consideration
is very various ; but, as a mean, has been placed at from 26 to 36 miles
per day. If this estimate is reduced to agree with those of the Meteoro-
logical Office Charts, 1872, as referred to in the main course of the Stream,
these figures must be placed at about 20 or 27 miles respectively, and it
would thus take about forty days to bring the Stream from off Nantucket
to 48° W., a distance of about 850 or 900 miles. This would make a
period of 72 days from Florida. But all such calculations must naturally
be very vague, owing to the constant changes in the surface velocity of
various parts of the Stream, and at various depths below the surface.

From February 16th to 19th, 1889, Captain Wall, of the steamer
Montreal, in about lat. 37° N., Westward of long. 64° W., found the
Stream setting due Hast, nearly 2 knots an hour, in spite of strong South-
Westerly winds.

The Limits of the Stream have now become a subject of great difficulty.
Formerly it was thought that its waters flowed Eastward as far South as
lat. 36° or 37° between longitudes 65° and 55° W., but with a feeble
current. But in the Meteorological Office Monthly Charts, of 1872, there
is positively no evidence of an Hasterly set to the Southward of lat. 39°

NAO; 54

418 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

beyond longitude 60°. This adds very much to the complexity of the
problem of how the warmer waters of the Gulf Stream can possibly reach
the coasts of N.W. Europe, as strenuously claimed for them by some.
The Northern margin is known to be in a continual struggle with the
Arctic Current, which sets at right angles to its course with about an equal
velocity ; and, therefore, a mere verbal account can give but little definite
information.*

With this uncertainty about its limits or existence in some parts, it is
evidently difficult to estimate its breadth ; but, according to the generally
received extent, it may be about 300 or 350 miles on the meridian of
48° W., a most vague amount, but which makes it about eight times the
breadth that it was in the Narrows of Florida; and, as its mean velocity
is less than one-half of what it was at the commencement, it follows that
the whole body of water passing Florida will not be more than 20 or 25
fathoms deep over such a line; and, as its temperature is lower on the
surface at the Eastern part of the course in question than it was at its
commencement, it follows that the film of warm water it sends up here
cannot be more than a few inches in thickness. The area supposed to be
covered by it between Nantucket and long. 48° W. is not less than
280,000 square miles; and, therefore, 240°7 cubic miles (see page 414)
poured over this per diem will make a stratum of about 5} feet thick per
diem. If the larger figures of the American observers on this point be
accepted, or about 350 cubic miles per diem, the addition to the thickness
of the stratum does not amount to much.

Temperature.—There is one singular fact—elicited by later researches,
and by a comparison with the Current Charts of the Meteorological Office
—which is, that the main body of the warm water, which has been traced
along the United States coast, bears off in a due Easterly course South-
ward of the parallel of 38° N.—that is, directly across the ocean (not on a
Great Circle course, but to the Southward of it) toward the Strait of
Gibraltar; and this, too, where there is not the slightest evidence of an
Easterly Current on the former monthly or annual mean charts of the
Currents. This is very remarkable, and well deserves attention from those
who study the distribution of Ocean warmth. There can be no doubt of
the fact, since Maury, Rennell, Andrau, and the Meteorological Office, all
agree on the point.

(409.) The late Dr. Petermann, who gave an immense amount of study
to the subject, drew up two charts to illustrate his views, taken from the
mean values of Maury’s and other charts, for the months of July and
January. On the July chart, the core of the Gulf Stream (Kern des Golf-
stroms) shows the form of a tongue, of a temperature of 81:5° (at some
places even 84° was observed), extending North of the Equator to the
38th degree of latitude. This may be called not only a warm, but, better,
a hot stream. ‘This hot stream thence continues as a double tongue, with
a mean temperature of from 77° to 81:55° towards the North as far as the
40th degree of latitude (in one spot only), and towards the Hast to the 43rd

* At times the change from warm to cold surface water is very marked. Commander
Chimmo found it decrease in going Northward, from 72° to 58° in 24 hours.

THE GULF STREAM. 413

degree of longitude ; that is, far beyond Newfoundland. In J anuary, tae
tongue of 77° reaches to lat. 37° and long. 70° 30’ W., and at the place
where the Kast end of this tongue of 77° terminates in July, we find in
January a temperature of 63°5° and 65:8°.*

To this it may be added, that the East end of the tongues of warm
water above mentioned are 300 miles South of the Southern edge of the
Gulf Stream, as usually placed ; and, as stated before, in a part of the
ocean where no Hasterly stream is felt.

The evidences of this portion of the Gulf Stream being much warmer
than is due to the latitude, are much qualified by a reference to the Tem-
perature Tables of Lieutenant Andrau, drawn up for the Netherlands
Meteorological Institute. For January, the latitudes of these two “ hot
tongues” are 36° N. and 33° N. respectively. On taking the figures lying
-between these parallels, they show thus, premising that each temperature
is given for the mean between each meridian 5° apart; the first being from
50°—45° W., the last to the right hand 20°—15° W.

Lat. 36° oe 63-7° | 631° | — | 61-9
Lat. 33° 658° | 658° | 664° | — | 63-90

69-3°

These figures show that the temperature is very uniform nearly across
he Ocean, and they accord almost exactly with those of our own
Meteorological Office. .

For July, the hot tongues are in the latitudes of 38° and 34°N., and the
figures show a similar result ; and from this it would seem that the main
bulk of the hotter waters of the Gulf Stream is lost in mid-ocean, about
the meridians West of 45° W.

It is, therefore, safe to affirm that Rennell was correct in his statement,
that the portion of the Stream to the Southward of lat. 40° (he says 424°),
and long. 40°—30° W., drifts with an almost imperceptible surface move-
ment, until it is lost in the neighbourhood of Corvo, where its temperature
and attributes do not vary from those portions of the Atlantic manifestly
far away from its influences.

(410.) It is with the Northern portion (North of lat. 40° N.) of the Gulf
Stream, then, that we shall have to deal in its future course Eastward,
and this is very much cooler than the hot core above adverted to. On the
meridian of 50° W. the water in July is at a temperature of 70°, on the
parallel of 40° N., and is only 45-5° at 300 miles to the Northward. In
January these figures stand at 61° and 34° respectively, and thus in these
5° of latitude the water becomes cooler by 24-5° and 37°; and looking
generally at the isothermal lines, it would seem as if they were crowded
to the Southward by the land and the influence of the Arctic Current.

Arrived at the Grand Bank of Newfoundland, we meet with a totally
new feature in its condition. It here encounters the full force of the
Labrador Current, which setting Southward over the Banks with nearly
equal velocity and bulk, cuts off the Eastward course of the Gulf Stream
iu all that part of the current which runs North of 42° or 43° N. The
isotherms, derived from the immense mass of figures in Maury’s thermal

* Mittheilungen, 1870, page 219; and Knorr, pages 42, 43.

420 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

charts, show, as Dr. Petermann says, that the Polar waters set against
and penetrate it like an immense wedge.* This cold-water gulf penetrates
for 150 to 200 miles Southward of its general limit; and in July, which is
the period when the Arctic Ice drifts down in the greatest quantities, this
is most evident, as the Arctic water is not more than 48°, while that of the
Gulf Stream to the Southward is 68° and upwards. In January, the period
when the Arctic regions are entirely frozen, and no Icebergs descend into
these Southern latitudes, the effects on the surface are not quite so mani-
fest, but are equally evident as far South as lat. 38° N.

Now, this ‘cold-water gulf” is no surface interference of a temporary
nature. It is a strong permanent current, flowing to a greater depth than
the Gulf Stream at all seasons of the year. That it entirely cuts off all
the lower beds of the warmer water is demonstrated by the fact that Ice-
bergs, 80 and 100 feet high, have been seen as far South as lat. 36° 10’ N.
in April, 1829, and 38° 40’ in June, 1842. This shows that the more
powerful Southern Arctic Drift, of which many evidences are constantly
met with, in the summer months by the Ice-drifts, and in the winter by
the cold water, must cut off the Eastward progress of this Northern portion
of the Gulf Stream waters. It is very probable that a small portion of
the warm water does get over to the Eastward of this in the ‘hot streaks”’
which are so remarkable; because, although the thermometer on the
surface shows that there is no continuity in the waters on the East side of
long. 48° with those to the West of that meridian, yet the current observa-
tions show that the drift is still, generally, to the Hastward.t

(411.) In January, 1890, Captain Williams, of the steamer Montana,
bound Eastward, made some temperature observations of the surface
water, and at a depth of 15 feet, showing a marked drop Southward of
the Banks, between lat. 40° 40’ and 41° 40’ N., long. 52° and 48° W.
Between 8 p.m., on January 28rd, and 4 a.m. on the 24th, the sub-surface
temperature fell from 70° F. to 40°, and in the next 12 hours rose again to
70°, the distance traversed being about 200 miles. The maximum surface
temperature was 64°, the minimum also 40°, the latter being found about
the 51st meridian.

(412.) The position, depth, and angle of meeting of the Gulf Stream and
Arctic Current is continually changing. Small differences in density will
determine which water will over-ride the other, causing alternations of
temperature, both horizontally and vertically. Not only are the alterna-
tions found within the supposed limits of the Stream, but also both inside
and outside of it.

Possibly at times, owing to its greater density, the warm water of the

* Mittheilungen, 1872, page 220; Knorr, page 43.

+ It is quite certain that the surface motion is not of any great depth, and that at
few fathoms beneath the surface it is inappreciable to any ordinary mechanical means,
There is direct evidence of this in the deep-sea sounding trials, and more especially in
the electric cable-laying experience. In these, if there should be any under-currents of
force or in different directions, it would be shown directly by their action on the sub-
merged line. In the case of the telegraph cables, the refined dynamometric apparatus
employed is, generally, so uniform in its evidence, that the question of sub-surface
action may be said to have been settled by it.

THE GULF STREAM. 421

Gulf Stream may dip below the cold but lighter water of the Arctic
Current, as in the Northern regions warmer water has been found at 2
considerable depth below the colder water on the surface.

The same arguments may be used with reference to the bands of warm
and cold water (395) met with in the earlier part of its course, where it
come in contact with that branch of the Arctic Current, which is con-
sidered to have its course to the Southward, off the American coast.

In 1886, M. J. Thoulet, from observations taken from the French
frigate Clorinde, concluded that where the Arctic Current meets the Gulf
Stream at right angles, the water of the former, though colder, is a little
lighter, so that instead of passing below the warmer water of the Stream,
it mixes with it, almost entirely arresting its speed, and from thence to
the North-Eastward it is merely a drift.

(413.) Up to this point we have said nothing about the speculations
promulgated respecting the heat-bearing properties of the Gulf Stream ;
but, in this book, space will not allow us to enter upon them. Those of
Mr. James Croll, however, must be noticed, as they refer to a method of
estimating this by the powers of absorption of the sun’s rays by the ocean’s
surface, represented by the dynamic enumeration of foot-pounds. But
we would deferentially demur to his calculations. He takes no account
of the time it takes for the water to circulate, or of its ascertained depth.
He very much exaggerates the known volume of the Stream, and does not
refer to the interferences it encounters, the fog banks, nor to the Arctic or
Labrador Current. However valuable his suggestions may be, they must
be applied in a different way.*

(414.) Having thus brought the Gulf Stream through its remarkable and
well-defined course, which on its Northern margin is not less than 2,200,
miles, we arrive at the conclusion, which is here repeated from our former
editions, that its farther progress as a distinct current cannot be traced. It
merges into the general ocean drifts common to the sea for many hundreds
of miles on either side of it. This conclusion is in antagonism with that
of many who contend for its extension and evidences up to the shores of
N.W. Europe, and into the Arctic basin. But while the facts on which
this conclusion is based are not for one moment questioned, yet their con-
nexion with the stream, which has thus far been described, is not shown,
and the effects claimed for it are so immeasurably greater than the parent
source, that they must be inevitably referred to much more powerful
causes. These will be briefly discussed in the ensuing section,

9. NORTH-EASTERLY SET TO WESTERN EUROPE, ETC.

(415.) The previous pages have brought the Gulf Stream up to the
meridian of 50° or 48° W. The Southern portion of the Eastward Current,
Southward of lat. 40° N., passing over towards the Azores, with the other
drifts, forms the head of the North African Current (265), while the portion
North of that parallel ceases as a heat-bearing stream on the same

* See “ Geological Magazine,” vol. vi., April, 1869; and “ Philosophical Magazine,”
February, 1870.

422 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

meridian. Its further progress is manifestly entirely cut off by the very
much deeper Arctic Current ; and this is the case throughout the year.

But it is contended by Dr. Petermann, that as the ocean becomes sud-
denly warmer to the Eastward of the meridian of 48°, and this, too, for
an extent of not less than 300 or 400 miles in a N.N.W. direction in July,
or N.N.E. direction in January, as shown by the direction of the isotherms,
this warmer water must be the Gulf Stream.* Undoubtedly, looking only
to the direction of the isotherms, there would seem fo be grounds for this
assertion; but the positive fact that the Polar Stream entirely intersects
it, and that there is not the slightest evidence of any Northerly set to the
Bast of the Great Bank (on the surface at least) precludes such a suppo-
sition. The Lastward course of the surface waters is continued alike over
the colder as over the warmer areas; and as the surface temperature we
are discussing must be dependent in some degree on surface motion, there
must be some other great agent at work to produce this effect. How this
operates is not clear; and, like many other mysteries of the Ocean, it
awaits an explanation. It is certainly not caused by surface current.

Looking at the general arrangement of the isotherms, it would seem as
if the waters of the Ocean South of the parallel of 45° or 50° N. latitude,
and Eastward of the 40° meridian, were at their normal temperature, and
that it was the effect of the Polar Stream, and the arrangement of the land
on the Western side of the Ocean, that broke up the symmetry, by forcing
the warmer waters several degrees of latitude Southward of the position
they would occupy but for this combination of causes.

The rate of the drift is from 6 or 10 miles to 20 or 24 miles per day; and
as far as 50° N. it seems generally to flow due Hast towards the French
and Portuguese coasts, and thus forms the head of the occasional Rennell’s
Current. But, singular to say, observations are not abundant hereabout,
and the true rate can only be given approximately ; it is of no great power,
and has but little effect on a vessel’s course. Beyond the doubt, whether
the water thus far can be considered as the Gulf Stream, there is no con-
troversy as to this part of the Ocean circulation.

(416.) It is to the N.E. of this that there is a difference of opinion. It
was generally believed, in former times, that the climate of the Western
portion of the British Isles, that of Norway, Iceland, and a large area
around the Northern part of Europe, was dependent on the Gulf Stream,
which flowed continuously throughout as a heat-bearing current; but this
cannot now be maintained, since we have been made intimately acquainted
with the dimensions and character of the Stream in its greatest strength.

(417.) Bottles—The observations for its Velocity and Direction are not
very numerous; and, therefore, we have recourse to the drift of floating
bottles, about which much controversy took place, at the time they were
collectively brought forward in the ‘‘ Nautical Magazine,” in 1853. As
they tell a singularly consistent tale, which is entirely confirmed by similar

* «Tt is by no means annihilated (by the Polar Stream); on the contrary, it sallies
forth intact from the conflict.” ‘Again: ‘The Gulf Stream is not disturbed to any
degree, either in its direction or in its temperature, until a very short distance East of
Newfoundland, when it bends sharply round to the North.””—Mittheilungen, 1870, page
220. Knorr, pages 43, 44.

NORTH-EASTERLY SET TO WESTERN EUROPE, ETC. 423

experiments in the Southern Hemisphere, their testimony must be brought
into the question. See (243), page 295, ante.

The following statement of the drift of bottles is derived from Captain
Becher’s Bottle Chart. Many of the particulars contained in it have been
given in our former editions, but they are here given entire in order that
an estimate may be formed of the strength of the current in which they
have drifted. It may be premised that the length of their courses is given
in the shortest or direct distance. It therefore underrates their progress,
as they have doubtless not generally pursued the shortest track to their
destination :—

—— eee hv _—

Where left. B | = laa (G2
ie

AS ae

Ship. Signature. Where found. | 3 a2| 8

Y Lat. | Long. Bet | ee

ear. N W. H | (2 2

. ~~ Q oS

4 a

° °

OSPTeY.....eseeeseeee McGill ...... 1822 | 49-6 | 12-5 | Wales ............ 36| 270} 7-5
Wallace ............ Robertson...} 1835 | 52-2 | 15-0 | Ushant............ 130| 450) 7-2
ERYMG) vescccsscseccess R. Hope 1834 | 46-6 | 16-9 | Devon ............ 71| 600) 8-4
MMP Nairancacssscrcesse NWcdltel veconcs 1836 | 50-3 | 19-0 | Boulogne......... 126| 890} 7-0
INIEOE .vescscsccsesee Merret ...... 1839 | 48-2 | 18-9 | Quiberon ......... 177} 700| 4:5
HS OLIVET) aac eaes decei|sawos odedcese'coree 1840 | 46-9 | 18-6 | France............ 94| 700| 7-0
IAI cecescssssscscg Tock ss2..s2:: 1832 | 44-2 | 18-0 | France............ 810| 700} 2-2
TDBGESON .....00000. of Stockton .| 1826 | 55-5 | 18-3 | Killala............ 59| 300} 5-0
President ......... Scott... ....-< 1836 | 48-5 | 19-6 | France............ 128| 650} 4-1
VAM PRIMI soc oeaseeoo|seraderetececesses 1888 | 42-2 | 19-3 | Cork ............... 45| 750|17-0
IPEYSIEN) .cc2cc00e.: Mallard...... 1834 | 47-1 | 20-4 |. Ireland............ 113} 600| 4-1
PA Der os. 226 <c0esess: Robertson...| 1822 | 47-3 | 21-9 | Somerset ......... 186} 820} 4:3
ATCO sascsc-cecoeess Duncan...... 1824 | 57-0 | 24-5 | Lewis ............ 171| 610] 3-6
Superior ............ Munson...... 1842 | 53-8 | 24-0 | Dunnet Head ...|175| 800) 5-0
HUMPONPYISO)s..0. 22 220|soseeccoroos «cere 1833 | 45-1 | 24-3 | France............ 316] 980| 3-1
NTANY iste sccccesee es Godfrey...... 1840 | 47-3 | 27-4 | Clare Island 111) 850) 7-7
RED ibts sccdeowenccur- Boot 4.322.205. 1811 | 46-8 | 27-0 | Ireland............ 830| 860| 2-7
stomulus..........-. Crawford ...| 1819 | 57.8 | 30-7 | Shetland ......... 110}1000| 9-1
IBUTIGTL cegnpedeondaBe Butman ...| 1834 | 47-3 | 33-6 | Scilly ............ 179|1150| 6-4
Sandwich ......... Squire ...... 1821 | 50-3 | 36-4 | Hebrides ......... 184|1100| 6-3
J. Cropper ......... Marshall ...| 1824 | 48-3 | 38-1 | Mounts Bay ...|398/1230| 2-4
PCIM CMs ce sc ccscock=| "= sence icocneseses 1811 50-7 | 40-3 | Kerry ...... sae 274/11380| 4-5
British Queen ...| Hamilton ...| 1838 | 43-9 | 44-5 | Newport ......... 66 | 1700 | 25-7
Royal Union ...... Grant ...... 1822 | 48-2 | 45-2 | Scilly .........00. 75 | 1450| 19-9
Elizabeth ......... Vida tthe. toe 1819 47-0 | 49-2 | Rathlin Isle...... 8311/1600] 5-0
UIGHEEMN cociedacecess|pes scaie oder deoase 1834 | 45-0 | 50-0 | Land’s End...... 215|1760| 8-2
Alexander ......... Parry. sc.cse2. 1818 | 59-1; 52-3 | Staffa ............ 487| 2400} 55
Alexander ......... PAPEY cre cscare 1818 | 62-0] 54-0 } Donegal ......... 416 | 2600} 6-2
Neweastle ......... Napier ...... 1819 | 38.9] 64-0 } Ireland............ 356 | 2700) 7-3
J. Hsdaile ......... Kang. cccssces 1821 36-9 | 71-8 | Lancashire ...... 495|3000/| 7-0
R. de Holland ...}| Groeneld ...} 1850 | 46-0 | 20-5 | Glandore ......... 345| 680] 2-0
DOSSY se0ecscee conse COOK: con..5- 1846 | 50-6 | 20-5 | Brest ............ 59| 480} 8-0
“cocenbegenonnoecuauacee Johnstone...) 1847 | 47-3 | 21-7 | Brest ... .| 206| 700} 3-5
TST Genecnceacceeee Adey: «..::55.: 1842 | 50-0 | 26-0 | Ireland............ 138} 600| 4-6
Normandie......... Spalding ...| 1844 | 57-1] 33-2 | Norway ......... 228| 1400} 6-1
Graham ....0....... Beach ...... 1847 | 51-1] 45-5 | Barnstaple ...... 233} 1560| 6-7

>

These bottles, taken from Captain Becher’s list in the ‘‘ Nautical Maga-
zine,” 1853, have been selected from those which have made the ordinary
drift. The chart which shows their direction points most clearly to the
Eastward and North-Eastward drift, although the average rate is not high,
being for the above 6°6 miles per day, probably below their actual rate.

424 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

Some more recent examples may also be given, and reference should also be
made to the Drift diagram, page 297.

A bottle dropped from the steamer Sardinian, October 31st, 1889, in lat.
56° 6’ N., long. 17° 24’ W., was picked up in February, 1890, in lat. 69° 28’ N.,
long. 18° E., on the coast of Norway, having drifted about 1,250 miles es
N.E. by N.3N.

_ A bottle dropped from the steamer Saturnina, June 27th, 1889, in lat. 50° 15’ N.,
long. 84° 17’ W., was picked up on the beach near Carnsore Point (Ireland), on
February 13th, 1890, having drifted about 1,080 miles to E. 3 8.

On September 1st, 1887, a bottle paper was set adrift off Hull, Massachusetts,
and was picked up on the beach near San Fernando, Cadiz, February 28th, 1892.
The great circle distance from port to port is 2,975 miles, but its probable drift
was nearer 4,000 miles, even if it had not made the circuit of the Atlantic.

Another good example of this drift is shown by the track of the schooner
W. L. White, lumber laden, which was abandoned Eastward of Delaware Bay,
March 13th, 1888, and ultimately drifted right across the Atlantic, and went ashore
on Haskeir Island, one of the Hebrides, January 23rd, 1889. The most remark-
able feature is the zigzag track she followed in mid-ocean, between lat. 44° and
51° N., long. 33° and 44° W., from the beginning of May till the end of October.
Previous to this time she followed a course about E.N.E., at an average rate of
about 82 miles a day, and subsequently she moved East and N.E., 1,260 miles in
84 days, an average of 15 miles a day; but during the long interval of six months
she remained within this comparatively small area, drifted back and forth by the
Gulf Stream and the Labrador Current, and tossed about by the varying winds, a
constant menace to navigation along the greatest highway of ocean commerce in
the world. During these six months alone she was reported by 36 vessels, three
of which sighted her in a single day. In her cruize of 10 months and 10 days she
traversed a distance of more than 5,000 miles, was reported 45 times, and how
many more vessels passed dangerously near her at night and in thick weather it
is impossible even to estimate.

The schooner Zwenty-one Friends, found abandoned, March 24th, 1885, about
160 miles Eastward of Chesapeake Bay, was drifted to lat. 51° 30’ N., long.
27° 40’ W., in 43 months, or a distance of 2,130 miles to E.N.E. Thence she
drifted to the Eastward and South-Hastward towards the North coast of Spain,
and was last reported on December 4th, 1885, about 130 miles N.N.E. of Cape
Finisterre, having drifted 3,525 miles in 8 months and 10 days.

On December 8th, 1887, a gigantic raft of timber left the Bay of Fundy, in tow
of a steamer for New York. It consisted of about 27,000 baulks of timber, each
50 to 100 feet in length, bound with chains into a raft 560 feet long, 65 feet wide,
and 38 feet deep, drawing 19} feet water, and estimated to weigh 11,000 tons.
On December 18th, a Hurricane was encountered about 40 miles §.8.W. from
Nantucket South Shoal lightvessel, and the raft got adrift. It rapidly broke up,
and the logs drifted away to the Eastward, gradually spreading over a fan-shaped
area between lat. 30° and 40° N., though many logs were reported to the North-
Westward of the Azores in May, 1888.

On June 12th, 1888,-a spruce log drifted ashore at the island of Fayal, in the
Azores. On September 4th, 1888, a vessel passed through a number of floating
logs, about 100 miles Northward of Madeira.*

® Current Floats.—In the summer of 1889, the United States Coast Survey steamer
Blake set adrift a number of floats between Cape Hatteras and George Shoals. They
consisted of a weighted staff, carrying five glass tubes, each enclosing the usual docu-
ment. Any person finding one of these at sea was requested to remove only one of
these tubes, and then set the float adrift again.

NORTH-EASTERLY SET TO WESTERN HUROPH, ETC. 425

It will be observed that the velocity of the drift varies greatly, a long
course having been performed at a mile an hour and upwards, while in other
cases its progress would be inappreciable in the navigation of a ship.

There is a very marked feature, that of the Eastward, and not North-
Eastward tendency, as might be inferred from the prevalence of the S.W.
winds.

(418.) Of this Hastward tendency of the waters on the Hastern side of
the North Atlantic Ocean there can be no doubt, and this is the great
question to be elucidated, which, from its large extent, cannot be fully dis-
cussed here. This fact is manifested by abundant proofs. Besides the
greater warmth of the water, which diminishes as we proceed Westward,
there are Tropical products, such as seeds (the beans of mimosa scandens,
cocoa-nuts, &c.), which are frequently washed ashore at the Faroe Islands,
Iceland, Norway, &c., all proving a South- Westward origin.*

(419.) The arrangement of the isothermal lines on the Ocean North of
45° or 50°, as shown by Dr. Petermann’s charts, as well as by all other
physicists, shows that a great change occurs in the static condition of the
water North of lat. 50° throughout the year. Instead of the lines of equal
temperatures running Hast and West, they have a N.H. and S.W. direc-
tion, nearly to Spitzbergen. On referring to the Wind diagrams, given at
page 171, it shows that the winds hang generally to W.S.W., or between
S.S.W. and W. by N.; and as these South-Westerly winds have the
greatest force, they have the greater effect on the climate of the countries
under their influence. But when it is known that the water is warmer
than is due to the latitude, to a depth perhaps of 500 or 700 fathoms, it is
a manifest impossibility that the Anti-Trade wind can be the transporting
agent.

In the absence, then, of any clearly assignable cause for this elevation
of the temperature, it must be considered that the whole body of the upper
strata of the ocean-water, on the Eastern side of the North Atlantic Ocean, 1s
drifting to the Northward. To assign this cause to the Gulf Stream is to
ignore the statistics of the Stream ; and it is again affirmed that this very
marked stream-current should have a distinct designation.| As the area
which is now claimed to be raised in temperature by the Gulf Stream far
exceeds 1,500,000 square miles, it follows that the quantity of water which
passes along the American coast, which can reach it, cannot cover it to a
greater depth than 6 inches per diem, and this after a period of one, two,
or perhaps three years, through the fog-banks of N.H. America, and through
the Labrador Stream.

(420.) As Dr. Petermann, by his valuable labours, has helped to throw

* General Sabine, when at Hammerfest, in 1823, saw some palm-oil barrels drift
ashore, supposed to be from a vessel wrecked at Cape Lopez, in the preceding year.

+ Dr. Petermann suggests that the term ‘‘ Gulf Stream” should be used for this
Buropean current, and that the true stream should be called the “Florida Stream.”
But this is reversing the argument. The real Gulf Stream has been thus known from
the earliest times, and the term has only been applied of late years to the European
current.

N. A. O. 55

426 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

much light on this remarkable and interesting stream, which he contends
is the extension of the true Gulf Stream, we quote his words as to its in-
fluence on N.W. Europe, &. (‘‘ Mittheilungen,” 1870, page 220, &c.).

“While the (Gulf) Stream has in January, on the 50th parallel of lati-
tude, still a temperature of 54:5°, the thermometer shows at the same time,
at Prague or at Ratibor (in Silesia), on the same parallel of latitude, tem-
peratures of —24°, and still lower ones. (As before remarked, there can
be no comparison between land and ocean temperatures. The immense
differences of radiation and evaporation, or deposition, between the two
conditions, render them quite incongruous. There is no better evidence of
this than in the climate about the North Cape. While the sea around it in
January has a temperature of 36°, that of the land is sometimes —24°
and —26° below zero, a difference of more than 60° of temperature, and
this is clearly owing to the direction of the wind, which, as Mr. Buchan
shows, prevails from the §8.8.H.*). The isothermal line of 54°5° (10° R.)
runs up in July toward Iceland and the Feroe Islands to the 61st degree
of latitude. There it meets, for the second time, the Polar Stream, which
on the East coast of Iceland again threatens to block up its way and to
destroy it.

‘The summer observations of temperature collected by Admiral Irminger,
of the Danish Royal Navy, have thrown greatlight on the important ques-
tion of this warm-water extension. His conclusions are based on the ob-
servations he zealously collected from the voyages of the Danish vessels
navigating in the summer season between Denmark, the Orkneys, and
Greenland.+

‘“‘ As already noticed, an arm of the Gulf Stream proceeds towards the
North along the West coast of Iceland, and this arm extends to the East
along the entire North coast, and does not meet the Polar Stream until it
has reached the N.E. end of theisland. Only for the months of May, June,
July, and August, figures are found in Irminger’s collection off the North
coast of Iceland, all of which show a higher temperature than those off the
East coast. In July, temperatures were observed on the North coast, of
45:0°, 47:1°, and 49-3° (Lord Dufferin, 46-0°), while off the East coast, for
6° of longitude, none higher than from 40° to 42°6° were found.

* There could be no better evidence of the fallacy of comparing a Jand climate with
that influenced by the sea surface than this above quoted. The direction of this §.S.E.
wind, passing over some of the coldest plains in Europe, and probably also from great
distances, has thus lowered its temperature to this extreme degree. AS.W. wind, on
the contrary, brings, as may be readily inferred, the warmer influences of the surface
it passes over. Therefore the ocean temperature, on the Western side of the Atlantic,
has no manner of relation to the temperature of places many hundreds of miles inland,
on its Eastern side, although in the same latitude.

+ Dr. George Forchhammer, Professor at the Copenhagen University, gave a very
valuable paper ‘‘On the Composition of Sea-water in different parts of the Ocean,”
which appears in the “ Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society,” 1865, page
203, et seg. By his extended researches, he has shown the origin of various branches
of the Ocean circulation. As regards that flowing around Cape Farewell from the East-
ward, he says, from its great salinity, 35-278 per 1,000, that it is very probably the re-
turning Gulf Stream. At all events, it is xo polar current, which will be easily seen on
comparing it with the Baffin’s Bay current, with a salinity of 33:281, or with the water
North of Spitzbergen, 33-623.

NORTH-EASTERLY SET TO WESTERN EUROPE, ETC. 427

‘Between Iceland and the Feroe Islands the Gulf and Polar Streams
are contending against each other, and the result of this struggle is a sea
divided into a great number of hot and cold bands, which fact was demon-
strated clearly by Lord Dufferin’s cruize from Stornoway to Reikiavik, in
1856, and fully corroborated by Dr. Wallich, in the Bulldog expedition of
1860. The chart accompanying Dr. Wallich’s memoir, has a very good
representation of these currents.

“The fact that the two streams, in their contest, appear as many bands
and strata, alongside, over, and beneath each other, is proved not only by
the observations of the temperature on the surface of the sea by Admiral
Irminger and Lord Dufferin, but also by the researches of Dr. Wallich in
regard to the nature of the bottom of the sea. The latter found there
some volcanic stones pointing as their origin to Jan-Mayen, and at other
places ophiocome of 2 to 5 inches in length, which could have been carried
there only by the warm Gulf Stream. Another argument is that the drift
ice penetrates here farther to the South than anywhere else East of Iceland.
Scoresby, for instance, in 1822, observed great masses of heavy ice in lat.
64° 30’ N., long. 7° 0' W., and detached pieces even as far South as lat.
63° 40’ N., long. 8° W., and as far East as long. 3° W., in lat. 66° 49’ N.
Even still farther Southward ice was seen by Sir James Clark Ross, ir
lat. 61° 0’ N., long. 6° 0’ W., which is 8.E. of the Feroe Islands.

‘In the same manner the temperature of the sea at the Feroe Islands,
even down to the Shetland and Orkney Islands, appears depressed in com-
parison with that of the West coast of Iceland. The isothermal lines show
from Jan-Mayen, a remarkable concavity as far as the North Sea, which
can be caused only by the cooling influence of the Polar Stream. Reikiavik
and Stykkisholmr (lat. 65° 4’ N.) have, in July, a temperature of the sea
of 52:9° and 50°, while at Thorshavn, in 62° 2’ N., it is only 48:9°. At
times the temperature of the air also is, in consequence of this cooling in-
fluence, depressed from the Shetland Islands to the German coast.

“The mild weather of the British Isles is well known. The mean tem-
perature for January at London is 37:4°; at Edinburgh the same; at Dublin
40°5°. The farther we go from Hast to West or from South to North, or,
in other words, the nearer to the Gulf Stream, the higher we find the tem-
perature. At Unst, on one of the Shetland Islands, 560 miles North of
London, the mean temperature of the air for January is 40°3°, and that of
the sea even 45°5° (Hast Yell).

‘A drift current, therefore, is out of the question, else the temperature
of the air would be higher than that of the sea. Clearly, the warm current
of the sea is tempering the air, and not vice versa. The lowest temperature
observed in London is only —5° below zero; at Penzance, on the West
coast, +24:1°; at Sandwick, on the Orkney Islands, +15-°8°; and at
Bressay, on the Shetlands, +14-9°. At Madrid, +13-3° has been observed,
and 27-5° even at Algiers, which provides Europe with the cauliflower in
winter. ;

‘While on the Western side of the North Atlantic Ocean the Polar Ice
reaches down to lat. 36° N. (the parallel of Gibraltar and Malta), and the
name of Labrador is sufficient to characterize the climatic qualities of all
the land between 50° and 60° N., there extends on the East side of the

428 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

Ocean, along the Norwegian coast, cultivated land up to 71° N., the
Northernmost land of the world in which, under the influence of the Gulf
Stream, agriculture is the main occupation of the inhabitants. Wheat is
grown up to Inderéen, in lat. 64° N.; barley up to Alten, in 70° N., where
sowing generally is done between the 20th and 25th of June, yielding in
the short space of eight weeks, to the 20th or 30th of August, on the
average six or seven fold; the potato yields, at the same place, on the
average, seven or eight fold—in favourable seasons, even twelve to fifteen
fold; it thrives on the coast as far to the Hast as Vads6, on the Russian
boundary line. At Alten (70° N.) relishable cauliflower is raised even
in less favourable summers.”

(421.) On the vexed question of the influence of the sea on the Climate
of the British Isles much cannot be said here. In an essay, by Mr. Nicholas
Whitley, C.E.,* he arrives at this conclusion respecting it:—‘‘ Our 8.W.
wind has its birthplace where the temperature of the sea is at least 55°
in January, causing the thermometer on the Cornish coast, under its in-
fluence, to stand steadily at 52°, and the great warmth of the past winter
resulted from the continued persistency of this wind rather than from any
excess of heat inthe sea.

“The S.W. wind gives to Penzance a mean winter temperature of 44°,
being the same as that of Montpellier; Cork falls short of it by only half a
degree; and the mean temperature of the Scilly Isles at this season exceeds
that of this noted winter resort by 24°.”

In a farther examination of the log-books of the Cunard steamers, sail-
ing between Liverpool and New York, for a period of five years, which
results have been carefully tabulated, he says, ‘‘ The extent and greatest
intensity of the Arctic Current is sharply shown by the thermometer in
every voyage. The cold water on the Banks of Newfoundland reaches its
mean monthly minimum of 30° in January, and its mean maximum of 52°
in September, and its width is fully 400 British miles.

‘On the Eastern side of the cold current, and in close proximity to it,
there is a bed of very warm water, having a mean temperature in January
of 57°, being 27° warmer than that on the Banks, over a width of about
200 miles. This appears to be a strong eddy of the Gulf Stream, curving
Northward, and holding the Arctic Current in its warm embrace.

‘‘ From this part of the sea to near the Irish coast the warmth is more
equally distributed through the water, and the thermometer does not
detect any well-defined branch of the Gulf Stream flowing to the N.E.
There is, however, a decided rise in the temperature about the middle of
the North Atlantic Ocean, amounting to from 4° to 6° above that of the
sea at Scilly, and the figures on the chart appear to indicate that it lies in
a S.W. and N.E. direction. It is most probably the drift of the Gulf
Stream driven to the N.E. by the prevailing S.W. wind.

‘‘The means represented in the Table show that Hast of the cold water
of the Newfoundland Banks (the Polar Stream, which has there a width
of 400 miles, and a temperature in January of 30°, and in September of 52°),
there is a warm bed of water, 200 miles in width, with a temperature of

* See Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, vol. xiii., 1869, page 229, et seq.

NORTH-EASTERLY SET TO WESTERN EUROPE, ETC. 429

57° in January and 61° in August. Between this bed and the Irish coast
the temperature is more uniform ; there is, however, in the middle of this
distance, in about longitude 25° West of Greenwich, a belt of water of a
decidedly higher temperature.”

(422.) What has just been quoted refers to the S.W. coasts; carrying
the views farther Northward, there is a very important meteorological
paper of Mr. Alexander Buchan, Secretary to the Meteorological Society,
‘On the Temperature of the Sea on the Coast of Scotland,” based on ob-
servations carefully collected from numerous stations, between January,
1856, and 1865, and the one great fact elicited is given as follows:—

The great excess of the temperature of the sea over that of the air in the
North is perhaps the most remarkable fact in the meteorology of Scotland.
It is a difference, moreover, as the following Table will show, which may
be considered constant from year to year :—

1857 | 1858 | 1859 | 1860 | 1861 | 1862 | 1863 | 1864

Mean annual temperature of the sea at

AIG Wi CKarsceenctecsioasiseciererececssstescecdese 49-5 | 49-4 | 49-4 47-5 | 48-6} 48-6 | 48-8 | 48-1
Mean annual temperature of the air at

Spi lin| © lduarerecsetecwancisseerancsnsiseieiece 47-5 | 46-0 | 45-7 | 44-1 | 46-3 | 45-8 | 46-4 | 45-5
Mean annual difference...........sssessee- 2:0| 3-4| 3-7| 3-4] 2-3] 2-8] 2-4] 2.6

This Table teaches, if examined closely, the slowness with which changes
in temperature of the air are completely propagated through the waters of
the Ocean, in those Northern parts where the power of the sun’s rays is
greatly diminished.

When the tendency of the temperature of the sea to follow that of the
air is considered, it can scarcely admit of a doubt that, if the waters of the
sea were stationary round Orkney from year to year, their temperature
would ultimately fall to that of the air, or at least to within about half a
degree of it. But this is not the case; there is some influence at work
keeping the temperature of the sea 3° above that of the incumbent air.
The enormous amount of heat sufficient to maintain the whole waters of
the sea in the North from 2° to 3° above the air, must be brought from
warmer latitudes by currents of some sort or other. Since, then, a sea
current from the South must be conceded, what is the agent employed?

(423.) Hitherto we have referred but very slightly to the movements or
temperature of the lower strata of the Ocean waters, but this very wide
question has a most important bearing on our present subject. The very
important investigations which were carried on in H.M. Ships Lightning
and Porcupine, under the superintendence of Dr. Carpenter and Mr. Gwyn
Jefferys, will be adverted to in a special section at the end of this book;
but, as connected with this portion of our subject, it may be stated that
the voyage of the Porcupine, in 1869, demonstrated that there was a
stream of warmer water, 900 fathoms deep, between Iceland and Spain,
and equally as much near Rockall Bank. Between the latter and the
Feroe Islands it reaches to the bottom, or a depth of 767 fathoms, and at
this the temperature is 41°5°.

430 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

These last facts are conclusive as to this movement of warmer water
not being the Gulf Stream. By what possible reasoning can it be inferred
that this can be the Gulf Stream, as it is nearly five times as deep, and
hundreds of miles broader than that stream is at its origin; and, as it has
been before shown, it receives no “tributaries.” We, therefore, repeat
the assertion that this great Ocean current has a distinct origin, and
should have a special designation.

We cannot pursue the question farther: it must be sought for in the
numerous works bearing more especially on this subject, many of which
have been referred to.

A subsequent Chapter, on the Depth, Temperature, &c., of the Ocean,
may be referred to in connection with the surface and deep-sea tempera-
tures of this great current.

In concluding this brief account of the most remarkable feature in
Ocean physics, we can only express the hope that the combined observa-
tions of the recent investigations will place this science of Rheology, as it
may be termed, on as firm a basis as its cognate branches.

10.—THE ARCTIC OR LABRADOR CURRENT.

(424.) The last section treated of the warmer Tropical waters which
passed into the Northern regions, carrying with them their ameliorating
influence on the Arctic climate. The present deals with the same waters
as they emerge at a minimum temperature from these frozen regions,
and bring their ice and cold into the grand system of Ocean circulation
and compensation.

(425.) Iceland, &c.—In 1879, Lieutenant C. I’. Wandel, of the Danish
Royal Navy, published a pamphlet* dealing with his experiences during
three years steam navigation around the coasts of Iceland, from which
the following remarks are taken.

Near the coasts of Iceland the Currents are influenced by the tidal
streams, which revolve round the island, the flood moving with the sun
and the ebb against it, though the currents somewhat overcome the
strength of the ebb, and the island is thus encircled by a constant current
running with the sun. The investigations recently made by the officers of
the Danish steamer Fylla, have added much to our knowledge of these
seas. It is found that in the offing a constant comparatively warm
current runs Westward and Southward respectively off the North and
West coasts of Iceland, being bounded by the cold Polar Current which
runs down the East coasts of Greenland and Iceland; the latter branch
appears to continue along the South coast, and loses itself in Faxe Bay.
At 74 miles due North of North Cape the cold current was found to reach
from the surface to the bottom.

(426.) In Denmark Sound, between Iceland and Greenland, currents
of distinctly different natures are found. The warm Irminger Current
washes the Western and Northern shores of Iceland, but the cold Polar

* «Bemirkninger til Beseiligen af Islands Kyster,” Copenhagen, 1879. See also
Thoroddsen’s “Den Groénlindska Drifisen vid Island.”

THE ARCTIC OR LABRADOR CURRENT. 431.

Current of East Greenland is more difficult to define on account of the ice.
Captain Mourier, who examined the latter current in 1879, in the Danish
vessel Ingolf, always found a comparatively high temperature at the
bottom, and the Nordenskiéld expedition of 1883 found the same, demon-
strating that this cold current, between lat. 66° N. and Cape Farewell,
flows on a bed of warm water proceeding poleward, the surface water
being of less density than that of the warm. Its depth was found to
extend to about half the depth of the sea in the places examined.*

(427.) The limit of the N.E. Drift about Iceland has been mentioned
previously (420). To the West of this, then, we may place the great drift
which comes down from beyond Spitzbergen, and transports the immense
quantities of ice upon the Eastern shores of Greenland, which has
generally rendered this, one of the most inclement regions of the world,
unapproachable by ships. Several instances of this drift could be recited,
but as it is not interesting to navigation, they need not be dilated on,
though the Ice this current brings into the low latitudes is an important
consideration in the navigation of the North Atlantic Ocean. This branch
of the Arctic Drift, however, does not probably furnish many of those
gigantic Icebergs, which, drifting down Davis Straits, float over and Hast-
ward of the Newfoundland Banks, and far into the Northern margin of
the Gulf Stream.

The estimated rate of this drift from Spitzbergen, calculated from the
rate of vessels in the pack-ice, is from 8 to 14 miles per day.t

(428.) It was formerly considered that this S.W. stream, after passing
Cape Farewell, the South point of Greenland, made direct for the coast of
Labrador, and thence over the Newfoundland Banks. But Commodore
Irminger, of the Danish Royal Navy, has demonstrated that it does not do
so, but that it passes around Cape Farewell to the Westward, and thence
passes Northward in a narrow stream along the shores of West Greenland,
and is known as the West Greenland Current. It is considered that a
branch of the Gulf Stream flows towards Davis Sound. This would
strike the East Greenland Polar Current off Cape Farewell, carrying the
ice brought by the latter to the Westward and Northward, its tempera-
ture and density thus becoming reduced as it proceeds Northward.

“Tf the current existed, which some writers state to run in a direct line
from East Greenland to the Banks of Newfoundland, then the ice would
likewise be carried with that current from East Greenland; if it were a
submarine current, the deeply immersed icebergs would be transported by
it; if it were only a surface current, the immense extent of field-ice would
indicate its course, and vessels would consequently cross these ice-drifts
at whatever distance they passed to the Southward of Cape Farewell. But
this is not the case; experience has taught that vessels coming from the
Eastward, steering their course about 2° (120 nautic miles) to the

* A more detailed account of the observations of the Nordenskidld Expedition vf
1883, will be found in the “Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society,’’ October,
1884, pages 569—578.

+ See A. G. Findlay, ‘On the course of Sir John Franklin's Expedition,” in tha
Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, vol. xxvi., 1856, page 33.

432 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS

Southward of Cape Farewell,* seldom or never fall in with ice before they
have rounded Cape Farewell and got into Davis Strait, which 1s a certain
proof that there does not exist even a branch of the Arctic Current run
ning directly from East Greenland towards the Banks of Newfoundland.’’t

The limits of this Spitzbergen Current, as it may be termed, are there-
fore indicated by the distance to which the ice it transports is found to
extend, and from the examples cited may be taken, as above, to a
distance of 120 miles South of Cape Farewell, and to 150 miles off the
Danish settlements of S.W. Greenland.

(429.) In the space of Ocean between the Southern limits of this current
and the known South-Hasterly drift down the Labrador Coast, an
anomalous condition seems to exist ; we have no notice of the set of the
streams, if any, within it, but its characteristic seems to be the drift-wooa
within its area. These floating relics have evidently a Southern origin, and
point also to the truth of the statement that a warm current sets toward
and past Iceland.

‘« Another proof that the current from East Greenland does not run in
a straight line towards the Banks of Newfoundland, is also derived from
the observations of the temperature of the surface made on many voyages
to and from Greenland.

“‘ Supposing that the Arctic Current from Hast Greenland pursued its
course in a straight line towards the Banks of Newfoundland, it would be
crossed, on the voyage from Copenhagen to the Danish colonies in Green-
land, between 38° and 45° W., and so high a temperature in the surface of
the Ocean as from 4° to 6° R. (41° to 455° Fahrenheit), as is found only
on this route, would, according to my opinion, be impossible only 1° or 2° to
the Southward of the parallel of Cape Farewell; as it is a well-known fact,
that the principal Ocean currents maintain their temperatures through
very considerable distances of their courses.

‘‘ This comparatively high temperature of the surface of the Ocean, so
near to the limits of that current which carries enormous masses of ice
from the Ocean near Spitzbergen round Cape Farewell, warrants my
opinion that the waters of the North Atlantic Ocean, move in a North-
Westerly or Northerly direction, towards the Eastern and Southern coasts
of Greenland, and that this indraught towards the land is undoubtedly
the cause of the ice being so closely pressed on to these coasts as it is so
frequently on the South coast, and almost constantly on the Hast coast,
rendering the Eastern coast entirely inaccessible from seaward.

* An observation which it is interesting to mention here, and which gives a proof of
the very little difference between the temperature of the surface and that at some depth,
is mentioned in the voyage of Captain Graah, page 21. He says, ‘‘ The 5th of May, 1828,
in lat. 57° 35’ N., and 36° 86’ W., the temperature of the surface was found 6-3° R,
(46-2° Fahrenheit), and at a depth of 660 feet 5-5° R. (44-5° F.).”’ This proves that there
is no cold submarine current in the place alluded to, to the 8.E. of Cape Farewell. A
still more conclusive experiment was recorded by Sir Edward Parry, in the account of
his first voyage, June 23, 1819; in lat. 67° 51’ N., long. 41° 5’, with a very slight Southerly
current, the suface temperature was 404° Fahrenheit; and at 235 fathoms 39°, a dif-
ference of only 14°.

+ ‘‘ Journal of the Royal Geographical Society,’ vol. xxvi., pp. 40, 41.

THE ARCTIC OR LABRADOR CURRENT. 432

‘« From the foregoing it seems to me to be demonstrated that the current
from the Ocean around Spitzbergen, which carries such considerable mass*s
of ice, after it has passed along the East coast of Greenland, turns West-
ward and Northward round Cape Farewell, without detaching any branch
to the South-Westward directly towards the Banks of Newfoundland. *

‘This current afterwards runs Northward along the S.W. coast of
Greenland until about lat. 64° N., and at times even up to Holsteinborg,
which is in about 67° N.”t—Admiral Irminger.

(430.) This current, then, after drifting over the Northern Atlantic
Ocean, passes up the Eastern shore of Davis Strait to and beyond the
entrance of Baffin’s Bay, between Cape Walsingham and Holsteinborg.
It here encounters the Southern set which passes down Baffin’s Bay,
especially on its Western side, transporting those immense icebergs which
are annually launched from the glaciers of West Greenland and other
parts, as described by Dr. Rink. This current, which enters Baffin’s Bay,
especially by Lancaster Sound, is the grand outlet of the waters which
runs from West to Hast through the Labyrinthine Archipelago, once the
scene of the exciting search for the expedition of Sir John Franklin, and
is unquestionably the continuation of that drift past Spitzbergen, described
previously (419.)t

* Graah says in his Narrative (page 23, Hinglish translation):—‘In the mouth of
Davis Strait I found the temperature of the surface of the Ocean from 4° to 3-1°R.
(41° to 39° Fahrenheit), though we were in the proximity of the ice. From this I con-
cluded that a current from the South predominated here, because I never before in the
vicinity of ice had found the temperature of the water exceeding 1-8° R. (36° F.), and this
conclusion was confirmed when, coming to the Northward of the ice, I found the tem-
perature of the water 1-1 R. (34-5° F.).”

+ Besides the evidence afforded by the Ice-drifts and the Temperature of the water,
as cited by the author, conclusive proof of a Northerly set is found in the drift-wuod
which has been so frequently met with around Cape Farewell and off the West coast of
Greenland. A few examples will suffice. A plank of mahogany was drifted to Disco,
and formed into a table for the Danish governor at Holsteinborg (‘‘ Quarterly Review,”
No. xxxvi). (But Admiral Sir Edward Belcher thought that this plank is not mahogany,
but black-birch, and therefore a Siberian product. If it had made such a lengthened
voyage as that from the Gulf of Mexico, it would have become worm-eaten.) Admiral
Loéwenérn picked up a worm-eaten mahogany log off the S.E. coast of Greenland. Captain
Sir Edward Parry, in his second voyage, September 24th, 1828, picked up a piece of
yellow pine quite sound, in lat. 60° 30’, long. 61° 30’ W., and on his third voyage seven
pieces of drift-wood were found in the vicinity of Cape Farewell. Again, Captain Sir
John Ross found much drift-wood around Cape Farewell, and Captain Sir George Back
saw in lat. 56° 50’, long. 36° 30’, a tree with the roots and bark on. These instances
might be multiplied; but, as before stated, it is very probable that the drift-wood comes
from the Northern coast of Asia.—Ep.

{ So confident is Dr. Fridtjof Nansen, the famous Danish Arctic Explorer, in the
origin of this current, as here described, that he has fearlessly undertaken, in the
specially constructed vessel named the Fram, to enter the ice with this current some-
where near the New Siberian Islands, and then drift with it. It is devoutly to be hoped
that this venturesome scheme, commenced in the summer of 1893, may turn out suc-
cessful. The vessel carries a crew of twelve men, with supplies and equipments for five
or six years. Fora full account of this expedition, the reader is referred to a paper by
Dr. Nansen, in the “ Geographical Journal,” January, 1893, pages 1—82, entitled
“ How can the North Polar Region be Crossed ?’

Ne Abe @ 56

434 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

It thus brings into warmer latitudes all the ice which remains from the
melting influences of the Arctic summer, and also is continually floating
Southwards that which collects in Baffin’s Bay and its inlets. Its South-
ward drift is constant, winter and summer, as demonstrated by the drift
of several vessels of the Arctic searching squadrons—as the Grinnell Ex-
pedition, Sir James Ross, H.M.S. Resolute, Sir L. M‘Clintock in the Foz,
&c. A more recent example is that of Captain Tyson and nineteen of the
crew of the U.S. vessel Polaris. On October 14th, 1871, they became
separated from their ship in lat. 77° or 78° N., South of Littleton Island,
and drifted on a floe for more than 1,500 miles, being rescued about
6 months later, on April 30th, 1872, by a sealing steamer near the Strait
of Belle Isle. They supported life by hunting and fishing.

About 10 miles per day may be taken as the drift down Baffin’s Bay,
as estimated by the author in the ‘‘Journal of the Royal Geographical
Society,’ quoted previously.

(431.) The Baftin’s Bay Current and Spitzbergen Current having united,
set with great force down the coast of Labrador, the Westward tendency
being probably owing to the earth’s rotation, which here rapidly increases
Southwardly in these parallels. It sets along the Labrador coast at rates
varying from 10 to 36 miles a day, but is very much influenced by the
winds near the coast. When navigating near the Hast coast of Newfound-
land, with HKasterly and N.E. winds (which are accompanied by thick
weather), mariners must guard against a strong indraught into the great
bays of this coast.

(432.) But the chief interest of this current to the sailor is the drift ice
and great icebergs which it floats Southward across his track, con-
stituting one of the most formidable dangers of the Transatlantic naviga-
tion. As this is the most important feature it has, it will be dilated on
more fully hereafter, as the limits within which these ice-drifts are
liable to be encountered are also the limits of the cold Arctic Current now
being discussed.

(433.) The waters of the Arctic Ocean are thus brought again into that
system of circulation which gives to sea-water a universal character (246).
In former years it was not thought that its effects extended farther than
this, and the cool 8.W. current inside the Gulf Stream was considered to
be an eddy of that great current, whose temperature was dependent on
the shallowness of the soundings, in contradistinction to the supposed
unfathomable depths of the Gulf Stream. Captain Pornton, as stated in
the earlier editions of this work, had, however, been led to conclude that
the Southward drift past Newfoundland, and the current from the Gulf of
St. Lawrence, with the eddy from the Gulf Stream, combined to form the
counter-current in question.

Its true character was first argued out by Mr. W. C. Redfield, a name
well known to science. He drew up a summary of remarks and sugges-
tions for the observers of the United States Exploring Expedition, under
Captain Wilkes, in 1838, and which was read before the American
Philosophical Society in May, 1843. From that paper we will make a
few extracts :-—

‘* From what source is that South-Westerly current derived, which

.

- THE ARCTIC OR LABRADOR CURRENT. 435
&

commonly prevails along the coast of the United States, in the direction
which is opposite to the Gulf Stream ?

‘‘ T am aware that it is usually considered by seamen as an eddy current
derived from the Gulf Stream; but from this view I am compelled to
dissent. For, in the first place, this current never assumes the gyrating
form of an eddy ; but continues its course, when unobstructed by gales, in
a direction which is generally parallel to the coast. But, secondly, in case
this current be derived from the Gulf Stream, it must necessarily partake
of the same elevated temperature ; whereas the reduction of temperature
which occurs on crossing the North-Western limit of the Gulf Stream is
most remarkable, and is almost without parallel in the Atlantic, except in
the immediate vicinity of ice.

‘“‘ Tt appears vain to allege the proximity of soundings or shallows as
explaining this extraordinary change of temperature, for this cannot avail
if the waters of the counter-current be derived from the Gulf Stream, to
say nothing of the erroneous character of the position here noticed.

‘¢ From the evidence which is afforded by numerous facts and observa-
tions, it appears that the current in question is neither more nor less than
a mere sluggish prolongation of the Polar or Labrador Current, which
sweeps along the North-Eastern shore of this continent and the Island of
Newfoundland ; and this current, if I mistake not, may be traced in its
gradations of temperature, by the thermometer, from off the Southern
coasts of Newfoundland and Nova Scotia, through the entire distance, to
Cape Hatteras, if not to Florida.

‘¢ An eddy current, off-setting to the Gulf Stream, would nowhere be so
likely to be met with as at the point of intersection of this Stream with
the extremity of the Grand Bank of Newfoundland, and sweeping from
thence upon the Southern shores of the island of that name; and yet the
harbour of St. John’s, in the Southern part of Newfoundland, is known to
have continued ice-bound, in 1831, so late as the month of June, although
in the latitude of Paris. This fact is a convincing proof of the unimpeded
continuation of the Polar Current to the Southward, in this region, not-
withstanding the near proximity of the Gulf Stream.”

H.M.S. Challenger proved the correctness of this theory. In May, 1873,
when 210 miles §.S.E. from Sandy Hook, proceeding to the Northward,
Sir Wyville Thomson says,* ‘‘ Although on the surface the influence of
the Gulf Stream was still felt to a certain extent, the contrast between the
observations of this day and the day before was most marked. We had
crossed the ‘Cold Wall,’ and the temperatures registered were almost
purely those of the Labrador return current. . . . The collection as
a whole had a decidedly Arctic character and recalled some of our
dredgings on the coast of Northern Europe, although it seemed that few
of the forms were absolutely identical.” The temperature soundings
(p. 416) will give an idea of the way in which the cold water underlies the
warm in this region.

(434.) The Velocity of the Arctic Current, over the Banks and to the
Southward of Newfoundland, is very variable, but at times is great. We can

SSeS

* “ Voyage of the Challenger,’’ vol. i., page 375.

436 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

rather argue from its effects than from direct observation ; for one result
of this influx of warm water into a cold region is the production of dense
Fogs so peculiarly characteristic of the Banks. ‘‘ Bank Weather” is not
favourable to astronomic observations, and hence the paucity of them, and
the difficulty of forming accurate estimates.

(435.) Upon a survey of the Virgin Rocks, in July, 1829, the Current at
about 80 miles E. by S. from Cape Race was found setting over them to
the W.S.W., at the rate of a mite an hour. During the survey of these
banks, in July and August, 1879, by the officers of H.M.S. Gulnare, little
current was experienced, a slight set to the Southward only being percep-
tible, except in the immediate neighbourhood of Virgin Rocks and Eastern
Shoals. Round these the fishermen report a regular tide, running to the
Westward in the morning, and changing gradually to the Northward and
Eastward in the afternoon. From the observations made, no law could be
deduced, but the fact was established that a tidal stream attains there a
velocity of three-quarters of a knot an hour, when there is no sensible
stream a few miles away.

To different currents must be attributed the loss of the sloop Comus,
the transport Harpooner, H.M.S. Drake, and the brig Spence, all of which
were lost, at different times, upon one spot, the little bay called St. Shot's
Bay, on the South coast of Newfoundland, and lying between Cape Freels
and St. Mary’s Bay. The Comus was from the West, and was lost in the
night of October 24th, 1816, after having sounded, as supposed, on the
inner edge of Green Bank. The Harpooner, a transport with troops, was
from Quebec, and bound for London; she struck at 9 p.m., November
10th, 1816. The Drake sailed from Halifax for St. John’s, June 20th,
1822, under very favourable circumstances, upon a direct course for Cape
Race; but on the 23rd the weather became thick, and at noon she was
supposed to be 90 miles from Cape Race, but at 7" 30™ p.m. breakers were
reported ahead, and the ship was soon after a total wreck. The Spence
was from Richibucto, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, with lumber, bound to
Liverpool, and was totally lost at St. Shot’s, at 4" p.m., July 16th, 1822.
Another vessel, the George Canning, from Chaleur Bay to Aberdeen, was
wrecked here, during a dense fog, on June 17th, 1829.

The five vessels, it may be seen, were all from the Westward, and all, it
may be presumed, were set to the Northward as well as to the Westward,
of the situations which they were supposed to occupy, and the route which
each intended to pursue. This can be accounted for only by the supposi-
tion of currents winding round the coast, opposing each other, and oper.
ating as above explained ; for it seems clear that the Westerly current from
the Grand Bank so opposes the Easterly one as to limit its operation Hast-
ward, and give it a Northern inflection ; thus producing the indraught into
the Southern bays of the island.

It appears that the South-Westerly current, over the Grand Bank, sets
over the whole of the Northern part of that bank. In a summer voyage,
on September 30th, 1826, in lat. 46° 24’, Lieutenant Hare sounded on the
outer edge of the Bank, with thick blowing weather from 8.W.; and, on
the next day, in 45° 56’ N., 48° 6’ W., had no bottom at 120 fathoms, with
a very heavy swell from W.S.W., although he found that a current had

THE ARCTIC OR LABRADOR CURRENT. 437

carried him S. 67° W., 34 miles. Thus appeared, in close conjunction, a
South-Westerly current, with another from W.S.W., where the edges of
the two entered into collision with each other.

(436.) In August, 1885, Captain Lugar, of the cable-steamer Mackay
Bennett, states that the current was found running 8.9.E., at the rate of
three-quarters of a mile an hour, when about 45 miles Eastward of the
Flemish Cap, or in lat. 47° 30’ N., long. 44° 4" W. At 60 miles farther
Eastward, in lat. 48° 0’, long. 42° 35’, the current set about N.N.E., 14 to
24 miles per hour.

On August 9th, 1885, the cable-ship Minia, when in lat. 48° 2’, long.
42° 24', found the current setting South-Westward, 1 knot per hour ; then
the surface temperature suddenly rose 11°, and the current turned to N.E.,
2 knots per hour. Captain Trott, of the Minia, in December, 1884, found
the cold current setting strongly along the Southern edge of the Grand
Bank. In lat. 43° 10’ N., long. 49° 30’ W., it was observed setting
S.W., 2°3 miles per hour, but during the same period no current was found
on the bank itself. Hastward of long. 48° 45’ W., a set to the Eastward
and N.H. was observed ; the change in direction being clearly indicated by
a rise in the temperature of the water from 36° to 41° F.

The same vessel, when off the S.E. part of the Grand Bank, between
lat. 43° N. and 44° N., and long. 48° and 494° W., during July and August,
1885, found the currents very irregular in direction and strength; but
generally to the South-Westward in December, from 1 to 3 knots. Fairly
regular tides were experienced on the edge of the bank during fine weather,
and sometimes slight currents from all points of the compass.

(437.) A branch of the Labrador Current usually sets into the Strait of
Belle Isle, between the island and the coast of Labrador, transporting
immense quantities of Ice in some years into the Gulf of St. Lawrence, if
the bergs are not too large to be intercepted by the moderate depth of the
strait, although this feature varies very much indeed in different years.
This Current has been observed to run 2 miles an hour with the wind from
N.E., while at other times it is almost insensible, and it is stated some-
times to run in the opposite direction, especially during the ebb tides with
§.W. winds. After it enters the Gulf, it runs 39 or 40 miles farther, when
it becomes dispersed and merged into the general streams.

The current which sets out of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, between New-
foundland and Cape Breton Island, also adds its effect to the main branch
of the Labrador Current setting to the S.W. It is composed of the stream
of fresh water which constantly sets down the river, and the branch of the
Labrador Current passing through the Strait of Belle Isle. This outset is
very frequently of some considerable strength, especially with Westerly
winds or in calm weather. But its strength is reduced, or it is even re-
tarded altogether, with opposing winds, which have a powerful effect on it
at all times.

Both these currents are modified by the Tides, but in a way directly
contrary ; for, while the Strait of Belle Isle current is quickened by the
flood, and retarded by the ebb, the other is increased by the ebb, and
checked by the flood which enters the Gulf from the Southward. The tidal
hour is therefore important in estimating the probable set of these currents,

438 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

which, however, it may be said to be exceedingly difficult at all times to
estimate and allow for correctly.

(438.) Along the S.H. Coast of Nova Scotia the currents are irregular,
and are said to be one of the principal causes of the frequent wrecks on
Sable Island. These currents are rendered inconstant and irregular, both
in strength and direction, by local and distant winds; but the general
tendency is well known to be to the Westward and South-Westward, at
an average rate of about 12 miles a day, for vessels find no difficulty in
working to windward in that direction, anywhere to the Northward of the
Gulf Stream ; and hence it is that many of the vessels wrecked on Sable
Island were supposed to have been well to the Eastward of its position
when they ran on shore.

Sable Island has been famous for its wrecks, which greater knowledge
and consequent caution have rendered less frequent. Its position and
formation are remarkable, as it lies apparently in the strength of the Arctic
Current. Its dangerous character is greatly increased by the prevalent
Fogs, which are dense and very constant. As is well known, it is a mere
sandbank, about 21 miles in extent, East and West, consisting of two
parallel ridges of sand blown above the sea-level, enclosing a shallow
lagoon, and forming a curve convex to the Southward, showing the direc-
tion of its principal growth. From each end extend long ‘‘bars”’ or
shoals, that to the West for 21 miles, and that to the Hast 17 miles, the
whole extending over an area of 53 miles, H.S.E. and W.N.W., within
the 10-fathoms line. The Westerly winds and current, tending in the
same direction, are constantly wearing away the West end, and adding to
the East, by drifting the sand of which it is formed, and that which it
it brings, to leeward. Of the lighthouses established on it since 1880, two
have been washed away, and in 1890 the third was being rapidly under-
mined by the waves ; their present positions are given in the Light Book.

The wrecks have usually occurred from the effects of the S.W. current
which we are now considering, and which, though irregular in its action,
has usually some effect on a ship’s course; added to this, as previously
shown (408), the Gulf Stream is here found with much diminished force,
and consequently there are some anomalies in the immediate neighbour-
hood of Sable Island. The best account we have of the streams is that
given by Mr. Darby, who was superintendent of the establishment here.

Mr. Darby has said, ‘‘ On the South side of Sable Island, the current,
in shoal water, with prevailing South and 8.W. winds, sets rapidly East-
ward until it reaches the end of the N.E. bar. It then unites and blends
with the St. Lawrence Stream, which passes the bar in a §8.S.W. direction,
and runs strongest in April, May, and June. I have sufficient reason for
believing that the Gulf Stream, on the parallel of 42° 30’, running E.N.E.,
occasions the St. Lawrence Stream, then running 8.8.W., to glide to West-
ward. The strength of this stream has never been noticed, and three-
fourths of the vessels lost on Sable Island have been supposed to be to the
Eastward of the island, when, in fact, they were in the longitude of it.

“ Kasterly, Southerly, and 8.8.W. winds set a rapid current along shore
in shoal water, to W.N.W. and N.W.; that is, along the shore of the
Western end of the island, but not the Eastern nor middle, as there the

THE ARCTIC OR LABRADOR CURRENT. 439

current, with Southerly and S.W. winds, sets to the Eastward. The natural
tendency of the flood-tide is toward the coast. When it strikes the island
it flows to the Eastward, over the N.E. Bank, and to the Westward, over
the N.W. Bank, and passes the West end in a N.W. direction, so rapidly
that it carries the sand with it; and the hills of the West end, being high
and narrow, they are undermined at their base by it, and tumble down
some thousands of tons of sand at a time. This the current beneath
catches, and sweeps away to the N.W., increasing the bank. So soon as
the current passes the extreme point of the dry bar, it tends more across
the bank to the N.E.; the motion of the sea contributing to keep the sand
in motion, the current carries it to the N.E., and spreads to the N.W.”

(439.) In following the course of the Arctic Current along the coast of the
United States, we have no very clear notion of its mean velocity; it is
certainly very feeble. But that it does run to the Southward, we have
many evidences, besides the temperature of its waters. It is probable that
the surface, at least, is obedient to the varying of the winds, which blow over
it, and after a long continuance of Easterly winds it often sets directly on
shore. But it preserves its course almost unimpaired and quite appreciable
on the surface as far South as Cape Hatteras, after which its presence does
not appear so manifest, except as a submarine current. In (398), &c., the
presence of the cool water it transports is shown to exist, in a great degree,
even close beneath the warmest and strongest parts of the Gulf Stream.

There is great evidence of current action all along the coast of the
United States beyond the Cape Cod Peninsula, itself of remarkable forma-
tion. The long straight lines of low alluvial shores, fronting extensive
shallow lakes, separated from the Ocean by narrow beaches thrown up by
the sea, all bespeak the work of the Ocean and its drifting waters.

There is another singular feature, too, in the more Southern portions of its
course. The long lines of shoals which project seaward from Capes Hatteras,
Fear, Look-out, &c., that is, in the section where its surface action is not
so manifest, indicate some process going on which as yet has not been en
tirely explained.

(440.) Between Cape Henry and Cape Hatteras many vessels have been
wrecked, owing, it is stated, to a strong current setting inshore, or to the
§.W., from about 6 miles South of Cape Henry to Cape Hatteras. Although
the Arctic or Labrador Current sets generally to the Southward, there is
reason to assume that near the coast of North Carolina its direction is
chiefly governed by the wind. It runs very strong, causing heavy rips,
which have every appearance of shoals to those who are not familiar with
them. Sometimes the current begins to run quite strong 24 hours in ad-
vance of the wind at the same place. The storm, which is almost certain
to follow, always sets in from the direction in which the current has started.

The currents, over and in the vicinity of Hatteras Shoals, have a velocity
of 3 to 5 knots an hour, and are greatly influenced in direction and force
by the winds. The surface water of the Gulf Stream extends to within a
short distance of the outer shoals for some time after a continuation of
Northerly and Easterly winds.

Vessels, therefore, should approach this coast with much caution, ob-
serving that between Cape Henry and the lighthouse on Currituck Beach,

440 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

a distance of 34 miles, depths of 10 fathoms will be found at from 5 to 15
miles off shore ; thence to Cape Hatteras that depth is found at 1 to 4
miles from the shore.

(441.) Commander W. W. Kiddle, R.N., remarks, that to steam-ships
crossing the Banks of Newfoundland, this Arctic Current offers a ready
means for checking the longitude on the Eastern edge, which should never
be lost sight of when the absence of astronomical observations has ren-
dered the position doubtful. The degree of accuracy with which this may
be carried out is very remarkable, except occasionally towards the close of
summer. The Western edge is not so well marked, owing to the drift from
the Gulf of St. Lawrence.

In a similar manner, when approaching St. George’s Shoals from the
South or Hast, the thermometer will give unfailing warning of their prox-
imity by a sudden fall in the temperature of 2° to 4°.*

(442.) In a nautical sense the allusion to this Current is sufficient to
guard against its effects in approaching the coast, or in taking advantage
ft it to work against the current of the Gulf Stream. Beyond what is
stated above, no particular instructions have been issued respecting it.

(443.) There is another part of the Ocean in connection with this where
the currents are not strong or regular, but peculiar. It is the part between
Bermuda and the coast of Georgia. There seems to be some connection
with the fact of Cape Hatteras cutting off a portion of the Southern pro-
gress of this Current, and the very irregular temperatures that are met with
to the South-Hastward of that cape. The cold bands alluded to on page
405 (395) are, perhaps, a portion of this; but it certainly seems as if the
cold water, after passing under the Gulf Stream, appears on the surface
intermingled with the warmer waters of the Equatorial Current, and cause
a slight drift to the South-Hastward, and have something to do with that
Eastward tendency of the Gulf Stream (403) in throwing off its floating
objects to the Hastward of its course—a fact which has been attributed to
its being ‘ 7oof-shaped,’”’ a form owing to the greater force and velocity of
its centre, which causes the water along the middle of its course to be
higher than the lateral portions.

In the Southern part of this Current its influence on navigation, as said
above, is of minor consequence. Its principal feature is its ice-transporting
powers in the more Northern portion of its career ; and as this has a most
important bearing on the navigation between Europe and America, some
notes on this point follow.

* “ Notes going West,” an interesting article in the Nautical Magazine, August, 1878,
page 725.

( 441 )

ICEBERGS, ICH ISLANDS, AND DRIFT ICE IN THE ARCTIC
CURRENT.

(444.) Although we have already noticed, in the previous pages, the
annual floats of Ice which descend from the Northern regions, it may not
be inapposite to recall to the seaman’s mind the necessity of guarding
against these tremendous and dangerous objects—more dangerous than
permanent rocks, because unfixed, and more dreadful, because frequently
obscured in snow and fog.

The Ice which is thus met with is of two descriptions; that which is
formed on the surface of the sea during the Polar winter—the Field and
Floe Ice ; and that which is formed in the course probably of many years
upon land, and is periodically launched into the sea in the form of
gigantic Bergs of enormous height and dimensions.

Many observers have in recent years added to our knowledge of this
subject, and the following condensed account is the result of a perusal of
their experiences.* As with the Winds and Currents, so with the Ice; no
exact limits can be given for its occurrence, as these vary from year to
year according to the season.

(445.) Field Ice.—A few words only are necessary with regard to this
form of Ice, as its production and presence in the regions under considera-
tion is very readily comprehended. It is usually formed near the shore,
and on breaking adrift, its motion, more affected by wind than current,
causes it to raft and pile until its surface becomes very irregular. It
sometimes encloses deeply immersed fragments of Bergs, known as
‘‘ srowlers,”’ which may be recognised by their dark blue colour, and must
be carefully avoided by vessels making their way through loose ice. Being
less easily seen than Bergs, it may be said to be more formidable to fast
vessels. The great danger to vessels attempting to pass through loose Ice,
unless specially strengthened, is that a gale may suddenly arise before the
vessel can get clear of it, and iron plates easily crack on coming in con-
tact with the heavy pieces. If a ship get fast in the Ice, no time should
be lost in provisioning and getting out the boats, in case the vessel be
suddenly crushed.

The drift of Field Ice is chiefly determined by the wind, which some-
times causes it to appear of disappear with astonishing rapidity, especially
near the land.

On February 12th, 1890, the steamer Texas passed a Field about 50
miles long, in lat. 44° N., long. 49° 25' W. On the 17th, the barque
Meteor was hemmed in for 9 days among an immense Field South of Cape

* Much information has been gained from the ‘ Pilot Chart of the North Atlantic
Ocean,”’ published monthly by the United States Hydrographic Office, on which the
occurrence of Ice is systematically recorded. Among other authorities we may men-
tion, ‘‘ Information relating to Ice, &c., on the Coast of Iceland,” by Lieutenant C. F,
Wandel, Danish Royal Navy, 1879; ‘‘ A Report on the Movements of the Ice, &c., on
the Coast of Newfoundland, &c.,’”’ by Commander Geo. Robinson, R.N., 1889, with a
Supplement, 1891; and a ‘‘ Report of Ice and Ice Movements in the North Atlantio
Ocewn,”’ by Ensign H, Rodman, U.S.N., 1890.

NS AO, 57

442 OBBERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

Race, and the crew had to abandon her, so much was she damaged, being
rescued by a passing steamer. On the 22nd, the steamer Conscript cut
through more than 100 miles of Field Ice, between 1 and 2 feet thick,
when between Miquelon and Cape Breton Island, and stripped the
sheathing from her bows.

(446.) Along the coast of Labrador, Field Ice begins to form at Cape
Chudleigh, on the South side of Hudson Strait, about the middle of
October ; at Belle Isle, about the beginning of November; and by the
middle or end of November the whole coast is usually solidly frozen, the
Ice forming an impassable barrier, till about the end of April. The bays
frequently remain frozen over until June.

The coasts of Newfoundland and the Gulf of St. Lawrence are usually
blocked with Ice by the middle of January. Navigation in the River
St. Lawrence closes about the middle of November, and does not re-
open till about May, though much Ice may be found in the Gulf up to
July.

Commander Robinson states that in December and January, Ice usually
forms for 20 to 40 miles, seldom farther, off the Eastern shores of New-
foundland, and fills up the deep indentations of the coast. In some seasons
very little Ice is seen on this coast, but in the summer months heavy
bodies of Arctic Ice drifting Southward form a constant obstruction
between Indian Tickle and the Fogo Islands. The French fishing vessels
bound to the harbours of Griguet, Croc, and Fleur de Lys, generally
endeavour to make the land about Cape Bauld, where the Ice is often
loose and broken about the middle of May. Large vessels should not
approach Notre Dame Bay before June 10th or 15th, and then only with
the aid of a pilot.

From a record kept at Belle Isle lighthouse between the years 1872 and
1885, the earliest date of steamers being seen entering the Strait of Belle
Isle, varied from June 7th to July 16th, and the last outward-bound from
November 11th to 22nd.

Off Cape Race the mass of Ice sometimes extends 60 to 100 miles to the
South and S.W., and from 150 to 250 miles to the Eastward. In ordinary
seasons it seldom extends in a body South of lat. 46° N., and often remains
in the vicinity of Virgin Rocks until the end of April. Ordinary cargo
steamers have reached St. John’s in March and April by passing through
the soft Ice, or rounding its Southern extremity and approaching Cape Race
from the §.W. It is only during a continuance of Hasterly winds that the
Ice forbids access to St. John’s.

In Cabot Strait the Ice usually begins to flow out early in January in
sheets; small Bergs, 10 to 18 ft. high, are sometimes seen, but a large
Berg seldom. After leaving the strait, the Ice often drifts as far South-
ward as Sable Island. The strait may be regarded as closed for ordinary
navigation after January 9th; it generally opens between April 25th and
May 15th, but some seasons it is later.

(447.) Icebergs are a much more interesting subject for discussion, and
their majestic proportions at once attract attention and invite enquiry as
to their formation ; consequently we find many reasons and speculations
have been advanced to account for them, and various localities pointed

ICE IN THE ARCTIC CURRENT. 443

out as their birth-place. As already stated (424, 427—433), these masses
of Ice are brought from their Arctic home partly by means of the East
Greenland Current, but mainly by the current passing through Davis
Strait from Baffin’s Bay. Investigation has also shown that by far the
larger number have their origin on the Western coast of Greenland, as
described hereafter.

Captain (afterwards Dr.) Scoresby, whose opinion is invaluable, ob-
served ‘‘ that, however dependent the Ice may have been on land, from
the time of its first appearance to its gaining an ascendency over the waves
of the Ocean, sufficient to resist their utmost ravages, and to arrest the
progress of maritime discovery at a distance of, perhaps, from 600 to 1,000
miles from the Pole, it is now evident that the proximity of land is not
essential, either for its existence, its formation, or its increase.”’

Dr. Scoresby’s acquaintance with Icebergs in progress of formation was
confined to Spitzbergen and portions of Greenland, where they do not
form so marked a feature as in some other parts. It is to Dr. Rink, a
resident in Greenland, that we are indebted for a very complete account
of these marvellous phenomena, and in making a few extracts from his
work,* we may draw attention to the parallel condition of the South Pole
in producing these Icebergs’on a far more stupendous scale than is found
in the Northern region; for while in the North their dimensions are
usually confined to a few hundred yards, in the South they are very fre-
quently miles in extent, and from 2,000 to 3,000 feet in thickness—a
magnitude owing to the vast area of the lands in which they are produced,
as explained in (449). Their protrusion into the sea involves the
same considerations as the ‘“‘ glacier theory” of the land, so very in-
teresting and important in geological questions.

(448.) Size, &c.—Dr. Rink states that the larger Icebergs in the Northern
regions rise above the sea to the height of from 100 to 150 feet and
upwards, and some are 4,000 feet in circumference. The cubic contents
of the part above can scarcely be considered more than one-eighth of that
below the surface of the water, so that the cubic contents of such an Ice-
berg may amount to about 66,000,000 cubic yards—a fragment of Ice
which, if we suppose it to be fairly landed, would form a mountain about
1,000 feet in height. Of course the form of the Iceberg has much to do
with the proportion above and below the surface of the sea; one with a
towering spire of small dimensions could naturally be as high above the
surface as the base is below.

Many instances are on record of Icebergs being met with of far larger
dimensions than those given above, and the following are a few of recent
occurrence.

On January 5th, 1881, a low level Berg, 15 feet high, and several miles in length,
was observed from Cape St. John, Newfoundland.

In April, 1882, the steamer Hermod was reported to have passed some Icebergs
1,000 ft. long and 500 ft. high, and stove in her bows against one of them.

* Dr. H. Rink, “On the Ice of Greenland and the Origin of Icebergs,”’ in the Journal
of the Royal Geographical Society, vol. xxiii., pages 145---154.

444 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

On April 6th, 1890, an enormous flat-topped Berg, over two miles long, was seen
from the steamer Teutonic.

On July 18th, 1891, the steamer Kansas passed an Iceberg 500 ft. long, with
two peaks 300 ft. high.

On May 18th, 1892, the steamer Hajfis is reported to have passed an Iceberg
about 600 ft. high and 4 miles long.

Icebergs such as these would ground on the Grand Banks of Newfound-
land, and remain until further dissolved or broken up. Some consider
that these banks have been formed by the masses of soil and rock brought
by Drift Ice and Bergs during the course of ages.

(449.) Allagree that the Icebergs of the Arctic seas are originally formed
on terra firma, from the snow and rains which, from the severity of the
climate, are never able to reach the Ocean in a fluid state, but which, in
the course of years, are transformed into a mass of Ice, and are then,
through some physical agency, similar to that by which the progress of
glaciers is effected, thrust forward into the sea, in the form of massy
mountains.* For the formation of Icebergs accordingly a tract of land
of a certain extent is necessary, in which the sea forms so few and small
creeks or inlets that rivers or watercourses of some magnitude must
necessarily be present.

Where the above-mentioned condition exists, in conjunction with
the necessary temperature of the climate, the formation of Ice does not
proceed from certain mountain heights, but the whole country is covered
with Ice to a certain elevation; mountains and valleys are levelled to a
uniform plane; and the river beds are concealed, as well as every vestige of
the original form of the country. A movement, commencing far inland,
thrusts the outer edge of this mass of Ice forward toward the sea; and
when it reaches the frith it may be seen to sink, and to diverge and even
extend out several miles. There the agency of the obliterated rwers may
be observed in the greater or lesser rapidity with which the matter in a
solid state is carried forward to the Ocean. The massy crust, still pre-
serving its continuity, proceeds from the shore, borne by the sea, until
some circumstance or other destroys the equilibrium, and breaks some
fragments off the outer edge, which is again thrust forward, and again
detaches new fragments, thus continually renewing the supplies from the
interior.

A tract or body of land of the requisite size is, in the Northern
Hemisphere, only to be found in Greenland, and more especially in that
part which lies to the North of the Arctic Circle, where in the interior,

* Tt is a well known fact that all the Ice formed from snow upon the surface of land,
where the heat of summer is incapable of melting and preventing its gradual increase,
has a tendency to extend and move downward, as water would do, according to the
same laws, in the case of rain instead of snow haying fallen upon the surface. Those
Masses of snow accumulated in high regions of mountain chains, even in the hottest
parts of the globe, gather in the valleys, which thus form the natural drainage for the
highlands, and being congealed into a compact body of Ice, move slowly down into
lower and warmer regions, till the increasing heat, by thawing them, sets a limit to
their further spread. These masses of compact Ice spreading down through the valleys
or clefts, and constantly furnished with further supplies by the snow accumulated in
the surrounding highlands, are, in Europe, seen on the largest scale upon the Alps, where
they are known under the name of ‘‘ Gletscher,” or Glaciers.

ICH IN THE ARCTIC CURRENT. 445

beyond the inlets of the sea, the country increases in breadth from East
to West, and affords space for the original birth-place of these large Ice-
bergs. Neither Spitzbergen, nor the narrower parts of Greenland, nor the
Peninsula, nor the islands which surround it, are adequate in size to
produce the yearly excess of indissoluble Ice, which, from that large and
unknown continent, is very slowly protruded. The friths or fiords, which,
piercing far into the country, receive and transmit the Icebergs, are
called Ice Friths.

From November to June the water, in which the Icebergs are to
proceed to the Ocean, is so covered by the ocean Ice, that they are shut
up in the inner ice friths; but in July, and especially in August, they are
carried in mass by the current to the open sea. This is called the shooting
out of the ice friths, which lasts till late in the autumn, when the con-
tinual Easterly storms finally clear out the inner waters, unless the Ice-
bergs are intercepted by certain banks, on which they sometimes remain
long aground.

(450.) Icebergs consist mostly of hard, brittle ice, of which the white
colour arises from very fine lineal pores, uniformly distributed through
the whole mass, all being of the same size, equi-distant, and parallel
throughout the whole Iceberg. This uniform structure may have arisen
at the time it was formed in the interior of the country from corned snow
—perhaps repeatedly thawed and frozen. The white Iceberg is in many
directions crossed by broad stripes of intense blue-coloured ice, which is
quite clear, and either contains no air bubbles, or, at all events, very
irregular ones. These blue stripes are several feet in thickness, and in
them are generally found “ dirt bands” of foreign matters, such as stone,
gravel, and clay, which the Icebergs carry off embodied in them. The
blue ice is, by thawing, dissolved into regular large grains, which is not
the case with the white ice that forms the main mass of the Icebergs.
It seems probable that these blue stripes are formed by a filling up of the
fissures in the inland ice with water—perhaps mixed with snow, gravel,
and stones; and such a refrigeration of the water in the fissures may be
supposed to be an important agency in setting in motion these great
mountains of Ice.*

(451.) Iceland—We have previously mentioned the stream of Ice
passing down the East Coast of Greenland. In some seasons this has
been known to envelop Iceland. Lieutenant Wandel states that around
Iceland, at least near Nordland, Bergs may be met with at all seasons of
the year, but the great masses of Drift Ice which hinder navigation usually
appear between December and April; some years it may be almost

* Transparent ice, free from interior spaces or bubbles, is one of the purest substances
in nature, and it is not possible to detect the presence of the minutest portion of air, or
any substance that may have been held in solution by the water from which it is formed.
The strongest poisons, or colouring matter of any description, are most effectually
separated from water by the process of freezing it. This must, of course, only be under-
stood to refer to those masses which are quite clear and transparent, for spaces or
vacancies left in the ice will naturally contain portions of the adventitious matter.
Ice, therefore, is one of the best sources from which a supply of fresh and wholesome
water can be obtained, and if these hollows be washed in fresh water, ice water will be
found preferable to, and purer than any other.

446 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

absent. As a general rule, the Ice first appears near North Cape, and its
drift depends on the winds and currents. Navigation is open near Nord-
land early in June; the Ice, however, has been known to remain so late
as August 23rd.

Lieutenant Wandel is of opinion that the limits of the navigable season,
especially for Nordland and Osterland, are April lst and October 15th.
Vessels trying to make Nordland or Osterland in March often have to
wait a month for the Ice to move, and are exposed to violent storms.
Many vessels have also been lost in the fearful storms of October and
November.

The Ice encountered around Iceland comes either from Greenland or
Spitzbergen; that from Greenland consists of great level floes over 30 feet
thick, and that from Spitzbergen is exclusively in the form of Bergs,
which often ground in depths of 60 to 70 fathoms. On September 22nd,
1877, Lieutenant Wandel encountered a Berg off Skagestrand Bay, 664 ft.
high, and at least 2,000 ft. in circumference, while two others were seen
stranded.

Mr. T. Thoroddsen’s researches show that around Iceland the Drift Ice
often appears as early as January, and lasts till autumn ; generally there
is very little during September, October, November, and December.*

(452.) On the South Coast of Greenland, the settlers and others remark
that the Polar Ice always appears in May, June, and July, but there is
none in November, December, January, and February. Commander
Robinson states that in the month of June sealing vessels visit the Ice
Southward and Eastward of Cape Farewell, from which it extends
50 to 80 miles to the Southward, moving Westward 8 to 10 miles a day.
In February it is noticed 100 to 150 miles Southward from the cape,
terminating in a crook or cape.

Rounding Cape Farewell this stream of Ice continues to the Westward
and North-Westward, moving 8 to 10 miles a day, part keeping along the
coast as far North as Godthaab, when it bears off to the Westward and
joins the main stream flowing Southward from Baffin’s Bay.

(453.) Icebergs sometimes ground in Belle Isle Strait, but those able to
pass through drift up the Gulf, and disappear to the Northward of
Anticosti; very few pass out again by Cabot Strait. Bergs drifting to
the Westward of Cape Race, usually pass between Green Bank and
St. Pierre Bank, but they rarely pass to the Westward of St. Pierre.

(454.) Newfoundland Banks, &c.—We have thus traced the course of
the drift of the Arctic Ice down to the latitudes in which at some seasons
it becomes a great source of danger to the Northern Transatlantic naviga-
tion. Icebergs owe their drift almost entirely to current, and may some-
times be seen ploughing their way through Field Ice drifting in the oppo-
site direction with the wind (445). Vessels sometimes take advantage
of this, by means of an ice-anchor and strong tow-line, to get through
these Fields, but care is necessary. Many vessels have been damaged by
sunken projecting ledges, or by the Bergs suddenly breaking up or turning
over, owing to change in their centre of gravity.

* «Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Sooiety,’’ October, 1884, page 573.

ICE IN THE ARCTIC CURRENT. 447

(455.) Many disastrous collisions have occurred with Icebergs, water-
tight bulkheads having alone saved the crippled vessels from foundering.
Doubtless the disappearance of several vessels may be laid down to
collision with Ice. To add to this danger the regions in which they are
likely to be met with is much subject to thick and foggy weather.

(456.) Precautions.—There is no infallible method known by which the
presence of Icebergs may be detected at a distance in thick or foggy
weather ; though, in addition to extreme vigilance, several aids have been
recommended. The safest course is to take a Southerly route, well clear of
the probable Ice limit.

Lieutenant Evans, R.N., says, ‘‘ There is scarcely a doubt but that most
of the vessels from the West Indies and America, that have been missing,
perished in the same manner as the Mouwntstone (see page 451), Icebergs
having been met with some degrees to the Southward of the Banks of
Newfoundland in June and July. The commanders of vessels, therefore,
who have occasion to pass between the parallels of 35° and 50° N., cannot
be too cautious ; a look-out man should be placed on the fore-yard during
the night, and in foggy or hazy weather also in the day-time. In addition
to these, there should be one on each bow ; and during a fog the foresail
should be hauled up, especially in crossing the Banks, where Icebergs
have been met with aground.”

The Jce Blink is a natural brightness or effulgence, caused by emission
of rays of light stored up or otherwise, which frequently renders a Berg
visible at some distance, even in the darkest night. At short distances
this effulgence may appear like a white cloud, extending over, or nearly
over, the vessel’s masts. In foggy weather they are seen through the fog
by their apparent blackness, if such a term can be applied.

The Temperature of the water has also been suggested as a means of
detecting the proximity of Ice, but much reliance must not be placed on
the use of the Thermometer. Naturally, close to Ice the sea temperature
must become lowered, but the distance to which this alteration may
extend is entirely problematical, as a little consideration will show. It
has been shown that sudden alterations in the surface temperature, ex-
perienced in the regions where Ice may be met with, can frequently be
explained by the vessel passing from the warm water of the Gulf Stream
to the cold water of the Arctic Current, or vice versa.

With regard to this, Lieutenant Evans remarks :—Careful attention,
too, should be paid to the thermometer, as experience has shown that to
be an indicator of Ice. Captain Franklin observes, that the approach to
Ice would be evidently pointed out in those parts of the Atlantic where
the surface is not continually chilled by the passing and melting of Ice, as
in the Arctic Sea; and he strongly recommends a strict howrly attention
to the thermometrical state of the water at the surface, in all parts where
ships are exposed to the dangerous concussion of floating Icebergs, as a
principal means of security. There would be very little trouble attend-
ing such a point of duty; yet, we believe, there are many masters who
would not undergo it, but trust to chance the safety of their vessel, their
own lives, and those of their crew and passengers. Many have made
repeated voyages across the Atlantic without having seen floating Ice, and

448 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

therefore become incautious. It is to these we would particularly recom-
mend the perusal of this paper. The following extract fully corroborates
Captain Franklin’s assertion :—‘‘ The morning of the Ist of August (says
Captain Lyon) was thick and foggy, with rain; at 10 a.m. we discovered,
through the haze, our first piece of Ice, a small Berg of about 70 feet ; we
soon passed this and several others, but saw no floe or brash ice, although
there was every reason to suppose that a pack was near, from the sudden
smoothness and change of temperature in the water, now at 32°, while
the air was at only 34°. Repeated observations of this kind have now
brought to a certainty the assertion, that the approach to Ice from an
open sea may be ascertained by the sudden change of the thermometer ,
and acting from past experience, I caused the more active look-out to be
kept, on observing it to fall suddenly this morning ; yet this change first
took place in a very thick fog, and we ran about 10 miles before the Ice
was seen.”

Captain Weddell recommends that, with a free side-wind, an Iceberg ox
Ice island should be passed on the windward side; as by this means, the
loose ice, which always drifts farthest, is avoided.

Warning of the vicinity of a Berg may often be obtained by means of
the echo of a steam whistle or any sharp noise. The roaring of the sea at
the base of a Berg may sometimes be heard at a considerable distance.*

(457.) Season.—Ice generally begins to be a source of danger to Trans-
atlantic navigation during the month of February, and continues until the
end of August, though in some seasons it may occur earlier or later than
these months. May is the most dangerous month, and October and
November are marked by its all put complete absence.

In 1890, the Ice appeared unusually early, and a vast number of
enormous Icebergs and Fields were reported. In January its Southern
limit was in lat. 45° N., long. 48° 30’ W., about two months in advance of
the average. On January 5th, some bergs were seen in lat. 47° N., long.
45° W., and on the 21st, some were passed in lat. 44° N., long. 41° W.

(458.) Limits.—These masses of Ice are seldom met with to the Hast-
ward of the meridian of 49° W., that is, about 300 miles beyond the limits
of the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. Near to the Banks they become
more numerous, and in some years the sea appears to be covered with
them, and vast numbers of Bergs ground on the Banks.

Mr. W. C. Redfield, to whom the world is so largely indebted for his
researches in Meteorology and Physical Geography, published a pamphlet,
accompanied by a chart, upon the Ice of the North Atlantic Ocean.
In this he considers that the Gulf Stream passes over the cold Arctic
Current, which transports the deeply immersed Icebergs into and across
it. “No impulsion but that of a vast current, setting in a South-
Westerly direction, and passing beneath the Gulf Stream, could have
carried these immense bodies to their observed positions, on routes which

* In addition to these precautions, we would call attention to the ingenious system
of Signals, devised by Captain W. H. Bates, whereby a vessel may readily communicate
to another passing, the existence and locality of Ice which may have been encountered,
One hoist of flags, of the International Code, is sufficient for a Signal.

ICE IN THE ARCTIC CURRENT, 449

cross the Gulf Current, in a region where its average breadth has been
found to be about 250 miles.” Other observations on this subject have
been given in the chapter on the Gulf Stream.

To the Southward the extent of the Ice-drift is uncertain, as it depends
upon two causes: the one, the force and extent of the Arctic Current from
the Northward ; and the other, the depth to which the Icebergs are
immersed. As before mentioned, there appears to be a perpetual struggle
between the opposing forces of the Arctic Current and the Gulf Stream to
the Southward of the Banks. The area where these currents meet is
nearly always distinguishable by the rips caused by the interlacing of the
two streams, but this process is made more apparent during the season of the
Ice-drifts by deeply immersed Bergs passing quite into the course of the
Gulf Stream, under the influence of which they rapidly disappear. The
view now accepted of this phenomenon is that the Gulf Stream partly
overruns the cool waters proceeding Southward and South-Westward ;
and although the Northern edge of the warm waters of the Stream is
met with in the summer months over the Southern end of the Newfound-
land Banks, or as high as 45° N., yet these Bergs have been found drifting
as far South as lat. 39° N., and even to 36° 10’, long. 39° W., or 650 miles
South- Westward of the Banks, and beyond the limits of the Gulf Stream.
Instances are also on record of their being seen within 60 miles W.N.W.
of the island of Corvo.

During a regular season Ice is specially to be met with between lat.
42 and 45° N., long. 47° and 52° W.. Its Southern limit varies generally
between 40° and 414° N. From temperature observations it is found
that the Arctic Current pushes 2° or 3° farther South, between long, 48°
and 50° W., and therefore the extreme Southern limit of Ice will most
probably be found between these meridians. To avoid dangerous Ice,
vessels therefore, in April, May, and June, should not cross the meridian
of 50° W., North of the parallel of 39° 30’ N.

From March to July Icebergs may be encountered on the meridian of
50°, between 40° and 52° N., but occasionally as far Hastward as 39° or
38° W., when their Southern limit will probably be 39° or 38° N. in 45° W.
From July to September, Bergs may still be met with as far Eastward
as 38° W., near 44° or 45° N., but more to the Westward (say 50° W.) as
low as 43° to 41° N.* On June 25th, 1886, at 8 p.m., the captain of the
brig Blanche sighted a large Iceberg, 20 to 30 ft. high. In the morning
it was still near the vessel, in lat. 48° 40’ N., long. 15° 22' W., and he
naturally remarked that he never expected to see an Iceberg so far to the
Eastward. This is the farthest point to the Eastward in which we have
a record of Ice being met with.

In April, May, and June, 1890, enormous quantities of Ice were seen,
as far East as the 35th meridian. One vessel reported 140 Bergs, some
250 ft. high and 1,000 ft. long.

On July 10th, 1890, a small piece of Ice, supposed to be the remainder
of a Berg, was seen from the steamer Slavonia, in lat. 48° 53’ N., long.
24° 11' W.

r * Nautical Magazine, July, 1890, page 580.
iN. Ax OC. 58

450 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

(459.) It need scarcely be said, that great circumspection is necessary in
passing near the regions where these dangers may reasonably be expected.
The following instances, selected from many, others, may operate as suffi-
cient cautions :—

On June 21st, 1794,'in lat. 45° 18’, on the Eastern steep edge of the Grand
Bank, in a thick fog, H.M. frigates Dedalus and Ceres were suddenly involved
amidst some very high and dangerous islands of Ice. The weather was so thick
that objects were not visible at 50 yards distant. The Dedalus, commanded by
Sir C. H. Knowles, hauled up and passed close to the stern of a ship that lay
stranded upon one of the Ice islands, and sailed to windward of it through a great
quantity of Drift Ice, and to leeward of another Ice island. The Ceres, Captain
Thos. Hamilton, passed in the same track, and saw the wreck a quarter of an hour
after the Dedalus. The course was East, the wind S.W., the sea very high, as
the wind blew hard, the night preceding, from the Southward.

Again, on June 15th, 1810, the Dedalus, commanded by Captain Inglefield, with
a fleet from Jamaica, in'lat. 41° 33’, long. 51° 17’, to the Southward of the Grand
Bank, passed two Icebergs, and the next day another; providentially the fog,
which had been very dense, cleared up for an hour, and allowed the fleet to clear
the dangers.

On August 2nd, 1813, H.M.S. Bedford, 74 guns, then bearing the flag of Vice-
Admiral Stirling, accompanied by the Cyane, Captain Forrest, and Fawn, Captain
Fellows, with a fleet of 105 sail from Jamaica, at 8 a.m., just as the fog cleared
away, fell in with an extensive ridge of Ice, having an Iceberg at each extremity,
and about 1 mile in extent, even with the water, over which the seas broke with
considerable violence. Had the fog not cleared up as it did, about thirty ships
must have struck upon it, as that number were steering directly for this formid-
able reef, and were within the extent of its sweep. The thermometer was at this
time ranging from 63° to 65°, in lat. 45°, long. 44° 30’.

On August 31st, 1816, Captain Gooday, in the ship Jones, in lat. 46° 50’, long.
47° 54', saw an island of Ice, from 1 to 1} mile long, and from 50 to 70 feet high.
When first seen, it appeared like a white cloud.

In January, 1818, the brig Anne, of Poole, W. Dayment, master, left the harbour
of Greenspond, Newfoundland, in the morning, and in the evening of the same day
got among Ice; proceeded thus about 40 miles, and at daylight next morning was
completely beset, and no opening to be seen in any direction from the masthead.
In this state the vessel continued for fifteen days, drifting with the Ice about 60
miles 8.E. by E., or about 4 miles in every twenty-four hours. The Ice was now
become very heavy, high above the surface, and about twenty large Bergs were in
sight. With this Ice the vessel drove until she was in 44° 37’ N., and about 300
miles to the South-Eastward of Cape Race, when, on February 17th, she got clear
through the only opening that appeared in the horizon from East to 8.E., all the
rest of the circle forming one compact body of Ice, as far as the eye could reach.
The vessel had been shut in for twenty-nine days, in the last fourteen of which
she drifted from lat. 46° 57’ to lat. 44° 37’, about 280 miles, or 20 miles a day,
S.E. by E., tremendous gales of wind blowing the whole time from the West to
the N.W. In the course of this passage the master declared that he saw more
than 100 large islands of the solid blue ice, known to traders by the name of
Greenland Ice.

On January 17th, 1818, the brig Funchal, of Greenock, sailed from St. John’s,
Newfoundland. At about 15 miles to the Westward of this port she fell in with a
field of Ice coming down from the Northward, about 8 miles in breadth, and ex-
tending to the Northward beyond the reach of sight. Having cleared this, and
proceeded Westerly about 250 miles, on the 20th, in lat. 474°, she encountered a
still more extensive field, floating to the Westward, in the midst of which was an

ICE IN THE ARCTIC CURRENT. 451

immense Iceberg; she cleared this, though not without difficulty, and brought with
her a gale of wind, with snow, sleet, and rain, the whole way to Scotland.

On May 6th, 1823, the Mountstone, of and from Plymouth, was lost on an Ice-
berg, on her passage to Newfoundland. The master and crew, with passengers, in
all ten persons, took to the boat, without’ provisions, from which three only of the
number were taken by a passing ship, on the 14th of the same month, the re-
mainder having died of hunger!

Our next case is that of the Ajax, of Wiscasset, New England, on the passage
toward London, March and April, 1826. The following is an extract of a letter
from William 8. Shaw, the commander, to his owners on the subject. His means
of protecting the vessel, under perilous CinGURHetanCes, are worthy of especial
notice. |

. On March 12th, at 4 a.m..(sea secodniyt between lat. 42° and 44° N., weather
thick and cloudy, with squalls of hail and snow, we ran the brig in between two
reefs of Ice, jammed together apparently in a solid mass, the sea being much
smoother than usual, which did not alarm us; we knew we were far from land or
breakers, until we felt the Ice alongside of us ; so soon as we perceived which, we
hove-to until daylight, when we found we were surrounded by a solid body of Ice.
Around us were thirty Icebergs, about 150 feet high, and nearly the size of Seg-
wine Island. Finding the Ice chafed us badly, we got out fenders. As we had
run into the Ice before the wind, it was impossible to get out the same way. At
sunrise, discovered a narrow opening to leeward, for which we steered under easy
sail, and drove her through. . We were now in a bay, about 14 mile wide, the
reefs on either side, and large cakes of Ice in contact with us.

‘“‘The wind still blowing fresh at N.W., we kept her before it about 3 miles, but

could not discover an opening to the Southward and Westward ; tacked and steered
N.E. about 12 miles, it being very difficult #0 avoid -the large cakes of Ice that
crowded thickly around us.
. “Finding there was no opening in this direction, and that the two reefs ex-
tended as far as we could see—that there were numerous largé islands of Ice North
of us, and an almost innumerable collection of small ones ahead, we concluded,
at 10 a.m., to crowd her through the Ice; and having prepared fenders of every
kind, such as old junk, spars, cordwood, bales of cotton, and part of one cable, we
drifted her into it.. We were now in the midst of the Ice in a severe gale, accom-
panied with a thick snow storm ; and had it not been for our precaution, in pre-
paring fenders, the Ice must have soon made a hole through us. At mid- -day, old
Sol deigned to show his brazen face, and laughed at our comical situation. This
circumstance enabled us to take an observation, by which we found ourselves in
lat, 44° 30’ N., long. 43° W. (between the Azores and Newfoundland).

-** As our fenders were nearly destroyed, we were compelled to cut up more of
our cable, wooden fenders not sinking deep enough for the purpose of defence
under water. You may judge of the difficulty of crowding the brig through by our
progress, which was but half a mile an hour, under two reefed topsails and fore-
sail, the wind blowing heavily. At one o’clock p.m. we suspended two bales of
cotton under our chains, that they might not be carried away by rolling against
the cakes of Ice which we occasionally met, some of which were 100 feet in cir-
cumference, and 6 feet thick.

** At one time we were so completely enclosed, that I got out, with part of the
crew, and walked on the Ice—a walk that few mariners have probably enjoyed at
that distance from land on the Western Atlantic Ocean. At 8" in the evening,
found the surrounding Ice much thinner, and the islands less frequent; handed
all sails except the close-reefed main-topsail, which we hove to the mast to keep
her from ranging ahead on the islands.

‘At daylight, finding ourselves clear from the great body of Ice, though not
from the islands, we made sail, and steered E.S.E. and E.N.E. for three days, with

452 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

a good breeze, and under short sail during the night. It was the opinion of all
hands, that we sailed three hundred miles before we were clear of the large islands
of Ice.”

In July and August of the same year, 1826, H.M.S. Ringdove was on her passage
from New York, and fell in with an immense Iceberg off the Banks of Newfound-
land, drifting to the Southward, the magnitude and sudden appearance of which
astonished every person on board.

In the month of March, 1828, several vessels arrived at New York, which had
fallen in with islands of Ice, in lat. 43° to 44°, long. 47° to 49°. This was con-
sidered as unusually early in the season for such dangers to be met with. In this
season the brig Cutherine and Hannah, Captain Lumsden, which afterwards arrived
at Cork, picked up, on the 4th of May, in lat. 45° 11’, long. 56° (near Banquereau),
a boat belonging to the Superb, of and from Bristol, for Quebec, which ran foul of
an Iceberg on the 21st of April, that stove her forward. This unfortunate occur-
rence obliged, all hands to take to the pumps, at which they continued without
intermission for two days and a night, when a schooner hove in sight; and the
captain proceeded in the jolly boat to treat with them to take the crew. While
the captain was so engaged, the vessel being quite in a sinking state, the crew left
the pumps to get the boats out to leave her. They succeeded in getting out a boat
(the one subsequently picked up), and seven men got into her; upon which they
unhooked the tackle, slipped from the ship, but could not regain her, and, it
coming on thick weather, they could not find the schooner; thus the unfortunate
men were left without provisions, water, mast, sail, or anything that would enable
them to struggle for existence, save and except two oars. In this state they were
buffeted about for eleven days, when they were fallen in with by the Catharine and
Hannah. Of the seven men only two were alive; and one of these survived only
twenty-four hours. It is almost superfluous to say, that the only food which they
had taken was the bodies of their deceased companions.

Captain Barclay, of the Brilliant, for Leith, from Quebec, which he left on June
5th, 1829, narrowly escaped shipwreck, having fallen in with a heavy body of Ice,
about 20 miles East of the entrance to the Strait of Belle Isle, in foggy weather.
The vessel got clear on the 19th of June, after being three days and nights amongst
it, and being obliged to proceed 13° to the Southward.

On May 11th, 1833, between the Outer and Grand Banks of Newfoundland, the
brig Lady of the Lake, John Grant, master, from Belfast, with 230 passengers, in
lat. 46° 50’, long. 47° 10’, fell in with Ice, and while endeavouring to pass between
two large pieces, a tongue under water struck the port bow, and stove it entirely
in. It is not requisite here to repeat afflicting details ; the consequence was, that
the brig soon foundered, and only the captain, with fourteen other persons, were
ultimately saved.

The barque Perthshire, R. Simpson, from Pictou, Nova Scotia, fell in with a
field of Ice, in lat. 46° 19’, long. 46° 40’, on June 8th, 1845. It was above 30 miles
in extent, and on its North end there was a ship, high and dry on the ice, with the
crew on board; but could not render them assistance.

(460.) The following are from Mr. Redfield:—On January Ist, 1844, Captain
Burroughs, in the ship Sully, met with an Iceberg, in lat. 45° N., long. 48° W. This
is earlier in the winter than any other case which we have met with. Captain
Burroughs states, that he had met with Ice near this position on February Ist, on
a former voyage.

In September, 1822, Captain Couthouy saw an Iceberg aground on the Eastern
edge of the Grand Bank, in lat. 43° 18’, long. 48° 50’. Sounding 3 miles inside of
it, the depth was found to be 105 fathoms. In August, 1827, the same observer,
while crossing the Banks, in lat. 46° 30’, long. 48° W., passed within less than
a mile of a large Iceberg, stranded in between 80 and 90 fathoms water. He was.
go near as to perceive distinctly large fragments of rocks, and quantities of earthy

ICE IN THE ARCTIC CURRENT. £53

matter embedded in the sides of the Iceberg ; and to see from the fore-yard, that
the water, for at least a mile round it, was full of mud, stirred up from the bottom
by the violent rolling and crushing of the mass.

(461.) A very interesting item in our enumeration of Ice- flies is that of those
met with in April, 1851, on which were the wrecks of two ships, which had the
appearance of, and from all probabilities were, the ships of the unfortunate Arctic
expedition under Sir John Franklin.

The brig Renovation, of Shields, Captain E. Coward, bound to Quebec, on April
20th, 1851, when near the East edge of the Bank, in lat. 45° 30’, wind N.E., fresh
braéze, clear weather, as much as they could carry fore-topmast studding-sail, fell
in with Icebergs, one of which was very large, with field-ice attached, on which
there were two three-masted ships, having their masts struck and yards down,
and all made snug ; to all appearance they had passed the winter together on the
ice. Took the spying-glass, and carefully examined them to see if there was any
one on board, but could see no one, &c., &e. A further statement says they were
apparently two full-rigged ships (one about 500 tons, and the other 350), on an
Iceberg, high and dry, the larger one on her beam-ends, &c. Singularly enough,
this statement had been published in the ‘‘ Limerick Chronicle,” May 28th, 1851,
& year previous to any notice having been taken elsewhere.

In our minds there is no doubt but that these were the ill-fated ships which had
been drifted out of Melville Sound and Baffin’s Bay, and thus eluded all the
elaborate and anxious searches that were made. The incident is a singular one in
the history of Arctic Ice.*

(462.) Some particulars of later encounters with Icebergs are given in (448).
In addition, the experience of Captain Potter, of the ship //ubitant, may be re-
corded. He reports having met a remarkable number of Icebergs in lat 49° 80’ N.,
long. 45° 20’ W., on May 17th, 1892. When the fog lifted in the morning, the
ship seemed to be in a great valley, with peak after peak of ice towering all
around amid acres of floating ice-cakes, 6 or 8 feet above the water. Twenty-
five Bergs were counted in sight, averaging from 100 to 250 feet high, and for
some hours the ship sailed along a narrow passage between them, the ice reflect-
ing all the colours of the rainbow in the bright sunlight. Clear water was not
entered until night, when the ship had run 75 miles through the ice.

(463.) Lieutenant J. Steele Park, from whose journal we have given extracts
elsewhere, recites the following incident, which will bespeak for itself an inculca-
tory caution :—

“June 29th, 1826.—A light breeze from the Southward, with fogey ‘ Bank
weather,’ as the sailors call it. Steering E. by S. At 8 o'clock this morning it
cleared away, and I took altitudes for my chronometer, which made the longitude
49° 42’; and, at the same time, we discovered an island on the starboard beam,
3 or 4 miles off. Shortened sail, hove the ship to, and sent the mate to see what
it really was ; for, although I had no doubt of its being an Iceberg, yet it certainly
looked something like land; and I did not wish to leave it in any kind of uncer-
tainty. The fog, which had cleared away at 8 o’clock, and left a beautiiul blue
sky, returned suddenly when the boat was about half-way from the ship. The
mate, an active, skilful seaman, had a compass with him, and he apprehended no
danger, but pushed on for the island, instead of returning, when he saw the fog

Eee

* See Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, vol. xxvi., pp. 26—35, ‘‘On the
Probable Course pursued by Sir John Franklin's Expedition,” by 4. G. Findlay. Not-
withstanding that this great mystery was partially cleared up by the expeditions of
Dr. Rae and Sir L. M‘Clintock, yet no vestige of the ships themselves have been seen
by Europeans. That portion, as well as others, is still involved in mystery; and the
opinion is still tenable, and maintained by many, that these derelict ships were the
Erebus and Terror.

454 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CURRENTS.

spreading. Hour after hour passed away, and no appearance of the boat. Night
came on, dark.as the grave, with a cold, benumbing drizzle, and a fog so dense
that we could scarcely see across the deck. My grand object was to keep the
ship as near the same spot as possible. All day and night we kept the bell tolling,
and fired a great gun occasionally; a tar barrel was also blazing at the main yard-
arm, but all was unavailing. I shall never forget the terrors of that night. I
reproached myself as the cause of their destruction ; and I prayed most earnestly
for daylight and clear weather. I thought daylight would never come; but it
came at last, and the fog was thicker, if possible, than the day before. The most
sanguine now began to despair. About 5 o’clock something was heard, like the
blowing of a conch shell, but so faint and indistinct that we thought it was only
the echo of the great noise we were making on board. However, it was soon dis-
covered that the sound was coming nearer and nearer ; but as no person on board
knew they had a shell in the boat, we were still in a sad state of anxiety; for it
might, perhaps, be a ship sounding her shell in the fog, as is usual at sea. In a
few minutes the splash of oars was heard, and in five minutes more the boat was
alongside, with all hands safe and sound, thank God! but cold and hungry enough.
The mate tells me he rowed round the Iceberg, which he thinks was about 300
feet in length, 150 feet in breadth. and 40 or 50 feet above the surface of the water.
It was melting away rapidly; streams of water were gushing down its sides, and
they naa only got a few yards from it, on their return, when (to use his own
words) ‘it took a sally and fell over on its beam-ends.’ Our last sight of the Ice,
when bearing 8.W., 3 or 4 miles, was in lat. 42° 13’, long. 49° 44’.”

ATLANTIC OCEAN
Lines of Equal
MAGNETIC VARIATION
AND DIP
1917.

The Approccenate araual change is shewn tv anaes
and tenths: + sigratying tncrease; - decrease

ts 3:

IV.—MAGNETIC VARIATION.

(464.) Among the many modern changes which have affected the science
of navigation, none have been more important than the different relation
which the Compass now bears to the ship as compared with its place in
former times.

Rude instruments, unadjusted, with errors unsuspected, and under in-
fluences destructive to their accuracy, have given place to what may be, in
some cases, over-estimation of this primary aid.to the seaman. In its very
nature the Compass is imperfect and incompetent. to show, at sea, the
minute quantities which are now disputed over. The consequence is, that _
it is made, like the topic we have just discussed, Ocean Currents, the
scapegoat for many errors of seamanship and judgment, which a more
intimate knowledge and therefore greater mistrust and induced caution
would have avoided.

(465.) Our present task deals with the geographic distribution of Mag-
netism, not with those local effects caused by the ship or its relation to
outer circumstances, but to its position in the Atlantic. The other points,
most important in themselves, will be discussed later on.

The features of the earth’s Magnetism, as related to the ship, are the.
Declination, Inclination or Dip, and Intensity. The Dip and Intensity are
very important elements in the adjustment of the Compass in its passage
through the varied magnetic conditions which: attend an over-sea voyage
across the Equator, but they have but little influence on the directive power
of the needle in the latitudes usually traversed in commercial pursuits, -
The Magnetic Equator does not correspond with the Geographical Equator,
any more than the Magnetic Poles do with the Geographical Poles, but
crosses it after the manner of the Ecliptic. On the Magnetic Equator the
needle has no Dip, but if it be carried towards the North and South Poles,
so will the corresponding ends become depressed from the horizontal, till
over the Magnetic Poles it would hang vertical.

The Declination or Variation is one of the most important elements in
navigation, and its correct estimation and application most essential to the
safe conduct of a ship.

(466.) The reasons why the Compass is now peed in so much higher
consideration than it was in former years are manifest. The great increase. .
of the use of iron both for shipbuilding as well as in the fabric of wooden
ships, and the consequent vastly increased influence that the ship has upon
her Compasses, has been one chief reason why attention is so imperatively
demanded. Again, since the universal use of steam, the course of a vessel,
in passing directly from one point to another, requires to be much more:
accurately laid than was thought necessary when wooden sailing ships
only were used.

Another reason, which has arisen in the course of years, is that caused
by the Secular Variation. The Compasses appearing on charts founded

456 MAGNETIC VARIATION.

on accurate surveys, in the course of a few years, in some cases, are 80
affected by this change in the Variation as to endanger the safety of a
vessel where they have been implicitly trusted to. The appreciation of
this change, which became manifest simultaneously with the necessity for
improved Compasses and improved methods of using them, placed the
magnetic element in charts on a fresh basis.

One most important result of this movement was the appointment by
the Admiralty of the late Captain E. J. Johnson as superintendent, in
1842, of the Compass Department. The great improvement in Compasses
dates from this appointment, and the investigation of the difficult and
varying problems of Local Deviation have been since pursued by eminent
men, among whom may be noticed Professor G. B. Airy, Dr. Scoresby,
W. Walker, R.N., Archd. Smith, Esq., and many others. These researches
have been mainly directed, as before observed, to the effect the ship’s iron
has on her Compasses.

Captain F. G. Evans, R.N., wno succeeded Captain Johnson, drew up @
far more perfect chart of the geographic distribution of the Magnetic
Variation than had hitherto appeared; former charts having become of
impaired value from the lapse of time, and from the imperfection of the
observations on which they were based. It is from this chart, brought
down to the period of 1917, that the accompanying illustrative chart has
been constructed.

(467.) The Isogonic Lines, or those upon which the Variation is of the
same amount, on this chart, will represent this element, generally as near
as the ordinary ship’s Compass will show it, and will serve to draw atten-
tion to any unsuspected change in the Magnetism of the ship, besides
affording the sailor some information when observations cannot be had.

(468.) The Variation of the Compass in all parts of the coasts of the
North Atlantic Ocean are given with the Tables of Geographic Positions
at the commencement of this work. It is for the open ocean that the
illustrative chart and these notes are mainly intended, and on the chart is
inserted the amount of annual change in different parts, so that the
approximate Variation may be ascertained in future years by applying the
necessary correction.

Around Iceland, the Compass is in many localities unreliable, especially
near the shore and over shoals; frequent observations must therefore be
made here for ascertaining the error.

(469.) But it must not be supposed that this annual change is regular
and of the same amount in each year. By the accurate observations which
are now self-recorded, the connection between these changes and appa-
rently remote causes has been identified. One of these, at the first glance
@ very singular one, is that the spots in the sun, if absent or present in
Jarge quantities, have a marked magnetic influence on the Declination,
thus demonstrating the source from which the Magnetism of the earth is
chiefly derived. As the Greenwich Observations will illustrate our subject
as wellas any, and thisvolume might be filled with interesting remarks on
this subject, the notices will be limited to the following extracts from those
Observations, as being sufficient to impart a notion of the ever-varying
amount of the Magnetic Variation and Dip.

( 457 )

TaBLE, showing the Mean Monthly Westerly Declination of the Magnet, and
the Mean Dip, at the Greenwich Royal Observatory, from 1844 to 1891.

Month. 1844 1850 1860 1870 1880 1885

° i] Td ° , i] ° ’ u ° , W °o , ° ’
January ....esseeeee 93 19 22 | 22 98 5 | 21 14 38/1957 28| 1834-7] 18 4.8
February ......0..... 23 18 43 | 22 27 28 | 2113 21195644! 1834-8] 18 4.3
March *........0000... 23 18 42 | 22 96 54 | 21 14 58} 19 56 21| 18341 | 18 3.7
a 93 18 42 | 22 25 44/2115 411955 6] 18 33-5] 18 3-1
ER 23 19 23 | 22 25 1/|211710/]19 54 50| 18322] 18 26
5 aS 93 19 8 | 22 24 47] 2116 1/1952 52] 18 31-8| 18 1.9
MG Ra csc cvcccceces 23 18 40 | 22 23 41 | 21 15 44 | 19 5257] 18 32.0] 18 1.5
os ee 23 13 25 | 22 22 4/| 2115271195216] 1832-6] 18 1.5
September ......... 93 18 6 | 22 25 43 | 2112 44119 5155] 18 32-3] 18 05
October .......0...66.. 22 12 52 | 2219 11/2113 98/1951 40| 1832-1 | 17 59.4
November ......... 22 11 50 | 22 18 27 | 21 12 49 | 19 51 18| 1830-9 | 17 59.7
December............ | 22 49 41 | 22 18 27 | 21 11 30/ 19 50 26 | 18-30-7 | 17 57-4
Means .......s0000. 23 4 28 | 22 93 47 | 21 14 293) 19 58 89} 18326 | 18 1-7
Mean Dip............ | See | 68 46-9 | 68 30-1 | 67 52-6 | 67 35-6 | 67 27-8

Month. 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891

| a
°o ’ °o i] °o ’ ° ‘ Q rT o

January oo... 17 56-3 | 17 52-0 | 17 42-7 | 17 38.0] 17 31-7 | 17 25.8
February ............ 17 55-4 | 1751-6 | 17 424°] 17 36-9] 17 31-1] 17 24.7
BRarch <cscscvece +. 17 55-6 | 17 51-7 | 17 41-9 | 17 36-4 | 17 30-5 | 17 24.5
i eee 17 55-2 | 17 50-7 | 17 40-9 | 17 35-3 | 17 29-6 | 17 24.8
(a ee 17 54-9 | 17 50-5 | 1740-9 | 17 34-7 | 1798-9 | 17 94.4
7 17 55-2 | 1750-6 | 17 40-8 | 17 35-3 | 1728-6] 17 24.9
a 17 55-4 | 1749-5 | 1740-5 | 17 34.0] 17 27-4 | 17 93.3
REE 2) «acca snsees 17 54-2 | 17 48-9 | 1739-4] 1738-9] 17 27-9 | 17 23.1
September ......... 17 54:0 | 17 47-4 | 17 39-3 | 17 84-3 | 17 27-7 | 17 29.9
October .........0:.00. 17 53.0 | 17 47-1 | 1739-5 | 17 33-4 | 17 27-2 | 17 21.8
November ......... 17 52-8 | 17 44.6 | 1738-3 | 17 32-7 | 17 26-3 | 17 21.2
December............ 17 52-5 | 17 44.1 | 1737-8 | 17 33-4 | 17 26-2 | 17 20-5
MEGANS) .....-<002000.. 17 54.5 | 17 49-1 17 40-4 | 17 34.9 | 17 28.6 | 17 23-4
Mean Dip.........0.. | 67 27-0 | 67 26-4 | 67 25-4 | 67 24.1 | 67 22-9 | 67 21-4

(470.) Upon examining these columns of figures, it will be seen that the
decreasing amount of Westerly Variation is far from being regular, and
that at some periods the Variation is absolutely increasing. The mean
Variation in 1891 was about 17° 23:4’, so that it had decreased 5° 41’ in
the forty-seven years elapsed since 1844, or at the rate of 74’ per annum ;
but its mean rate at Greenwich is about 5}’ or 6’ at present, according to
the most recent observations at the Greenwich Observatory, varying
irregularly from 5’ to 84’ between successive years.

No ASOn © 59

458 °° s MAGNETIC VARIATION. {

The needle also varies very considerably at times in the course of the
day, this diurnal change amounting to 7’, 8’, 9’, and 10’; the maximum
Westerly Declination is at 2 p.m. This topic is so large and comprehen-
sive, that if further information be required beyond that given here, and
in the Section on Magnetism and the Compass at the end of this work,
reference must be made to other works devoted entirely to the subject..

(471.) Magnetic Storms.—The daily oscillation in the Variation, or
magnetic declination, of the Compass, is too small, even in so-called”
‘“‘ Magnetic Storms,” to be of any importance in practical navigation. _

From the 13th to the 18th of May, 1891, a Magnetic Storm was observed '
at the Naval Observatory, Washington, U.S., during which the needle~
varied 48’ in direction in 94 hours, the North end being drawn 35’ to the ,
Eastward of its normal direction.

During another such storm, February 13th to 14th, 1892, at the same |
Observatory, the needle oscillated on each side of the mean position,
registering a change of direction of 1° towards the Hast, and nearly 30’
towards the West. This unusually severe Magnetic Storm is of especial
interest, as it occurred at the time of the appearance of a large group of
sun-spots, and of fine displays of aurora.

we Tek abi 9 Beers Ferteiee

GREAT CIRCLE TRACK CHART
of the

NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN.

“Every straight line on this Chart, either as
engraved or as tt may be drawn by hand
represents an are of a Great Circle.”

Sir G.B. Airy — Astronomer Royal.

( 459 )

V.—OF PASSAGES OVER THE NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN.

1. GENERAL REMARKS.

(472.) In the preceding pages we have described those natural phenomena
of Winds, Currents, &c., which govern the track of a ship across the Ocean.
The object of the present section is to apply these principles to the sea-
man’s practice , but, previous to entering upon this portion of the task,
we will make a few general observations upon Great Circle Sailing, which
has been revived as a new subject, when mn tact it is one which was among.
the earliest principles recognized in navigation. This is not the place to.
enter into disquisitions on the working of Great Circle problems—that
must be ieft to works specially devoted to Nautical Mathematics.* The
excellent ‘‘ Practice of Navigation” by Lieutenant Raper, or Towson’s
“ Tables to Facilitate the practice of Great Circle Sailing,” will be found
excellent guides, but still a greater simplicity in the application to ordinary
purposes of navigation is a great desideratum. |

Great Circle Sailing was known and acted on very early in the history
of navigation. It is more than probable that Cabot, Columbus, Magalhaens,
and all the first great navigators were acquainted with the subject ;+ but
this, it must be remembered, was prior to the knowledge of the principles
of finding the longitude. When Gerhard Mercator, in 1569, published a
universal map, on tho projection now known by his name, a new era com-
menced in navigation; but its true principles were first correctly described
by Edward Wright, in i599. In this projection, the meridians being
straight lines parallel to each other, the latitude is distorted and decreased
in proportion as these meridians are more distant from each other than the
correct difference of longitude would give for that latitude. Consequently,
a straight line drawn between any two points on such a plain chart, will
give the correct compass bearing, which, if maintained throughout the
course by a ship, will lead her from one point to the other. This course is

~ A very complete account of the different methods is given by Mr. G. W. Littlehales,
in his illustrated pamphlet ‘‘ The Development of Great Circle Sailing,” published by
the United States Hydrographic Office. 1889.

+ It is alluded to directly in a work by Pedro Nuiiez, in 1537; again, by Pedro de
Medina, in 1545, but his system was erroneous, and was corrected by Martine Cortes
(or Curtis), whose work, ‘“‘ The Arte of Navigation,” was soon after, in 1561, translated
out of the Spanish into English, by Richard Eden, and was long the text-book of English
seamen. Numerous other works, in which it is correctly and distinctly described,
afterwards appeared, as one by Michael Coignet, of Antwerp, in 1581; an excellent
work by Roderick Zamarano, in 1585, &c. That by this time it was thoroughly recog-
nized is evident by John Davis’s book, published in August, 1594, called the ‘““Seaman’s ©
Secrets; wherein is Taught the Ziree Kinds of Sayling—Horizontall, Paradoxall, and
Sayling upon a Great Circle.” It is also described in Richard Polter’s ‘Pathway to
Perfect Sayling,” about the same time. After this it is found in most of the old works
on Navigation.

460 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC,

well known as the rhwmb cowrse, and is that in universal use from its sim-
plicity. But it is not the shortest course, except it be due East or West on
the Equator, or North or South on a meridian, which are Great Circles.
This course, developed on a sphere, is found to be a spiral, and is con-
siderably removed from a Great Circle, or shortest distance, if a great ex-
tent of longitude is traversed by it. We need not pursue this subject, but
an example will explain its application.

From a position off the Land’s End, in lat. 50° N., long. 5° 30’ W., to
Cape St. John, in the Bay of Notre Dame, in Newfoundland, also in lat.
50° N., and long. 55° 30’ W., the course, trwe, is of course West, and the
distance on this parallel is 1,928} miles. But if a ship were to quit the
Lizard on a N. 70° 20' 30” W. (true) course, and then, gradually bearing
more Westward, attain the latitude of 50° 45’ N., in long. 30° 30’ W., thence
bearing more Southward, and approaching Cape St. John on a similar
angle to the parallel that she had left the Land’s End, she will have sailed
1,893 miles, or 354 miles less than on the parallel; but, in her greatest
separation, she will have been 165 miles distant from the rhumb course.
Therefore, if she were to take any course between this Great Circle course
and the parallel of 50°, she would have a less distance to traverse; and
this is the great advantage which the Great Circle Sailing offers—that of
a wide range of choice (in a higher latitude) without increasing the
distance.

Further, if she were to assume a course as much higher in latitude as
the Great Circle course is above the rhumb, she will find that it will be of
the same length as the latter. Thus, in the example cited, if on leaving
the Land’s End she bear away for a point in lat. 55° 30’ N., longitude
30° 30’ W., and then approach Cape St. John, such a curve will be found
to be exactly 1,9283 miles in length, and yet be, in its maximum separation,
330 miles apart from the parallel. The advantage of such a range of choice
will appear subsequently in the remarks upon the Transatlantic Passages.

(473.) The great difficulties in the application of the principle of Great
Circle Sailing to practice were, the laborious nature of the calculations,
now, however, much reduced, and the inference as to how a course so much
at variance with that which the chart will apparently dictate as the most
direct, will place a ship in respect to favourable Winds or Currents. Still,
the scope it allows to the navigator must be considered as no mean advan-
tage, even if its shorter distance may not be an inducement to rigorously
follow out its principles.

(474.) In the following general sailing directions, the application of the
facts in physical geography which have been described in the preceding
sections of this work, must be left to the discretion of the commander in
most cases. In fine weather, and with fair winds, the estimation of the
various influences which affect the ship’s course is not difficult to make.
But it is the adverse circumstances of a voyage that call for the seaman’s
skill and intelligence, and what has been said will help him to form a judg-
ment of what is going on and how best to procéed.

There is an infinite variety of circumstances which render it impossible
to lay down any fixed rule which may be implicitly followed to advantage
at all times. Therefore, in cases where a definite course is pointed out as

GENERAL REMARKS. 461

the best to be pursued, and a vessel should be driven out of hec intended
route, it does not follow that it is right to endeavour to regain that course
to pursue it afresh, but rather it should be considered that a fresh voyage
has to be commenced, and the course shaped from the latest point as if it
were a starting point.

(475.) A vessel under steam only is considered in the light of a sailing
vessel with a fair wind. In a certain sense this is true, as it enables her
to be independent of Wind or Current. But it should be remembered
that the same contrarieties which affect and hinder a sailing vessel from
pursuing a direct course, will also, in a degree, be adverse to the progress
of a steamer; and, therefore, if a moderate deviation from the shortest
route will lead her into more favourable Winds or Currents, that course
will be most advantageous to the vessel under steam as it is to the sailing
ship.

There is one circumstance which may be mentioned respecting a ship
under steam, as to how she is affected by the direction and strength of the
wind. If a vessel be steaming before a fresh breeze, strength No. 8, at
the rate of 12 or 13 knots, she will experience a perfect calm, while the
sailing vessel will only be able to carry her top-gallant sails and royals.
If she steams in the teeth of the wind, she will seem to have a strong
gale, under which a sailing ship could only carry close-reefed topsails.
This will be made apparent by consulting the Tables of the Velocity of
the Wind on pages 105—106. Now, a vessel steaming with the wind
otherwise than directly fore or aft, will not feel the wind in its true direc-
tion; for it will appear to blow from that direction and with that force which
is a combination of the rate and direction of the ship’s course with that of
the velocity and direction of the wind itself. Its apparent and real course
and velocity may be found by constructing a parallelogram of forces—a
well-known problem. It is for this reason that the wind as registered or
board a steam-vessel does not give the correct bearing of its course, and i
is much more disguised than it is in a sailing ship when close-hauled, a
alluded to in (14), on page 103.

As the steam-vessel, then, may be considered in a great measure inde-
pendent of Wind and Current, the great object of the past and succeeding
remarks is mainly applicable to sailing vessels.

(476.) It has been well observed that the Wind systems of our globe
naturally govern the tracks of ships crossing the Oceans, the Trade Winds
carrying them from Hast to West within the Tropics, while the Anti-
Trade or Passage Winds will bring them back again Eastward beyond the
Tropics. If it were not for the intervening Belt of Calms, sailing direc-
tions for vessels going into opposite hemispheres would be of the simplest
kind; but the well-known Equatorial embarrassments— the Doldrums ”
—generally make a very different matter of it, and cause many considera-
tions to enter into the problem of shaping a course. In the North Atlantic,
the obstacles of the intervening Calms seem to be at their maximum, and
in the future remarks one chief point, now still argued, will be found to
be that which has engaged attention almost ever since over-sea voyages
commenced—where is the best place to avoid these Calms and contrarieties
of the Equator. ©

462 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

The directions which follow will commence with our own country,
although very briefly ; for it is presumed that almost every one who will
use this book is either well qualified to navigate our own channels, or has
more extended works on this point to guide him.

And even in the remarks on more distant voyages very brief notices
would generally suffice, for most are now familiar with the varied par-
ticulars of the hydrography ef the Atlantic as it affects a ship’s passage.
Notwithstanding the vast labour that has been bestowed on the research
into its phenomena, it does not seem that a corresponding advantage has
accrued to shipping ; for in many cases the directions of a century since
will be found as useful as those based upon these refined inquiries. How-
ever, one thing may be averred, that passages are now made with much
greater certainty than formerly, and even if the average duration of a voyage
is shortened a few hours, very much has been gained; and, by the com-
parison of a great number of voyages made under different circumstances,
it may be safely pronounced which is the best course to pursue, and what
the average length of such a voyage will be.

For much of the information given on the accompanying diagrams we
are indebted to the United States Pilot Chart, which is constructed from
numerous authorities, and the sailing tracks are based upon the varying
limits of the Winds and Currents, according to the seasons. They must
not be considered as infallible, but are given as a guide, on which the
mariner may use his own judgment.

2. TO AND FROM THE ENGLISH CHANNEL.
OuTWARD.

For vessels leaving the Downs, and having rounded the South Foreland
at about 1 mile distant, the track is W.S.W.:(mag.), 21 miles, to a similar
position off Dungeness, the depth 13 to 17 fathoms. From a mile off
Dungeness to abreast the Royal Sovereign Shoal Lightvessel, the course
is W. by S., 24 miles, and in depths varying from 17 to 9 and 12 fathoms.
In working down, and while to the Eastward of Folkestone, stand in to
13 fathoms, and off towards the Varne to 16 fathoms. The dangerous
character of this bank has been modified by the placing of a buoy and
lightvessel to mark it. Between Dungeness and Bexhill keep outside of
9 or 10 fathoms, and within 25 fathoms. To the Westward keep South
of the Royal Sovereign Lightvessel, which will keep you clear of the
shoals.

Having arrived at a position 4 miles South of Beachy Head, a course
may be shaped down Channel. This course will necessarily be much
controlled by the wind and tide; but under any circumstances the English
coast should not be left. If the wind be contrary, the best position with
the commencement of the ebb is inshore. The flood tide, especially at its
commencement, tends to the Southward, filling the large indentations of
the French coasts before it sets up the Channel, and then it sets on to the

THE ENGLISH CHANNEL. 463

coast South of Boulogne. It is well to remember that the tidal streams
throughout the fairway of the English Channel set towards Dover while
the tide is rising there, and away from it while falling, so that the Dover
tide table answers for the whole distance between the Lizard and Beachy
Head. It is high water at Dover, on full and change, at 1lh.12m. All
this is explained on pages 285-286.

Ifthe wind is favourable a W. 3 N. course for 59 miles brings you to a
position 4 miles off St. Catherine’s Point ; from thence W. 4 N., 92 miles,
to 4 miles off the Start. In working down do not come nearer the Owers
than in 20 fathoms, and to St. Catherine’s than 22 fathoms. From thence
to St. Alban’s Head into not less than 22 fathoms, to avoid the indraught.
Between Portland Bill and the Start, if the weather be clear and
favourable, you may stand into Lyme Bay to 17 or 16 fathoms. Through-
out all this course keep off until in from 35 to 36 fathoms. From off the
Start to a similar position off the Lizard, the course and distance are
‘W. $N., 64 miles, which course continued for 49 miles farther brings the
ship 12 miles South of the Bishop light.

Throughout the course as far as off Plymouth, the tides set fair up and
down ; Westward of this they revolve in all directions, and must be most
carefully attended to, as it is also. most necessary when to the East of
Beachy Head.

In case of bad weather or contrary winds, and necessity for shelter,
the following places may be safely sought for. With the winds broad
Easterly or Westerly, ships may stop on either side of Dungeness, in East
or West Bays, and also on either side of Beachy Head, in Seaford Road,
Westward and Eastward of the shoals on the other side, and near Bexhill;
and with Westerly winds the Park inside the Owers Lightvessel is also
used. Within the Isle of Wight there is anchorage sheltered from all
winds. Westward of the Wight, Studland Bay (near Poole) affords good
shelter from Westerly gales. The Refuge Harbour in Portland Roadstead
affords security against nearly all-winds. Good anchorage is also found
against Southerly winds in Torbay, Plymouth Sound, and Falmouth.

Most sailors have had some experience of the detention caused by con-
trary winds in the English Channel. Some of the more remarkable of
these detentions have long lived in remembrance... Thus, the Right Hon.
Maurice Fitzgerald, in some evidence respecting the Western Harbours of
Ireland, gave a curious illustration of the difficulties in making way
against these Westerly gales. An officer of considerable experience com-
manded a small vessel of war belonging to the Cork squadron, when
information was received that a smuggler was to land on the Western
coast, and he was ordered to cruise off the Skelligs to intercept her. . He
sailed from Cork, but was brought up six different times at Crookhaven,
and, being extremely anxious to reach the ground upon which he was to
cruise, he determined to sail round the North of Ireland, and he did so,
and reached the Skellig in a very few days.

The detention of Rear-Admiral Christian was proverbially known. He
sailed from Portsmouth with an expedition for the West Indies on
November 16th, 1779, and, after having been repeatedly blown back, he
did not ultimately clear the Channel till the end of the following March

464 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

It seems that the wind generally draws up and down the Channel more
or less, and does not blow true as in the open ocean. Thus, a Westerly
wind in the offing may become a W.N.W. wind in the English Channel,
and a N.W. wisd in the St. George’s Channel; and the same with the
Easterly winds. By referring to (135) to (139), pages 203—205, and the
illustrative diagram, the reader will see some exemplification of this in the
case of Liverpool, and in (141), pages 206-207, those of the English
Channel are discussed, where it will be seen that the Western pre-
dominate over the Eastern quarters as 229 to 132. The reason for the
prevalence of these Westerly winds, will be found discussed in (128),
page 199.

Some statistics are given in (134), page 203, of the observations for
49 years at Greenwich Royal Observatory, and as a further illustration of
the direction of the wind in the upper part of the Channel, we may
adduce the result of 10 years observations made by the Royal Society at
their premises in London. It was found that the mean for the 10 years
was 101 days of Easterly Winds against 186 of Westerly Winds; or, sup-
posing a feather to have been abandoned at the beginning of each of the
years, the mean direction and number of days, for the 10 years, the
feather would have advanced, was N. 85° HE. 66 days per annum. This
shows how far the Westerly predominate over the Easterly directions.
North-Easterly winds are at a maximum in May and June.

HoMEWARD.*

The Bristol Channel I consider safer to approach than either the
English or St. George’s Channels. The parallel of ‘Trevose Head, on
which stands a lighthouse, has been generally recommended, and that of
Lundy Island, with its lighthouse, may be used according to circumstances,
direction of the wind, &c. In thick or dark weather, the soundings will
indicate when you have passed a line cutting Scilly and St. Ann’s lights
near Milford Haven, and algo on nearing the shores on either side. The
South side of Lundy is preferred, as you can go safely round it, taking
care to keep the light in sight above the land ; and as there are generally
pilots lying under the island, you are sure not to miss them in pursuing
this route.

For approaching and proceeding up the Bristol Channel, various direc-
tions have been given. Ist. Sowndings.—The great difficulty is that the
soundings are very deep, and the same water may be got in different
positions, both in latitude and longitude, so that a false position by dead-
reckoning in the longitude, or in the latitude by the want of observations, is
almost as likely to be confirmed as detected ; I mean by detached casts of
the lead. As @ precaution against this, I would advise ships (particularly
those navigating by dead-reckoning) to ‘‘seek the ground early,’ so that
by striking the edge of the bank they may obtain, as it were, a departure,
and then take frequent casts of the lead, and make with them a Table in

* « Genera] Notes on the Approaches to the Channels, and for Navigating the English
Channel,” by Captain Richard Leighton.

THE ENGLISH CHANNEL. 465

the following form, noting the true course and distance between each two
casts, and carefully observing the quality of the ground as well as the
depth of the water :—

True Course. | Distance. | Depth. | Quality of the Ground.

And where a few of these are obtained and set off upon the chart, one
will check the other. Ships, as well as steamers, have been lost by not
** stopping to sound” (though this difficulty has now been surmounted to a
great extent by improved and special sounding apparatus).

The prevalent winds are considered to be 8.W. and Westerly from May
to December, both inclusive, and from January to April, both inclusive ;
although long and heavy S.W. and Westerly gales may occur at this latter
season, yet they are more frequently interrupted by Northerly and N.E.
winds, particularly in February and March. N.W. winds are considered
to be generally of short duration.

To approach and pass Scilly, the parallel of 49° 15’ to 49° 25’ has
generally been recommended ; in place of which I would recommend that
from 49° 30’ to 49° 40’, according to the wind, &c., as likely be attended
with greater safety; and if the Bishop Rock or Scilly * be not made,
having taken every precaution to ascertain the longitude, once that its
meridian is past, strike for the Lizard, and if possible, make it, and thence
proceed by the rules of the best coasters. Lights can usually be seen
when celestial observations cannot be made; and as the navigation is
generally free from outlying dangers, courses should be shaped from one
prominent point or light to the next, keeping at a moderate distance to
ensure seeing them, if possible. The ships generally met with in this
route are coasters, and they keep a good look-out, and are generally very
anxious to get out of the way of large foreign-going ships.

Easterly Winds in the Winter and Spring Months.—Those winds are
very destructive upon the Hast coast, and often cause heavy losses and
great detention among the shipping; and, although they may blow long
and steady in all the Channel, yet at times they do not extend to the
Westward of Cork, but more generally cease about the edge of soundings ;
I have known them to blow long and remarkably steady in the Bristol
Channel, and yet ships were arriving at Cork with heavy S.W. winds.

Whilst speaking of soundings and Channel navigation, I want to strongly
urge the use of Captain Sumner’s method, as by it a single altitude giving
the line AA, with a cast of the lead, or a bearing of the land, will often fix
a ship’s position with certainty, and its many uses and advantages will
soon suggest themselves after a little practice.

My reasons for dissenting from choosing the parallel of 49° 15’ to 49° 25'
to approach the Channel, are :—

1st. A ship in this parallel will pass from 30 to 40 miles to the South-
ward of Scilly, and will not expect to see it. I think that this precau-
tion attaches too much importance to Major Rennell’s Thwart-Channel

* In thick weather, vessels are recommended not to approach the Scilly Islands
within the depth of 60 fathoms.

N. A. O. 60

466 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

Current, which I do not consider to be a definite current, but only at times,
occasioned by a combination of circumstances driving a great excess of
water into the Bay of Biscay, and the excess of tide to the Northward
does not require so great an allowance.

Qnd. That parallel is the centre of the dangerous group of Guernsey,
Jersey, the Caskets, &c., which, I believe, have caused more wrecks to
ships bound up the English Channel than getting to the ‘“‘ Northward of
Scilly ’’ has done, and the Channel course trends to the Northward; the
difference of longitude between Scilly and the Caskets may appear great,
but great errors occur-in dead reckoning, and a ship goes far in a winter
night with a Westerly gale.

3rd. That parallel has led to or encouraged the imprudent and dan-
gerous practice of galloping up in mid-channel, with neither anchor nor
cable clear, and trusting to celestial observations and chronometers, as
though it were in the middle of the Atlantic; and here we have the
Conqueror, Reliance &., sad examples of the effects of not making and
keeping hold of the English coast, lights, &e. A great deal was said and
written about those cases, but I consider that the amount of error in the
course and distance from a position off Scilly or the Lizard, to place a
ship on shore between Boulogne and Calais, instead of being in a position
off Dungeness, to be an every-day occurrence in navigating such a distance
in tideways and blowing weather, without any check to correct the
account, and neither ‘‘storm-waves” nor ‘‘storm-currents”’ were required
to cause them.

4th. Foreign-gomg masters generally keep at too great a distance from
the land, by which they not only frequently miss a sight of lights, &c.,
which it is important that they should see, but they lose the benefit of some
degree of familiarity with the land, objects, &., which a nearer approach
would give them, and which, in the event of having to go into roadsteads,
&c., would be found of very great service.

5th. It is not by keeping near the land that ships get embayed and lost.
If tt were, colliers would never be safe; they are as much afraid of getting
off the land as foreign-going masters generally are of coming near it. The
general rule in coasting is to see every guide as you pass it (unless thick
weather should prevent it, and in that case strict attention to the lead
until you find the next); this rule and attention to the set and duration
of the tides are the grand points in coasting.—R. L.

In 1889 and 1890, the officers of H.M.S. Research re-sounded the
approaches to the English, Bristol, and St. George’s Channels, Westward
of Scilly, and found considerable variations from what was shown on the
chart. It was found that, Westward of Scilly, the bottom consists of a
series of ridges, of no great breadth, lying in a N.E. and S.W. direc-
tion. The bottom is sand, broken shell, patches of pebbles, gravel, and
occasionally mud. Southward of the parallel of 49°30’, much yellow sand
was found, and Northward of that. line mixed with black specks; this
peculiarity was especially remarked between the meridians of 9° 40’
and 7° 30’ W.

During March, April, and May, sailing vessels are often delayed in the
English Channel by persistent Easterly winds, accompanying an area of

THE ST. GEORGE’S CHANNEL. 467

high barometer over the British Isles. To the Northward of this area of
high barometer there are correspondingly persistent Westerly winds, and
it therefore follows that under such circumstances sailing vessels, bound
for ports in the North Sea and the Baltic, can, with great advantage, take
a route to the North of Scotland. On this route, too, there is plenty of
sea room, and little or no danger of collision. Favourable conditions for
taking this route can be readily determined in mid-ocean, and if Easterly
or Southerly winds are encountered to Eastward of the 40th meridian,
with a high and steady barometer, there should be no hesitation in
shaping a course to the North of Scotland, instead of attempting to take
the usual route by way of the Channel, where Easterly winds are then
likely to prevail.*

8.—TO AND FROM THE ST. GEORGE’S CHANNEL.+

‘Many shipmasters have been bewildered in St. George’s Channel,
especially in thick weather, from ignorance of the tides and want of
experience; some, we are sorry to add, from want of due consideration;
and others from not allowing for the indraught into the bays on the
Welsh coast (in which the two lightvessels are placed to remove some of
this latter danger).

“« The writer of the following hints and observations begs to be under-
stood as laying no claim to merit in their compilation; his only motive
being to assist and advise the stranger, and those who, from want of
experience, have acquired only a slight knowledge of this dangerous
navigation.”

Special caution as to the effects of the Tides seems necessary to be
inculcated of late. Some most lamentable shipwrecks have recently
occurred on the banks off the S.H. coast of Ireland, by vessels leaving
Liverpool under what ought to have been favourable circumstances. The
unthinking hardihood of the commander who will place his ship’s keel on
a special course as if it were a groove, which, if most accurately kept, will
just shave clear of destruction, and without taking into account the
numerous causes which will horse him off his course, such as bad steerage,
leeway, heave of the sea, and, above all, the set of the tides—cannot be too
strongly deprecated. And yet, as above said, some losses have occurred
which have most certainly arisen from a culpable neglect of all these
particulars, and been attributed to charts or local magnetic attraction
unadjusted, or, indeed, anything but the real cause—the thoughtlessness
of the sailor. On pages 288—289 are some brief remarks on the Tidal
Streams of the St. George’s Channel, which will do to remind the sailor
of what is said in more extended works.

Another point of caution most important is, the character of the Lights

* United States Pilot Chart of the North Atlantic Ocean, May, 1888.

t ‘General Instructions and Admonitions for Sailing Vessels bound from Liverpool
and other Western Ports to the Atlantic Ocean, and for Returning from the Ocean te
the same,” by Captain Thomas Midgley, of Liverpool.

468 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC,

marking its dangers. In Findlay’s ‘‘ Lighthouses of the World ard Coast
Fog Signals,” their latest condition is given, and it is now sincerely to be
hoped that no misleading alterations will take place, without due notice
being given beforehand. The lights, as they were, or as they are, answer
their purpose well; but unknown alterations must lead to confusion,
doubt, and danger, and have before now been the cause of shipwreck,
Therefore, let the seaman who has been absent, perhaps for years, enter
these difficult channels with all caution.

Captain Midgley’s instructions are arranged as follows :—

(a) On proceeding from Liverpool Westward to the Bay of Holyhead.

(b) On taking the North Channel, and thence to Tory Island.

(c) On proceeding by the South Channel, and thence Westward to the
Ocean.

(® On proceeding by the South of Ireland from the Ocean to Liver-
pool, &c.

The courses and bearings (corrected) are to be wnderstood as by compass.

(a) ON PROCEEDING FROM LIVERPOOL WESTWARD TO HOLYHEAD.

Liverpool being the principal and central port in St. George’s Channel,
and the prevalent winds being from the Westward, W.S.W., and 8.W.,
during eight or nine months of the year, I shall suppose that a large ship
leaves that port, with an adverse wind from the Westward. Having dis-
charged the pilot off the lightship, stand to the Northward all the ebb tide
(which, in Liverpool Bay, sets to the N.W., and the flood to the 8.E.),
and, if laying N.N.W., or to the Westward of this direction, during the
first quarter of the flood, keep the lead occasionally going, with a careful
look-out for the Isle of Man, which is moderately high, and on the South
side bold-to.

Should there be a strong breeze and a heavy sea, the vessel may not
weather the West Hoyle Sands, on the starboard tack; and great caution
is, therefore, required when going near them, as they are bold-to and very
dangerous. In thick weather the lead must be constantly used, and the
sands should not be approached nearer than in 10 fathoms of water.

The soundings along the North coast of Wales, Hastward of Point
Lynas, will pretty accurately determine the distance of the ship from the
land, provided due attention be paid to the depth of water; but the quality
of the soundings will not indicate the particular part of the coast she may
be abreast of.

The Ormes Heads are very bold, and the Great Head marked by a fine
light, and any vessel may safely steer a direct course from thence to Point
Lynas, which may be known by the castellated building near its extremity,
used as a lighthouse, and the telegraph station upon its summit. Point
Lynas and the land to the Westward of it is very bold, but the ebb tide
hence runs very strongly to the W.N.W. and through the sound inside the
Skerries. Off the Middle and West Mouse the spring ebbs run at the rate
of 7 knots; and all vessels should, consequently, give this part of the land
a good berth, during light winds, at such times as the flood or ebb may be

THE ST. GHORGEH’S CHANNEL. 469

running strong; or they may, upon an ebb tide, get into the vicinity, or
perhaps upon, Coal Rock, Hthel Rock, the Skerries, Platters, or other
dangers hereabout. By night a red light from the Skerries will point out
the position of Coal and Kthel Rocks; and the main light is obscured
over the Hast Platters.

Beaumaris is a good harbour for ordinary merchant vessels, into which
a Liverpool pilot will conduct them, provided no licensed pilot for the port
may be found ; but the Beaumaris pilot-boat is generally cruising off the
chops of the bay, between the Ormes Heads and Lynas, or lying at anchor
within it.

Holyhead is also an excellent harbour, fit for the largest vessels, well
sheltered by the immense pier or breakwater,

(o) On Takine THE Norra CHANNEL, AND PROCEEDING THENCE TO
Tory Isnanp.

If, after weathering the Hoyle Sands, the wind should be so far to the
Southward of West as to enable a vessel to weather the Isle of Man, it may
be a matter of consideration whether it be most advisable to go through
the North Channel or the South Channel, and this should not be hastily
decided on. In the summer months the winds are more variable than in
winter, and then it is certainly advisable to choose that passage which is
nearest to the destined port, giving the preference to the North Channel if
bound to British America, Newfoundland, or the Northern ports of the
United States. In winter, the prevalent winds are from §.W. and W.S.W.,
and these winds often blow steady for several days.

Should the North Channel be preferred, with Southerly and S.S.W. to
W.S.W. winds (and it should not be attempted with any others that have
Westing in them, especially by a stranger), it is advisable to take a
departure from the Calf of Man, and steer a direct and mid-channel
course, with a careful look-out, as the passage is narrow and the tides
very rapid, but running directly through the channel, the flood setting
from the Northward toward the Mull of Galloway. With a W.S.W. wind
it will be necessary to keep the Irish shore aboard, after passing the two
lights on the Maiden Rocks; or it is possible, in a strong gale from this
quarter, that there may be some difficulty in weathering the Isle of Islay.

The North Channel is well lighted, and has many excellent harbours fit
for the largest ships, as Lough Foyle, Belfast Lough, Loch Ryan, Camp-
belton, Lamlash, &c., but it is advisable for vessels, if possible, to take
those upon the Irish coast, as they can get to sea with Southerly and 8.W.
winds, when it may be difficult to get away from either Lamlash or
Campbelton.

After passing Tory Island, on which there is now a Signal Station, do
not be too anxious to make Southing, but steer well to the Westward, if
possible ; for there is always a very heavy sea and a strong indraught
upon the West coast of Ireland, and strong Westerly and W.N.W. gales
are very prevalent in the winter. Although there are some excellent
harbours in the N.W. of Ireland, they may be considered as inaccessible
to a stranger, owing to the great difficulty of procuring a pilot in the

470 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

winter season ; every exertion should, therefore, be made to keep off this
dangerous and too often fatal coast.

The depth of water, or quality of soundings in the North Channel, will
give little or no indication of the progress of the vessel, so that a good
look-out is here the mariner’s best safeguard; the coasts on both sides
being bold, excepting about South Rock and Maiden Rock, both of which
dangers are well lighted, but require a good berth in passing, particularly
the latter.

In running through the North Channel with S.W. winds, every stitch of
canvas should be carried that the vessel will possibly bear, as these winds
often fly suddenly round to the N.W. quarter, see (122) and (128) ; and in
that case blow so hard, for twenty-four or thirty-six hours, as to compel a
vessel either to bear up for the South Channel, take a harbour, or lie-to in
a narrow and dangerous channel for a more favourable wind.

(c) ON PROCEEDING BY THE SouTH CHANNEL, AND THENCE WESTWARD
TO THE OCEAN.

If it be intended to persevere in working down the South Channel, it will
be the best way to keep the Irish shore aboard by short tacks, should the
weather be squally with heavy rain, as the vessel will then have the benefit
of the N.W. wind and smoother water, should it fly round to that quarter,
as is often the case. In dry or moderate weather there is little fear of a
sudden shift of wind; and a vessel, in such case, may make a long board
toward the coast of Wales. Should it come on to blow from the S.W..,
with much rain, get the Irish coast on board as soon as possible, especially
in the winter.

Vessels passing up or down the South Channel with Westerly winds
will find a strong indraught setting into Carnarvon and Cardigan Bays, as
well as into the Bristol Channel ; and this may be probably, in some degree,
accounted for by the following, and, perhaps, other causes :—Southerly,
S.W., and Westerly winds prevail over the Atlantic, between the Azores
and Great Britain, during eight or nine months of the year, causing the
surface-current in this vast space to flow to the Eastward; the tides in
the neighbourhood of, and to some distance Westward of Scilly, run nine
hours out of the twelve to the Northward, or into St. George’s Channel,
which, like the Strait of Gibraltar, has some resemblance in form to the
pipe of a funnel ; and it is probable that, in gales of wind from the §.W.
quarter, there is very little, if any, ebb from the Western edge of Channel
Soundings to a position 45 miles West from Scilly, and thence to the
Northward, on the same meridian, until within 45 miles of the South coast
of Ireland; neither do I think it at all unlikely that a portion of the stream
of ‘‘Rennell’s Current,”’ which frequently, as I shall hereafter show, runs
with velocity to the N.W., may be diverted by Westerly gales into a more
Northerly direction, and being opposed in its course by the South coast of
Treland, finds its way to the Eastward, end thus contributes to raise the
level of the water, and make a strong tide or incraught into St. George’s
Channel.

THE ST. GEORGE’S CHANNEL. 471

This stream of tide sets E.N.E. toward the Tuskar, ond nearly in the
same direction, or a little more Northerly, toward the Smalls, and rushes.
with great velocity, past Skokham and Skomer, through the sound, towards.
St. David’s Head, and along the South and Hast coasts of Cardigan Bay,
from whence it diverges toward Bardsey Island; in the sound between.
which island and the main it runs with great strength.

It is generally advisable to keep the Irish shore aboard in turning dow
the St. George’s Channel, with S.W. winds and heavy rain. In the South
Channel the lead will impart some idea of the position of the vessel, or at
any rate will indicate, by the depth of water, the probable distance of the
vessel from the land. The banks on the Irish coast, between Howth Head
and Arklow Bank, may be safely approached to 20 fathoms of water, and
nearer should it be clear weather, which, by-the-bye, is not often the case
in this neighbourhood. When near the N.E. end of Arklow Bank, and
from thence to the Westward, no vessel should shoalen her water under 28
fathoms, without daylight and constant caution. The lights on these banks
require close attention, as they have at times been mistaken. The tides of
both flood and ebb run directly over these banks, in a N.N.E. and §.8.W.
direction, and in light winds must be carefully attended to.

In beating to the Westward, should a vessel shoalen her water on the
coast of Wales to 30 fathoms, she will be quite far enough inshore, and
should tack immediately, for it should be recollected that there is 36 to 40
fathoms water very close to Bardsey.

Should a vessel be caught with hard N.W. gales upon this dangerous
coast, every exertion must be used, by carrying taut well-set sail, to get
the ship round Bardsey, on which is a lighthouse, when she will have St.
Tudwall’s Road (which is well sheltered with Westerly winds) under her
lee. Should N.W. winds continue blowing hard, it will be better to run
for St. Tudwall’s Road, on the North, or to Fishguard Bay, on the South,
than to persevere too long in attempting to work out of Cardigan Bay.

Any moderate-sized vessel may find good and safe anchorage in Fish-
guard Bay, by running in to 2 or 3 cables from Cow Rock, on the West side
of the entrance, and anchor when the land to the Westward of it is shut
in, and the rock bears North, distant 3 to 4 cables, in 4 to 5 fathoms at
low water, over a bottom of stiff clay and mud, which holds remarkably
well; and the ship will lie well sheltered with all winds, except those from
North, around by the Eastward, to S.H. by E. or §.8.E.; N.E. winds
throw in a heavy sea.

The coast in the vicinity of Fishguard Bay is clean and bold, and the
bay may be readily distinguished from the offing by Cow Rock, which is
always above water, off the Western point of the entrance, and by the re-
markable appearance of Dinas Head (the Eastern point), which, upon an
Hasterly or 8.H. bearing, exactly resembles the head of a large gurnet.

Were the advantages of Fishguard Bay more fully known, they would
be duly appreciated. When the writer commanded the brig Freeland, of
Liverpool, that vessel was disabled, by the loss of her sails, in the heavy
N.W. gales which prevailed in December, 1833, and was obliged to run
into this bay in order to save the vessel from a lee shore ; and in this place
she lay in safety, at single anchor, with 70 fathoms of chain, during the

472 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

tremendous gales which caused the Liverpool lightship to part her moor-
ings, and compelled her to run into the Mersey for shelter.

From what has been stated above, it will be seen that this bay is of easy
access and egress, but it should never be used unless in a case of necessity,
and then with a good and careful look-out at all times, and everything
should be in readiness to trip the anchor at the moment the wind veers to
the Eastward of North, if the weather be not very moderate and settled.

On weathering the Smalls, when outward bound, it is advisable to keep
well to the Westward if the wind will permit, so as, on advancing South-
ward, to give Scilly a wide berth—say of 55 or 60 miles.

(d) ON PROCEEDING BY THE SouTH OF IRELAND FROM WIE OosaN
To LIvERPOOL, ETC.

In coming from the Westward, many navigators endeavour to make the
Fastnet Rock and Cape Clear, as it is high land, and there is an excellent
revolving light on the former. The coast in the neighbourhood is also
generally bold. But I do not think this is an advisable plan for a stranger,
unless he has obtained good observations a very short time previously ; for
I have known sailing vessels to be detained several days in endeavouring
to work round the cape against strong Southerly gales and a N.W. current
—unquestionably Rennell’s.

In two of these cases, one in 1836, and the other in 1439, two different
shipmasters ran with confidence for Cape Clear, upon the faith of good
observations for latitude, taken forty-eight hours previously, and both made’
the Skelligs on the starboard bow, when steering EH. by S., with the wind
from the Southward and S.S.W., thick weather and rain. When the
Skelligs were near, one of these gentlemen considered his vessel to be on
the parallel of the cape, and the other (in 1839) thought that he was at
least 10 to 15 miles to the Southward of it. It may be proper, however,
to add that the latter denied the existence of Renncll’s Current, until he
thus found the effect of it.

In thick, hazy weather, it may be well to run upon the parallel of 51°N.
until the vessel gets into 65 fathoms or less water; then steer about
E. by N., keeping the lead occasionally going and be careful not to advance
into less than 40 fathoms, when a channel course of about Hast may be
shaped, having constant recourse to the deep-sea lead. By proceeding in
this manner, it is probable that the land will be made in the vicinity of
Waterford, or about the Saltee Islands. Waterford may be known by the
lighthouse on Hook Point, on the East side of the entrance of the harbour.

A little to the Westward of Waterford are the THREE towers on Great
Newton Head, and rwo towers upon Brownston Head, as described in the
Sailing Directory. The latter are about 6 miles to the Westward of the
Hook Point of Waterford, and are too remarkable to be mistaken. The
Saltee Islets are 11} miles to the Eastward of Hook Point, known by its
tower and light. The Great Saltee is high, and may be readily known by
the Coningbeg lightship, moored to the 8. W. of it. No vessel should attempt
to pass between the lightvessel and the land, if it can possiblv be avoided,
the passage between heing rocky and dangerous.

THE ST. GEORGE’S CHANNEL, 473

The weather is often very thick on Nymph Bank, with the wind from
the Southward and N.W. quarter, and the Tuskar is, consequently, very
difficult to make. The Smalls and Tuskar, on the opposite sides of the
channel, when seen in this thick weather, have often been mistaken for a
large sloop with a peaked gaff-topsail set. No vessel should run with con-
fidence up St. George’s Channel without previously seeing one or other of
the lighthouses on these rocks, or the land in the vicinity, as the tides are
hereabout very strong, and hidden dangers abound near both, as shown
by the charts. To the Hastward of Nymph Bank the weather generally
becomes a little clearer than upon it.

The course may be safely altered when the Tuskar bears North, and an
allowance of one point or more must be made for the direction of the wind,
particularly if blowing from the N.W. quarter, as this wind not only in-
creases the indraught into Cardigan and Carnarvon Bays, but it throws
a heavy sea upon the whole line of the coast of Wales Northward of St.
David’s Head.

In running from the Smails toward Holyhead, it is, at all times, advisa-
ble to steer a point or more to the Northward of the direct course, unless
there is Easting in the wind; and should Holyhead or the South Stack
Lighthouse be made upon a bearing to the Northward of N.E. by E. 2 E.,
the course should be altered a, little, to bring it upon this bearing, other-
wise the vessel may find some difficulty in weathering it upon an ebb-tide,
if the wind should come out from the N.W. quarter, as there is a strong
set (along the land) to the Southward into Carnarvon Bay.

The island or rock called the South Stack, distinguished by its light-
house, is very bold, but, with light wind and a flood tide, strangers should
give it a berth of 3 or 4 miles, as there is much danger of being set inside
tht Skerries, if this is not attended to. In light winds and a flood tide,
steer well to the Northward, until the Skerries bear about E. by N., then
gradually edge away to the Hastward, until the lighthouse bears about
H. by S., distant 2 miles, when the flood tide, with a very little assistance
from the wind, will carry a vessel safely to the Northward of it.

The Skerries may be approached by a stranger, on the North side, within
a mile ; and when the lighthouse bears S. by W., steer E. by N. 2 miles,
and Kast 1 mile, or until the upper beacon on Carmel Point comes open to
the Eastward of the lower one, when the vessel will be clear to the Kast-
ward of Ethel and Coal Rocks. On proceeding thence, with a Southerly
wind, give a small berth to the Middle Mouse, a large rock always above
water, and very bold. On steering thence toward Point Lynas, take par-
ticular care not to shut up the light if it be in the night. Should the light
happen to be shut up, instantly run to the Northward or N.N.E. until it
opens, and heave-to or stand off and on for a pilot, about 4 or 5 miles to
the Eastward of the light, or between it and Great Ormes Head.

In thick weather, after passing the Skerries, and at night if the light
cannot be seen, great caution is requisite, in order to avoid Coal Rock, and
keep clear of the ebb tide running through the sound ; for, upon an ebb tide,
the land between Point Lynas and the Skerries must not be approached
within 3 or 4 miles without a commanding and favourable breeze.

N. A. O. 61

474 FASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

Vessels bound to Liverpool should make signal for a pilot immediately
after passing the Skerries, as the pilots are very often well to the West-
ward, and keep a diligent look-out; but should no boat be seen, cruize
about for one between Lynas and the Ormes Heads, as the tides here do
not run strong ; but do not, on any account, run a single mile to the Hast-
ward of the Great Ormes Head; for, should thick weather come on, the
vessel will be in danger of being upon the West Hoyle or Burbo Banks,
and lost. It sometimes, but rarely, happens, when an unusual number of
vessels come up on one tide, that there is no pilot-boat on the Lynas
station, but it will only be left for a few hours, and vessels should wait
with patience, for here a pilot is swre to be obtained.

The Liverpool pilots are under very excellent regulations, are exceedingly
skilful in their profession, and in point of character and conduct are not
surpassed by any similar body of men on the coast of Great Britain.

Although I have before noticed the necessity of an unremitting attention
to the lead in thick weather, perhaps I may be excused for adding here,
that such attention is of the greatest importance ; as, owing to the velocity
of the tides, it affords the mariner the only certain indication of his safety
or danger, and contributes to relieve his mind, in some degree, from the
anxiety he must feel whilst his vessel continues within the limits of this
dangerous navigation.

4.—_ PASSAGES BETWEEN ENGLAND AND GIBRALTAR.

By giving due attention to what has been stated previously, regarding
the winds and currents prevailing on the West coast of Europe, steamers
will find little to contend with in making this passage in ordinary weather,
whether outward or homeward bound. Every precaution must, however,
be taken when in the vicinity of Ushant, the N.W. coast of Spain, Capes
St. Vincent and Trafalgar, and other projections of the coast, especially
in thick weather.

Sailing vessels outward bound, with a favourable wind, may steer a
direct course as far as possible, making full allowance for passing well to
the Westward of Ushant and Cape Finisterre. If bad weather comes on,
it is advisable to make to the Westward as far as 10° or 12° W., rather
than risk being set into the Bay of Biscay. From off Cape Finisterre, it is
advisable to give the coast to the Southward a good berth, sighting Cape
St. Vincent, and then proceeding according to wind, weather, &c.

Sailing vessels homeward bound, after passing Cape St. Vincent, en-
deavour to get an offing of 100 or 150 miles, to avoid the current running
near the coast, proceeding to the Northward as the winds will allow.

60

WINTER ROUTES

UNIFORM ROUTES
for Steamers,
and Sailing Tracks
Dec! _ Jan._ Feb.

‘ternative Southerm,

2 Oet.- April

60°

SPRING. ROUTES

SAILING ROUTES
for

Mar.- April - May

(and Great Greles)

40°

20°

UNIFORM ROUTES

for Steamers,

June-July- Aug:

|

SUMMER ROUTES

| and. Sailing: ‘Tracks

face e 475.
30° 20° 10° tia
Se Cn I PS US Fa Us ee
oo
: ”
= + ee te

for

Sept". Oct..Nov.

es

SG

y (Old Routes. Black)
+ 4 ne

( 475 )

5.—ACROES THE EQUATOR.

Yt is probable that there has been more discussion upon the route from
the British Isles to the Equator, and on the best meridian for crossing the
Line, than upon any other passage. And yet the results of these inquiries
as to this, the great highway of the ocean, have served to confirm in a
great degree the opinions published in the early days of navigation, befére
any of the modern improvements and appliances had been brought to bear
upon it.

The directions given by M. D’Aprés de Mannevillette, in his great
‘‘ Neptune Orientale,”’ published nearly a century and a half since, might
be followed now without losing much of the advantages which deep study,
and extensive inquiry into data lately acquired, would give to the ship.
master.

Captain Maury, at the time of the publication of his ‘‘ Wind and Current
Chart,” in 1849, first advocated a more Westerly crossing of the Equator
than had been before pursued. This arose from looking at the voyage
from the opposite side of the Atlantic to that on which all previous sailing
directions had been composed. The configuration of the land about the
Equatorial portion of the Atlantic is peculiar, and causes the difficulties
of a trans-equatorial voyage. The Eastern point of the continent of South
America, Cape San Roque, the ‘great bugbear,” as Maury calls it, and
the land about Pernambuco, lying in the strength of the S.E. Trade, and
the consequent strong current to leeward which runs past it, were con-
stantly the dread of the older mariners, whose ships made so much leeway,
and were incapable of sailing on a wind as our modern clippers do. But
from the improvements in ships and their rig and management, much that
was formerly insuperable is now quite practicable, and many of the diffi-
culties of clearing Cape San Roque have vanished upon later inquiry.

The other difficulty which also combines with Captain Maury’s argu-
ment, is the intervening belt of Calms and Monsoons (extending nearly
across the ocean between the Trade Winds), which has a triangular form,
the base lying upon the African coast, between Cape Verde and the Equator,
and gradually getting narrower to the Westward, and therefore by crossing
it well to the Westward it is traversed in a shorter distance, and the de-
taining effects are much less experienced.

The work of Captain Maury, although it has done good service, must
now to a great extent give place to the more recent works of Captain
Toynbee, published by our own Meteorological Office.* In these the

* (1). Charts of Meteorological Data for Square 3, Lat. 0°—10° N., Long. 20°—30° W. ;
and Remarks to accompany the Monthly Charts, which show the Best Routes Aeron
the Equator for each month, &c. 1874.

(2). Charts of Meteorological Data for the Nine 10° Squares of the Atlantic, which lie
between Lat. 20°N. and 10° S., and extend from Long. 10° to 40° W., with Sccommpany-
ing Remarks, ending with the Best Routes Across the Equator. 1876.

476 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

information is more reliable than that afforded by Captain Maury, not
only by reason of the larger number of the observations from which they
are compiled, but also because of the greater accuracy of the observations,
all having been made with instruments tested and owned by the Meteoro-
logical Office. The period over which the observations extend is mainly
between the years 1855 and 1870. They were nearly all collected and
arranged by the late Admiral FitzRoy from British ships of the Mercantile
Marine.

Captain Toynbee (in the introductory remarks to the latter of the two
works mentioned in the note on the preceding page) says :—‘‘ The part of
the sea with which we are about to deal is of the greatest importance to
the navigator, as it contains the much dreaded Doldrums, through which
every ship bound to the Southward of the Equator must pass; and it is no
uncommon thing for sailing ships to lose a fortnight, or even three weeks,
through taking a wrong route for the month.”

In treating, therefore, of the third portion of this subject, or that which
relates to the passage from Madeira to and across the Equator, we shall
in the first place give Captain Toynbee’s remarks, and afterwards such in-
formation from former editions of this work as may be thought worthy of
the sailor's perusul.

Reference shou'd be made to the Diagrams accompanying this Section,
page 475 ; these are chiefly drawn up from those issued by the United
States Hydrographic Office, which are founded on averages of a great
number of observations. The routes recommended by Maury and the
earlier hydrographers are also marked on them, for easy reference and
comparison.

For Steam-ships, the Great Circle route from the Lizard to Cape Horn is
probably nearly the best that could be followed, even if it were not the
mathematical course. It passes near to the West end of Madeira and the
Cape Verde Islands, as directed for sailing ships, and then crosses the
Equator in longitude 313° W. It almost touches Pernambuco, and passes
close to Rio de Janeiro towards the Strait of Le Maire, the total distance
being 6,9883 miles.

Again, the Great Circle route from New York to the Cape of Good Hope
is a good route for steam-ships out or home. It cuts the Equator in 22° W.,
passing through Ascension and just Westward of St. Helena, the distance
being 6,877 miles.

To steam-vessels there will be no difficulty in following either of these
nearest routes, and they will only be modified in sailing vessels by the force
of the Trade Winds, which will make the course through the Trades more
Southerly than the Great Circle, in going Southward.

Although a voyage round either of the great Capes—the Cape of Good
Hope or Cape Horn—involves a more extended problem than that of the
passage over the North Atlantic Ocean, with which this book especially
deals, yet the difficulties and all phenomena which regulate the whole
voyage are encountered North of the Equator, and therefore the discussion
of the voyage to the Equator includes the whole problem, and what would
follow for the South Atlantic is simply and easily carried out.

ACROSS THE EQUATOR. 477

The GrneraL Instructions for making the passage from the English or
St. George’s Channels to the Equator may be briefly summed up thus :—

1. From the Lizard or the Tuskar, steer about W.S.W. (true) to gain
an offing, to longitude 10° or 12° W.

2. From thence steer so as to pass to the Westward of Madeira.

3. Thence to the West of the Cape Verdes, and across the Equator.

Each of these portions of the voyage will be discussed separately.

1. LEAVING THE CHANNEL.

The Great Circle course from the Start to Pernambuco, commencing
S. 372° W., true, carried on for 1,220 miles, passes 15 miles outside
Ushant, 45 miles off Cape Torinana or Cape Finisterre, and 30 miles West
of Madeira. With every circumstance in a sailing vessel’s favour, this
course made good may be followed; but, as will be seen by former dis-
cussions, she will be affected by numerous causes, which generally have a
tendency to place her to the Kastward of her course, and thus involve
her among the dangers of the French and Spanish coasts.

A much more prudent course is at once to make your Westing after
leaving the entrance of the Channel, as time will generally be saved by so
doing, and all uncertainty avoided.

Therefore steer to the W.S.W. or 8.W. by W. (true) in fine weather after
passing Bishop Rock or the Lizard, until the longitude of 10° or 12° be
attained. By doing this, the perplexing influence of the revolving tides
which occur between the Start and the French coast (page 285), will be in
some degree avoided. Again, the occasional Rennell’s Current (pages
301—312), will less affect a vessel, or if strong, will assist her in making
the necessary offing.

But the most important object, in thus early in the passage getting to
Westward, is to avoid the well known indraught into the English and
St. George’s Channels and the Bay of Biscay (see pages 301—311). This
Kastward tendency of the wind and current would, if not properly
estimated, cause some difficulty in weathering Ushant, should the wind
become at all adverse, and the strong tides and dangerous navigation,
around these projecting, headlands, render them very unpleasant neigh-
bours.

It is probable, too, that the wind may veer more to the Westward, as
you get beyond the influence of the St. George’s Channel, which draws it
towards a more Northern direction; and again, as Westerly winds have a
tendency to veer to the N.W., if you have plenty of sea-room, you can
pursue your course a point or two free. With the wind decidedly contrary
to making a course to the South of West on reaching the chops of the
Channel, it may become a question as to how far a more Northerly route
ig advisable.

In a discussion on the Packet Service about 1834, when a Western port
of Ireland was advocated as a better starting place than Falmouth, Sir
Francis Beaufort drew up a comparison of 60 passages made by the
Falmoutn Packet, in contrary winds (30 outwards, 30 homewards), and

478 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

what would have been the advantage had Cape Clear been the starting
place instead of Falmouth, the desideratum being of course the safe
weathering of Ushant and Cape Finisterre. Of course this was previous
to the Steam Mail Service, and when the Falmouth Packets were in a
high state of efficiency, that is, from 1826 to 1830. Sir Francis Beaufort
constructed the diagrams by laying off the tracks of the vessels from Cape
Clear as if sailing with the same wind as that experienced by them in
sailing from Falmouth. The average time occupied by the 30 outward
packets from Falmouth to lat. 42° 40’, off Cape Finisterre, was 9 days 12
hours, varying from 12 days to 6 days. Had the packets started from
Cape Clear, they could have arrived at the same parallel in a mean time
of 4 days and 21 hours, thus showing a saving of 4 days 11 hours, or
nearly one-half. In the homeward route, the same mode of calculation
showed that 4 days 9 hours may be saved in the same manner. Now, as
Cape Clear is about the same distance from Madeira as the Land’s End,
it is evident that a vessel is in no worse a position by approaching it.
Crookhaven, or some of the harbours on the S.W. coast of Ireland, will
afford her shelter as well as those on the 8.W. coast of England.

This is said in case the vessel encounters strong head winds which will
not allow her to make Southing, which, after all, is the grand object, in
_ order to quickly gain the N.E. Trades. If the ship will not lay better
than N.W. on the port tack, perhaps it is better to make a short board
until the wind veers a little either way. If you are well to the Westward
of Ushant, and the weather moderate, supposing the ship will lay South
or S. by W., you may safely stand on to the Southward; but should the
weather be threatening, and a Westerly gale apprehended, it will be
prudent to keep the Channel open, rather than by beating to windward,
you get past Ushant, and may thus get embayed on the dangerous French
coast, where also the wind is liable to shift close inshore. By keeping the
English Channel under your lee, should you not be able to maintain your
course, you may then run for some shelter.

From recent French Government researches Westward of Ushant, it is
found that for many miles Westward of the meridian of the outer dangers
off that island, the bottom is so generally level, with numberless local
irregularities, that no attempt can be made to judge the distance from
shore by the lead alone. A vessel bound North will, however, pass well
clear of Ushant by keeping in a depth exceeding 60 fathoms, making due
allowing for the range of tide, which near Ushant exceeds 3 fathoms at
springs. A little over 4 miles N.W. of Ushant is a remarkable depression,
7 miles long N.E. by E. and 8.W. by W., by 14 mile across, with depths
of 70 +o 105 fathoms.

2. PassaGE TO MADEIRA.

When the ship is sufficiently to windward of Ushant or Cape Finisterre,
there can be no difficulty in making for Madeira, so as to pass to the
Westward and within sight of it.

Cape Finisterre should be passed at a considerable distance, or, at least,
the course should be so shaped to do so, for fear of the prevalent drift

ACROSS THE EQUATOR. 479

which is frequently powerful along the North coast of Spain, and the
effect of the prevalent Westerly winds to horse the vessel to leeward and
into the Bay of Biscay, which is especially to be avoided. The prominent
headlands of the coast of Spain being now marked by lighthouses,* there is
jess danger of mistaking the country than there was formerly, as in many
parts it is difficult to make out the bays and the inlets, and of course it is
@ most dangerous iron-bound and lee-shore.

We have previously, on pages 308—309, drawn attention to the necessity
of guarding against the insidious Easterly drift into the Bay of Biscay,
with some account of recent disasters arising apparently from neglect of
due precaution. When bound to the Southward, in overcast weather,
and the dead reckoning shows that the vessel must be approaching the
parallel of Cape Finisterre, at night especially, care must be taken by the
use of the deep-sea lead, and other precautions, to ascertain the true
position, as the lights cannot always be depended on.

By sighting Madeira an opportunity is afforded of testing the rate of the
chronometers, as a sufficient interval will have elapsed to gain a sea-rate,
and having it thus early in the voyage will avoid much uncertainty in the
subsequent passage. It may be stated that any point of the island will
answer equally for giving a longitude. The tables on page 45 will give the
positions of the most prominent points, or the description and chart here-
after will give further information.

It is better to pass 20 or 25 miles off Madeira, as the winds are
generally steadier in the offing, particularly in winter. In November,
December, and January, Westerly gales prevail, which produce eddy
winds and severe squalls near the land, occasioned by the mountains
obstructing the regular course of the gales, and beside the weather here is
then very precarious.

However, notwithstanding all that has been said in former directions
as to passing within sight of Madeira and the Cape Verdes, it is a ques-
tion whether a more Westerly course to the Equator may not be attended
with some advantages. There is some reason to think that the nearer the
land the more baffling and uncertain the wind is, and as its tendency is to
tHe Eastward, it is argued that some gain of time has been found to arise
from crossing the parallel of 30° (as well as the Equator) on a more
Westerly meridian than that of Madeira.

Captain Maury says:—The winds along this route are an exact counter-
part of those found in the Pacific, on the route from California to Peru,
Chile, or Cape Horn; for the deserts of Mexico and the United States hold
very nearly the same relation to the N.H. Trade Winds of the Pacific that
the deserts of Africa do to those of the Atlantic; and though quick runs
may be made now and then, both along the West American and West
African coasts, yet, in the long run, experience in the Pacific has amply
proved that the navigator saves time by keeping off from the coast, and so
I apprehend it will be here. Indeed, experience in the Atlantic goes

* As will be seen by a reference to “ Lighthouses of the World,” there are frequent
reports of many of the Spanish lights being at times unreliable, so due caution must
nccordingly be exercised.

4ay PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

directly to show the same thing, and to place the opinion almost out of th..
category of conjecture, for this is the. very point upon which the advan-
tages of the new route from the United States to the Line are based.

The following abstract was made by Lieutenant Maury in the earlier
editions of his ‘‘ Sailing Directory” (in 1855), and showed the average
number of days that it took from lat. 30° N. to the Equator, in the several
crossings, by 86 vessels :—

Bast: 0f FO", o5scssoedsadcnent 24 days from the mean of. ...... 6 vessels,
Between 16° and 17°......... D3) No ahaa va suveneensetea estan ae
a ita | eet |e OA Me ef a ee ee eee 14.
Pees cane boa ach bed 7! apie MMR acts Ws, rl hint y 93)
pen Msi ge Sage UE 208 Bg "is? Sele” a 7. ee 19° 3%
Pages’ | heei ls ct Ue SOMA Ll ict Je ae Za:
CaS me oR RAE Bib 5. Waits A ke ieee ieee te
op ODOT, CORP Eek #05: 34 Shor cthiee eee 6 ia

Thus, the farther the place of crossing the parallel of 30° is to the West,
so is the average passage thence to the Equator diminished. East of the
meridian of 19°, the average passage, as far as the data of these tables
may be relied on, is about 24 days. To the West of 19° the ratio of
decrease as to length of passage, according to this showing, is most
rapid.

The passage to the Line from England and the English Channel ought
not, on the average, to be as long by several days as it is from the United
States. In the first place, the distance from the Land’s End is not so
great by two or three days’ sail; and, in the next place, the winds are
fairer. Vessels bound to the Line from any of the Atlantic ports of the
United States have to sail close-hauled most of the way, but from Europe
they go free. .

if the performance of the ships whose abstract logs I have, which fur-
nish the data for these tables, be a fair specimen of what ships generally
do on this route, and I suppose it is rather above than below, it would
apy ear that the average passage the year round to the Line from England
and the English Channel is 36 days; the months giving the longest
averages, such as they are, being January and March 47 days, August 46,
and June 39. The first two are evidently too long, their averages being
determined from only two or three passages each. The average to the
Line from the United States has been brought down from 41 to 31 days;
and the average from the British Isles and English Channel can be, I am
encouraged to believe, reduced to less than the American average.

In the meantime, the route which I venture to reeommend—not, how-
ever, without some misgivings, arising from the want of more ample data
—is the same, very nearly, for all vessels from whatever part of Europe.

They should aim, whenever the wind will allow the option, to cross the
parallel of 30° N., between the meridians of 25° and 30° W., but should
not contend with adverse winds for it; having reached this crossing,
their course thence is due South for the Line, between the same meridians.
In summer and fall they should enter the Southern hemisphere about the
meridian of 30°, but during the rest of the year they will generally not be

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The Meteorology &c. of Square N° 3, from 0° to 10° N. and from 20° to 30° W.

AGE del!

ACROSS THE EQUATOR. 48]

forced so far over to the West, though they should not care to go East of
longitude 25°.

Vessels from as far North as the English Chanuel, should aim to cross
the-parallel of 40° between the meridians of 20° and 25°; and for this
reason—besides that of winds a little more propitious—viz.: In crossing
the Calms of Cancer the navigator wants to be in such a position that he
may always be able to go on that tack which will carry him most rapidly
across this belt of calms. In other words, he wants to be in that position
where it is immaterial to him whether he be making Easting or Westing,
provided he be on the tack which will give him the most Southing. For
this reason he should aim to enter the Calm Belt between longitude 25°
and 30° W.

The average crossing place of 30° is about the meridian of 19° W.

The above remarks of Captain Maury will be found useful as a guide in
approaching the region discussed in the following section of our subject.
Captain Toynbee’s remarks will, of course, supersede those above given.
relating to the Crossing of the Equator.

8. APPROACHING AND OrossiInG THE EQuaATOR.

In the earlier editions of this work, we had only the experience of
American and Dutch shipmasters as a guide in forming an opinion as to
the best routes East or West of the Cape Verdes, and across the Equator.
However, since the publication of the valuable works of our own Meteoro-
logical Office, mentioned at the commencement of this section (page 475),
what formerly was the only guide, must be treated as a minor considera-
tion, and is therefore only briefly alludad. to hereafter (page 493 et seq.).

The works of the Meteorological Office, to those with leisure to properly
study them, will be found both interesting and valuable. In the adjoining
diagrams, of course, but a very brief description is given, comparéd wit
that in the elaborate charts which accompany the original works.
Reference should also be made to the diagram of the Passages accom-
panying this section, in which the routes over the Ocean are shown
graphically, for each month of the year. :

A warning is here given that the Direction of the Wind or Current is
only shown from that point at which it was most frequently observed,
and the Force of the Wind or Current from that direction alone indicated.
Captain Toynbee’s remarks supply further detail, and will, we believe,
make what is here given from these valuable works quite sufficient for the
sailor’s requirement.

Square 3* lies so much in the highway of all ships passing to and fro,
between the North and South Atlantic Oceans, that it contains nearly
60 per cent. of the 125,000 observations from which the charts are con-
structed.

* The ocean was divided into 10° Squares, at the suggestion of Mr. Marsden, formerly
Secretary to the Admiralty, and the numbers then given to the various squares have
been adopted by the Meteorological Office in their marine work.

NAO. 62

482 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

In several of the squares the number of observations is so small that it
would be useless to give them on monthly charts for each 2° square, as
was done for Square 3; they have therefore been sifted into spaces of
2° of latitude by 5° of longitude. This method has the advantage of
enabling us to represent a larger space on the same chart; and in most
instances the spaces seem to be small enough to point out any differences
which actually exist.

Captain Toynbee remarks :—Having thus given a general view of the
work we haye in hand, I will now refer to the monthly diagrams, and also
call attention to some interesting facts which have struck me in writing
the remarks. Perhaps I ought first to say that in several instances the
number of observations is so small that the Isobars, Isotherms, and Wind
and Current arrows are not always so correct as a larger amount of data
would make them; still in Square 3 (which is the centre of the district)
and in Squares 39, 301, and 302, there is a large number of observations,
so that the general result is satisfactory; for we find that the same month
in different years has very much the same kind of Wind and Weather. I
may add that though all data have been referred to the centre of the space
to which they belong, it sometimes happens that nearly all the observations
have been taken on one side of that space.

In the first place, then, it will be seen that we are dealing with a part
of the sea where the two Trades are always meeting, though the latitude
in which they meet varies with the season. This work therefore gives the
meteorologist a constant opportunity for studying the motion of air where
two air currents meet, and also the weather resulting therefrom.

Besides the meeting of two currents of air there are also two currents of
water, which are mainly produced by the Trade Winds, and apparently
increased in speed by the drift of water forced against Africa by the
winter gales of each hemisphere. The direction of the Trades tends to draw
water away from the coast of Africa, and as the land prevents an influx of
water from the Eastward, there is a third current or back-drift to the
Eastward into the Gulf of Guinea, to replace the water drawn away by the
Trade Winds. This is the well known Guinea Current, which seems to be
chiefly the result of gravity.

It must be remembered that Winds are named after the direction from
which they come, whilst Currents are named after the direction towards
which they go; for instance, an arrow pointing to the North-Westward
represents a S.H. wind, but a N.W. current; therefore, in the diagrams
the tails of the wind-arrrows and the heads of the current-arrows point
towards the points of the compass after which they are named.

Remarks on Winds, of the regions under consideration, for each month,
are given in pages 136—140. On the Currents: North African Current,
313—315, Guinea Current, 332—334, North Equatorial Current, 344—345,
the South Equatorial Current is described in pages 347—353. Beaufort’s
Scale of Wind (Force) is described in pages 103—104.

( 483 )

Best Montsuy Routes across THE EQuator, BY CaPTraIn Toyrnxer,
F.R.G.8S., F.R.A.S., etc.

Although the following suggestions are considered to be the safest, when
giving advice for all classes of ships, they are not intended to over-ride a
captain’s own judgment, for he has the advantage of knowing the qualities
of his own ship. The navigator should first consulé the diagrams of the
month in which he is about to pass through the district; they will show
him the direction and strength of the Prevailing Winds and Currents he
is likely to meet with.

Special attention is necessary in critical parts of the sea, such as that
near Cape St. Roque, where at one season of the year outward-bound ships
are liable to be caught by Southerly winds and leeward currents, and at
another season of the year homeward-bounders by light North-EHasterly
and Northerly winds.

By Captain Toynbee’s wish we add the following to his remarks :—

‘“‘ The navigator must remember that it is impossible to lay down fixed
tracks for him to follow, because the winds are not always the same at
the same time of year. The tracks given on the accompanying diagrams
are those which it is probable the wind will permit him to follow.
Sometimes he will be able to do better than to strictly follow these
tracks ; at others he may be driven to do worse. He should not go out
of his way to follow them, neither should he be guided by them alone,
but, by reading the remarks on the following pages, form an independent
opinion.

“‘ To the Outward-bounder the tracks indicate the best routes for wind,
and a safe longitude for crossing the Equator into the region of the S.E.
Trades, keeping clear of the coast of South America. To the Homeward-
bounder they indicate the best routes for wind across the Equator and up
to the Southern limit of the N.E. Trades.”

January.

Ships bound to the Southward should pass to the Westward of the Cape
Verd Islands, for although the wind is equally strong close to their Eastern
side in January, it is decidedly stronger on the Western than on the
Kastern side of Square 3.

Although the North-Hasterly Wind prevails to the Equator West of the
meridian of 30° W., and fast weatherly ships have done well after crossing
the Equator to the Westward of that meridian, others have been hampered
by the land, which is shown by the January Wind remarks. A dull sailing
ship which crossed the Equator in 32° 45’ W.,on December 13th, was 25
days before she cleared the land! The safest Westerly limit for such a
dull sailer is 26° to 27° W.

484 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC,

Winds.—Referring to the Eastern half of the January Wind Chart for
Square 303, and taking S.E. by E. as a central point, then when the Wind
is not from that point :—

Between 0° & 2° S. the prob. is about equal that it will either be more Southerly
or more Easterly or N.-Easterly.*

* PART dae: Sits EO NEE $3 2 to 1 that it will be more Southerly.

39 4° & 6° 8. ” 9 4 to 3 9 ” 99

- 62% 8° 8. 45 a 4to3 7 oa E.-ly. or N.-Ely.
” 8° & 10° S. ” ” 4tol 3 ” ”

Current.—The January Chart for Square 303 shows a prevailing Westerly
Current of from 20 to 30 miles in 24 hours, and that itis stronger in the
Northern than in the Southern half of the square. Exceptional currents,
considerably stronger than the means shown on the chart, are sometimes
recorded. The chart shows a large per-centage of smooth sea n the
month of January.

The above-named facts, taken together with the qualities of his ship
will enable the navigator to decide on his best route. ©

Ships bound to the Northward should cross the Equator between
25° and 30° W., so as to avoid the light North-Easterly Winds which
sometimes blow near the South American coast in this month, and also to
pick up the fresh N.E. Trade, which prevails in that longitude between
4° and 6° N., but not farther to the Eastward.

February.

Ships bound to tne Southward should pass to the Westward of the Cape
Verd Islands, as the Western sides of Squares 39 and 3 have stronger winds
than their Eastern sides. They should stand to the Southward in about
26° W., and when they meet the Southerly Wind, take the tack which
gives the most Southing, endeavouring not to cross the Equator to the
Westward of 28° W.

Winds.—Referring to the Eastern half of the February Wind Chart for
Square 303, and taking S.#. by H. as a central point, then when the Wind
is not from that point :—

Between 0° & 6° S. the probability is about equal that it will be more Southerly,
Hasterly, or North-Easterly.

5 6° & 8°S. Hs “5 slightly in favour of its being more Easterly
or North-Easterly.
_ 8° & 10° S. os et about 2 to 1 that it will be more Easterly

or North-Hasterly.

Current.—The prevailing Current is still Westerly, averaging from
20 to 30 miles a day, and generally stronger in the Northern than in the

® In working out these probabilities all observations of wind from North have been
considered as North-Easterly, and all from South have been considered as Southerly.
The tew observations from the Western half of the compass have not been included.

ACROSS THE EQUATOR. 485

Southern half of the square. The chart shows that confused seas are not
uncommon.

The Remarks on Wind, for Square 303, show that ships which crossed
the Equator to the Westward of 30° W. were not uch hampered, but
there seems to be no inducement for vessels to cross to the Westward of
longitude 28° W.

Ships bound to the Northward should carefully avoid the Eastern side of
Square 3, where the North-Easterly Wind is light, and there is much light
MNorth-Westerly Wind ; they should cross the Equator to the Westward
of 25°, and to the Eastward of 30° W., by which means they will not get
too near bhe-coast of South America, where light North-Hasterly Winds
are not uncommon.

March.

* Skips bound to the Southward should pass to the Westward of the Cape
Verd Islands, the N.E. Trade being stronger on the Western than on the
Eastern sides of Squares 39 and 3. The March diagram shows that be-
tween 35° and 40° W., North-Easterly Winds prevail to the coast of South
America, and to 2° § between 30° and 35° W.

Winds.—Referring to the Hastern half of the March Wind Chart for
Square 303, and taking S.E. by E. as a central point, then, when the
Wind is not from that point :—

Between 0° & 2° S. the prob. is about 3 to } that it will be more E.-ly. or N.E.-ly.

9 2° & 4° Ss. 99 +h) 3 to 2 ” ” ” 2”

= 4°& 6°S. as elite) a » southerly.

9 6° & 8° 8. ” ” 5 to t ” ibd x)

a3 8° & 10° S. i oOntore - » ly. or N.E.-ly.

Current.—The prevailing Current in this part is still Westerly, though
now inclined more to the Southward, and its rate from 20 to 30 miles in
24 hours; it is strongest between 2° and 6° S., weakest between 8° and
10°. There is a large per-centage of smooth sea in March.

The Remarks on Wind, for Square 303, show that ships which crossed
the Equator between 29° and 30° W. were hampered by the land ; so that
it seems best to cross the Equator in 27° or 28° W.

Ships bound to the Northward should cross the Equator between 26° and
30° W., this will enable them to avoid the North-Easterly Winds which
are common in Square 303, and, on the other hand, the light North-
Westerly Winds and Calms which are common on the Eastern side of
Square 3.

April.

Ships bound to the Southward should pass to the Westward of the Cape
Verd Islands, for although the N.E. Trade is as strong on the Kastern as
on the Western side of Square 39, it is much stronger on the Western than

486 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

on the Eastern side of Square 3; they should then stand to the Southward
in about 26° W., taking the tack which gives the most Southing when the
wind draws Southerly.

Winds.—Referring to the Eastern half of the April Wind Chart for
Square 303, and taking §.E. by E. as a central point, then, whem the
Wind is not from that point :—

‘Between 0? & 4° 8S. the prob. is about 3 to 1 thatit will be more E.-ly or N.E.-ly.

” 4° w 6° 8. 9 9 5 to 3 ” 39 9
a 6°& 8°S. fs 3. £008 : a Southerly.
a 8° & 10° S. B +) oat 2 a » 4.-ly. or N.E.-ly.

Current.—The prevailing Current is still Westerly, at a rate of from 20
to 80 miles in 24 hours, exceptional currents being stronger ; it is strongesi
between 2° and 8° 8. ‘There is a good deal of North-Hasterly swell in the
N.E. part of Square 303, and of smooth sea in its §.E. part.

Near the South American coast there is much light North-Easterly
Wind, and it does not seem likely that a ship would have great difficulty
in getting to the Southward there ; still the wind is lighter in Square 303
than in Square 302, and the Remarks on Square 303 show that ships
which cross to the Westward of 30° W. are sometimes hampered; it
would therefore be well not to cross the Equator to the Westward of 27°
or 28° W.

Ships bound to the Northward should cross the Equator between 25° and
30° W., so as to avoid the large amount of light North-Easterly Wind
which is recorded in Square 303, and the light North-Westerly Winds ard
Calms which are common on the Eastern side of Square 3.

May.

Ships bound to the Southward should pass to the Westward of the Cape
Verd Islands, where the May diagram and chart show the Wind to be
stronger than to the Eastward. In Square 3 the North-Hasterly Wind
prevails to 4° N., and is stronger between 25° and 30° W. than between
20° and 25° W.

Winds.—Referring to the Eastern half of the May Wind Chart for
Square 303, and taking S.E. by E. as a central point, then, when the
Wind is not from that point :—

Between 0° & 2° S. the prob. is about 2 to 1 that it will be more E.-ly or N.E.-ly.

9 2°& 4°S. ” ” 5 to 3 ” ” ”
As 4°& 6°S. 3 SC LOLuOL4: “ “ Southerly.
+ 6° & 8°S. . By raya “p + Gs

7 8° & 40° S. ss » 4to8 “F . a

From October to April the wind draws more Easterly in the Southern
part of the square, but from May to November it draws more Southerly.

Current.—The Westerly Current is stronger than in previous months,
and frequently exceeds 30 miles in 24 hours; it is strongest between 2°
and 6° §. The sea is also higher than in previous months.

ACROSS THE EQUATOR. 487

It may therefore be well for a dull sailing ship to make a little Easting
after passing the Cape Verd Islands, more especially as the Remarks on
Wind, for Square 303, show that the Wind, Weather, and sea near the
South American coast are very trying. In one case the ship crossed the
Equator in 26° 18’ W., but still was much hampered. Hence it seems
right that a dull sailer should not cross the Equator to the Westward of
25° W. in May. The captain of a smart ship, when outward-bound, may
prefer keeping well to the Westward, and risking the detention near Cape
St. Roque.

Ships bound to the Northward should cross the Equator between 25° and
30° W., thus avoiding the unsettled Wind and Weather near South
America on the one side, and the large amount of Calm and light N.W.
Wind in the Eastern half of Square 3 on the other. The diagram shows
that the prevailing South-Easterly Wind is stronger, as well as more
settled, between 25° and 30° W., than between 30° and 35° W., especially
in the Southern part of the district.

June.

Ships bound to the Southward should pass to the Westward of the Cape
Verd Islands, where the wind is stronger than to the Eastward of them,
and steer to the Southward in about 26° W., standing to the S.E. with the
first of the Southerly Wind which they will probably meet with in 6° N.,
and keeping on the starboard tack, if they can make Southing, until they
have made a fair amount of Easting. The Remarks on Wind, in Squares
302 and 303, show that ships should not cross the Equator to the West-
ward of 28° W., and it would be all the better if they crossed 2° or 8° to
the Eastward of that meridian. Between 8° and 4° N. the prevailing
Current will probably be Easterly, but South of 4° N. it is likely to be very
strong to the Westward ; the requisite Easting should therefore be made
on getting the first of the Southerly wind, asthe §.E. Trade becomes more
Easterly near the Equator.

Winds.—Referring to the Eastern half of the June Wind Ghart for
Square 303, and taking S.E. by E. as a central point, then, when the
Wind is not from that point :—

Between 0° & 4° S. the prob. is about 4 to 3 that it will be more Southerly.

$ 4° & 6° Ss. ” ” 3 to 2 9 9
, 6& 8S. ,, eto d * i
” 8° & 10° S. 9 ” 2 tol ” ”

So that, as in May, the wind becomes more Southerly in the Southern than
in the Northern half of the square, especially between 6° and 10° S.

Current.—The Westerly Current in Square 303 is-still strong, especially
in the Northern half of the square, where it frequently exceeds 30 miles
in the 24 hours. There is much Southerly, and even South- Westerly, sea
in June. 4

In cases of ships crossing the Equator, all those in Square 303 show the
importance of crossing well to the Hastward.

488 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

Ships bound to the Northward should cross the Equator between 25° and
30° W., so as to avoid the unsettled Wind and Weather, which are mors
extreme near the South American coast than farther to the Eastward, and
on the other hand to get a more steady N.K. Trade after passing 6° N.
than exists farther to the Kastward.

July.

Ships bound to the Southward should pass to the Westward of the Cape
Verd Isiands, where the N.H. Trade is stronger than to the Eastward. Ov
getting the first of the Southerly Wind, in about 10° N., they should stand
to the South-Eastward, making all the requisite Hasting in the Northern
part of the Southerly Wind as it draws more Easterly near the Equator.
Between 10° and 4° N. they will probably experience an Easterly Current,
but this will help them to windward, and place them in a better position
for dealing with the very strong Westerly Current which prevails after
passing to the Southward of 4° N.

Winds.—Referring to the Eastern half of the July Wind Chart for

Square 303, and taking S.E. by EH. as a central point, then, when the
Wind is not from that point :—

Between 0° & 2° S. the prob. is about 2 to 1 that it will be more Southerly.

Wee ae oe » Btol Ed
AY Grae oh eg » dStol ¥ P
a2 (GP O° Bae hs *.- Bitod r:

P62 10784 ach » 8tol

Showing that the Wind is much more Southerly than in June. The Wind
is more Southerly in July than in any other month.

Current.—The Westerly Current in Square 303 is still very strong,
especially in the Northern half of the square, where the mean of four or
five observations is sometimes 35 miles in 24 hours! There is also much
Southerly sea in July.

The Remarks on Wind, Square 303, give cases of ships which had
essed the Equator to the Westward of 30° W., getting hampered by the
South American coast. The Wind is also much more squally and
unsettled in Square 303 than in the squares to the Hastward of it, so that
ships will do wel! not to cross the Equator to the Westward of 25° to 28° W,
in July.

Ships bownd to the Northward may be guided very much by the longitude
in which they approach the Equator; those from the Eastward may cross
between 20° and 25° W., as the Southerly Winds are slightly stronger on
the Eastern than on the Western side of Square 3, but they should be in
25° W. when in 10° N., so as to get a better N.E. Trade than that which
exists farther East Ships from the Westward would do well to cross the
Equator and stand to the Northward in about 30° W.

ACROSS THE EQUATOR. 489

August.

Ships bound to the Southward should pass to the Westward of the Cape
Verd Islands, where the N.E. Trade is stronger than to the Eastward of
them. On getting the first of the South-Westerly Winds in about
10° or 12° N., they should stand to the South-Eastward, not fearing the
effect of the Easterly Current which prevails between 10° and 4°N., as a
pretty strong Westerly Current may be expected to the Southward of
4°N. The diagram shows that the prevailing Southerly wind becomes
more Easterly as the Equator is approached, so that the requisite Easting
should be made with the first of the Southerly Wind ; and as the Winds
near Cape St. Roque are more Southerly and unsettled than they are
farther to the Eastward, it is important to cross the Equator well to the
Eastward, say in longitude 25° or 26° W., or even 2° or 3° farther to the
Kastward.

Winds.—Referring to the Eastern half of the August Wind Chart for
Square 303, and taking 8.E. by E. as a central point, then, when the
Wind is not from that point :—

Between 0° & 6° 5S. the prob. is about 2 to 1 that it willbe more Southerly.
6° & 8°S. ” ” 5 to 1 ” ”
” 8° & 10° s. 99 99 2 to 1 ” ”

The Wind is still remarkably Southerly between 6° and 8° S., off the most
Eastern part of South America.

Current.—The Westerly Current is still strong ; strongest in the Northern
half of the square. Southerly and confused swells are very frequent.

9

The Remarks on Wind, Square 303, give cases of ships that were ham-
pered by the South American land ; one, a fast iron ship, having crossed
the Equator as far Hast as 27° 22’ W.

Ships bound to the Northward should avoid the South American land, as
the Wind is lighter to the Westward of 33° W. than it is to the Hastward
of that meridian. They should be in 25° W., or farther West, on crossing
the parallel of 10° N., as the N.E. Trade is stronger and extends farther
South on the Western side of the district than it does near the Cape Verd
Islands.

September.

Ships bound to the Sowthward should pass to the Westward of the Cape
Verd Islands, where they will have a better N.K. Trade than to the East-
ward. On getting the South-Westerly Wind in 10° or 12°N., they should
stand to the South-Hastward ; that Wind, with the prevailing Easterly
Current, will carry them fast to the Kastward, but the diagram shows that
to the Southward of 4° N. the prevailing Wind is South-Hasterly, and the
Current Westerly, which will carry them fast to the Westward.

Ne ASO: 63

490 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

Winds.—Referring to the Eastern half of the September Wind Chart for
Square 303, and taking S8.E. by E. as a central point, then, when the
Wind is not from that point :—

Between 0° & 2°§. the prob. is about 8 to 1 that it will be more Southerly.

Af Dae fee CIOS y rt) ” 2tol ” ”
9 4°& 8°S. ” ” 3 tol ” ”
” 8° & 10° S. ” ” 2tol ” ”

Current.—The prevailing Current is Westerly from 20 to 30 miles in the
24 hours; the difference of its speed in the Northern and Southern halves
of the square is not so great as in previous months. ‘he sea is still very
Southerly and confused.

The Remarks on Wind, Square 303, give cases in which ships were
hampered off the South American coast, in some cases after crossing the
Equator in 27° W.; so that it would be well to cross in 26° W., or farther
to the Eastward.

Ships bound to the Northward are net iikely to meet with North-Hasterly
Winds near the coast of South America ; still it seems well that they should
cross the Equator to the Eastward of 30° W., as the Winds in Square 4
are lighter than those in Square 3. The Hastern and Western sides of
Square 3 seem to have equally good Winds for getting to the Northward,
but it may be well for ships from the Eastward to cross the Equator im
about 25° W., as the Winds are stronger on the Western than on the
Eastern side of Square 39.

October.

Ships bound to the Southward should pass to the Westward of the Cape
Verd Islands, where the N.H. Trade is stronger than to the Kastward, and
steer South until they meet the first of the Southerly Wind in about 8° or
7° N.; then stand to the South-Eastward until the Wind changes, so that
they can make the most Southing on the port tack. The prevailing
Current is Easterly between 10° and 6° N., but Westerly farther to the
Southward.

Winds.—Referring to the Eastern half of the October Wind Chart for
Square 303, and taking S.E. by E. as a central point, then, when the
Wind is not from that point :—

Between 0° & 2° S. the prob. is about 3 to 1 that it will be more Southerly.

“5 DID NG 1S 1S ap 3) 2 bOI 7 55
” 6° & 8°S. 9 ” 4to3 ” ” E. or N.E.
ay 8° & 10° S. As » 4tol AL FP -

Here, for the first time since April, it gets more Hasterly or North-EKasterly
in the Southern than in the Northern and central parts of the square.
The Current is etill Westerly from 20 to 30 miles in 24 hours, and
stronger in the Northern than in the Southern half of the square. Southerly
seas are very frequent in the Southern part of the square.
The Remarks on Wind, Square 303, give cases of ships crossing the
Equator in 30° W., or farther West ; all but the last were hampered by

ACROSS THE EQUATOR. 491

the land, so that 28° W. seems a safer limit in October, though the Wind
Chart and Remarks show that the Winds near South America are more
favourable for getting to the Southward in that month than they have
been since April.

Ships bound to the Northward, whilst South of the Equator, will find
stronger Winds between 25° and 30° W. than in any other longitude;
after crossing the Equator they will find the Southerly Wind stronger, and
the N.E. Trade stronger and more Hasterly, in that longitude than they
are farther to the Kastward.

November.

Ships bound to the Southward should certainly pass to the Westward of
the Cape Verd Islands, for although the diagram shows that to the South-
ward of 16° N. the prevailing Wind is slightly stronger inthe Eastern than
in the Western half of Square 39, the amount of Calm is greater in the
Kastern, especially between 14° and 16° N; and the mean force of all
Winds is greatest in the Western half. After passing the Cape Verds, it
may be well to haul slightly to the Eastward, so as to be in 25° W. when
in 6° N., and then with the first of the Southerly Wind to take the tack
which gives the most Southing, endeavouring, if possible, not to cross the
Equator to the Westward of 29° W. A slight Easterly Current will pro-
bably be experienced between 10° and 4° N. ; in other parts it is likely to
be Westerly.

Winds.—Referring to the Eastern half of the November Wind Chart for
Square 303, and taking §.E. by E. as a central point, then, when the
Wind is not from that point :—

Between °& 2°S. the prob. is about 5 to 8 that it will be more Southerly.

e< Pore 7 OTS . 33 equal that it will be more Southerly,
or Easterly, or North-Easterly.

+, 4°& 6°S8. ss op 2 to 1 that it will be more Easterly or
North-Easterly.

” 6° & “8° & ” ” 5 to 1 ” ”

. 8°°& 10° S. A » litol 7 a

In November the tendency in the Wind to become more Easterly oz North-
Hasterly in the Southern part of the square is very decided.

Current.—There is still a Westerly Current of from 20 to 30 miles in 24
hours, and sometimes it exceeds 30 miles ; it is strongest between 2° and
4° §. The per-centage of South- Westerly Current is greater in the Southern
part of the square than in previous months. Smooth seas are much more
frequent than in previous months, especially in the Southern part of the
“square.

The Remarks on Wind, Square 303, give cases of ships which crossed
the Equator in 30° W., or farther West. All, excepting the last two, made
very fair passages to 10° 8.; one, a dull sailer with light winds, whilst the
other, though a fast ship, was very much hampered, but she crossed the
Equator in 33° 50’ W. ; so that a good sailing ship need not fear crossing
in 31° W., if driven to do so by circumstances

492 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

Ships bound to the Northward should cross the Equator between 25° and
30° W., as by doing so they will avoid the lighter Winds which prevail
near the South American land on the one side, and also those which exist
in the Eastern halves of Squares 3 and 39 on the other, beside getting a
more Easterly N.E. Trade.

December.

Ships bound to the Southward should pass to the Westward of the Cape
Verd Islands, where, although the Wind is much more Hasterly than it is
to the Eastward of them, it is decidedly stronger. On the Hastern side
(between 14° and 16° N.) the Wind Chart of Square 39 shows that there is
15 per cent. of Calm. Ships should haul a little to the Eastward after
passing the islands, so as to take the first of the S.E. Trade in about
25° W., or slightly farther Hast, then take the tack which gives the most
Southing. The prevailing Current is Westerly throughout this route, and,
as the diagram shows, averages 25 miles in 24 hours near the Equator, so
that a dull sailer, which is not weatherly, should make rather more Hasting
before getting the 8.H. Trade.

Winds.—Referring to the Hastern half of the December Wind Chart for
Square 303, and taking 8S.) by EH. as a central point, then, when the
Wind is not from that point :—

Between 0° & 2°S. the probability is about 3 to 2 that it will be mors Easterly
or North. Easterly.

” 2° & 6° S. ” ” 2 to 1 ” ”
” 6° & 8° S. ” ” 3 to 1 39 ”
” 8° & 102 Ss. ” ” 6 to 1 ” ”

In December the tendency to be more Hasterly or North-EHasterly than
f3.E. by E., when not from that point, prevails throughout the square.

The Current is still Westerly, averaging from 20 to 30 miles in 24 hours,
and sometimes exceeding 30 miles; it is strongest in the Northern half of
the square. ‘There is still much smooth sea in its Southern part.

The Remarks on Wind, in Square 303, give cases of ships which erossed
the Equator in 30° W., or farther West ; they all had to tack off the land,
and would no doubt have done better if they had not crossed to the West-
ward of 29° W. One ship was so hampered by Southerly Winds and
Westerly Currents near South America that she stood to the North-Hast-
ward, and re-crossed the Equator to make Hasting, not getting to 10° 8.
before 25 days after her first crossing ! !

Ships bound to the Northward should cross the Kquator between 25° and
30° W., thus avoiding on the one hand the lighter winds which prevail near
the coast of South America, and on the other the light Winds and Calms
which are more common on the Hastern than on the Western side of
Square 3. On the Western side of Square 39 the winds are very favour-
able for going to the Northward, but quite the reverse on its Hastern side.

ACROSS THE EQUATOR. 493

We will now give a few extracts from the earlier information on this
subject, which appeared in former editions of this work.

East or West of the Cape Verdes.*—With regard to this subject, the
Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute and the Meteorological Insti-
tute of Utrecht have done good service to the mariner in their excellent
publications. The latter Office published a Table of the Times and Cross-
ings of 455 Dutch vessels from the Channel to the Line. To this list the
Americans added the sailings of 145 vessels, many of which were probably
clippers, so that there was the experience of these 600 vessels to appeal to
in the choice of the route in this part of the voyage.

Number of Vessels, Dutch and American, and their Average Time from the
LInzard to the Line, by the passage East and by the passage West
of the Cape Verde Islands.

| AMERICAN. DUTCH.

Fast. WEST. Hast. fier [ion West.

Days. | Vessels.

Days. | Vessels. Liste eae cence Vessels.
|

December...........00 29-5 4 27-0 4 82-1 41 83-6 16
WAMUBLY, Veovescscosess+- 28-5 3 31-5 6 81-5 17 31-0 17
February ....c.csc0 a7-5 (9 aeesa) > tite) loagiah| geo) go.gillemiag

Average and sum... | 28-6 9 29-1 21 32-9 37 32-5 44
a i7|- 8 | 805 6 lapel. 6 | 805. ue
erie 24.9 1°06 4 8 || 31-8] 23 38.6, 39
gh ae sae 32-1 Bi Hoste Nu leade | Selgin: “gl agargt agi

Average and sum 28-7 9 | 29-5 26 33-9 37 30-4 88
So 36-7 | Boge: | ag St a5 a aay aray
Re ail ccs ceeci 3ecac a5} a) (e80-6:|! 2°9 2 -]rgacn Wo 64 oo | gag) h Vag
ae 80-2/ 2 | 845] 1 | 35-4) 4 | 338) 38

Average andsum...| 33:8/ 7 | 316) 37 || 345) 12 | 336! 198

September ............ 42.4 2 33-3 14 36-3 a 36-2 31
OCTODER = svec.ccasssescteos 33-2 4 32-0 10 32-4 9 32-9 24
INOVEINDE?: ..2<0---2.005- 29-7 3 32-0 3 36-8 10 36-8 26

Average andsum...| 35-1 9 32-4 27 35-2 28 35-3 81

!

Totalaverageandsum| 31-5| 34 ae 111

= 114 | 7 341

It appears that the passages East are uniformly longer for the Dutch, except in
December, January, June, and October; and that for the American they give the
shorter averages for January, February, March, April, August, and November. But
the averages for these are derived from an insufficient number of passages, only two or
three, fourteen in all, for each month.

* It will be seen, in the previous remarks, that Captain Toynbee in no month recom-
mends the route Eastward of the Cape Verdes.

494 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

There is a difficulty here in estimating the relative value of the
American and Dutch results, as we do not know what the class and
sailing powers of the two fleets were; but it is probable that the superiority
of the American tracks would not be so great, if the Dutch had selected
vessels of an equal class for the comparison. However, it would seem
that there is certainly some few hours detention on the average by going
inside the islands, compared with the outer passages contained in the
foregoing Tables.

Captain Sir Edward Belcher, in his outward voyage round the Cape of Good
Hope, in the Sum«urang, March, 1843, diverged from the ‘ beaten track,” with
considerable advantage. His reason for so doing was, that by crossing the
Equator 10° or 15° more Eastward than is usually done, when arrived in the
parallel of St. Helena, he would be many miles to windward of the usual route.
‘‘ Having always considered the Eastern route the preferable, I attempted; on my
homeward voyage, in H.M.S. Sulphur, to reach Porto Praya direct from Ascension.
In this, however, I failed, owing to the occurrence of Westerly breezes driving us
toward the African coast, until in the parallel of the Cape de Verde Islands;
which proved that from the Cape de Verdes, Southerly, towards the Equator, in
the month of June, favourable breezes without calms might be reckoned upon;
and I was reminded that ships coming from Ascension and St. Helena generally
make good passages, passing to the Westward of the Cape de Verdes.

‘“¢ My experience, while employed on the African station, taught me that a fair
passage from the Cape de Verdes to Sierra Leone, or the coast Easterly, could
always be anticipated, and that no retarding calms are to be met with on the verge
of the African soundings. Vessels also from the African coast, seeking Ascension
for change of climate, find this remark applicable; and it might be fairly assumed
that if we could reach the Equator under light airs and moderate breezes in a less
number of days than the average passage to 24° West longitude (the increased
distance being impeded by many days’ calm), and by crossing to the Eastward of
10° West longitude, the Westerly current would be avoided, and we should be
able to fetch to windward of Ascension, or possibly sight St. Helena, many
hundred miles to windward of the ‘ beaten track.’ The result proved as antici-
pated. Leaving Porto Praya on March 7th, we experienced light and moderate
breezes, with South-Easterly current. Between the 7th and 21st of March, or
from Porto Praya to the Equator, on the ninth meridian of West longitude, we
averaged 81 miles per day, and experienced no more than 10 hours calm. Before
the South-Westerly breezes quitted us, we had been carried as far as 8° W. After
light South- Westerly airs, we were enabled, on the 28th of Maroh, by a succession
of breezes from the 8.E., to pass 150 miles to windward of Ascension, in 9° 44’ E.,
arriving in Simon’s Bay on April 25th.”— Voyage of the Samarang, pages 7-8.

This passage, which takes advantage of the Hasterly Guinea Current
(pages 325—334), will be more specially alluded to hereafter. Ifa West
African port should be sought, of course the advantages are on the side of
the inner passage.

As each portion of the passage over the Atlantic is, in a great measure,
dependent on the other, it cannot be pronounced on absolutely whether, of
itself, one part of a course can be most advantageously pursued in a
zertain direction. In the next ensuing paragraphs, this problem will be
considered in connection with the further progress of the yoyage.

ACROSS THE EQUATOR. 495

Crossing the Equator.—As this question stood for some years, it was
that to cross the Equator in 30° W. was the best route in all seasons. In
1848, Lieutenant Maury published his Wind and Current Chart of the
North Atlantic, upon which he marked the Great Circle track joining New
York and long. 31° W. on the Equator, distance 3,370 miles, and upon
this track was the following :—‘‘The distance by the route usually pursued
is upwards of 4,100 miles. Outward-bound vessels are recommended to
try this route to Rio Janeiro. The tracks of vessels on this chart show
the average passage from the United States to the Line to be 38 days, and
to Rio 55 days. There is reason to believe that the prevailing winds along
the (Great Circle) route here indicated will be found more favourable—
steadier and stronger than they are by the usual route, and the distance
is nearly 1,000 miles less. Hence I respectfully invite the attention of
navigators to this route, under the expectation that, by taking it, they will
shorten their passage several days.”

By the chart on which this note is placed, it seems that the practice of
the American ships was to run down to Westward between 34° and 40°N..,
and cross the parallel of 30° between 30° and 38° W. Naturally, a better
course would suggest itself, and the Great Circle course is that which
would stand prominent. Captain Maury having received much encourage-
ment by the adoption of an approximation to this track, to the great
advantage of American voyages over the former Easterly track, argued
strongly on the advantages that would be gained hy the route from
Europe being made to cross the Equator on the same meridian
(about 30° W.).

Of the vessels mentioned in the table on page 493, the mean longitude
of the American crossing is 264° W., while that of the Dutch is 223° W. ;
and yet the contrast between their passages is not so great as the difference
in the position with regard to the Equatorial Calms or ‘‘ Doldrums” would
geem to warrant an inference. It may, therefore, be advised generally that
the meridian of 26° W.* is a good crossing, and that, if farther West, it ig
questionable whether any advantage is gained.

In an able discussion of the logs of several clippers, in the ‘‘ Mercantile
Marine Magazine,” the same conclusion is independently arrived at.
““We have yet to learn if the most favourable crossing be Westward of
25° W. for English vessels outward-bound to the East. The passage
Eastward of the Cape Verdes has been strongly recommended, and it is
certainly worth attention that the best passage here recorded was made’
by a vessel (the Lady Raffles), which ran down her Southing Eastward
of the Cape Verdes.”

Captain Toynbee also discussed the Westerly crossing of the Line, as
tried by him in his ship, the Gloriana. This voyage was made in October,
1858, and the Line was crossed in 304° W.

** On the 2nd of October, 1858, the Gloriana was in lat. 17° 43’ N., long. 26° 29° W.
From this position, being West of the Cape Verde Islands, IJ endeavoured to make

* This has proved correct within 1°, as will be seen by referring to Captain Toynbee’s
remarks. given previously. His monthly routes are all between 26° and 28° W.

496 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

a true South course when the wind was fair,and preferred the tack which gave the
most Southing when it was foul.

“ From the 2nd to the 7th we went on well, for on the latter date we were in
lat. 7° 29’ N., long. 27° 52’ W., having been driven by the wind and about 88 miles
of current, 83 miles farther West. From the 7th to the 15th we had ‘ doldrums.’
Until the 10th, when we were in lat. 6° 25’ N., long. 26° 57’ W., the weather was
chiefly fine, with a mixture of Northerly and Southerly swells; after that, heavy
rain-squalls, looking very threatening, but not sufficient wind to require the royals
to be taken in, with a high Southerly swell. During the whole 4ime the wind wee
from East round by South to West, but chiefly South; the current was generally
to the Eastward from 11° to 5° N.

“ Oct. 15th.—Lat. 4° 8’ N., long. 25° 41’ W.; current in the last 24 hours West,
16 miles; wind 8. by W., by compass; variation 17° W. This was the point
where I had to decide whether to steer to the Eastward, making a little Northing,
until I considered my ship far enough to windward, or to the Westward, making
about W.S.W., with the certainty of a Westerly current. i chose to go to the
Westward, feeling sure that the wind would gradually draw to the S.E., whereas
I think that, had we gone to the Eastward, we should have continued in the
Variables, if we did not run back into Calms.

“ Oct. 16th.—Lat. 3° 15’ N., long. 27° 223’ W.; course and distance, S. 624° W.,
114 miles; current in the last twenty-four hours, N. 39° E., 12 miles; variation,
by azimuth compass, 17° 3’ W., by steering compass, 16° 3’ W. At 10 am. a
large ship passed us steering to the Eastward, and we lost sight of a barque which
was in company, so I suppose that she also went off to the Eastward. The wind '
drew to the South by compass, so that we were able to make true S.W. 3 W.
The weather during the last twenty-four hours looked unsettled, especially in the
N.W., where there was lightning ; but even when we broke off to W. by N. for an
hour, I felt that, by going on the port: tack, we were drawing into the S.E. Trade.

“ Oct. 17th.—Lat. 1° 30’ N., long. 29° 24’ W.; by * lunar, 30° W.; course and
distance, 8. 483° W., 162} miles; current, 8. 774° W., 13 miles. The wind from
S. by E. to §.S.E.; the sea smooth, and weather very delightful.

* Oct. 18th.—Lat. 0° 52’ 8., long. 31° 24’ W.; by * lunars, 32° W.; course and
distance, S. 41° W., 184 miles; current, S. 44° W., 12 miles. The wind from
8.S.E. to 8.E. by S.

“ Oct. 19th.—5 a.m., lat., by meridian altitude of Sirius, 2° 32’S.; noon, lat.
8° 15’ S., long. 31° 56’ W.; current, S. 13° W., 8 miles; wind, S.E. by §.:S.;
bearing and distance of the Rocas, supposing them to be in lat. 3° 55’ S., long.
33° 44’ W., and taking the mean of the above longitude as my position at noon,
S. 38° W., 51 miles. 3 p.m.—Lat., by meridian altitude of Venus, 3° 332’ §.
3.20 p.m.—Long. by altitudes of the sun, using the London rates for the best
chronometer, 33° 103’ W. Hence, since noon we had made §. 36° W., 25 miles.

“ Throughout the afternoon we steered about 8. 35° W., and at 5 p.m. we saw
the reef about 12 miles off, extending from nearly right ahead out on the weather
bow ; and at 6 p.m. we kept away W.S.W., so as to pass it at the distance of
about 5 miles.

“ The sighting of the Rocas was one of very many instances in my experience
proving the look-out man, either from want of practice or from a want of interest
in what he was doing, unable to see an object almost staring him in the face.
From 3.30 p.m., I ordered a regular look-out from fore-topsail yard, and at 5 p.m.
felt so sure that the reef must be in sight, that I determined to visit the topsail-
yard myself; when, on stepping into the rigging, something strange caught my
eye, which proved to be a beacon on the Western part of the reef; yet from the
vopsail-yard the look-out man had seen nothing, and could hardly see it when I
pointed it out. A similar case happened one evening on our way towards Torres
Straits, when I sent an <fficer up to look round as the sun set, though I always

ACROSS THE EQUATOR. 497

kept a man oti the foretopsail-yard. He quickly saw a long line of broken water
right ahead, it being part of Lihou Shoal, extending farther to the Eastward than
laid down either in charts or books. I find that in moderately clear weather,
when observations show that the land may be sighted, a good night-glass on the
forecastle and a patent lead are first-rate safeguards ; indeed, the three L’s are all
right enough, but much depends on the quality of these said L’s.

“ Now it remains to be decided how we should have fared'if on the 15th we
had stood to the Eastward, making Easting, with a little Northing, until we
thought ourselves far enough to windward. In our present case we certainly had
to tack off America (though it is the first time in my extreme Westerly routes
that I have had to do so), yet in two days we beat 111 miles te the South and 27
to the East, and cleared the difficulty. It would not be right, however, to tempt
ships near reefs and land unless they gain by it; and merely by a comparison of
my own voyages of other years at the same season I should condemn this route,
for I never did worse from 10° N. to the Equator than this year. Once at the
very same date I passed between the Cape de Verdes and Africa. Then we were
13 days from 10° N. to the Line, but were not troubled near South America and
had a better S.E. Trade. This time we were only 12 days, but lost a day near
South America. In October, 1852, I passed 10° N. about 2° farther East within a
day or two of our date, and was only 8} days to the Equator, which we crossed
in 20° W., having been earried into 18° W. by a strong S.W. monsoon, which
turned into the 8.E. Trade without a calm. Still, this probably was an exception,
and I should like and shall try to see the logs of seme ships which passed through
the Doldrums with us.

“« September 25th, 1856, and October 15th, 1857, I crossed the Equator much
in the same longitude as this year—that is, 31° W.; in September passed 25 miles
to the Westward of Fernando Noronha, and in October still nearer; and both
voyages we weathered America with ease. Once in May I crossed the Equator
between 28° and 29° W., and could not weather America, but wus much bothered
off Cape St. Augustine.

“‘ Again, from Cape St. Augustine to the Abrolhos, the ships which pass far
West do not seem to do so well as those which go far to the Eastward. For
instance, as I ana now writing on the 26th of October, we have done but S. 14° W.
514 miles, and on the 25th, S. 23° W. 85 miles. For all this, one feels inclined
to blame the Westerly route; at any rate until it is proved that the ships which
went to the Eastward have done as badly or worse than ourselves. .

‘« The conclusion I am inclined to draw from all this is, that in October, when
once your ship is so near the Equator as to expect the §.E. Trade, and the wind
sets in from 8. by W. by compass, go on the port tack with the yards sharp up,
and keep well full; then the wind is almost certain to turn into the S.E. Trade,
with beautiful weather. My experience would lead me to say that in October,
when you are below 5° N., with asteady S. by W. by compass wind, you have the
commencement of the 8.E. Trade, and should stand boldly on the port tack; but
Iam not yet quite decided as to how a ship ought to steer after passing to the
Westward of the Cape de Verdes, though I think as we have done this year; that
is, due South with a fair wind, and the tack on which you make the most
Southing with a foul; because the probability is, that you will have a S.W.
monsoon, which will drive you well to the Eastward. If there were not this pro-
bability I would havea ship in October steer to get to the 8.E. Trade, or rather the
8. by W. wind, in about 20° W., for if she does not get into the latitude of Cape
St. Roque quite so soon, I think she will be in a better position by the time she
loses the S.E. Trade.” *

————.

* See the “ Nautical Magazine,’”’ 1859, pages 169—i77, and 561—563.
Ni AZO. 64

498 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

Captain Toynbee subsequently procured the logs from other ships of
similar class which left the Channel at the same time as the Gloriana.
The Gosforth, which was also West of the Cape Verdes on the same day,
bore to the S.E., crossing the Equator in 25°°W., and reaching 20° S. a
week before the Gloriana. The Alfred, which pursued a similar course to
the Gloriana, crossed the Line in 324° W.; and the Vernon and Octavia,
which passed inside the Cape Verdes, crossed the Line in 254° and 264° W.

if

‘* The first question raised is—Was the Glortuna right in steering due South on
the 2nd when the wind was fair? The Gosforth’s track says no, she ought to
have steered S.S.E. until in 25° W., and then to have mide a little Easting with
the Southing whenever it was possible. But the tracks of the two ships (Vernon
and Octavia) which passed East of the Cape de Verde Islands, say on no account
go to the Eastward of 22? W. This advice is only applicable when the wind is
light and variable; of course, if a S.W. monsoon is experienced in these parts, a
South-Easterly course must be followed until the wind draws to the South.

+‘ On looking at these tracks I suppose Maury’s correspondent, Captain Windsor,
would say that the captain of the Gosforth is ‘one of those men who are kicked
through the world in good luck to keep them out of harm’s way,’ or how could he
have had a run of 184 miles between the 5th and 6th of October, when ships to’
the right and left of him did but little more than half that distance in the same
time ? Not being a believer in luck myself, it seems to me that the little Hasting
he made from the 2nd to the 9th placed him in a position by which he was
enabled to keep off the coast of South America, and so avoid the light winds from
the 24th to the 26th which affected all the ships North of 20°S. Here my second
query is answered, for we find that the Westerly crossing of the Line was not the
cause of the light winds we experienced on the 25th and 26th; or, to be more
explicit, the ships several degrees East of us suffered from them to the same
extent as ourselves.

“The Alfred and Gloriana have given the extreme Westerly route a fair trial.
They started from 20° N., differing one day in their dates, and on the 23rd of
October, after passing Cape St. Roque, the A/fred was in the same position as the
Glortana had held on the 22nd.

“The extreme Hastern route between the Cape de Verde Islands and Africa
was fairly tried by the Vernon and Octavia. It is manifestly wrong for the early
part of October, for they lost much on the ships which took the Western route.

‘“* Considering the positions of the four hindmost ships on the 28th of October,
T am inclined to think that the Gloriana’s is the best, for to get South of the
Calms and Variables near the Tropic of Capricorn is more important than to
make Easting, so much so, that, when there, I chose the tack which gives the
most Southing. Hence the readers of my last paper on the subject will see that
this research proves that we were better off than most of our neighbours, and
no doubt the commanders of the other ships will examine this chart with great
interest.

‘« It will be noticed that the Gosforth’s track ends on the 21st, so that although,
where it commenced, she was but a trifle more than half a day in advance of the
Gloriana, she ended with an advance of seven days. Thus she gained on the
Gloriana, 64 days; Alfred, 74; Octavia, 8}; and Vernon, 9} days.

‘* The conclusion I draw from this is, that early in October neither the extreme
Eastern nor the extreme Western route is good. Therefore, a ship should pass
West of the Cape de Verde Islands, and then when the wind will permit, haul to
the $.E. when South of them, so as to be about 23° W. when she is 5° N.; she
should then take the tack which gives the most Southing.

‘** Maury’s ‘ Sailing Directions’ support this opinion. The averages he deduces

ACROSS THE EQUATOR. 499

from the Table in page 148 of the 2nd vol., dated March, 1859, plainly prove that
the extreme Western route is a disadvantage in October. And, again, the
American part of the Table in page 369 shows that ships should not go East of
the Cape de Verde Islands in October, though it is contradicted by the Dutch part
of the same Table, with more ships to take #1 average from. Still, most of the
nine Dutch ships may have passed East of the Cape de Verdes much later in
October than the Americans; at any rate sound reason seems to support the
middle route, for if a ship works her way to the South in the longitude of the
Cape de Verdes she is more likely to get a spirt of the S.W. monsoon, which some-
times blows at this season, and avoid the certain Calms of a more Easterly course,
asalso the danger of being detained a day or two near Cape St. Roque by the more
Westerly route.

‘‘ From the end of October to February I would pass East of the Cape de Werde
Islands, and perhaps also in March and April. Early in December we took this
route, and were on the Equator on the 23rd day from England.

“ A few tracks similar to these for each month in the year would soon decide
the best route.”

We are unwilling to omit those instructions which appeared in our
former editions, and which for nearly a century directed almost all the
European shipping; but, of course, what has preceded will supersede them
where they differ. Still, much is good to the present day, and may be
followed advantageously.

M. D’Aprés de Mannevillette, in his Directions from the English Channel to
the East Indies, says, ‘‘ When you steer out of the Channel, you ought to shape
your course so as to pass Cape Finisterre at the distance of 25 or 30 leagues; this
distance,” he adds, “‘will be sufficient, in whatsoever season of the year your
voyage may happen; you may indeed double that cape still nearer, if cireum-
stances require, but, from its latitude, you should always shape a course for the
Island of Madeira.

“« Though a sight of that island is not indispensably necessary in this passage,
it is proper, however, to gain a sight of it, or of the Island of Porto Santo, that
you may be able to keep on your course afterward with greater certainty, whether
you pass between the Canary Islands, or leave them to the Eastward, as may be
judged most convenient.

‘‘ In the passage from the coast of France to the Canaries, you may frequently
find differences in your reckoning to the Eastward, which arise most probably
from the indraught of the currents toward the Strait of Gibraltar: some have
made the land on the coast of Africa when they expected to have discovered
Tenerife; others have gained sight of Allegranza, off the Northern part of
Lanzarote, instead of Tenerife ; and, though the errors in reckoning may not fre-
quently be so considerable, yet it is safer to be on your guard, when you judge,
by your reckoning, that you are in the latitude of these islands, especially in the
night-time, or when the want of moonlight, or very thick hazy weather, prevents
you from discovering dangers at such a distance as to be able to avyid them.

“The differences to Westward, though much more rare, are not yet without
example; chiefly when the winds have hung contrary for some time after the
departure from the ports of England or France.

‘* Ships are, however, now generally recommended to pass to the Westward of
the Canary and Cape Verde Islands; it having been found that, in this route,
steadier winds may be expected than those generally prevalent close to or among
the islands. On the African coast, W.S.W. and 8.W. winds are frequent. The

500 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

traok now generally adopted by ships having chronometers is that to the West-
ward of all the islands.

“« Should it be required to touch at Senegal or Goree, the best course will be to
make the coast of Africa near Cape Blanco, lat. 20° 55’; as there are soundings at
5 or 6 leagues off the coast, and no danger in making the land, either by day or
night, provided the lead be kept frequently going; and thus you may steer up to
the cape.

“ Though it may seem natural enough not to suspect any errors of consequence
in your reckoning in so short a passage as from the Canaries to the Isles of Cape
Verde, yet there are instances of such, as well to Easting as to Westing. It is
with respect to errors in our Westings, that I advise all vessels to keep 30 leagues
so windward of Bonavista, before they stand in to make the land; lest, in keeping
« direct course for that island, they should pass between the Isle of St. Nicholas
and the Isle of Sal; and, finding themselves to Westward of Bonavista, when
they reckoned themselves to be still to Eastward of it, they should miss their
refreshments at the Isle of St. Iago, an accident which has happened to several
vessels. :

‘“‘ The making of these islands is often difficult, occasioned by the fogs which
hang frequently around them. For this reason, those who come from the North-
ward ought to steer their vessels in this track with all possible precaution.

‘‘ The most convenient course for vessels which continue their voyage from the
Canaries, without touching at the islands of Cape Verde or Goree, is to steer, after
they lose sight of the Canaries, so as to pass about 45 leagues West of Cape
Blanco, or near the meridian of 20°; from this position they will make good their
course due South, as far as 12° N., and afterward S.E. by S., till they meet with
those variable winds which succeed to the Trade Winds. By this they will keep
the mid-channel between the islands and Cape Verde, and coast along the bank
below that cape, at a sufficient distance, even though they should make an error
in their reckoning of 15 or 20 leagues to the Eastward.”

But as, when the sun iz near the Northern Tropic, the Trade Wind has been
often found to fail with'n the sight of the Cape Verde Islands, it has been recom-
mended to ships, at these times, to pass the islands to the Westward, at the
distance of about 10 leagues, in order to preserve a steady wind, and to prevent
delay, by keeping clear of the light eddy winds, which then prevail near and
among the islands. When to the Southward of these isles steer to the S.E., so
as to get between the meridians of 18° and 23° W., upon losing the N.E. Trade
Wind. Should the Southerly winds then commence, advantage may be taken
of the shifts to stand on the tack which will gain most to the Southward, so as
to cross the Equator between the longitudes above mentioned, if the wind will
permit. Be cautious of making a long tack, either Eastward or Westward, with
a dead Southerly wind, in the hope of having a better, unless the wind should
veer, so as to produce much Southing.

The S.E. Trade Wind, at its Northern limit, generally inclines far to the South-
ward, particularly in July, August, and September, but frequently in other
months. A ship meeting this Trade should not be kept too close to the wind, but
keep clean full, in order to make good way to the S.W., and clear of the Southern
limits of the Westerly current that generally prevails about the Equator.

It has been already shown, in the description of currents, that ships, passing the
Line too far to the Westward, run the risk of not being able to weather the coast
of Brazil. But M. D’Aprés has observed, that there is not one instance to prove
that, by passing the Line to the Eastward of the limits above mentioned, ships
meet with calms of long duration, and currents setting with great rapidity toward
the River Gaboon, as had before been generally imagined.

M. D’Aprés adds, ‘‘ Vessels which sail from St. Iago should steer S.E. as far as
the 12th degree of latitude; after that S.E. by S. Those which depart from Goree

ACROSS THE EQUATOR. 501

should steer 8.S.W., if they desire to keep clear of the coast, till they reach the
parallel of 10°; thence their course should be S.E. by S.”

His words on crossing the Line are, ‘‘ When the Variable Winds succeed the
Trade Winds, the best method of crossing the Line with speed is, to take advan-
tage of the very first Variable Winds, for gaining the ordinary track of the Trade
Winds, so soon as you possibly can; and for this end, to keep indifferently to
that tack which bears most to the Southward, without troubling yourself about
crossing the Line at any determinate point, lest you make your voyage longer
than is necessary.*

On the Return toward England, in crossing the N.E. Trade Wind, a
ship’s sails should be kept well filled, to enable her to gain speedily to the
Northward, as shown in the diagrams of Passages for each month of the
year. In this track the Sargasso or Gulf Weed will be met with in the
Sargasso Sea, as detailed on pages 335—343.

Beyond the Northern limit of the Trade Wind, ships generally crosa
the parallel of 32° N. in from 39° to 42° W., in order to make use of the
Southerly and Westerly winds which prevail here more than they do to
the Eastward.

Should the wind veer to the N.W. on approaching toward the Azores,
you may pass through one of the channels of these islands, and thence
pursue a course to the English Channel, according to circumstances.

It is not advisable to pass to the Hastward of these islands, because
adverse winds often prevail from the Northward between them and the
coast of Portugal; and the currents are also generally unfavourable to
this route. Yet it has sometimes happened that ships passing this way
have, with S.W. and West winds, reached the Channel sooner than those
which have proceeded to the Westward. With these S.W. and Westerly
winds, you must be cautious in approaching the Channel, in case the
current should prevail which sometimes sets athwart it, as before de-
scribed (255). In case of contrary winds, vessels bound to ports in the
North Sea, &c., sometimes make a quicker passage by passing Westward
and Northward of the British Isles, as stated on pages 466—467,

6.—TO AND FROM THE SENEGAL AND GAMBIA.+

Whatever may be the season of the year, it is advisable to gain an offing
of 75 miles to the Westward of Cape Finisterre; from hence it may be
immaterial whether a course be shaped to the Kastward or Westward of
Madeira. A commander desirous of touching at the Canaries will adopt
the former, and will shape a course for Teneriffe, having nothing to appre-
hend on this course but the Salvages, the position of which has been well
determined. In the Canarian Archipelago the winds are mostly from

* Captain Maury says ;—‘ No sailing directions can be given for these Calm Belts,
except such as are contained in these emphatic words :—Makr THE BEST OF YOUR
WAY ACROSS THEM WITHOUT REGARD TO LONGITUDE. To which may be added. that
the nearer to North and South the course is, the bette”, as it crosses their ‘irection
at right angles.

4+ Abridged chiefly from the Baron Roussin.

502 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

North to N.E. If the course to the Westward of Madeira be adopted, a
‘vessel will make the Westernmost of the Canaries only, and her position
may be rectified by a sight of Palma or Ferro. ,

But a sight of the coast of Africa is by no means necessary for vessels
bound to the Senegal. or Goree. What has been said of the currents and
prevailing winds in this navigation, leaves no doubt that it is perfectly
useless to make the land more than 50 or 60 miles to the Northward of
the Senegal, when bound to the Bar anchorage. This digression is the
utmost which should be made from the above course ; and by means of
the lead, and some few latitudes carefully observed, it might even be
made a direct one. On leaving Teneriffe, the course from its South point
should be 8.W. by S. as far as the parallel of 21°, then S. by W. = W. as
far as 20°, and from thence 8. by E. } E. without any further alteration.

The first course will carry a vessel 85 miles from the nearest point on
the African coast, and in a track where no danger has been found. The
second will conduct her nearly 100 miles to the Westward of the Western-
most point of the Bank of Arguin. By the third she will make the coast
in the neighbourhood of the Marigot or Lagoon of Mosquitos (lat. 16° 364’),
from whence she may coast the shore until abreast the Senegal.

If it be found necessary to make the land during the night, the lead,
being the only means of correcting the estimated run, should be used
frequently and with great care. At about 25 miles N.W. by N. from the
Senegal, a bottom of white sand will be found, with 70 fathoms. From
thence the depth gradually decreases towards the shore, and at 1 mile from
it there is 7 or 8 fathoms. When in 15 fathoms of water, it is advisable
to anchor until daylight.

There is a source of error attached to the navigation of the African
“ coast, which must be carefully guarded against. It is the optical illusion
caused by the great horizontal refraction, which renders any correct
estimation of distance almost impossible. Numerous instances of it might
be cited which would hardly be credited ; therefore the moment the coast
is seen, the lead only should be trusted to determine the distance from it.

Track from Senegal to Goree—The Almadies of Cape Verde (described
hereafter) are 94 miles §.W. # W. from the roadstead of the Senegal, and
the prevailing currents set nearly on that bearing; it is, therefore, the
course to be steered from the Senegal to Cape Verde during the day;
during the night steer a quarter of a point or more Westerly. From
Cape Verde to Goree the course is direct ; it is merely to coast the shore
at the distance of 2 miles. From 5 miles off Cape Verde to Cape St.
Mary, at the mouth of the Gambia, the direct course and distance are
S. by E. 4 E. 93 miles, in all which space soundings may be found.

If bound to a port South of Goree, vessels should steer to sight Cape
Verde, as the winds are fresher near the cape than at the islands. Hence
the navigation is easy in the fine season, with the prevalent N.E. winds,
but in the rainy season the S.W. winds make it difficult. After rounding
Cape Palmas the land should be kept in sight, at a distance of 10 to 15
miles, and when 30 or 40 miles Westward of the destination the land
should be ayproached more closely, to avoid being carried to the East-
ward of the place.

THE WEST COAST OF AFRICA. 503

Return to Hurope.—The voyage from the Senegal to Europe presents no
difficulty, and calls for no other precautions than those commonly used in
long voyages on seas void of dangers. These precautions are, not to
trifle with the wind, but rather to make a good run in a given time, than
to endeavour to make good the proposed course. In all return voyages
from places within the Tropics, the grand point is to leave the region of
the Trade Winds and get into the Variables, and the currents setting to
the Eastward, as soon as possible. As the winds generally blow from
East to N.W. on the coast of Africa, from the month of December to the
end of June, you should keep on the starboard tack until out of their
influence. » The course made good will be about N.W., and you will then
be in the neighbourhood of the Azores. It is immaterial whether you pass
to the Northward or through the channels of these islands, but it has been
remarked that the winds are strongest to the Westward. It is seldom
possible to pass to the Hastward of them; the distance, no doubt, would
be shortened, but this passage can be effected only by keeping close to the
wind thus far; and experience has proved that, by such procedure, little
is to be gained.

7. REMARKS AND DIRECTIONS FOR THE NAVIGATION TO,
AND ON THE COAST OF, WESTERN AFRICA. |

WITH SOME ACCOUNT OF THE CURRENTS, SEASONS, ETC.; BY CAPTAIN
THOMAS MIDGLEY, OF LIVERPOOL, 1837.*

On the Passage from England to the Western Coast of Africa, it may
be well to make the island of Madeira and sail to the Westward of it if
possible ; for by so doing the ship will be placed in the best position as to
her future course. After passing Madeira, steer so as to leave Palma about
70 or 80 miles to the Eastward (if nearer, the ship is liable to be be-
calmed), and then steer a course to make the N.E. end of Bonavista.
Bonavista requires a good berth, as the currents about it are strong and
uncertain, and dangers extend from the North and East sides to a great
distance from the land.

In the winter, when strong Westerly breezes, of long continuance, prevail
to the Northward, it may be impossible to make Madeira without much
trouble and delay ; in this case endeavour to get a good observation for
longitude, or a sight of the Salvages; and should Westerly winds still
continue, run boldly to the Southward. On nearing the Canary Islands,
you will find the wind either gradually decrease to a calm, or it will veer
to the Northward with heavy squalls. The squalls in this neighbourhood
give little warning, but are frequently exceedingly heavy and dangerous.
Any ship may very safely run through the passage to the Eastward of
Palma, as a strong steady N.N.E. or N.E. breeze almost constantly blows

* In these remarks, &c., by the late Captain Midgley, as in other parts of this volume,
tne courses and bearings are by compass, unless where otherwise expressed; and every
Gearing or direction of the Wind and Current is intended tor the true.

504 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

through it; and by keeping mid-channel, there is little fear of being be-
calmed. When clear of the Canaries, a course may be shaped to make
Bonavista, as before directed.

The passage between the Islands and Cape Verde is generally and very
properly adopted by vessels trading to the Western Coast of Africa; for,
by running to the Westward of St. Antonio, they have again to make
Easting in that tract of sea, which, lying contiguous to the Southern limit
of the N. E. Trade Wind, is so often disturbed by calms, squalls, i
lightning, and heavy rain.

The currents between the coasts of Great Britain and the Cae Verde
Islands are now so well known, that it is almost superfluous to make any
further remarks upon them, excepting that their velocity is by no means
exaggerated ; and the dangerous effects which they have upon vessels,
between the Bay of Biscay and the Capes Nun and Bojador, on the African
coast, cannot be too strongly impressed upon the minds of those who have
charge of valuable lives and property (see pages 319—320).

Those passing Bonavista in the months of June, July, August, and
September, should not be too anxious to make Hasting ; for they will lose
the Trade Wind soon after passing the parallel of the Island of St. Jago,
and, after a short interval of calm, fall in with the §.W. wind and its
usual accompaniments of heavy squalls and rain. On the further progress
the vessel makes to the Southward and Eastward, the 8.W. winds gene-
rally become variable to the Westward, and the squalls not so frequent.

At this season of the year it is advisable to give St. Anne’s Shoals a
berth of 150 miles to the Hastward, as the sea sets in so heavily upon the
coast, between these shoals and Cape Palmas, that making Southing when
near the land, in these months, is attended with much difiiculty.

From October to April or May, the weather in this tract is generally
fine, and the nights cool, beautifully serene and clear, with heavy dews ;
and in these months a more direct track may be pursued from Bonavista
to the Southward and Eastward, than that above mentioned. In the
influence of the Trades, the breeze is generally steady from N.N.E. and
N.E., and the sea smooth, occasionally, however, interrupted by Tornados,
which, in the neighbourhood of Cape Verga and Sierra Leone, blow with
terrible fury. Such is their violence, that it is frequently necessary to
keep the ship directly before them, under a foretopmast staysail only.

Between the Cape Verde Islands and the coast, the currents in the
above tracks are variable, but mostly found running to the Southward, and
seldom exceeding 1 mile an hour (generally from half to three-quarters of
a mile), until hauling up for St. Anne’s Shoals. At about 120 miles to the
Westward of these, I have several times found them setting about H.$.E.
by chart, fully 14 mile in the hour.

The sea between the meridian of 20° W. and the bank of soundings ex-
tending from the African coast, is perhaps the most luminous part of the
Atlantic Ocean. In the very dark gloomy nights of the wet season, with
a strong breeze of wind, and when not one solitary star is visible, nothing
can exceed, no pen can describe, the awful grandeur and magnificence of
the scene. ‘The whole surface of the sea appears as one vast sheet of liquid
fire ; and the ship, sailing at the rate of 6 or 7 knots through the water,

TO THE WEST COAST OF AFRICA. 505

causes streaks of light to be emitted from the sea, that throw a strong yet
sickly and appalling glare upon all the sails, creating an indescribable
sensation in the mind, that is very far from being agreeable, as the vessel
appears to be surrounded by breakers on every side.

Although I have several times noticed this luminous appearance in the
same track, I am led to remark more particularly upon it on account of a
most awful night which I passed on the 24th of August, 1834, in or about
lat. 7° 30’ N., long. 17° 50’ W., which left an impression upon the minds
of all on board that I fancy will not be very soon effaced ; for the vessel
appeared to be sailing through a sea of liquid fire, whilst the heavy dark
mass of clouds appeared ta rest upon her mastheads, and not a single star
was visible amid the horrid gloom. No bottom was found at 120 fathoms.
Temperature of the air 82°, and of the water 79° (Fahr.).

Vessels in want of Kroumen should call at Grand Sestros. From some
years’ experience I can confidently say, that they are the most willing and
best disposed men on the Krou Coast; and, if well used, are faithful to
their employer in every difficulty he may have to contend with to leeward.
Every vessel should take four or five, or more of them, in proportion to
her size ; for, in the Oil Rivers, if white men are exposed in the boats or
canoes, landing or taking in casks, they very soon fall victims to the
climate. The Kroumen prefer rice to any other diet, and a good supply
ean generally be procured at a cheap rate, except between January and
June; but, considering the detention of lying-to, in order to procure it,
the rice may be exported from England, for ships’ use, at very nearly as
cheap a rate. One of the Kroumen is of more real service in the Oil Rivers
than two Europeans; they are generally well versed in the English lan-
guage; and are contented with a dash or present when left at Fernando Po,
after the vessel has completed her lading.*

On approaching the Krou Coast it is usual to hoist the ensign and fire a
gun, and the vessel will soon be surrounded by canoes. A small canoe
may be purchased for the ship’s use for a mere trifle, and will be found
extremely serviceable in the rivers.

The navigation between Cape Lahou and the land of Formosa presents
no difficulty to the navigator; the currents in the route run to the East-
ward at 1, 14, and sometimes 2 knots or more, in the hour. If there be
no inducement to call at Bereby, Drewin, or Cape Lahou, it will be as
well (and will certainly expedite the passage) to shape a course from Cape
Palmas for Cape Three Points; and then, giving that land a berth of
15 or 20 miles, shape a course for the land of Formosa.

In steering across the Bight of Benin, the current will be generally found
running about 1 mile an hour to the N.H.; and must be allowed for, by
steering one-third of a point to the Southward of the direct course.

A mere inspection of the chart will show that what is erroneously called
Cape Formosa is, in fact, an elbow-land rounding off gradually to the
Eastward ; and regular soundings upon a muddy bottom extend for some

7

* Vessels now usually call at Sierra Leone for Kroumen, and it is uncertain whether
fibe above remarks concerning Grand Sestros are still correct.

N. An: 65

506 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

considerable distance to the Westward and Southward of it. The land is
here extremely low, and should not be approached in the night nearer
than in 8 or 10 fathoms, unless by a vessel prepared to anchor.

After making the land, the oldest and most experienced traders to the
Oil Rivers are frequently deceived as to the position of their vessel; for the
best description of the rivers from Formosa to Bonny is but vague and
imperfect ; and I therefore proceed to give such directions as I think, from
my own experience, will be found useful to vessels bound to the Bonny or
New Calabar Rivers.

The rivers between Terra Formosa and Bonny have all shoal bars at the
entrance, and generally appear from the offing to be narrow. They have
no peculiar feature to distinguish them, other than their being open to
such points of the compass as are expressed in the Sailing Directions.

The Seasons here appear to have been imperfectly described. The rains
generally commence in the latter end of May, or early in June, and gra-
dually increase, with strong 8.S.W. and 8.W. breezes, during the months
of July, August, and great part of September, towards the end of which
month they as gradually terminate. In July and August heavy squalls
frequently prevail; and in these months the wind very rarely shifts more
than between S.S.W. and S.W., and the rain is incessant from sunset to
nearly noon next day, when it ceases for a few hours, and again com-
mences with more or less violence in the evening. In October the weather
becomes more settled, with light land winds, and occasionally showers of
rain, which, however, yield to the moderate sea breeze that sets in about
10 or 11 a.m. In November the Tornados commence, and are at first
violent, gradually decreasing in strength as the Harmattan or dry season
commences, although they are occasionally prevalent from this month to
May. In December, January, and February, is the Harmattan season;
and in these months the sea breeze sets in about noon, and blows with
very moderate force from the W.S.W. and Westward until sunset, when
it dies away toacalm. During the night there is little or no wind, and
the weather is extremely sultry and oppressive, and very heavy and
unwholesome dews. ” After daylight a light air springs up from the North-
ward or N.N.E., which gradually increases to a moderate force, and
continues until about 11 a.m., when it falls calm, and soon after is suc-
ceeded by the light Westerly breeze. The Harmattan, however, sometimes
blows steadily and without intermission from the N.E. quarter for several
days together, especially about the new and full moon. It is at this
season that the smokes prevail, and are exceedingly injurious to the
European constitution. These smokes are so dense that it is impossible to
see a cable’s length from the ship for days together ; and any vessels that
may be in the offing, inward bound, have no resource but to anchor, and
wait with patience for clearer weather.

In March, April, and May, the weather is clear, with light land winds
at day-break, which gradually die away, are succeeded by the W.S.W.
breeze about 10 a.m.; and this breeze blows with moderate force during
the remainder of the day and greater part of the night. In these months
the atmosphere is serene and clear, particularly during the nights, which
are very fine indeed.

THE WEST COAST OF AFRICA. 507

The Palm Oil season.commences in the early part of March; the oil
becomes plentiful in April, and continues to be so until September, when
it declines ; and from October till March it is, properly speaking, out of
season, although small quantities of it may be procured in these months.

In the foregoing remarks as to the season and climate, I beg to be
understood as speaking of the New Calabar and Bonny Rivers only, and
now proceed to consider the best means of preserving the health of the
crews of vessels trading there. Masters of vessels should be on their
guard against shipping plethoric or lusty men to go to the Oil Rivers of
Africa, Drunkards are still worse subjects than these; for if a man
undermines his constitution by intemperance in England, he cannot repair
it in Africa. I have too frequently remarked that human skill is of little
avail in saving the life of a drunkard when once attacked with African
fever. The fact is, a drunkard is predisposed to sickness, and soon falls a

‘victim to the climate. The plethoric or lusty man, if he has not tampered

with his constitution, has a rather better chance; but should he for-
tunately recover from the fever, he-is often annoyed with attacks of ague
all the passage home, and does not recover until he arrives in England.
Thin, raw-boned subjects are the best for the coast of Africa; selected
from men who have made several voyages to the West Indies, as they are,
in some degree, seasoned to a warm climate; those who have never
made voyages to tropical climates should be decidedly rejected.

As a precaution for preserving the health of the crew, the vessel should
be housed over as soon as possible after her arrival in the river. Plenty
of mats should be procured, and a good, substantial, tight house be at once
made, to shelter the crew, and preserve the vessel from the weather.
Every care should be taken to make the house perfectly water-tight, as
well for the comfort and health of the seamen, as for the advantage of
working the palm oil in wet weather. An overstrained economy in the
purchase of a few mats is highly reprehensible. The seamen will generally
hang hammocks under the house; and, if well sheltered from the
weather, will enjoy better health than they would by sleeping below in
the steam emitted from the oil. In these rivers it is presumed that the
Kroumen do all out-duty required in the boats, &c.; for a European should
not be allowed to put his foot over the side, either for the purpose of
visiting or going ashore, even on ship’s duty (unless unavoidable), as it
infallibly leads to dissension and drunkenness from the worst of spirits ;
and a drunken fit in Africa is the almost sure forerunner of sicknegs, and
probably death.

All vessels should keep a sufficient quantity of English water on board
for use in the country, as the Bonny and New Calabar water has an im-
mense quantity of animalcule, is very unpleasant to the palate, and
injurious to health. Cocoa is an excellent and nutritious article of diet ;
and the crew should be well supplied with yams, which are the only
vegetable, excepting corn and plaintains (the latter not plentiful), that can
be procured in these rivers. ,

If the crew unavoidably get wet, they should immediately rub them-
selves thoroughly dry with coarse cloths, and put on dry clothes. The
forecastle should be frequently cleaned out with a solution of chloride of

508 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

lime (or other disinfectant), and the seamen’s clothes and bedding kept
well aired. Attending te these precautions will be found the best means
of preserving health.

Here I may observe that fresh stock of all kinds is very scarce and very
dear in these rivers, so that vessels bound to Bonny or New Calabar would
do well by procuring their fresh stock and corn to windward, either on the
Krou Coast, Frisco, Cape Lahou, the various settlements on the Gold
Coast, or at a small village on the sea coast, near Cape St. Paul, called
Dokko, or Occo (? Weh). At these places stock of all kinds is abundant,
and very cheap when obtained in barter.

Current.—I had almost omitted putting the mariner on his guard
against the effect of the strong Easterly current that runs from Terra
Formosa to Old Calabar. This current runs with greater or less velocity
almost throughout the year, except in or about the Harmattan season,
when it occasionally sets to the Westward and W.S.W. Vessels that have
advanced much to the Eastward of Terra Formosa, and cannot see Foché
Point before night, should anchor, inorder to prevent the effect of the
current ; but in squally weather, or the wet season, it may be as well to
work to windward, heaving-to occasionally during the night, according to
circumstances ; a depth of 9 or 10 fathoms is quite close enough to stand
inshore during the night; when in 6 fathoms the surf aan be very dis-
tinctly heard.

When once to leeward on this coast, getting up to windward again is
attended with much trouble and difficulty. I may here remark, that too
much attention cannot be paid to the lead upon any part of the coast of
Africa, as the current frequently sets directly in upon the land; and from
careful observation, upon the Windward Coast, I can confidently assert
that the thermometer is no guide whatever on approaching the land. In
more than 100 experiments upon the surface water, I could never detect
any sensible difference in the temperature when sailing toward the land
from no bottom into 45 and 40 fathoms, and then into 14 or 15 fathoms,
on the Krou Coast. In the dry season there is little difference hereabout
in the temperature of the air and water; the former averaging 77° to 81°
(in the shade), and the latter 74° or 75° Fahrenheit.

The Homeward Passage, through the Bight of Biafra, presents no par-
ticular feature to the attention of the navigator, if I may except the strong
N.E. currents that almost invariably prevail in it. All homeward bound
vessels that do not intend calling at Fernando Po, should use every possible
exertion to pass to the Westward of the island, as a good board may be
then made to the Southward on the starboard tack. Except in the Har-
mattan or Tornado seasons, no advantage can be derived by standing close
inshore, as there are no land winds, and a near approach is, at any time,
very dangerous, as the whole of the coast, from Camaroons to the Gaboon
(except about Corisco), is generally bold-to, and the soundings in nowise
to be depended on. On this part of the coast there is no trada, and the
inhabitants are miserable naked savages.

On getting to the Southward of Prince’s Island, the very excellent dires-
tions of Mr. Finlaison may be followed with advantage. He says :—
“ Having arrived at the Southward of Prince’s Island, if the ship will lie

FROM THE WEST COAST OF AFRICA. 509

no higher than W.N.W., tack immediately, and try to cross the Line;
for, by so doing, you will keep out of the strong N.H. current (the Guinea
Current) that sets towaids the Bights of Benin and Biafra. After you
have crossed the Line, you will find that you are nearly out of the Easterly
current. In the parallel of 1° 8. you will find the current set to the West-
ward, at the rate of 1 mile an hour. In the month of May or June, when
the sun has a high declination, the Trade Wind is fair to the Southward,
and you will not gain the regular breeze nearer than in 3° §. This breeze
commences from S. by W. As you make Westing, the wind will be found
to haul more to the Southward and Eastward, and the current increases
to the rate of 14 knot an hour, until you arrive as far to the Westward as
long. 15° W. ;

‘On proceeding hence towards Sierra Leone, come no farther to the
Eastward than 15° W., until you are as far to the Northward as 8° 30’ N.;
then you may steer boldly in for the Cape. You will strike soundings in
that parallel, in 14°40’ W.; and as you approach the Cape the soundings
will be found very irregular, from 20 fathoms to 12 at a cast. You will
then be 7 leagues from the Cape, and in the fair track of the river. Having
given these directions to our prize-masters, they generally made the
passage from Fernando Po or Bonny in five weeks ; merchant vessels have
frequently been three months by keeping inshore.”’

Many navigators have remarked, that on standing to the Westward
between Prince’s and St. Thomas’s, even when making a trifle of Northing,
the N.H. current has been found to diminish in strength as the vessel
makes Westing. Even so far to the Southward as latitude 3° South
there is seldom any Easting in the wind before passing the meridian of
Greenwich.

Vessels bound to the Northward should not attempt crossing the Equator
to the Eastward of 20° W. (the meridian of 214° W. is to be preferred),
and should then make a North or N. by W. course, to get into the N.E.
Trade Wind, which having once fairly gained, the homeward navigation
is generally well understood. In this route, after leaving the Guinea
Current in the Bight of Biafra, the ship will gradually get into the
Equatorial Current as she gets to the Southward, and this current fre-
quently runs with considerable velocity. On examining my journals, I
find that, by good lunar observations and an excellent chronometer, I have,
at various times, made the following differences to the Westward of dead
reckoning, in the run from St. Thomas’s to longitude 20° W. of Greenwich,
between the parallels of 0° 35’ North, and 3° of South latitude. In April,
1830, the brig Anne was set 237 miles to the Westward, and 78 miles to
the Northward, of account, in 20 days. In October and November, 1831,
the barque Severn was set 240 miles to the Westward, and 94 to the
Northward, of account, in 23 days. In October, 1833, the Freeland was
set 246 miles to the Westward, and 51 to the Northward, of account. in
20 days. In August, 1835, the same vessel was set 228 miles to the
Westward, and 43 to the Northward, in 19 days; and.in November and
December, 1836, the Caledonia was set 373 miles to the Westward, and
107 miles to the Northward, in 18 days. But it may be observed that, in
the latter vessel, I never crossed the Equator, but was generally 8 or 10

510 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

miles to the Northward of it, until I crossed the meridian of 12° W. {un
the above runs I have occasionally, but rarely, found slight differences tc
the Southward. When to the Southward of the Equator, abreast cf the
Bight of Benin, I have always found a current running at least three-
quarters of a mile an hour to the Northward.

By ComMAnDER W. B. Oniver, R.N.

Conceiving that a shorter passage by a sailing ship from the Bights, or
Prince’s Island, to Sierra Leone, than that made by proceeding to the
Southward of the Line, might be made by keeping to the Northward, I
determined to ascertain the fact; and though each time accompanied and
retarded by a prize, made three unusually short passages, viz.—one from
the River Bonny, anchoring at Prince’s, and landing prisoners at St.
Thomas’s in eighteen days, the other two 13 days each from Prince’s
Island to Sierra Leone ; and, on returning to England in H.M. schooner,
unaccompanied by a prize; 39 days having been the shortest of three
prizes I sent up under the old directions from Benin and the Gaboon. I
issued different directions to prize-masters; and, although not acted on,
in absence from myself, I feel assured they would have proved, as they did
in my company, an improvement on the old one; a copy of which direc-
tions is as follows :—

Your first object will be to get to the Southward, unless you can make
a West course (true) without any Northing; nor should you go to the port
tack ‘unless you can do so, or to avoid the land. Should the wind hang so
much to the Westward as to prevent making a good course on the port
tack, pass to the Eastward of Prince’s or St. Thomas, or both, as you will
sooner get out of the strong Hasterly current, but do not approach the land
within 20 fathoms, day or night, and get frequent casts of the lead.

When to the Westward of St. Thomas, and on or near the Line, steer
W.4N., or W. by N.; according as your noon sights give you a Northerly
set or not, until in the longitude of Cape Palmas, 7° 45’ W.; when steer,
in the rainy season (May to September), about N.W. by N.; in the other
months, N.W.; until in 138° W., the longitude of the Western limit of
St. Anne Shoals; you may then make a true North course, sounding every
5 miles by night, or in thick weather, and every 10 miles by day, from
6° N. to 8° N. If you reach the latter without striking soundings, it will
prove that you have passed to the Westward of St. Anne Shoals; when
keep away E. by N., and you will make the high land of Sierra Leone; if
by night, anchor on reaching 12 fathoms.

These instructions can only be acted on in a general way, as of course
much depends on winds and currents; but I wish them to have full
weight with any officer detached in a prize; and remember, the land about
Sierra Leone should always be made to the Southward of the cape.

THE WEST COAST OF AFRICA. 611

Sailing Vessels navigating on the Windward and Gold Coasts will, of
course, be accelerated or retarded, according to the season. An able and
competent judge on the subject has said :—

“ During the period of the year when land breezes alternate with those of
the sea (page 160), the best mode of beating a ship to windward is to get
under way as soon as the wind blows steadily from the land, hugging the
shore on board as near as may be prudent, for by that means every advan-
tage is derived from it that can be expected. Soon after daylight this
wind veers to the West, and lays the ship’s head off shore; by 11 a.m. the
sea breeze will have acquired its strength and true direction, at which
time, also, the vessel will have made a good offing. Tack and stand in-
shore, anchoring when in 8 fathoms of water, where it will be proper to
wait for the land wind. By adopting this method, a vessel is placed in
the best possible situation for taking early advantage of the breeze from
the shore ; whereas, if she were kept under weigh during the night, the
probability is that she would lose all the ground she had gained the
preceding day, independently of being placed where the land breeze might
not reach her.

“ During the rainy season, when the sea breeze blows both in the day
and night, and at a few leagues from the shore from very near the South
point of the compass, stand off shore for twenty-four hours, when the wind
will mostly be found to blow at 8.S.W. or 8. by W., and often at South ;
with the port tack on board the vessel will lie up West clean full, and the
variation being nearly two points Southerly, one will not only make good
her course, but Southing also.

‘“ As the current at this season of the year sets strongly to the East-
ward, it will be prudent to allow about 36 miles in twenty-four hours
for its mean velocity ; otherwise. in bearing up and making the land, the
the ship will be found to leeward of her port of destination. This is an
error many have fallen into. Perhaps it would be better to allow even 48
miles, because it is easy to run to leeward, should the vessel prove to be to
windward of the place to which she is bound.

8.— PASSAGES TO AND FROM THE WEST INDIES, WITH
INSTRUCTIONS FOR NAVIGATING THEREIN.

The courses of sailing ships bound as above are regulated by the
Winds and Currents which have been described in the preceding chapters.
The consequence is they must take a circuitous track, not only to the
West Indies, but to the Southern ports of the United States. For having
passed Cape Finisterre, as before described, the best course is then to the
S.S.W., so as to gain the Trade Winds quickly. The preceding observa-
tions on passing Madeira, &c., may, therefore, in this instance, be useful,
as well as in the former.

As the great object is to attain the N.i. Trade, in order to run down
your Westing with as little delay as possible, the remarks upon the
passage across the Equatcr will apply almost equally to this voyage ; the

512 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

more especially those given by Captain Maury and Captain Toynbee as to
a Westerly track from the Channel leading through steadier winds, and
therefore more particularly applicable to the route across the North
Atlantic in the Trades, where there is no object in maintaining an Hasterly
position to avoid being driven to leeward of the Brazilian coast.

In confirmation of this view, Captain George Cheveley, of Liverpool,
remarks that he would recommend to ships clearing the English Channel,
if bound for the West Indies, to make the S.W. quadrant, true, so as to
pass nearly at an equal distance between Madeira and St. Mary’s.
Captain Cheveley adds, that, by pursuing this track, he invariably held a
steadier breeze, and got much quicker into the Trades than when he pro-
ceeded farther to the Eastward, and so endeavoured to make more Southing.
He is aware that the latter is the general practice, of which he entirely
disapproves, so far as concerns a West India passage.

Ships for Jamaica generally pass to the Southward of the Island of
Montserrat, and thence proceed for the high rock called Alta Vela, off the
Southern point of St. Domingo, whence they take a departure for the
Eastern end of Jamaica. When homeward-bound, they pass either
through the Windward Channei or the Strait of Florida, as the wind and
other circumstances may vrevail or dictate.

Between the months of October and March, Northerly winds prevail
over the Mexican Sea and the adjacent regions; and when Northerly
winds prevail in the Strait of Florida, the Windward Channel must, of
course, be preferred ; but, at all other times—at least, generally at other
times—the quickest, and, therefore, most eligible, passage is through the
Channel of Yucatan, and thence, with the Gulf Stream in your favour,
through the Strait of Florida.

Although the Windward Channel appears, by the chart, to be the
shorter and readier passage, yet ships are frequently opposed here, both
by wind and current, as will appear by the following statement, made by
an officer already quoted :—‘‘ After the defeat of the French fleet, com-
manded by Count de Grasse, in April, 1782, and the British had arrived
at Port Royal, in Jamaica, a squadron was detached to gain the Wind-
ward Passage, run down the Bahama Old Channel, and cruise to the
Eastward of Havana, to prevent a Spanish squadron, in the harbour,
from effecting a junction with the French ships that had escaped into
Cape Francois (Cape Haytien). For six weeks did the English squadron
beat against fresh sea breezes and a lee current; and, during that time,
never advanced farther to the Eastward than off Morant Harbour, though
the ships were much strained by carrying a press of sail to attain their
object ; but, after struggling so long, were compelled to return, bafiled,
into port. Now, though the first object might have been to meet the
Spanish squadron on its way to Cape Frangois, if it had sailed, yet, so
soon as the effect of a lee current was ascertained, the object of gaining
the Windward Passage ought to have been immediately abandoned,
when, by bearing away with a favourable current for some distance, and
before a fresh Trade Wind, Cape Antonio might have been passed the
second day, the squadron have been off the Dry Tortugas on the third,
ana by beating along the Florida shore with a weather current, when to

FROM THE WEST INDIES. 513

the Hastward of the meridian of Havana, it could have stretched over to
Cuba in the night; and, in all probability, have gained the appointed
station in six days, or even, perhaps, as soon as it could have gained
Cape Maysi, if the Easterly wind had been moderate, and no current to
contend with.” * _

When the Trade Wind blows strong, and in frequent squalls, during the
summer months, between Jamaica and Hayti, and a short turbulent sea
is found Hastward of the former, then will those bound for Europe or the
United States shorten the period of their voyage by bearing away for the
West end of Cuba, and passing through the Strait of Florida. For the
strait presents a more eligible navigation in these months than the Wind-
ward Channel. The sea breeze will ensure a quick run to the Channel of
Yucatan ; and the current, perpetually setting Eastward between Cuba and
Florida, will, in a few days, carry any vessel into the strait, where it will
be nearly impossible to remain much above two days, in the strength of
the stream, after being on the parallel of the Bemini Islands, even if there
were not a breath of wind.

But as the North winds prevail in the Strait of Florida in October, and
frequently during winter, when variable winds and strong land breezes
are not uncommon on the coast of Jamaica, shipping will find this the most
favourable period for gaining the Windward Channel. In January or
February, if the wind offers a favourable opportunity for gaining the East
end of Cuba, this track should be taken ; but if the sea breeze be strong,
the Strait of Florida should be preferred.

When the sun has approached the Tropic of Cancer, strong Westerly
winds begin to blow along the Western coast of Florida, and prevail during
the months of June, July, and August, from the Bay of Apaiaché, South-

* «TJ think that this paragraph, unless aualified, is calculated to mislead; particularly
in the words, ‘ when, by bearing away with a favourable current for some distance, and
before a fresh Trade Wind, Cape Antonio might have been passed on the second day.’
Admitting the general experience of the writer of this passage, I think he states an
extreme case. The distance from Port Royal to Cape Antonio is 518 miles; which
(divided by 48) equals more than 104 miles per hour. Generally, there would be nothing
extraordinary in this performance, but I much doubt if it be often accomplished in the
locality alluded to, at the time of the year supposed ; viz., in the middle of May. In
that month of 1833,I was ordered from Montego Bay to New Providence; at the former
place I consulted some of the most experienced commanders of West Indiamen,
whether the most eligible course would be that of Cape Maysi or Cape Antonio; the
majority recommended the latter, and I more readily deferred to their advice, from its
concurrence with that contained in the extract, the previous consideration of which
bad occupied my mind.

“ Finally, although the advice contained in the extract above is judicious in estab-
lishing the advantages of the Leeward Passage, I repeat, that the hopes of making it so
speedily as is represented will not often be realized, for neither very favourable currents,
nor fresh Trade Winds, will be experienced upon that track at the season indicated;
nevertheless, there is the all-important distinction between the passages of certainty and
uncertainty.”’—Lieutenant W. H. Brady, R.N.

+ In sailing for the Windward Channel, get the coast of Hayti on board as soon as
you can, as you may then find a windward current, and, in the evening, the wind off
shore.

NA. O. | 66

514 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

ward. These Westerly winds cause fluctuations in the atmosphere, which
prevail more about the Western end of Cuba than farther Hastward ; and
near Havana they have little influence. At this season, vessels from »
Jamaica have met a Westerly wind in the Channel of Yucatan ; others have
experienced a fair breeze at some distance after passing Cape Antonio ;
and the wind here will be found sometimes at N.W., West, and S.W.,
veering about variably.

The wind in the Kastern quarter sometimes fluctuates about the Western
end of Cuba, but not generally.

At this season the wind blows impetuously off Jamaica, and in frequent
squalls ; and sailing vessels bound thence to Europe should universally
prefer the Leeward Passage. They will probably pass through the Strait
of Florida before they could gain the entrance of the Windward Channel,
though straining, with every effort, against the wind. The appearance of
a favourable opportunity for passing through that channel should not be
suffered to deceive ; for it may be no indication of the general state of the
wind Kastward.

From the West indies to the English Channel.—After having cleared
the Strait of Florida or Windward Passages, vessels may pass either to
the Northward or Southward of the Bermudas, giving the islands a good
offing, and attending to the preceding remarks on the currents, &c. In
summer, the track to the Northward of these isles has been recommended,
passing thence to the Northward of the Azores. In winter, the track to
the Southward of the Bermudas is to be preferred; because, in this
season, gales of North-Westerly wind may be expected from the coast of
America; and, therefore, vessels should continue a little to the Southward —
of lat. 30°, or in about lat. 29° 40’, if wind permits, until certain of being
to the Eastward of the Bermudas; nor should they run to the North-
ward of lat. 35° or 36°, until within a few degrees of the Azores. Thus
will the heavy gales be avoided, which frequently rage more to the
Northward.*

In shaping a course at any season, it should be remembered that the
Great Circle course from Cape Florida to the Lizard follows the outer edge
of the Gulf Stream in ws earlier course, and passing about midway
between the Bermudas and Cape Hatteras, it bears away North-Eastward
over the tail of the Newfoundland Banks, and reaches the parallel of Scilly
on a due Hasterly course. The vertex of the Great Circle being in lat. 50°.
and long. 13° 48’ W., of course its direction is nearly East and West for
several degrees on either side of this point. The shortest distance between
Cape Florida and the Lizard is 3,671 miles. It leaves the Strait of Florida
on a nearly due N.E. course true (N. 45° 35’ E.), and reaches the Channel
on an HK. 4 S. true course.

During a great portion of the year, it is probable that this course could
be strictly followed to advantage. Of course, the consideration of meeting

* As the most destructive Hurricanes on record, in this part of the Atlantic, have
occurred in the vicinity or on the borders of the Gulf Stream, this is an important
reason for ships from the West Indies, bound to Europe, not to advance too far to the
Northward. See further remarks on this subject, attached to the descriptien of the
Azores Islands hereafter

FROM THE WEST INDIES. 5156

witn Cyclones, which fodlow very nearly the Great Circle course toward
the N.E., is important, and therefore during their season, July to October,
as shown in (161), on page 223, a more Easterly route had better be pur-
sued, that is, if the Florida Channel be taken ; but if, as is more probable,
the Windward Passage is taken in this season, the Great Circle course
thence will be the most advantageous.

But upon this subject Major Rennell has said, ‘‘ Notwithstanding the
advantages to be gained, in point of distance, by ships returning from the
West Indies by the favouring current of the Gulf Stream, which may be
perhaps reckoned equal to several days’ sailing; yet experienced navigators
are still of opinion that, on the whole, it does not present equal advantages
with the Southern route.

‘Tt was, until latter times, held as a maxim not to advance to the
Northward of the parallel of lat. 33°, in returning from the West Indies,
because of tne prevalence of storms Northward of it. This wise rule of
our ancestors has again been taken up, and His Majesty’s ships, and of
course convoys, will be, in future, directed to proceed by the South of Ber-
mudas, and to cross its parallel at a few degrees to the Eastward of the
isles, and thence to steer direct for Corvo.

‘«« But, it may be observed, that a track which should cross the parallel
of Bermudas at a very few degrees to the Kastward of it, and then lead
directly toward Corvo, would cross a most critical portion of the space, in
which several gales have been actually experienced. Therefore, it would
seem that the parallel of the Bermudas should not be crossed at less than
about 15° (or say 14°) to the Kastward of the islands.

‘« But, it may be asked, Where is the necessity of going to Corvo or
Flores at all, for by it ships are placed in a situation proverbially known
as a place of storms; that is to say, on the West and N.W. of the Azores?
Why not go between them and the greater Azores, or rather to the South-
ward of them all, and thereby pass through a kindlier climate at all times ?

«« Any calculations or comparisons of time in making the different
passages would be nugatory, since the security of lives and property is the
main object; but it even happens that ships, which have had all the
advantage of the Gulf Stream, have been crippled, and made more delay
than in the Southern passage with adverse currents.”’

We are indebted to Captain H. J. Sharpe, of the steamer Carib, who in
1890 wrote to us as follows, on this subject :—

‘‘ Now we come on very debatable ground, and that is the best track
home from the West Indies. The Admiralty Pilots and general practice, all
recommend the Southern route, and it almost seems like presumption on
my part, when I state I entirely differ from them. My experience is that
the Northern route, when carried out in conjunction with the Pilot Charts,
is much to be preferred, passing through a region of fair winds and
favourable currents, facts not to be despised in a slow steamer or a sailing
vessel. And again, as ships are now so much stronger built than formerly,
the little extra wear and tear is nothing in comparison to the shorter
distance, and the shorter time gained by the ship making better runs.
Again, if bound to the English Channel, how much better it is to enter on
a parallel than obliquely, in thick weather.”

516 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC. —

Routes ror Satine VESSELS BETWEEN NORTHERN EUROPE AND THE
SouTHERN Ports oF THE UNITED STATES, THE WeEsT INDIES, ETC.,
BY CapTain Maury.

Get your offing, and proceed as though you were bound to Rio, until
you get into the N.E. Trades. Then steer West until you fall in with the
track of homeward-bound Rio traders, and then take that.

Shipmasters, bound as above, should study the Wind Chart carefully, in
order to ascertain the extreme Northern parallel near which they may
rely upon finding the N.E. Trades. The limits of these for the month
should then be marked on the Chart for every-day reference and use.
Having reached the mean Polar limits for the month, it will, as a rule,
be wise to go 2° or 3° farther South, in order to be sure of a good time in
‘‘running down the Trades.”

Having reached the parallel of 30°, between 20° and 25° W., the best
course is still a little to the West of South, until the parallel of 20° N. be
reached. Do not care to make more than 5° of Westing between these two
parallels. From 30° N. to 20° N. by this route, the average time will be
six days in fall and winter; five in spring and summer; thus putting you
fairly within the Trades in eighteen days, on the average, from the Channel.
It will be less from Lisbon, the ports of Spain, and Gibraltar.

Now, suppose you enter the Trades at a mean between the meridians of
25° and 30° near the parallel of 20°, you should then ‘“‘run them down”
on that parallel to 60° W. It will take two weeks to do this; total, so
far, from the Channel, 32 days. Arrived here, you are in the fairway of
homeward-bound Indiamen and Rio traders; and from this point every
navigator knows the way to his port. If it be on the Atlantic, South of
the Chesapeake, 10 days, on the average, will put him into it—total,
42 days from the “chops” of the Channel, and from Liverpool a day or
two more, from Spain and Portugal a day or two less, to our Atlantic
ports. By this route Savannah is brought nearer than Charleston ; and
Fernandina made, for the voyage from Europe, our nearest Southern port.
If, on the contrary, he be bound into the Gulf, it will take him 15 days,
from the homeward-bound Rio track, to put him into New Orleans or
Mobile—total to Gulf ports 47 days. These times are for ordinary
sailers. A smart ship, with a smart captain, will always make the run in
less time.

This is a mere general sketch of the average route. Clever navigators
will know from the charts how to vary it according to the season, and
smart ships will gain upon the time, especially in reaching and “ running
down the Trades.”

The sketch supposes the ship to enter the Trades near the intersection
of the meridian of 25° with the parallel of 20° N. There is no particular
advantage in entering the Trades either on that meridian or upon that
parallel, or of entering them at all, if you happen to find good winds before
you get to the Trades.

Thus, suppose a vessel to be off the Lizard, bound to Charleston, and
tat she have a 7 or 8 knot breeze that will enable her to lay up direct for

TO THE WEST INDIES, ETC. 517

port ; why should she, as long as that wind lasts, run out of her way to
find one that will not enable her to do any better? On the contrary, let
her take advantage of it to make Westing as fast as possible, and when it

grows lighter or becomes adverse, as it will, then let her master stick her
away South in search of a better wind.

By doing this, the voyage, as I have sketched it, may be considerably
shortened. The Wind Chart will show the navigator exactly how far
South he ought to go to look for the Trades in each month. A reference
to this, with the injunction to make the most of a good wind wherever he
finds it, seems to be almost the only sailing directions that are required
for the ports above named, especially in winter and spring.

In the fall of 1856, Captain Macloon, of the Georgia, asked to have
pointed out to him a better route from Liverpool to Savannah, stating
that he had tried three, and had had by them two passages of 60 days
each, and one of 54. The reply from Captain Maury was, in substance :—

** You ask for a new way to come from Liverpool to Savannah. I have
often thought that if I were in that trade, considering the passage is a
long and tedious one, I should try it on the Trades; that is, when you
come out of Liverpool, proceed as if you were going to cross the Line
(for which you will find sailing directions at page 475 et seq. of this work).
Aim to cross the parallel of 30° N. in about 25° W., and then steer 8.W.
till you get well into the Trades, even if you have to go as far as the
parallel of 20° N. Now steer West till you get about the meridian of 60°,
and then haul up for your port. If you have a smart ship, and will try
this passage next November, you will make something like this run :—
From Liverpool to the parallel of 30° N., 14 days; thence into the Trades,
say 22°—20°, 5 days; thence to the meridian of 60°, 10 days; thence to
Savannah, 7 days; total, 36 days.

_ “ Within that time this passage can be made by this route; but as I
suppose the Georgia is not a clipper, I will give you a week longer, or 43
days ; and if you not make it in that time, I shall be disappointed.”

From June to October, inclusive, there is not much choice of routes.
On the one hand the N.E. Trades are uncertain at that season of the year
—the Hurricane season; while to the North calms are most prevalent,
and gales less frequent. During these months, therefore, the best route is
the straight course, for the Atlantic ports especially, taking advantage of
the winds as they present themselves, for they are too unstable for one to
go either to the North or South to look for them.

At this season of the year the Calm belt of Cancer is far North and
vessels that attempt to make Westing between 28° and 34°, will find the
winds more baffling than they will either to the North or the South of
those parallels. I caution navigators to avoid the belt between these
parallels as much as possible; and when they have to cross it, I advise
them to cross it nearly on a meridian. The Wind Chart shows the
position of this Calm belt for each month.

Transient vessels, bound into Philadelphia and New York, would find
the Southern route, in the winter months, the most desirable, on account
of the weather, but the passage by it would, at that the most favourable
season for it, be prolonged about a week on the average. The mistake

518 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC. |

that has been generally made by vessels taking the Southern route is in
their not going far enough South to get well into the Trades. The Wind
Chart will leave no one in doubt upon that point, and no vessel attempting
the Southern route should think of steering North, whatever be her port,
until she falls into the great track followed by the homeward-bound vessels
from the other hemisphere. They cross 25° N. in about 65° W.

Dull-sailing passenger ships from the North of Europe would do well,
especially from December to March, inclusive, by taking the Southern
route, even though they be bound to New York. If they cannot gain time
by this route, they will gain at least smooth water and pleasant weather
until they reach the offings of our own coasts.

In summer, the Great Circle route is the best to all the Atlantic ports.
Even for the Gulf ports and Cuba the route in summer time should be
decided upon according to the wind one meets with while gaining an
offing from Europe, rather than by considerations growing out of any
fancied preference as to winds by the way. If they be such as to force
you to the South, make as much Westing as you can before crossing the
parallel of 38°. Having crossed that parallel, it is then advisable to go
South in search of the N.H. Trades to carry you into the Gulf.

The reason why the North or Great Circle route is recommended to
vessels bound to any of the Atlantic ports during the summer and fall
months, from May to October, inclusive ; the reason why no preference is
given to the Southern route over the Great Circle during that period, even
for Gulf-bound vessels; and the reason why such decided preference is
given-to the Southern route, from December to March; may be gathered
from a little reflection as to the course of the Trade Winds, and careful
consideration.

From December to March gales of wind are most frequent along the
Northern route. These are mostly from the Westward. This circum-
stance, therefore, is against the Great Circle route in the winter time.
But from May to October the case is different. The gales along the Great
Circle are much less prevalent.

On the other hand, the Trade Winds being a flow of air from colder to
warmer latitudes, the difference of the temperature between the Calms of
Cancer, from which, and the Calm belt of the [Mquator, into which the
Trade Winds flow, is greater in the winter than in the summer time ; con-
sequently the more rapid, constant, and steady is the winter flow.

In the summer, however, the air in the Calm belt of Cancer, though it
be as far North as 35°, attains as high a temperature, especially on the
continents of Africa and America, as it does in the belt of Equatorial
Calms. Then why should not the air flow towards those continental
heated places as well as to the Equator? It does; and thus the Trade
Winds are frequently broken up in the summer time, and therefore they
cannot be relied on as in winter. There is another reason why the winter
Trades should be fresher, more steady, and constant than the summer
Trades, and it is this: In the winter time the Calm belt of Cancer, out of
which the Trade Winds flow, is some 500 or 600 miles nearer than it is in
the summer to the Equatorial Calm belt into which the Trade Winds
piow—the places of high and low barometer are thon closer to each other ;

TO AND FROM THE WEST INDIES, ETC. 519

and no one engaged in the business of commerce need be told that the
closer the places of demand and supply be together the more certain and
steady will be the supply.

And there is also another reason why the Southern route, even by the
Gulf-bound ships, should be abandoned, and why the Great Circle route
should be preferred, in the summer time, which is this: From July to
October the Hurricane season rages in the West Indies, while from
June to October the gale charts show the Great Circle route to be the
least stormy.

The remarks about the Southern route, for vessels bound in winter as far
North as the Chesapeake and New York, are intended especially for the
passenger ships from Bremen, Hamburg, and other ports in the North of
Kurope, and they are earnestly commended to the attention of the masters
of such ships.— Maury.

‘In the diagram of Passages, the routes recommended for each month of
the year are shown graphically, and will be readily understood.

DIRECTIONS FOR SAILING TO AND FROM THE West INpres ann North
AMERICA, TRANSLATED FROM THE ‘‘ DEKROTERO DE LAS ANTILLAS,”
By Captain LIVINGsS'ron.

These advices, or directions, are simple applications of a principle
derived fram the general prevalence of the Winds and Currents, as already
described, &¢ wili be seen by a reference to the diagrams.

Were it not for the constant wind from the Eastward, which reigns
within the Tropics, it seems likely that the maritime commerce by sailing
vessels tetween the two hemispheres would never have existed ; for, by
its means, not only are the voyages rendered very simple, which would
otherwise be interminable, but people in the most distant regions com-
municate with facility; and thus the navigator who is bound to the West-
-ward has only to place himself within the limits of the Trade Wind, in
the certainty that, in this manner, he must effect’ his purpose in the
shortest possible period. Such is the first rule, which ought always to be
attended to for this navigation.

The second rule is derived from the first ; it is, that any one, bound to
the Hast from the West, ought to get out of the region of the Trade Winds
into that of the Variables or Anti-Trades.

We have here the two precepts which direct the operation of navigators
in extensive seas; and in attending to them we shall observe, that every
one bound from the Peninsula (Spain and Portugal) to the Eastern coasts
of America, ought to get into the Trade Winds as soon as may be, holding
in mind a recommendation, which may be considered as a precept, that
is, never, in navigating extensive seas, to keep close-hauled, but always take
care to sail with the wind free; or at least to keep seven points from tt.

Taking it as granted that the first care of every one bound to America
ought to be to get into the limits of the Trade Wind, x is clear that, with

520 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

Beant winds, the tack in the third quadrant (S.W.) will be most advan-
tageous, and ought to be followed always when it can. All the endeavour
ought to be to get into these winds, without being particular as to the
means, and without keeping close to the wind to pass between the coast
of Africa and the Canaries; but taking the passage that suits best, be it
that between the Canaries and Madeira, or that between Madeira and the
Azores ; and certainly either of these is preferable to that to the Hast of
the Canaries, for the proximity of the coast of Africa deadens the wind,
and, consequently, is unfavourable to the brevity of the navigation.

Having gained the Trade Winds, the navigator must take precautions
conducing to prevent any error of situation, in making his port of
destination ; for, if he who navigates by observations is exposed to be
even 30 miles in error, he who has no more than dead-reckoning to direct
him may, probably, be 6 degrees wrong. It is very necessary to guard
against this error ; keeping in view that, in proportion as it will be easy
for any one, making a landfall to windward of his port of destination, to
run down to it; so will be the difficulty, if he makes the landfall to lee-
ward of his port, in beating up again in a sea wherein both the winds and
currents are contrary. ven if bound to the coasts of the United States
of America, it will be advisable to run into the limits of the Trade Winds,
in order to get to the Westward in as short a time as possible; and
although this mode may appear long, on account of having again, after
crossing, to augment the latitude, it will be sufficient to keep in view the —
following maxim, to convince any one to the contrary :—If in the one way
the distance is shorter, in the other the velocity with which the ship proceeds
towards her port of destination more than balances tt.

There are, nevertheless, many occasions on which a vessel may run across
to the American coast without reducing her latitude, and these occasions
may be frequent in the forty or fifty days which follow the two Equinoxes,
as epochs during which the N.E. winds generally prevail; therefore vessels
which make their passages at these times, may at once follow their voyage
in high parallels, without descending to low ones.

In summer, as the region of the general or Trade Winds extends to
about lat. 28° 30’ N., it follows that the round-about is trifling ; and this
circumstance ought to be attended to in the calculations which every
captain of a ship should make before he fixes on the course he will pursue.

Recapitulating what we have said about the course which is most
advisable for crossing to the United States, from the coasts of Spain, it
follows that, if the wind permits it, West is the preferable course; and, in
case the winds will not allow of shaping that course, the most advisable
track will be that which comes nearest to it, if the voyage is made at the
times above mentioned after the Equinoxes ; but if at any other time, a
course in the third quadrant (S.W.) should be preferred; for this will
carry the vessel soonest into the Trade Winds, with which the necessary
longitude may be quickly gained.

Vessels bound to Cuba during the rainy season, or season of the South
winds, should pass to the Northward of Porto Rico and Hayti; but during
the Norths they ought to go to the Southward of these islands. The ports
chiefly frequented are, St. Iago on the South, and Havana on the N.W.

IN THE WEST INDIES. 521

If bound to the hrst, itis necessary, in whatever season, to proceed directly
to it; that is, in the season of the Norths, to steer from Cape Tiburon, to
make some point on the South of Cuba to windward of the intended port,
or even to windward of Guantanamo ; and in the season of the Souths, to
steer from the Point of Mole St. Nicholas almost West for the port,
marking, in the first instance, various points on the coast of Cuba.

If bound to Havana, in the time of the Norths, you should pass to the
Southward of Cuba, although you will have to return the distance between
Cape Antonio and Havana ; because this inconvenience is not comparable
to that which might be occasioned on the North side of the island by a
hard North, which would not only expose a vessel to heavy risks, but
might protract the voyage much longer than the course above described,
because the distance in the latter case may be worked up in a short time.

From St. Iago de Cuba, as the coast is clear, a vessel for Hurope may
easily make her way by the Windward Passages, while all those which are
bound from Havana will take the Strait of Florida.

By the Stract of Florida we understand the space included between the
meridian of the Dry Tortugas and the parallel of Cape Cafiaveral. The
simple inspection of the chart will show this to be a bed or course, which,
like a river, conducts the water to the Northward. This river, the Gulf
Stream, flows first to the E.N.H. as far as the Western meridian of the
Double Shot Kays, by which Kays the stream is diverted from E.N.E. to
N. by E., the direction which it pursues on the parallel of Cape Florida;
thence to Cape Canaveral it runs North, with something of an inclination
to the Hast.

As it is undoubted that this general current is caused by a super-
abundance of waters, which seek, by this drain, to regain their level in the
open ocean, it follows that its rapidity will be greater or less, according to
the said superabundance of waters; but as a change cannot be momentary,
on account of the great reservoir in which the water is contained, but pro-
gressive, and of course slow, we hold that, having once ascertained the
velocity of the current, we may calculate it for three days or more in
advance without much error, if the wind remains in the same direction;
for an alteration in the wind may affect the force of the current con-
siderably, as already explained on page 394.

On the meridian of Havana strips of current are, at times, found setting
to the E.S.E. and 8.H. from the Tortugas Soundings. Care should be
taken not to confuse the Southern differences, caused by this branch of
the current, with those caused by the eddy current near the Colorados—
the one giving Eastern departure, the other West. The distinction is very
clear, and can admit of no doubt, because the eddy current is met only
from the meridians of Cavanas and Bahia Honda to Cape Antonio, and
not farther out from the coast than the parallel of 23°.

As the velocity of the current varies, it is requisite for every navigator
to ascertain its strength as frequently as possible, while within the
Stream. Every one who enters this channel, having marked well either
the lands of Cuba or the Florida Reef, so as accurately to establish thig
point of departure, ought to determine, in his first day's work, the

Noa:

622 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

velocity of the current by the difference of latitude by account and ob-
servation. We say during the first day’s work, because the generality of
common navigators make use of meridian altitudes of the sun alone to find
the latitude; but it is very clear that altitudes of the planets and fixed
stars ought not to be neglected; not only because by this you cannot be in
doubt of your real latitude, but also, because they may be more exact than
latitudes deduced from meridional altitudes of the sun, when that luminary
passes in the proximity of the zenith, and because repeated observations
during the night assure, as much as possible, the situation of the ship. Thus
you may go on, with a clear idea of the operation of the current, and the
way that the ship is making.

Having ascertained the velocity of the current, use can be made of it to
find the ship’s departure, and this knowledge will be most important
when you fail in obtaining observations for latitude; because, in such a case,
wanting a knowledge of the difference of latitude given by the current,
you will be in want of everything; but if you know the velocity of the
current, with it, and the course which it follows, you may find the
difference of latitude and departure which the current gives; and which,
though it will not give the position of the ship with that precision with
which it might be obtained by latitude observed, will still approximate
sufficiently to the truth to enable one to avoid danger, if prudence and
seamanlike conduct are combined.

In addition to the directions previously given on pages 400—401, we
add the following, for the benefit of those who have had little experience in
the navigation, of sailing vessels especially, in these seas :—

1.—That it is most convenient to direct your course in mid-channel ;
not only because it is the farthest from danger, but because you will there
have the strongest current, which is desirable.

2.—That, as you cannot ascertain, with all necessary certainty, the
position of the ship, notwithstanding the rules given to diminish the errors
occasioned by the currents, you ought, with the utmost care, to shun the
Eastern coast of Florida, as being very dangerous, the Trade Wind
blowing upon it; while there is not the least risk in running along the
Salt Kay Bank, and the edge of the Great Bank of Bahama. Upon the
latter, also, you meet with good anchorages, very fit to lie in during the
hard Northerly gales experienced between November and March, and
which do not fail to cause many damages, and sometimes even force
vessels to bear away, which is always dangerous, for the weather is
always thick with such winds, and the worst case will be to run into one
of them upon the coast of Cuba, when hoping to have made Havana or
Matanzas. Hence, therefore, as soon as there is an appearance of a
North, the best way is, if near the Salt Kay Bank, to anchor on it; and,
if near the Great Bank, to approach the edge of it, in order to be able to
anchor when it may be necessary; for although you may have a hard
North, so long as you can lie-to in it, you ought to pursue your
navigation, as the current will certainly carry the ship through the
strait.

3.—It is very necessary to sight the Kays on the Salt Kay Bank, even
though you have no fear of a North; and there may be occasions in which

THE STRAIT OF FLORIDA. 523

every exertion should be made to make them; especially if, from want of
observations, the situation of the ship is not well known.

4.—When, owing to calms or light winds, a vessel is in danger of being
carried through the strait by the current, she ought immediately to
approach the edge of the Salt Kay Bank, or of the Great Bank, to
descend from it to the coast of Cuba, without trying to beat down the lost
ground; for, by doing this, she would only render the being carried
through more certain.

5.—Should you involuntarily approach the coast of Florida, you should
take extraordinary care to examine whether you have advanced out of the
general current and into the eddy. That you may know this, observe the
eddy forms a remarkable and visible line between it and the general cur-
rent, which line of division is, in many places, out of sight of land; that,
in general, you have no soundings on it; and that it shows, not only by
the change in the colour of the water, but that also in it, during the
greatest calms, there is a kind of boiling or overflowing of the water.
From this line of division the water gradually changes colour ; so that,
near the Florida Kays, it is of a beautiful sea-green, and at last it becomes
almost as white as milk.

6.—When in the eddy you have to make the correction of currents on
courses entirely different from those in the stream. This is the more
necessary to be remarked, because, from ignorance of this circumstance,
several have been shipwrecked.

7.—When you enter the channel, or strait, from the Tortugas Soundings,
with the intention of passing through, take care to become certain of the
land of Cuba, or some part of the Reef of Florida, in order to have a good
point of departure; for, although the latitude and soundings on the
Tortugas Bank are more than sufficient to ascertain the place of the ship,
yet the variable set of the current toward Havana may produce a serious
error, if not properly attended to. The meridian of Havana is, in a
word, the best point of departure for ships bound to the N.H.—A. ZL.

8.—Steamers bound from the Northern ports of the United States to
Havana and other ports in the West Indies, from Cape Hatteras proceed
East or West of the Gulf Stream, according to the port they are bound
for, making careful use of the lead in passing between it and the coast.
Sailing vessels always keep outside the Stream, but make use of it on the
return voyage.

On PROCEEDING TO THE WINDWARD OR CARIBBEE ISLANDS.

As to choosing the North or South part of any of these isles for making
your landfall, you ought to consider, first, which point is nearest to the
port to which you are destined; and, secondly, the season in which you go.
In the Dry Season, it is to be remembered that the winds are generally
from the North-Hastward, and in the Rainy Season they are often from
the South-Hastward. Thus, in the Dry Season, it is best to make the

524 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

North side, and in the Wet Season the South, but without losing sight of
the first consideration.

There can be no mistake in recognising any of the Antillas; nor, in
making St. Bartholomew and St. Martin alone, can there be any doubt on
seeing at once the eminences or heights of various islands. That this may
not mislead any one, they must remember the following instructions :—

When in the parallel of St. Bartholomew, at less than 12 miles off, if
there be no fog or haze, the Islands of St. Hustatius, Saba, St. Christopher,
Nevis, and St. Martin, appear plainly.

The mountain of St. Eustatius forms a kind of table, with uniform
declivities to the Hast and West; the top is level, and at the Hast part of
this plain a peak rises, which makes it very remarkable. To the West
of the mountain seems to be a great strait, in consequence of the lands
near it being below the horizon, and to the West of that there then appears,
ag it were, another long, low island, the N.W. part of which is highest;
but it is necessary not to be deceived, for all that land is part of the land
of St. Eustatius. From this station Saba appears to the N.W.; it is not
so high as St. Eustatius, and apparently of less extent than the Western
part of St. Eustatius, which is seen insulated.

The N.W. part of St. Christopher is also seen formed by great mountains,
in appearance as elevated as St. Eustatius, with low land to the Hast; to
the Eastward of this low land Nevis will be seen apparently higher than
all the others.

The lands of St. Martin are notably higher than those of St. Bartholo-
mew ; and this island appears also when you are several miles farther
from it than from St. Bartholomew.

When there are any clouds which hinder St. Martin from being seen,
there may be some hesitation in recognising St. Bartholomew ; and thus it
is proper to notice that the latter, seen upon its own parallel, appears
_small, and with four peaks, trending North and South, occupying almost
its whole extent; and, if you are not more than 25 miles from it, you will
see, also, the appearance of an islet to the North, and another to the
South, at a very short distance. As this island has neither trees, high
mountains, nor thickets, it is not subject to fogs ; and it may therefore be
seen oftener than St. Martin, St. Christopher, Nevis, St. Hustatius, and
Saba ; it is therefore advisable to keep its appearance in mind.

At 25 miles to the East of St. Bartholomew you may see Nevis, very
high ; from it to the West the strait called the Narrows, and then the
lands of St. Christopher, appearing to rise out of the water, and which
continue increasing in height to the Westward, so that the Western of
the two mountains, which are at the West part of it, is the higher, This
mountain, which is higher than that called Mount Misery, has to the West
of it, a gentle declivity, terminating in low land; and it cannot be mis-
taken for any other. To the West of this you may also see the large strait
toward St. Hustatius; but from this situation you will see only the high
§.E. part of that island, or rather, its mountain, in consequence of which
it appears like a very small island, while its mountain seem to be lower
than Mount Misery; but it is easily known by the table, which its top
forms, by the uniform declivities to the Hast and West, and by the peak

THE WINDWARD AND CARIBBEE ISLANDS. 525

on the §.E. part of it. Saba seems, from this situation, equal in size to
the visible part of St. Eustatius; but. it shows only an eminence without
peaks, with declivities, and almost round.

If a small islet appears to the West of, and very near to St. Eustatius,
that must not confuse you; for it is the N.W. extremity of that island ;
and, on getting nearer, you will perceive the land which connects it with
the S.H. part. Mount Misery, on St. Christopher, which has a very high
and sharp peak, on the Eastern part of its summit, seems at a distance to
be the summit of Mount Eustatius; but it cannot be mistaken for such,
if you attend to its surface being more unequal than the table-land at the
top of St. Eustatius; and that there is another less elevated mountain to
the East, and with gentle declivities, which show much land to the Hast
and West of the high peak.

When you are 18 miles to the Hast of St. Bartholomew, its N.W. ex-
tremity appears insulated, and has the appearance of a pretty large island,
on the top of which there are four small steps (like steps of stairs, Hsca-
lones), with a considerable strait to the South, between it and the principal
island ; in the middle of this strait you may also see a smaller islet; this
is really one of the islets which surround the island ; but the first is only
the N.W. point, to the North of which you will see some islets: all these
are much nearer St. Bartholomew than St. Martin.

FINALLY, in navigating from one of the Antillas to another, there is no
difficulty, unless you have to get from leeward to windward; yet this will
be reduced to a trifling consideration if the passage be made by the straits
to the Northward of Martinique, in which the currents are weakest ; but
the same does not follow in the Southerly straits, in which the waters set
with more vivacity toward the West: and it would be impracticable by
the Straits of Tobago, Grenada, and St. Vincent, in which the waters
commonly run at the rate of not less than 2 miles an hour.

PaRrtTicuLaR INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE NAVIGATION OF THE. WINDWARD
IsLANDS, ETC.

It has been remarked, by an experienced captain in the Royal Navy,
that for sailing vessels bound to Jamaica or any of the ports in the Northern
range of islands (the Bahamas excepted), the safest land to make is the
Island of Desirade, near Guadaloupe; for, if you should not see other
land before dark, you may haul to the Northward, into the latitude of
Montserrat, having nearly 60 miles to run on, during the night. Some
commanders make St. Martin or St. Bartholomew, when bound to Tortola,
St. Thomas, St. Croix, and the islands to leeward; but in this case they
should be aware of the dangerous Island of Barbuda, and also of Anguilla;
for a small error in the latitude, perhaps, from want of an observation, or
irregularity in the current, would place them in a very perilous situation,.
should they attempt to run on in the night.

Strangers should pass St. Martin, when they make it, on the North
side, the passage between it and Anguilla being clear; St. Bartholomew,

526 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

Nevis, St. Christopher, and Antigua, on the Sonth side. Barbadoes
should likewise be passed on the South side, in orde. to fetch into Carlisle
Bay ; and Grenada and St. Vincent on the South side. No particular
directions are necessary for the other islands, as every seaman knows the
danger of running to leeward or past the land ;—a very serious occurrence
for a dull sailing vessel.

Vessels on making Barbadoes and the other Windward Islands, when
approaching from the Northward, should be very careful not to cross the
latitude of the low or Northern islands during the night, although their
reckoning may be many degrees to the Eastward of the isles. The low
islands, on which so many vessels have been lost, are Barbuda, Angulla,
Dog and Prickly Pear, Sombrero, Anegada, and its Horseshoe Reef; of all
these, the first and last are the most dangerous. Before you see Anegada,
in clear weather, Virgin-Gorda, and perhaps Tortola, will be seen very
distinctly ; distance is often deceiving at sea, and this land, by those not
well acquainted with it, has been frequently mistaken for the Hast end of
Porto Rico; and, although directions have been given for avoiding this
error, by observing that there is only open sea to the Eastward of Virgin-
Gorda, and that to the Eastward of Porto Rico lie several islands, yet it
is necessary to observe that these islands, when the high land of Porto
Rico is first discovered, cannot be seen, so that, if you make the land at
the close of the day, it is well to be aware of this circumstance. It may
also be remarked, that Anguilla and the Dog and Prickly Pear Isles cannot
be seen until some time after you make St. Martin, which is high land,
and lying to the Southward of these low isles. Barbuda is dangerous in
the night time only, but to strangers also, in the day, having reefs under
water all round, excepting at the extreme S.W. point.

On passing to leeward of the high islands which obstruct the course of the
Trade Wind, danger arises from strong gusts coming from the mountains,
which sometimes dismast a vessel. Be cautious to keep so far from such
land as to be able to work your ship, should the wind suddenly shift and
blow on shore, which it often does during the day. When the wind is
baffling, you will find it advantageous to keep your course along shore so
long as you have steerage-way, although all your sails may be aback; for
it frequently happens that the wind comes round to its former quarter
before you lose your headway, and by this one ship may get into another
current of air, which brings her into a fresh breeze, while another, in
éompany, by altering her course to get her sails full, loses the opportunity
of getting into the breeze, and may be detained by calms and baffling
winds great part of the day. We have often seen the after-sails filled,
with the wind aft, while the headsails were flat aback, with the wind
ahead, which continued so long that the foresail was hauled up to con-
tinue the headway.

In navigating among the Windward Islands, every precaution must be
taken in allowing for the direction and strength of the currents. It has
already been shown, in the preceding section, that the general prevalence
of them is to the Westward, but with different velocities, disturbed at
times by the lunar influence, and varied by the contour of the coast, &c.
An Easterly current is seldom or never found out of sight of land, but

THE WINDWARD ISLANDS. 627

N.W. and Northerly, in the passages, may generally be found; and it has
been remarked that, in some instances, when the current runs to leeward
on one side, it runs to windward on the other; also, that it may set to
windward on both sides, while at the same time, to leeward in the
middle, and frequently the reverse.

The intelligent officer to whose book we are indebted for these obserya-
tions, says, ‘‘ In the daytime, attention to the progress you may make in
getting to windward, by the appearance or bearings of the land, is the best
rule you can have, first trying a short tack inshore, where, if you make
little or no progress to windward, your best way is to stand across, and
try the other side- of the channel; and, if that do not answer, the mid-
channel will most likely prove the best; for, although contrary to the
general opinion, we have often found it so; much, however, depends on
the time of day. In the morning and evening you should endeavour
to be near the shore, the North side of the passage in preference, where if
the wind be moderate, and the coast not much exposed to the general
Trade Wind, you are pretty certain of having the wind two or three points
off the land. In like manner, you should endeavour to be in the offing
about one o’clock, p.m., as the wind generally blows more on the shore at
that time. We have also observed that the land and sea breezes prevail
most where the land on the coast is low.

‘“« Should you be bound to a place to the Eastward of you, and no land in
the way, the best tack to be upon is the one on which you will lie up
nearest to E. by N., that being the point from which the Trade Wind
generally blows ; when it changes from that point you may consider it a
slant of wind, and take advantage of it accordingly—particularly if it veer
to the South during the day, or to the North by night; thus it will be found
to be advantageous to be on the port tack at night, and the starboard
tack by day.”

In squally weather the wind is so very variable, thas it is seldom
possible to take advantage of it in getting to windward.

To windward of the islands and to the Northward of Barbados, in mode-
rate Trade Winds, the Equatorial Current will be found generally to set
from N.W. by N. to N. by W., at the rate of from half to three-
quarters of a mile an hour. As you approach the islands, it becomes
more irregular; near to the Hastward of Point Salines, Martinique, it
frequently sets strong to North, and even N.E. We have have also felt
this set of the current near to Point Moulacique, the South point of
St. Lucia, and have frequently seen vessels bound to Gros Islet Bay,
St. Lucia, from Barbados only the night before, driven so far to the North
as to have passed the Island of St. Lucia, and also a considerable part of
Martinique, before they discovered their mistake ; and, being strangers,
they had to wait until an observation could be taken to ascertain the
latitude, before they could find out their true situation.

In the passages lying nearly in a North and South direction, the current
sets generally about N.N.W., until you are past the most northerly land
on the Eastern side of the passage, when the Western current, being no
longer obstructed by the land, sets with great strength in a more Westerly
direction. ‘This is the case in all the passages from Antigua to Hayti,

528 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

and those on the South between Trinidad and Paria, and on the coast and
Leeward Islands from Margarita to Buen-Ayre, as the current inside to the
South of these islands (in the dry season) sets about N.W. by N.4N.,
at the rate of nearly 2 miles an hour. Ships running to Westward, inside,
should make an allowance for it, and keep a good look-out, for it must
be borne in mind, as already shown, that the currents here are variable,
according to the season.

In order to touch at as many of the Windward fsiands as possible, with-
out having to beat to windward; suppose your vessel to be at Barbados,
and you have to call at as many islands as you can, in as little time as
possible—from Barbados you can steer for Tobago, hence for St. Vincent,
which is as far to windward as you can fetch; and, with a Northerly
Trade Wind, you will not be able to do that. From St. Vincent you may
steer to any of the Grenadines, and so on to Grenada; and at times you
may fetch Trinidad, but this is not to be depended on. From Grenada
you cannot always fetch St. Kitts, but in general, the Virgin Islands,
St. Croix, St. Thomas, &c. The general course this way is to go to
Tobago, and thence to Trinidad.

Another track is from Barbados (S.W. side) to St. Vincent (South side),
hence to the Grenadines and Grenada.

From Barbados to the N.W. you may go to St. Lucia, passing round
the N.E. point of the island to Gros Islet Bay and the Careenage; from
this place you fetch Fort Royal Bay, Martinique, then St. Pierre,
Roseau (Dominica), the Saintes, Basse-terre, and sometimes Point-da-Pitre,
Guadaloupe.

From Basse-terre, Guadaloupe, you can seldom weather Montserrat.
unless you tack and take advantage of the variable winds under Guada-
loupe, which is the best way, if you are bound to Antigua, or to the North-
ward between Antigua and Nevis; but if not, you may pass close to the
West side of Montserrat, and so steer for Nevis or St. Kitts, or to the
islands to the Westward ; or you may pass on either side of St. Eustatius
or Saba, if you can lie round without tacking, and so through the Dog and
Prickly Pear or Sombero Passage to the Northward.

In steering through these passages, or across them, it is recommended to
keep well to windward, as the wind will often head you as you approach
the opposite side, and the currents are very strong; and it may be ©
remarked that, in standing to the Southward, you feel the force of the
current more than when you are standing to the Northward.

From these remarks, and a reference to the chart of the islands, it may
be readily seen what other track can be accomplished. Thus, from Bar-
bados to Antigua, and the islands to the Westward of it, you pass to the
Kastward of Desirade if you can; if not, between that island and the
East point of Guadaloupe; when you are clear of this last point, you have
Antigua and all the islands to the Westward in your route. :

The intercourse by sailing vessel between Barbados and Demerara is very
uncertain, and you cannot always trust to fetch from one place to the
other, even in fast-sailing vessels. From Demerara you can generally
weather Tobago; of course, it must always depend on the wind and
current; therefore we speak in general terms only. Indeed, we have

THE WEST INDIES. 529

sometimes seen Southerly Trade Winds continue for a long time, and also
Northerly winds; and we have seen, owing to N.E. winds and lee currents
vessels from Cayenne not able to weather Barbados, and a vessel from
Antigua a month in getting to Barbados, owing to Southerly winds.

In working to windward through any of the passages in the night time, it
is strongly recommended not to trust to the distance run; for, although
you may have an offing of 12 miles, and you could lie up so as to make a
long stretch, yet, before you have gone the distance of your offing, you
will probably find it full time to tack from the shore. In the passages
lying nearly East and West, the Westerly current runs so swiftly, that, in
standing to the Southward on the port tack, and lying up S.E. by E., you
will often find that you have made little or no Easting. This has been
the case with several vessels leaving the South shore of Antigua; they
stood on, lying up 8.E. by E., which course they expected to make good,
and thought perhaps to weather Point Antigua on Guadaloupe, but the
current deceived them, little or no Easting had been made, and they ran
ashore among the small kays of the Bay Mahaut, Guadaloupe, nearly due
South from that part of Antigua which they had left the previous evening.

When bound to windward it is sometimes difficult to beat through the
passages between the islands. Of these passages, the easiest are con-
sidered to be between St. Vincent and Becquia, between Martinique and
St. Lucia, and between Antigua and Guadaloupe. The wind, in general,
blows a strong breeze, so that a vessel may carry double-reefed topsails,
courses, top-gallant sails, jib, and driver. These are the most suitable
sails for working the ship during the night, the weather in the passages
being too generally squally. If more reefs are out, you will be liable to
spring your masts and yards; for, however fine the weather may appear,
strong and sudden gusts may come on several times in an hour. Finally,
too much sail is hazardous, as the squalls may head you until they blow
past, when you come up to your old point; and in this way it is obvious
you may run a long way to leeward in carrying sail through a squall.

GENERAL REMARKS ON THE NAVIGATION OF THE CARIBBEAN SEA, FROM
LEEWARD TO WINDWARD, BY LizuT. GREEVELINE.

The best way to beat up in the Caribbean Sea is still an object of dis-
pute among a great many European mariners; there are some, and they
form the greatest number, who always prefer the Northern part; others
who choose to keep in the middle between 14° and 16° of latitude; and a
few, to beat up off the Southern coast, till they are able to make Antigua,
and run out by the channel between that island and Guadaloupe.

The first of these methods, the one generally adopted, is evidently the
best ; as the South coasts of Hayti and Porto-Rico are tolerably clean, and
afford smooth water when the wind is to the Northward of East; but in
the Hurricane months, this part is rendered unfavourable, not only by
these dangerous visitors, but also because the currents are then often very

NV. A. O. 68

530 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

strong in the Northern channels, whereas they have, at the same time,
been observed to be very weak in those Southward.

The second route depends, I imagine, more on vague reports of a current
setting between those parallels to the Kastward ; but this will, I trust, no
longer be credited, at least, in the tract of sea here described. During the
intervals, however, in which light winds are of some duration, the
Westerly current may be found very weak, as is undoubtedly proved by
our passage in April, 1837. Yet this is no reason why a constant weak
current, or an Kasterly one, should be stated to exist, when found only
occasionally in those parts where they have once been met with.

The third route, by which the Hurricanes are generally avoided, has
been treated with too much neglect, partly by its being impeded by the
Leeward Islands, and partly by the unknown force and direction of cur-
rents, and want of local experience of the coast; but hereafter I doubt not
but this track will be adopted as the best in those months which threaten
destruction in the Northern passages, because it is almost universally
followed by the coasters and pilots. ;

Commanders bound from one of the interior ports of the Caribbean Sea,
toward the coast of Guayana, generally prefer passing out by the channel
of Antigua and Guadaloupe, which is one of the fittest for that purpose
with Northerly winds; but when, on the contrary, the wind is from the
Southward of East, I should not advise any attempt to pass that way, but
to proceed directly to the North, by the Westward of Barbuda, prolonging
the stretch well, in order to gain, with the other tack, the windward side
of the islands. In July, 1836, we laboured for several days to get out of
the first-mentioned passage ; and in August, 1835, we were happy enough
to reach English Harbour, though unable to effect our purpose of getting
into the main sea, being harassed by South-Hasterly winds and strong
Westerly currents.

After having reached the Atlantic, when bound toward the coast of
Guayana, it is best to keep your wind, if blowing from the Northward of
East ; as, in that case, it may enable you in one stretch to make the
desired port; but, with unfavourable winds, I think it advisable to run
straight for the coast, and beat to windward along the bank of soundings.
This is most probably attended with less loss of time than the working to
the Eastward in higher latitude, which may be proved beyond any doubt
by comparing some of the many instances which have occurred of vessels
falling to leeward of their port of destination, and trying to regain it by
making a long stretch to the Northward ; when, after fourteen days, they
made the coast nearly at the same place; with these of others who
effected it completely in only three or four days, in the space mentioned.
I know many reports of this sort, but they want suflicient authenticity to
be relied on.

As a general remark, it may be kept in mind that to get soundings
ought to be the principal object of ships bound to this coast, as, with the
present knowledge of depths hereabout, together with an observed
latitude, tt may show them their place of situation Hast or West of the
intended place very near the truth, because the general tendency of the
mud-bank is nearly N.W. and S.H.; and thus, to the Hastward of a cer-

BETWEEN TOBAGO AND DEMERARA. 531

tain meridian, there will be found more water than to the Westward, upon
the same parallel.

It is absolutely erroneous to state that the limit of soundings is marked
by the change in the colour of the water; as more than once, and par-
ticularly in November, 1834, in 25 fathoms of water, to the N.E. of
Marowyne River, the colour was perfectly blue and transparent, and at
other times tinged of an ashy hue by the mud.

Some remarks on making the coast about Colon are given previously,
on pages 364—365. j

SreAmM NAVIGATION BETWEEN TOBAGO AND DEMERARA.

This and the following two sections are chiefly taken from an illustrated
work,* which gives numerous directions for the West Indies :—

Between Tobago and Trinidad the current sets along towards the
W.N.W. and W.S.W., nearly always at the rate of 2 knots per hour, and
not unfrequently 3 or 4 knots.

After clearing the channel, the stream will generally be found running
nearly parallel with the line of coast the whole distance to Demerara,
though it sometimes takes a more Northerly direction, particularly in the
months of July, August, and September.

In shaping a course, therefore, for Demerara, vessels should keep well
to the Hastward of the port, not only to avoid the banks off the mouth of
the Hssequibo, but because the objects to the Eastward are more remark-
able, which is of the utmost consequence on a coast where its features
bear one uniform appearance, without a hill, the bearing of which would
point out a ship’s position; and the land so low that vessels may be
aground before it is visible. The lead will be found the best guide, as
the soundings very gradually decrease, and there is no danger while
navigating in 7 fathoms water.

The most remarkable features of the coast are the chimneys of the
boiling-houses, and a uniform fringe of trees. The vicinity of Demerara
will be known by the openings among the trees, with occasional buildings
and chimneys. Then the lighthouse and a high church spire will render
its position easily recognisable. This port should never be taken by a’
stranger without a pilot; indeed, even those who are most intimately
acquainted with its localities should always take this precaution. Ina
steam-vessel the navigation is most simple at proper times of the tide.
Every merchant vessel is compelled to take a pilot before crossing
the bar.

* « Practical Observations on the West India Navigation,” by a Commauder 9t ona
of the Royal Mail Steam Packets. London, 1844.

532 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC,

NAVIGATION TO JAMAICA via St. JuaAN, Porto Rico, Cape Hayrren,
AND St. JAGO DE CUBA.

Steamers leaving St. Thomas to perform the Jamaica route, via the North
side of Porto Rico and Hayti, should leave the small islet of Bergantin
(which is a high rock resembling a ship when at a distance), on their left,
and Montalvan and Cabrito on their right, bearing in mind that a reef
extends from Montalvan a good cable’s length.

San Juan Harbour will readily be distinguished by the Moro, which,
when first seen, makes like an island having extensive fortifications on its
summit, rendering it exceedingly remarkable. This Moro Castle is on the
East side of the entrance, and is steep-to within half a cable of its
Northern side. The position to lie-to for a pilot is about 2 cables North of
the Moro, with the ship’s head off shore, taking great care not to drift near
the low rocky island on the West side of the entrance, which has much
foul ground around it; and the current generally setting strong in that
direction. The harbour is not difficult of access by day, but at times the
sea breaks right across the entrance, which calls for the promptest atten-
tion at the helm.- I do not consider it safe at any time to enter this port
at night in large ships. Rise and fall of tide, 2 feet.

From San Juan a course should be shaped so as to pass 6 or 7 miles
from Cape Viejo Francais (Hayti), making allowance for a current which
sets towards the Porto Rico coast, when within the distance of 10 miles
from the shore. The first land that will be seen on this track (after losing
sight of Porto Rico) will be Cape Raphael, which is of moderate height,
and is the termination of the high land; the coast thence to Cape Engano
being exceedingly low. Raphael may also be known by a small conical
hill (Mt. Redonda), a short distance inland, which, on coming from the
N.W., is seen near the termination of the point.

The next cape to the N.W. is Cape Samana, which makes like an island
on many. bearings, particularly from the N.W. After passing Cape
Samana, Cape Viejo Frangais will be seen, which also makes like an
island with low points at each extremity.

Cape Isabella is the next headland, which is very low, and, like Cape
Viejo Frangais, also makes like an island. Between these two capes
there is a remarkable high hill, sloping down to the water’s edge, with a.
flat summit, and a remarkable notch on its extremity when seen from the.
N.W. This land is Cape Casrouge.

The Grange is the most remarkable object, and cannot be mistaken for
any other part of the coast if attention be paid to the book of directions.

Vessels may pass inside Monte Christi Shoals; but as the channel is.
not well known, I have invariably gone outside, on the principle that a.
steamer’s progress is so rapid through the water, that in a very short
period of time after shoal water is descried, the vessel is on shore.
Although I have adopted this line of route, I have, on former occasions in
H.M. ships, passed inside, and am well aware that there is a good channel;
but a large scale chart of this portion of the coast should be in possession
of the commander before he navigates his ship in doubtful water,

ST. THOMAS TO JAMAICA. 533

Cape Haytien is a high cape, sloping down towards the East, and having
a small rock, called Picolet, at its foot, presenting the appearance of a
white patch when first seen from the Eastward. The water is deep
tolerably close to this rock, and it may be approached to the Northward
without fear. I should, however, recommend all vessels to go in at slow
speed, with strict attention to the lead.

From Cape Haytien the course should be shaped to pass between the
Tortugas and Hayti, in which channel there is always much less sea than
outside, besides being a more direct course.

St. Jago de Cuba.—This harbour cannot be taken at night, and never
even during the day without a pilot, as it is exceedingly narrow, and the
greatest attention is required at the helm, owing to the sudden turnings in
the channel.

From St. Jago de Cuba to Morant Point, I would recommend a course
to be shaped (during night time) 15 miles to the West of the Formigas, as
I have on more than one occasion experienced a set in their vicinity of half
a mile an hour to the N.H. This is by no means a usual occurrence, but
knowing the existence of deviations from the general set of the stream, it
is as well to be on the guarded side, more especially as the saving in the
distance is very trifling.

Morant Point is very low, with a lighthouse upon its extremity; from
hence to the Keys of Port Royal it is only necessary to run down about
2 miles off shore, taking great care at night to avoid the low land about
Cowbay Point, which is very deceiving.

On returning by this route, the foregoing observations will be equally
available. It is, however, perhaps as well to observe, that after leaving
St. Jago de Cuba great advantage may be gained by keeping about 2 miles
off shore, where there is frequently a weatherly set, and invariably less
current.

In making Porto Rico from the Westward the land is low, gradually
rising to a high chain of hills; thence, trending Kast, it again falls, and
then rises to another chain of mountains called Luquilios, which terminate
in low land at the Eastern extremity of the island. St. Juan may be
known by its situation between the above two ranges of mountains, and
by having on its West side a number of remarkable hillocks in the form of
haycocks, which are frequently seen before the Moro shows itself; but the
fortifications are most commonly the first objects descried.

I would also caution vessels to be extremely guarded at night, in not
mistaking the channel between Culebra and Porto Rico, which is exceed-
ingly dangerous. The distance run by the ship after leaving St. Juan will
of course be a good guide, but between August and October the currents
are often so variable, that the most careful navigator may be deceived in
hazy weather, or at night, as there is under these circumstances a great
resemblance between Culebra and St. Thomas. The latter, however, if
seen before sunset, may be distinguished by its being higher, and making
in three small peaks.

From the mean of several observations, I have found the current along
the Porto Rico coast and Hayti to the Northward to be as follows,
though the very unusual state of the weather in the West Indies of late

534 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

has rendered these very uncertain, and therefore great care should be
taken in ascertaining the direction of the stream, always distrusting pub-
lished accounts.

Between latitude 18° 29’ N. and Porto Rico, the current generally sets
obliquely on the shore towards the E.S.E. Between 18° 29’ and 18° 39’ N.
it runs to the E.N.E. To the Northward of this latitude the stream takes
a more Northerly direction, particularly in the vicinity of the banks of the
Bahamas.

To the distance of 10 miles along the North Coast of Hayti, the current
frequently runs towards the shore, but beyond that distance it takes the
direction of the coast.

During the Hurricane months it should be remembered, that the cur-
rents are more uncertain than at any other period.

NAVIGATION BETWEEN GRENADA AND JAMAICA, ALONG THE SOUTH SIDE
oF Hayti To JACMEL.

Leaving the island of Grenada, the current will almost invariably be
found setting between W.S.W. and W.N.W., but more commonly in the
former direction than the latter. It is generally strongest between
December and April, and of least force in the Hurricane months ; indeed,
between July and October (on reference to former journals), I find not
unfrequent sets to the Hast and N.E., particularly when Hurricanes have
visited any part of the West Indies; but except in these months it is very
rare to find the stream deviating from the W.S.W., West, or W.N.W.

The little island Alta Vela lies 64 miles S.W. 4 W. from the S.W. end
of Be&ca Island, in lat. 17° 29’ 30” N., long. 71° 38’ W., and is directly in
the fairway of steamers coming from Grenada to Jacmel. It is 500 ft.
high, barren, and at three-quarters of a mile North of it is a low black
rock.

The course from Alta Vela to Cape Jacmel is about N.W. # W., 68 miles;
on which line vessels will make the Frayles, which lie about 10 miles
Westward of Beata Island. They are a cluster of steep reddish-coloured
rocks, and are said to be steep close-to, though I would advise ships to
give them a berth of a mile at least ; also, I would not take the channel
between Alta Vela and Beata Island, as scarcely anything is to be
gained by it.

The current most commonly sets very strong to the Westward in the
vicinity of the islands; but after passing Frayles Rocks a strong S.E. set
is frequently experienced, particularly during the night, when the Trade
does not blow home.

From Jacmel to Jamaica, shape a course so as to pass 5 miles clear of
the Isle of Vache, which is about 8 or 9 miles in length, and makes like a
group of small islands when first seen, particularly from the Westward.
The current between this island, and along shore to Jacmel, generally sets
to the Westward, but when within 5 or 6 miles of the shore, an Easterly
set is frequently experienced, particularly at night.

JAMAICA TO MARACAYBO. 535

The first headland after passing the Isle of Vache is called Abacou Point,
low at its extremity, then suddenly rising to a moderate height.

The next cape to the Westward is Cape Gravois, which is very low, the
land between being of a moderate and equal height. From this cape to
Tiburon the land becomes very high. Cape Tiburon itself is of moderate
height, but a short distance from its extremity it suddenly rises to a high
mountain, and when first made from the sea, appears to slope down to the
water’s edge.

The Isle of Saona is situated at the 8.E. extremity of Hayti, and is
very low, level, and covered with trees. In running past this island,
shoal water will be seen some distance from the shore. At night I would
recommend. running 10 or 12 miles to the Eastward of the reckoning,
when bound through the Mona Passage, as it is the turning point, and
being very low, ships would be in the reefs before seeing the land, except
with clear nights.

From JAMAICA TO THE Bar OF Maracayso, IN APRIL AND May,
BY CAPTAIN DuNSTERVILLE, R.N.

On sailing from Jamaica we had fresh Easterly winds and squally
weather, then winds variable round the compass.

From Alia Vela we took our departure for the Isle of Oruba, on the
Eastern side of the Gulf of Maracaybo, allowing for the strong Westerly
currents above three-quarters of a mile an hour.

Saw the Monks, which are rather high rocks; and, by the altitude of
the star Antares, made the Northern one to lie in lat. 12° 28’. Hauled to
the §.H., and ran along the Western coast of Paraguana, sounding in
12 to 8 fathoms, when distant about 3 miles from the shore, till we
arrived at Punta de los Estanques, whence we took our departure for the
Bar of Maracaybo, S.W. 4 W.

About 24 miles to the Eastward of the Bar of Maracaybo, are some
high mountains; the land Westward of these is low, and continues so,
with occasional breaks in it, by kays and hillocks, which are at the
entrance of the lagoon. Farther Westward are two pieces of land, not
particularly high, on the low S.H. termination of which are three little
hillocks. This is the Isla Todos, on which stands the Castle of St. Carlos.
When bearing 8.8. W. 2 W. the hillocks are over the fort, which is white.
The bar has at this season a depth over it of only 11 ft., hard bottom ;
but in the rainy season, August, September, and October, there is, at least,
13 ft. of water. .

The breezes here are very heavy from the N.N.E. to N.E. by E. in the
early part of the year; yet at about 8 a.m. the wind is generally more
moderate; and from 2 p.m. to 2 a.m., in the following morning, it blows a
perfect gale, with a heavy sea, which makes it dangerous to lie at anchor
here.

536 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

The best anchorage off the bar is in about 5 fathoms, with the Castle of
Bajo Seco South or S. by W.; about 3 or 4 miles off shore. The
soundings on the South side of the bay are regular, decreasing gradually
towards the shore. The current runs to the N.E. when the moon rises ;
and it is high water, on full and change, at 5" 15™.

In beating to windward, endeavour to be near the North-Western shore
at about 1 p.m., in order to take advantage of the winds which draw to
the N.N.E., so as to make a good lay to the Eastward.

The communication to the city of Maracaybo is kept up by one of the
ship’s boats, hiring a pilot for the occasion, who, on making the usual
signal, will come out from Bajo Seco in a boat with latine sails, should
the weather be moderate. If you have to communicate frequently with
the city, or to cruise in the gulf, I should recommend beating up to the
anchorage of Estanques, in the Peninsula of Paraguana; but, in beating up,
do not go to the Eastward of Punta Gorda, the S.W. point of Paraguana.

The Anchorage at Estanques is very good for a vessel of the largest class,
even within half a cable’s length of the beach. The best marks for
assisting a stranger to find the anchorage is the Mountain (or Pan) of
Santa Anna, which much resembles Vesuvius, and may be seen, in clear
weather, 24 to 27 miles off. This mountain, when bearing EH. 4 N., leads
to the anchorage. The place may also be known by being a long tongue
of sand, with some huts on the extreme point, occupied by fishermen, who
in the season take immense quantities of fish by the seine. The Bustard
lay in 44 fathoms, and veered to 25 fathoms on the N.E. anchor (from
which quarter the prevailing winds come strongly), and 82 fathoms on the
best bower to the S.W.; Point Estanques bearing 8S. 4 H., and Point
Salines, N.W. by N. 4 N., 2 cables’ lengths off shore. No supplies can be
obtained here. Rabbits may be shot, but can be purchased cheaply. The
little water that may be procured is muddy, and not fit to drink.

If you are bound to the EKastward, when clear of the gulf stretch to the
Northward, as the currents run so strong between the Isle of Oruba and
Cape St. Roman, that it is nearly impossible to beat through; but should
you go between the island and main, be cautious in standing by night to
the S.E., as the coast from Cape Roman to Aricula, 19 miles to the S.E.,
is very dangerous, and the currents set thereon.

In stretching across, from Point Chicabacoa, on the West side of the
mouth of the gulf, to Jamaica, we found a strong current, running due
West, nearly 1 mile an hour.

THE CHANNELS OF PROVIDENCE.

The Channels of Providence, between the Great and Little Banks of
Bahama, are copiously described in the Sailing Directions accompanying
the chart, as well as the winds and seasons of this portion of the West
Indies. The lighthouses on Gun Kay and the Great Isaacs in Florida
Strait, together with those erected on the Florida Reefs by the United
States Government, and the fine line of beacons along the face of the
latter will be eminently useful in facilitating the navigation. We have

TO DEMERARA, ETC., FROM THE NORTH-EAST. 537

been assured, by an intelligent navigator, that it was not unusual for
twenty sail of vessels, from 100 to 400 tons burthen, to pass Great Stirrup
Kay within musket-shot, and even within hail, in one day ; these, for the
most part, proceeding from the United States to Cuba and the Mexican
Sea. They made the Hole in the Wall, now distinguished by its light-
house, then the Stirrup; thence, if the weather appeared threatening,
they passed through the N.W. Channel ; otherwise they shaped a course,
picking their way, across the Great Bahama Bank, to the Southward of
the Cat Kays, beyond Gun Kay lighthouse. Here they entered Florida
Strait, and pursued a Southerly course, where the Gulf Stream is found,
as described, to run with the least velocity to the Northward.—(See
farther, ‘‘ Sailing Directions accompanying the Chart of the Windward
and Gulf Passages,” published by Mr. Laurie).

DIRECTIONS FOR PROCEEDING TO DEMERARA, ETC., FROM THE N.E.

The following remarks, made by Captain George Cheveley, will be
found useful :—

‘«« Tf, when in lat. 10° N., the water changes to a dark or black colour, or
dirty drab, and then in 8° turns again to the usual sea blue, you may rely
on being to windward. There are no soundings, only this remarkable
change. You will then, in running farther in, on the coast, observe a
perfect division, or line of change, on the water, nearly N.W., from blue
to green, where the current sets strong in that direction. On proceeding,
you will again change to thick muddy water, influenced by the Tides, which
should be carefully calculated and allowed for. Many ships have run to
leeward from want of this, and a due allowance in the course when the
tide is running, which is always with the flood. As you approach inshore
4, 5, and 6 fathoms, should the water then be of a red colour; you may
make sure of being to windward, and need not fear running, even should
you obtain no pilot. This is most perceptible from Miconie down to
Corobana Point: to leeward all is dirty, thick mud.

«« With the lighthouse on the weather point of Demerara River bearing
from South to 8. ¢ W., flood making, you cannot do wrong by steering
in on that course, should you not obtain a pilot, and come-to off the fort,
keeping outside the poles on the West side. I mean this is a safe plan
for a stranger.”

The following is by Captain Henry Faithfull, June, 1865 :—

‘In making the land to the Hastward of Demerara River, the coast is
very low, and scarcely above the high-water level—the sea at that time
rising into the jungle, when the tops of the trees alone are visible at the
distance of 10 miles off the shore; the sameness of the whole coast ig
such that it is impossible to say where you are by the look of the trees,

* This discoloured water appears to be in the stream of the Equatorial Current ; as may
likewise be that which is met with at 250 or 300 miles to the East of Barbadoes.—Ep.

Ye 7 a OB 69

538 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

consequently the lead is the only sure guide by night or day. Soundings
may be obtained 150 miles East of the lightvessel, in 35 fathoms, much
sand, little mud, and small stones; the nature of the ground changes as
you advance to the Westward—less sand, more mud, and no stones,—
until in 12 fathoms it is allmud. During the night or early in the evening,
it would be advisable to make Berbice lightvessel, which, under ordinary
circumstances, cannot be mistaken for the Demerara lightvessel. It is well
in sight from the deck when in 13 fathoms, mud, and is about 50 miles
from Demerara lightvessel, to which the course is about N.W. by W. by
compass, but allowance must be made for tide—flood setting 8.W., ebb
N.E.,—the average strength of the flood being 2 miles, of the ebb 3 miles,
—the ebb increasing in the rainy season to 5 miles and the flood de-
creasing to 14 mile per hour.

‘“« By constantly keeping the lead going, and subtracting one-fourth of a
fathom from the soundings, for the lead sinking into the mud, you will not
get into danger, but on no account should a vessel be brought into less
than 64 fathoms by night or day; there is no danger of missing the light-
vessel in this depth; she is anchored in about 19 feet at low water, and
springs rise 9 feet. At night time, in coming from the Eastward, the
revolving light on the point, visible 16 miles, will first be seen; if not
bearing to the Southward of West, haul out immediately—the tail of
Litchfield or Lusignan Bank, with 8 feet at low water, is between the
ship and the light, and your ship is in danger of sticking in the mud;
when the lightvessel is seen bearing West, steer for her, and round-to,.
to Westward, as close as possible; a pilot will be sent immediately, day
or night.

‘‘ The three great things in coming up this coast are Lead, Lead, Lead.
In case of getting ashore on this coast, there is no fear of the vessel going
to pieces—the bottom is too soft; but there is no landing on the coast, for
it is too muddy. The boat that leaves the ship to get assistance must find
a creek or trench, and go up it at high water; she is sure to find a planta-
tion a few miles inland, and can then send to George Town for assistance.
Once on shore and requiring steam, the commander may think himself very
lucky if he gets off under £1,500.

‘‘ In the rainy season the wind is frequently from the Westward. In
beating up do not come into less than 7 fathoms—under that the rollers
have too much power over a ship in light winds; should a vessel get under
that depth in a calm, or from the wind having suddenly failed, with flood
tide, anchor immediately with 60 fathoms of chain—getting under weigh
again when tide is done. These directions refer to ships of 1,000 tons,
and not to coasters. If, coming from the Northward, in 8° N. you have
30 or 32 fathoms, the lightvessel bears due South of you; if more, you are
to. the Eastward ; if less, to the Westward.

( 5389 )

9.— PASSAGES TO AND FROM THE NORTHERN
PORTS OF AMERICA.

In the introductory remarks to this section of the work, we have alluded
to the principles of Great Circle Sailing, and have pointed out the advaa-
tages which it possesses, not so much in the shorter distance which it gives
over the rhumb course, but in the scope it allows the navigator in the
choice of a parallel on which he can make a good passage, without
materially increasing the actual distance to be sailed over.

- “ In no case can this be better exemplified than in the course over the
Northern parts of the Atlantic, between the British Isles and the Northern
American ports. We alluded (page 460) to a case, not impracticable, of
the courses between the Land’s End and Cape St. John, in Newfoundland,
and showed that two courses might be taken not more than 35 miles
greater than the shortest distance, of exactly the same length, and yet be
330 miles apart in latitude in their greatest separation.

An imaginative course will well explain this for our present purposes :—
From the Lizard to Sandy Hook, New York, the distance and true course
by Mercator’s Chart are 2,9524 miles S. 78° 51’ W. But if a vessel
leaving the Lizard were to commence sailing N. 73° 24’ 40” W., and
passing about 35 miles Southward of Cape Clear, gradually bearing to the
West, attaining a maximum latitude of 51° 56’ 30", in long. 26° 27’ 20' W.,
and then, if it were possible, approach New York on a §. 54° 36’ W. course,
she would sail over 2,865 miles, or 874 miles less than the compass course.
This Great Circle course passes over Cape Bonavista and La Hune Bay in
Newfoundland; St. Anne’s Bay in Breton Island; Pictou and Cape
St. Mary in New Brunswick ; near Boston; and over New London, and
Long Island.

A line of the length of 2,9524 miles, placed in a higher latitude than the
rhumb line, as shown in page 460, is just as much above the Great Circle
course in latitude as the latter is above that by compass. This corre-
sponding arc from New York leads considerably inland, intersecting
Chaleur Bay, Cape Bonaventura in Gaspé Bay, Anticosti, passes 45 miles
N.W. of the Strait of Belle Isle, approaches within 189 miles of Cape
Farewell, Greenland, attains a maximum latitude of 57° 12’ N., and inter-
secting the 8.W. part of Ireland, at Kinsale, reaches the Lizard in a 8.E.
direction. These two lines, of the rhumb and the corresponding arc, are
upwards of 700 miles apart at the greatest deviation from each other.

With these considerations so manifest, we shall be better prepared to
understand that a higher latitude than the usually received one cannot, of
_ itself, be disadvantageous; and by the excellent observations of Captain
Hare, presently given, will be more clearly evident.

By referring to the Chart, it will be seen, that from the Land’s End to
St. John’s, Newfoundland, the true bearing is W. 4° 30’ S.; and from the
same point to Cape Sable, it is about W. 9° S. But the circumstances of
navigation in general render a direct course more tedious and difficult than
a circuitous route, and the best passages have been made by pursuing a
high Northerly course.

540 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

It seems probable, from all that we have said on the Winds and Cur-
rents, that on prosecuting a North-Westerly course, from the Bank of
Channel Soundings, the Winds and Currents respectively may counteract
and balance each other; that, on further prosecution of the same course,
the winds will be found less Westerly, and therefore more favourable
than in the more Southerly parallels; and that, in advancing toward the
mouth of Davis Strait, the advantages both of wind and current may be
combined.

Caution must be taken not to advance too near the Eastern coast of
Newfoundland, if bound to New Brunswick or the Southern ports; nor to
the Eastern coast of Cape Breton Island, as here the vessel may be swept
round by the strong Westerly currents, described in the preceding pages
(431 to 440), and which, instead of producing mischief, exe prove highly
advantageous in facilitating the ship’s course.

The propriety of these arguments was confirmed by experience, in more
than forty passages made to and from New Brunswick, &c., by Lieutenant
Charles Hare, of the Royal Navy, previous to the autumn of 1824. An-
nexed is a copy of that gentleman’s communication.*

‘«‘ Ships from Scotland, in the spring of the year, and bound to New
Brunswick, have always arrived sooner than those from the English
Channel; which is attributed to their being more to the Northward on
leaving the land.

«« Ships from Liverpool generally arrive before those which sail from the
English Channel; the cause being the same.

“In the spring of the year, I would never go to the Southward of lat.
46° or 47°, until I reached long. 37° or thereabout; then edge to the
Southward as far as lat. 43°, in order to avoid the Icebergs, keeping a very
strict look-out; this parallel (43°) I should endeavour to preserve, or nearly
so, but nothing to the Southward, until up to Cape Sable, Nova Scotia ;
for it carries you to a safe and proper distance from Sable Island, a place
that cannot be too much dreaded. In this track you will be without the
Northern edge of the Gulf Stream, and assisted by a South-Westerly
current from the Banks until past that island,

‘‘ Tn the fall of the year my track is far more to the Northward than in
the spring. On leaving the land as late as the middle of October, or
thereabout, I generally steer to the North-Westward until I get as far
North as 55°, and until I enter the longitude of 30°, then edge to the
Southward, to enter the Banks in lat. 46°, shaping again a course to pass
about 60 miles to the Southward of Sable Island, as above. If bound to
Halifax, and very sure of my latitude, I might be tempted to pass to the
Northward of Sable Island; but, at all events, it would be at great risk ;
and I should not, under any circumstances, recommend a stranger to
attempt it, as the weather is mostly foggy, and the set of the currents
unaccountable. Numerous gannets are always hovering about this island,

* Many succeeding passages made by Captain Hare, since 1824, concurred to prove
the propriety of these directions, which have been highly approved by American as well
as by English captains. This gentleman had crossed the Atlantic for the ninety-eighth
time, in the year 1839, and the one-hundred and eleventh in 1846,

TO THE NORTHERN PORTS OF AMERICA. 541

and are a very excellent indication of your near approach to it, particularly
on the South side.

“« By crossing the Banks thus far North, you will find the advantage as
you approach the longitudes of Newfoundland and Nova Scotia; the
strong N.W. and North gales having then commenced, you will fre-
quently be compelled to lie-to for two or three days; and should then
ensure sufficient drift, before you are blown into the strong influence of
the Gulf Stream ; which would be the case at a few degrees to the South-
ward, and inevitably in a 8.8.H. direction, at an inconceivable rate. Last
November (1824) the case occurred; the vessel being hove-to, under main-
topsail and storm-trysail, to the Westward of the Banks, in lat. 45°, was,
in four days, swept into lat. 394°, consequently into the Gulf Stream,
when the longitude became also. considerably affected, and I took the first
opportunity of making a N.N.W. course, to get out of it as soon as
possible.

‘To prove the advantages of a Northern track, late in the fall of the
year, I may notice that I have, in one or two instances, read in the
American newspapers the accounts of very long passages experienced by
ships which met heavy gales in the latitudes of 35° and 38°, when several
vessels were disabled, and others suffered loss of sails; yet, on the same
day, in lat. 54°, I had moderate weather from the N.N.E., with top-
gallant studding-sails set; which strongly encourages me to believe,
that the blowing weather, incident to approaching winter, commences
Southerly, and inclines Northerly as the season advances, and not the
reverse ; an hypothesis generally formed by English shipmasters, but, in
my opinion, certainly erroneous.

‘ T am further of opinion that the influence of the Gulf Stream, in the
parallels from lat. 35° to 42°, whether from the warmth of the water or
other natural causes, has a strong tendency to attract the wind from a
Western direction; as I have invariably found the wind more alterative
in the Northern latitudes before mentioned than the Southern ones; and
it unquestionably must be allowed by all mariners of any observation,
that gales experienced in the Gulf Stream or its vicinity blow with much
greater violence than they do in that part of the Northern Atlantic not
under its influence;* besides, the squalls from the Southward or 8.W. are
much more sudden and heavy, and near the Banks they are attended
with dangerous lightning. The thermometer is of the greatest importance
for ascertaining your approach to it; and, if bound to the West, I would,
for my own part, endeavour to avoid its effects as cautiously as a lee shore;
for it may depended on, that no ship, however well she may sail, will effect
Westing in the Gulf Stream with a wind from that quarter; and it is to
be remembered that its velocity is accelerated according to the strength of
those winds; and its extent in breadth, at a few degrees to the Westward
of the Azores, is many more degrees than is commonly supposed.

‘ These observations, I hope, may be useful to my brother mariners
engaged in these voyages ; and permit me to say, that they are grounded

* See the remarks upon the Gales of the Azores, in the description of those islands,
later on.

542 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

on the experience of more than forty times crossing the Atlantic in the
Royal and the merchant service, and in command of vessels in both;
latterly in one of 400 tons burthen, the Waterloo, and, as the custom-books
in Liverpool can testify, landed four full cargoes in thirteen following
months ; which, including the time required to discharge the same, then
load out to St. John’s, New Brunswick, there discharge and load home
again, leaves but very little time for the ship to cross the Atlantic eight
times in fourteen months, which, in fact, was done.

‘« Still further, in corroboration of my approved Northern track, allow
me to observe, that in the fall of 1823, by keeping a high latitude, the
brig Ward, myself master, also owned in New Brunswick, performed a
voyage out and home in seventy-two days. The same vessel, likewise, on
the 3rd of October, 1824, left the English Channel, and arrived again in
the Downs on the 3rd of January following.

‘‘T must add, that a strong, well-found, and well-manned vessel, alone
can perform these voyages; for they must be maintained with unremitting
attention and perseverance.

‘« The necessity and propriety of the above remarks were particularly
exemplified by the Ward, which, on her passing through the Downs, in
1824, left ships there that were bound to the Westward, weather-bound,
and found them there on her return, having been driven back by adverse
winds; while she, getting out of the Channel, performed with ease a pros-
perous voyage to St. John’s, New Brunswick, and back, exactly in three
months, assisted by chronometer, thermometer, &c.”

The New York packet ships, when making their winter voyage from
Liverpool, kept in high latitudes until nearing Newfoundland. This they
did for the twofold object of avoiding the tempestuous weather so gene-
rally experienced to the Southward, and of obtaining fairer winds; and
thus by slipping within the mighty stream from the Florida Channel, they
evaded its retarding influence. The voyage by this route is shortened ;
and, although bad weather must be expected, it is not so violent as farther
South ; besides which the Eastern currents are avoided.

A reference to the diagrams will show the routes recommended during
the winter months, as given on the United States Pilot Chart of the North
Atlantic Ocean, December, 1893.

Although the voyage to and from North America, between the parallels
of 60° and 40°, has always been attended with a degree of peril from
masses of Ice which drift to the Southward, during the summer months,
from the Polar regions, yet many an unwary mariner makes his run across
the Atlantic without any apprehension of meeting these floating dangers,
or without sufficiently exercising a proper discretion and vigilance to guard
against coming in collision with them. Commanders of ships should,
therefore, bear in mind the imperative necessity there is for using their
utmost vigilance and attention when crossing the above-named parallels,
especially between the meridians of 30° and 60° W., to guard against
coming in contact with these formidable dangers of the ocean. Upon the
subject of the Ice which comes down from the Northern latitudes, much
that is interesting and very necessary to be known will be found in
pages 441 to 454.

TO THE NORTHERN PORTS OF AMERICA. 543

On pages 511 to 520 we have already given directions for vessels taking
the Southern Route to the West Indies and the ports of North America,
and this is especially used by sailing vessels, or small powered steamers.
If bound from the British Isles to Halifax, for example, after making the
necessary Westing to insure not being set into the Bay of Biscay, shape a
course for Madeira, which may be passed on either side, except during
- November, December, and January, when it is preferable to pass to the
Westward, on account of the prevailing strong Westerly gales producing
eddy winds and heavy squalls on the Hast side of the island.

After passing Madeira steer to the South-Westward until within the
Northern limit of the N.E. Trade, when alter course gradually to the
Westward. Cross the meridian of 40° W. in lat. 26° N., continuing on
this parallel to 48° W., when pursue a more North-Hasterly course,
passing about 200 miles Eastward of Bermuda, and thence laying the
course for Halifax. In crossing the Gulf Stream, between 38° and 42° N.,
the current will be found to set about H.N.E., 20 to 70 miles a day.

A reference to the diagrams, facing page 475 will clearly show what
route it is advisable to follow, according to the month or season in which
the voyage is made.

Gulf of St. Lawrence, &c.—Those bound to the Gulf of St. Lawrence,
after passing to the Southward of the Virgin Rocks, on the Grand Bank,
and the Island of St. Pierre, should keep a middle course between New-
foundland and Cape Breton Island; not forgetting what has been hereto-
fore said on the winds and currents. Recollecting also, that the harbours
on the coast, Westward of Fortune Bay, are impeded with dangers ; there
are many rocks about the entrances, and many of the harbours are
imperfectly known. The rocks are not to be seen in thick weather, and
fogs prevail very much on the coast.

Commanders of vessels bound to the Gulf of St. Lawrence will do well
to observe that, off the South coast of Newfoundland, between the
meridians 55° and 06°, and the parallels of 45° and 46° 15’, is a deep gully .
in the sea, extending about 90 miles in a true North and South direction,
and separating the Bank of St. Pierre from the Green Bank, its centre
being in lat, 45° 50’, long. 55° 15’. The method adopted by the French
vessels bound to St. Prerre, for making that island, is as follows :—

From the longitnde of 52° W., in lat. 45°, they steer a N.W. course by
compass, which carries them across the Green Bank, in 48 fathoms of
water ; and when on the meridian of 55° 10’, in about 45° 35’ N., they
suddenly deepen their water, from 45 to 90 fathoms. A further run on
the same course of about 10 miles carries them across this gully, when
they shoalen their water again to 35 and 30 fathoms ; and, after a further
run of 23 miles, they steer about N.N.H. directly for the island, and
seldom or never miss it.

Those who have lost their reckonings, on finding this gully, which may
be known by the water shoaling on the East and West sides of it,—an
experiment that is frequently made for ascertaining whether they are
actually in it or not,—may safely take it as a fresh departure. Come
manders, not being aware of it, when they have found their water deepen

644 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

from the Green Bank to the Westward, have imagined themselves
entering the Gulf of St. Lawrence; and, by steering a course too far to
the Northward, have been lost on the rocks lying to the Kastward of
Cape Ray.

The little island of St. Paul, which lies to the North-Eastward of Cape
North, now distinguished by its lighthouses, is bold-to, steep, and high,
and, with a good look-out in the daytime, cannot be considered as
dangerous even in thick weather. The land of Cape Breton Island is very
high, and, though fogs are about it frequently, it is seldom so much
obscured as not to be seen in time. On entering the Gulf, the Magdalen
and Bird Islands with their lighthouses, will be seen, as they lie in the
direct course from Cape North to the River St. Lawrence.

There is, in clear weather, a safe passage between the Bird Islands and
the Magdalens; but, in thick weather, it is advisable to keep either to the
Southward or Northward of both, as the wind may permit.

In Pleasant Bay, on the §.E. side of Magdalen Islands, there is clear
and good anchorage, very near the shore; and it is a very safe place for
vessels to ride in, with a Westerly wind, and infinitely preferable to
beating about in the gulf with a foul wind. There is a safe passage into
it between Amherst Island and Entry Island.

As the weather to the Southward of these islands, between them and
Prince Edward Island, is generally much clearer than to the North, the
passage that way is preferable, particularly after the early part of the
year, when §.W. winds mostly prevail.

Vessels bound to or from the River St. Lawrence now use the Strait of
Belle Isle, as a channel which gives the shorter and better route to Europe
in the summer months. It should be remembered that the Ice described
in pages 450—454, which floats down the Labrador Coast to the Great
Banks, must be carefully avoided during the season of its frequency in
February or March to July. Again, the shorter days in the higher
latitudes, and the prevailing Fogs which infest the Newfoundland coast,
have to be taken into account during the winter and late autumn months.
’ The lights on Belle Isle and Amour Point, in the Strait of Belle Isle, will
very much facilitate the navigation thus pointed out. With the caution
thus indicated, this route offers many advantages. The Canadian mail
steamers now follow it, although an accident from Ice to one of them, in
the month of May, 1861, will act as a warning.*

* When within the gulf, the Northern shore should not be made too free with, as it
is possible that some outlying rocks may have escaped the vigilance of the surveyors.
Grange Rock, off Coacoacho Bay, is an example; the S.S. North America discovered it
by striking on it in September, 1858. It is 14 mile outside the line of dangers, near a
spot where the Admiralty chart showed no bottom at 47 fathoms.

( 545 )

10.—BETWEEN EUROPE AND NEW YORE, ETC.

There seems to be little hope that much can be added to our knowledge
of this well-beaten track, and that the passages can be shortened, to any
appreciable extent, by adopting any fresh route. Soon after Captain
Maury’s Pilot Charts appeared, an analysis was made of them in order to
find out the best route by computation for each month in the year, of a
track between New York and Europe.

It is only in quite recent years that any attempts have been made to
reduce the Winds of the Northern portion of the North Atlantic to any
system, and at the present time the increased knowledge is not sufficient
to justify the alteration of those tracks across the Atlantic, which ex-
perience has proved to be most advantageous. In the future, when the
reason of the superiority of one route over another, and the progressive
seasonal changes of Wind, Current, &c., are more fully understood, we
may expect the passage to be shortened. One feature helping in this
direction we may mention, and that is the discovery of the mode of pro-
gress of the air across the British Isles in an Easterly and North-Easterly
direction, as described in (128) pages 198—199.

Of the occasional progress of storms (or areas of low barometric pressure
around and into which the wind blows) across the whole breadth of the
Atlantic, we have good evidence, see (125) to (127), pages 189—198; and,
in a recent publication of the Meteorological Office,¥ Captain Toynbee
remarks, in speaking of the synchronous charts which illustrate that
work :—‘‘ The advantage of such charts to navigators is that they give a
picture of what was going on over the whole Atlantic at the same moment
of time. By comparing successive charts they also show any changes
which had taken place during 24 hours. For instance, the wave-like
shapes of some of the isobars in high latitudes (being undulations of
pressure which are followed by the wind-arrows) illustrate for the
navigator the changes of barometer and wind which he so frequently
experiences in these latitudes. The chart of the first shows the ridge of
a wave near Iceland, whilst on the second its ridge was North of the
British Islands, having passed to the Eastward at a rate of more than
20 miles an hour, and carried with it wind changes from N.W. to South.

‘In a ‘Report to the Committee on the Meteorology of the North
Atlantic,’ published by this Office, it is shown that steamers bound to
America pass through a large number of these undulations, whilst those
from America experience comparatively few of them (see pages 181—182).
Hence a steamer bound to the Westward will have much quicker changes
of barometer and wind than one steaming to the Eastward, because the
latter is to a certain extent moving with the undulations. So that, in
these latitudes, a fast-falling barometer, in a ship steaming to the West-
ward, is not so great a sign of bad weather as it is when steaming to the

* Meteorology of the North Atlantic Ocean, during August, 1873, Ulustrating the
Hurricane of that month. Published in 1878.

NAO: 70

546 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

Eastward ; because in the first case the mere speed of the ship to the
‘Westward often increases the rate of fall of the barometer; whereas the
speed of a ship to the Kastward tends to make the barometer fall more
slowly than it otherwise would do, or even to rise. It is no uncommon
thing for steamers bound to the Hastward to have a rising barometer with
a Southerly wind, which rarely, if ever, occurs when steaming to the
Westward. Of course the barometers of sailing ships are similarly
affected, but, as their speed is not generally so great as that of steamers,
the change is not usually to the same extent.”

The work mentioned (note, p. 545) illustrates Buys- Ballot’s Law (pages
112—-115). As shown in the diagram of the Winds, a permanent area of
high barometrical pressure, 800 or 900 miles in diameter, with the Azores
on its Eastern margin, forms a centre around which appear to revolve
smaller areas of low pressure; these areas of low pressure form the centres
of the West India Cyclones, and of our Storms. In this diagram are
shown the routes of some areas of low barometrical pressure, around and
towards the Southern side of which the winds of Atlantic gales have been
observed to blow. These are taken from the same work of Captain
Toynbee. These gales do not appear to be true Revolving Storms, such as
the Tropical Hurricanes, for the reason that very few observations for
Easterly winds are recorded. It may be that these Hasterly winds would
be found to the Northward of the ordinary tracks of ships ; but, as shown
in the diagram, the winds have been observed to blow around the Southern
side of the centre of low pressure, from the N.W., West, and 8.W.

It will be needless to dilate on the Pilot Charts of Captain Maury, or to
give the copious tables drawn up to illustrate the routes. These tracks
certainly seem to us to diverge considerably from any regularity of order
in different months, not exhibiting any gradual change with the seasons,
as might reasonably be expected, but have a general zig-zag course, at
variance with the generally received laws of simplicity and order which
natural phenomena, governing these courses, usually assume. This want
of an apparent general law of change is doubtless owing to the imperfec-
tion of the data upon which they are based.

But as these recommendations were followed out by a great number of
sailing vessels, chiefly the fine clippers and passenger ships between Liver-
pool and New York, their voyages were discussed and tabulated by
Captain Maury in his last edition, and the general mean result of the best
six passages in each month.is given in the ensuing tables.

The computed routes, with the probable amount of fair or head winds,
gales, and calms, and distances required to be sailed over in each section
of the voyage, are omitted. The tables of actwal experience which follow
will, it is thought, be quite sufficient to give an idea of the subject. Only

the mean results are given here, not the details from which they are
derived.

( 547)

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BETWEEN EUROPE AND NEW YORK, ETC. 549

These two tables give the mean track and time occupied by the best
six of each of the sailing passages discussed as proceeding from Europe
to America, and from America to Europe. The ports on the European
side are London, Liverpool, Havre, and a few from the Clyde, Hamburg,
&c. The last column gives the total duration of the voyage, and the
intermediate day columns the time occupied in sailing between the respec-
tive meridians 5° apart.

But these six best passages of course are considerably below the
average length of the ordinary voyages, which may be briefly stated as
follows :—

Europe to America.—January, 19 to 82 days; mean of all, 40-1 days.
February, 21 to 52 days; mean, 33:5 days. March, 214 to 42 days;
mean, 31°5 days. April, 24 to 43 days; mean, 33-7 days. May, 18 to 47
days; mean, 32:0 days. June, 29 to 54 days; mean, 36°7 days. July,
31 to 45 days; mean, 36°8 days. August, 22 to 46} days; mean, 33°1
days. September, 23 to 40 days; mean, 29°1 days. October, 18} to 46
days; mean, 31:0 days. November, 28 to 53} days; mean, 37:2 days.
December, 272 to 48 days; mean, 37°6 days.

America to Hurope.—January, 17 to 28 days; mean, 21:0 days. Feb-
ruary, 16 to 28 days; mean, 22°6 days. March, 16 to 28 days; mean,
22 days. April, 12 to 28 days; mean, 22°5 days. May, 18 to 28 days;
mean, 23:2 days. June, 19 to 28 days; mean, 22°5 days. July, 17 to 27
days; mean, 21°5 days. August, 20 to 284 days; mean, 24-1 days. Sep-
tember, 16 to 29 days; mean, 23-1 days. October, 16 to 27 days; mean,
21:9 days. November, 17 to 26 days; mean, 22:0 days. December,
15 to 28 days; mean, 21:2 days.

These figures will show with how much more certainty the Hastern
voyage is made, with the Anti-Trade Winds and Hasterly Currents in its
favour, than the average Western voyage with their adverse influences to
retard and embarrass it. Upon this subject see the remarks on the
Atmosphere, pages 108—124, and also those by Captain Toynbee (108) to
(113), pages 177—-181. The progress of Storms across the Atlantic is
described in (114) to (133), pages 181—203.

~
\

11.—STEAM TRACKS TO AND FROM AMERICA.

The continually increasing amount of collision, which advanced much
beyond the ratio of the use of steam, led to many plans for averting it, but
apparently without a corresponding effect in adopting them.* The terrors
of this danger in the open sea are manifest, and many sad examples are
too well known not to induce caution—one, that of the American mail-
steamer Arctic striking the French steamer Vesta, near Cape Race, in
October, 1854, led our American friends to consider whether some means

* A great safeguard would be legislative enactment against high speed during fog,
heavy rain, or snow:—authorizing a majority of passengers to make objection; to
inspect, note, and sign the log, before disembarking ; and, by a quorum, to give subse-
quent evidence.— Admiral Fitzroy, Meteorological Papers, 1858.

550 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

could not be employed to lessen the danger. Accordingly, R. B. Forbes, Esq.,
of Boston, proposed one track for steamers going to, and another for those
coming from America. This problem was worked out by Captain Maury,
and his recommendations have been of great service. Owing, however, to
the changed conditions of navigation, and the want of general agreement
among the steamship lines, his routes are not now generally followed,
being superseded by others, founded on them, and hereafter described
Captain Maury’s remarks, however, are still of considerable value, and are
as follows.

«‘ The shortest distance possible for a steamer between Liverpool and
Sandy Hook is 3,009 miles; the average distance actually accomplished
is 3,069 miles; and the distance by the middle of the Lane coming West-
ward is 3,038. There is also another recommendation in favour of this
Lane to the West, which is this: it lies along the Northern edge of the
Gulf Stream, where there is an eddy setting Westward often at the rate
of a knot an hour. On the average, I assume that the set of this eddy
will amount to 12 miles a day for 34 days, or say 40 miles. This makes
the distance by the Lane coming Westward practically about 2,998 miles;
or, allowing 20 miles for detour, we shall have 3,018 miles, which will
shorten the average time of the passage this way three or four hours, with
less risk of collision, and less danger from Cape Race by the way.

‘«‘ Tt may be urged against this Lane that it cannot always be followed,
on account of the Ice, and that, inasmuch as it crosses the Grand Banks,
the steamers that ply in it may now and then run down a fishing vessel.*
The reply is that, as far as the fishermen are concerned, they are now
liable to be run down by the steamers both going and coming. Whereas,
with the Lane, that liability is incident to the steamers alone that are
Westwardly bound, and the fishermen will have the advantage of knowing
pretty nearly where the steamer will pass, and which way she will be
coming. And as for its being obstructed by Ice, so as to compel the
steamers, as it occasionally will, especially in May or June, to turn out of
it now and then, the Hrie Canal, of New York, is obstructed by ice the
whole of every winter, but that does not prove it to be of no value; it
only shows that it, like this Lane, would be of more value to commerce if
it were never obstructed by ice, or anything at all.

‘‘ The Grand Banks afford a pretty good landmark, which can be used in
the thickest weather. Generally the water temperature is found to fall as
soon as your near these Banks; it is generally a good landmark for them.
The Eastern edge runs North and South, and, therefore, affords an ex-
cellent correction for longitude. Having ascertained by the lead when
the vessel first strikes this:edge, then noting the soundings and the
distance run before clearing the Grand Banks, the latitude will also be
known with accuracy sufficient to enable the navigator to decide whether
he be in or out of the Lane, and, if out, on which side. The Lane crosses

* The American fishing vessels put to sea about the middle of April, and in June,
July, August, and September, steamers crossing the Banks should keep a good look-out
for them, especially in foggy weather. At the end of September or October, they return
home, and until the spring many boats lay up, or are usually limited to the George’s
and Brown Banks and New England shore.

STEAM TRACKS TO AND FROM AMERICA. 551

the Banks near their greatest width, 275 miles. If a steamer be crossing
there in a fog, and in doubt as to her position, she can judge, by their
breadth and the soundings, pretty nearly as to latitude. For instance, if
the breadth of the Banks, when crossed, be less than 275 miles, but the
soundings not less than 40 fathoms, the vessel has crossed the Bank to the
North of the Lane; but if she find herself in less than 30 fathoms, then
she has crossed to the South of it. Should she, however, find herself in
water that suddenly shoals to less than 20 fathoms, and as suddenly
deepens again, then she is near the Virgin Rocks, or the rock and Nine-
fathom Bank to the Hast of them, and her position is immediately
known. \

‘Tt should be recollected, however, that these Lanes are not channel-
ways in which steamers must keep or be lost. Gales of wind, Ice, and
other things, will now and then force a steamer out of them, and in such
eases she will then be in no more danger than she is now; only when she
gets back into the Lane she will be in less.

“« You will doubtless observe the advantageous position of the fork to
Halifax, in the Lane from Europe. As this Lane approaches Newfound-
land, it edges off to the South in such a manner as to render it impossible
for a vessel so to miss her way as to get ashore. Suppose a steamer
attempting this Lane to be, when she nears the Grand Banks, 100 miles
out in position (a most extravagant case), and that she be out on the New
foundland side, she would, if behaving properly, be steering parallel with
the Lane, and if bound to New York, she would go clear of Cape Race.
But she might be bound for Halifax, and by steering West too soon, might
run upon the land; but recollect that the Lane to Halifax turns off on
soundings, and a West course from where the Lane from England strikes
soundings on the Grand Banks will take you clear of everything. So
without the most gross neglect of the lead and all proper precautions,
which it is the duty of the shipmaster to take, it would seem impossible
for him to run his steamer into danger here.

‘“‘ In the longitude of the Grand Banks, the Lane to Europe is 200 miles
South of the Lane to America. As a rule, this Lane for the Eastern
bound steamers can be followed always, admitting that an exception now
and then in practice will make the rule general. It will be observed that
this Lane runs H. 15° §. from Sandy Hook to the meridian of 70°, where
it takes a course H. 12° N., towards its junction with the arc of a Great
Circle, South of the Grand Banks. Though the distance by this Lane,
from Sandy Hook to this junction, is a few miles longer than the direct
line, yet on account of the Gulf Stream it is in time the shortest distance
that a steamer can take. From the Capes of Delaware it is obviously the
shortest.

‘‘T will close this report with a recapitulation as to distances and
courses by each Lane, between New York, Halifax, and Philadelphia, on
one side, and Cape Clear and the Scilly Isles on the other ; first begging
leave to say that, according to my computation, founded on such statistics
as I have, touching the velocity of the Gulf Stream, if two steamers bound
for Cape Clear, and of exactly equal speed,- were to start from Halifax,
to see which should first get into the Great Circle part of the Lane to

552 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

Europe from New York, and if one were to go straight for it by steering
East, and the other were to follow the European Lane from Halifax as
projected on the chart, this one would reach the point of destination quite
ag soon as the other, the drift of the Gulf Stream compensating for the
greater distance.

fd

DISTANCE IN MILES TO AMERICA,

By Lane. By Great Circle.

From Scilly Isles to Halifax ........:.sseeeeseceeeeeseeres 2301! sceces 2,305
- =p Capes of Delaware.......ssssesseees DO4B © wdeccs 2,909
“A 5 Sandy Hook .........cesccscseseoees DSSZ ee aesese 2,840

From Cape Clear to Halifax ......ssessessereeeeeeeeseeeee DO Ze ieceeee 2,170
oe Capes of Delaware........-...++++0 PBTESIE | necion 2,765
” i Sandy Hook ..........ssssseceeeeees D235) a sceers 2,695
ea + "4 by actual average... ... 2,754

“ This statement shows that by the Lane to America the distance is
actually shorter, both to Sandy Hook, and, we may infer also, to the
Delaware, than the average distance by the present route; for the route
actually pursued by the steamers now, both to Sandy Hook and the
Delaware, may be considered the same from Cape Clear or the Scilly Isles,
as far West as long. 70°.

DISTANCE IN MILES BY LANE TO EUROPE.

To Scilly Isles. To Cape Clear.

From Halifax .......ccscccssccscsosssccecccccecssccascecsesasecs DFAS Generates 2,285
yy —- Capes Of Delaware ......sccesecserseceeeeeeeeeeesenes SHORE Banded 2,873
gy SANMAY HOOK ......cceccscsecsensencesceesssecseccosceece PASI) sacose 2,829

«« Besides the detour from the Great Circle which a vessel from New
York, Halifax, Boston, or Philadelphia, would necessarily make by fol-
lowing the Eurépean Lane to Cape Clear, it would require an additional
detour of only 15 miles for vessels bound into the English Channel to use
it also as far as Cape Clear. This Lane, therefore, will, in consequence of
the favourable currents of the Gulf Stream, put a vessel into Southampton
quite as soon as she could reach that port from New York or Philadelphia
by the Great Circle route. Vessels from Halifax will have to make the
greatest detour of any by adopting the Lane to Europe; but for them it
is less than 100 miles out of their way as they now go, and it will prolong
their average passage Hastwards, perhaps two or three hours. 1 say
perhaps, because I am not sure but that the steamers from Halifax and
New England are set back by the cold current 20 or 30 miles on the route
now used for the Eastern passage. The Gulf Stream, even from where
they will join it by this Lane, will set them forward, on an average,
40 or 50 miles at the least. It seems, therefore, that the attractions of
this Lane, as regards safety, should more than outweigh the probable loss
of an hour or two during the passage. When I speak of distances by the
Lanes, it should be recollected that the middle of the Lane is meant, ag
in the following table of courses and distances.

STEAM TRACKS TO AND FROM AMERICA.

From Scilly Isles.to Cape Clear
», Cape Clear to lat. 51° 23’, long. 15° 0’

LANE TO
2

-

see oesceesesores

AMERICA,

Peo o oreo eerereeresesase

From lat.° ' long. ° ‘' tolat.° ‘ long. °
o PE DSi as 5p OL. - SLI6 3 20m Ope
an 51 16 20 0 50 56 25 OF
3 50 56 95.0 50 23 30,2 0Ps
a 50 23 30 0 49 36 B15), 0) Gs
es 49 36 By (Oyen Cte! 40 0O..
- 48 33 AOE OWeessn ety lo 45 0O..
A 47 15 450 ... 45 38 5Oy Ose
3 45 38 HOMON | 400 Pee cee
Pee (9 ee) 51 45 44 10 1 10) Ao
. 44 10 55 (0 42 40 60 0O..
BS 42 40 60 0 41 42 65: 0) s
# 41 42 65 0 40 30 Soa Oe (Oleses
- 40 30 70 0 fo: Saady Hook siosiss ease’ ctetan's
i 40 30 70 O to Capes of Delaware .........
» (a45 O Him Hrtowealitaxscessverccssecereotessenes
LANE TO EUROPE.
From Capes of Delaware to lat. 39° 40’, long. 70° 0’ ........0005
», sandy Hook to lat. 39° 40’, long. 70° 0! .........ccccsesssees
From lat.° ' eae bovlati ss 7 long. ° ’
ai 39°40) 03 (OFOM 403i! S GHC
ms 40 31 650° 3. <4 9 60 O
mr 41 9 GOTO} .-3 415 30 55 0
s4 41 33 DOOM oS 50 0
» (6) 41.538 5:0) (0) ang CB 5 45 0
“ 43 55 450 ... 45 46 40 0
sk 45 46 400) on 47 18 35 0
, 47 18 Sie Oeics tS o2 30 0
. 48 32 3050" «2. © 49) 30 25 0
ss 49 30 25VO zee8) SOWA 20 0
PA 50 14 20 0 50 45 15 0
50 45 15 0 to Cone CHEE panccnooseaqconopbueSece

From Cape Clear to ‘Scully Isles
(6) Halifax to lat. 43° 30’, long. 60° 0
From lat. 43° 30’, long. 60° 0’ to lat. 42° 30’, long. 55° 0'
Pe > os 0

E000 1s ado

COR ee eee eee meee HT eH EERE HEH ERE DDE S ED OOD

Seem esse sess sea eeeeee

Set 50% Ole gcee es
The Courses and Distances are for the ** middle ’’ of the Lanes.

Course (true).

Wis
W.
W.
W.

W.
W.

Course (true).

EH.

W
W
W
W
W
W.
W.
W
W
w

33° 7’ N.
1° 55'N.

2 LES:
6° 5S.
9° 50’ S.
13° 41' S.
. 17° 45’ §,
. 21° 8'S.
. 25° 10’ S.
. 27° 13’ S.
. 19° 45’ 8.
22° 27' S.
. 14° 34’
. 17° 45’
- O° 43’
V. 22° 8!
W.

3° 53’

. 10° 46’ N
5 ee aS

. 12° 24’ N,
9° 39° N.
6° 5 N.

4° 57’ N

PAE (54 INI:
27° 28 N.
24° 4'N,
20° 18’ N.
16° 21'N.

12° 46’ N

Oe TN.
. 4 34'N.
. 27° 39'S.
Zr OT Se
» 15° 17'S;
9° 28’ S.

553

‘Distance

in Miles.
seeul59
ge5 MELOT,
a EY
aren (LAD
acs) 193

Distance
in Miles.
ee. 236
aoe LOS
237
227
225
232
251
241
226
212
206
199
192
189
151
163
181
225

“ Thus it appears that one Lane will practically shorten the distance
from Cape Clear to Sandy Hook and the Delaware by 30 miles, while the
which prolonged
distance, when measured, not by safety, but i time alone, the Gulf Stream,
better weather, and diminished frequency of fogs, will more than com-

other prolongs the distance going to Europe 75 miles ;

pensate for.

In my judgment, these Lanes, - properly followed, will

make the average length of passage, as determined by the mean of all for
the year, probably less each way, certainly not more than an hour or two

IN. Aa 0.

71

554 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

longer than it now is. Individual passages coming will, perhaps, not be
made so quickly as they have been, but, on the average, trips will be
shortened.”

Admiral FitzRoy also devoted some attention to this subject, and made
the following remarks, regarding Maury’s ‘‘ Lanes for Steamers,” in his
‘‘ Meteorological Papers,’’ 1858.

‘‘ Tf steamers could always steer direct courses, being full-powered, and
not liable to be headed off in occasional heavy seas, such an arrangement
might be advantageous; but as it is otherwise, and as screw (auxiliary or
mixed) ships sail while steaming, they cannot conveniently keep to pre-
scribed ‘‘ Lanes,” however desirable it might otherwise seem.

‘« However, as the traffic increases between Europe and America, some
special arrangement may be required, even more urgently than now; in
which case it might perhaps be found practicable to consider an imaginary
line, from lat. 50° and long. 20° to the crossing of 45° N. and 55° W.., the
‘line of separation,” Northward of which should go all vessels bound to
the Westward, and South of it all those heading to the Hastward.” As
will be seen on pages 557—5d9, an arrangement has now actually been
adopted to carry out this idea.

Norma T’racks FOR STEAMERS.

On pages 171—177 and 196—198, we have given some extracts from
an essay by Herr von W. von Freeden, Director of the Hamburg Meteor-
ological Office, on the Winds, &c., along the Tracks of the North German
Lloyd steamers. What is there given refers to the Winds; and, as an
application of that investigation, we give the following Tables from the
same work, for the normal tracks for each month of the year, with Herr
von Freeden’s remarks on the same.

It will be seen that the proposed tracks simply contain the latitude in
which every tenth meridian should be crossed in the various months, as
well as the true course, and distance in nautical miles, from one point of
crossing to the next. In all cases where the routes are variable, 330
miles have been entered as the distance to be run from the Needles to
10° W., and 183 miles from 70° W. to Sandy Hook. Any slight difference
which may have been caused by crossing these meridians on other than
the fixed latitudes of 50° and 404° N. has been considered to be of no
importance.

( 555 )

Monrsty Normat Traces for the North German Lloyd Steamers running

between the Lizard and New York.
OUTWARD TRACKS. —

December, January. February.
i 3% leqi
ee tom Lat. N. £5 Correct Course.|| Lat. N a Correct Course.|| Lat. N. | 5g ) Correct Course.
pass o + «6188 ° ' ° ’ |Qs ° ' Orn wt ies ° '
10° W.......| 49 54 |330; Variable. 49 54 | 330] Variable. 50 0} 830) Variable.
DOW stirasces -| 49 48 |/383/}S.89 6W.| 50 6 | 3887/N. 88 14 W.]} 50 17 | 385 /N. 87 28 W.
BOWS, > cesses 49 6 |392|S. 83 51 W.|| 49 24 | 390|S. 83 49 W.|| 49 43 | 387] S."84 58 W.
AOMe Bresccss 47 24 |412|8S. 75 41 W. 47 54 | 406|S. 77 138 W. 48 13 |4041S.77 8 W.
OBA Teese 45 0/|440|S. 70 52 W. 45 24 | 438] S. 69 59 W. 45 42 |436/S. 69 45 W.
GOR) eresse 42 48 |452/S8.73 1W. 42 42 | 461|S. 69 26 W. 42 30 | 4472'S. 65 58 W.
(Ol ep teecbe 40 42 |465|S. 74 17 W. 40 24 |470|S. 72 55 W. 40 36 | 463|S. 75 45 W.
Sandy Sandy Sandy
Hook. |183| Variable. Hook. |183| Variable. Hook. |183] Variable.
i | !
March. April. May.
LO? Wrvesees 50 12 |3380| Variable. 49 54 1330] Variable. 50 0O|830} Variable.
Omen cedess 50 30 | 383 |N. 87 18 W. 49 40 | 387] S. 87 56 W. 49 48 | 385/S. 88 13 W.
XO) S458 coneac 50 0 /|385|S. 85 32 W. 49 4 |392/S. 84 44 W. 48 50 |396/|S. 81 34 W.
AWns leceaes 48 20 |405|S. 75 42 W. 47 36 |408/S. 77 33 W. 46 50 | 420/S. 78 24 W.
DOM as 46 O |422/8S. 70 39 W. 44 42 |451!S. 67 17 W. 43 42 |462/S.66 OW.
GOP. 52, ace 42 20 | 483] 8. 62 55 W. 42 30 |454|S:.73 5 W. 42 30 | 444/S. 80 40 W,
(Oma iieceses 40 48 |458|S. 78 25 W. 40 42 |462|S. 76 28 W. 40 36 | 462!8S. 75 44 W.
Sandy Sandy Sandy
Hook. |183 | Variable. Hook. |183] Variable. Hook. |183| Variable.
June. F | July. August.
OS We oveece 50 0/330! Variable. 50 0O/330| Variable. 50 01330! Variable.
FD) ving. Boscia 50 24 | 385/N. 86 25 W. 50 20 | 385 |N. 87 21 W 50 18 |385/N. 87 19 W.
SUD. 9g" ocaooc 49 24 |391/N. 81 10 W. 49 45 |387/S. 84 48 W 49 42 |387/|S. 84 40 W.
OW) Veness 46 40 | 433| S. 67 46 W. 48 16 |404/8S.77 15 W 47 24 |420|S. 70 50 W.
EMO ste's sc 44 12 |446|8. 70 388 W. |] 45 42 | 4387/8. 69 23 W 44 36 |449}S.68 3 W.
(2.0) Jey ioneoee 42 48 |443|S.79 5 W. 42 54 | 4611/8. 68 88 W 42 20 |456|S. 72 39 W.
TO) Sy ace 40 42 | 465/ 8. 74 17 W. 40 36 |468|S. 72 52 W 40 32 | 463 | S. 76 30 W.
Sandy Sandy Sandy
Hook. | 1838 | Variable. Hook. |183] Variable. Hook. | 183 | Variable.
|
September. October. November.
Great Circle from 50° N. 10° W. |
to 44° N. 55° W.
HOSP Wirsceees 49 54 |830| Variable. 50 0,830; Variable. 49 48 |330; Variable.
U5) 95 iebeeee 50 16 |193|}N.85 10 W.
2) as eabode 50 3/3886 N.88 40 W. 50 17*/182|)N.89 40 W. 49 38 | 390|S. 88 32 W.
Bee Miisaca 50 16 |193/ 8. 89 44 W.
810) 6g) -ood0de 49 26 |390| S. 84 33 W. 49 43 |196|S.80 2 W. 48 56 | 394/S. 83 52 W.
Sheen... 49 5 |199|8.79 BW.
dO Prewdtl cence 47 52 | 407| 8.76 40 W. 48 13 |205/S. 75 19 W. 47 15 | 413|S. 75 51 W.
Ae) casinos ai, 6 213i Ss ne So) We :
EON Se eciecs 45 28 |436|S.70 43 W. 45 42 | 223) 8S. 67 57 W. 44 38 | 446 S. 69 22 W.
Mess ascsce 44 QO |236| 8S. 64 20 W.
(370) aoe 42 54 |457|S.70 18 W. || 42 54 |231|S.73 25 W.|| 41 50 |468!8. 68 58 W.
ES eR © Géecoo 41 48 | 231| 8S. 73 25 W.
BO sa ecsees 40 40 |467|S.78 20 W. 40 42+/ 2381|S. 73 25 W. 40 30 | 4581S. 79 57 W.
Sandy Sandy | Sandy
Hook. ia Variable. Hook. = Variable.- || Hook. |}183} Variable.
|
* Vertex in lat. 50° 18’ N.. long. 18° 18’ W. + In 69° W.

( 556 )

Monraty Normat Tracks for the North German Lloyd Steamers running
between New York and the Lizard.
HOMEWARD TRACKS,

a
-

December, January. | February.
| Ht
2 a 23 2 4
Ships from | Lat. N. | & 3 Correct Course.|| Lat.N. | & 5 Correct Course.|| Lat. N. | 2 S| Correct Course.
Sandy Hook a ims aA
tas | 0. (AR) oe es Sle en ere ae | o + las
es a
Ova Wineccets 40 42 |183] Variable. 40 30!183| Variable. 40 30 | 183
COM A8isteens 43 0|468|N.72 OF. 41 50 !459| N. 79 57 EB. 41 48 | 458
DOs saa ecnces 46 6 |466| N. 66 30 E. 44 0/|458|N. 73 31 EK. 44 36 | 468
AO a cecees 48 32 |432|)N. 70 15 HE. 46 48 | 453| N. 68 15 EB. 47 18 | 451
BOs beccres 50 O |402|N.77 20N. 49 0 |423|N. 71 50 E. 49 0|413
DO Ts Nestirce 50 30 | 385] N. 85 32 HE. 49 48 | 394|)N.83 OK. 49 36 | 393
10) i555 ceevare 50 O |885| S. 85 32H. |} 49 48 | 387 East. | 49 40 | 387
The The The
Needles.| 330} Variable. ||Needles.|330/ Variable. ||Needles.|330| Variable.
March. April | May.
TOoUWiesesee 40 24 |183| Variable. 40 80 |183} Variable. 40 30 |183) Variable.
GOT keene. 41 20 | 440| N. 82 58 E. 41 24 | 456] N. 83 12 KE. 41 36 | 457| N. 81 42 E.
DOW esses 43 6 |457|N. 76 35 E. 43 6|456|N.77 4H. 42 30 |449|N. 83 6E.
A055 besser 45 15 |449|N. 73 19 H. 45 54 |460| N. 68 34 EK. 45 24 |465|N.68 38H,
BIOS ay “Odonde 48 54 | 463|N. 61 48 E. 48 12 |4381|N. 71 21 EH. 47 48 |487|N. 70 45 BE.
QO Ne ceres 50 10 |397| N. 78 57 HE. || 49 6 |400|N.82 15H. |} 49 24 |408|N. 76 24 E.
10 , » 50 0O1|385| S. 88 31 E.|| 49 36 |365|N. 85 386 EH.|} 49 48 |890/ N. 86 28 KE.
The The The :
Needles.| 330} Variable. || Needles.|330} Variable. ig gs 330} Variable,
| |
June. | July August.
MO? Weees-se 40 30 |183| Variable. 40 36 |183} Variable. 40 32/183! Variable.
GOR casce: 41 36 | 457) N. 81 42 H. 42 0)|459|N. 79 27 EH. 41 34 |-457| N. 82 12 EB.
DORs miecaces 42 42 |450| N. 81 34 EH. 43 48 |452|N.76 11 E. |} 48 15 |454|N.77 9E.
AOS ersees 46 6 |475| N. 64 32 K. 46 48 |459| N. 66 54 HE. 46 24 | 466; N.66 3 EK.
BOTS sesaes 48 40 | 434| N. 69 14 E. 49 0 |423|N.71 50H. |} 49 15 | 436) N. 66 59 E.
DO eae ceive 48 48 |398|N.80 9H. 49 54 |394/N. 82 TE. 49 54 | 391|N. 84 16 E.
TOW; iveccss 49 48 | 387 East: 49 54 | 386 Kast. 49 50 | 381! S. 89 24 BK,
The The The
Needles.|330| Variable. || Needles.|330} Variable. || Needles. 330 | Variable.
September. October. November.
Great Circle from 41° N. 65° W.
to 49° 50’ N. 10° W.
Ove Wisercnse 40 30 |183| Variable. 40 30 |183| Variable. 40 30 | 183 Variable.
Bik. gta, 41 0 | 229] N. 82 29 B.
[UB ays sepoce 42 6/|461|N. 77 58 EH. 43 12 | 259| N. 59 23 EK. 42 50 | 470! N. 72 39 BE.
Baran 45 3 | 242/N. 62 46 B.
DOW fie snce. 43 50 |451| N. 76 40 E. 46 34 |228|] N. 66 19 E. 45 40 | 462| N. 68 25 EB.
AO mastacesues 47 49 | 217| N. 69 58 E.
AO Siespines 1 46 20 |449| N. 70 30 EH. 48 47 | 208/ N. 73 38 E. 48 20 | 439| N. 68 38 BE,
35 ,, | 49 31 | 201| N. 77 24 E. |
SO)e, sue oees 48 30 | 426| N. 72 14 EB. 50 1/196] N. 8112E. || 49 40 | 401; N. 78 30H.
DD! 6 enews 50 18 |194|N.85 5H.
DIU Ren Boney 49 30 |399| N. 81 20 BE. |} 50 21*/ 188) N. 88 52 EB. || 50 20/388|N.84 54H.
DY oe Moccaes 50 12 |192) S. 87 15 EB.
DO os sere 49 45 |388| N. 87 47 E. || 49 50 |194| S.83 25E.|| 50 01/385] S.87 1E.
The The The
Needles.| 330} Variable. || Needles. 330} Variable. || Needles.) 330} Variable.

*

Vertex in lat. 50° 21’ 7” N., long. 21° 3’ 8” W.

TRACKS FOR STEAMERS. 557

In 1883, the Royal Meteorological Institute of the Netherlands published
the results of an investigation by Baron van Heerdt, into the routes taken
by the large ocean mail and other steamers between the English Channel
and New York, the data being obtained from many hundreds of logs. It
is unnecessary here to enter into more than a reswmé of the results, as the
differences in the duration of voyages, according to the route taken, do not
amount to more than a few hours.

Bound Westward.—In December, January, February, and March, those
vessels which crossed the meridian of 30° W. to the Northward of lat. 50°,
but which on the meridian of 50° W. kept to the South of 46° N., made
quite as long voyages as those which kept to the Southward on both
meridians. _ Those which crossed 30° W. South of lat. 50°, and 50° W.
North of 46° N., made very good voyages. Those which crossed 30° W.
North of 50° N., and 50° W. North of 46° N., gained an average advan-
tage of twenty-one hours on the whole voyage.

In April and May, the most favourable route is found farther to the
South. On long. 30° W., the best crossing is found to be between lat. 474°
and 50° N., and on 50° W. it is advisable to cross 50° W. South of 444° N.

In June, July, and August, a more Northerly route gave the best times.
Crossing 30° W. in lat. 49°, or farther Northward, and 50° W. in lat. 45°,
or farther Northward, was found to give a considerable advantage over a
more Southerly route.

In September, October, and November, it seems that a course to the
South of lat. 50° N. is to be preferred in crossing 30° W. Vessels which
crossed 50° W. in lat. 454°, or farther Northward, made the best passages.

Bound Eastward.—In January, February, and March, the best passages
were made by crossing 50° W. between lat. 444° and 464° N., and 30° W.
between 484° and 494° N.

In May and June, the best routes crossed 50° W. in lat. 424°, or farther
Northward, and 30° W. in or to the Northward of 48° N.

In July, August, and September, the best routes crossed 50° W. in lat.
434° N., or farther Northward, and 30° W. in or Northward of lat. 484°.

In November and December, the best passages were made by crossing
50° W. Northward of lat. 453° N., and 30° W. in lat. 49°, or farther
Northward.*

* «Route voor Stoomschepen van het Kanaal naar New York en terug,’ Utrecht,
1883. The general results of this enquiry will be found translated in the \Vautioal
Magazine, November, 1888.

( 558 )

UNIFORM TRACKS FOR STEAMERS.

Owing to the weather characteristics of the Northern Atlantio, ib was
found that the narrow limits of the old Lanes give no room for manceuvring
so as to avoid impending bad weather. The great increase of steam traffic
between Europe and North America also rendered some special arrange-
ment urgently necessary, for regulating the routes of vessels outward and
homeward bound, to diminish the risks of collision. The initiative in this
was taken by the United States Hydrographic Office, which, in December,
1887, issued the North Atlantic Pilot Chart with separate routes proposed
for vessels going Eastward and Westward, one track being given as the
Southern limit for vessels bound Westward, and another as the Northern
limit for vessels bound Eastward. By these routes West-bound vessels
thus pass well to the northward of those bound Eastward, except at the
agreed crossing-places south-eastward of the banks of Newfoundland,
where the tracks diverge according to the destination.

The advantages of this scheme met with cordial approval from the
principal Atlantic steamship companies, and in December, 1891, a fresh
chart was issued. In accordance with experience gained, this chart was
revised in 1898, in order to avoid Ice and Fog prevalent in July in the
Northern Route, and in the interests of the safety of fishermen on the
Grand Banks.

As far as the risk of collision was concerned, these fixed routes admir-
ably answered their purpose, but they led within the dangerous Ice area,
as disastrously shown by the loss of the steamer Titanic, of 52,310 tons
displacement, with 1,490 lives, on April 15th, 1912, after collision with
an iceberg. This fearful catastrophe led the steamship companies to
agree to let their vessels take a route much farther southward of the Ice
area.*

We here give the description of the revised Routes, as adopted from
April 15th, 1913, the tracks being marked on the diagrams facing pages
459 and 475. In exceptional seasons they may be temporarily altered,
of which due notice will be given.

It is to be hoped that the captains of all steamers will see the advisability
of following these routes, and that those of sailing vessels will endeavour
to avoid them, as much as possible.

N.B.—When courses are changed at the intersections of the meridians
named at any time before or after noon, note in the log both distances to
and from the meridians, which the ship has sailed from noon to noon, and
not the distance from the position at noon, the day before, to the position
at noon, the day after, the meridian is crossed.

* In accordance with the International Convention at London in January, 1914, in
the season when Ice may be met with, the United States government dispatches steamers
to patrol the southern limits of the floating Ice region, and to issue wireless telegraphio
reports of its existence, both to the shore and to approaching vassels,

TRACKS FOR STEAMERS. : 559

Bound WESTWARD.—From February 1st to August 31st, both days
inclusive, from the Fastnet or Bishop Rock steer a course on the Great
Circle track, but nothing South of it, to cross the meridian of 47° W. in
latitude 41° 30’ N. Hence, steer either by the rhumb line or Great
Circle (or even North of the Great Circle if an easterly current be encoun-
tered) to a position off Boston, or South of Nantucket lightvessel. From
the latter position, if bound to New York, steer for Fire Island light-
vessel ; or, if bound to the Delaware River, for Five Fathoms Bank South
lightvessel.

From September 1st to January 31st, inclusive, steer a course from the
Fastnet or Bishop Rock on the Great Circle track, but nothing South of
it, to cross the meridian of 50° W. in lat. 44° N. Hence steer by rhumb
line or Great Circle to a position off Boston, or South of Nantucket Shoals
lightvessel, thence proceeding as above for New York or the Delaware.

The approximate courses (true), and the distances in nautical miles,
along these routes, are as follows :—

Northern Route (September 1st to January 31st).—From the Fastnet to
long. 50° W., lat. 44° N., the distance by Great Circle is 1,668 miles, or
from Bishop Rock to the same position, 1,793 miles. Thence steer a
rhumb course 8. 764° W., 897 miles, to a position South of Nantucket
lightvessel ; thence 8. 873° W., 193 miles, to Sandy Hook lightvessel.
The total distance from the Fastnet will be 2,758 miles, and from Bishop
Rock 2,883 miles.

Southern Route (February 1st to August 31st)—From the Fastnet to
long. 47° W., lat. 41° 30’ N., tue distance by Great Circle is 1,634 miles,
or from Bishop Rock to the same position, 1,749 miles. Thence steer a
course 8. 87° W., 1,029 miles, to a position South of Nantucket light-
vessel, and then proceed as before. The total distance from the Fastnet
will be 2,856 miles, and from Bishop Rock 2,971 miles.

Bound EASTWARD.—From February 1st to August 31st, inclusive,
steer a course from Five Fathoms Bank South lightvessel, or from Sandy
Hook lightvessel, so as to cross the meridian of 70° W. nothing northward
of lat. 40° 10’ N. Thence steer by rhumb line to cross the meridian of
47° W. in lat. 40° 30’ N.; sad hence proceed to the Fastnet or Bishop
Rock, passing nothing North of the respective Great Circle routes.

From September 1st to January 31st, inclusive, stecr the same course (as
above) from Five Fathoms Bank South lightvessel, or from Sandy Hook
lightvessel, so as to cross the meridian of 70° W. nothing northward of
lat. 40° 10’ N., and thence to cross the meridian of 50° W. in lat. 43° N.
From the latter position pass nothing northward of the Great Circle route
to the Fastnet or Bishop Rock, always keeping South of the parallel of
that rock when bound to the English Channel.

Northern Route (September 1st to January 31st).—From Sandy Hook
lightvessel to long. 70° 0’ W., lat. 40° 10’ N., steer S. 834° E., 177 miles ;
thence N. 79° E., 917 miles, to cross 50° W. in 43° N. ; and thence nothing
North of the Great Circle to the Fastnet or Bishop Rock. The total
distance to the Fastnet will be 2,792 miles, and to Bishop Rock 2,914
miles.

560 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

Southern Route (February 1st to August 31st)—From Sandy Hook
lightvessel to long. 70° 0’ W., lat. 40° 10’ N., steer 8. 833° E., 177 miles ;
thence N. 89° E., 1,058 miles, to cross 47° W. in 40° 30’ N.; and thence
nothing North of the Great Circle to the Fastnet or Bishop Rock. The
total distance to the Fastnet will be 2,904 miles, and to Bishop Rock
3,015 miles.

ROUTES “NORTH-ABOUT.”—The following tracks are recom-
mended for transatlantic steamers taking a route to the Northward of
the British Isles :—

Bound Westward.—From February 1st to August 31st, take the rhumb
course from Pentland Firth to lat. 59° N., long. 14° W.; thence
the Great Circle, or nothing South of it, to join the usual route in
lat. 41° 30’ N., long. 47° W.

From September 1st to January 31st, take the rhumb course to lat.
59° N., long. 14° W.; thence the Great Circle, or nothing South, to join
the usual route in lat. 44° N., long. 50° W.

Bound Eastward.—From February \st to August 31st, take the usual
route as far as lat. 40° 30’ N., long. 47° W.; thence the Great Circle, or
nothing North of it, to lat. 58° 40’ N., long. 14° W.; and thence the
rhumb course.

From September 1st to January 31st, take the usual route as far as lat.
43° N., long. 50° W.; thence the Great Circle course, or nothing North
of it, to lat. 58° 40’ N., long. 14° W.; thence the rhumb.

The success attending the adoption of these uniform routes for steamers
has led the principal companies running steamers between Europe, the
St. Lawrence, Halifax, &c., to agree to keep to certain specified routes,
according to the voyage and season. As with the other transatlantic
tracks, they are liable to variation and alteration in abnormal Ice seasons,
due notice being given in such cases.

TRACKS FOR STEAMERS. 561

Between Gibraltar, &c., and New York.—In January, 1893, the
United States Hydrographic Office issued a Supplement to the Pilot Chart,
on which routes were laid down for the consideration of owners and
masters of steamers trading between the Mediterranean and New York,
having regard to the Winds, Weather, and Currents likely to be encoun-
tered. These tracks, as modified by experience (up to 1917), are marked
on the diagrams of Passages facing pages 459 and 475.

Briefly, these routes follow those routes already given so far as con-
cerns the region West of the 47th and 50th meridians, while East of thosa
meridians they follow the Great Circle to (and from) Cape St. Vincent,
with the addition, however, of alternative Southern routes Westward,
for steamers of low power especially. These Southern routes will, it is
thought, be preferred during all seasons of the year by many masters,
because, although about 600 miles longer, it takes advantage of a decided
Westerly current for about 1,500 miles, and at the same time avoids the
opposing Gulf Stream current, and the full force of the severe and long-
continued Westerly gales and head seas which are likely to be encountered
farther North, especially during winter.

The Current likely to be encountered is, of course, a factor of greater or
less importance, according to the speed of the vessel, and it varies con-
siderably during the year. Generally speaking, however, a vessel bound
West along the September Ist—January 31st route may expect to
encounter a Westerly current of from 10 to 20 miles a day for about 1,000
miles, and an Easterly current of from 6 to 20 miles a day for about 1,600
miles ; bound West along the February 1st—August 31st route a Westerly
current of 10 to 18 miles a day for about 500 miles, and an Easterly
current of 10 to 20 miles a day for about 2,000 miles ; bound West along
the Southern routes, a Westerly current of 10 to 20 miles a day for about
1,500 miies.

Finally, East-bound vessels, along the routes recommended, will find a
Westerly current of 10 to 18 milesa day for about 300 miles, and an
Easterly current of 6 to 24 miles a day for about 2,500 miles.

Bound Westward.—The approximate courses (true), and the distances
in nautical miles, along these routes, are as follows :—

NortTHERN Route (September Ist to January 31st).

Course. Miles.

Gibraltar Strait to lat. 36° 50’, long. 8° 59’ (off Cape St. Vincent) N.71° W. ... 165

From off Cape St. Vincent to lat. 44° N., long. 50° W.... Great Circle ... 1902
», lat. 44° 0’, long. 60°, to Sandy Hook lightvessel

Courses as before (p. 559) ... 1090

Total Distance ... 3157

562 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

Norruern Route (February Ist to August 31st).

Course. Miles.

Gibraltar Strait to off Cape St. Vincent, as before ae N.. 71°. Wile

Thence to lat. 41° 30’ N., long. 47° 0’ W. er Great Circle ... 1776
From lat. 41° 30’, long. 47° 0’, to Sandy Hook lightvessel

Courses as before (p. 559) ... 1222

Total Distance ... 3163

SouTHERN Rovutss.—By referring to the diagrams facing page 475,
it will be seen that, from May to September inclusive, the route passes
Westward along the parallel of 36° N. as far as 65° W. During the re-
mainder of the year, a more southerly route is recommended, crossing
30° W. in 33° N., and thence along the parallel of 33° as far as 65° W.

Bound Eastward.—The routes recommended for steamers bound
Eastward pass Southward of the routes for vessels bound Westward.

12.—FROM THE UNITED STATES TO THE EQUATOR.

In pages 475—501, the passage from Europe to Southern latitudes was
discussed, and it was there shown that a more Westerly crossing than
had heretofore been usual has been attended with great advantage. To
those pages we therefore refer the reader, for the arguments which equally
apply to the voyage from the Western side of the Atlantic.

One of the great results of Captain Maury’s inquiries was the improve-
ment of this route; and before such a mass of evidence had been collected
he recommended the Great Circle route to the longitude of 31° W. on the
Equator, as alluded to on page 495. This route, considered in connection
with the direction of the Winds and Currents, is that which would
naturally be chosen, if the crossing in that longitude would be considered
to be a safe one, to guard against being drifted to leeward of Cape
St. Roque. Later experience has shown this fear to be fallacious in a
great measure, and it seldom occurs that vessels get into difficulties here.

Captain Maury devotes 220 pages of closely printed matter to this ques-
tion; but we shall only briefly select the prominent points elicited :—

Off St. Roque the tracks of all sailing vessels bound out of the North
Atlantic Ocean into the Southern hemisphere fall in with each other.
This is the great passway between the North Atlantic and the other great
oceans of the world. Here the tracks of vessels, both from Europe and
America, come together, whether their destination be around either Cape
Horn or the Cape of Good Hope. Passing the offings of this great pro-
montory of Brasil, the highway then forks. All vessels for India, China,
or Australia, hugging the wind, turn off to the East; those that are bound
around Cape Horn keep straight on; while those that are bound to the
La Plata, to Rio, or to any of the South American ports, being restricted
in their courses by the winds on one hand and the land on the other,
make the best of their way South, and turn off to the right as they reach
the proper parallel.

FROM THE UNITED STATES TO THE EQUATOR. 563

‘I'he following Time Table, by the New Route, the Old, and the Middle,
is derived from the logs of 1,160 voyages, and it therefore may be held to
embody the experience of 1,160 navigators touching the best route hence
to the ‘fairway off St. Roque.” The meaning of this table is so plain
that analysis and discussion can add but little to the force of its own
silent story. It shows, for each month, the average time from port to
30° N.; the place of crossing that parallel, and the time thence to the
Equator, and the place of crossing it, also, by each of the three routes. It
shows, also, the distance from 30° N. to the Equator, and the average
number of miles ‘‘made good” daily, for so much of each route as is
included between these parallels,

LONG. OF CROSSING—| DAYS FROM—
= Distance from

MONTH AND ROUTH. | 30° N. ine.
Pe ee Port to | 30° N. hin
‘ff i| 80° Nn) to Line,
ee a ee
Longitude.| Longitude.| Days. | Days. | Total Average
ks e Miles. per day.
December ...Old ......) 32-2 W. | 25-5 W.| 18-9 20-4 OGG eencesesesess 89
i; Middle...| 36-6 29:1 12-5 205 MS COmeeserccsees go
* NeW. <.-<<. 44:7 31-5 10-8 15-0 RO OG imecetectacters 131
January ...... ONG! coscet 34:3 24-4 7D iby phys, ROS Siauesaaeceneees 108
A Middle...| 34:5 28-1 16-2 14-9 TRSEYE) necodoencocc 125
a New...... 43°2 30-0 10-9 14°3 EQ6O) \ occccanpexad 137
February ...Old ...... 29°5 22-6 16-6 23:2 TO35 a ceaavoccenes 19
i Middle...| 35-1 25-6 15-7 14:6 USO)" cconteeseeee 128
5 New...... 42°5 30-2 11-8 | 143 NGYAC) cegcnsccucne 135
March ...... Oldyacsee- 31-2 23°7 16-4 20-9 ESGOpuccdccccceace 89
m Middle...| 33-0 28-2 14-2 17-2 NS Ole deneneesene 106
‘ New...... 42°5 29:0 II-5 16-3 ME WE! cecodcoccoce 121
April ......... Oldies... 32°4 25:6 17-2 18-1 T8351 ievescecsacee IOI
a Middle...| 33-2 28-1 16-7 17-2 TOd5e ccaccadenaes 106
a New...... 40°6 29°9 13-7 15-8 TQOUO)) ccseomsee ans I21
eee Oldigae-..- 330 24:0 22-8 19-4 1865 \ esscccesess 86
. Middle...) 36-4 29-1 19°5 20-2 nL eresrodicces g2
a New woeeee 41-2 31-0 12-9 16-5 ESQO!” ceaneaereree 114
June.. .....0.5. @ldweeee 32°7 26-4 PU ||. ae 1830: scsccesesees 78
Middle...| 39-5 28-2 17-6 21-4 VQZOW weseeanesees go
is New...... 43°5 30-7 13-8 21-2 TQAS) \essccssesese 92
Jaly ........---Old ...... 31-6 24-2 24-6 | 20-3 ES SOn wees eee: gt
a Middle...) 42-1 27°7 15-8 { 24-4 IQQO! Fousccccceee 82
Bs New...... 45°2 30°5 13-0 20°5 ZOOOW se sserccadocs 97
August ......Old ...... 31-6 2553 22-0 22-0 ES FOR yee 8
uv Middle...| 41-4 26-7 16-0 22-2 ROGO ccecese ae
s New...... 45°7 30°4 14-2 24°4 ZOVOM i wecessssntce 82
September ...Old ...... 33°8 ; 25+2 19-3 23-0 BGP cnascecaves 81
”» Middle...| 38-8 29-0 BG-8 0b 5-675 |e LOBO} ie cc stenns 3
. New...... 417 31°5 15:8 16-4 ERGO cose cuute 115
October ...... Old ...... 28-9 26-7 19-0 20-7 PSEO! 202. civauees 87
Fe Middle...| 33-0 29°5 16-0 20-0 SUG) Se csccaves go
a New...... 43:0 31+7 12-6 21-9 FOZO Ses cccscve ewe 88
November ...Old ... 32-0 25-8 17-7 18-9 BS 30% sei cacteaeme 97
© Middle 34°4 28-9 20-2 18.8 E925) Gy. cee 94

oe New...... 42°5 SOs7 11-8 18-7 IQ4 OD eeeccsecesse 104

564 PASSAGES OVER THE ATLANTIC.

The daily distances give to the navigator practically the best idea
possible as to the difference in the winds by these several routes as they
cross the N.E. Trade Wind belt, supposing that belt to lie all the year
round between the Equator and the parallel of 30° North, Thus, in
some months, as in October, for instance, there appears to be practically no
difference in the winds, the average rate of sailing being 87 miles per day
by the Old route, 88 by the New, and 90 by the Middle—a difference
purely accidental, for the N.E. Trades are, at this season, pretty nearly
broken up. The gain by the New Route, for this month, is not in crossing
the Trade Wind belt, but in reaching it. It takes, from our Atlantic
ports, 12:6 days to reach it by the New Route, 19 by the Old, and 16 by
the Middle; and having crossed 30° N., the Trade Winds thence to the
Equator, at this season, are the same for all routes. Not so at other
seasons.

From 30° N. to the Line, the average distance sailed daily during the
winter months is 92 miles by the Old route against 134 by the New. To
what is this difference owing? Are the ships that take the New Route
the faster? That can hardly be. They are better navigated I have no
doubt, for, as a rule, the log books show that. But still that is not
sufficient to account for all this difference. In winter, a ship that takes
the New Route from 30° to the Line will go nearly as far, on the average,
in one day as she could go in a day and a half by the Old Route. This
is owing, in a great measure, to the fact that the New Route lies through
a region of the ocean where the breezes are brisk, and brisk breezes
always help to make both officers and crew brisk. This great difference
of time and speed is probably owing to this circumstance more than to
any other.”

By a reference to the diagrams accompanying this Section, it will be
readily seen what route it is advisable to take, according to the season.

oH € LON. LEI.

——:0:_——
SUPPLEMENTARY REMARKS UPON THE WINDS,

CURRENTS, &., OF THE COASTS AND ISLANDS
OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN.

This beok being specially concerned with the general navigation and
phenomena of the Ocean, it would be beyond its limits and scope to enter
into such descriptions and directions for the extensive lines of coast and
islands as would be sufficient guide to the mariner ; such details must be
sought for in the special Sailing Directions which accompany each chart,
and where all necessary instructions are given.

We here append some supplementary remarks in addition to what
has appeared on previous pages,

566 SUPPLEMENTARY REMARKS ON WINDS, ETC.
The ENGLISH CHANNEL is amply described in the Sailing Direc-

tions for the same ; and on pages 462 to 467, ante, are given some useful
remarks as to its general navigation.

ST. GEORGE’S CHANNEL.—On pages 467—474 are given some
general instructions for sailing up and down this channel, which must
suffice. One especial point requires every attention, and that is the set
of the tides. In pages 288—289 are given the general features of these
currents, which, being neglected, have led to several deplorable accidents
on the banks off the S.E. coast of Ireland. It is therefore most earnestly
recommended to the sailor to pay every attention to this subject.

The COAST of FRANCE,—In the upper part of the English Channel
the coast of France is a part to be avoided by passing ships. Upon it all
the power of the tides and waves which traverse the Channel from West
to East seems to be expended. Its shores are the depository of all the
matter washed and worn off from the shores to the westward, and the
light drifting sand, of which they are composed, invades all its harbours.
This is explained in the English Channel Directory ; and in pages 285-286,
ante, there are some remarks upon the Tidal Streams, which are very
peculiar here, and require very much attention.

The BAY of BISCAY.—In former pages, when the best routes to the
southward were considered, the indraught into the Bay of Biscay was
especially mentioned as a tendency to be avoided (see pages 301—312,
479, &c.), and must be most carefully considered. Commanders and
other officers of vessels are earnestly advised to exercise the strictest
vigilance when making the N.W. extremity of the Spanish Peninsula from
the North, taking warning from the numerous disastrous casualties
which have occurred here, as recorded previously in pages 308—309.

COAST of MOROCCO.—Caution.—The following notice, by the
British Consul, must be borne in mind by all frequenting this coast :—

In consequence of several boats’ crews having landed from shipping of
various nations, on the open coast of Morocco, or West Barbary, in search,
it is supposed, of water or other provisions, the Moorish authorities are
desirous that all persons be cautioned that it is not only against the law
of this land, and against the sanitary regulations, to land on any part of
this coast, in places where there is not a port for its reception ; but that,
in consequence of the strict injunctions given to the people of this country
by their government to prevent any person whatever from setting foot
on land, or approaching near to it on the open coast, the lives of those
who infringe the laws in this respect are exposed to danger.

Commanders and masters of vessels should, therefore, not venture,
upon any account, to land, or to allow any person under their care or
orders to land, or approach within gun-shot of the coast, excepting within
the well-known ports. ¢

The danger, even at the present day, of falling into the hands of the
Moors and Arabs, must not be lightly overlooked. In September, 1889,
a Spanish barque drove ashore near Alhucemas, on the Mediterranean
coast of Morocco; the natives at once attacked and pillaged the vessel,
carrying off the crew as prisoners. Various tribes along the Morocco
coast appear to be quite beyond the control of the Sultan. Their practice

COAST OF MOROCCO. 567

has been, when a ship is stranded, and the crew compelled to surrender,
to take everything portable from the vessel, and then, if the sea do not
dash it to pieces, they set fire to it, that it may not serve as a warning to
other ships which may be so unfortunate as to follow the same course.

Reference has previously been made to this subject on pages 319—320.

Currents.—During five months (from March to August, 1835), the time
occupied by H.M.S. Hina and Raven in the survey of the coast between
the parallels of 353° and 28° (those of Cape Spartel and Cape Juby), a
distance of 750 miles, no day passed in which the former was not at least
twelve hours at anchor, usually at the distance of 4 to 5 miles from shore,
and in positions well adapted for making observations on the currents,
which were constantly attended to. Independently of this, the Raven
was repeatedly sent to the distance ef 20 and 30 miles from land ;_ par-
ticularly when fixed and conspicuous ebjects afforded opportunities for
ascertaining her exact position; by comparing which with that which
should have been given by the course steered, the rate and direction of
the current could be ascertained to a considerable degree of exactness.

From Cape Spartel, along the coast, to Arsila, and also to the distance
of 7 or 8 miles from the shore, a regular tide was experienced, running
parallel to the coast ; but its strength was rather greater to the northward
than to the southward. In this distance, at 15 miles from land, no tide
or current was perceptible.

From Arsila, to the southward, a tide was still experienced, gradually
diminishing in strength till its direction could not be ascertamed. From
the Parallel of 34° 30’ N. to the distance of 20 miles in the offing, a steady
southerly set was first experienced. This current, in the offing, continues
invariably to follow the direction of the land ; its velocity increasing or
diminishing, from the rate of four-tenths to 1 mile an hour, according to
the strength or duration of the north-easterly winds.

From Mogador to Cape Bojador, except in particular instances, the
current continues invariably to run in the direction of the coast. Its
greatest strength is usually at the distance of from 3 to 6 miles from the
land, gradually decreasing on receding from it. Its average rate between
312° and 28° N. is from one-half to three-quarters of a mile in the hour.
At Cape Juby, probably from its stream being in some measure confined
by the projecting cape, and perhaps by the Canary Islands (distant 56
miles), it increases its rate to 14 mile, but diminishes off Cape Bojador to
1 mile. It did not appear that this current was influenced by the wind,
but near the shore a tide was generally perceived.—(See remarks on the
Currents on pages 317—324.)

Winds. &c.—During winter North and N.N.E. winds prevail on this
coast, with occasional gales from the westward frequently attended by
fog. In summer, fresh winds prevail between N.N.W. and E.N.E.,
through North. Between November and March the heavy surf renders
landing difficult ; in summer, and with strong winds off the land, there is
no great difficulty.

Cape Juby.—The climate is healthy, and, from observations madein
1884 and 1885, the heat is found to be modified by the cool N.N.E. wind
which prevails for eight months (March to October) out of the twelve.

668 SUPPLEMENTARY REMARKS ON WINDS, ETO.

The shade temperature rarely exceeds 80°, except during the Harmatitan.
This blows from 8.E. to N.N.E. off the land, and may be expected. between
October and February. From November to February, the winds are
variable, but chiefly N.E. and N.E. by N.

Red Dust.—The tropical regions of the African coast, between Cape
Bojador and Cape Blanco, present to contemplation the Sahara, con-
sidered as the most extensive desert on the globe. It consists of in-
~ adhesive sands, which are driven about by the winds, and chiefly by those
from N.E., by which they are disturbed and carried to an astonishing
distance, sometimes falling on vessels hundreds of miles out to sea. This
phenomenon is more amply discussed at the end of this work.

Currents.—It has been already shown, in pages 312—315, 321, and
323—324, that the prevailing currents set from North to South along the
whole coast. Along the edge of the Bank of Arguin, as far as its western
extremity, this direction is constant ; and in the rainy season, should any
deviation be experienced, it may be relied on to happen very seldom. One
proof of this may be adduced. On July 13th, 1830, when the wreck of
the Medusa was found by the brig Argus, after 13 days absence from the
frigate, it was abreast of Portandik, at 45 miles from the shore, a distance
of 90 miles, and nearly on the meridian of the place where she was lost.
It must, therefore, have driven at the rate of 7 miles per day along
the coast.

SENEGAL RIVER.— Winds.—The Winds are not at all dangerous in
the navigation of the coasts of the Senegal. They blow between East and
North during the greater part of the year; and as, in the rainy season
(June to September), the squalls generally come from the S.E., those
vessels in the road which cannot depend on their ground tackle can easily
get under way, and return to their anchorage after the squall is over, as
the 8.W. winds which succeed are generally very weak. In the fine
season, strong N.W. winds sometimes occur, but are of short duration.
In the dry season, the sea breezes blow regularly, but the climate is then
very unhealthy.

Currents.—As noted above, the general and almost constant direction
of the current is along the coast from North to South, as far as the mouth
of the Senegal, but abreast of this opening, and in a space of several
miles to seaward, the river tides affect the general uniformity of this
current.

The prevailing currents between the Senegal and Cape Verde follow the
direction of the coast, in the same manner as those to the northward ; and
the idea of a current setting violently into the Bay of Yof is by some
stated to be altogether false.

Dakar.—The climate is unhealthy, and epidemics of yellow fever are
occasionally experienced, The rainy season is from June to December,
and Tornados occur chiefly in July.

GAMBIA RIVER.—The Climate is naturally insalubrious, and all
Europeans who can do so leave it during the bad season, when fevers,
rheumatism, and dysentery are prevalent. The worst months are
September, October, and November; from December to March it is
considered to be fairly healthy. Vessels stationed here are recommended

JEBA RIVER. 569

to make periodical trips to sea for a day or two, to preserve the health of
the crews. Severe Tornados are sometimes experienced in July. (See
also pages 166—168.)

Between the Gambia and the Isles de Los, the rainy season sets in
between April Ist and June lst, lasting to the end of November or even
December, the rain being almost continuous during July and August.
The fine season sets in with the Harmattan (page 164), which biows
between S.E. and N.E. In this season, when near the coast, light Hast
and N.N.E. winds are experienced during the morning, the sea-breeze
usually setting in after mid-day. Tornados occur in April, May, Sep-
tember, and October.

Casamanze River.—During the dry season, October to May, winds
between N.N.W. and E.N.E. prevail, and they are variable from the
West during the rest of the year. Thick fogs are common throughout the
year.

JEBA RIVER.—Currents.— Vessels approaching the coast hereabout
must beware of the current, as the usual prevailing currents on the coast
to the northward of Cape Roxo are found to be completely changed on
passing this cape. They have here no longer one direction only ; and,
in all the channels of the Bissagos, are suspended by tides, which are more
or less regular, In March, 1856, Captain Canal, of the French ship Agly,
proceeding to Bissao, encountered a most powerful southerly current.
He had allowed for 14 knot, but having become entangled to the South of
Karasche he found that he had been set at the rate of 3 miles per hour
(see pages 323—324).

In proportion to the distance from the mouth of the Jeba or Great
Channel of Bissagos, either to the northward or southward, the tides lose
their regularity. The interruption in the tides is evident in going to the
southward, as, at a few miles South of the parallel of the Western Breaker,
11° 31’ N., they are no longer perceptible, even on the edge of Bissagos
Bank.

Winds.—In Jeba River approach the winds follow nearly the direction
of the land, and vary their course according to that of the channel. In
Jeba or Great Channel they vary from West to North ; at the anchorage
of Bissao they are generally from §.W., except in the morning, when they
are from the North. In the rainy season, which commences here in the
beginning of June, and continues about five months, they blow from the
S.E., with Tornados, as on the whole coast, and then, passing round by
South, return to the North.

In the Eastern Channel the winds are generally light during the fine
season, particularly in the night or morning. They set in gradually in
the afternoon, and blow almost always from 8.S.W. round by West to
N.N.W., but they remain a very short time at any intermediate point,
and soon follow the direction of the land, which, as far as could be deter-
mined, trends nearly N. by E. and 8. by W. Easterly winds are limited
entirely to the rainy season.

RIO NUNEZ.— The Climate is very unhealthy, especially in winter,
when there is much foggy weather; November and December are the
worst months. The rainy season is from May to September, and at this

Ny. An O, 73

570 SUPPLEMENTARY REMARKS ON WINDS, ETC.

time Tornados are frequent and violent ; but, with caution, vessels may
have sufficient time to prepare for them. Capt. Livingston observed none
here to begin with small clouds, but all with heavy thunder clouds.

ISLES de LOS.—The Climate, in general, may be said to be healthy,
though the rainy season lasts from April to December. It is thus
described by Captain Belcher. About the 8th or 10th of January the
Harmattan, or cold strong easterly winds, continue, with some strength,
for about a week or ten days ; after which, the land-wind and sea-breeze
take place till about the middle of February, when the wind becomes
continual and N.W. or N.N.W.., till the last full or change of the moon in
March. Tornados generally begin and prevail, more or less, till May or
June; then the rains set in, and are almost continual all July and
August ; they begin to abate in September, and go off in October, giving
place to Tornados, which continue till about Christmas. During the
rainy season the winds are mostly between South and West, or in the
S.W. quarter ; and the Tornados always blow with prodigious force from
the E.S.E. or thereabout, accompanied with thunder, lightning, and a
deluge of rain. When a Tornado has happened in the night, it is im-
possible to imagine the clear state of the atmosphere next morning; we
have nothing like it in Europe.

SIERRA LEONE.—The Climate of Freetown is oppressively hot,
damp, and muggy ; the annual mean is 794° F. The wet season begins in
May, and ends in November, and an average of eight years (1878—1885)
gives the annual rainfall 147 inches. The rains end in the sickliest season
of the year, when ague, fever, dysentery, &c., are prevalent. The dry
season lasts from November to April.

St. Anne Shoals.—Captain Midgley recommends that, ‘“‘in the wet
season, vessels should give St. Anne Shoals a large berth to the eastward,
as the current, as well as the sea, runs with great velocity into the bight
of Cape Mount, and sailing vessels which may unfortunately happen to
fall in with the land to the northward of Sinou, in the wet season, will find
considerable difficulty in working to the southward.”

LIBERIA.—The Climate is usually divided into the wet and dry sea-
sons, but their limits are not strictly divided ; the former usually begins in
the middle of May and lasts till the middle of November, June being the
wettest month. In November and December the weather is pleasant.
January is the driest month, and March the most trying to Europeans.
The Harmattan is experienced from the middle of December to the end of
February, and Tornados occur in April.

AZORES ISLANDS.—Winds.—Strong winds are prevalent among
the Azores, and, as will be seen from the following Table, there are only
about 5 calm days on the average during the year. In summer, N.E. and
East winds prevail, and between June and September the weather is
usually very fine. In winter, or from October to April, the winds blow
strongly from 8.W., West, and N.W., frequently coming in heavy squalls,
particularly from the northward; those from 8.W. generally bring rain.
The storms experienced at these islands being mainly of a cyclonic char-
acter, gales may be expected from any point of the compass. Near Flores
and Corvo the weather is always very changeable.

THE AZORES ISLANDS. 571

The following Table shows the mean duration of the Winds, in days,
from the results of ten years observations made by Thomas Carew Hunt,
Esq., at the English Consulate, St. Michael’s, between January 1, 1840,
and December 31, 1849 :—

ma - Q O@n |/ae Beit @&
E SSE E ele lS Ble) al ele | ge | ga) &

3a] & 50) oP ro CF (MES EC IC
P UEIZIEITRIS Sl es (5/2 | aa lea | 3

North .../1-32/1-12/ 1-18] 1-27)1-52/0-15|2-11|0-14/1-40) 2-15) 2-78'3-52/| 7-29] 11-07 | 18-36
N.E. .../7-64/6-13! 6-73] 8-89} 10-9/10-1]13-7|15-1)11-6/10 9) 6-84/7-71|/ 69-04 | 46-0 |115-04
East .../1-07/0-53/ 0-66] 1-80) 1-28 |0-76/1-17|0-30 1-20|0-62|0-59)1-72/| 6-51| 5-19] 11-70.

Debiccse. 4-45 /3-90|8-03| 2-44) 2-44 |3-13|2-73)4-71/4.94/4-45] 3-74) 3-60]! 20-98 | 23-17 | 44-15
South .,.|2-88|0-95|2-25/0-79| 0-95 0-67 |0-11]/0-08|0-12/1-51)1-54/2-0 || 2-72 | 11-13] 13-85
S.W. _...|6-46|6-60|9-01/4-08) 3-73 |4-43)/4-63|2-89| 3.44 4-13] 6-94|5-32|| 23.20 | 38.46] 61-66
West ...|1-16/1-17|1-58/1-51/2-38/1-51/2-09/1-73/1-01/1-35/1-39/1-52]| 10-23 | 8-17] 18-40
N.W. ...|5-86/7-04/6-44/8-06) 8-09 |8-29|4-82/4-73 | 5-53| 5-19) 6-08|6-53]| 39-52 | 37-11| 76-63
Calm ...|0-19/0-56/0-12|0-57|0-50 0-24/0-17|1-29 0-74/0-65/0-10)0-08)} 3-51) 1-70) 5-21

on re 7-0 |6-49 mie Bie 0-20 2-07) 4-42) 6-42|/7-38)| 6-65 | 38-85} 45-50

In the earlier part of this work, in the section treating of the subject,
we have given descriptions of the general phenomena of the Winds and
Hurricanes of the North Atlantic Ocean, and the laws by which they
appear to be governed, as deduced from the numerous and careful ob-
servations which have been made at various times. In connection with
that system of aerial currents, and their perturbations, we have reserved
the consideration of that part of the subject which is connected with the
Azores and their vicinity. It will not be necessary to recapitulate any of
the principles or statements which have been before given, for which the
reader must refer to 170 and following pages, and to pages 217—259.

Similar Hurricanes seem to be prevalent at the: Azores, and in some
measure to be governed by the same laws. The following observations on
this subject, also by T. C. Hunt, Hsq., will be interesting :—

“The regularity with which Gales enter these seas in the N.W.
quarter, and, after crossing them, disappear at the 8.H., passing through
West and South, is a circumstance the knowledge of which may be highly
serviceable to commanders of ships.

‘“‘ The centre of a Gale, on its approach, always effects a descent in the
barometer, and a change in the fall of rain. In its actual passage over
the instrument, the descent generally reaches 28-50, from which a rise of

572) =SUPPLEMENTARY REMARKS ON WINDS, ETC.

one-tenth appears to take place for every 10 miles removal of the centra
so that the number of miles distance from the centre of an approaching
Gale might, perhaps, be indicated by the number of hundredths shown by
the barometer over the extreme of 28°50. [See (168), page 230.]

‘‘ The difference in the fall of rain* has also its regularity, the approach
of the centre bringing a temporary increase, and then a cessation of the
rain, which is renewed, and, in a reversed order, diminished on the
removal of the centre. According to the observations made at this office,
there appears to be in every Gale of wind a zone of rain about 120 miles
in breadth, heaviest on the inner edge, which is about 60 miles distant
from the centre; that the fall of rain decreases in proportion to the
distance from this line; and that the fall on the inner edge, being about
twelve-hundredths of an inch per hour, the decrease is about one-
hundredth for every 10 miles of removal.”

In order to follow out the views of Colonel (Sir W.) Reid, the English
consul and vice-consuls at the Azores kept regular daily tables of the
direction and force of the Winds, between May, 1840, and November,
1841; and the courses of twenty Gales which occurred were compiled
from them, the details being given in the ‘‘ Nautical Magazine,”
March, 1842.

From the particulars of these twenty gales,t there appear to be some
general conclusions which may be deduced. The first circumstance
developed by the inquiry is, the general direction of Storms passing across
the Azores. The coincidence of this course with the Great Atlantic
Current, which is a continuation of the Gulf Stream, which may every
day be traced to the neighbourhood of the Azores, and which the sudden
rise of water in those islands (where, having been hastened by a gale, it is
suddenly checked in any locality by the operation of the wind, accom-
panied by a diminution of atmospheric pressure) proves to be sensibly
carried beyond them, goes very far to identify the Azorean Storms with
the Tropical Gales and Hurricanes traced in the able work of Colonel
Reid, from the South American coast, along the course of the Gulf
Stream to Cape Hatteras, in North America. There is a further resem-
blance in their diameters. In the chart which Colonel Reid composed of
the great Hurricane of October 10th, 1780, the diameter given to it, in
the latitude of the Azores, is about 550 miles. Of the Azorean Gales
under consideration, four were about this diameter, eleven of about or
under 650 miles, and five under 900 miles.

It seems probable that if a ship were met by a violent Gale near the
Azores, her best course would be to steer, so far as the veering of the
wind would allow, due North or South; that if she steered to the east-
ward, she would accompany the Gale, and be overtaken by the greater

* In the Azores a southerly wind creates great humidity in the atmosphere; a
northerly wind removes it. Under the former influence, there is frequently two per
cent, of water in the air; under the latter, less than one per cent.

+ The commencement of these gales was on the following days, viz.:—1840, June 4th,
Aug. 19th, Oct. 3rd, Oct. 7th, Oct. 9th, Nov. 2nd, Nov. 11th, Nov. 14th, Nov. 28th,
Dec. 1st, Dec. 6th, Dec. 11th, Dec. 15th, Dec. 27th; 1841, Jan. 11th, Feb. 8rd, Feb. 11th,
March 6th, March 19th, Sept. 8th, and Sept. 18th.

THE AZORES ISLANDS. 573

violence of its centre ; and that by steering to the West she would sooner
meet the centre, or run into a new Gale.

Whatever may be the cause of the occasional deflection of the Azorean
Storms, whether it arises from collision with another Storm, or from
atmospheric gravitation (the radiation of heat from the islands being
always very great), the uniform effect appears to be a diminution of their
progressive velocity, and frequently an increase of their rotatory force.

But as far as these effects can be foreseen, from a knowledge of the
deflection (presuming it always to be accompanied by a slower progres-
sion), it is worthy of observation, that the deflection never appears to take
a turn to the northward, but always to the South. If this be true, the
safest course for a ship in these gales is to the North, unless there are
very cogent reasons for a departure from this supposed rule.

The Currents are irregular among the Azores, generally weak, and they
appear to be mainly due to the extension of the Gulf Stream. They
sometimes attain a velocity of 20 miles per day.

Captain E. Boid, R.N., remarks that “ the navigation of the Azores is
remarkably free from danger, and without any difficulties, except such as
arise from the variableness of the weather, and the currents to which
their vicinity is liable, which occasionally baffle, in a most extraordinary
degree, the attempts of vessels either approaching or sailing through them.

“T scarcely know of any group of islands more liable to sudden storms,
squalls, and changes of weather, than the neighbourhood of these. No
continuous fine weather may be expected at these islands until May,
or even later, from the summer solstice to the autumnal equinox ; between
which periods frequent long calms prevail, or light baffling airs. In 1832,
a British frigate beating from Terceira to Fayal did not arrive at Horta
until the 10th day.”

The climate of Flores and Corvo is healthy and delightful, being much
drier than that of the other islands, but violent storms and sudden squalls
are experienced in their vicinity at all seasons. Captain Boid says that
the changes from the extreme of fine to that of foul weather are rapid
beyond conception, requiring the constant vigilance of the navigator.
These atmospheric transitions are sometimes induced by the approach of
immense icebergs, drifted hither by the Gulf Stream.

Flores and Corvo form a separate group from the rest of the Azores,
and the intervening channel, 118 miles wide, has no known danger, and
therefore is probably the best to use in passing through the archipelago.
The current sometimes sets to the N.E. through this channel, with
varying strength according to the wind ; but, as a general rule, the con-
tinuation of the drift from the Gulf Stream bears to the 8.E. and South,
rarely to the §.S.W. This is more usual to the North of the islands.

The HARBOUR of PONTA DELGADA, the chief port of St.
Michael’s and the principal city of the Azores, is formed by a vast
artificial breakwater, under which vessels of the largest size can lie
moored in security. Coal, fresh water, and provisions can be readily
obtained here, and there is telegraphic communication with all parts of
the world. Repairs can be executed for iron and wooden vessels and
ordinary repairs for engines and boilers. Steam-tugs, trained divers, and
a powerful steam-pump are kept in readiness.

574 SUPPLEMENTARY REMARKS ON WINDS, ETC.
REPORTED DANGERS around the Azores.—From time to time

circumstantial announcements have been made of rocks and reefs lying
around and far away from the islands, many of which have since been
sought for unsuccessfully. Still, it is advisable to exercise caution,
considering the volcanic nature of this region, where islands have been
forced up from great depths, and afterwards disappeared. The following
are the reports most worthy of notice.

KurusorF or St. Mary Bank.—In 1816, the officers of the Russian vessels Kutusoff
and Suwaroff,, sailing in company, when in about lat. 35° N., long. 28° W., observed
ripples and a change of colour in the water. They took several casts of the lead,
finding bottom at 110 to 127 fathoms, over an extent of about 10 miles East and West,
and thought there were rocks awash on its eastern part, though no breakers were seen.

Captain Andrew Livingston, whose statements are always reliable, also reported
a bank in this vicinity. He says:—‘‘On our passage, in 1819, from Havana to
Barcelona, we passed over white water, apparently a shoal, to the south-westward
of St. Mary’s. The captain would not allow the vessel to heave-to in order to
sound; but I have no doubt in my mind of its beinga very extensive bank of soundings.
I should not be surprised if it turned out that the bank we passed over was connected
with the Kutusoff Bank, which lies about 1 degree to the S.W. of the one we passed
over. We were some hours crossing the bank.’ Capt. Livingston considered its
position was lat. 35° 53’ N., long. 27° 19’ W., from satisfactory observations.

TuLtLocH Rocks were originally reported by Captain William Tulloch, of the brig
Equator, in 1808, and since that date others are stated to have seen them, though they
have been searched for in vain by surveying vessels. The accounts given are 50
circumstantial and corroborative, that they lead to the conclusion these rocks may have
been volcanic in their origin, and afterwards disappeared.

Captain Tulloch, when his crew gave the alarm of breakers, found he could not
weather them, and, as a last resource, passed through them. From aloft he counted
distinctly twenty-one heads of rocks, none of which appeared to have much water over
them, and two of them showed occasionally above water in the wash of thesea. Their
extent, the captain thought, did not exceed half a mile North and South, and was still
less East and West. They bore E.N.E., by compass, from the highest rock of the
Formigas, then in sight, distant about 10 miles, and appeared very black below water.

Mr. Ferguson, mate of the ship Ayrshire, gave their situation as about 9miles E.N.E.,
by compass, from the Formigas. Captain J. Henderson, ship Fortesque, stated that
he saw Tulloch Rocks, April 17th, 1829, when breakers were observed for half a mile
East and West. The greater Formiga and breakers in one bore W.S.W., by compass,
the former about 12 miles, and the latter 6 miles distant.

However, this reef was not found by Captain Wilkes, U.S.N., in 1838; and Captain
Vidal, R.N., sought minutely for it. On three subsequent trials, no signs of shoal
water or soundings were obtained. Captain Vidal remarks that ‘‘ seeing the difficulty
there is in discovering small rocks beneath the surface of the ocean, we by no means
presume to assert that Tulloch Reef does not exist, but we entertain a very decided
opinion that it will not be found in the position assigned to it.”

Votcanic DistuRBANCES BETWEEN St. MicHAEL’s AND TERCEIRA.—In 1719 and
1720, severe submarine eruptions occurred about midway between St. Michael’s and
Terceira ; the various accounts are conflicting as to the precise position, but it was
supposed to occupy the situation of the island which had previously appeared in
1538 and again in 1638. One account states that in 1719 a volcano appeared at 15
leagues to the westward (? N.W.) of St. Michael’s, forming an island 10 miles in circum-
ference, which disappeared in 1723. M.Ségur Dupeyron, from documents found in the
French colonial archives, stated that at the end of 1720 a volcano broke out at 28
leagues off St. Michael’s towards Terceira, ejecting large quantities of pumice and form-
ing two shoals; jets of boiling water were thrown upwards of 120 ft. high. The

THE AZORES ISLANDS. 575

French consul announced that, on July 7th, 1722, its site could only be distinguished
by breakers.

A much more complete account was given by Mr. T. Forster, in a Letter (dated May
12th, 1722) to Mr. Machin, Secretary to the Royal Society, appearing in the Philo-
sophical Transactions, 1722, page 100. To this description are attached six views of
the island. He described the volcano as lying 17 leagues 8.E. of Terceira and narrates
as follows :—‘‘ The fire broke out on November 20th, 1720, in the night, and caused an
earthquake, which shattered many houses in the town of Angra and places adjacent.
The governor went to the island a month afterwards, and in the afternoon we made
an island all fire and smoke; the ashes fell on our deck like hail or snow all night, the
smoke and fire roaring like thunder or great guns. Prodigious quantities of pumice-
stone, and half-broiled fish, were found floating on the sea for many leagues round the
island, which is supposed to be about 2 leagues in diameter. By good observation, it
is in lat. 38° 29’ N., long. 26° 33’ W.”’

In 1848, breakers were reported from 7 to 13 miles westward of this position. Capt.
B. Pratt, of the William, and Capt. Victorino Falcao, of the Tres Amigos, who both
saw it on December 31st, 1848, described the sea as breaking mast high, evidently caused
by a shoal and not by any floating object. The observations of the former placed it in
lat. 38° 16’ N., long. 26° 41’ W.; those of the latter in 38° 18’ N., 26° 50’ W.

Notice was given, at the same time as the above, that Captain Geo. Perkins, of the
Plymouth, made the following statement :—‘‘On December 25th, 1848, I saw the sea
breaking heavily at the distance of 24 or 3 miles to N.N.W. ; the water broke 60 ft.
high in different places, at intervals of about 10 minutes, as if on an extended shoal
having several heads. It was certainly not a floating obstruction ; I consider ita narrow
reef, about a mile in length, N.N.E. and 8.S.W., about 40 miles W.N.W.4W. by
compass (? true) from the N.W. point of St Michael’s.’’ In any case, the position does
not coincide with that of the breakers reported by Captains Pratt and Falcao.

Mr. W. F. Walker, F.R.G.S., in his book on the Azores, 1886, remarks that this
shoal appears to have been observed in 1749, but it disappeared shortly afterwards until
1882-3, when it again rose.

But notwithstanding all this evidence, no indication of any shoal or elevation was
found in a subsequent search all over this channel, no bottom being found with from
180 to 350 fathoms of line. This, however, can only prove that there may be no pres-
ent danger, but it is quite possible that the volcanic action hidden here is at any time
capable of raising the bottom to the elevation above described.

In 1894, the authorities at St. Michael’s informed us that if these dangers ever
existed, they have now completely disappeared.

On December 18th, 1884, when about midway between Fayal and Flores, the
barque Isabel experienced a terrific earthquake, accompanied by appalling submarine
thunderous roarings, in lat. 38° 51’ N., long. 29° 55’ W. This is very close te the
position of a white patch and breakers seen in 1863, by Capt. Gicquau of the French
ship Mayotte et Nossibé, in lat. 38° 42’ N., long. 29° 43’ 54” W.

Kgus ok Europa Rock.—Captain D. Keus, of the Dutch ship Europa, reported
that at day-break, December 10th, 1853, he passed about 2 miles from a “‘ black mass,”
appearing like a rock or reef, 15 or 20 ft. high, and about 200 ells in length, in
lat. 88° 15’ N., long. 22° 14’ W. This would be about 130 miles eastward of St.
Michael’s, but its existence is very doubtful.

WHALE Rock is another doubtful danger, which has been sought for in vain. In
1800, Capt. Gradun, of the Harmony, saw high breakers in lat. 38° 46’ N., long.
94° 47’ W., nearly the position given by M. Fleurieu, at about 87 miles northward of
the East end of St. Michael’s.

On November 25th, 1857, Captain W. Cook, of the EHstremadura, bound for
Fayal, when in lat. 39° 57’ N., long. 25° 50’ W., saw abaft the beam what was

576 SUPPLEMENTARY REMARKS ON WINDS, ETC.

thought to be a squall, but which turned out to be a kind of mist or warm steam,
which lasted half an hour; the wind was N.E. The waves then changed to a kind
of boiling, or topping sea, as if surged up from below, but it returned to its former
state, when the mist was passed. This position would be about 87 miles to
N. by W. of the given position of Whale Rock, and 93 miles N.E. by E. } E. from
Terceira.

Goucu or Harrison Rocxs.—lIn the chart by M. Rochette, 1778, dangers were
shown in lat. 40° 28’ N., long. 30°. W. (about 90 miles north-eastward of Corvo),
with the words ‘‘ Rocks seen by Captains Gough and Birch.” Van Keulen and
Bellin also indicated several dangers in the vicinity to the N.E., but their ex-
istence has been denied by the pilots of the Azores.

Captain Livingston says :—‘‘ Captain Beaufort, of the brig Concord, told me at
Malaga, in 1820, that he twice saw Gough and Birch Rocks, when bound from
Newfoundland to Lisbon; that one of them is about 12 ft., and the other 3 ft.
above water ; and that they lie nearly in the longitude originally assigned them,
but 5’ more to the northward.”

Another report states that Gough Rocks were seen by Captain Harrison, in the
brig Hope, April 17th, 1830, in lat. 40° 16’ N., long. 38° W. At 11 a.m. two rocks
appeared close under the lee-quarter ; in smooth water these rocks would be even
with the surface, and in the hollow of the sea Captain Harrison could distinctly
see them 6 or 8 feet down in the water.

Mr. Keen, of Liverpool, forwarded to us the account of their having been sighted
by Capt. Robertson, of the Hugh Black, in 1862, making it 10 miles farther North
than the position first assigned, or lat. 40° 38’ N., long. 30° 2’ 45” W., the latter
determined the day after sighting Flores. He says it would not be seen in smooth
water, but with a low swell, it showed a surface of about 10 ft. covered with long
rock-weed.

Mr. E. S. Roberts, of London, also kindly forwarded to us, in 1874, the follow-
ing extract from a letter he received from Captain Hugh MacNulty :—“ In 1854,
I was in command and part owner of the ship Frederick, from Calcutta for
Liverpool. In October of that year I was North of Corvo, one of the Azores;
the breeze moderate from E.N.E. I tacked ship to the S.E., and afterwards saw
Gough Rocks, and passed within a cable’s length of them, in lat. 40° 30’ N., and
long. 31° 10’ W., approximately. They are flat rocks, about 250 ft. long and 250 ft.
broad, and 2 ft. above water; they lie about 1 mile apart E.S.E. and W.N.W.., true.
I find that they are left out of the new Admiralty Charts. They are very dangerous,
being so far from land, and so much in the way of shipping.”

Notwithstanding the non-verification of these reports by the sounding lead,
which ought to invalidate them, and from the circumstance of the Azores pilots not
knowing of them, there appears to be some reason for retaining them. The bottom
is not so deep here as elsewhere, for 830 fathoms only was found by the U.S.
vessel Dolphin, 20 miles to the North of Gough’s, or 10 miles to the North of
Captain Robertson’s position.

Volcanic Disturbance, &c., between Fayal and Flores.—Particulars are given in
page 575.

FERREIRA AND CoNSTANTE REEFS.—In October, 1840, the Lisbon authorities
announced that :—‘‘ Manoel Mariano Ferreira, pilot, while navigating from
Paraiba to Lisbon, on board the Brazilian brig Constante, at 10 a.m., August 26th,
1840, saw breakers at 1 or 2 miles to windward. The vessel remained in the
same position for six hours; at noon, it being then high water, the surf had nearly
disappeared ; at 2 p.m. it again became perceptible; and at 6 p.m. a group of
rocks was clearly visible above the water. By the latitude observed at noon, and

THE AZORES ISLANDS. 571

the longitude by a good chronometer, the rock being about 14 miles distant, I com-
pute their situation to be lat. 37° 56’ 20” N., long. 33° 4’ 8” W.

“On August 31st I passed near another rock, which is marked in the chart as
having been seen by Captain Robson (about 75 miles westward of Fayal). At
8 a.m. I saw some rocks above water, over which the sea broke, and which I passed
to leeward at the distance of 1 to 2 miles, in lat. 38° 26’ 44” N., long. 30° 25’ 10” W,’
The first of these reefs was named Constante Reef, and the second Ferreira Reef.

Near to the asserted position of Constante Reef, Captain J, Keyzer, of the
Dutch ship Bato, on May 5th, 1845, saw a white patch about 130 ft. in diameter,
in lat. 37° 42’ N., long. 32°57’ W. The sea was smooth at the time.

In Bellin’s chart of 1742 a vigia is marked in lat. 37° 50’ N., long. 34° 18’ W.,
originally copied from Van Keulen, and named Martyr Shoal, or Vigia dos Azores.
This is about 60 miles westward of Constante Reef.

Against the authenticity of these reports we have the authority of Captain
T. D. Sickens, of the Dutch Marine, who passed over the area with a good look-
out from the rigging, without seeing anything, and then steered N W. by N. over
Constante Reef, &c., with the same result,

Again, a volcanic shock was felt March 13th, 1853, in lat. 38° 9’ N., long.
31° 55’ W, Near to this, however, a depth of 2,000 fathoms has been found.

At all events much circumspection is necessary in sailing through these parts.

RHoon on Pronk Rocks.—Captain A. Pronk, of the Dutch bark De Hoop,
stated that on the afternoon of April 6th, 1844, the vessel passed within a cable’s
length of an extensive group of rocks, some more than 16ft. high, against which
the sea broke furiously. By very good observations and a trustworthy chrono-
meter, this danger was placed in lat. 38° 32’ N., long. 33° 16’ W., which would be
about 40 miles northward of Constante Reef.

Atita Rocx.—The captain of the Spanish brigantine Atila reported that in
May, 1856, he and his crew saw a rock in lat. 96° 31’ N., long. 32° 24’ W., or
about 200 miles W.S.W. of Fayal. The weather prevented an examination, but
its existence is extremely doubtful.

We have thus enumerated the above reports, more as a matter of in-
terest, than from belief in the existence of these dangers. And we can
only here again express our regret, that originators of such reports should
take so little pains te verify them by close investigation.

578 SUPPLEMENTARY REMARKS ON WINDS, ETC.

PORTO SANTO.—Falcon Rock, lying near the N.E. edge of the bank
of soundings, is very dangerous, being a mere knoll, on which there is 44
fathoms at low water, and breaking in bad weather. It lies on a rocky
bank of 11 to 17 fathoms, 3 cables in extent, and from it N.E. Rock bears
8.E. 3 5S., distant 6} miles; Fonte Rock, 8S. 4 W., 44 miles; and Ferro
Island, S.W. by S. 3 S., 84 miles. The extreme eastern high land of
Porto Santo bearing 8.S.W., leads well East of it; the extreme western
high land bearing S. } E., leads West of it ; and vessels coming from the
N.E., with a fair wind, may pass between the rock and Porto Santo, by
keeping Fonte Rock in line with the high land at the S.W. end of the
island, bearing 8.W. by S.

It is thought that Falcon Rock may be the site of the Ezght Stones, a
group of rocks marked on the old charts, and said to have been first
seen in 1732, though the position then given is about 80 miles to the
northward. They have been most carefully sought for, and great
depths found in and around this locality.

Styx Bank, 9 cables N. by W. ? W. from Falcon Rock, is a rocky area
with 12 fathoms least water, and 17 to 20 fathoms near it. At one-third
of a mile East of it the depth is 100 fathoms.

MADEIRA.—The Climate of Madeira, generally, is delicious, and
strikes with peculiar charm to a stranger, whom a short voyage has trans-
ferred to it from the very midst of the gloom and chill of an English
December. Indeed, the great natural distinction of Madeira is the
climate, which, taken altogether, is perhaps the finest in the world.*

In January and February very boisterous South and 8.W. winds are
sometimes experienced, but N.E. winds prevail as a rule. In February,
there are sometimes sudden shifts to Hast and E.S.E., frequently followed
by short gales, with thunder and heavy rain. It often happens that
while rain is falling on the North coast, it is clear and fine on the South.

In March, N.W.. winds prevail, sometimes causing a heavy surf at
Funchal, rendering cargo operations difficult. There may be heavy falls
of snow on the mountains during March and April, the weather being
usually very unsettled during the latter month. The N.E. Trade Wind
sets in about the middle of April, and continues until the end of Sep-
tember, Madeira being outside its limits during the rest of the year.

In May, June, and July, the nights are generally clear, and the days
cloudy, regular land and sea breezes being found near the shore, and N.E.
winds in the offing. August and part of September are fine and warm,
and the Leste is then sometimes experienced.

* According to Mr. Johnson (pp. 256—274) the mean monthly temperature, from
continuous observations during the 19 years 1865—1883, taken at the Fortaleza,
Funchal, at an elevation of 82 ft. above the sea, is as follows :--January, 60°53°; -
February, 60°35°; March, 60°53°; April, 62°6°; May, 64°67°; June, 67°72° ; July, 71°15°;
August, 72°86°; September, 72°32°; October, 69°17°; November, 65°39°; December,
61:97°; the mean for the year being 65°76°. The highest temperature registered was
90°5°, in July, 1882, and the lowest, 45°68°, March 11th, 1883. The average annual
rainfall is 26 inches, varying between 49 inches, in 1867, and 15} inches, in 1877.
The year is, therefore, one summer, with comparatively little alteration of tempera-
ture or hue.

MADEIRA. 579

About the middle of October the periodical rains set in, and last about
a fortnight, frequently commencing with strong 8.E. winds, which veer
to S.W. and round to N.W., when the weather clears and becomes fine.
After the rains follows the season known as St. Martin’s summer, with
N.E. winds. Fine weather is generally experienced in November and
December, with prevailing N.E. winds, but occasionally there are gales
or thick weather.

Gales or gusty weather are very rarely experienced from May to the
end of September. Gales are principally to be apprehended in November
and December, commencing a few points on either side of South, gradually
veering round to the westward, and terminating in the N.W. The
barometer is highest with N.E. and lowest with S.W. winds.

In the winter months eddy-winds and squalls, proceeding from the high
land, are frequent and severe, and the ships are often forced to put to sea
from Funchal Road. Severe westerly and S.W. gales, with rain, then
frequently prevail, and prevent sailing vessels regaining it for some time.
At these periods, Madeira and the Desertas are often obscured in fog.
The squalls have been found so sudden and violent near the Desertas,
and about the 8.E. end of Madeira, as nearly to overset the ships in the
vicinity ; and many have been driven by them far to the eastward.

The wind called the Leste occurs in August and part of September,
and, as its name implies, comes from the Kast, although all East winds
are by no means Lestes. It appears to be of the same kind as the Har-
mattan of Western Africa, and is of a hot, close, drying nature, particu-
larly oppressive to some constitutions, which it affects by languor, head-
ache, and a parching of the skin and lips. What is remarkable, the resi-
dents are those whom it most disorders in this way. Visitors in general
suffer much less; and the invalids are never so well as while it lasts.
A peculiar clearness and cloudlessness in the atmosphere are among the
invariable indications of the Leste, and the weather during its continuance
is most delightful ; the sky of a deep blue, so stainless that one might
fancy it had never been sullied by a cloud ; with a transparency in the
atmosphere, which, like the effect of moisture, seems to bring out fresh
hues from every object. ?

At times, but not frequently, the Leste is accompanied by a strong
wind from the E.S8.E., with hazy weather, though still delightfully warm
and pleasant. The nights, too, are delicious—soft and balmy ; and with
the moon shining in summer brightness, and the orange trees in flower,
the air is loaded with perfume. With the departure of the Leste, rain
almost invariably follows. Dust from the African desert is frequently
deposited by this wind in considerable quantities.

According to the careful observations of Dr. Taylor at Funchal, the
Leste is a very dry and parching wind, and sometimes very hot, blowing
from the H.N.E. or E.8.E., and doubtless originates on the heated deserts
of the Sahara. Its occurrence is quite uncertain, but it is most frequent
in July, August, and September. Its duration may be only one day, and
it may last up to six and seven days. The force of this wind is often
considerable, from 4 to 5, or even 6, Beaufort’s Scale (page 104). As far
as Dr. Taylor’s observations went, the barometer shows no certain or

580 SUPPLEMENTARY REMARKS ON WINDS, ETC.

decided movement. The sky is perfectly cloudless, except for a low and
ill-defined bank of cloud on the East and S.E. horizon. There is, however,
a decided haze, which gradually obliterates the horizon, and readers the
Desertas invisible from Funchal. The highest temperature reached is
rarely much above 90°. When the Leste has blown itself out, it is almost
invariably followed by rain or thick mist, as it becomes gradually replaced
by the cooler prevailing N.E. wind. (Quarterly Journal of the Royal
Meteorological Society, vol. xvii., 1891).

Small vessels, from North America and the Western Islands, come in,
generally, round the West end of the island, but are frequently becalmed
a considerable time under the high land there. For this reason, ships, on
leaving Funchal, should make sail with the land wind, and stand directly
off from the road ; ships bound to the southward, by taking a contrary
method, having continued several] days becalmed under the western part
of the island.

Land and sea breezes prevail during summer, off the valley of Funchal,
requiring some judgment to bring a sailing vessel to the anchorage. The
sea breeze generally sets in about 9 or 10 a.m., blowing between S8.W.
and W.S.W., and even more westerly, gradually dying away towards the
evening. The land breeze springs up about 9 or 10 p.m., and dying away
about 2 or 3 p.m., leaves an interval of 4 or 5 hours calm.

Those riding in Funchal Roads should be very active when they observe
a swell coming in from the S.W. or 8.E.; at this moment, no time is to
be lost in getting under way, for the swell indicates that a gale is certainly
coming on; particularly so in the months of December and January,
generally the commencement of the rainy season. Should it come on to
blow very hard from the westward, the best mode is to run to leeward of
the Desertas, where shelter from the wind may be found, and water per-
fectly smooth ; thus you avoid the risk of losing sails, by heaving to
windward.

Steen Ground.—A sandy islet has several times been reported as lying
in about lat. 32° 20’ or 32° 30’ N., at distances varying from 100 to 200
miles westward of Madeira, one captain placing it in long. 21°15’ W. It
has been searched for in vain, but was again reported in 1860, as an islet
with a sandy beach, 1} mile long East and West, and 24 cables wide, in
the shape of a crescent.

Several banks have been found rising from great depths, between
Madeira and the coasts of Europe and Africa ; these are treated of here-
after, in the Section on Shoals, Vigias, &c.

THE CANARY ISLANDS, abe be 581

CANARY ISLANDS.—The Climate of the Canary Islands, though
warm, is generally healthy, being situated near the northern limit of the
N.E. Trade Wind. The ordinary summer mid-day temperature, in towns
by the sea, averages about 82° ¥., though it sometimes rises higher. In
winter the mean temperature averages between 65° and 67°, seldom falling
lower, though colder in the higher lands; snow lies on the peaks for
several months of the year. The annual rainfall on the coast of the
western group averages only between 8 and 12 inches, falling chiefly in
November and December. mili 3 defn

The central mountains of Grand Canary tower so far above the clouds
as to stop the current of the prevalent N.E. wind, especially in summer ;
so that when this wind blows hard on the North side of the mountains, it
is either quite calm on the other side, or a gentle breeze blows upon it
from the S.W., to the distance of 8 or 9 miles off shore, when the aerial
currents again unite. Within this space a westerly current runs about
half a mile an hour close inshore, which is advantageous to the coasters.

Winds,—The prevailing winds among the islands are from North to
N.E., but from November to January short but violent gales from S.E.
are sometimes experienced, generally bringing rain and thick fog, and
foretold by a swell coming in two or three hours in advance; at this
season the only safe anchorage is that off Las Palmas. During the same
period, gales are also experienced between 8.W. and N.W. Southerly
winds are sometimes felt, bringing a dry suffocating heat similar to the
African Harmattan. In the principal bays there are regular land and
sea breezes, though the former never extends far from the shore. When
the N.H. wind blows very fresh, a wind from the opposite quarter is often
found near to leeward of each island, known as the Hmbata.

The barometer is here very sensitive, rising before winds from the East,
and falling before West and 8.W. winds. An easterly wind brings thick
weather, and when it blows strong is called the Brisa Parda.

Calms of the Canary Islands.—With a steady N.H. Trade blowing, its
current is stopped or diverted by the mountains, and in this way a belt of
calms and eddy-winds is formed to leeward of each island. This belt
generally extends 30 miles to leeward of Palma, 15 miles from Tenerife,
and 25 miles from Grand Canary, though these distances are sometimes
greatly exceeded, reaching 60 or 70 miles to the S.W.

‘“‘T have,” says Captain George Glas, ‘‘ been frequently in all the calms
of the islands, excepting those of Palma; and, from my experience of
them, I may venture to say, that it is extremely dangerous for small vessels,
or open boats, to venture within them when the wind blows hard without.
The sea here, not moving forward in the same direction with the sea
without, but being, as it were, stagnant, or at rest, resists the waves that
fall in upon it from without; and this resistance causes them to break
just in the same manner as the billows break upon the seashore, but with
less violence, on account of the different nature of the resistance. This
breaking of the waves is only on the very verge of, or just entering into,
the calms ; for within them the water is smooth and pleasant.

“Upon first coming into the calms, the waves may be seen foaming

582 SUPPLEMENTARY REMARKS ON WINDS, ETC.

and boiling like a pot, and breaking in all directions. When a vessel
comes amongst them, she is shaken and beaten by the waves, on all sides,
in such a manner, that one would imagine that she could not withstand
their force ; however, this confusion does not last long. The best way to
manage a sailing ship entering the calms is immediately to haul up the
courses, and diligently attend the braces, to catch every puff of wind that
offers, in order to impel the ship into them as soon as possible. The crew
must not think it strange to be obliged to brace about the yards every
two or three minutes, according as the wind veers and hauls ; but after a
ship is once fairly into the calms, she will either find a dead calm and
smooth water, or a pleasant and constant breeze at South or S.W.,
according as the wind blows without, to which this eddy-wind, as it may
be called, always blows in an opposite direction.”

Currents.—Between Madeira and the Canary Islands, West of the
. meridian of Madeira the current sets to $.S.W., and to the Hast of it
S.S.E. and sometimes §.E. South of the Canaries it generally runs
South to §.S.W., and to westward from South to S.W. The velocity
averages from 12 to 18 miles in the 24 hours. With regard to this
subject, Captain Beechey, in his narrative of the voyage of the Blossom,
observes :—‘‘ As I purposed touching at Santa Cruz we immediately
hauled up for the land, and it was a fortunate circumstance that we did
so; for so strong a current set to the southward during the night, that,
had we trusted to our reckoning, the port would have been passed, and
there would have been much difficulty in regaining it. I mention this
circumstance with a view of bringing into notice the great southerly set
that usually attends the passage of ships from Cape Finisterre southward.
From this cape to Point Naga, our error in that direction, or more cor-
rectly S. 33° W. (true), was not less than 90 miles.”

St. Brandon or San Boronbon Island was reported by old navigators to
lie to the North or N.E. of Palma, and is sdid to have been landed on by
a Scotch monk, from whom its name is derived, in a.p. 565; 18 last
recorded appearance was in 1759. The most rational explanation of this
mysterious island is that of mirage, and its reported appearance 1s similar
to that of Palma, higher at the ends than in the centre. *

ee for Sailing among the Canary Islands, by Captain
Glas.—If a sailing ship, lying at the island of Palma, wants to proceed to
Lanzarote, and will not wait for a fair wind (which, indeed, seldom blows
there, especially in the summer season), let her stand over to the N.W.
side of Tenerife, and beat up along shore until she weathers Anaga Point ;
thence, with the wind that generally prevails in these parts, she will be
able to weather Canaria, and fetch Point Jandia, Fuerteventura, or
perhaps Morro Jable, the southern point, whence it is easy to beat up to
Pozonegro, along the East side of the island, because there the sea is
always smooth. It is not quite so easy to beat up from Pozonegro to the
Isle of Lobos ; yet it may be done without difficulty when the weather is
moderate. If the wind should happen to blow hard, she may stop in the
Bay of Las Playas, until it proves more favourable. From the Isle of
Lobos, she will find no difficulty in beating up to Puerto de Naos, in
Lanzarote.

CAPE VERDE ISLANDS. 583

It is common for ships that come loaded from Europe to Santa Cruz,
Tenerife, to have part of their cargoes to unload at Port Orotava ; these
ships, when the Trade Wind blows hard, will sometimes find it imprac-
ticable to weather Anaga Point. When this is the case, bear away to the
leeward point of the island (Rasca Point), and keep near the shore, where
if you do not meet with a southerly wind, you will be carried by the
current, in the space of twenty-four hours, from the 8.W. point of the
island to Point Tefio, whence you may easily beat up to Port Orotava ;
for when the wind blows excessively strong at Anaga Point, it is moderate
weather all the way from Point Tejio until within 2 or 3 leagues of Anaga
Point. But I would not advise a ship to bear away as above directed,
unless when the Trade Wind blows so fresh that she cannot weather
Anaga Point ; because in moderate weather there is little or no wind stir-
ring on the coast between Tefio and Port Orotava.

CAPE VERDE ISLANDS.—In August, September, and October, the
climate is very hot, wet, and unhealthy, and strong gales from the South
are experienced, also Tornados and calms. The rest of the year is known
as the dry season, and, though hot, is healthy, probably owing to the
strength of the N.E. Trade Wind. Destructive droughts sometimes occur,
especially in the Windward group, causing great distress. Observations
show that the mean temperature ranges from 64° F. in March to 84° in
July.

ee the Cape Verde Islands the N.E. Trade Wind blows
from January to March, varying between N.E., North, and N.N.W., and
the Harmattan also occurs. From April to June it blows North, N.E., and
East, weakening in force as it draws to the eastward. From July to
October the Trade Wind is varied by winds between 8.E. and 8.W., with
squalls, Tornados, calms, rain, and fog. In November and December the
Trade Wind blows between N.N.E. and East, and the Harmattan is also
felt. Land and sea breezes blow near the coasts, and calms extend some
distance to leeward of each island, as at the Canaries.

Captain FitzRoy, who visited Porto Praya in H.M.S. Beagle, made
the following observations :—

“The wind being always from the North or East during this season of
the year (December to June), a ship can moor as close to the weather
shore as may be convenient ; but during July, August, September, and
October, no vessel should deem the bay secure, or anchor near the shore,
because southerly gales sometimes blow with great strength, and the
rollers, or heavy seas sent in by them, are dangerous to ships which have
bad ground-tackle, or are lying near the land. As I have myself ex-
perienced the force of these gales, in the vicinity of the Cape Verde
Islands, and witnessed the sea raised by them, I can confidently warn
those who are inclined to be incredulous about a gale of wind being found
in 15° of North latitude, beyond the limits of the Hurricane regions.”

In December, January, and February, the fine dust blown from the
African desert frequently envelops the islands in a dense haze, when the
greatest caution is necessary in making the land. Some remarks on this
have been given previously, on pages 499—500.

584. SUPPLEMENTARY REMARKS ON WINDS, ETC.

Currents.—The North African Current (see pages 312—324) sets down
upon the Cape Verde Islands, in a south-westerly direction, at the rate of
about 12 miles a day, influenced by the prevailing wind. This set is more
uncertain and irregular among the eastern islands, and has been the cause
of several wrecks. Rollers are frequent in July, August, and September,
most violent generally at full and change of the moon.

The channels between the islands, and between them and the coast, are
deep and clear, with the exception of the dangerous Leton Rock, between
Boavista and Maio, but all precautions must be taken in approaching,
owing to the frequent fogs and the uncertainty of the currents. To the
eastward and N.E. the water is frequently much discoloured. Sailing
vessels will find it advisable to approach from the North; from the
South, they will experience calms and squalls, and the Trade Wind blows
strongly between the islands, and causes a rough sea. If not bound to
any port in the islands, it is advisable to pass westward of the group.

Instances have occurred of vessels coming from the Canaries being set
far to the eastward or westward of their supposed position, even though
the passage is so short.

Mr. Finlaison states that, ‘‘ In leaving Tenerife for the Cape Verde
Islands, you will certainly have the wind from E. by 8. to N.H. as you
approach the islands.” He also adds, that in the passage a current
was generally found setting from S.S.W. at the rate of half a mile an
hour, which is contrary to the current on the African coast. (See
pages 312—324).

Bonetta Rock (?).—In April, 1835, the ship Madeline was reported to
have been wrecked on a reef, at about 8 leagues E.N.E. from Boavista,
or in lat. 16° 17’ 20” N., long. 22° 23’50” W. Other reefs have also been
reported far to the eastward and N.E. of Boavista. Captain Vidal, by
his researches in the Mina, satisfactorily proved that no such dangers as
the Madeline or Bonetta Reefs have any existence. These imaginary
dangers were also sought for in vain by the American Exploring squadron,
and the result seems to be, that the Madeline was impelled to the 8.W. by
the current, and wrecked on Hartwell Reef off Boavista. Lieutenant Lee,
U.S.N., on the cruise of the Dolphin, found a depth of 1,580 fathoms on
one spot, in about lat. 17° N., long. 21° 40’ W., near the reported site of
Emily Rock, and great depths close up to the islands.

BERMUDA ISLANDS. 585

BERMUDA ISLANDS.—The Climaie, according to Governor Sir
R. M. Laffan, has long been celebrated for its mildness and salubrity.
The thermometer generally ranges from 45° to 55° during the winter
months, and it is only on very rare occasions that it goes down to 40°.
There is never anything approaching to frost, and flowers, fruit, and vege-
tables are more abundant in the winter and spring than in summer.
The summer, on the other hand, is never characterised by any extreme
heat, the thermometer seldom rises higher than 85°, and the heat is
generally tempered by a sea breeze ; but the prevailing breezes during the
summer months blow almost invariably from the 8.W., and arrive at
Bermuda heavily charged with the vapour of the Gulf Stream, and in
consequence of this the summer atmosphere is almost always extremely
damp and heavy, and most people find it enervating and depressing.

Some remarks on the Winds and Weather of Bermuda have been given
previously, on pages 169—170. We may here add the figures derived
from fourteen years daily observations, those from 1872—1879, and from
1881—1886.* The total number of observations taken during that period
was 9,130, distributed as follows, among the eight principal points.
North. N.E. Hast. 8.H. South. S.W. West. N.W. Calm.

795 1352 352 1204 590 2729 844 976 288

From November to May the weather is mild and agreeable, but in
June it becomes hot and sultry, and long droughts are frequent. This
lasts till September, when it becomes cooler.

During the summer months, from April to September, the winds
prevail from 8.8.E. to 8.W.; thermometer, 80° to 84°. About the latter
end of September the northerly winds set in, when the thermometer fails
to 70° and 74°; quite a bracer for the constitution. In winter, northerly
winds sometimes blow hard for two or three days together, with a cool
dry atmosphere. Sometimes, however, South and 8.W. winds have been
known to prevail during most part of the winter months.

The mean temperature, as deduced from 10 years daily observations, is
71° F., while that of Madeira, in almost exactly the same latitude, is 652° ;
this difference of 5}° being probably owing to the effect of the above-
mentioned 8.W. winds. The warmest month is August, averaging 87°,
and the coolest February, averaging 55°. The average annual rainfall is
56 inches, evenly distributed throughout the year.

These islands appear to lie in the zone of variable winds, northward of
the Trades, and also in the track of Hurricanes pursuing a normal course
from the Tropics, which have occasionally caused fearful destruction.
Revolving gales are frequent, especially in the winter. Farther on, we
give Sir W. Reid’s observations upon these storms.

The Bermuda Squalls are sudden and violent tempests, occurring par-
ticularly in the winter season. As the day closes, the whole horizon
becomes obscured by dark and heavy clouds, and the thunder and light-
ning, which precede the first squall, give notice of itsapproach. After the
commencement, the wind, continually shifting, blows in tremendous gusts
at intervals of every 20 or 30 minutes, a dead calm intervening ; and the

* “ Meteorological Observations at Foreign and Colonial Stations of the R.E. and
’ A.M.D., 1852—1886,” published by the Meteorological Council, 1890.

N. A. 0. ih aa

586 SUPPLEMENTARY REMARKS ON WINDS, ETC.

sea, rising in confused and breaking waves, renders the situation of &
vessel, particularly a small one, very dangerous. 3

The conduct pursued by seamen, and which appears to be the most
advisable under such circumstances, is to furl the ship’s sails, and endea-
vour to get before the wind ; by which means she may ultimately run
clear of these local squalls into a steady breeze. It is an observation
made by seamen who are familiar with the Bermuda Islands, that the
various winds which blow meet there and contend for superiority ; and
the inhabitants themselves remark, that the Currents about their rocks
are as variable as the winds, and numerous as their islets.

The Currents are very variable, both in strength and direction, being
greatly influenced by the wind. Caution is therefore necessary in making
the islands in thick weather.

In 1879, the officers of H.M.S. Flamingo took careful series of soundings
to determine the distance to which the 100-fathoms line of soundings
extends from the northern and western edges of the encircling reefs. The
depth gradually increases from 6 or 8 fathoms, close-to, to 30 and 35
fathoms, and then suddenly to no bottom at 100 fathoms. Thus, on the
East side, the 100-fathoms line is found at 3 miles distant from the reef ;
on the South side, at 14 mile; off the S.W. extremity, about 5 miles ;
and on the North and West sides, at 2 to 3 miles.

It is thus seen that the depth increases with extreme rapidity. At
7 miles N.N.W. of North Rock there is a sounding of 1,370 fathoms. At
10 miles off the N.E. side of the reef, are soundings of 1,530 and 1,260
fathoms; at 7 miles off the S.E. side, 1,240 fathoms; at 6 miles to the
South; 1,325 and 1,075 fathoms; at 6 miles to the West, 1,950 fathoms ;
and at 10 miles to the N.W., 2,100 and 1,710 fathoms. The abruptness
and isolation of this peak, which runs up a solitary cone to a height above
the bed of the ocean about equal to that of Mont Blanc, is certainly
unusual ; probably the most reasonable hypothesis may be that the kernel
is a volcanic mountain, comparable in character with Pico in the Azores,
or the Peak of Tenerife.

Off-lying Banks.—The only direction in which there would seem to be
a series of detached banks is along an extension of the axis of the reef to
the 8.W. H.M.S. Challenger anchored for a night in 30 fathoms water
on this line, about 20 miles from the edge of the reef, and Argus Bank lies
at a still greater distance in the same direction. The following particulars
are derived from examinations made by the officers of several of H.M.
ships. They abound with fish, such as snappers and large rock-fish.

Challenger Bank, sounded over by H.M.S. Challenger, in May, 1873,
appears to be about 5 miles in diameter within the 100-fathoms line, with
general depths of 24 to 30 and 40 fathoms over it, coral bottom, and very
steep-to. From the depth of 24 fathoms, on its N.E. edge, Gibbs Hill
lighthouse bore N.E. by E. 4 E., distant 134 miles, with great depths
between.

Argus Bank,—In June, 1829, H.M.S. Columbine anchored on the N.W.
part of this bank, in 35 fathoms, 24} miles 8.W. by W. from Gibbs Hill
lighthouse, and in April, 1836, H.M.S. Larne found a depth of 28 fathoms
in the same iocality. In 1879, H.M.S. Argus found this bank to lie about

BERMUDA ISLANDS. 587

5 miles 8.W. of Challenger Bank, with a depth of 580 fathoms midway
between ; she anchored in 30 fathoms on the eastern edge, 24 miles S.W.
of Gibbs Hill lighthouse, and found the currents weak and irregular, on
one occasion setting S.H., at the rate of three-quarters of a mile an hour.

Argus Bank appears to be about 6 miles in diameter within the 100-
fathoms line, with general depths of 20 to 30 fathoms over it. The least
water found by the Argus was 10 fathoms, over brown coral, 26 miles
S.W. 4 W. from the lighthouse ; but in 1893, H.M.S. Pelican found only
8 fathoms on this spot, so that the coral is probably rapidly growing to
the surface. In bad weather the sea would be likely to break on it.
From this outer bank the land is not visible.

Directions for Making the Bermudas.—In hazy weather, or at night,
vessels must be very cautious in making these islands, lest the winds or
currents should set them on the reefs, or into some inextricable channel.
Be particularly cautious in coming from the S.W., as many ships have
been lost upon the rocks off this end of the islands. In approaching
them by running down a parallel, with a large wind, and not making the
land toward night, but expecting to be near it, no vessel in this situation
ought to lie-to, but should rather turn to windward, under easy sail,
until daylight. The land not being high, it cannot be seen at any great
distance from a small vessel ; added to this, the thick haze which fre-
quently prevails here, particularly in fine weather, renders making the
land somewhat difficult, and at times precarious, unless the latitude be
accurately ascertained. Instances have happened of vessels missing the
islands, and, after a fruitless search, steering for the American coast, in
order to take a fresh departure for running down the latitude again.

Bermuda is always approached with more safety from the south ; and
in running for it at night, or in thick weather, care should be taken not
to get to the northward of lat. 32° 8’, before seeing either the lights or
the land.

In running for Bermuda from the East, the best parallel is between
lat. 32° 15’ and 32° 23’; in which a ship may run boldly, as here there
are no rocks at any distance from the land.

The prevailing winds, with fine weather, in these seas, being from be- ©
tween the South and West, vessels from the West Indies and America
generally make these islands by running on their latitude from the west.
The best latitude for that purpose is 32° 8’, always having rezard to a
small probable current in the direction the wind blows.

Admiral Murray recommended vessels bound to these islands from the
north and west, when within the Gulf Stream, to steer well to southward,
perhaps as much as§.8.E., until within 3 or 4 miles of the latitude of Cape
Hatteras; and then steer 8.E. by E. until into latitude 32° 5’. Thus
you will avoid crossing the Gulf Stream where it is very broad, and its
direction far to the eastward, passing it where it affects your latitude more
than your longitude ; and, of course, be of less consequence to the ship’s
reckoning. By steering thence so far to the southward as 8.E. by E.,
you will fall into the latitude of the Bermudas at 4 or 5 degrees of longi-
tude to the westward.

You should by no means run for these islands unless sure of your

588 SUPPLEMENTARY REMARKS ON WINDS, ETC.

latitude ; and always make them from the S.W., if possible, looking out
in time for the land, as, owing to the set of the Gulf Stream, and th>
general tendency of the currents to the eastward, ships from the coast of
America will almost always be far ahead of their reckoning. Admiral
Murray says, “ I recommend you to make great allowance for your being
to the eastward of your reckoning, and try to fall into the parallel of
latitude above mentioned, in longitude 70° or 71° W.”

Having ascertained your latitude, and being well to the westward, get
into the parallel of 32° 5’, and steer true Hast ; this course will bring you
to within sight of the islands, passing clear to the South of the western
dangers. Should the wind in the night incline to the northward, keep in
32° 7’'N.; but if to the southward, in 32° 2’.

The soundings do not extend more than 2 miles from the shore along
this coast ; therefore you have only a strict look-out to depend on for
safety. You must avoid, by all means, running in the night, without
having a good observation the preceding day, and being pretty sure of
your longitude.

In the “winter, with the wind from the N.E., there is a strong set to the
S.W. along this coast, and it is very tedious and unpleasant to turn to
windward, the wind blowing in heavy squalls at intervals.

Admiral Murray says that “in case you have been driven to the east-
ward of the islands ‘a situation, however, which you are to avoid with the
utmost care), you may run for them in lat. 32° 14’ N., which will bring
you to them 6 or 7 miles to the southward of St. David’s Head, for which
you may haul up upon making the land ; but you are not to run till you
are far enough to the 8. W. to follow the directions before given for coming
from the west, should you make sail for Bermuda from any part of the
Gulf Stream or without it.”

Remarks by Col. Sir W. Reid.—tThe first half of a revolving gale is a
fair wind from Bermuda to New York, because in it the wind blows from
the Hast ; but the last half is a fair wind from New York to Bermuda.

During the winter season, most of the gales which pass along the coast
of North America are revolving gales. Vessels from Bermuda, bound to
New York, should put to sea when the N.W. wind, which is the conclusion
of a passing gale, is becoming moderate, and the barometer is rising to its
usual level. The probability is, more particularly in the winter season,
that after a short calm the next succeeding wind will be easterly, the first
part of a fresh revolving wind coming up from the 8.W. quarter.

A ship at Bermuda, bound to New York or the Chesapeake, might sail
whilst the wind is still West and blowing hard, providing the barometer in-
dicates that this West wind is owing to a revolving gale, which will veer to
the northward. But as the usual track which gales follow in this hemi-
sphere is northerly or north-easterly, such a ship should be steered to the
southward. As the wind at West veers towards N.W. and North, the vessel

THE BERMUDA ISLANDS. 589

would come up, and at last make a course to the westward, ready to take
advantage of the Hast wind at the setting in of the next revolving gale.

A vessel at New York, and bound to Bermuda, at the time when a re-
volving gale is passing along the North American coast, should not wait in
port for the westerly wind, but sail as soon as the first portion of the gale
has passed by, and the N.E. wind is veering towards the North ; provided
it should not blow too hard. For the North wind will veer to the westward,
and become every hour fairer for the voyage to Bermuda.

A great number of gales pass along the coasts of North America, follow-
ing nearly similar tracks, and in the winter season make the voyage between
Bermuda and Halifax very boisterous. These gales, by revolving as ex-
tended whirlwinds, give a northerly wind along the shore of the American
continent, and a sowtherly wind on the whirlwind’s opposite side, far out
in the Atlantic. In sailing from Halifax to Bermuda, it is desirable for
this reason to keep to the westward, as affording a better chance of having
a wind blowing at North, instead of one at South ; as well as because the
current of the Gulf Stream sets to the eastward.

When vessels from Barbados, or the neighbouring West India Islands,
sail to Bermuda on a direct course, they sometimes fall to the eastward of
it, and find it very difficult to make Bermuda when westerly winds prevail.
They should therefore take advantage of the Trade Wind to make the
meridian of 68° or 70° of West longitude, before they leave the parallel of
lat. 25° N.

On a ship leaving England for Bermuda, instead of steering a direct
course for the destined port, or following the usual practice of seeking for
the Trade Wind, it may be found a better course, on the setting in of an
easterly wind, to steer West, and if this wind should veer by the South
towards the West, to continue on the port tack until, by changing, the
ship could lie in its course. If the wind should continue to veer to North,
and as it does sometimes even to the eastward of North, a ship upon the
starboard tack might be allowed to come up with her head to the west-
ward of her direct course. On both tacks she would have sailed on curved
lines, the object of which would be to carry her to the westward against
the prevailing wind and currents. There is reason for believing that many
of the revolving winds of the winter season originate within the Tropics:
and that ships seeking for the steady Trade Winds, even farther South
than the Tropic, at that period of the year, will frequently be disappointed.
How near to the Equator the revolving winds originate in the winter
season, is an important point not yet sufficiently observed. The quickest
voyage from England to Bermuda, therefore, may perhaps be made by
sailing on a course composed of many curved lines, which cannot be pre-
‘viously laid down, but which must be determined by the winds met with
on the voyage. This principle of taking advantage of changes of revolving
winds, by sailing on curved lines, is applicable to high latitudes in both
hemispheres, when ships are sailing westerly.

590 SUPPLEMENTARY REMARKS ON WINDS, ETC.

The NEWFOUNDLAND BANKS, which were originally, in their
fisheries, the source of all the opulence in the island of Newfoundland, are
vast submarine elevations, of various depths and very unequal figures.
The depths on the Great Bank vary from 15 to 80 fathoms; the quality
of the bottom varies considerably, but it generally consists of sand, or
sand mixed with shells and gravel, rarely with stones. The eastern face
of the bank is clear sand, white or whitish, and often sparkling. In the
gullies and deeps which separate the banks, and more particularly in the
Whale Deep or Trou de la Baleine, the bottom is found to consist of mud
or oaze with a foetid smell, and abounds with different sorts of fish, but
more particularly cod, which is inconceivably numerous ; for, although
from 200 to 400 vessels have been annually freighted with this article of
commerce for upwards of two centuries, there appears to be no sensible
decrease of the former plenty. A great swell and thick fog usually
indicate the position of the bank.

There are generally, in the spring, within 350 or 400 miles of the land,
and between the Outer and Grand Banks, numerous Icebergs, or ice-
islands, which float down with the current from the north-west, and which,
during foggy weather, are very dangerous. In the months of June, July,
and August, there are frequently a number of them, some of which may
be seen aground, in 40 or 50 fathoms of water. In thick weather, their
position may commonly be distinguished by the ice-blink, a brightness of
the sky above them; or by the breaking of the sea against them, which
may also be heard at a considerable distance ; or by the decrease of the
temperature of the water. (See Section on Ice, pages 441—454),

Virgin Rocks,—On approaching toward Cape Race, the 8.H. point of
Newfoundland, be careful to avoid Virgin Rocks, a dangerous reef, lying
87 miles 8.H. 4 HE. from that cape. In gales of wind a heavy sea breaks
over them; and a strong current, which sets about them, often increases
the danger. The bank, on which the shoal stands, extends N.N.H. and
S.S.W., 7 miles, being 13 mile across in its broadest part. The soundings
are regular, from 28 to 30 fathoms, but deepen suddenly on the outer edge
to 39 and 43 fathoms.

The Main Ledge, or the rocks themselves, is in lat. 46° 26’ 57” N., long.
50° 47' 40” W. They extend in an irregular chain, S.W. by W. and
N.H. by E., 800 yards, varying from 200 to 300 yards in breadth. The
least depth of water is 3 fathoms, on a white rock, with 5 to 64 fathoms
around it, the bottom distinctly visible. Nearly 1 cable N.N.E of this
is a 4-fathoms rock, and at 24 cables W. by S. from the 3-fathoms rock is
one of 54 fathoms. Between these three rocks the depths are from 8
to 10 fathoms.

South Shoal, 14 mile S. by W. from the Main Ledge, though with
deeper water, is reported by the fishermen to be more dangerous than the
Main Ledge, the mass of uneven ground causing the sea to rise more
readily, and break more heavily, than on the small pinnacles described
above. The shoalest water found was 4? fathoms, and two other rocks,
with 5 fathoms water over them, bear N.N.W. from this rock, the farthest
being distant 14 cable. The bank occupies a space 6 cables long and 34
¢ables wide, with depths less than 20 fathoms.

NANTUCKET SHOALS. 691

These shoals are the only dangers on Virgin Rocks in ordinary bad
weather, but several others are reported to break in autumnal gales, and
the uneven ground, with the tidal streams about the shoals, produce a con-
fused sea even in strong breezes. The currents hereabout are described
on pages 436—437.*

The Flemish Cap, the Outer or False Bank, lies about 120 miles eastward
of the N.E. part of the Grand Bank, with irregular depths of 689 fathoms
and under between, over bottom of hard sand. Within the 100-fathoms
line it appears to be about 50 miles in extent, North and South, by 15 to
20 miles in width, the least depth hitherto found on it being 58 fathoms,
sand and stones, on its eastern side, in lat. 46° 54’ N., long. 44° 40’ W.
The 500-fathoms Jine reaches nearly 60 miles eastward of this, and then
the depth rapidly increases to 2,000 fathoms and over ; it deepens much
more quickly to the southward of the bank.

Ships bound to St. John’s are recommended to keep on the parallel of
46°, or 13° to the southward of the parallel of that port, until they ap-
proach the outer edge of the Great Bank ; and, when they obtain sound-
ings, to steer directly to the north-westward for Cape Spear; but refer,
also, to pages 539 et seq.

* In 1845, Jesse Ryder, master of the fishing schooner Bethel, announced that he had
discovered a rocky patch of 3 fathoms, in lat. 46° 29’ N., long. 49° 41’ W., or about 50
miles eastward of Virgin Rocks, which latter rocks he afterwards saw. During the
survey of 1879, a whole day was spent in searching for it, but no trace of it was found,
either by variation in the soundings, or changes in the quality of the bottom. The
depths in the locality were from 35 to 37 fathoms, over sand and shells.

Beriel Bank, reported to lie in lat. 44° 43’ N., long. 499° 52’ W., was also carefully
raarched for, but no sign of it was found. The depths near the position were from 27
to 29 fathoms, over sand and shells.

The masters of various fishing vessels, who have had many years experience on the
Great Bank of Newfoundland, stated that, to their knowledge, no trace of shoal ground
exists near the reported positions of Jesse Ryder Rock and Bertel Bank.

592 SUPPLEMENTARY REMARKS ON WINDS, ETC.

NANTUCKET SHOALS.—These very dangerous shoals, the “ Good-
win Sands” of the United States, lie immediately in the line of traffic of
the coasting trade. They reach for 38 miles 8.E. of Nantucket Island,
with depths varying from 4 ft. to 10 fathoms over them, and are liable to
great alterations both in form and position. It must also be remembered
that many of these shoals are so far from land that no marks can be given,
beyond that afforded by the lightship on their South extremity. Unless
in case of necessity, no vessel should become entangled in this labyrinth,
for the currents and tides are here most devious, the weather thick at
times, and the more prominent shoals shown by tremendous breakers,
while others are only to be distinguished by ripplings, more or less strong,
according to the tide or current, or by a discoloration of the water.

Tides.—The main body of the flood tide runs to the eastward, the ebb
to the westward. The currents always run across the line of directions of
the shoals, and are much more rapid during their passage. This makes a
near approach particularly dangerous on the side toward which the tidal
current is setting. The current is never still ; during what is called slack
water, the velocity is rarely less than one-half, sometimes more than 1 mile.

( 593 )

See PT ON Seve

—:0:——

1.—AN ACCOUNT OF THE SCATTERED ROCKS, SHOALS, AND
' VIGIAS, IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN.

In the earlier editions of this work, the present section was in many
respects a very unsatisfactory portion of it. To deal with the conflicting
and imperfect accounts which often arose of the discovery of new shoals
and dangers was most perplexing. But, since the greater precision intro-
duced into navigation by the use of steam, these doubts have been dis-
pelled, in most or in very many instances, by the direct test of the deep-
sea sounding machine; and the testimony thus afforded, as to the non-
existence (at least, in the assigned position) of many of the formidable
reefs announced in perfect good faith, has led many to doubt the authen-
ticity of the whole range of reported rocks.

The Chart of the North Atlantic Ocean, formerly disfigured by numerous
reported rocks, shoals, and vigias,* now retains but few of them. Owing
to the numerous lines of soundings made by war-ships and surveying
vessels of the maritime powers, together with the equally or perhaps more
valuable researches of telegraph cable-laying ships, and the fact that the
ocean is now so furrowed by the tracks of innumerable steamers, there is
but a small chance of any doubtful danger remaining as such. The earliest
expedition, undertaken to disprove these numerous reported dangers in the
North Atlantic, was tnat sent out by the United States Government in
1851-2, in the brig Dolphin, Lieut. Lee, commander, and it is gratifying
to us to record that a former edition of this work, the ‘‘ Atlantic Memoir”
of 1845, was made the basis of these experiments.

Nevertheless, however much may have been done, the subject cannot be
dismissed until a satisfactory and systematic examination of the whole
bed of the ocean has been made. Until this has been done, we cannot
pronounce absolutely that it is free from isolated dangers. The enumeration
of them, therefore, will be continued in this work for the present, not with
the idea of inducing too much caution, but as a reference to show that they
have not been overlooked.

In a subsequent section, the subject of deep-sea soundings will be dis-
cussed. Its great importance, in relation to the present topic of doubtful
rocks and shoals, is manifest, as it is almost the only test which is con-
clusive.

* Viaia, a Spanish word, literally signifying Watch, or Look-out, was generally in
the charts attached to spots supnosed to be dangerous.

N. A. O. 76

594 SCATTERED ROCKS, SHOALS, AND VIGIAS.

An isolated rock is a very difficult matter to detect ; and even the most
laborious surveys have failed sometimes to find such. Many examples
might be cited of this, - Thus, Lewis Rock, the dangerous mid-channel
rock in the entrance of Milford Haven, occupies what was supposed to be
deep water, till accident made it known. Pin Rock, a similar very dan-
gerous pinnacle, was discovered in the entrance of Dartmouth Harbour ;
Lee Rock, another, lies off the South end of Lundy Island, in the anchor-
age. A man-of-war was very nearly wrecked on an unknown rock in the
centre of Braye Roads, Alderney, where our Government had expended
enormous sums in making shelter. The ship in which the Prince of Wales
visited Canada struck outside a buoy in the St. Lawrence. Another rock
was overlooked in the survey of Tenerife, at its Hast end. Several most
dangerous rocks were found after the survey, in the entrance of Port Phillip,
South Australia. The same in the entrance to San Francisco.

A still more recent and convincing proof of the difficulty of finding sub-
merged pinnacles is that of the discovery of Avocet Iock, in the fairway of
the Red Sea, in 1887. In that year, two steamers struck on this unknown
danger, both foundering in consequence. The officers of H.M.S. Flying
Fish spent several days fruitlessly searching for it; later on, H.M.S.
Sylvia scoured the locality for six weeks, finding no danger; and it was
ultimately discovered by H.M.S. Stork, not more than 300 yards from where
the Sylvia had anchored. It had only 15 ft. over it at low tide, with 28 to
30 fathoms around.

All these, and many other examples, show the extreme difficulty of pro-
nouncing absolutely, on the non-existence of an isolated shoal, if a pinnacle
of rock may not be found with the very close search of skilled surveyors, —
and pass quite unnoticed in a channel-way. Besides, some of these vigias
may have ceased to exist, after having appeared for some time; as, for
instance, the islands and reefs which have risen from the sea among the
Azores, and afterwards disappeared, as narrated in previous pages.

We now proceed to give some examples of the old reports, which proved
to be unfounded, for the benefit of those who may happen to come across
similar appearances. The accounts given were frequently very vague and
ambiguous, and in some cases evidently referred to floating objects, such
as trees, which have occasionally been seen floating about with barnacles
attached to their branches.

As a monition against too hastily forming conclusions from mere appear-
ances, we here add, that an old friend of ours, in crossing the Atlantic,
was once alarmed by the sight of breakers at no great distance. Instead
of coming home with an imperfect report, he very properly sent out a boat
to examine them, and found that they were caused by a floating body,
thickly covered with barnacles, &c., to which a hatchet was applied, and
goon disclosed a cask of wine, which proved to be excellent Burgundy. It
had, no doubt, been floating about for many years, and during the time had
probably been the prolific parent of a number of vigias, kc. Capt. Hamlin,
in the brig Recovery, likewise picked up a hogshead of claret, which had
been a long time in the water, and worm-eaten nearly through.

It is, moreover, possible that navigators, at a certain distance, may have
mistaken whales. M. de Chabert, in his voyage to America, in 1741, for

SCATTERED ROCKS, SHOALS, AND VIGIAS. 595

the purpose of making astronomical observations, being at the distance of
200 miles from Corvo, of the Azores, descried a dusky body, over which
hovered a number of gulls, a bird seldom seen at such a distance from land;
at first he imagined.it to be a rock, but on coming near, in order to observe
it more closely, he found it to be the dead carcase of a whale of monstrous
bulk. >

We have shown in our works on the other great Oceans, how easily
an animated as well as a lifeless being may be mistaken for a-rock. At
noon, on August Ist, 1818, the Northampton, Captain Tebbut, on her
passage to India, was in lat. 40° 45’ §., long. 24° 3’ EK. On the next day
an object appeared right ahead, like a boat; on nearing, it looked like the
wreck ofa vessel, two parts being above water, at two ships’ lengths from
the lee-bow. The barnacles could be distinguished by the naked eye ; but,
when abeam, the creature went down. It proved to be athrasher. Captain
Tebbut says, ‘‘ At the time we came up with the animal, the two parts
above water seemed to be like a wreck, bottom upward. When I first
saw the barnacles, the part covered with them looked rugged, and I was
firmly of opinion that it was a rock above water ; so much so, that I looked
over the lee-bow to see that we were clear of it, ordering the man to star-
board the helm.” .

A similar instance is recorded in the ‘‘ Journal of the Royal Geographical
Society.” ‘A frigate was one day running into the Rio de la Plata, with
her studding-sails set, when the look-out man at the mast-head reported
breakers on the bow. The captain, believing that such a danger could not
have escaped the notice of the Spaniards, and having also a tolerable chart
of the river, suspected it must be some floating object, and ordered the
ship to be steered directly for it. The officers were on the alert; glasses
were frequently directed to the spot, and all concurred in representing it
as a rock a little above water. Anxious looks were directed to the captain,
whom they now considered as unnecessarily running into danger ; but that
officer kept carefully watching his approach, and, as the studding-sail
boom was just over it, the cetaceous monster (for such it was) hastily made
off; and, rising again to blow, finally disappeared. It was observed to
have an excrescence on its back, covered with shell-fish. The sea broke
gently on its weather side, and appeared becalmed to leeward ; and so
perfectly did it resemble a rock, that, had the vessel passed at a distance
without disturbing it, there can be little doubt but it would now have had
a place upon the list of vigias.

‘Tt is to be observed, in this case, that there was only a little ripple
about the body, but no breakers; and this circumstance had not escaped
the intelligent eye of the commander.”

The dead carcase of a whale may even approach nearer in appearance
to a permanent danger than a living one. Captain Vidal, in H.M.S. Styz,
while passing from Terceira to St. Michael’s, on July 20th, 1844, the mast-
head man reported the appearance of breakers on the starboard bow; the
wind was West, and there was a little swell. ‘‘I1 have no hesitation in
stating that this object (a dead whale) so much resembled a sand-bank, or
a, tide-rock at low water, that had I left it unexamined I should certainly
have reported the probability of its being either the one or the other, and

596 SCATTERED ROCKS, SHOALS, AND VIGIAS.

in so doing I should have added another vigia to those which disfigure the
charts of the North Atlantic Ocean.”

A similar instance was forwarded to us by Capt. T. Smith, commanding
the Liverpool :—‘ On June 8th, 1870, at 5.30 p.m., in lat. 40° 48’ N.,
long. 41° 26’ W., the chief mate reported an ice-floe on the lee bow; on
going on deck I perceived, about a quarter of a mile to leeward, what
appeared to be a mass of ice, with some dark-coloured substance on the
centre of it; but, taking my telescope, I perceived it to be a dead carcase,
probably that of a whale, with numerous birds swarming around it. The
upper portion, being dry, was probably dark-coloured from exposure to
the sun, as the blubber appeared to be off, and the colour dark brown, but
all that was awash was perfectly white, with several undetached fragments
floating around it, the whole mass heaving and undulating with the swell
of the sea, which was washing against it, but not breaking; the white
portion, however, might easily have been mistaken for broken water at a
greater distance, and the dark portion for a rock awash. I doubt not but
many of the reported dangers mentioned in your valuable ‘ North Atlantic
Memoir,’ and other Directories, have no other foundation; the visible
portion might be about 40 feet by 20 feet in extent.”

In July, 1870, when in 4° N., 24° W., a captain remarks, in his log :—
‘« Passed through a shoal of Bonitos ; there must have been thousands, and
so closely were they packed, that they tore the water into a white sheet of
foam. At a distance they might have been mistaken for a reef flush with
the water, having an area of about 100 square yards.”

The following, also, at a distance, might deceive. In September, 1864,
when in 6° N., 31° W., a captain remarks :—‘‘ Some porpoises, cutting
extraordinary antics like acrobats.” It is probable they were throwing
themselves a great height out of the water, and allowing themselves to fall
(as it were lifeless) on their sides, making a great splash. At any rate,
this is not an uncommon sight, and it is supposed by some that it is their
way to rid themselves of parasites.

In every event, however, it is always the safer course, in matters of this
nature, to err rather by marking too many than top few, especially when
we make known, as we have done, the authority that we rely on for the
existence of each. Every one, of course, is free to act according to his
own judgment. But on all future announcements of the discovery of rocks
or shoals, it is absolutely necessary that they should be tested by the
sounding lead and close examination. Without these, they will not be
considered as authentic.

In the first instance we give an account of those shoals which are wel}
known, and also of those which are not absolutely disproved, though in
many cases the question of their existence rests on the most slender
grounds, and it is just possible that some may be better authenticated
hereafter.

( 597 )

1.—TO THE NORTHWARD OF LATITUDE 40° N.

NUN ROCK, off Care Wrata, in lat. 58° 524’ N., long. 4° 58’ W.

This rock is a very dangerous isolated patch, bearing N.H. by N. 4 N.
(N. 5° E. true) from Cape Wrath, the N.W. part of Scotland, 15 miles
distant. It is of small extent, not half a mile in diameter, with deep
water all around it, and with 3} fathoms, or, as some say, not more than
94 fathoms, over it. It has been seen to break very high at half-tide. It
is high water, on full and change, at 11"; springs run 4 miles an hour,
and neaps 2 miles, the flood setting to the eastward.

Rona, Sulisker, and other isolated rocks lying westward of the Orkney
Islands, are described in the Sailing Directions accompanying the Chart
of the North and West Coasts of Scotland.

NORTH SHOAL, West of Orkney, lat. 59° 13’ 23” N., long. 3° 35’ W.

This is one of the most dangerous shoals around the British Isles, as it
is singularly isolated, and not larger than half the size of a boat. It has
but 7 ft. least water, with 10 to 30 fathoms around it, and bears from
Noup Head, Westra, West, northerly, distant 17 miles; from the Brough
of Birsa, N.W. by N., northerly, 9 miles; and from the Old Man of Hoy,
N. 7 E., 202 miles. In fine weather it is distinctly marked by the ripple
of the tide, and in rough weather the sea breaks heavily over it.

RocHE Bonne and the Bancue VERTE, in the Bay or Biscay.

These two rocky shoals, lying a short distance apart, westward of the
Ile de Ré, are described in the Sailing Directions.

Jones Bank, lat. 51° 23’ N., long. 14° 25’ W.

Notwithstanding the pains taken to ascertain the exact limits and
character of the edge of the bank of soundings off the West coast of Ireland,
it does not appear to have been definitely determined. The following are
the particulars of a shoal cast of 30 fathoms, about 180 miles westward
of Cape Clear, near the 8.W. verge of the bank ; a depth of 470 fathoms
was found 16 miles to the westward of this position.

Jones Bank, as this may be called, was found by Captain David Jones,
of the barque Achilles, on August 18th, 1864. The vessel was becalmed,
and the lead was hove, and showed 30 fathoms most unexpectedly, as
above stated. He plumbed several times, and held on to the line, and
found the lead at the bottom to drag over the uneven parts of the rock,
and brought up a stone sticking to the lead.

Now, when the nature of the adjacent coast is considered, it may be
quite possible that this is an isolated hill of trap rock, like the lofty
Skelligs, and may have a much less depth on some of its peaks. It is

598 SCATTERED ROCKS, SHOALS, AND VIGIAS.

possible that the reported Brasil Rock, whose existence in the assigned
position was disproved by the officers of H.M.S. Porcupine finding 2,350
fathoms there, may have some connexion with this.

PORCUPINE BANK, to the Westward of Ireland.

During the examination of the sea-bed to the westward of Ireland, by
the officers of H.M.S. Porcupine, for the purpose of finding the best route
for laying the first Atlantic telegraph cable, the tail of a detached bank
was unexpectedly crossed, on August 8th, 1862. ‘‘ Carrying out a line of
soundings on the parallel of Slyne Head, at the distance of 120 miles to
the westward of it, we crossed the tail of a bank of 82 fathoms, coarse
gravel. This being entirely new, it was named Porcupine Bank. It will
be of use to vessels bound to Galway from the westward, as a means of
ascertaining their position by the lead. The bottom, both to the north-
ward and southward, is deeper, being composed of fine dark sand, while
the bank is composed of gravel and coarse sand.’’ This bank is about 40
miles in extent, East and West, with 150 to 180 fathoms to the eastward
of it, while to the westward it deepens rapidly to 300, 500, and 1,500
fathoms.

Dvina Rock (?), off Cape Finisterre, lat. 44° 43’ N., long. 9° 373’ W. ( Doubtful.)

This announcement we received from Captain Grote, of the Russian Imperial
Navy, when in command of the Dvina, the vessel which was hardly chased by our
men-of-war in the Pacific during the last Russian war.

“On Jan. 14—26, 1853, the foretop look-out descried breakers right ahead, and
we discovered it to be a rock, on a level with the water, in lat. 44° 43’ 6” N.,
long. 9° 87’ 23’ W. The sea was perfectly white with foam for about 200
fathoms.” Captain Bessarabski made it to be in lat. 44° 48’ N., long. 9° 43° W.
A depth of 1,820 fathoms has since been found very near this position, and con-
sidering that it lies so contiguous to one of the main routes of commeree, its
existence is very improbable.

The charts of Van Keulen, of the last century, showed a rock in 44° 43' N.,
long. 11° 22’ W.; but it has long been omitted as not authentic.

Mipexey SHOAL, in lat. 44° 9’ 30” N., long. 22° 57’ 45” W. (Doubdtful.)

Captain Thomas Midgley, in 1838, reported as follows :—‘ On June 14th, 1838,
at 2.40 p.m., on my passage from Africa to Liverpool, I suddenly fell in with a
large patch or belt of discoloured water, of a dirty gray appearance, much
resembling river water, and rippling very much, as if upon a shoal bank. No rock
or danger could be seen from the mast-head, but the water appeared very much
discoloured for more than half a mile in breadth, as far as the eye could reach, in
a direction N.W. and S.E. by compass.” Position as above.

The late Captain Midgley was a man of perfect veracity, but the appearance
might have arisen from other causes.

Goucu or Harrison Rocks, in lat. 40° 28’ N., long. 30° 0’ W. (Doubtful)

Particulars of these reported dangers, said to lie about 90 miles north-eastward
of Corvo, one of the Azores, are given previously, on page 753. We may here
draw attention however, to a remarkable report from the captain of the steamer
Zarapossa. He stated that in September, 1879, one morning he and his officers

MOSSMAN ROCK—SAINTHILL BANK. 599

passed close to a stranded and deserted wreck, in lat. 40° 20’ N., long. 86° 49’ W.,
hard and fast ashore upon a reef, but did not board her, and no mention is made
of soundings. The account appears in the ‘‘ Nautical Magazine,” February, 1885,
page 103.

Mossman Rock, lat. 48° 41’ N., long. 28° 51’ W.

The harbour master of Hartlepool announced the discovery of a rock a few feet
above water, by his brother, Captain Robert Mossman, in command of the
Edward Kenny, April 22nd, 1854, in the above position. It was confidently
believed to be a rock, but no means are stated to have been tried to test it.

The repeated announcements of rocks in this neighbourhood, although they
hardly in any case appear to be seen again in the positions claimed for them, and
the evidence of the deep soundings is against several of them, yet this repetition
of discovery leads to the inference that some such rock as Mr. Mossman describes
may lurk hidden here, and have given rise to these reports.

In 1850, soundings of 48 and 70 fathoms were reported by the captain of the
Chaucer, about 60 miles south-westward of this position. Later examinations
show a depth of 1,210 fathoms not far eastward of these reported soundings.
On December Sth, 1892, no bottom was found in their vicinity at 125 and 135
fathoms, by soundings taken from the U.S.8. Monongahela, nor could any
indication of shoal water be seen; the weather was fine and clear, and the sea
- calm. °

SAINTHILL, BEAUFORT, or MILNE BANK.

We have in this a very singular fact in hydrography. On two occasions
very satisfactory soundings were obtained near the same spot, by British
Naval officers, and yet both positions were unsuccessfully sought for by a
third, as will be seen by the following :—

Lieut. A. Sainthill, R.N., commander of the ship Beaufort, on returning
from Jamaica, on August 3rd, 1832, when in lat. 42° 37’ N., long. 41° 45’ W.,
observed the water to be discoloured ; in consequence of which he twice
tried for soundings, and found rocky ground at the depth of 100 fathoms.
But in September, 1858, Commander Dayman tried and found no bottom
with 3,000 fathoms up and down, in lat. 42° 7’ N., long. 41° 28’ W., about
35 miles to the 8.W. This, however, cannot be considered as reliable,
since more recent experiments show depths of 1,850 to 2,500 fathoms in
this region.

Notwithstanding that these deep soundings, so near Lieut. Sainthill’s
position (of which, however, he was not confident to half a degree of
longitude), would apparently disprove its existence, yet Lieut. Sainthill
repeated his statement (in the ‘‘ Nautical Magazine, 1859,” page 209) : «I
am perfectly convinced that we touched bottom; what Captain Dayman
would call an excellent up and down cast. The arming of the lead
showed sharp rocky bottom of fine blueish ashes. The water was very
much discoloured, which induced me to try for soundings, and my opinion
is that we were over a submarine volcano in a state of eruption.”

In 1864, Admiral Sir Alex. Milne, in H.M.8. Nile, also reported that
he had found less water in the vicinity, his account being as follows :—
“On March 28th, 1864, in lat. 43° 35’ N., long. 38° 50’ W., during the
passage from Bermuda to England, the sea assumed a dark, dull lead

600 SCATTERED ROCKS, SHOALS, AND VIGIAS.

colour, and soundings were obtained in 92 and 81 fathoms, and at 12
miles farther to E.N.E. 100 fathoms, fine sand and oaze. I am inclined
to think that a bank of some considerable extent exists in this locality, as
the water for many hours previous to sounding was of the same peculiar
tint, indicating soundings, and this appearance continued to the E.N.E.
until the night of the 29th instant. This morning we regained blue
water, and with reference to notices on the chart of 100 fathoms water
(Sainthill, 1851), it strikes me as probable that this bank extends from
long. 42° W. to 35° W., and from lat. 42° to 45° N.”

This would appear to be quite decisive, yet the following extracts from
the report of Commander W. Chimmo, R.N., who examined the vicinity,
in H.M.S. Gannet, in July, 1868, will show that its true position has not

‘yet been found:—‘‘ We now sailed East for the spot where Lieut. Sainthill

obtained 100 fathoms, on sharp rocky bottom. At 2 p.m., on July 12th,
we reached this position, and with a heavy weight 4,300 fathoms of line
ran out, and no bottom! (This surely must be an error.)

‘«« It was somewhat remarkable that about this place, within a radius of
some few miles, many indications of shoal water had been from time to
time seen and reported, one having as little as 35 fathoms on it. To one
of these, called Milne Bank, with only 80 fathoms on it, found by
H.M.S. Nile, in 1864, we were now steering. At4p.m., on July 15th,
we were on the 80 fathoms. The rod and weight of 230 lbs. let go; and
2,280 fathoms ran out. There was no bank there. The rod brought up
‘‘oaze,” abounding in animal, vegetable, and mineral !

‘In September, another cast of the lead, on the position of the Saint-
hill volcano, quite disproved the existence of this vigia within a radius of
many miles.

«« Approaching Milne Bank for the second time, on September 3rd, in
lat. 43° 40° N., long. 38° 50’ W., the lead was again let go, and 2,700
fathoms obtained, the rod bringing up a small particle of Foraminifera
Near the supposed position of this bank we sounded at short distances
for some days with more than 1,000 fathoms of line ; but in no case was
there any indication of it. The temperature here obtained, with new
and delicate thermometers, at 2,000 fathoms was 42°—rather a higher
temperature than expected. The air was 68°; the sea-surface 69°; while
at 100 fathoms it had fallen 10°, and at 400 fathoms 20°! At 1,000 fathoms
it was 43°, after which it fell but 1° in 1,000 fathoms.*

LAURA ETHEL BANK, lat. 46° 55’ N., long. 38° 50’ W.

In 1878, the captain of the Lawra Ethel reported that he obtained a
cast of 36 fathoms, sandy bottom, in the above position, which is about .
250 miles Hast (true) of the Flemish Cap.

VIRGIN ROCKS, lat. 46° 26' 57” N., long. 50° 47' 40” W.

These rocks, forming a dangerous reef, 87 miles S.E. 4 EH. from Cape
Race, together with the surrounding dangers, are described in page 590,

* See “ Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society,” vol. xiii., 1869, pages 93—98.

( 601 )

WATSON ROCK, lat. 40° 18’ N., long. 53° 40’ W.

Captain T. A. Watson, of the Harbinger, reported that at 8 a.m.,
April 20th, 1824, in moderate weather, his vessel passed close to leeward
of a rock, just even with the surface, and covered with weed, about
3 fathoms or more in diameter ; it uncovered several feet in the hollow of
the sea. The first officer and others also saw it, and on quickly heaving
the lead no bottom was found at 90 fathoms. For several miles round it
the water was dark, as if on soundings. He concludes his report by
saying :—‘‘ During the many years (14) I have commanded a ship,
mostly in the North American trade, I have seen various things in the
ocean, and was too well acquainted to mistrust my eyes in this case. It
is said that Daraith saw a danger not far from this; perhaps it may be a
part of the same, as he represented it as very extensive. I am convinced
we too often treat doubtful dangers, in charts, with indifference, because
they are are not always seen by those who look for them; may it not be
the case that ships sometimes are wrecked on them, and never heard of ?
However, I shall always dread the above danger when sailing in that part
of the ocean.”

Captain Lopez, of the Spanish ship Santissima Trinidad, reported that
he saw Watson Rock on October 8th, 1875, and described it as being
circular, black, and about 26 ft. in diameter, with two small peaks on its
southern part. He lowered a boat and approached on the N.W. and S.E.
sides to within 30 yards of the rock, and found bottom in 23 and 32
fathoms, but a little farther off he could get no bottom at 82 fathoms.

In 1879, the U.8.S. Kearsarge unsuccessfully searched for Watson Rock
during two entire days, under most favourable circumstances of wind,
weather, and sea, sounding frequently with 190 fathoms of line.

Dangers have frequently been reported in this region (see Anna,
Hamilton, and Daraith Rocks, in subsequent Tables of Shoals, &c.), but
considering how constantly this region is now traversed, it seems ex-
tremely improbable they can exist. Possibly, they may have been ice-
bergs, floating low in the water.

CASHH LEDGE, lat. 42° 56’ N., long. 68° 51’ 30” W.

This is a bank, with soundings under 50 fathoms, lying in the approach
to Boston from the eastward, and on it are two rocky patches, with only
a few fathoms over them. Cashe or Ammen Rock, one of these, is a dan-
gerous reef, with very irregular soundings, having from 10 to 44 fathoms
in the length of a boat. The least water on the rock is 26 ft.; a less depth
has been reported by the fishermen, but they sound with their fishing
lines, perhaps not accurately marked, and with a lead insufficient to press
down or pass through the thick kelp which covers the rock. « The extent,
having less than 10 fathoms, is about half a mile N.W. by W. and
S.E. by E., and very narrow. It is surrounded by deep water at a short
distance, particularly on the 8.H. side, where the depth increases suddenly
to 60 fathoms. There is 17 fathoms within a cable’s length of it, deepen-
ing in a short distance to 90 fathoms, on the western side. Sigsbee Rock,

WA. 0, 17

602 SCATTERED ROCKS, SHOALS, AND VIGIAS.

with 5 fathoms over it, lies near the centre of the ledge, 32 miles
S.W. 2 W. from Cashe Rock. On approaching this shoal, in depths of
60 to 35 fathoms, you may find brown sand, with black stones and broken
shells; then 30 fathoms, where it becomes rocky. The currents on the
ledge are exceedingly rapid and devious.

GEORGE BANKS.

These extensive banks are fully described in the Sailing Directions
accompanying the Chart of the United States coast. They have been
accurately surveyed by various officers of the U.S. Navy, and on them are
several patches with less than 10 fathoms water, on which the sea breaks
heavily at times, with depths of 15 to 40 fathoms between them.

George Shoal, the largest and most dangerous of these shoals, is 13
miles in extent N.N.W. and §.8.E., within the 10-fathoms line, and from
1 to 2 miles in width ; the shoalest places are knolls of hard sand. There
is a rip usually the whole length of the shoal, and, at times, heavy
breakers in the shoalest places. The shoalest part has a depth of 12 ft.
over it at low water, in lat. 41° 39’ 45” N., long. 67° 44’ 45” W. The
northern extreme, with a depth of 6 fathoms, is in lat. 41° 462’, long.
67° 482’; and the southern extreme, with a depth of 6 fathoms, in lat.
41° 331’, long. 67° 39’.

The least water on Little George Shoal, at the southern end of George
Bank, is 5 fathoms, in lat. 41° 15’ 30” N., long. 68° 0’ W.; and bearing
S.W.45., distant 27 miles, from the shoalest part of George Shoal.

Rogers Shoal, with a depth of 5} fathoms, at the S.W. extreme of
George Bank, is situated in lat. 41°11’ N., long. 68° 26’ W., 42 miles
S.W. by W. 2 W. from the shoalest part of George Shoal.

«The tides and currents on these far-famed shoals present no danger
to steamers, the northerly set never causing any practical inconvenience.
But with sailing ships the greatest vigilance is necessary, the pre-
ponderance of drift and set appearing to be decidedly northward. Itisa
weird place, full of tide-rips, breakers, and discoloured water, which in
heavy weather occasionally make the navigator hold his breath when he
sees the waves rearing and twisting around each other as if endued with
life, or running against the wind with a comb of foam trailing behind
them, more dangerous than a regular heavy sea to small deeply-laden
coasters. During the winter months the New York pilots carefully avoid
cruising in the vicinity; their well-appointed and well-handled little punts
are scarcely safe amidst breakers where sand is lodged on the deck from
a depth of 7 fathoms or more.’’—Commander W. W. Kiddle, R.N., 1878.

NANTUCKET SHOALS.

These very dangerous shoals, lying immediately in the line of traffic of
the coasting trade of the United States, have been described previously,
on page 592.

( 603 )

2.—BETWEEN THE EQUATOR AND LATITUDE 40° N.

Dezpauus Rock, oif Caps Str. VINCENT, in about. lat. 36° 30’ N., long. 9° 16’ W.
(Very Doubtful).

The old charts of the Atlantic indicated a danger at the distance of 35 to 45
miles to the 8.W. of Cape St. Vincent. This danger was omitted in the French
chart of 1786, and subsequently in other charts, from the supposition that, if it
really existed, it must have received some confirmation. But Captain Taylor, of
the brig Laurel, of Whitby, reported that, in about 1813, the Dedalus, transport,
struck on this rock, and received so much damage as rendered it necessary for
her to put into Lisbon for repairs. Captain Taylor was in the fleet when the
Dedalus struck.

The brig Briton, Captain Stokes, was also lost, in consequence of striking upon
the rock, in December, 1821. After she struck she swang off, and he then imme-
diately tried for soundings, but got none. Captain Stokes had not seen Cape
St. Vincent, but supposed it at the time to bear N.E. by N. i N., distant 28 or 30
miles. These particulars were communicated by Captain Livingston, who says,
“This information was given to mein Malaga, in September, 1822, by Captain

.T. Tankersly, of the schooner Lord Mulgrave, of London. Captain Tankersly
added, that he had met with another master (name forgotten), who said he had
observed the sea-weed on this rock; got out his boat, and held on by some of the
weed. He supposed the rock to be about 50 yards in circumference.”

Captain Livingston also wrote to us, October 28th, 1822, as follows :—‘‘I have
information on which I can rely, from a very respectable naval officer, whose name
I do not consider myself at liberty to mention, that H.M.S. Indefutigable, com-
manded by Sir Edward Pellew, actually struck on the rock, or a rock, off Cape
St. Vincent, and received some damage.”

The existence of this rock was also affirmed on March 6th, 1839, by Mr. John
Aves, commanding the schooner Jantivy, of Plymouth. At 9" 80" p.m., this
vessel, on her voyage from Zante, passed close to the eastward of it; it was not
seen till close aboard, and not avoided without difficulty. There was a sweil
from the N.W. breaking over it, and a sheet of foam, about 20 to 25 fathoms in
circumference. The Jantiwy stood in N.N.E. on the port tack, till 7 next morn-
ing, then tacked to the southward, passing the cape at the distance of about 2
miles. The rock was thus estimated to lie considerably to the eastward of its
position, as shown by the chart, and to bear about S.S.W., true, 37 to 40 miles
from the cape.

That this rock does not exist in the position usually assigned to it in modern
charts is proved by the following, which we translate from the ‘“‘ Annales Hydro-
graphiques,” part 3, 1875, page 473:—‘The Nautilus, during her passage from
Lisbon to Gibraltar, searched for Dedalus Rock over its reported position, 30 to
85 miles §.W. of Cape St. Vincent, in lat. 36° 30’ N., long. 9° 16’ W. Having
previously determined the position of the ship by bearings of the land, she was
steered direct for the N.E. portion of the area to be searched, and then cruised
East and West, covering a distance of 315 miles, continually sounding. Of the
11 soundings tried, only one reached the bottom in about 350 fathoms, the others
found no bottom between 90 and 1380 fathoms. The weather was beautiful, with
bright sunshine, the water of a deep blue, and the swell from the S.E. sufficient
to indicate a danger by breaking over it. Four men were placed in the rigging,
on the look-out for anything to indicate the danger, such as weeds, eddy, or
breakers. But nothing was seen of the danger, and it was concluded that it did
not exist, or, at any rate, not in its assigned position.”

604 SCATTERED ROCKS, SHOALS, AND VIGIAS.

H.M.S. Challenger obtained a sounding of 1,000 fathoms, 30 miles N. by W. of
the position assigned to this danger, and another of 2,500 fathoms at 50 miles to
the W.S.W.

In connection with this, we may mention :—Dario Rock, reported to have been
seen by the captain of the Spanish brig Dario, on April 25th, 1834, in lat.
37° 122’ N., long. 9° 81! W. Ugarte Shoal, reported by Tomas Ugarte, of the
Spanish lugger Joven Enrique, April 14th, 1832; in latitude 36° 38’ N., longitude
11° 21’ 38” W., he saw bottom of sand, with occasional black patches, and got
soundings in 3 to 34 fathoms. He also saw breakers, and estimated the shoal to
be about 1 inile in diameter. Garcia Guerra Rock, in lat. 36° 363’ N., long.
10° 513’ W., on which the Spanish brig Pelicano touched, at 11 p.m., June 16th
1837. Regueral Shoal, on which a depth of 64 fathoms, shells, was found by the
pilot Andres Regueral, July 11th, 1798, in lat. 36° 35’ N., long. 11° 3’ W.

These reports lead to the belief that near the parallel of 36° 35’ N., between
long. 9° and 11° W., dangers may exist, though careful search has failed to detect
them. We have been somewhat diffuse, but these reports are from one of the
great ocean highways, and here we must leave the subject for the present. It is
a blot on the charts; but still a rock may exist hereabout similar in character to
Gettysburg Bank. The question of its existence ought to have been completely
set at rest many years since.*

GORRINGE or GETTYSBURG BANK, lat. 36° 32’ N., long. 11° 35’ W.

This bank, lying between Madeira and Cape St. Vincent, at about two-
sevenths of the distance from the latter, was first discovered by Com-
mander Gorringe, of the U.S. steam-sloop Gettysburg, in December, 1876,
while engaged in carrying a line of deep-sea soundings between Gibraltar
and the Azores for telegraphic purposes. It was afterwards carefully ex-
amined by the officers of H.M.S. Salamis, in March, 1877, during a period
of four days.

The area of Gorringe Bank, within the depth of 100 fathoms, is nearly
circular in shape, with an average diameter of 5 miles, included between
the parallels of 36° 294’ and 36° 344’ N., and long. 11° 32’ and 11° 38’ W.
The shoalest part, within the depth of 35 to 30 fathoms, appears to be a
narrow ridge 2 miles in extent, running nearly Hast and West; the least
depth of 30 fathoms being confined to a small patch in lat. 36° 314’ N,,
long. 11° 354’ W.

The nature of the bottom at depths under 50 fathoms was found to con-
sist of rock and coralline matter ; in depths exceeding 50 fathoms, pebbles,
coralline substances, shells,and sand. Fish in abundance were caught on
the bank.

Beyond the depth of 100 fathoms the soundings increase rapidly. The
depth of 1,000 fathoms being about 5 miles in a northerly direction from
the shoal ground ; 6 miles in a southerly; 13 miles to the westward; and

* Possibly this danger may have been a temporary one, of volcanic origin. On
November 11th, 1858, at 7.45 a,m., the Venus, when 30 miles N.N.W. from Cape
St. Vincent, was seized with a violent trembling, as if caused by some volcanic erup-
tion; the shock was felt by all the orew, and lasted about 15 seconds, the noise resem-
bling the rumbling of thunder. Volcanic material has also been found on Gorringe or

Gettysburg Bank.

GORRINGE OR GETTYSBURG BANK, ETC. 605

11 miles to the eastward. At 20 miles distant, in a north-westerly direc-
tion, a depth of 2,750 fathoms was found, and in a north-easterly direction,
1,640 fathoms.

The Tide was observed in H.M.S. Salamis, when at anchor on the shoal
ground, on March 4th (spring tides), to set regularly N.E. and S.W., with
& maximum velocity of about 14 knot.

On June 26th, 1888, Captain Meister, of the Swedish frigate Vanadis,
when in lat. 36° 324’ N., long. 11° 37’ W., found 32 fathoms on this bank,
bottom of small black lava stones, white and red coral, and coarse black
sand. In 36° 344’ N., 11° 381’ W., he found 120 fathoms, coarse clean
coral sand, mixed with fine black lava, or black sand, and shells. Heavy
overfalls were noticed on the bank. The above soundings indicate that
this bank may be of volcanic origin.

JOSEPHINE BANK, lat. 36° 40’ N., long. 14° 10’ W.

This is a bank of 82 to 90 fathoms, discovered by the Swedish exploring
vessel Josephine, in 1869. It lies nearly on the parallel of Gettysburg
Bank, but 24° farther to the westward.

SEINE BANK, lat. 33° 42’ N., long. 14° 18’ W.

In 1882, the telegraph steamer Seime, in carrying a line of soundings
between Lisbon and Madeira, struck bottom on a bank about 7 miles in
extent, rising suddenly frem depths of 2,200 fathoms to 100 and 118
fathoms, rock and coral. The least depth found was 81 fathoms, in the
above position, about 110 miles H.N.E. (trwe) from Porto Santo.

_Fatcon Rock, to the Northward of Porro Santo.

This sunken rock, probably identical with the Hight Stones of the old
charts, is described on page 578.

DACIA BANK, lat. 31° 15’ N., long. 13° 144’ W.

This bank, reported by the telegraph steamer Dacia, in 1883, was ex-
amined by the French war-vessel Orne, in April, 1887, when soundings of
38, 1234, and 60 fathoms, sand and muddy gravel, were obtained on it, 124
fathoms being found in lat. 31° 15’ 5” N., long. 13° 40’ 20” W., or about
100 miles northward of Alegranza, one of the Canary Islands.

CONCEPCION BANK, lat. 29° 55’ N., long. 12° 55’ W.

This is a bank lying about 40 miles north-eastward from Alegranza
Island, on which a least depth of 84 fathoms was found by the telegraph
steamer International, in 1883. There are soundings from 800 to 1,500
fathoms close around it, but about midway between it and Dacia Bank
the depth is only 583 fathoms.

606 SCATTERED ROCKS, SHOALS, AND VIGIAS.

ConsTANTE REEF, lat. 37° 56’ 20” N., long. 33° 4’ 8” W.; Ferreira Reer,
lat: 88° 26’ 44” N., long. 30° 25’ 10” W.; and other Doubtful
Dangers around the Azores Islands.

On pages 574—577, we have given an account of the above and other banks
and dangers reported near the Azores, whose existence has not been contirmed.
These are Kutusoff or St. Mary Bank, Tulloch Rocks, Keus or Europa Rock,
Whale Rock, Gough or Harrison Rocks, &. The repeated accounts which have
been given of earthquake phenomena hereabout ought to induce caution.

CHANTEREAU SHOAL, lat. 38° 27’ N., long. 38° 0 — 41° 35’ W.

This shoal, described as a white rock, was said to have been seen by Captain
Chantereau, of the ship L’ Auguste, in lat. 38° 24’, long. 41° 35’, in coming from
Martinique, September 6th, 1721, when the sea broke on if very much. It was
again announced by Lieutenant E. Scott, commanding the Princess Elizabeth
packet, April 24th, 1828, as in lat. 38° 16’, long. 39° 48’ 50”.

According to a notice in the Derrotero de las Antillas, dated Madrid, July 4th,
1846, a shoal or vigia was discovered at 3 p.m., May 21st, 1846, in fine weather.
by Don Gabriel Perez, captain of the Spanish merchant ship Leontina, in lat.
88° 27' N., long. 37° 57’ 10” W., according to observations made shortly before
seeing the rock, and confirmed by chronometer in making Graciosa (Azores) a
few days after.

Here we have three announcements of dangers of similar character in com-
paratively close proximity ; if a danger exists, they are probably the same. Wea
have no further evidence in its favour or to contradict it, but about 25 miles east-
ward of the last position a depth of 2,200 fathoms has been found.

Marsaua Bank, lat. 33° 55’ N., long. 34° 17’ W.

Captain G. B. Fasce, of the Italian ship Mursa/a, reported :—On April 19th, 1877,
being in lat. 33° 42’ N., long. 34° 25’ W., observed a discolouration of the water,
and in lat. 33° 55’ N., long. 34° 17’ W., sounded in 82 fathoms, hard bottom; a
second cast, in lat. 834? 1’, long. 34° 9’, found no bottom at 123 fathoms. The
water resumed its blue colour after sailing a few miles. A depth of 1,700 fathoms
has been found close to the S.W. of this position.

Romantico Rock, lat. 31° 43’ 30” N., long. 33° 43’ W.

This was reported to have been sighted from the Spanish barque of that name,
April 3rd, 1886, about 500 miles'S.S.W. of the Azores. It was 64 ft. long, N.N.W.
and §.8.E., and 4% ft. above water at its S.W. end, with a rocky reef above water
on its North side. It appeared to he of red stone, of a circular form, with patches
of grass or weed on it. Could this have been an iron hull, floating bottom up ?

CHALLENGER AND ARGUS BANKS, S.S.W. of Bermuda.

These off-lying banks, well known to the fishermen, are described pre-:
viously, on pages 586—587.

Deep Soundings Southward of Bermuda. (Doubtful.)

In 1850, the commander of the ship Chaucer reported as follows :— In lat.
27° 10' N., long. 62° 45’ W. (which would be 330 miles S. by Z. 3 E., true, from
Bermuda); on April 20th, water blue, with much gulf-weed, weather calm, no
current, the boat was lowered ; Ict run the lead, and got bottom in 744 fathoms.
April 15th, lat. 27° 31’ N., long. 60° 8’ W., sounded and got bottom in 366 fathoms.
April 20th, lat. 29° 20’ N., long. 64° 11’ W., sounded and got bottom in 620
fathoms.” There is no doubt but that the imperfect means employed deceived

AYLEN OR PORGAS BANK, ETC. 607

the commander as to finding bottom ; for the U.S.S. Dolphin got a good sounding
of 3,828 fathoms, the deepest obtained in the cruize, a degree to the South of that
reported of 866 fathoms, and no bottom with 1,000 fathoms near that of 620
fathoms, and 3,080 fathoms has been found near that of 744 fathoms.

‘ECHO BANK, lat. 21° 12’ N., long. 58° 42’ W.

Lieut. A. H. Bisschop Greevelink, of the Dutch vessel Echo, a very reliable
observer, reported as follows :—“ On our passage from the West Indies to Europe,
in July, 1837, at about 4 p.m. of the 7th, a serpentine streak, of a dark brown
colour, was observed on the surface of the sea. Having lowered the boat, sound-
ings were found to exist, although in more than 30 fathoms.”

NICTHEROY BANK, lat. 5° N., long. 47° 5’ W.
In 1881, the captain of the Nictheroy reported that he found a depth of 52

fathoms, rocky bottom, in the above position, but a depth of 1,876 fathoms has
been found a few miles to the eastward.

AYLEN or PorGas Bank, East of the Cape Verde Islands.

In the early charts of the Atlantic, this bank was shown as extending 150 miles
in length, North and South, with a breadth of 15 miles. Nothing more than this
appeared to be known of it, except that it was all deep water, and not dangerous
to shipping. It was unsuccessfully sought for by the Zeven in 1819, and in some
later charts it was omitted for want of confirmation. However, the following is
the report of a cast of the lead taken from the steamer Birkenhead, on her voyage
to Ascension, under the command of Mr. J. B. Aylen; R.N., on November 11th,
1850. In lat. 17° N., long. 20° 3’ 15”, from careful and reliable observations, a
depth of 86 fathoms was found ; the bottom appeared to consist of pieces of shells
and sand, or small particles of coral. Mr. Aylen says, “‘ Idid not like heaving the
ship to, to take another cast, particulariv as I considered myself on the edge of
the bank only, and that at noon, when on its centre, I would again try, which I
did without success with 90 fathoms of line.”

Besides this sounding, another of 164 fathoms was obtained, in 1819, by Capt.
Fréminville, to the N.W. of the above cast, in lat. 18° 35’, long. 21° 40’.

The following is an extract from a log examined at the Meteorological Office :—
“‘ Here is the position of Porgas Bank, according to the old charts; we sounded
at noon in 17° 10’ N., 20° 32’ W., with 150 fathoms; got no bottom.”

The following is from the log of H.M.S. Hydra. ‘ August 1st, 1868. In lat.
16° 17' N., long. 19° 43’ W., sounded on the eastern edge of the alleged Porgas
sank, obtaining 1,880 fathoms, oaze; noon, crossed the alleged position of Porgas
Bank, no indication of shallow water. In 16° 46’ N., 19° 45’ W., sounded ona
patch marked 86 fathoms Birkenhead, obtaining 1,850 fathoms, brown sand and
mud.” This latter sounding is about 20 miles S.E. of the position of the 86
fathoms sounding of the Birkenhead.

On May 10th, 1889, Capt. Russell, of the steamer Dalton, reported that from
lat. 17° 55’ N., long. 24° 36’ W., to lat. 19° 30’ N., in the position ascribed to
Porgas Bank, the colour of the water appeared to indicate depths less than 80
fathoms, and that he had observed the same appearance here for the past 3 years.

DORIC BANK, lat. 18° 57’ N., long. 18° 15’ W.

In 1890, a sounding of 56 fathoms was obtained from the telegraph steamer
Doric, when about 100 miles westward of Cape Mirik; depths of 1,500 and 1,600
fathoms were found around it, at 17 miles distant. In 1891, the steamer Silver-

town took four soundings in this locality, and found regular depths, 1,494, 1,497,
1,498, and 1,509 fathoms.

608

SCATTERED ROCKS, SHOALS, AND VIGIAS.

This concludes the description of isolated banks and shoals, which have
been proved to exist, and of others about which there still remains some
amount of uncertainty, and it is extremely probable that many of them
do not exist. -We now proceed, in the following Table (A), to give a list

of the latter, and of those which are still more open to doubt.

The par-

ticulars of each announcement are given in full in old editions of this
work, but it is unnecessary to repeat them here.

The second list, Table B, shows those rocks, &¢e., which may be safely
considered as absolutely disproved, and in most cases are not shown on

the chart,

TABLE A.

ROCKS, ETC., WHOSE EXISTENCE IS VERY DOUBTFUL.

Name.

Amplimont Rocks

” ”

”

Birkenhead,86 fms.
Chantereau Shoal

+?

Columbine Shoal...
Constante Reef ...

: Agores Rf.
Dedalus Rock......

”? ”

Delaware Shoal tee
Devil Rocks

Dvina Rock Sonisieie ea
Ferreira Reef
Gough Rocks

”

eeeeee

”

” ”
Harrison Rocks ...
Hilton Rocks
Keus or Europa Rk.
Kutusoff Bank......
Laura Ethel Bank.
Mossman Rock ...
Midgley Shoal
Munn Reef

Neva Rocks. ...... eu
Romantico Rock...
Ryder Shoal.........
St. Mary Bank......
‘Watson Rock

eeeeee

Westenenk Shoal...

Reported by

IDNwO Hoe
Aylen

eecoce

Robertson...
Ferreira ...
Keyzer

Taylor ......

eeeece

Henderson.
Livingston .
Swainson...
Grote
Ferreira ...
Gough
Beaufort ...
Robertson .
Harrison ...

Espinosa ...
Laura lithe.

B. Romantico
Ryder
Livingston .
Watson

Westenenk.

| Date. |

Lat. N. Fes, WwW.

eeccccees | seeccsoce

seeceeces | coecssore

° ’

24 5
24 5

(Je) bo
bo co or
CwooUHTtDonntoowa

Particulars.

| About 380 ft. high.
About 30 ft. high,
8 or 10 ft. high.
Awash.
On Porgas Bank,

Princess Elizabeth Shoal.
Discoloured water.

A white patch.

Or Martyr Reef.

35’ to 45’ S.W. of C. St. Vincent.
28’ to 30’ N.NeE-s,
Position doubtful.

Five fathoms.

Level with the surface.
Three feet above water.
Two feet water over it.
Two feet above water.
Level with the surface.
High breakers.

Level with surface; breakers.
Awash.

Above water.

Twelve and 3 ft. above water.
Just awash.

Level with the surface.

Nearly awash.

A black mass, 15 or 20 ft. high.
Perhaps St. Mary Bank.

A cast of 36 fms., sandy bottom.

A few feet above water.

Discoloured water. Notsounded.

White sandy bank above water.
Position undetermined.

Four feet above water.

Of a red colour, 4% ft. high.

Very doubtful.

White water.

Awash; prob. ice. See Daraith
and Hamilton, in Table B.

Breakers.

( 609 )

LAS EEA B:

ROCKS, ETC., REPORTED, BUT DO NOT EXIST.

Name.

Alof Kramer Bk....
America Rock......

IAInIe FROCK: ss.see0es
Anfitrite Shoal......
Ashton Rock.........
Atila Rock

Aylen Bank
Barencthy Rock ...
Beazley Shoal......

” ”

Bell Rocks. .........
Betsey Rock.........
Blaesdale Reef......

Bom Felix Shoal...
Bonetta Rocks......
Bordelaise Rock ...
Bouvet’s Sandy Id.
Brasil Rock .........

” 99
Breton Rock

9 9
Bus, Sunken Ld. of
Cesar Breakers ...
Oandler Rock ......
Chaderton Reef ...
Chapelle Rock......

”? Led
” ”

” ”
Chaucer Bank......

” ”

G@lark Rock .........
Cleveland Reef......
Clowes Reef.........
Coral Shoal .........
Corsair ..... Raidelé saber
Courier Rock ......
Daraith Island

Dario Rock
Desmaires Rock...
Druid Reef

9 9
Dubreuil’s Vigia...
Dyet Rocks
Hight Stones
Emily Rocks

NA: 0,

Reported by | Date. | Lat. N. beng w

Aitkin ......

Kramer ...
Sh. America |

Carmelich .
Anfitrite ...
GoUY) ecenessic
Ship Atila...

Beazley ...
Span. Ship.
Wahlstein .
Bell

eocecescecceoce

ecvecesee

eccoeeesesseese

Vaillant ...
Brouage &
Laisne ...

Breton

Chaderton .
Houel
Favorite ...
Tasker ......
Vaillant ...
Henderson.
Chaucer...»

eeoeeccsesccccs

Thompson .
Daraith ..

Brig Dario .
Desmaires .
Treadwell .
Spanish Ch.
Dubreuil ...

eoecee

eeecee

1751

eeecce

aeeeee

eeceece
eoceee

seccce

e
@
=]

eoceee | eceeose

eoosse | eseeee

erecee | coccce

Particulars.

——————,

About 4 ft. water over it.

Three feet above water.
A little above the surface,

See Daraith.

No particulars.

From 25 to 30 ft. high; pro-
bably a wreck.

About 50 ft. high ; probably ice,

A patch of breakers.

Conical rock, about 8 ft. high,

Sunken.

See Porgas Bank.

Almost awash.
Five fathoms over it.
Sudden breakers; discol. water.

A flat rock.

Brig Richard struck, and re-
mained fast 10 minutes,

Sounded in 4 fathoms.

See Emily Rocks.

Two rocks just above water.

A little sandy island.

A high rock or islet.

‘Agitated sea, and field of weed.

About 100 ft. high; probably ice.
Awash.

Discoloured water.

About 4 ft. below the surface.
About 2 or 3 ft. below surface,
Hard bottom at 48 fathoms.
Sounded in 366 fathoms.

See Mayda Rock.

Very little water on it,

See Daraith.

Prob. struck on Matanilla Reef.

Probably ice. See Hamilton
and Watson.

Seen by the captain.

Sce Druid Reef; perhaps ice.

About 3 ft. high; perhaps ice.

” ” 9 ”
See Tregarthen & India Shoals.
Two rocks, 6 or 8 ft. over them,
Perhaps disappeared.
Or Bonetta Rocks.

Se

78

Name.

England Rock......
Esmeralda Rock...
Esperance Rocks...
Falconer Rock......
False Bermudas ...
Field’s Vigia
Five Heads
Fonseca Island »...
French Shoal

” 9

eecccsere

+B) LB)
Galissioniére Rock
Galleon Bank
Gandaria Rocks ...
Garcas, Baxo das .

” 99
Garcia Guerra Rk.
Gilchrist Rock......
Gombaud Rock ...
Green Rk., I. Verte
Greeve Ledge
Guigou Bank

oo 33
Hamilton Rock ...
Hannah Breakers.
Hannah’s Coral Sh.
Henderson B., 48fs.
Hervagault Brkers.

thy ”

eeoces

” 9

” ”
Huntley Rock......
India Shoal! *.....4.
Inglefield Bank ...
Jaquet Island
Jean Hamon Rock.
Job Rock
Josyna Rock.........
Laidman Rock......
Lean Shoal
Longchamps Rock
Lourp
Maalstrom .........
Maria Rock .........
Marinero Rock......
Marquand .........
Martin Reef.........

eeecce

eceecereoece

seeceocce

eevcce eeeeccece

Morning Star Rks.
Mourand Bank ...
Mayda (Five Hds.)

” +P)
” RT

Negre Rocks..cscee0e

” 3
Orion Rock .....00..
Patty Overfalls ...
Perseus Shoal ......
Porgas Bank
Potomac Soundgs.
Prince Shoal

Reported by

Esmeralda...
Dull sesccsese
Falconer ...

Spanish Ch.
French Ch.
Log, Met. 0.
Galissioniére
Longueville
Gandaria...
Dutch Cht.
Lo. e Pinho
G. Guerra..
Gilchrist ...
Gombaud ..
Le Boccage

Fanning ...
Henderson.
Hervagault
Maxwell ...

Le Gros ...

eoceesece

Laidman...

Van Keulen
Sch. Maria.
Swinton ...

eecesececeesese

Ship Cecilia.
Newbold ...
Alderson ...
Mourand...

Ship Perseus
Old Charts.
Smith ......
Thomas ...

Date.

eeeece

eeecee

eccece

eoeece

Lat. N. |Long. W.

eeeeee

SCATTERED ROCKS, SHOALS, AND VIGIAS.

Particulars.

See Mayda Rock.

About 4 ft. above the water.

Two pointed rocks, awash. (See
(Morning Star Rocks.)

A rocky shelf, awash.

Probably floating weed.

Rocky shoal, part above water.

See Galissioniére Rock,

Even with the surface.

Perhaps volcanic.
Ships struck; prob. volo. shook.
One large and high.

Breakers and a shoal.
Pelicano touched on a white rk.
A flat rk. awash. See Josyna Rk,

Stated later to be 20 ft. high.
Nearly level with the surface.
A rocky bank, with sandy islet.

Probably ice.

Sounded in 15 fms.; weeds seen,
Discoloured water, and ripple.
Two rocks; probably ice,

Three breaking rocks.

About 3 ft. high.

A coral rock, 8 ft. high.

See Tregarthen Rock.

Sounded in 24 fms.,sand @shells.
Probably an iceberg.

Three breaking heads; prob. ice,
See Gilchrist Rock.

Probably a volcanic shock.
Heavy breakers.

Or Solis Island.

See Hervagault Breakers.

Struck, and lost her rudder.
1,760 fathoms near.
See Hervagault.

Shoal of yellow sand, with weed.
About 2 miles long, 30 ft. wide.
A small shoal.

Two rks. awash, 8 or 10 ft. apart.
Bank of red sand, partly dry.

A little white island.

Five heads of rks., and breakers.
Two-headed rock, uncoy. 6or8 ft.
Conical rock, awash,

Like a cask, 2 ft. above water.

Deep soundings ; see page 897.
A depth of 90 fathoms.
Volcanic shock.

SCATTERED ROCKS, ETC.—VOLCANIC REGIONS. 611
Name. Reported by | Date.| Lat. N. |Long. W. Particulars.
°o ’ ° ’
Pronk or RhoonRks.| Pronk ...... | 1844 | 38 32 | 33 16 | Pinnacle rocks, 16 ft. high.
Pryce Shoal......... Pryce .....| 1846} 3 7 | 24 14 | Breakers. See Cesar Breakers.
Ramigeau’s Vigia.. | ....cecsssesees 1750 | 42 42 | 37 30
Regueral Shoal ...| A. Regueral | 1798 | 836 35 | 11 3 | Sounded in 64 fathoms, shells.
Probably Gettysburg Bank.
ROCKS cveccoscescssss sscsssesseeee | 1876 | 38 3 | 37 23 | Two rks.; not seen here in 1892.
Pea OEIPUOCKS cya re} lniesssenesesnesere|esceeae. |bieesissa, oll seces See Three Chimnies.
St. Esprit Reef ...| St. Esprit... | 1817 | 14 37 | 58 59 | Chain of rocks, 8 ft. under water.
iy 3 Ld.W.Paget| 1833 | ...... | seo Sounded in 7 fms.; perhaps vole.
Smith or Wallace R.| Smith ...... 1856 | 49 37 | 16 17 | About 6 or 8 ft. water over it.
SPRITE a Oeiliewcrse! |nccscsscccrsacec® |i cesese) | eeectein || saeses See Beazley Shoal.
4s 7 Span. Chrt. | 1798 | 40 22 | 42 40
Sprigg Rock......... Sprigg ...... 1842 | 46 12 | 15
Steen Ground ...... Bellin, &c..| ...... 82 20 | 20 50 | A sandy islet, 14 mile long.
Texeiro Shoal ...... Texeiro...... 1810 | 12 0O | 33 28 | Breakers.
Three Chimnies ... | DeC.Fernel | 1729 | 47 54 | 29 40 | Probably ice.
oy ae Roallons ... | 1842. | 47 37 | 28 51
Tregarthen Rock... | Tregarthen. | 1856 | 14 29 | 26 30 | Four feet high. See Dubreuil’s
Vigia and India Shoal.
Tulloch Rocks......| Tulloch ... | 1808 | 37 27 | 24 45 | Volcanic; disappeared.
Tulloch Overfalls..| Tulloch ... | 1819 | 24 11 | 61 44 | No danger seen.
Ugarte Shoal ...... Ugarte...... | 1832 | 36 38 | 11 22 | Sounded 3 fms. sand; breakers.
IMOGEUOPISI Gh ccscoscscee || onsecose sconan |) coos I] st6ts |) caceas See Green Rock.
Vigia BEDEEOOUCLOEE | | odbos 37 50 | 34 18
” urgeac ... | 1750 | 40 53 | 52 0 | Probably ice.
” Span. Chrt. | 1798 | 43 30 | 37 35 | Probably ice.
eS OOECEDOE French Cht. | 1746 | 55 24 | 24 40 | Rock, high above water.
Vigia de
ESRI S hoe crecsacees! |'loccetasvoccsss 251} conse 12 0 | 27 20 | Or Hinman Shoal.
Wahblstein Brkers. | Wahlstein .| 1857 | 40 26 | 36 13 | See Beazley Shoal.
Walker Shoal ...... Maury’sCh. | ...... 4 14 | 27 36
Warley Shoal ...... Ship Warley| 1813 | 5 4 | 21 25 | Rocky bottom seen; 7 fathoms.
Whale Rock......... Gradun. ... | 1800 | 38 46 | 24 47
Woodall Rock ...... Woodall ...| 1829 | 43 20 | 25 10 | Conical rock, awash.

We have thus concluded the catalogue of dangers, and presumed
dangers, which for so many years “ disfigured our charts.” As will be
seen by reference to the charts, the direct test of the sounding lead has
caused the disappearance of most of them; and they are mainly retained
here as an interesting record.

‘ 2.—VOLCANIC REGIONS.

In the neighbourhood of the Equator, and between longitude 16° and
24° W., is an area which in former years was very fertile in the produc-
tion of supposed rocks and banks. The nature of this area is now better
understood, and we have thus only the occasional announcement of
volcanic shocks having been felt, They are indeed very numerous, and in
our South Atlantic Directory, we have given a series of these occurrences.
They need not, therefore, be repeated here. a

It is now well known that an earthquake or tremora at sea has exactly
the same effect on vessels as if they had rubbed over a reef of rocks, or
the heavy cable had suddenly run out. We have many instances of this,

612 VOLCANIC REGIONS.

and such effects may be looked for in crossing the Equator within these
limits. It may perhaps extend as far to the West as the volcanic islets
of Pefiedo de San Pedro. The region between these islets and the Wind-
ward Islands is also much subject to earthquakes. In September,
October, and November, 1890, numerous shocks were reported from
this area.

To the list mentioned on the previous page, we may add, by way of
example, the following here :—

Captain Ballaird, of the ship Rambler, on October 30th, 1850, in lat.
16° 30’ N., long. 54° 30’ W., and Captain Potter, of the barque Millwood,
half an hour later on the same day, when in lat. 23° 30’ N., long. 58° W.,
each felt a volcanic shock. These vessels were about 520 miles apart ;
supposing them to be in the direct line in which the earthquake was
travelling, its rate will appear to be about 1 mile in 5 seconds, which is
only a little slower than sound travels through the air.

The U.S. sloop Vandalia, December 15th, 1859, near midnight, in lat.
17° 34’ N., long. 55° 49’ W., experienced the shock of an earthquake,
which lasted 5 seconds, and was accompanied by a low rumbling noise,
and strong vibration throughout the ship. The wind, which was N.E.,
immediately veered to East, and decreased.

The Russian ship Dallas, W. Wikander, commander, on March 20th,
1861, at 7 p.m., lat. 0° 27’ N., long. 20° 30’ W., apparently went over the
ground; the masts and yards were shaken, and they found afterwards
that the false keel had gone. At the same moment another ship, the
Melbourne, C. Cowie, master, in lat. 0° 20’ N., long. 20° 35’ W. (that is,
84 miles distant from the Russian ship), was startled by hearing a loud
rumbling noise, and at the same time felt the ship tremble from stem
to stern, which lasted 4 or 5 minutes.

The ship Florence Nightingale, January 25th, 1859 (1 p.m.), having
St. Paul Rocks bearing N.W. by N., distant 10 miles, experienced a severe
shock. The captain states :—‘‘ It commenced with a rumbling noise like
distant thunder, and lasted about 40 seconds.. During the first part (? of
the day), there was a small confused sea, but after the earthquake a heavy
swell from N.N.E. I am perfectly familiar with earthquakes, having
experienced many on the West coast of America, but I never felt one so
severe as this. Glasses and plates on the table jingled to a great extent ;
articles were shaken off the after-hatch, and the ship felt as if grinding
heavily on a reef, which idea found general belief, for the ery of ‘ The
ship’s ashore!’ burst simultaneously from the lips of all on board, and the
watch below came tumbling up in great haste. I was very much startled,
and ran to the side to look for bottom, but soon remembered what it was,
and allayed the panic by explaining that it was only an earthquake.”

The following must refer to the same shock, as it occurred within half
an hour of the time of the preceding. The captain of a vessel states, in
his log, that at 0° 30" p.m., January 25th, 1859, in about lat. 0° 6’ N.,
long. 30° 28’ W., or about 84 miles N.E. by E., from the position of the
Florence Nightingale, he ‘‘ experienced a shock on board, the vessel
trembling and heeling over, the sensation being something similar to that
of a vessel dragging her anchor in a tideway. The shock lasted about

VOLCANIC REGIONS. 613

1} minute; it was evidently the effect of some volcanic agency, and was
so distinctly felt as to alarm all hands. There was nothing peculiar in
the appearance of sea or air. The weather was squally, with showers.”

Captain Whitmore, of the Sea Serpent, December 29th, 1859, struck, as
he supposed, on a coral reef, in lat. 0° 29’ N., long. 28° 30’ W., in con-
sequence of which he put into Rio. He sounded immediately, and found
no bottom, but afterwards found his false keel and copper injured.

The Russian sloop of war Passodnik struck, as was supposed, on the
same shoal, about twenty-four hours before the Sea Serpent, but this
proves the nature of the occurrence.

The Prince, James Thomas, commander, December 11th, 1853, in lat.
0° 54’ N., long. 26° 50’ W., smooth water, suddenly felt a grinding tremor
go through the vessel, as if dragging over something rough and yielding.
It continued for about the ship’s length, but did not stop her way through
the water. The ship did not strike.

The ship Maid of Judah felt a slight shock September 15th, 1855, in
lat. 1° 30’ N., long. 254° W. Strong swell from the southward.

On the night of July 1st, 1886, Capt. Rood, of the barque Antwerp, felt
& shock on or near the Equator, in long. 26° 55’ W.

On November 16th, 1886, Capt. Wakeman, of the barque Bankfields, in
lat. 0° 50’ N., long. 29° 54’ W., felt two severe shocks of 16 to 20 seconds,
separated by an interval of 20 minutes. The vessel trembled greatly, and
a rumbling noise was heard, as though dragging over shingle. The sky
was clear, and the weather fine but sultry, with a high confused sea.

The barque Hleanor, Captain G. A. Findlay, March 26th, 1861, at
10 a.m., felt a shock as if something very heavy was being rolled about
the decks, or as if the ship had gone over some rough ground; it made
the vessel tremble only for a few seconds. A rumbling noise was heard,
like distant heavy thunder. Weather remarkably fine; lat. 0° 44’ N.,
long. 21°19’ W. Great quantities of fish and sharks around the ship.

These instances, with the others, will afford ample evidence of the
general nature and locality of these volcanic shocks.” We have limited
the instances above given’ to this particular area on the Equator; but
there appears to be either an extension of this action far to the north-
ward, or else there is a separate area, for volcanic shocks have been felt
as far North as 23° 30’ N., and long. 58° 0’ W.; and from the almost
continuous line of discoloured and peculiar water that extends from the
Equator to this position, as will be presently stated, we are led to infer
that there is a line of volcanic action trending parallel to the range of
the Antilles.

The depth, however, is very great, and there is now not any reason for
supposing that any shoal exists. Lieutenant Lee and others have found
depths exceeding 2,000 fathoms over most of the region in question; and
this is another evidence of the wonderful force of these shocks, which
can be transmitted through a stratum of water 12,000 feet and upwards
in thickness.

We now proceed to give a few reports of shocks experienced in other
regions of the North Atlantic, many of them taken from records on the
U.S. Pilot Chart of the North Atlantic Ocean.

614 VOLCANIC REGIONS.

The whaler Sheffield, Captain Green, April 26th, 1859, in lat. 29°55’ N.,
long. 60° 10’ W., experienced three severe shocks of earthquake, between
4> 25" and 65 10" a.m. The officer on duty reported that the sea for some
time previously had presented the appearance of a tide-rip; the noise
might be compared to that of a heavily loaded cart or waggon, drawn
rapidly over a plank road.

On December 2nd, 1882, at 6.30 p.m., a heavy shock was felt on board
the barque Aneroid, of Swansea, then homeward bound with a cargo of
copper-ore. The position given was lat. 24° 29’ N., long. 64° 38’ W.,
nearly midway between Porto Rico and Bermuda, and according to the
Challenger soundings hereabout the depth would be nearly 3,000 fathoms.

On March 138th, 1891, between 7 and 8 p.m., Capt. Petersen, of the
barque Hleanora, experienced a submarine disturbance in the volcanic
region West of St. Paul Rocks, in lat. 3° 47' N., long. 42° 3’ W. The
vessel was heading N.W., going about 3 knots, when a noise was heard
like a heavy surf, and the sea began to bubble and boil, the broken water
reaching as high as the poop deck. It lasted about an hour, but no
distinct shock was felt. It then ceased for an hour, when a similar dis-
turbance again ensued.

On November 20th, 1890, in lat. 8° 45’ N., long. 40° 28’ W., Capt.
Crosbie, of the barque P. J. Carleton, reported that the sea became like a
boiling pot, tumbling about in a seething mass, and greatly confused. A
grating sensation was felt, as though going over a reef.

On April Ist, 1887, Capt. Lassan, of the Norwegian barque Petty, in
lat. 17° 38’ N., long. 46° 34’ W., felt three distinct shocks, accompanied
by an eruption of gas bubbles, covering the surface.

On January 24th, 1887, Capt. Erskine, of the barque St. Lucie, in lat.
27° 39' N., long. 48° 54’ W.., felt three distinct shocks of about 5 seconds
each, shaking his vessel severely.

On August 23rd, 1891, at 10.30 a.m., in lat. 36°44' N., long. 59° 47’ W.,
Capt. Hughson, of the steamer Robert Harrowing, reports that the sea
became strangely and unusually disturbed, the commotion increasing
until the decks were filled with water. At 1 p.m. the sea suddenly
became calm.

On November 5th, 1886, when in 13 fathoms, southward of Charleston,
the captain of the barque Amelia Camp felt an earthquake shock. And
on the same day, in lat. 32° 50’ N., long. 78° 23' W., Capt. Cates, of the
brig Arcot, experienced a very heavy shock, lasting about 12 seconds,
shaking the vessel as if dragging over rocky bottom. There was nothing
unusual noticeable in the motion of the sea.

On September 23rd, 1887, between 7 and 8.45 a.m., several shocks
were experienced by three vessels off the S.E. end of Cuba, in an area
about 250 miles in diameter, shaking them as though they had touched
the ground. Capt. Armstrong, of the steamer Alps, felt the first shock in
lat. 19° 44' N., long. 74° 24' W.; it lasted about 45 seconds. The sea
was smooth, but appeared to rise in a solid body without the least break.
The other two vessels were off the northern side of the 8.E. end of Cuba.

( 615 )

8.—DISCOLOURED WATER.

In various parts of the Ocean, particularly in the Equatorial and
Tropical regions, patches of discoloured water are occasionally met with,
which at times may appear like shoal water, and are due to various causes.
In the open sea, they may be owing to the minute spores of marine
plants, or to the presence of minute animal life, in prodigious abundance ;
in the volcanic regions, it is conceivable’that they may be due to sub-

-marine disturbances; and near the coasts, they may consist of matter
discharged by large rivers, and this is notably the case off the mouths of
the Orinoco and Amazon. We now proceed to give a few details of some
of these appearances.

At 3 p.m., July 15th, 1792, Don Cosme de Churruca, then on his
passage to the West Indies, discovered a boiling and breaking of the sea,
so very extraordinary, that it appeared to be breakers; but found no
bottom at 150 fathoms. This phenomenon appeared to be in consequence
of a current setting against the wind. On the 16th, at 10 a.m., they
were in lat. 13° 56’, long. 54° 7’ W., nearly 400 miles to the eastward of
St. Lucia, and 450 miles to the N.E. of the Orinoco, and observed that
the colour of the water changed, looking like muddy river water, or
as if they were on a bank. They continued their course without altera-
tion ; sounded at night, and found no bottom at 120 fathoms. Churruca
says that the colour is always the same in that part of the ocean, always
appearing as if on soundings in that region, and that it never varies the
position of its limits. In addition to his own remarks, he had assured
himself of the fact by information collected from various sources; such
as the English Sailing Directions for the year 1782, entitled the
“‘Complete Pilot for the Leeward Islands,” which, in the account of
Barbados, mentions that this phenomenon is found at the distance of
210 to 240 miles to the eastward of that island, and that there are no
soundings, though the water seems as if there were.*

The passage, from the above Directions, is as follows:—‘‘In the
latitude of Barbados, about 70 or 80 leagues to the eastward, you will
find the water discoloured and prodigiously thick, as if there were sound-
ings, but there are none, and you may depend on being at the distance
aforesaid from the island.” +

Lieut. Greevelink, in alluding to Mr. Luccock’s and Captain Kotzebue’s
remarks about patches of water exhibiting a brown and dirty appearance,

* Captain Livingston remarks:—‘“ It seems that the appearance of soundings,
described above, occurs in the same place where Captain Tulloch told me a bank
existed, which some Americans were in the habit of making as a fresh point of
departure when bound to Surinam, &c.” But Lieut. Lee, in the Dolphin, found depths
of 2,500 fathoms here.

+ “In 1813, at 197 miles to the eastward of Barbados, we found the water dis-
coloured; the thermometer here rose 1°, The current (Equatorial) inclines to the
northward here; which, as well as the discoloured water, may be attributed to the
stream discharged by the great River Orinoco, &c.”—Lieut. Evans.

) 616 DISCOLOURED WATER.

says :—‘ I should question with all deference, whether the depth of water
in such places was tried to a sufficient degree of certainty. On our
passage from the West Indies to Kurope in July, 1837, at about 4 p.m,
of the 7th, a streak was observed on the surface of the sea, exactly in the
game manner as Captain Kotzebue describes, and at the moment we
passed over it the lead was hove in a very proper manner without finding
bottom ; but, having lowered the boat, soundings were found to exist,
although in more than 30 fathoms of water. The latitude was 21° 12’ N.,
long. 58° 12' W.” Lieut. Lee found 2,800 fathoms here.

Off the coast of Guayana, at about 7 a.m., September 17th, 1835, on the
track of the Hcho from Antigua towards Surinam, there appeared in
every direction, upon the surface of the ocean, several large spots of dis-
coloured water, more or less thickly mingled as it seemed with mud. It
was a fine morning; the sun rose in all its splendour, and not a single
-cloud was there to throw its shade upon the water, which was uncom-
monly smooth, although the ship ran 6 miles an hour; besides the water
in some of the spots was so thick as to make the blue waves curl against
their edges. ‘‘ Having,” says M. Greevelink, ‘‘the watch at the time, I
gave warning of this strange occurrence to our captain (W. H. van Voss),
who came on deck and ordered me to keep—not to alter—our course, by
which we passed through one of those spots, yet we did not heave the
lead, as it was the first day in which we gained a breeze after fourteen
days struggling with horrible calm and rainy weather, and two-thirds of
our crew confined to their hammocks. While in the midst of these spots,
I observed the latitude to be 11° 47’ N., and the longitude 53° 47’ W. In
about three-quarters of an hour we were clear of them, and the sea
resumed its former clearness. The current, Equatorial, for several days
remained northerly, yet was not very strong.” Lieut. Lee found no
bottom here at 2,780 fathoms.

‘That we had not been in soundings, we felt nearly convinced by
existing circumstances; yet how came this muddy water here? The
common discoloured water of Barbados it was not, as the latter is a
large extent of water, of a different but somewhat lighter hue than that of
the ocean; at least so far as we have seen it. As for my humble opinion,
I seek for a cause of this appearance only in the force with which the
Marajion rushes downward, but without sufficient power to strengthen the
Equatorial Current. This may seem contradictory, but I think it may
be found reconcileable in the manner following :—

‘« This river impetuously pours forth its waters in a mass over a bed of
some declivity, which steepens more and more towards its issue till it
becomes a precipice, so as to form a cataract, whereby a part of its
stream may dive beneath the stratum of undulations of the ocean, and

afterward rise to the surface by its lesser specific gravity ; where, driven -

still farther off by the northerly current, it may easily remain for some
days in the above-mentioned manner, especially in those months wherein
continual calms prevail, and the water is rarely disturbed by the wind.”
This may be the case, but it may also be attributed to a volcanic origin.
The commander of H.M. (Netherlands) brig Koerier informed Captain
Stort, that in the month of May, 1854, when betv-een lat. 16° and 17° N.,

Se ee

DISCOLOURED WATER. 517

and in long. 54° W., he sailed for a whole day in dark-coloured water.
This was particularly remarked, inasmuch as similarly coloured sea is
met with in about lat. 10° and more easterly.* White-coloured water has
also been observed in lat. 16° N.

Captain Nockells, in the ship Brightman, of London, May 5th, 1835,
observing that the sea appeared of a dirty dark green, in lat. 41° N.,
long. 13° 19’ W., tried for soundings, but found no bottom at 240 fathoms.
In two previous voyages, he found the water in the same place very much
discoloured, which he supposed might originate from the melting of the
ice in the northern latitudes.

A remarkable change in the colour of the sea was observed by
M. Dupetit Thouars, on board the French frigate Za Vénus, in lat.
21° 50’ N., long. 19° 34’ W., in the same spot which Fraisier had already
pointed out. The officers thought it was a bank, but no bottom was
found with 550 fathoms.t

With the announcements before given, of Betsy Rock, Galissioniére
Rock, Martin Reef, St. Esprit Reef, and the singular phenomena related
by Churruca, Greevelink, and Nockells, it may be inferred that a large
extent of ocean, running parallel with the range of the Windward Islands,
covers either a range of submarine volcanoes, or that the bed is in a state
of action from the same cause.

Lieut. Lee, in the U.S. brig Dolphin, also met with discoloured water
in lat. 12° 22’ N., long. 54° to 55° W., but found no bottom at the East
end of this with 1,000 fathoms, and a depth of 2,570 fathoms at its West
end. He again came into discoloured water in lat. 14° 10’ to 14° 50’ N.,
long. 54° 30’ to 55° 0' W.

On November 10th, 1884, Captain J. C. Martin, SS. Bellarena, wrote
to us as follows :—‘‘ On October 1st, 1884, weather calm, and sea very
smooth, in lat. 9° 30’ N., long. 55° 30’ W., whilst on a voyage to Demerara
from Glasgow, I saw what I at first thought large patches of weed, similar
to Gulf weed, at some distance on our beam; shortly after, we passed
through beds of it, and it appeared when close like liquid palm-oil, and
floating as such; the water under the scum was a beautiful blue; we
steamed through alternate beds for upwards of 30 miles. I threw a
bucket in passing and caught some, which I bottled, and now send you;
it appears to me nothing but immense beds of spawn, and I should think,
with wind and sea, would not be perceived.” On examining this with a
powerful microscope, it was seen to be of vegetable origin, appearing like
wisps of grass, jointed similar to the bamboo, but much closer, probably
the spores of some marine plant. The locality is considerably to the
South of the region described above.

In the region between lat. 20° N. and 10° S., between Icng, 10° and
40° W., for which numerous logs were examined by the Metcorological
Office, in acquiring a knowledge of the Best Route across the Fquutor,
the following notes occur on the subject now under consideration. It may

* “ Verhandelingen en Berigten,” 1854, page 385.
+ “ Voyage de la Vénus,” vol. iii., page 446.

N. A, O. 79

618 DISCOLOURED WATER.

be remarked that the logs were chiefly collected by the late Admiral
FitzRoy, between the years 1855 and 1870.

Between 10° and 20° N. (Squares 38, 39, 40, see diagram, page 481).—
June.—In 17° 30’ N., 25° 30’ W., N.W. of Cape Verdes, ‘‘ Passed through
several streams of small particles of a deep red colour, apparently whale
food.”

September.—In 16° N., 21° W., 100 miles East of Cape Verde Islands
(1865), ‘A long, continuous straw-colouwred streak of matter in the water.
When seen under the microscope, it looked like bundles of fibres stuck
together with some glutinous matter, which released its hold after they
had been kept some time in a tumbler, and allowed the fibres to fall
apart.” Another remarks (1856), 10° N., 27° W., ‘‘ Much yellow matter
on the surface of the water, parts of which, when seen through the micro-
scope, looked like longitudinal cells or tubes of vegetable matter placed
side by side, as in the Pandean Pipes. They were transparent, and rounded
off at their ends.”

October (1870).—In 12° N., 26° W., ‘‘ Sea covered with stuff looking
like Cowhage. When viewed through a magnifying glass it appeared very
much like a fid, shary-pointed at one end, rounded off at the butt, and of
various sizes, the largest about 1-16th of an inch.”

December.—(1851). In 19° 57’ N., 19° 19’ W., ‘Light N.N.E. breeze ;
water still discoloured. Have seen two cuttle-fish to-day, and much weed,
not unlike grass, in the water. On examination, 1% looked like grass which
grows in fresh water, and has been attached at the root to rock or soil,
from which it appears to have been broken very recently. Current South,

20 miles daily, for the last three days.” (1855). Eastward of Cape
Verdes, ‘“‘ Quantities of fish spawn on the surface of the sea, of a brown
colour.” (1860). In 20° N., 34° W., ‘‘ The sea is covered with a yellow

substance, apparently like dust. Cannot see its extent North and South;
it is about 7 or 8 miles S.W. and N.E. Many dolphins and a few flying-
fish seen. Wind §8.8.E., force 2.”

Gulf Weed.—Numerous instances of Gulf Weed observations are re-
corded, especially between 30° and 40° W., and 18° to 20° N. It was also
observed, less frequently, between 15° and 18° N. and 20° to 30° W. In
July (1 obs.) and November (1 obs.) in 12° N., 25° W. In January (1 obs.)
and April (1 obs.), 150 miles 8.W. of Cape Verde, in which position it
must have been placed by the North African Current, as must also the
following :—In 8° N., 16° W. (1862), ‘‘ A quantity of weed floating about;
it proved to be fucus natans, covered with a green weed.”

Between the Equator and 10° N. (Squares 2, 3, and 4) all fish (and their
food), excepting Bonitos and Flying-Fish, were very much confined to the
part of the squares where the two Trades meet.

March (1858).—In 1° N., 20° W., ‘Passed patches of spawn.” In
8° N., 30° W., ‘‘ Passed close to an immense turtle.” In 4° N., 20° W.,
“Patches of spawn, having the appearance of white froth.’”* In

* The float of the Janthisa presents the appearance alluded to in the above remark,
as its shell is not seen from a ship’s deck.

DISCOLOURED WATER. 619

3° N., 24° W., ‘‘ Caught a number of small creatures of remarkable beauty
in colour.”

April.—In the area of warmest water, about midway between St. Paul’s
Rocks and Cape Verde, numerous reports of Meduse@ and jelly-fish. In
4° N., 24° W., ‘‘The surface of the sea covered with a brownish dust, the
specks being from 1-20th to 1-30th of an inch long.” In 3° N., 20° W.,
“ Much fish spawn (?) in the last twenty-four hours.” Inv iN, 2b W..,
“Water very dirty, with substance like blanket hairs; when looked at
through a microscope, it appeared like fine seaweed covered with coral
excrescences ; also a kind of minute burr, which, when magnified, was
star-shaped, the radii being extremely fine.”

May.—Medus@ were seen between 5° and 8° N., and 19° to 22° W.
Animalcules, in 8° N., 31° W., and ind° N., 35° W. In Square 3, numerous
observations of jelly-fish, &c.

June.—In 6° N., 26° W., ‘‘ Passed a long line of foam and brown matter,
about 2 ft. wide and at least 2 miles long, in which were many ‘ Portuguese
men-of-war.’’’ In this month numerous Mollusks were seen in Square 8,
between 6° and 7° N., and a school of Blackfish, perhaps feeding on them.

July.—In Square 3, and in 6° N., 18° W., many luminous animalcules
seen. In 6° N., 17° W., midnight, 8th, to 4 a.m., 9th July, 1870,
“Water full of phosphorescence ; drew a bucket, and found it full of
bag-like jelly-fish, each about the size of a man’s thumb, and covered with
small points; from the end of each point the light seemed to be emitted,
the largest head or point being at the closed end of the bag, and about
the size and appearance of a large pearl. Preserved some in oil.” In
2° N., 31° W., (1858), ‘‘ Patches of seaweed, of a light brown colour.”

August.—(1855). In 3° N., 16° W., ‘‘ Passed through great quantities
of animalcules, in layers, from 40 to 50 yards distant; the water was
luminous all round.” (1864). In 1° N., 23° W., ‘Large quantities of
Meduse@ seen this afternoon; water exceedingly luminous after sunset.” In
Square 3, Meduse effulgens and other gelatinous creatures seen.

September.—In 5° N., 18° W., ‘‘ Numerous jelly-fish floating about.”
In lat. 3° to 6° N., long. 23° to 26° W., ‘‘Sailed through a batch of
‘Portuguese men-of-war;’ they were in a rippling which extended in a
line Kast and West. No more than twenty or thirty were seen before or
after. They were unusually large, bright-coloured, pink and blue. This
was just after we had sailed from South and 8.W. winds into different
weather, and just after a heavy shower of rain (ship going North).” In
3° N., 23° W., ‘‘ Some Portuguese men-of-war, large and blue, with pink-
edged sails. I have never found them in the easterly currents hereabout,
only in the westerly.” In 6° N., 28° W., ‘“ Water appears to be full of
animalcules.” In Square 3, numerous notices of animalcules; and in
6° N., 24° W., “A quantity of yellowish matter, resembling fish spawn.”

November.—(1856 and 1860). In the parallel a little North of Sierra
Leone, vegetable matter (evidently from some of the rivers) was observed
floating on the water as far West as 19° W.; seaweed was also seen
(several large pieces, 1863), in 7° N., 14° W. In Square 3, birds, fish, and
their food, seem to have abounded between 4° and 5° N., where the
easterly and westerly currents meet.

620 DISCOLOURED WATER.

December.—In lat. 7° N., 22° W., ‘‘ Several pieces of greenish seaweed.”
In 6° N., 21° W., noon, ‘‘ Passed a large tree, evidently torn up by the
roots. It appeared about 40 ft. in length.” In°3° N..,, 29°--aVe cee
large stream of something like dirty oil or grease floating on the water.”
In 8° N., 27° W., ‘‘Numerous mollusks floating past, in shape and
size like a mushroom.”

Between the Equator and 10° S. (Squares 301, 302, 303, see diagram,
page 481). Janwary.—(1858). In 4°S8., 31° W., ‘* A strong smell of sea-
weed, aS on a sea-beach, with plenty of weed at low water. In 6°S.,
32° W., the captain says the smell came from a substance on the water

resembling oil.” (1868). In 5° S., 33° W., a captain remarks the curious
circumstance, which, although.not directly referring to our subject, is still
worth quoting. ‘‘ From the observations of many others, as well as from

personal experience, I mention that the birds in the vicinity of the Rocas
and St. Paul’s Rocks are invariably to the eastward of them, only stray
ones to leeward.” Off Pernambuco (1857), ‘‘ Passed over a large quan-
tity of whale-dung.”

March.—In 4° S., 19° W., Meduse and animalcules reported. On
the Equator, in 20° W. (1860), ‘‘ Passed a small piece of seaweed like
sargasso.” In 9° S., 33° W., off Pernambuco, ‘‘ Passed through a narrow
belt of water, its surface covered with a thick deposit of vegetable matter.”

April.—ZJelly-fish and medus@ have been seen (1866) in 1° S., 21° W.;
(1868) in 2° 8., 22° W.; and (1857) in 3° S., 27° W. Off Pernambuco
to the S.E. (1866), ‘‘ Water quite thick with the seed of seaweed.” |

July.—In 2° §., 15° W., Meduse (phosphorescent). In 5° N., 183Was
‘A great number of jelly-fish floating about in large patches.”

August.—In 5° §., 29° W., many snake-like gelatinous creatures seen.
In 10° S., 31° W., ‘ Water full of animalcules.” In 9° 8.32
(1860), ‘‘ Much seaweed about, leaf oblong, with prickly point like holly,
yellow colour, berries upon it single, not in clusters. Little crabs and
fish amongst it in great abundance.” A sketch is given in the log, which
resembles Sargasso weed ; also sketches of the crabs, &c.

September.—In 4° §., 15° W., “A mass of scum travelling with the
wind; it had a brownish appearance.” Similar colouring matter was
noticed in 6° §., 17° W., over a quarter of a mile of the sea, in streaks, at
short distances apart.

December.—On the Equator, 20° W. (1860), ‘‘ Passed through a long
streak of foam, extending N.W. and §.E. as far as the eye could reach.”

In July, 1886, Capt. Page, of the brig Manson, between a position in
lat. 21° 5’ N., long. 21° 14’ W., and another in lat. 17° 41’ N., long.
19° 44’ W., observed the water to be of a pale green colour, and highly
phosphorescent at night. No bottom was found at 125 fathoms.

On July 28th, 1887, in lat. 6° 24’ N., long. 53° 34’ W., Capt. Green, of
the ship Hrato, reported that the water appeared perfectly black, and when
broken by the vessel was very dark green. The thermometer at noon
stood at 84° F.

C6212)

4.-AN ACCOUNT OF THE FINE DUST WHICH OFTEN FALLS
ON VESSELS IN THE ATLANTIC OCEAN.

By Charles Darwin, Esq., F.R.S., F.S.S.

Many scattered accounts have appeared concerning the Dust which has
fallen in considerable quantities on vessels on the African side of the
Atlantic Ocean. It has appeared to me desirable to collect these accounts,
more especially since Professor Ehrenberg’s remarkable discovery that the
dust consists, in considerable part, of Infusoria and Phytolitharia. I have
found fifteen distinct statements of Dust having fallen; and several of
these refer to a period of more than one day, and some to a considerably
longer time. Other less distinct accounts have also appeared. I will here
only refer to the more striking ones, and make a few general remarks.

The phenomenon has been most frequently observed in the neighbour-
hood of the Cape Verde Archipelago. The most southern point at which
Dust is recorded to have fallen is noticed by Captain Hayward,* on whose
vessel it fell whilst sailing from lat. 10° N. to 2° 56’ N.; the distance from
the nearest of the Cape Verde Islands being between 450 and 850 miles.
Respecting the northern limit, the water for a great distance on both sides
of Cape Noon (in lat. 38° 45’) is discoloured, owing in part, according to
Lieut. Arlett,t to the quantities of falling Dust. Hence the phenomenon
has been observed over-a space of at least 1,600 miles of latitude. This
Dust has several times fallen on vessels when between 300 and 600 miles
from the coast of Africa: it fell, in May, 1840, on the Princess Louise,t
(in lat. 14° 21’ N., long. 35° 24’ W.), when 1,030 miles from Cape Verde,
the nearest point of the continent, and therefore half-way between Cayenne
in South America and the dry country North of. the Senegal in Africa.

On January 16th, 1833, when the Beagle was 10 miles off the N.W. end
of St. Jago, some very fine dust was found adhering to the under-side of
the horizontal wind-vane at the mast-head; it appeared to have been
filtered by the gauze from the air, as the ship lay inclined to the wind.
The wind had been for twenty-four hours previously E.N.E., and hence,
from the position of the ship, the Dust probably came from the coast of
Africa. The atmosphere was so hazy, that the visible horizon was only
1 mile distant. During our stay of three weeks at St. Jago (to February
8th), the wind was N.E., as is always the case during this time of the year;
the atmosphere was often hazy, and very fine Dust was almost constantly
falling, so that the astronomical instruments were roughened, and a little
injured. The Dust collected on the Beagle was excessively fine-grained,
and of a reddish-brown colour ; it does not effervesce with acids, and easily
fuses under the blow-pipe into a black or grey bead. ;

In 1838, from the 7th to the 10th of March, whilst Lieut. James, in
H.M.S. Spey, was sailing, at the distance of from 330 to 380 miles from
the African continent, between lat. 21° 10’ N., long. 22° 14’ W., and lat.

—_ Sh

* Nautical Magarine, 1839, page 364. + Geographical Journal, vol. vi., page 296,
3 Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, vol. xxxii., page 184. .

622 FALLS OF DUST [IN THE ATLANTIC.

17° 43’ N., long. 25° 54’ W., considerable quantities of Dust fell on his
vessel. The Dust which fell on the 7th, was preceded by a thick haze, and
it is coarser than that which fell on the succeeding days. It contains
numerous irregular, transparent, variously-coloured particles of stone about
1-1000th of an inch square, with some few a little larger, and much fine
matter. The fact of particles of this size having been brought at least 330
miles from the land is interesting, as bearing on the distribution of the
sporules of cryptogamic plants and the ovules of Infusoria. The Dust
which fell on the three succeeding days resembles in appearance, and in
its action under the blow-pipe, that collected by myself off St. Jago, and
is so excessively fine, that Lieut. James was obliged to collect it with a
sponge moistened with fresh water. As the wind continued nearly in the
same direction during the four days, and the distance from the land was
only a little increased after the first day, it would appear probable that the
coarser Dust was raised by a squall with which the breezes on this coast
so often begin blowing.

With respect to the direction of the wind during the falls of Dust, in
every instance, where recorded, it has been between N.E. and §.E.;
generally between N.E. and East. In the case, however, given by the
Rev. W. Clarke,* a hazy wind which had blown for some time from East
and §.E., first fell calm, and was succeeded for a few hours by a S.W.
wind, and then returned strongly to the East ; during this whole time Dust
fell. With respect to the time of year, the falls have always occurred in
the months of January, February, March, and April; but in the case of
the Princess Louise, in 1840, as late as May 9th. In the year 1839, Dust
was recorded as having fallen in the Atlantic on January 14th and 15th,
and on February 2nd, 4th, 9th, 10th, 11th, 12th, and 13th. I may add,
that Baron Roussin,t during his survey of the north-western African coast,
found that, whilst the wind keeps parallel to the shore, the haze and
Dust extend seaward only a short distance; but when during the above
four specified months, the Harmattan blows from the N.E. and E.N.E.,
accompanied by tornados, the Dust is blown far out, and is raised on high,
so that stars and all other objects within 30° of the horizon are hidden.

Another account is given by Mr. George Peacock, as having occurred
on board H.M.S. Winchester, in February, 1829 :—‘ Shortly after leaving
Tenerife, when in about lat. 25° 30’ N., and some 250 miles from the coast
of the Great Desert of Sahara, the weather became very hazy and sultry,
and one morning, at daylight, the lays of the lower rigging were observed
to be filled with fine, reddish-brown Dust, and the decks, whilst being
washed, were in as muddy a state as the pavement of a street after a
shower. This hazy unpleasant weather continued all day, and quite ob-
scured the horizon, rendering it difficult to observe even the crest of the
waves beyond a few cables’ lengths, and the sun appeared as viewed
through the red shade-glass of a sextant. Towards evening it grew worse,
the wind became light, and the haze was almost as dense as a London
November fog, the air full of fine red Dust, which made it difficult to breathe,

* Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, vol. iv., page 145.
¢ Nautical Magazine, 1838, page 824.

FALLS OF DUST IN THE ATLANTIC. 623

So thick was it, that a young man having fallen overboard, the boats which
were lowered in search of him could neither find him, nor scarcely find
the ship for some time afterwards, and this though guns were fired.”

From the several recorded accounts,* it appears that the quantity of
Dust which falls on vessels in the open Atlantic is considerable, and that
the atmosphere is often rendered quite hazy; but nearer to the African
coast the quantity is still more considerable. Vessels have several times
run on shore, owing to the haziness of the air; and Horsburght recom-
mended all vessels, for this reason, to avoid the passage between the Cape
Verde Archipelago and the mainland. Roussin, also, during his survey,
was thus much impeded. Lieut. Arlett found the water so discoloured,t
that the track left by his ship was visible for a long time; and he attri-
buted this, in part, to the fine sand blown from the deserts, ‘‘ with which
everything on board soon becomes perfectly caked.’’§

Professor Ehrenberg has examined the Dust collected by Lieut. James
and myself; and he finds that it is in considerable part composed of Infu-
soria, including no less than sixty-seven different forms. These consist of
thirty-two species of siliceous-shielded Polygastrica ; of thirty-four forms
of Phytolitharia, or the siliceous tissues of plants ; and of one Polythalamia.
The little packet of Dust collected by myself would not have filled a quarter
of a teaspoon, yet it contains seventeen forms. Professor Ehrenberg re-
marks that, as thirty-seven species are common to several of the packets,
the Dust collected by myself, and on four successive days by Lieut. James,
must certainly have come from the same quarter; yet mine was brought
by an E.N.E. wind, and Lieut. James’ by a S.E. and H.S.E. wind. The
Infusoria are all old known species, excepting one allied to a Hungarian
fossil ; and they are of fresh-water origin, with the exception of Gramma-
tophora oceanica and Textilarea globulosa, which are certainly marine.
Professor Ehrenberg could not detect any of the soft parts of the Infusoria,
as if they had been quickly dried up, and hence it would appear that they
must have been caught up by the wind some time after their death.

The greater number of the species are of wide distribution ; four species
are courmon to Senegambia and South America, and two are peculiar to
the latter country; moreover, itis a very singular fact, that out of the many
forms known to Professor Ehrenberg as characteristic of Africa, and more
especially of the Sahara and Senegambia regions, none were found in the
Dust. From these facts, one might at first doubt whether the Dust came
from Africa; but considering that it has invariably fallen with the wind
between N.H. and S.E., that is, directly from the coast of Africa; that the
first commencement of the haze has been seen to come on with these winds;
that coarser particles have first fallen; that the Dust and hazy atmosphere
are more common near the African coast than farther in the Atlantic; and,

* Nautical Magazine, 1837, page 291; Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, vol. vii.,
page 402; Howard Malcolm’s Travels, vol. ii., page 200,

+ Horsburgh’s East India Directory, page 11.

} In Tuckey’s Narrative of the Congo Expedition, page 10.

§ Nautical Magazine, 1847, page 354.

624 FALLS OF DUST IN THE ATLANTIC.

lastly, that the months during which it falls coincide with those when the
Harmattan blows from the continent, and when it is known that clouds of
dust and sand are raised by it, I think that there can be no doubt that the
Dust which falls in the Atlantic does come from Africa. How to explain the
enigma of the absence of characteristic African forms, and of the presence
of two species from South America, I will not pretend to conjecture.

Finally, I may remark, that the circumstance of such quantities of Dust
being periodically blown, year after year, over so immense an area in the
Atlantic Ocean, is interesting, as showing by how apparently inefficient
a cause a widely-extended deposit may be in process of formation; and
this deposit, it appears, from the researches of Professor Ehrenberg, will
in chief part consist of fresh-water Polygastrica and Phytolitharia.

This concludes Professor Darwin’s remarks.

About 30 years later, Dr. Hellmann collected a series of observations
irom ships’ logs, and from his and later examinations there seems but little
doubt that the source of this Dust is in the African deserts, and that the
Trade Wind is the means of its dispersal. It has been found nearly as -
far North as the parallel of Cape Juby, in long. 37° W., and as far South
as that of Cape Palmas, in 314° W. The westernmost observation was
in 15° N., 403° W., about midway between Cape Blanco and Trinidad.
It is most frequently observed in the winter months, especially January
and February, and the area of its greatest frequency is around the Cape
Verde Islands, or between lat. 10° and 20° N., long. 20° and 30° W.*

Of a merchant-fleet from St. Helena, under convoy, in November, 1813,
most of the ships had their sails covered with red sand, and they must
have been from 400 to 500 miles from shore, in about 27° and 28° N.,
after a succession of easterly winds. ‘I once,’ says Mr. Luccock, ‘“ saw
the sails and deck of a vessel covered with it, when 400 miles from the
coast, and have heard of the same phenomenon being remarked at a far
greater distance. This moving expanse of sand was probably, at some
anterior period, a large inland shallow sea, communicating with the
Mediterranean by the Syrtes (Gulf of Sydra), &.”’

A similar phenomenon occurred to the brig Parssboro’, on her voyage
from Barbados to Belfast, and when she was upwards of 900 miles from
the mainland of Africa. The wind had been at Hast, and was interrupted
by one of those gales noticed in our description of the Azores. ‘In lat.
30° 50’ N., long. 32° 40’ W., Cape Verde Islands bearing S.E., distant 590
miles, the appearance of a heavy squall rising in the S.E. direction. At
6> 30 p.m., lightning, thunder, and the squall approaching. The sun,
about 15° above the western horizon, became overcast with peculiar-
looking clouds, and every appearance of an approaching storm. I conse-
quently shortened sail, although the barometer did not indicate anything
serious. At 8 p.m., the wind became very variable, from N.E. to 8.W.,
every ten or fifteen minutes alternately, for two hours. There was a fall
of rain when the heaviest of the squall was on the zenith. At midnight
it had all passed to the S.W., and the wind resumed its former place,

* «Die Staubfilleim Passatgebiete des Nordatlantischen Ozeans,” von J. yon Goerne,
in ‘Globus,’ Band ly., 1889, pages 241—244.

FALLS OF DUST IN THE ATLANTIC. 625

East. At daylight, the decks, rigging, spars, and paint-work were covered
with mud: and as the sun dried it, it had the appearance of a very fine
red mould, with no sand in it.”’

The following further information on this subject is derived from fifty-
nine observations of Red Dust recorded in the log-books examined at the
Meteorological Office, in the study of the region between lat. 10° 8. and
20° N. from long. 10° to 40° W. Of these, only one occurs in Square 38;
24 in Square 39; and 14 in Square 40; 13 in the northern half of Square 3;
and 7 in the northern half of Square 4 (see diagram, page 481). In the
different months the numbers are as follow:—January 12, February 5,
March 6, April12, May1, June5d, July 3, August 0, September 0,
October 8, November 0, December 12.

The most Westerly observations are :—Lat. 17° 30’ N., long. 38° 30’ W.,
10 a.m., April 13th, 1859: Red Dust still falling; wind N.E. by E.,
force 4. In lat. 14° 30’ N., long. 37° 30’ W., 10 a.m., April 12th, 1859:
Red Dust still falling in large quantities; wind N.E. by E., force 4. In
lat. 12° 30’ N., long. 38° 30’ W., 4 p.m., December 29th, 1865: Sails
tinted with ‘‘cloud”’ Dust; wind EH. by N., force 6. At 6 a.m. the clouds
were said to be tinted brick-dust colour. At noon, indications of ‘cloud ”
Dust. The most Southerly observation is in lat. 4° 30’ N., long.
24° 30’ W., January 15th, 1866: Our sails coloured quite red with
African Dust; wind N.E.

On February 24th, 1879, a heavy 8.S.E. gale brought a thick layer of
similar Red Dust over the city of Naples; this was considered to have come
from the African deserts.

On March 4th, 1889, a fall of yellow Dust, probably blown off the
American coast, was experienced on the Oscar, Capt. Le Moult, in lat.
30° 4’ N., long. 70° W., or about 420 miles from the coast. A fall of red
Dust was also experienced near this position on April 3rd, 1884, on the
ship Ida, Capt. Schneider.*

Land-birds and Insects are frequently seen far out at sea; and in the
region we are now treating of, the ships’ logs record many instances, by
far the most numerous naturally occurring between longitudes 20° and
30° W., or in the tracks of vessels to the Equator. The latitude, however,
points to West Africa as the origin of these remarkable wanderers; be-
tween 3° and 10° N. (long. 20° to 30° W.) about 75 observations are recorded,
while between 3° N. and 10° S. only 9 reports. It would clear up many
doubts, if the species of the various strays was known; doubtless, many of
the insects were shipped in the caterpillar or chrysalis state, and emerged
as perfect insects during the voyage. Some of the land-birds, too, no doubt,
had escaped from passing vessels.

* « Staubfalle im Nordatlantischen Ocean,” in “‘ Annalen der Hydrographie, 1899, .
pages 450—454. See also same for 1891, pages 313—318,

N. A.O. 80

( 626 )

5. THE DEPTH, TEMPERATURE, ETC., OF THE NORTH
ATLANTIC OCEAN.*

DEEP-SEA SOUNDING.—Previous to the introduction of submarine
telegraph cables, comparatively little had been done in the way of sys-
tematically exploring the depths of the ocean, and much doubt was held
regarding the correctness of many of the deep soundings taken. In the
earlier experiments, which were made with small line quite incapable of
bringing back the lead, it is evident that at times the indication of having
reached the bottom, by the line ceasing to run, could not be altogether
satisfactory.

It was formerly considered that the lower stratum of ocean-water in
great depths was, from the pressure and weight of the incumbent mass, so
dense as to be rather of the nature of solid matter than the natural fluid.
However, a few facts will serve to dispel such a notion. The descent of
the deep-sea lead is quite as rapid at a depth when the upper weight must
be enormous, as at less distances from the surface, and no tendency to
obstruct its downward passage can be observed at the greatest depth yet
attained, except that which is due to the friction on the sounding-line.
Again, the whale-fishers frequently find their prey to descend perpen-
dicularly to such enormous depths, that the idea of an impenetrable den-
sity, or even of any considerable increase of it, cannot be for a moment
entertained.

It is true that the pressure increases with the depth, to the amount of
15 lbs. upon the square inch for every 34 feet in depth, or 225 lbs. for
every 100 fathoms, which isa, little over 1 ton on the square inch for every
1,000 fathoms ; but the density is not thereby sensibly increased, owing -
to the comparative incompressibility of water; so that neither the buoyant
force, nor the resistance to the motion of any body, are materially in-

* The chief authorities consulted on the subjects dealt with in this Section are as
follow :—‘‘ The Atlantic Deep-Sea Bed and its Denizens,’’ by Dr. G. C. Wallich, 1861;
‘‘The Depths of the Sea,” 1873, and ‘‘ The Voyage of H.M.S. Challenger ; the Atlantic,”
2 vols., 1877, by Sir C. Wyville Thomson; ‘‘Thalassa; an Essay on the Depth, Tem-
perature, &c., of the Ocean,’ by J. J. Wild, 1877; ‘‘Notes by a Naturalist on the
Challenger, by H. N. Moseley, 1879; ‘‘ Deep-Sea Sounding and Dredging,” by Lieut,
C. D. Sigsbee, U.S.N., 1880, well illustrated with photographs; ‘‘On Deep-Sea Sound-
ing, in Connection with Submarine Telegraphy,” a Paper read before the Society of
Telegraph Engineers, by HE. Stallibrass, 1887; ‘Den Norske Nordhavs-Expedition,
1876—1878,” part xviii., 1887, (in English) by Dr. H. Mohn, on “The Depth, Tem-
perature, and Circulation of the Northern Ocean;’’ ‘‘ Three Cruises of the U. S. Coast
Survey Steamer Blake,’ 2 vols., by Alexander Agassiz, 1888, profusely illustrated with
sketches of apparatus, forms of deep-sea life, &c.;” ‘ Océanographie (Statique),” by
M. J. Thoulet, 1890, a most interesting work ;” the ‘“‘ Reports on the Scientific Results
of the Voyage of H.M.S. Challenger,” a series of monumental richly illustrated volumes,
including that on ‘“ Deep-Sea Deposits,” by Dr. J. Murray and Prof. A. F. Renard,
1891, and those on ‘“ Physics and Chemistry,” 2 vols. ; and, lastly, ‘‘Geophysikalische
Beobachtungen der Plankton-Expedition,” by Dr. O. Kriimmel, 1893. ‘ Fauna of the
Deep Sea,” by S. J. Hickson, M.A., 1894, contains, in a small compass, a great deal of
interesting matter concerning the deep sea and its inhabitants.

DEEP-SEA SOUNDING. 627

creased from the surface to the bottom. At the depth of 3,000 fathoms,
for instance, the pressure upon a square inch is nearly 8,000 lbs., but the
column of water of 18,000 feet is only shortened by about 160 feet. At a
depth of 24 miles the increase of Density is not equal to the difference in
the density between fresh and salt water. Dr. W. A. Miller calculated it
would at that depth be equal to one forty-seventh of its volume, while sea-
water, at the mean specific gravity of 1-027, is one thirty-seventh heavier
than fresh water. There is, therefore, not the slightest difficulty in under-
standing that the sounding-lead or telegraph cable would sink uniformly
from the surface to the greatest depths ; and not only such heavy weights,
but even that the delicate organisms and remains of microscopic animals
which have lived on the surface, may quietly sink to the bottom, and there
add to the immense deposits which are now shown to exist everywhere
over the ocean-bed.

But little importance can be attached to deep-sea soundings taken pre-
viously to the beginning of the nineteenth century. Among the earliest
reliable experiments, perhaps the first, of these deep-sea soundings, is that
recorded by Sir James Ross, who, during the Arctic Expedition of 1818,
obtained specimens of the bottom from depths exceeding 1,000 fathoms.
On November 13th, 1822, Captaan (afterward General Sir) Edward Sabine,
when about midway between the Caymans and Cape Antonio, in the
Caribbean Sea, sank a cylinder and obtained the temperature at a depth
exceeding 1,000 fathoms. This was followed by Captain Wauchope, in
H.M.S. Hurydice, who gained water from a depth of about 1,300 fathoms.
After this, many experiments were tried with more or less success, but
there can be little doubt that many of the early results are not trustworthy,
and are greatly in excess of the truth. At first it was not always tried to
recover the lead, and the line employed was of very inferior character ;
and it was thought that at very great depths the friction of the water was
sufficient to entirely arrest the descent of the weight.

The first attempt to use wire in deep soundings, as a substitute for
hemp cord, was in 1838, during the cruise of the United States Exploring
Expedition, under Captain Wilkes, but it was unsuccessful, owing to its
excessive weight. On August 3rd, 1848, Captain Barnett, R.N., H.M.S.
Thunder, when in about lat. 41° 19’ N., long. 44° 16’ W., between the
Azores and Newfoundland, tried a line of iron wire, varying in size from
Nos. 1 to 5, of 4,000 fathoms in length, wound on a small reel, the smallest
part first, with a weight attached of 61 lbs. It broke at 2,000 fathoms,
which ran out in 20" 53°. This experiment was suggested by Lieutenant
Mooney.

But the greatest length of wire line sent down was that effected by
Lieut J. C. Walsh, in the U.S. schooner Taney, on November 15th, 1849,
to a depth of more than 5,700 fathoms (34,200 ft., or more than 6 statute
miles), without finding bottom, as was supposed, in lat. 31° 59’ N., long.
58° 43’ W., in the vicinity of the assigned position of the rocks called the
False Bermudas. ‘The wire broke at this length, 5,700 fathoms, at the
reel, and was lost. It preserved the exact plumb-line throughout the
sounding ; there was a steady, uniform increase of weight and tension; no
check whatever any instant of its descent.” This experiment, however,

628 DEEP-SEA SOUNDING.

is of a negative character ; for it is evident that the wire would be carried
down and run out by its own weight.

One of the earliest specimens of bottom obtained at great depths was
by Commander C. H. Davis, U.S.N., in October, 1845, when greenish mud
was brought up in the ‘‘Stellwagen cup” from a depth of 1,350 fathoms, in
the Gulf Stream. In 1850—1851, the United States Government des-
patched the sloop Albany, Captain Pratt, to continue the work of sound-
ing the depths of the Atlantic, and numerous soundings were made in
depths up to 1,280 fathoms.

The possibility of obtaining a knowledge of the great depth of the ocean
being established, the United States Government first commenced utilising
this knowledge, on a more extended scale, by the expedition of the brig
Dolphin, in 1851—1852, under the command of Lieut. Lee, and afterwards
of Lieut. O. H. Berryman. The result of this voyage was the disproof of
the existence, in their reported positions, of many of those shoals and
dangers which had long held a place on our charts, to the continual annoy-
ance and embarrassment of navigation, as recited in previous pages. The
cruise of the Dolphin was confined to the North Atlantic Ocean, except a
portion in South latitude about Fernando Noronha and the Rocas.

The question of connecting Europe and America by submarine electric
telegraph now brought the subject of the depth of the ocean prominently
to the fore, and the first trustworthy and systematic series of soundings,
24 in number, was obtained by Lieut. O. H. Berryman, in the U.S. steamer
Arctic, in August, 1856, on the great circle joining Valentia, Ireland, with
St. John’s, Newfoundland. The depths were estimated by a Massey’s
Sounding Machine, and a similar one by M. Lecointre, and the line was
wound in bya small engine on the deck.

The same round was gone over, with the same object, by Lieut. J.
Dayman, in H.M.§8. Cyclops, in June and July, 1857, and 34 soundings
were obtained, the depths being estimated by the length of line and by
the machine as heretofore. The sinker employed was self-detaching upon
touching the bottom, and in a quill attached to the support, samples of
the bottom were brought up in almost every instance in small quantities.
The nature of these specimens is alluded to hereafter, and the very inter-
esting features it first brought to light are there related.

The first failure of the Atlantic Cable having suggested the necessity of
shorter sea sections of the cable, Lieut. Dayman was despatched in
H.M.S. Gorgon, in September and October, 1858, and obtained soundings
between Newfoundland, the Azores, and England, gaining much experience
as to the best methods of sounding, and also of estimating the depths.

Another project for the telegraph cable, to pursue a more northern route,
having arisen, in July, 1860, H.M.S. Bulldog started under the command
of Admiral Sir Leopold M‘Clintock, of Arctic celebrity, and obtained the
depths between the Feroe Islands and Iceland, and thence to Greenland
and Labrador, with most satisfactory results.

The subject of the Atlantic telegraph cable being still of great importance,
and it being desirable that the apparent sudden dip from 550 to 1,750
fathoms on the parallel of 52° 15’ N., at about 170 miles West of Valentia,
found by Lieut. Dayman, in 1857, should be avoided, H.M.S. Porcupine

DEEP-SEA SOUNDING. 629

was despatched in June, 1862, and Mr. Hoskyn, R.N., made a very careful
examination of the edge of the bank of soundings, between the parallels of
51° and 54° N., as well as of that between Iceland and Rockall. It will ba
needless to recapitulate this work—the charts are by far the best guide;
but it may be said that no such sudden dip or abrupt precipice was found,
the steepest incline being a difference of level of 3,060 feet in 22 miles, or
about 19 feet in 100 feet.

Several other expeditions were afterwards organised with a view to
obtaining an exact knowledge of the nature of the sea-bed, and of the
depth of the ocean. The voyage of H.M.S. Hydra, Capt. P. R. Shortland,
and that of H.M.S. Lightning (one of the first two steam-vessels built in
1825 for the Royal Navy), in 1868, with Dr. Carpenter and Dr. Wyville
Thomson on board, may be cited as the most prominent. Besides these,
there were the Gannet and Valorous, and the Swedish vessels Sophia
and Josephine.

In 1869, H.M.S. Porcupine was sent out to continue these interesting
researches, and under the masterly seamanship of Captain Calver, the
apparatus used was brought much more nearly to perfection. The im-
portant results of this expedition in the seas N.W. of the British Isles
will be briefly alluded to presently, but the topic is too wide for full
notice here.*

In 1870, the U.S. vessel Yantic took numerous soundings in the West
Indies, and in the following year the Mercury gained a series of 15 sound-
ings between Sierra Leone and Havana. In 1872, the Telegraph Works
Company took a series of soundings between the Lizard and Bilbao, steel
wire being successfully used in place of hemp line. In 1873, the United
States Government despatched the Tuscarora to the Pacific Ocean, under
Commander Belknap, when a large series of soundings was successfully
made with wire.

Up to now, the most extensive deep-sea exploring expedition was con-
ducted on board H.M.S. Challenger, between December, 1872, and May,
1876, a period of three years and five months, three years of which were
spent between lat. 40° N. and 40° S. Hlaborate investigations were made
in each of the great Oceans of the globe, and it may be interesting to
record, that during this lengthened voyage, the ship sailed and steamed
over upwards of 68,000 miles, and nearly 400 deep soundings were taken,
of which two were over 4,000 fathoms, nine between 3,000 and 4,000
fathoms, 168 between 2,000 and 3,000 fathoms, 124 between 1,000 and
2,000, the remainder being under 1,000 fathoms. There were 360 ob-
serving stations established, at each of which, as far as circumstances
would permit, the exact depth was determined ; samples of the bottom
from 1 oz. to 1 lb. were obtained; samples of water from the bottom and
from various depths were procured for physical and chemical examina-
tion; the bottom and intermediate temperatures were determined; at
most stations a fair sample of the bottcm fauna, and of that of inter-
mediate depths, was obtained by the dredge or trawl variously adjusted ;

* See ‘* Proceedings of the Royal Society,” vol. xviii., No. 181, for a full report of
the voyage.

630 DEEP-SEA SOUNDING.

atmospheric and meteorological observations made; and the direction and
rate of the surface (and in one or two cases of sub-surface) currents were
determined. In the North Atlantic Ocean, 130 soundings were taken,
and other observations made (December 30th, 1872, to August 30th, 1873),
between Portsmouth and Tenerife, Tenerife and St. Thomas in the
Caribbees, St. Thomas and Bermuda, Bermuda and Halifax, having
crossed the Gulf Stream in a north-westerly direction, Halifax and Ber-
muda, Bermuda and Madeira, Madeira and Bahia, crossing the eastern
portion of the Guinea Current in a southerly direction. On the return
voyage in 1876, crossing the Equator in about 14° 25’ W., on April 7th,
Spithead was reached on May 24th.

Between the years 1874—1880, the U.S. surveying vessel Blake, a
steamer of only 218 tons register, under the command of Captain Sigsbee,
and later of Captain Bartlett, took upwards of 3,000 deep soundings with
wire. During 1885—1890, the Blake was again occupied, under Lieut.
Pillsbury, in examining the Caribbean Sea and the course of the
Gulf Stream.

Telegraph cable companies now began to employ vessels and staffs of
their own, to take most elaborate series of careful soundings, and a great
deal of our present knowledge of the depths of the sea is due to their
researches. In 1874, 1879, 1881, and 1882, Messrs. Siemens Brothers’
steamer Faraday made a most complete examination of the region
between Northern Europe and Amer ca, when the so-called Faraday Hills
were discovered, in mid-Atlantic. These consist of several patches, with
depths under 1,000 fathoms, situated between lat. 49° 35’ and 49° 50’ N.,
long. 28° 55' and 29° 50’ W.; the least depth found was 625 fathoms, in
lat. 49° 414’ N., long. 29° 5’ 50” W. A wire sounding line was used, with
such accurate results, that the difference between repeated measurements
at the same spots, in depths about 2,000 fathoms, rarely exceeded
2 fathoms.

Among later surveys of the depths of the North Atlantic Ocean by
telegraph ships, we may mention those of the Dacia and International,
between Spain and the Canary Islands, in 1883; the Buccaneer, in 1886,
off the West Coast of Africa; the Silvertown, in 1884, between Senegal
and the Canary Islands, and in 1889, off the West Coast of Africa; the
Minia, in 1889 and 1893, in mid-Atlantic and off Nova Scotia; the Szlver-
town, in 1891, between the Cape Verde Islands and Pernambuco; and the
Westmeath, in 1890 and 1892, between Halifax and Bermuda, and off and
among the Caribbee Islands, the Bahamas, and Florida.

In 1881, the French Government despatched the Travailleur, and in
1883, the Talisman, to examine the seas from Western Europe to the
Senegal, and among the Azores, Canary, and Cape Verde Islands, and in
the Sargasso Sea, and they added much to our knowledge of the ocean.
Soundings were also made by the Italian corvette Vettor Pisani, in 1882.
Nor must we omit to mention the explorations made by the Prince of
Monaco, in his yacht Hirondelle, during the years 1885—1888, and the
expedition of the German steamer National, in 1889.

Careful series of soundings have also been taken by the following
United States vessels :—The Hntervrise, in 1886, between the River Plate

DEEP-SEA SOUNDING. 63T-

and New York, and in 1888, between Lisbon and the Azores; the’
Albatross, in 1556 and 1887, off the American coasts, and in the Caribbean
Sea and Gulf of Mexico; the Hssex, in 1886, between the United States
and Lisbon; the Juniata, in 1886, in mid-Atlantic, towards St. Paul’s
Rock ; and the Dolphin, in 1889, between Lisbon and the United States.

Having thus enumerated the principal explorations made in the deep
sea, we now proceed to give a short description of the apparatus used.

A special feature in the history of deep-sea sounding machines is the
improvement iu handiness and compactness resulting from the use of fine
steel wire of high tenacity, instead of the hempen rope with its heavy
sinkers of 4 to 6 cwt. The apparatus used in ascertaining the depth,
and obtaining specimens of the bottom, has also been gradually modified
to obviate the difficulties encountered. These chiefly refer to the means
of detaching the sounding weights, and to the form of the apparatus
which secures a portion of the bottom when it is attained.

In the Dolphin, 1851—1852, the soundings were taken with line
‘07 inch in diameter, and one or two 32-lb. shot, but it has been ques-
tioned, and it certainly seems with reason, whether the evidence upon
which the deeper soundings rest is quite valid, as before alluded to. It
was considered that an approximation to the true depth obtained could
be found by the rate of descent of the line, carefully estimated from
numerous experiments, but this, of course, is liable to the vitiating in-
fluence of under-currents. In sounding with a line of ‘07 inch in diameter,
the velocity of the descent diminishes, with one 32-lb. shot, from 8°83 feet
per second at 50 fathoms, to 2°84 feet at 1,000, and 2:09 feet at 2,000
fathoms; and with two 32-lb. shot, from 12:5 feet per second at 50
fathoms, to 3°48 feet at 1,000, and 2:99 feet at 2,000 fathoms; but these
figures have been much modified by later experience, as referred to in the
description of the wire sounding apparatus.

Another very important consideration is—what effect would under-
currents have on the line in passing through it? It is certain that a
current must act upon the bight of the sounding-line after the weight has
passed through it, and it may operate in swerving the weight itself from
its perpendicular descent at great depths. Again, the force exerted by a
current against the bight of the sounding-line will have the effect of taking
the twine off the reel at nearly dowble its own velocity.

From these considerations it was supposed that the depths stated, even
when it was certain that the bottom had been reached, were in excess,
and this, too, in an uncertain degree. But this source of error was much
over-estimated. At that time, there was no experience by which a know-
ledge could be acquired as to the movements of the water at any con-
siderable depth. But it is now well ascertained, that any movement
which would greatly affect the registered depth ceases, as a rule, at a
comparatively small depth, and that although the lower strata of ocean
waters must have some circulatory movement, this motion is so slow as
to be inappreciable by any means hitherto applied to estimate it on the
open ocean. In laying a telegraph cable, the strain it exerts is most care-
fully and continuously watched by its action on the dynamometer, and

632 DEEP-SEA SOUNDING.

the angle it makes with the surface of the sea also well noted, and
these evidences accord so nearly with the calculations made for water in
a quiescent state, that it is now beyond controversy, that rapid motion is
confined to the upper strata.

Sir James Ross, in the Arctic Expedition of 1818, used a 24-inch whale
line for sounding, and devised a ‘‘ deep-sea clam ”’ for securing samples of
the bottom, which closed by a falling weight on striking the ground. In
later years, the line was carried down by a weight or spherical shot,
suspended on a peculiar pair of hooks, the invention of Mr. Bonnici ;
when it touched the bottom, the hooks gave way automatically and
dropped the weight. Lieut. Brooke, U.S.N., devised an improved form
of this apparatus, the detachable weight sliding on a tube, which latter
secured a specimen of the bottom. Lieut. Dayman used an improvement
of the latter, on the Cyclops, in 1857. In the same year, the U.S.S. Arctic
made successful use of the Massey Sounding Machine, which registers the
depth on a dial attached to a revolving fan.

In H.M.S. Bulldog’s soundings, in 1860, the depth was obtained
generally by cod-line, with an iron sinker of 118 lbs., the line and sinker
being lost at each sounding. The depth being thus obtained, a machine
for bringing up a sample of the bottom was next sent down by a stronger
line, with a self-detaching tubular sinker of 100 lbs. The apparatus which
brought up specimens of the bottom was a double scoop, 5 inches in
diameter, kept open so long as the weight was dependent on it, but
forcibly closed by means of a vulcanised india-rubber band the moment it
was detached by touching the bottom. This brought up specimens in large
quantities. It was contrived by Dr. Wallich and Mr. Steil, the assistant
engineer, and has been called the Bulldog Machine.

The ‘“‘Hydra’” Sounding Machine was invented by a blacksmith on
H.M.S. Hydra, 1868, and this was employed on H.M.S. Porcupine, in
1869, for the deep soundings. Its peculiarity consists partly in the
simple means of detaching the weights, a compressed spring relaxing and
letting go the line which supports them ; and partly in the construction of
the rod which carries them, this being a strong tube furnished with valves
opening upwards, so as to allow the water to stream through it freely in
its descent, whilst they enclose the mud or sand into which the tube is
forced on striking the bottom before the sinkers are detached. For depths
of 1,000 to 1,500 fathoms, two sinkers, each of 1121bs., were employed ;
and for yet deeper soundings three sinkers were used. This apparatus, as
modified by Lieut. C. W. Baillie, R.N., was also used on H.M.S. Chal-
Jenger, the sounding-line being 0-8 inch in diameter, made of the best
Italian hemp, and bearing a strain of 12 cwt.

The U.S. steamer Blake used the “‘ Sigsbee-Belknap ” apparatus, differ-
ing principally from the foregoing in the means of detaching the sinkers.
The sounding line used was of wire, No. 20 guage, capable of bearing a
strain of 240 lbs., and carrying a sinker weighing 60 lbs.

The latest sounding machine, now in general use by telegraph and
other deep-sea exploring vessels, is that devised by Mr. Lucas, of the
Telegraph Construction Company. A complete apparatus, for depths up
to 5,000 fathoms, weighs less than 2 cwt., the wire weighing about 14 lbs.

DEPTH OF THE OCEHAN. 633

per 1,000 fathoms, and the sinker 50 lbs. A dial records the number of
fathoms paid out.

A few figures will suffice to show the great superiority of wire over
hemp sounding-line. In H.M.S. Challenger, a hemp line, with a sinker
of 4 cwt., was used, and in the International, a wire line, 0:03 inch in
diameter, with a sinker of 50 lbs. In a depth of 2,435 fathoms, the hemp
line took 33 minutes to sink, and 2" 2™ to haul up. In 2,929 fathoms,
the wire took 29™ 45% to sink, and was reeled up in 34™ 35%. Besides this,
the wire can be wound in from depths up to 4,000 fathoms, while the
vessel is proceeding at 8 or 9 knots, but with hemp line the vessel must
remain stationary. The wire is coiled on a small drum, and passed over
a pulley attached to’an ‘‘ accumulator,” a series of springs composed of
steel or india-rubber, which take off any excessive strain from the line, in
case of the vessel pitching heavily.* Wire sounding apparatus is now
also manufactured for ordinary ships’ use; when not in frequent use, the
drums of wire should be kept in a solution of caustic soda, or in oil or
lime-water, to prevent oxidation.

Depth.—For a comprehensive view of this subject, which of course does
not affect navigation, however interesting it may be to the physical
geographer, we must refer the reader to the illustrative diagram, as a
verbal account of the depths obtained in these and other voyages would
convey but little intelligible information. These researches are beyond
the scope of the ordinary navigator, and are here only cursorily reviewed
as matters of interest. The diagram can only be considered as theoretical,
the number of soundings hitherto taken being extremely small as com-
pared with the vast extent of the Ocean.

The greatest depth hitherto found in the Atlantic Ocean is 4,561
fathoms, or nearly 5} statute miles ; this depth was found in 1883, by the
U.S. steamer Blake, in lat. 19° 41’ N., long. 66° 24’ W., about 105 miles
north-westward of St. Thomas, and near where H.M.S. Challenger found
3,875 fathoms, in lat. 19° 41’ N., long. 65° 77 W. The U.S.S. Enterprise,
in 1886, found 4,529 fathoms, bottom of brown ooze, in lat. 19° 53’ N..,
long. 65° 45’ W. In 1889, the U.S.S. Dolphin found 3,441 fathoms, in
lat. 30° 49’ N., long. 25° 20' W. A depth of 3,428 fathoms was found by
the U.S.S. Blake, in the Caribbean Sea, in lat. 19° 1’ N., long. 81° 2’ W.,
north-westward of Jamaica, situated in a deep trough extending fran
the Windward Passage into Honduras Gulf, and called by the Amaritana
the Bartlett Depression.

* The Accumulator is generally composed of a number of strong vulcanized india-
rubber springs, combined at their extremities; and its use is two-fold :—/rst, to indicate
by its elongation any excessive strain upon the sounding or dredging line, which passes
through the block; and second, to ease off the suddenness of such strain, and give time
for the action by which it may be relieved. This is specially valuable in deep-sea
sounding and dredging when the vessel is pitching; for the friction of two or three
miles of immersed line is so great as to prevent its yielding to any sudden jerk, such ag
that given to its attached extremity by a vertical motion of a few feet when the vessel
rises toa sea. And it is absolutely needful when dredging is carried on from a large
vessel ; since, whenever the dredge fouls, the momentum of the vessel, however slowly
it might be moving through the water, would cause the line to part, if the strain were
sudden instead of gradual.

NAL O. 81

634 _ DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

Deep-Sea Deposits—The materials composing the bed of the Ocean
may be divided into two classes, according as they have been derived
from the land or the sea. Terrigenous Deposits, or those derived from the
degradation of adjacent land surfaces, do not extend as a rule more than
300 or 400 miles from the shore, but powerful ocean or river currents
would carry them much farther; in these, it is thought, that compound
rocks, such as now exist, can be recognised in process of formation.

Pelagic Deposits are formed with extreme slowness, in the deep water
of the central regions of the great ocean basins, and consist of organic
oozes and a reddish clay. They are chiefly made up of the calcareous
and siliceous remains of organisms which have fallen from the surface
water, along with clay and decomposing volcanic débris. These do not
appear to bear any relation to the known marine stratified rocks.

Between the depths of 400 and 2,000 fathoms, the floor of the Atlantic
Ocean is, in general, covered with a whitish mud, formed by the shells of
globigerina and other foraminifera, identical with those in chalk. These
are rarely found in depths beyond 2,500 fathoms. In the deepest parts,
the floor is a sort of red clay, with granules of manganese and iron,
supposed to be of meteoric origin.

It is probable, however, that there is no invariable rule of the quality
of the bottom depending on the depth. For instance, in ten soundings
between 2,000 and 3,000 fathoms, off the United States coast, in 1884,
the Albatross found a bottom of globigerina ooze. The following is a
short description of the principal Pelagic Deposits.

Red Clay, with which it is conjectured that more than one-fourth of
the globe’s area is covered, is found in great depths, remote from land.
It is soft and greasy to the touch, and a specimen from a depth of 3,150
fathoms, in the North Atlantic Ocean, was found to consist of 53-30 silica,
17:40 alumina, 11-70 ferric oxide, with traces of lime and magnesia. It
is considered to be derived mainly from the decomposition of volcanic
materials. The Manganese Nodules, found with this deposit, usually
contain about 35 per cent. peroxide of manganese, with some 25 per
cent. of ferric oxide; cobalt, with copper, and a little nickel, are present
in all of them, according to Mr. Buchanan.

Radiolarian Ooze is only found in the greatest depths, and has not been
found in the Atlantic. It consists of a basis of Red Clay, with a large
admixture of siliceous organisms.

Diatom Ooze is only found in the South Polar regions, and in the N.W.
part of the North Pacific Ocean.

Globigerina Ooze appears to occupy all the medium depths of the Ocean,
away from land, and consists mainly of carbonate of lime, formed from
the dead shells of foraminifera, which, when living, abound on the
surface of the sea. +

Pteropod Ooze is similar to the last, and is found on the central Atlantic
ridges, and contains shells of mollusca, which also live on the surface.

In 1883, the Talisman examined the Sargasso Sea region, and obtained
from the bottom a collection of volcanic lava and scoriw, some appearing
to be of comparatively recent origin. ,

TEMPERATURE OF THE DEEP SEA. 635

TEMPERATURE.—In recent times a great amount of attention has
been given to the subject of the Temperature of the Waters of the Ocean,
from the surface to the bottom, as affording a clue to the system of its
tirculation. Allusion has already been made to this in (247) page 298,
and in (362) page 377. In the earlier experiments, all enquiries into
deep-sea Temperatures appear to have been alike deceptive and unsatis-
factory, as the indications obtained; even by the most careful observers,
with the best of instruments, were utterly at variance with any theory
that could associate Temperature as a leading cause of the circulation of
the waters of the Ocean. Thus, temperatures that reason would expect
to find—say 30° F.—at great depths, were made to appear to be 42° or 43°,
the disparity being less as the depth diminished.* This was caused by
the elasticity of the glass bulbs yielding to the pressure of the water,
though they recovered their normal condition on reaching the surface, so
that the effect of this pressure remained unknown.

Protected bulbs for Deep-Sea Thermometers had been devised by
Admiral FitzRoy, and used by Capt. Pullen in the Atlantic and Indian
Oceans, but the principle was forgotten until revived and carried out
again, as related by Dr. J. J. Wild, in ‘‘ Thalassa,” pages 31—34. He
says :—‘‘ The want of an efficient deep-sea thermometer, which more or
less vitiates all the observations of earlier explorers, was especially ex-
perienced during the cruise of H.M.S. Lightning in 1868, the first
expedition fitted out for sounding and dredging purposes by the joint co-
operation of the Royal Society and the English Admiralty. Of the
thermometers used on this occasion, several returned to the surface broken
by the pressure to which they had been exposed, and the indications
given by the rest varied so much as to render the discovery of a ther-
mometer free from this error a matter of paramount importance for the
success of future deep-sea exploration. By a happy coincidence, the
desired improvement was effected at the moment when a second expedi-
tion was being prepared.

‘In April, 1869, previous to the departure of H.M.S. Porcupine on her
first cruise, at a meeting of the Deep-Sea Committee of the Royal Society
of London, Dr. W. A. Miller suggested a simple expedient for protecting

* Mr. Prestwich collected these series of observations, as they form a valuable supple-
ment to those collected since 1868. See ‘Tables of Temperatures of the Sea at Various
Depths below the Surface, taken between 1749 and 1868, collated and reduced, with
notes and sections,”’ by Joseph Prestwich, F.R.S., F.G.S., in the “ Proceedings of the
Royal Society,” No. 154, 1874.

Much recent information on this subject is given in the works mentioned in the note
on page 916, and the following have also been referred to, in dealing with this section.
The ‘“‘ Wind and Current Charts” issued by the Meteorological Office, in 1872, and
referred to on page 294, &c., and ‘Charts showing the Surface Temperature of the
Oceans,” issued in 1884; “ Further Enquiries on Oceanic Circulation,” in the ‘ Pro-
ceedings of the Royal Geographical Society,” vol. xviii, 1874, and a Paper ‘“ On the
Temperature of the Deep-Sea Bottom,” in the ‘ Proceedings,” vol. xxi, 1877, both by
Dr. Wm. B. Carpenter, F.R.S.; and ‘* Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse einer Forschungs-
reise zur Zee, in 1891 und 1892,” by Dr. G. Schott, in ‘‘ Erginzungsheft No. 109 zu
Petermann’s Mitteilungen,” 1893, which contains a great deal of interesting matter
concerning Temperature, Specific Gravity, Currents, &c.

636 TEMPERATURE OF THE DEEP SEA.

thermometers from the effects of pressure, which was ably carried out by
Mr. L. P. Casella, F.R.A.S., the eminent scientific instrument maker to
the Admiralty, and resulted in the construction of an almost perfect
instrument for recording the temperature at great depths.* One of the
essential qualities of an instrument intended for use on long voyages is
that it should be portable—a quality especially realised by Mr. Casella in
the construction of his thermometer. By contracting the bore of the
glass tube as much as possible, the quantity of the liquids, particularly of
the mercury, was reduced to a minimum ; and the liahility to accident,
nlmost inseparable from instruments containing large quantities of this
heavy substance, was thus greatly reduced.

“The cruise of H.M.S. Challenger afforded ample opportunities for
testing the capabilities of the Miller-Casella Thermometer. It resisted all
the pressures to which it was exposed down to a depth of about 4,000
fathoms, when some of the instruments were found to give way under a
pressure of four tons to the square inch; but as depths of from 4 to 5
miles are exceptional, such accidents will be of rare occurrence. Under
a pressure of three tons, equivalent to a depth of 3 miles, the error
amounts to less than 1° C. (2° F.), whilst that of the unprotected ther-
mometers, previously in use, sometimes exceeded 10° C. (18° F.) for the
same depth; and a comparison of the data furnished by the Miller-
Casella Thermometer with the corresponding Temperature Curves shows
that the mean error of all the deep-sea observations made on board
H.M.S. Challenger, not much under 10,000 in number, is probably less
than 0°5° C.

‘‘The Thermometers, before being sent out, are subjected to pressures
varying from one to four tons to the square inch, in a hydraulic press
especially designed for this purpose by Mr. Casella, and the amount of
error ascertained for each instrument. When in actual use, they are
enclosed in a copper cylinder, perforated at both ends, to allow free ingress
aad egress of the water. Several Thermometers may be attached to
vhe same sounding-line, whilst it is being paid out, at distances of
5, 10, 25, 50, or 100 fathoms as required; and it is found that an im-
mersion of from five to ten minutes is sufficient to secure the desired
record of temperature.

‘“« Since all the observations made on board H.M.S. Challenger, during
her cruise round the world, were obtained, and the true Temperature of
the sea determined by means of this instrument, now known as the
Miller-Casella Thermometer, a description of it in these pages may not be
out of place.

* In experiments with the hydraulic machine, constructed to test the effect of
pressure on the thermometers employed, a standard registering thermometer, shielded
in a stout glass cylinder, was placed in the water together with one of the deep-sea
thermometers, and the water was compressed to an extent equal in pressure to about
3 miles of depth in the sea. All previous suspicions of errors were fully confirmed, as
the pressure on the bulb was found to cause an error of 12° to 13° F. at this depth,
Notwithstanding the great pressure to which these instruments had been subjected, all
of them, without exception, recovered their original scale-readings as soon as the
pressure was removed.

DEEP-SHEA THERMOMETERS. 637

“Tar MinLER-CASELLA THERMOMETER, as will be seen from the accom-
panying figures is designed to register the maximum and minimuin tem-
perature of the water to which it is exposed during its descent from the

the surface of the sea to the bottom. For

this purpose, the glass tube is bent in
the shape of the letter U, each arm of
the tube terminating in a bulb. The
larger bulb, A, is surrounded by another
bulb, B, and about
three-fourths of the
| space between the two
bulbs is filled with
| alcohol. It is by the
addition of this outer
bulb, B, that the pro-
tection of the instru-
ment from the effects
of pressure is secured.
‘On immersion, the
outer bulb receives the
pressure of the water,
and forces the enclosed
alcohol into the por-
tion of the intervening
space previously not
occupied by this liquid,
thus relieving the in-
ner bulb, A. The
latter is completely
filled with a mixture
1 of creosote and alcohol,
which rests upon the —_—Miller- Casella

5 - Thermometer,
mercury contained in Gul cane!
the bend of the tube,
and also fills up the other arm and part of the bulb C. The upper part
of bulb © is occupied by air, introduced, with the help of a freezing
mixture, at a very low temperature, in order to increase its elastic force.
It thus acts as a sort of elastic cushion, intended to overcome the
weight and friction of the mercury in the tube, and to assist the mercury
in following the mixture when contracting under the influence of cold.

‘The indications of the thermometer depend upon the expansion by
heat and contraction by cold of the mixture contained in bulb A. When
expanding, the mercury is forced down in the arm attached to this bulb
and rises in the other arm towards bulb C; when contracting, the mercury
falls on the side of bulb C, and rises towards bulb A. Two steel indices,
a, a, covered with glass, mark the maximum height which the mercury
has reached in either arm, and a hair attached to each index produces
the friction necessary to retain them at the level to which they have
been raised. Before the thermometer is lowered into the sea, the

. .

TTT MM

A ui

I

*azis [ee Wp e209

638 DEEP-SEA THERMOMETERS.

indices are brought down upon the mercury by passing a magnet along
the tube.”

Negretti and Zambra’s Deep-Sea Thermometer.—It having been urged
that the Miller-Casella Thermometer simply registered the coldest tem-
perature passed through, without regard to depth, Messrs. Negretti and —
Zaubra, scientific instrument makers, devised an apparatus by means of
which the temperature can be
readily ascertained at any depth
J as required, and if necessary a
f series of temperatures could be
m obtained by fixing these Ther-
4 mometers on the sounding-line at
such intervals apart as may be
determined. Figure 1 represents
the Thermometer in the position
it occupies during descent, and
Fig. 2 as it appears after register-
ing. The fan revolves only as
the line is drawn up, and attached
to it is a screw which permits
the Thermometer to turn over in
its frame, after the fan has per-
formed a certain number of revo-
lutions and the column of mer-
cury previously above the bulb
indicates the precise Temperature
at the time of turning over.

The cylindrical bulb (Fig. 3),
containing mercury, has its neck
closely contracted at A. When.
the bulb is downward, it contains
sufficient mercury to fil! the tube
and part of the small reservoir C
i (Vie at the other end of. the tube.
CC ——. smut When the bulb is held upward,

: the mercury breaks off at A, and
ee a ae fills C and a part of the tube, the
mercury indicating the temperature on the scale, as shown in Fig. 3.
A simpler form of instrument is constructed for ordinary ship’s use.

Sir William Siemens’ Electric Thermometer is a very delicate instrument,
by which the Temperature is recorded on deck at any depth desired. We
cannot attempt to describe this, it being only suitable for scientific
purposes.

The following illustration has appeared in many previous editions of
this work, and, although the instrument is old-fashioned, its principle is
good for small depth observations, such as those required by fishermen.

Captain Livingston says :—‘ In my thermometric experiments I had
several thermometers broken. However, to secure my thermometers
from being broken, and to enable me to have a column of water round the

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i

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DEEP-SEA THERMOMETERS. 639

thermometer stficient to retain its original temperature till such time as
the degree indicated by the thermometer scale could be read off, keeping
at the same time the bulb of the
thermometer immersed in the
water, I prevailed on an ingenious
mechanic to attempt the structure
of such a case ag I wanted, in
which he most happily suc-
ceeded.” The person here alluded
to was Mr. Robert Jamieson, of
6 Glasgow, who was honoured with
a the large silver medal of the
Society for the Encouragement
of Arts.

Fig. 1, hereto annexed, repre-
sents a back view of the case,
ready for use, being a tube of
copper, which encloses a thermo-
meter; Figure 2 represents a
thermometer, so enclosed. The
length of the whole tube, includ-
ing the lid, is about 18 inches,
and its external diameter 2 inches.
The lid, which has a check to fit
the tube, is about 2 inches deep,
and has a conical or puppet-valve
in it, which rises upward. At
the lower end of the tube is
another valve of the same descrip-
tion, which also rises upward.

ot “8 These two valves permit the

d-| =4-2 water to pass freely through the

é tube while it descends into the

Fg. 1. Fig. 2 water; but so soon as it stops,

the valves shut, and the water,
admitted at the greatest depth to which the machine is sunk, remains in
the tube, around the thermometer.

Fig. 1 is a back view of the case ready for use. In Fig. 2,a@a represent a ring, or
collar, on which the thermometer-plate rests, to keep it clear of the lower valve; 44, the
upper valve and valve-tube cover; ¢c, a bridge on which the neck rod, or journal, of
the valve works, through a hole in a swell in the centre of the bridge; d d, lower part
of the journal, with a screw-head, which keeps it from rising through the hole in the
bridge; ¢ ¢, ends of the journals.

In recording the Surface Temperature, care should be taken that the
instrument is not affected by the hot water from the condenser, or other
causes. If the water be drawn up, time should be given for the receptacle
to acquire the same temperature as the sea, and the Thermometer must
be read immediately it is taken from the water.

640 TEMPERATURE OF THE OCEAN.

The variations of heat and cold, due to change of season, or to day and
night, which affect the surface, descend to a comparatively small depth,
being greatly reduced in the first 100 fathoms, and below that depth are
for the most part eliminated.

The Sun’s direct influence probably does not extend below 150 fathoms;
below this is a band of 300 to 400 fathoms, in which the temperature falls
rapidly to about 38°, and thence to the bottom, which is near 32°, except
in inland seas and oceanic basins. Mr. Agassiz says :—‘‘The great cold
af the bottom-water of the Ocean, is best brought home to those who have
examined the contents of a trawl under the Tropics. The bottom ooze is
intensely cold, and it is a strange sensation, while one’s back is broiling
beneath a Tropical sun, to have one’s hands nearly frozen while assorting
the contents of the trawl.”

Surface Temperature.—Speaking roughly, the Mean Annual Suriiee
Temperature of the water of the Atlantic Ocean, is about 75° F. at the
Equator (between 10° N. and 10° $.). Between 10° N. and 38° N. it is 70°.
Northward of 38° N., the Swmmer Isotherms (lines passing through places
of equal mean temperatures) of 544°, 50°, and 453°, turn sharply north-
wards to the East of the Banks of Newfoundland; diverging one from
another, and from the summer Isotherm of 60°, at intervals which are
pretty nearly equal, almost as far to the Hast as the meridian of 30° W. ;
but then again trending strongly to the North, so that the summer Isotherm
of 544° crosses the parallel of 60° N. before (by a slight trend to the South)
it passes through Pentland Firth. Thence, crossing the North Sea, this
Isotherm passes along the coast of Norway as far as Tromsé (very near
the parallel of 70°), and then turns southwards along the land, keeping
within the coast-line of Russian Lapland, and passing across the narrow
throat of the White Sea.

The summer Isotherms of 50° and 453° cross the mouth of Baffin’s Bay,
and then follow the curve of the coast of Greenland towards Iceland;
when approaching which they turn eastwards, the line of 50° striking the
land on the N.W. of Iceland, while the line of 454° passes altogether to
the North of the island. To the East of Iceland the Isotherms take a
southerly bend, apparently under the influence of a drift of ice from the
Polar Sea, but soon turn northwards again ; the line of 50° running nearly
parallel to the coast of Norway as far as the North Cape, and then turn-
ing southwards along the coast of Russian Lapland, so as to cross the
mouth of the White Sea to the base of the Kanin Peninsula; while the
line of 454° runs parallel to this as far North as lat. 724°, and then turns
southwards, still retaining the same parallelism, so as to strike the coast
of Russia beyond that peninsula. Still farther North we find the summer
Isotherms of 41° and 364° showing a nearly West to East direction, until
they have passed the meridian of 10° W., and then suddenly turning
northwards; the line of 364° passing up to the West of Spitzbergen as far
as 82° N., and also extending itself irregularly eastwards along the
parallel of 75° as far as Nova Zembla.

The course of the Winter Isotherms of 454°, 41°, 364°, and 32°, as shown
in Dr. Peterniann’s chart, is no less significant ; for they all turn sharply
to the North on the eastern side of the Banks of Newfoundland, cross the

TEMPERATURE OF THE OCEAN. 64]

entrance of Baffin’s Bay, and then keep a course of general parallelism to
the coast of Greenland, crossing the meridian of 30° W. at almost equal
intervals. The Winter Isotherm of 454° follows almost exactly the course
of the Summer Isotherm of 544° as far as the Shetland Islands; but it
then turns back on itself soas to form a loop, passing southwards along
the Western Hebrides towards Belfast. The course of the Winter Isotherm
of 40°, in like manner, at first bears a general correspondence with that of
the Summer Isotherm of 50°, skirting the South coast of Iceland, and then
passing N.H. in the channel between Iceland and Norway ; but in lat. 674°
it also returns in a loop, which brings it back to the Hast coast of Scotland.
The Winter Isotherm of 364°, again, corresponds very closely with the
Summer Isotherm of 45°; passing through Iceland, and then keeping a
N.E. course which carries it far to the North and East of the North Cape,
when it, too, forms a loop, bringing it back to the coast of Russian Lapland.
Finally, the Winter Isotherm of 32° proceeds along a similar course from
the Banks of Newfoundland to the northernmost point of Iceland, and then
onwards towards Jan Mayen.

In the above, it will be remarked that the Surface Temperature, North
of 40° N., is much greater on the eastern than on the western side of the
Atlantic, both in summer and winter; this is due in a great measure to
the prevalent south-westerly winds, blowing the warmer water in a north-
easterly direction, and also, as will be hereafter explained, to the general
oceanic circulation.

It is beyond the scope of this work to enter more into detail as to the
power of the various Surface Currents in distributing heat over the Ocean;
but that this heated water does not extend to any great depth will be
understood from the following remarks on Sub-surface Temperatures.
We must also refer the reader to the earlier portion of this book, where,
in the description of the Currents, especially of the Gulf Stream, some
particulars of the depth to which their warm water extends is generally
given.

Sub-surface Temperature.—Taking a general view, or mean for the year,
of the water in mid-Atlantic, in a section taken nearly North and South,
we find the Temperatures (Fahr.) as follow :—

A F Hi :
q Z | A a a . 2 =
ce eee ea
<3)
acs eae eee ae ° ° ° °
FELINE SUIITACE, ccacucesscccscccecees 50 57 63 70 70 75 70 54
BRCM EAENOTIS sos.ksessoceecs ons 50 | 56 | 62 | 6 | 70 | 75 | 69 | 58
REPT LL Cs. ecanveee 49 | 53 | 55 | 64 | 69 | 70 | 65 | 52
>> 200 Reach seis so scesceaneaes 48 50 61 52 55 48 45 45
BM cs ccesnsseesconceses 45 | 46 | 47 | 45 | 44 | 89 ! 38 | 387
», 1000 WEA ences sazclsesi ses 40 38 38 37 38 88 36 36
PCAN MEM se lt Civcacscescrcsccscce 37 36 36 35 34 33 34
PESO LEOM UG sence cee tccciceceldelevecccescece ae 35 35 32 33 $3
Depth of bottom .....ccccccccecees 800 | 1500 | 2000 | 2700 | 2700 | 2500 | 2200 | 2200
fms. | fms. | fms. | fms. | fms. | fms. | fms. | fms.
|

It may now be confidently stated as a general fact, (1) that over not

Ws AO. 82

642 TEMPERATURE OF THE OCEAN.

only the Temperate but also the inter-Tropical portions of the oceanic area,
a bottom-temperature prevails of between 32° and 354° Fahr.; whilst
within the Polar areas this temperature falls to 28°. Further, it may be
asserted, (2) that this vast oceanic basin, whose average depth may be
estimated at about two miles and a half, is occupied to within 400 fathoms
of its surface (save in the exceptional case of the Gulf Stream region), by
water whose temperature is below 40° F.,—this cold water actually coming
up nearer to the surface in the Equatorial Atlantic (as several of the older
observers had noticed) than it does beneath the Tropics.

Were the bottom of the Atlantic Ocean a perfect basin, the bottom-
temperatures might continue the same across its whole breadth, but, as
shown in the diagram, the Atlantic sea-bed is divided by ridges into
several basins. Now, it has been found that, however deep a basin or
depression of the sea-bed may be, yet that the temperature of its water at
the bottom will not be less than that which can pass across its ridge, from
outside sources. This was observed by Captain Chimmo in the Sulu Sea,
a striking example, where at and below a depth of about 300 fathoms
(the depth of the enclosing barrier) to the bottom, at 1,778 fathoms, the
temperature remained uniform at about 50° F. ; whereas, in the China Sea,
the flow of cold water from the Polar to the Equatorial regions reduced
the temperature, at a depth of 416 fathoms, to 41°, and at the bottom
(1,546 fathoms) to 37° F., 13° less temperature than at the deeper station
of the Sulu Sea.

The same system holds good in such large areas of depressed sea-bed as
those in the North Atlantic Ocean, and it has been found that the bottom
temperature is never below 35:3° F. in the eastern basin, however deep the
water may be; nor below 34°6° F. in the north-western. The only place
on the Atlantic sea-bed where the water has been found below 32° (freezing
point of fresh water), in the Temperate or Tropical regions, is in the
depression between the coast of South America and the central ridge to
the South of the Equator.

In conclusion, it may be remarked, that these deep-sea temperature
soundings are of great practical utility to telegraph engineers, and they will
be alluded to presently as affecting the question of Circulation.

Salimity and Specific Gravity.—It is considered that the salt contained
in sea-water is mainly derived from the land, the rain and springs dissoly-
ing substances from the surface and lower strata, which are carried down
to the sea by the streams and rivers. In regard to this subject, we cannot
do better than give first a few extracts from a very interesting essay,
laid before the Royal Society, by Professor George Forchhammer, of the
University, and Director of the Polytechnic Institute, at Copenhagen.*

‘The elements which occur in the greatest quantity in sea-water have ~
been long known, and the latest enquiries, my own included, have brought
the number of them up to twenty-seven, which are as follow :—1, oxygen;
2, hydrogen; 3, chlorine; 4, bromine; 5, iodine; 6, fluorine; 7, sulphur;

——

* «On the Composition of Sea-water in different parts of the Ocean,” in the “ Philo-
sophical Transactions of the Royal Society,” 1865, pages 203—262.

SALINITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 643

8, phosphorus; 9, nitrogen; 10, carbon; 11, silicium; 12, boron;
13, silver; 14, copper; 15, lead; 16, zinc; 17, cobalt; 18, nickel;
19, iron; 20, manganese; 21, aluminium; 22, magnesium; 23, calcium;
24, strontium ; 25, baryta; 26, sodium ; 27, potassium.

‘The substances which, in respect of quantity, play the principal part
in the constitution of sea-water, are chlorine, sulphuric acid, soda, potash,
lime, and magnesia; those which occur in less but still determinabl
quantity, are silica, phosphoric acid, carbonic acid, and oxide of iron. All
the numerous other elements occur in so small a proportion, that they
have no influence whatever on the analytical determination of the salinity
of sea-water.

‘** The next question to be considered refers to the proportion between
all the salts together and the water; or, to express it in one word, the
salinity of the sea-water ; and in connection with this salinity or strength,
the proportion of the different solid constituent parts among themselves.
On comparing the older chemical analyses of sea-water, we should be led
to suppose that the water in the different seas had, besides its salinity, its
own peculiar character, expressed by the different proportions of its most
prevalent acids and bases, but the following researches will show that this
difference is very trifling in the Ocean, and has a more decided character
only near the shores, in the bays of the sea, and at the mouths of great
rivers, wherever the influence of the land is prevailing.

‘“‘T have always calculated the single substances, and the whole quantity
of salt, for 1,000 parts of sea-water; but, besides this, I have calculated
the proportion between the different substances determined, referred ta
chlorine = 100, and of all the salts likewise referred to chlorine. This
last number is found, if we divide the sum of all the salts found in 1,000
parts of any sea-water, by the quantity of chlorine found in it, and I call
it the co-efficient of that sample of sea-water. There is a very small
difference in the co-efficients of the different parts of the Ocean, but the
differences become striking in the neighbourhood of the shores.”

Without going into the details given by Professor Forchhammer, we
extract the following as the general results of his investigations :—

‘Tf we except the North Sea, the Kattegat, Sound, and Baltic, the
Mediterranean and Black Seas, the Caribbean Sea, and the Red Sea,
which have all the characters of bays of the great Ocean, the mean num.
bers are the following :—

Sea-water. |e Chlorine. Sulphuric acid. Lime. Magnesia. vin | alte, All salts. Co-efficient.
1.000 aie 18.999 2.258 0.556 2.096 aa aut 34.404 1,812
100 11.88 2.93 11.03
Equivalents | 429 45 16 82

‘Thus it is evident that sea-water in its totality is as little a chemical
compound as the atmospheric air; that it is composed of solutions of
different chemical compounds ; that it is neutral, because it everywhen
in the atmosphere finds carbonic acid to neutralize its bases, and every-
where on its bottom and shores finds carbonate of lime to neutralize apy

644 SALINITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY.

prevailing strong acid; that, lastly, the great stability of its composition
depends upon its enormous mass and its constant motion, which occasions
that any local variation is evanescent compared to the whole quantity
of salt.

‘“‘ Tf we take the mean numbers for the five regions of the Atlantic be-
tween the southernmost point of Greenland and that of South America,
we find the mean quantity of salt for the whole Atlantic 35-833, while the
sea between Africa and the East Indies has only 33°850; the sea between
the East Indies and the Aleutian Islands, 33°569; and the South Sea,
between the Aleutian Islands and the Society Islands, 35°219 per 1,000
salt. The Atlantic is thus that part of the Ocean which contains the
greatest proportion of salt, which result is rather surprising, if we consider
the vast quantity of fresh water which the rivers of Africa, America, and
Europe pour into it; of Africa, four-fifths are drained into the Atlantic,
either directly or through the Mediterranean ; most probably nine-tenths
of America is drained into the Atlantic, since the Cordilleras run close to
the western shore of the continent ; and of Europe, also, about nine-tenths
of its surface sends its superfluous water to the Atlantic. This greater
quantity of fresh water from the land, and the greater quantities of salts
in the corresponding sea, seem to contradict each other, but can be ex-
plained by a higher temperature, and, as the result of this higher tem-
perature, a greater evaporation.

‘‘Some of the large bays of the Ocean have, in the Tropical or sub-
Tropical zones, a greater mean than the Atlantic. Such are the Mediter-
ranean, with 37-936 per 1,000 salt (mean of eleven observations) ; the
Caribbean Sea, with 36-104 per 1,000 (one observation) ; the Red Sea,
43-067 per 1,000 (mean of two but little differing observations), which is
the greatest salinity of the sea I know of.

‘In approaching the shores, the sea-water becomes less rich in salts, a
fact which finds its explanation in the more or less quantity of fresh water
which runs into the sea. On such shores, where only small rivers flow out,
the effect produced is but very trifling, as, for instance, on the western
shores of South America. The effect of large rivers in diluting the sea-
water is much greater than is generally supposed ; thus, the effect of the
La Plata River, whose mouth lies in about 35° South latitude, was still
observable in a sample of sea-water taken in 50° 31’ S., at a distance of
15° of latitude, or 900 English miles, from the mouth of the river ; at about
the same distance, the water of the North Atlantic suffered a considerable
depression in salinity, probably owing to the water of the St. Lawrence.
This influence is of a double kind, partly in diluting the sea-water, partly
in mixing up with it organic substances that will occasion its decomposition
by putrefaction.”

Mr. J. Y. Buchanan, from observations made on the cruise of H.M.§. -
Challenger, shows that in the North Atlantic Ocean, the area of maximum
surface Salinity, over 37:2 parts per 1,000, forms an ellipsis stretching
W.S.W. from the Canary Islands to lat. 22° N., long. 55° W.; but
Dr. Kriimmel, from his examination of numerous reliable observations,*

* “Die Verteilung des Salzgehaltes an der Oberfliiche des Nordatlantischen Ozcans,”
with a Chart, in “‘ Petermann’s Mitteilungen,” 1890, pages 174--176.

SALINITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 645

considers the limits are not so exact, but it appears certain that the
maximum lies not far from lat. 25° N., tong. 35° W., and that it never
exceeds 37:5 parts per 1,000. Northward of lat. 45°, the Salinity does
not exceed 36 parts, and in Davis Strait it is 344 parts per 1,000.

Several forms of apparatus have been devised for securing samples of the
water from great and intermediate depths. On the voyage of H.M.S.
Challenger, samples were collected at various depths in various parts of
the world, and Professor Dittmar, from an analysis of 77 specimens, con-
cluded that the average composition of the salts of sea-water is as follows :—
Chloride of Sodium, 77°758 ; Chloride of Magnesium, 10-878; Sulphate of
Magnesium, 4°737; Sulphate of Lime, 3:600; Sulphate of Potash, 2°465;
Bromide of Magnesium, 0°216; and Carbonate of Lime, 0°345.

The Specific Gravity of ocean water, free from land and other influences,
varies within very narrow limits, 1:024 and 1-028 at 60° F., or 15°56° Cent.
In the regions of great rainfall near the Equator, the surface is frequently
quite fresh; and in the Temperate zone there is nearly an equilibrium
between the rain and evaporation. To these sub-divisions of concentration
and precipitation is assigned an important part in the formation of Ocean
Currents.

The following is also by Mr. J. Y. Buchanan, M.A. (the chemist of the
Challenger expedition), from a paper read before the Royal Geographical
Society in 1877 :—

The Specific Gravity* of the surface water was determined (at a tem-
perature of 39° F'.), every day when at sea, and from the bottom and inter-
mediate depths as often as opportunity offered.

As far as the surface is concerned, the general results were as follows.
The concentration of the waters of the Atlantic Ocean is greater than that
of either the Pacific or the Southern Ocean, and it is greater in the North
Atlantic than in the South Atlantic, although the actual maximum may
be slightly higher in the South Atlantic. In the North Atlantic, the
maximum (1.0275) was observed in lat. 22° N., long. 40° W., from which
point it diminishes in all directions. (On the South Coast of Iceland it
was 1.0260).

If we consider the water below the surface, as shown in the vertical
sections, we find, in the Atlantic, that in the concentration-areas the
Specific Gravity diminishes until a minimum (1.0260) is reached at a depth
of about 800 or 1,000 fathoms, after which it increases slightly down to the
bottom. In investigating the causes of the variations in the Specific Gravity
of the Ocean, we find that they depend on the means available for remoy-
ing or supplying water. Thus, the areas of greatest concentration coincide
with those where the dry Trade Winds are constantly blowing, taking their
rise in the lower Temperate latitudes, and proceeding in their course always
from colder to warmer regions, so that, for the first part of their journey,
at least, although they are continually taking up moisture, their capacity

* According to Erman’s elaborate investigations, the weight of salt in 1,000 parts of
sea-water, of different specific gravities, is—

Specific Gravity ..........4. 1.025 1.026 1.027 1.028
Salts per 1,000 ............ 33.765 35.049 36.343 37.637

646 CIRCULATION OF THE OCEAN.

for doing so is continually increasing. Hence the great concentration of
the water in the steady Trades of the Atlantic.

The observations make it probable that in the Atlantic the water from
the surface, down to a depth of 1,000 fathoms, has, on the whole, a flow
inwards, or from South to North, and below that depth and down to the
bottom it appears to have an opposite flow, thus providing for the removal
of the salt which otherwise would accumulate in the North Atlantic. The
Atlantic thus presents, on a larger scale, what is observed in the Mediter-
ranean, where the mean drying power of the atmosphere is higher than
even in the North Atlantic. In the Pacific, owing to its form and general
climate, these conditions are not so evident.

The Gulf Stream (or rather the edge of it, where its warm and dense
water met the ‘cold wall” of the Labrador Current), was very clearly
indicated simply by the Specific Gravity. The Equatorial Currents, also,
were very marked. Tbe Agulhas Current of South Africa showed similar
variations in density.

CIRCULATION of the OCEAN.—That there is a circulation and inter-
mingling of all the Ocean waters is shown in (246), page 297. Of the
means by which this interchange is produced, numerous theories have been
advanced, as alluded to in (248), page 298, and in (362) and (363), pages
377—379. It is only in recent years that any really reliable data have
existed to elucidate the subject, and, at the present time, physicists are
pretty well agreed that the great cause of the circulation of the water is
its varying Specific Gravity. This Specific Gravity, or Density, is regu-
lated chiefly by Temperature, but also by the amount of salt contained in
the water. Without going into further details, the simple theory, which
recent investigations have strengthened, is that a cold under-flow of water
is continually kept up from the Polar to the Equatorial regions.*

This theory Professor Lenz, of St. Petersburg, advanced as an inevitable
deduction from the facts ascertained by the remarkable series of observa-
tions on the Temperature and Specific Gravity of Oceanic Water at various
depths, which he had made in the second voyage of Kotzebue, during the
years 1823—1826. He drew from these results the very conclusions which
derived remarkable confirmation from the Temperature soundings and
Specific Gravity observations of H.M.S. Challenger, viz. :—1. The doctrine
of a deep under-flow of glacial water from each Pole to the Equator.
2. The ascent of Polar water towards the surface under the Equator, as

* That under-currents do actually exist is well-known (see pages 407—409). H.M.S§.
Challenger several times tested the rate and direction of the under-current by means of
a wooden framework, covered with canvas, lowered by a rope to the depth at which the
current was to be tested; the upper end of the rope was attached to a buoy which
floated on the surface, and, after allowing for the effect of the surface-current, showed
by its progress the direction of the current at the depth where the framework was
floating. This same process was used by Dr. Carpenter, in testing the flow of cold
water from the Atlantic into the Mediterranean through the Straits of Gibraltar. In
recent years, the telegraph steamers have found evidences of strong currents at a depth
of 1,000 fathoms between the Canary Islands. It is, of course, possible that under-
currents may in places be #o near tle surface as to aflect the course of a ship deep in
the water.

CIRCULATION OF THE OCEAN. 647

evidenced by the rise of the bathymetrical Isotherms, by the keeping
down of the Surface Temperature, and by the low (Polar) Salinity of
Equatorial surface water. 3. The movement of the upper stratum of
oceanic water from the Equatorial region towards each Pole, as the neces-
sary complement of the deep Polar under-flow. 4. The dependence of
this double movement upon the disturbance of hydrostatic equilibrium
constantly maintained by Polar cold and Equatorial heat. The opposition
which has been raised to this doctrine of a thermal circulation has mainly
rested on one or both of two pre-conceptions :—1. The origination of all
oceanic movements in the surface-action of Wind. 2. The sufficiency of
the Gulf Stream to produce the amelioration of the climate of north-
western Europe.

Sir Wyville Thomson makes the following remarks on this subject :*—

“All the facts of Temperature distribution in the Atlantic appear to’
favour the view that the entire mass of Atlantic water is supplied by an
indraught from the Southern Sea, moving slowly northward, and inter-
rupted at different heights by the continuous barriers which limit its
different basins; but this involves the remarkable phenomenon of a vast
body of water constantly flowing into a cul de sac from which there is no
exit. When I suggested this view some years ago, I was asked, very
naturally, how it was possible that more water could flow into the Atlantic
than flowed out of it, and at that time I could see no answer to the
question, although I felt sure that a solution must come some day. Now
it seems simple enough ; but in order to understand the conditions fully,
I would ask my readers to recall the appearance of the Atlantic, and of
the Pacific also, which is under exactly the same conditions. On the
globe one sees much more clearly than on a map that the Atlantic is a
mere tongue, as it were, of the great ocean of the water hemisphere
stretching up into the land. The Arctic Ocean, with which it is in con.
nection, is again a very limited sea, and nearly landlocked. The North
Pacific is another gulf from this ‘ water-hemisphere,’ but one vastly wider
and of greater extent; while the South Pacific is included within the
‘ water hemisphere.’

‘« Although from the meridional extension of the continents to the south-
ward, the water of the Atlantic is, as I have shown, directly continuous,
layer for layer, with the water of the Antarctic basin, it must be looked
upon not as being in connection with that basin only, but as being a por-
tion of the great ocean of the water-hemisphere ; and over the central
part of the water-hemisphere, precipitation is certainly greatly in excess
of evaporation, while the reverse is the case in its extensions to the north-
ward. The water is therefore carried off by evaporation from the northern
portions of the Atlantic and of the Pacific, and this vapour is hurried down
towards the great zone of low barometric pressure in the southern
hemisphere ; the heavy, cold water welling up from the southward into
the deepest parts of the northward extending troughs, to which it has free

* “ Voyage of the Challenger ; the Atlantic,” vol. ii., pages 324326,

648 OCEAN CIRCULATION—ANIMAL LIFE.

access, to replace it. It is unfortunate that we have, as yet, scarcely
sufficient data to estimate the relative amount of rain and snow in the
northern and southern hemispheres, but the broad fact that there is very
much more in the southern is so patent as scarcely to require proof. This
excess becomes still more apparent when we include, as we must do, in
this source of supply of water to the North, the Tropical region of the
South Pacific, which forms part of the great ocean.”

Mr. W. L. Jordan* argues against the usually accepted theory of Ocean
Circulation, contending that the forces of gravitation constantly draw the
ocean water not only eastwards, but also downwards, throughout both of
the Temperate zones, and upwards at the Poles and along the Equator.
He held that the Temperature soundings of H.M.S. Challenger proved his
view correct, showing that, instead of the Temperature uniformly decreasing
as the depth increased, the Challenger records point to the existence of
bands of water, at great depths, of a temperature intermediate between
both colder and warmer water above them, and this in such a manner that
the observations elaborately check each other. In his letter of November 8th,
1887, to the Lords of the Admiralty, he draws attention to the assumed
errors in the thermometer indications, in the following words :—‘ The
Challenger staff appear, indeed, to have shut their eyes to the grandest
result of their own explorations, and, after the return of the expedition,
they not only with one consent avoided my attempts to discuss the results
with them, but also for eight years suppressed many of the records which
most strongly supported my side of the controversy.

“Not only have the Challenger staff endeavoured to make the deep
water, one, two, three, and even four miles below the surface of the ocean,
conform itself to the Temperature which their preconceived ideas required,
but they have also endeavoured to make the surface-water move in accord-
ance with what their preconceived idea of the action of the Winds re-

quires, as is apparent from the erroneous method of ascertaining the ;
surface-currents.”

ANIMAL LIFE, Etc.—‘‘ The curious on board ship sometimes amuse
themselves by letting overboard, in light winds and calms, a hoop-net of
gauze, or other light material, to ‘catch insects of the sea ;’ crumbs of
bread or other food that will attract them are sometimes placed in it as
bait. The hoop is to keep the mouth of the net open, and prevent it
from collapsing into folds and crushing its spoils as it is hauled up; and
these, when they are received on deck, are regarded by all on board with
amazed interest and curiosity.

‘«¢ But wait until the microscopist mounts them on his slides, and brings
the powers of his instrument to bear. Then every one who looks marvels
at the beauty and variety of organic form there presented, and the
beholder is at once struck with the extent, resources, and the richness of
the new field of research, into which he has now, it may be for the first
time, had the opportunity of casting a look. He fully realizes the idea

* «The Admiralty Falsifioation of the Challenger Record Exposed,” by W. L. Jordan,
F.R.G.S., 1890.

ANIMAL LIFE IN THE OCEAN. 649

that the organisms of the sea are as multitudinous as its waves, and as
marvellous as its wonders.

“ With such a subject for study and contemplation as these insects
afford to all who use the microscope, let no naturalist who crosses the
ocean, and no passenger on board ship, or mariner, who can afford to
purchase a microscope, talk hereafter about the monotony of a sea
voyage, or the ennwi of a passage. More varied, strange, and new than
the insect life of terra firma, the entomology of the sea, if we may so style
the families of its little crustaceze, medusz, and zoophytes, offers quite as
profitable and as instructive a field of investigation as does the entomology
of the air.

“ The floating crustacese of the high seas are classed by naturalists a
little lower than the insects of the air, yet, in the scale of being, they
rank higher than the worms of the earth. Every one who, with an eye
for the microscope, goes to sea, may help, with proper drawings and
descriptions of what comes to his net, greatly to enrich this field. Not
only so, these mites of moving creatures will tell us in their mute way, if
we consult them aright, of all the Currents, Polar and Equatorial, that help
to regulate the climates of the great deep. They may be regarded as
tallies to the water by which the system and channels of Oceanic Circula-
tion are to be pointed out and made visible, as it were, to the eye of
science.’—Captain Maury.

This ‘‘ New Field,” as it was termed by Maury, can be readily explored
by any one who will take the trouble to do so. A simple contrivance, if
a microscope is not at hand, will afford the means. The eye-piece, or
first joint of an ordinary telescope, is a very good substitute. To use it
for the transparent objects, of which the minute inhabitants of the surface
waters generally consist, place them in a drop of water on a piece of
glass, held or fixed horizontally a few inches above a sheet of white
paper or a looking-glass, and the telescope joint held by the lower part at
from a quarter to half an inch above the surface of this glass, will make
an excellent microscopic tube of great power, sufficient to show many of
the singular forms and great beauties of the animalcules, which can be
easily collected in vast numbers.

The best or readiest way of obtaining them is to tow a small net, con.
sisting of a hoop from one to three feet in diameter, on which is strained
a piece of bunting or fine gauze, and this being drained occasionally into
a vessel, will afford an abundant harvest. Floating weeds also contain
great quantities of minute living creatures, which may be taken by the
same means. In a stationary vessel, large numbers of these creatures
accumulate on the lee-side.

It would be entirely beyond the province of this work to deal with the
characteristics and families of these inhabitants of the seas, although
much good may be done, hydrographically, by the study of their dis-
tribution. This subject must be pursued in other works, such as those
enumerated on page 916.

The surface water of the open Ocean generally teems with microscopia
animal and vegetable life, but the distribution may vary in quantity.
The German ‘ Plankton” Expedition, sent out in 1889 speeially to study

83

mM AsO:

650 ANIMAL LIFE IN THE OCEAN.

the surface waters of the North Atlantic Ocean, found the Sargasso Sea
to be surprisingly poor in animal life, but the transparency of its water
is truly remarkable, a white canvas disc being visible at a depth of
37 fathoms.

From recent investigations, it is found that sponges, corals, crustaces,
and molluscs are obtained from all depths, some soft-bodied creatures
even from a depth of 4 miles, where the pressure would be four tons on
the square inch. The eyes of deep-sea animals are very rudimentary,
but many are provided with sensitive delicate feelers. The ‘“ Plankton”
Expedition found that the number of organisms living in great depths is
very much less than in the upper strata, which are penetrated by the
light; not only the quantity diminishes, but also the number of species.
A species of vesicular marine alg@ was found in large quantities, at depths
from 500 to 1,100 fathoms; the Challenger scientists concluded that all
vegetable life ceased at 200 fathoms.

The Challenger trawls brought up fish from depths of 2,900, 2,750,
2,650, and 2,500 fathoms; the Albatross brought up similar fish from
2,949 fathoms; and the Talisman from 2,200 fathoms. Prof. Agassiz
remarks that ‘‘in fishes brought up from deep water, the swimming
bladder often protrudes from the mouth, the eyes are forced out of their
sockets, the scales have fallen off, and they present a most disreputable
appearance,” all owing to the loss of pressure.

In 1881, the French exploring vessel T’ravaillewr, when off the coast of
Portugal, in depths of 800 to 1,000 fathoms, secured specimens of a large
fish of the shark family, which appear never to come to the surface. The
Portuguese fishermen also take such fish from a depth of 500 fathoms.

In the deep sea, Dr. Carpenter remarks that animal life ‘‘is so in-
timately related to the temperature of the bottom, as obviously to be
determined by that condition in a much greater degree than by its depth.
This was very strongly impressed on Sir Wyville Thomson and myself in
our early investigations. For in the deep trough lying N.K. and §$.W.,
between Shetland and the Feroe Islands, which, having been our cruising
ground in 1868, I have ventured to call the Lightning Channel, we found
at corresponding depths of between 500 and 600 fathoms, and sometimes
within a few miles of each other, two areas whose temperatures differed
by more than 13° Fahr.; the bottom temperature of the ‘warm area’
being about 43°, while that of the ‘cold area’ was somewhat below 30°.
The Fauna of these two areas showed the most marked diversities. I
was thus led, in my report for 1869, to express my entire concurrence in
the speculation thrown out some years previously by Professor Lovén,
that ‘there exists in the great Atlantic depressions, perhaps in all the
abysses of our globe, and continued from Pole to Pole, a fauna of the
same general character, thriving under severe conditions, and approaching
the surface where none but such exist,—in the coldest seas.’*

* “ Proceedings of the Royal Society,”’ 1869, page 475. The similarity of Antarctic
to Arctic forms of marine life had, indeed, been previously noticed by Sir James
Ross; and had been attributed by him to the prevalence of a “ similar temperature ”
over the whole of the intervening sea-bed. This temperature, however, he erroneously
supposed to be 39-5° Fahr. .

ANIMAL LIFE 1N THE OCEAN. 651

“ This expectation was most remarkably confirmed by the Challenger
researches; one of the most important of the general results of that ex-
pedition being the recognition of an abyssal Fauna, essentially the same,
over the whole oceanic area that is reached by the glacial underflow,
without any relation whatever to the terrestrial climate of the locality,
and scarcely showing any difference according to its Arctic or Antarctic
derivation. Thus we see that, even at the present time, the essential
conditions of a ‘‘ glacial epoch ” prevail upon the Deep-Sea bed from each
Pole to the Equator ; so that the presence of Arctic types of animal life
in any marine deposit of Temperate or even Tropical zones, affords not
the least evidence, per se, of the former extension of glacial action over
the land of these localities.”

Sir Wyville Thomson remarks :*—“ The most prominent and remarkable
biological result of the most recent investigations is the final®establish-
ment of the fact that the distribution of living beings has no depth limit ;
but that animals of all the marine invertebrate classes, and probably
fishes also, exist over the whole of the floor of the ocean. My present
impression is, that, although life is thus universally extended, the number
of species and of individuals diminishes after a certain depth is reached,
and that at the same time their size usually decreases.

“« Using all precautions and with ample power and the most complete
appliances,t it is extremely difficult to work either with the Dredge or
with the Trawl at depths approaching or exceeding 3,000 fathoms. A
single dredging operation in such depths takes a long time; the Dredge is
put over at daybreak (the ship being kept as nearly as possible stationary),
and it is usually dark before it is recovered, so that the number of such
operations must be comparatively small. We must therefore bear in
mind that only an infinitesimally small portion of the floor of the Ocean,
at depths over 2,500 fathoms, has yet been explored.

‘As we had previously anticipated, the Fauna at great depths was
found to be remarkably uniform. Species nearly allied to those found in
shallow water, of many familiar genera, were taken in the deepest hauls,
s0 it would seem that the enormous pressure, the utter darkness, and

* “ Voyage of the Challenger ; the Atlantic,” vol. ii.

+ In the examination of the Animal Life, three forms of apparatus were used by
H.M.S. Chailenger. 1. A Dredge, consisting of a dredge-bag attached to an iron frame
44 ft. long by 1} ft. broad. To the bottom of the frame was attached a bar, bearing
tangles of rope-yarn, in order to entrap various animals while passing over the bottom.
The dredge-bag usually came up from the bottom, at great depths, full of mud (gludi-
gerina ooze, §c.), but on one occasion a huge block of syenite was brought up in the
mouth of the dredge from a depth of 1,340 fathoms, about 150 miles soutiward of Cape
Sable in the North Atlantic. 2. The Deep-Sea Trawl, a conical bag 30 ft. in length,
weighted at its bottom end, and suspended by one side of its mouth to a beam of wood;
the other side of the mouth, which drags along the sea-bottom, hangs loose, and in
order that the bag may keep open is weighted with some pieces of lead. The mouth
of the Trawl-bag is fitted with a netted funnel arrangement which prevents the escape
of animals after capture. 3. An ordinary Trawl-net, kept open at its mouth by an iron
ring, was dragged behind the vessel at small depths. The accumulators (page 928), to
which the dredge-ropes were attached, were slung from the mainyard-arm, and tie
hauling in cf the dredges was effected by a donkey-engine.

652 ANIMAL LIFE—WAVES.

the differences in the chemical and physical conditions of the water, and
in the proportions of its contained gases depending upon such extreme
conditions, do not influence animal life to any great extent.

“‘ The geographical extension of any animal species, whether on land or
in the sea, appears to depend mainly upon the maintenance of a tolerably
uniform temperature, and the presence of an adequate supply of suitable
food.

“There is every reason to believe that the Fauna of deep water is
confined principally to two belts, one at and near the surface, and the
other on and near the bottom; leaving an intermediate zone, in which
the larger animal forms, vertibrate and invertibrate, are nearly or en-
tirely absent.”’

Mr. J. J. Wild remarks, notwithstanding the number of miles of sea-
bottom passed over by the Challenger’s dredges, that, with the exception
of a few sharks’ teeth and some ear-bones of whales, no trace of the more
highly organised animals was brought to the surface. No human bones,
no portion of a ship or any other article of human manufacture, were
ever raised from the deep sea.

The Sea Serpent.—The belief in the Sea Serpent dates from very early
times, but there is no authentic case of the capture of such a creature, or
of the finding of its remains. Several cases of its appearance have been
so strongly testified, that it is difficult to disbelieve the existence of some
gigantic species of the eel and octopus or cuttle-fish ; certainly, the wide
ocean affords plenty of room for the accommodation of such creatures.
Doubtless, in many cases, observers have been misled by appearances due
to sharks or porpoises swimming in line, or to swarms of sea-fowl, and
long lines of seaweed.

Mr. Gosse, in his ‘‘ Romance of Natural History,” carefully collected
numerous accounts of the Sea Serpent, and by classifying them found the
average description is that of a large serpent, 60 ft. long, with a flat head,
neck 12 to 16 inches in diameter, with a kind of mane, body of a dark
colour, but lighter on the under surface, swimming with its head slightly
elevated, and spouting water.

2”?

WAVES.—The Waves of the Ocean, like other undulating bodies, move
onward, but the water of which they are formed is constantly being
changed, as will be readily seen from the movements of any light floating
object, which does not keep pace with the wave motion, but is left behind.
Many interesting observations have been made upon the dimensions of

ocean Waves, but the results of different observers naturally differ widely,

as the surface of the sea is rarely traversed by long unbroken lines of
Waves, and usually assumes the appearance of a succession of billows or
detached hills of water, making accurate measurements difficult.

In ordinary gales, in deep water, the height of the Waves, from trough
to crest, is from 15 to 20 feet. Dr. Scoresby, a careful observer, measured
Waves 30 ft. high in the North Atlantic Ocean, and was of opinion that
43 ft. was a maximum height in heavy seas. A height of 36 ft. has been
cecorded in the Bay of Biscay, and Admiral Fitzroy, on one occasion,

WAVES, AND THE USE OF OIL. 653

estimated some storm Waves to be 70 feet in height. In June, 1875,
the steamer Celtic was also stated to have encountered Waves 70 ft. high.

The rate of speed of Waves has been estimated at 19 miles an hour
when they are 100 ft. apart from crest to crest, 27 miles when 400 ft.,
32 miles when 600 ft., and, with a phenomenal distance apart of 2,720 ft.,
the speed was 72 miles an hour. Dr. Schott (see page 925), in a voyage
from Europe to the Hast, found that a moderate Trade Wind causes
Waves from 38 to 44 ft. apart, travelling 17 miles an hour. He found
that big storm Waves may be 220 ft. apart, and travel 40 miles an hour;
the highest one measured was 32 feet.

The highest Waves are reported as being encountered in the Southern
Ocean, off the Cape of Good Hope and Cape Horn, where they sometimes
run from 30 to 40 ft. high.

From personal observation, on a voyage from New Zealand round Cape
Horn, in June, 1885, in the steamer Tongariro, the Hon. R. Aber-
cromby, F.R.M.S., measured Waves from 21 to 46 ft. high, and many
reached 30 to 35 ft.; their distance apart varied from 358 to 507 ft., their
. speed 29 to 47 miles an hour, and the time interval between the crests
14 to 19 seconds.* He gives the following summary :—Several sets of
observations between New Zealand and Cape Horn, with an aneroid
barometer and a chronograph, gave for the largest Waves a height of
46 ft., a length (or distance apart) of 765 ft., a speed of 47 miles an hour,
and a time-period of 164 seconds. As nothing but the ordinary heavy.
weather of these latitudes was experienced, it is certain that Waves must
sometimes attain a height of at least 60 feet.{

ON THE USE OF OIL FOR CALMING ROUGH SEAS

The action of Oil in calming heavy seas appears to have been known
in the early days of navigation. That it was known to the ancients, is
proved by the writings of Pliny (a.p. 23—79), who speaks of it in his
‘‘Natural History.”” The Venerable Bede, too, in his ‘ Ecclesiastical
History ’’ (a.pD. 716—731), tells of the deliverance of a ship from a stormy
sea, through the agency of a pot of Oil, which had been blessed by
Bishop Aidan.

Strangely enough, it is only within the last few years, that the great
value of greasy compounds, in quieting heavy seas, has come to be fully
acknowledged, and the following account has been derived from many
sources, but mainly from records appearing on the valuable “ Pilot Chart
for the North Atlantic Ocean,” issued monthly by the United Stateg
Hydrographic Office.

The testimony as to the great value of the use of Oil for this purpose

= «Seas and Skies in Many Latitudes,” 1888.

4 “Observations on the Height, Length, and Velocity of Ocean Waves,” in ibe
** Philosophical Magazine,” 1888, pages 263—269.

654 OIL ON TROUBLED WATERS.

ig very conclusive, and no vessel skould neglect its use in emergencies,
such as when heavy seas threaten to break on board. Once tried, its
value will never be disputed, and those who are sceptical are urged to give
it a fair trial. The experiment can be very easily made, and at small
expense, while the results, as reported, have been almost invariably suc-
cessful. All that seems to be necessary is to rig up any sort of simple
apparatus which will ensure a small but steady flow of Oil.

When Oil is poured on a rough sea, it quickly spreads around and to
windward, preventing the waves breaking. Lord Rayleigh, in a lecture
before the Royal Institution, 1890, stated that its action may be compared
to an inextensible membrane, floating on the surface of the water, and
hampering its motion, thus rendering the formation of waves difficult.
Of course, in a surf, or on breaking bars or shoals, its action cannot
entirely overcome the momentum of the seas, but it exercises a con-
siderable calming effect. Ships’ boats should always be provided with a
supply of suitable Oil, only a small quantity being necessary, if proper’ y
applied, and it might, at times, be very useful in hoisting or lower ag
boats ina sea. With the wind on the quarter, the effect seems to be ess
than in other position, as the Oil goes astern while the waves comv up
on the quarter.

With regard to the best form of Oil for this purpose, it is found that
animal and vegetable Oils are most suitable, such as sperm, turpentine,
rape, linseed, cotton-seed, castor, almond, and olive. Mineral Oils exert
little influence upon rough seas, though crude petroleum has given
favourable results ; when refined it is not so good. Thick and heavy Oils
are the best; but some, such as cocoa-nut oil and some kinds of fish-oil,
congeal in cold weather, and are then useless, but they may advan-
tageously be mixed with mineral oil.

From actual use, it has been found that the tendency of petroleum to
spread itself over the water is only about one-half that of olive oil,
one-third that of linseed oil, one-fourth that of sperm oil, and one-fifth
that of soap-suds. Soap, dissolved in fresh water, seems the best agent
for preventing the growth of waves, both on account of its superior
spreading power and the reduction of the surface-tension that it brings
about; but it has the drawback of mixing with the water, instead of
forming a coating on the surface. Its action in preventing the breaking
of heavy seas is also doubtful. Oil of turpentine is the best for spreading,
and reducing the tendency of the wind to form waves and increase their
size. Some consider porpoise oil very effective, and one observer states
that from 1 to 3 gallons, used in a bag of oakum, will run a, vessel through
a prolonged gale.

Probably the best way to use Oil, is by filling the forward closet-bowls
with oakum and Oil, or using a can with a drip-tap, which thus allows
it to run slowly out through the waste-pipes. Another simple and good
method of distributing it, is by canvas bags about one foot long, filled
with oakum and Oil, and pierced with holes by a coarse sail-needle, and
held by a lanyard. Another method is to use a small barrel, with a tap
and small hose leading down to the water; this can be slung in auy
desired position.

OIL ON TROUBLED WATERS. 655

- Bules for Use.—The following rules were drawn up, in 1889, by Captain
R. Karlowa, of Hamburg, and will show the best method of using Oil,
under various circumstances; the arrows on the diagrams denote the
direction of the wind and sea, and the flowing lines represent the
spreading of the Oil.

Scudding before a Gale
(Fig. 1), distribute Oil from
the bow by means of oil-
bags or through the waste-
pipes; it will thus spread
aft, and give protection
both from quartering and
following seas. If only
distributed astern (Fig. 2)
there will be no protection
from the quartering sea.

Running before a Gale, yawirg badly and threaten-
ing to broach-to (Figs. 3 and 4), Oil should be dis-
tributed from the bow and from both sides, abaft
the beam. In Fig. 3, for instance, where it is only
distributed at the bow, the weather quarter is left
unprotected when the ship yaws. In Fig. 4, how-
ever, with oil-bags abaft the beam as well as {cr-
ward, the quarter is protected,

In a heavy

Lying-to (Fig. 5), a vessel

cross-sea,

can be brought closer to
the wind by using one or
two oil-bags forward, to
windward. With a high
beam sea, use oil-bags
along the weather side at
intervals of 40 or 50 feet.

(Fig. 6), as in the centre
of a Hurricane, or after
the centre has passed, oil-
bags should be hung out
at regular intervals along
both sides,

Steaming into a heavy
head-sea (Fig. 7), use
Oil through the for-
ward closet-pipes. Oil-
bags would be tossed
back on deck,

656 OIL ON TROUBLED WATERS.

Fig. 8. Fig. 9.

Drifting in the trough of a heavy sea (Figs.
8 and 9), use Oil from the waste-pipes In lying-to Cracking on, with
forward and bags on weather side, as in (Fig. 10), to high wind abeam
Fig. 9. These answer the purpose very tack or wear, and heavy sea (Fig.

much better than one bag at the weather use Oil from 11), use Oil from
bow and one at the lee quarter, although the weather the waste-pipes,
this has been tried with some success bow. on the weather
(Fig. 8). bow.

A vessel hove-to for a pilot (Fig. 12), should distribute Oil from the weather side and lee
quarter. The pilot-vessel runs up to windward and lowers a boat, which pulls down to
leeward and around the vessel’s stern. The pilot-vessel then runs down to leeward,
gets out oil-bags to windward and on her lee quarter, and the boat pulls back around

her stern, protected by the Oil. The vessels drift to leeward and leave an oil-slick to
windward.

At anchor, in an open roadstead, oil-bags could be slung on the jib-
boom, or hauled out ahead to a block secured to the cable.

In towing another vessel, in a heavy sea, Oil is of the greatest value,
and should be distributed forward and on both sides of the vessel towing.

When a boat is riding to a sea-anchor, the bag can be hauled out and
in by means of a line to a block on the anchor.

We could give hundreds of examples showing the great value of Oil in
cases of emergency, but can only quote a few here. There can be no
shadow of doubt but that many ships are now afloat, which would have
ended their careers and never been heard of, had it not been for the
beneficent influence of Oil on troubled waters.

OIL ON TROUBLED WATERS. 657

Capt. Freeman, of the steamer Karoon, states :—“ As to the use of Oil, I must
at once confess that I had heard it talked about, but did not at any time believe
it to be of any use, solely because I had not seen it used, nor yet made any use
of it, although I have been in command 18 years. My opinion is now altered, for
it was used on board this steamer January 31st, 1892, with great effect. We
were in lat. 37° 45’ N., long. 70° 41’ W., the wind was from North, force 10, with
a heavy broken sea. I wanted to get back to port (New York), but the ship had
a list to starboard of 15° or more, and by steering a westerly course I should be
placing the lame side to wind and sea, which was dangerous. But in such times
one passes danger on one side and does one’s best. Therefore I ordered the
course W. 3 S., and showed the decks to wind and sea, and put the engines at
full speed. Two or three treacherous seas came along and filled the decks, fairly
rolling over the ship, making the whole frame shake. Then the second mate
asked permission to put an oil-bag over. It was placed on the starboard bow.
The change was magical; the sea became moderately smooth all along the lame
starboard side. The Oil could be seen on the water, being in fact used very
freely at first from two grain-bags, one within the other; afterwards we used
canvas bags. In this way we steamed 4 or 5 hours, when I was compelled to
lie-to for the night, considering the ship’s heavy list to starboard. The using of
Oil has altered my opinions, and in future, as soon as_any sea begins to make, I
shall at once start for the engine-room after Oil.”

On February 12th and 13th, 1892, the Dutch steamer Oranje Nassau, was sub-
jected to W.N.W. gales of great violence, between lat. 31° 40’ N., long. 74° W.,
and lat. 32° 5’ N., long. 74° W. The storm lasted about 24 hours, during which
thick Oil was used in two bags, one at each bow. The seas were very heavy from
W.N.W. to N.N.W., but no water came on deck, as there would have come had
no Oil been used, for the seas were so high that the vessel sometimes rolled 45°
from the perpendicular. The amount of Oil expended was about one quart per
bag every four hours.

Capt. Murdock, of the ship Srerra Lucena, states:—‘‘I have found the use of
Oil in heavy seas of very great benefit. On one occasion, when in a cyclonic gale
off the Cape of Good Hope, with the lower main topsail blown clear out of the
bolt-ropes and the ship lying on her beam-ends, with the water above the lee
dead-eyes, used Oil with perfect success. Two other vessels which we spoke the
day before the gale were never heard of afterwards. We used half colza and half
raw linseed oil, and allowed the bags to float out, with long lanyards.’

Capt. Dayton, of the brig 7. Towner, from St. Croix to New York, reports
that :—‘‘ After being crippled on August 21st, 1893, by losing the foremast in a
Hurricane, we got into another on August 24th, blowing severely from the S.E.
The sea was so terrific that, had it not been for the free use of Oil over the bows,
the vessel would have foundered.”

Capt. Foster, of the steamer Wm. Crane, from Baltimore to Savannah, on
August 27th, 1893, encountered a Hurricane between Cape Henry and Hunting
Island :—‘‘ Met tremendously high seas, which broke on board. Put three oil-
bags over the bows and poured Oil down the water-closets. This saved the ship.
No more seas came on board. Used six gallons of signal Oil; half of it in the
water-closets.”

Other reports, similar to the above, are constantly coming to hand, and
the great importance of this subject is now becoming widely recognised.

N. A. 0. 84

( 658 4

8.—CLASSIFICATION OF THE CLOUDS.

Since the discovery of Buys-Ballot’s Law (page 113), and of the Cyclonic
and Anti-cyclonic Gales of extra-Tropical latitudes, the study of the
Clouds has assumed a new importance, as showing the movements of the
air in the upper atmosphere, but, in the first place, it requires a practiced
eye for Cloud observations, and this no person has a better chance of
acquiring than the seaman. There is at present not enough known of
the subject to lay down any very reliable rules, and there is great practical
difficulty even in drawing up a system of nomenclature, which can be
universally adopted. Many capable observers are now actively engaged
in the study of this subject, and we cannot afford space here even to
give a list of the works written by them. Many valuable Papers, well
illustrated, are to be found in recent ‘‘ Journals of the Meteorological
Society,” especially that for 1887, to which the student is referred for
full particulars.*

On pages 200—203 we have previously given some particulars,
illustrated with a diagram, of the distribution of Clouds within the areas
of Cyclonic Storms passing over the British Isles, mainly due to the
Rev. W. Clement Ley, M.A., F.M.S., who has devoted many years to the
study of this subject. A remarkable feature is the direction taken by the
higher Clouds in these storm areas; with the wind in one of these storms
blowing on the observer’s back, the Clouds high in the atmosphere
indicate that the direction of the wind is from left to right of the observer,
which would seem to show a rising of the wind in a spiral form. .

‘The researches of Mohn, Hildebrandsson, Buchan, Ley, and others,
seem to prove that in all cases which they have investigated by means of
wind direction and the motion of Cirrus clouds, the air flows spirally into
an area of low pressure at the surface of the earth, and to some extent
out from it in the upper regions of the air; whilst the order is reversed
with areas of high pressure, the lower air flowing out from, and the upper
air in towards, their centres. It remains to be proved whether the same
law holds good with regard to the area of high pressure in the centre of
the Atlantic. . . . . . It must be remembered that there are upper
currents of air which (owing to the absence of moisture) do not carry
Clouds along with them, and that they need some other means than
Cloud motion to detect them.”—Captain Henry Toynbee.

Mr. Ley, and numerous other meteorologists, also consider that the
classification of the late Mr. Luke Howard, which has been in use for the
greater part of this century, is not suitable for the present state of
weather knowledge. Without materially altering the old nomenclature,
they are of opinion that the Clouds may be divided into Upper and Lower
Clouds, or those high in the atmosphere, such as Cirrus, Cirro-cumulus
acd Cirro-stratus, and those nearer the earth’s surface, including Stratus,

2 Sea, also, ** Modern Developments of Cloud Knowledge,” by the Hon. R, Abst.
tomboy, in the “ Jour ral of the Scottish Meteorological Society,” 1839, pages 3~ 15,

CLASSIFICATION OF THE CLOUDS. 659

Cumulus, Cumulo-stratus, and Nimbus.* With regard to form or
appearance, they may also be divided into two classes, both occurring at
all altitudes, viz., fibrous or linear, which tend to arrange themselves in
layers, lines, or streaks ; and massive or compact, which take the form of
heaps or piles.

Clouds are seen at all levels between the highest Cirrus and the lowest
Stratus, so that it is often difficult to determine whether a particular sheet
or layer of Cloud belongs to the upper or the lower system. In such
eases, the observer will be greatly assisted by remembering how the
Clouds have become formed, whether by the gradual subsidence of the
highest forms, or by the ascent of the lower Clouds.

The naming of Clouds is a most difficult subject for observers, and that
attended by most mistakes. The misnaming of certain Clouds is the
cause of most error: Cirro-cumulus and Cirro-stratus for example ;
Nimbus, too, no matter from what form of cloud rain falls it is called
Nimbus. It should be noted that Clouds of slight vertical depth, com-
pared with their area, belong to the Stratus types, while those that assume
solid and rounded masses are Cumulus forms.{

In the Trade Wind region, by observing the direction of the upper
Clouds, it would appear that an opinion may be formed of the probable
direction of the squalls in unsettled weather, as previously remarked by
Captain Toynbee (pages 260—261).

The Upper Clouds are considered on good authority to be composed
of particles of ice, inasmuch as the phenomena of halos, &c., are produced
by them, and these can only be explained by the refraction of the rays of
light through ice-crystals.

Cirrus is often seen after a continuance of fine light weather, as a fine
whitish line of cloud, stretched across the sky at a great height, the ends
seeming lost in the horizon. This is often the first indication of a change
to wet weather; to this line of Cirrus others are added laterally, and at
times clouds of the same sort seem to proceed from the sides of the line,
and are sent off in an oblique or transverse direction, so that the whole
may have the appearance of net-work. The line alluded to above is called

a= ae

* In abbreviating these names the following system has been used by the Meteoro-
logical Office, as others have been found to mislead:—Cir.; Cir.c.; Cir.s.; Str.;
Cum.; Cum.s.; Nim. Another system, now in use, is C. for Cirrus; S. for Stratus ;
K. for Cumulus; and N. for Nimbus. The amount of cloud is registered from 0 “ Blue
sky”’ to 10 ‘‘ Entirely overcast.”

+ These classes cannot always be separated when the Clouds are near the zenith,
and only their under-surfaces are seen; viewed laterally they are easily distinguished.
It is important, however, to notice that the thread-like appearance of those Clouds,
whose vertical diameter as compared with the horizontal is small, is always partially,
and often wholly, due to perspective. Whether partially or wholly so, we can at once
decide, by looking at the same kind of Cloud in different azimuth; e.g., the bands of
Cirrus are real, since they appear to converge in opposite points of the horizon ; streaks
of Stratus are mostly phenomenal only, since looked at all round the vault of the sky at
the same distance from the zenith, they are commonly seen as lying in the same
apparent plane.

t “Notes on taking Observations on Board Ship,” by Capt. D. W. Barker, R.N.R.
ir the ‘Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society,” vol. xiil, 1887,
page 187.

660 CLASSIFICATION OF THE CLOUDS.

Linear Cirrus, and the transverse lines produce the Reticulated or Curl
Cloud.

At other times the lines of Cirrus become denser, descend lower, and,
by uniting or conjoining with others below, produce rain.

Comoid or Hairy Cirrus, commonly called Mare’s Tail, is the proper
Cirrus ; it resembles, in appearance, a long lock of white hair, or a bunch
of wool pulled out into fine pointed ends. The appearance of Cirrus often
indicates wind and rain; and when the fine tails have a constant direc-
tion toward any one point of the compass, it has been frequently observed
that the gale has sprung up from that quarter to which they previously
pointed. It is often difficult to ascertain the direction of Cirrus, owing
to its slowness of motion, but as indicating the difference between the
direction of the wind at the earth’s surface, and that of the higher regions,
it is very important.

Cirrus is seen far above the highest mountains, and Mr. Glaisher con-
cluded from his balloon observations that its altitude sometimes amounts
to over 15 miles. According to Prof. Hildebrandsson’s observations at
Upsala, in Sweden, its mean altitude is 27,000 feet.

The Lower Clouds are usually composed of particles of condensed
vapour or “‘ bubble-steam,”’ 7.e., of water, not of ice; when they are inter-
posed between the sun and the moon, they dim or intercept the light
entirely, without giving rise to halos or corone. They may be described
as follows :—

Cirro-stratus and Strato-cirrus differ little in form, but much in height,
the former having a mean altitude of 27,500 ft., and the latter ranges as
low as 15,000 feet.

Cirro-stratus (Cirrus and Stratus), or Wane Cloud, is composed of
horizontal or slightly inclined masses of small clouds, attenuated toward
a part or the whole of their exterior, bent downward or undulated, separate
or in groups, and generally with a sinking barometer, indicating a decrease
in temperature, with wind and rain or snow.

Cirro-stratus is characterised by great horizontal extent in proportion
to vertical breadth ; so that when any other Cloud begins to assume that
form, it generally ends in Cirro-stratus. Cirrus more commonly becomes
Cirro-stratus than any other Cloud; Cirro-cumulus next; and then Cumulus.

Cirro-stratus, once formed, sometimes resumes the modification from which .

it originated, but more frequently it gradually evaporates or conjoins with
some other modification. It seldom remains long in one form, but seems
to be constantly declining, and hence the term of Wane Cloud. It is
sometimes composed of wavy bars or streaks, connected in the centre and
confused, but the streaks more confined at the edges; this is common in
variable weather in summer. The Mackarel Sky, as it is termed, is a
variety of this; another variety consists of one long and plain streak,
thick in the middle, and wasting away at its edges; and a third, con-
sisting of small rows of little clouds, curved in a peculiar manner, and a
sure indication of stormy weather ; this is more or less regularly formed,
and the irregular formation is often produced when a large Cumulus.
passes under a long line of Cirro-stratus, and is also a sign of stormy
weather.

a

CLASSIFICATION OF THE CLOUDS. 661

The last variety of Cirro-stratus is a large shallow veil of Cloud, which
extensively overspreads the sky, particularly in the evening and during the
night, and through which the sun and moon appear dimly. It is in this
Cloud that those peculiar refractions of light, of the sun and moon, called
halos, mock suns, &c., usually appear, and which are tolerably certain
prognostics of rain or snow. There are minor varieties which may fre-
quently be observed.

Cirro-stratus usually terminates in forming an intimate union with some
other Cloud, to produce rain; but at times it evaporates or changes into
some other modification.

Cirro-cumulus and Cwmwulo-cirrus are scarcely distinguishable, both
appearing as thin layers of fleecy structure, but the former float at a mean
altitude of 20,000 ft., while the altitude of the latter only averages
12,000 feet.

Cirro-cumulus (Cirrus and Cumulus) is an assemblage of nubecule, or
small roundish clouds, either detached from, or in contact with, each other,
and frequently reaching, to appearance, into the azure sky, commonly
attended by an increased temperature, and found to accord with a rising
barometer. The most striking feature is observed in summer, before or
about the time of thunder-storms. The component nubecule are then very
dense, round in form, and in closer apposition than usual. This kind of
Cloud is so commonly a forerunner of storms, that it has been assumed by
some as a tempestuous prognostic. In rainy and variable weather another
variety of this Cloud appears, contrasted very strikingly with that above
mentioned, being of a light fleecy texture, without any regular form in its
nubecule. Sometimes the latter are so small as scarcely to be discernible,
but the sky seems speckled with innumerable little white transparent spots.
The Cirro-cumulus of fair summer weather is of a medium nature, not so
dense as the stormy variety, nor so light as the variable one. Its nubecule
vary in size and proximity. In fine dry weather, with light gales of North
and easterly winds, small detachments rapidly form and subside again,
generally in a horizontal arrangement.

When Cirro-cumulus prevails, we may anticipate an increase of tem-
perature in summer; and in winter the breaking up of a frost, or warmer
and wet weather. In the summer time, extensive beds of this Cloud,
viewed by moonlight, have a very beautiful appearance, which has been
compared to a flock of sheep at rest. Cirro-cumulus subsides either slowly,
as if by evaporation, or changes into some other modification.

Stratus comprehends fogs and all those creeping mists which in
summer evenings fill the valleys, but disappear in the mornings. The best
time for observing its formation is on a fine evening, after a hot summer’s
day; we shall then observe that, as the Cumuli of the day decrease, a
white mist forms near the ground; this Cloud, as the Cumuli evaporate,
by degrees arrives at its density. In autumn it remains longer in the
morning. In winter it often puts on a still denser appearance, and remains
during the day, and even for many days successively.

Cumulus is a flat-based rocky-topped Cloud, whose base is usually
elevated about 4,500 feet. The progressive formation of Cumulus is seen
in fine settled weather. If we then observe the sky soon after sunrise, wa

662 CLASSIFICATION OF THE CLOUDS.

see small clouds here and there in the atmosphere, which appear to be the
result of small gatherings, or concentrated parts of the evening mist, which,
rising in the morning, grow into small masses of cloud, and the atmosphere
becomes clear. As the sun rises, these clouds become larger, by adjacent
ones coalescing, and at length a large Cloud is formed, assuming a cumu-
lated irregular hemispherical shape; this usually subsides in,the evening
as it is formed in the morning, breaking into small masses, then fragments,
and evaporating, when it is succeeded by Stratus, to the formation of which
it may have contributed. In fine weather these Clouds form soon after
sunrise, increase during the day, and subside with more regularity, and
have a more hemispherical form, than in changeable weather. When well-
formed Cumuli prevail for three or four days, the weather is settled.
Cumuli reflect a strong silvery light when opposed to the sun, like Alpine
mountains covered with snow.

Cumulus sometimes takes a cylindrical shape, forming itself into long
horizontal rolls, between which gleams of light are seen, but which are
often so closely packed as to hide the blue sky; these are called Holl-
cumulus. This variety of Cumulus is an addition to Howard’s nomen-
clature. It is inserted owing to the frequency of this appearance at sea,
but it is necessary to observe that the effect is simply one of perspective.

Cumulo-stratus designates Cirro-stratus blended with Cumulus, and
either appearing intermixed with the heaps of the latter, or super-adding
@ wide structure to its base. Cumulo-stratus is most frequent during a
mean or changeable state of the barometer, when the wind blows from the
West, with occasional deviations from the North and South. Its mean
altitude is about 6,000 feet.

This Cloud may be always regarded as a preliminary to the production
of rain; and it frequently forms in the following manner :—the Cumulus,
which in common passes along in the current of the wind, seems retarded
in its progress, increases its density, spreads out laterally, and at length
overhangs the base, in dark and irregular protuberances. The change to
Cumulo-stratus often takes place at once in all the Cumuli which are near
to each other; and their bases uniting, the superstructure rises up with
mountain-like or rocky summits. The change from Cumulus to Cumulo-
stratus is often preceded by Cirro-stratus.

Cumulo-stratus varies in appearance; those Clouds in which hail
chowers and thunder storms form, look extremely black before the change
to rain, and have a menacing aspect, as they are seen coming slowly up
with the wind. Cumulo-stratus sometimes evaporates or changes into
Cumulus ; but, in general, it ends in Nimbus and a fall of rain or snow.
Sometimes only one part forms Nimbus, the other remaining Cumulo-
stratus.

Nimbus is a flat rain-cloud, whose average altitude is from 4,000 to
5,000 feet. Cwmulo-nimbus is a rain-cloud, of a rocky appearance, whose
base is usually elevated about 4,500 ft., while its summit may rise to
9,000 feet.

Nimbus always precedes a fall of snow, rain, or hail; and has received
its name from a notion of the ancients, who distinguished between the
Imber, or shower, and the Nimbus, or cloud, from which the rain comes.

MAGNETISM AND THE COMPASS. 665

General Remarks on the Nimbus.—Any of the modifications just de-
scribed may increase so much as to obscure the sky, without ending in
rain; before which, the peculiar characteristic of the rain-cloud may
always be distinguished. In order to get a clear idea of its formation, you
may observe a distinct shower in profile, from its formation to its fall in
rain. You may then observe Cumulus first arrested, then Cirro-stratus or
Cirrus may appear to alight on its top; the change to Cumulo-stratus then
goes on rapidly, and this Cloud, increasing in density, assumes that black
and threatening appearance known as an indication of rain. Presently
‘this blackness is changed to a grey obscurity, and this is the criterion of
the actual formation of water, which now begins to fall, and constitutes
the cloud a Nimbus, while a Cirriform crown of fibres extends from the
upper part of the clouds, and small Cumuli enter into the lower part.
After the shower has spent itself, the Cloud resumes its title of Cumulo-
stratus, and thence probably changes into a different modification; and if

~Cumulo-stratus appears again, it indicates a return to rain.

7.—ON MAGNETISM AND THE COMPASS.

Concerning the history of the magnetic needle, we have many and
vague notices of its high antiquity. It is mentioned by Homer and
Aristotle, and by many subsequent classical writers. To come to more
modern times, it was known, in Hurope, at the time of the Crusades,
in about a.p. 1150, and it is very probable that the knowledge was
derived from the Arabians, during those expeditions. The Chinese were
acquainted with it ages before this. We are told by the Jesuit mis-
sionary, Du Halde, that the Chinese Emperor, Hoang-ti, possessed an
instrument which pointed to the South, so early as the year 2634 B.c., or
over 4,500 years ago; the same author gives subsequent notices of the
Compass in China, proving its very great antiquity among that people.

It has usually been considered that Columbus, in his voyage from
Portugal, on the discovery of America, first observed the Variation of the
needle from the true North. But it is not improbable that the Variation
was discovered nearly 200 years before Columbus made this change known,
as it is mentioned in one of the earliest treatises on Magnetism, by Peter
Adsiger, in 1269; the authenticity of this, however, is doubted by some.
The wonderful property of the Dip of the needle was first observed by our
countryman, Robert Norman, a maker of compasses, in 1576.

Magnetism is a principle which is evidently allied to, if it is not identical
with, Electricity and Galvanism. for, in causing any or either of
these principles to become evident to our senses, we produce, at the same
time, the others; and it may be here stated, that five apparently dis-
similar effects are inevitably caused in the production of either, viz.,
Light, Heat, Chemical Action, Electricity, and Magnetism. By the pro-
duction of Light we cause Heat and Chemical Affinity, and these will also
produce Electricity, and will cause the magnetic needle to swerve from the

664 MAGNETISM AND THE COMPASS.

meridian. By the Electric Fluid we produce Light, Heat, and the other
phenomena; and the magnetic needle is a measurer, by its deflections, of
the most minute portions of Galvanism. From the magnet a spark can
be produced, absolutely similar in appearance and effect to that of
Electricity and Galvanism ; and there is a positive and negative, or North
and South, pole to the magnet, and these attract or repel each other.

There is one phenomenon connected with these sciences of very great
importance in practice, and that is, that of imduction. A substance
electrified positiwely will induce a state of negative electricity, or will
cause a body that is within its influence to be negatively electrified; the
North pole of a magnet will induce an opposite pole in that of another
piece of iron, in certain positions with respect to the magnetic meridian
and itself Thus, the iron employed in the construction of a ship, or
contained in its cargo, may all become, by induction, temporary magnets,
and have a most marked and important effect upon the Compass by
which it is steered ; and it is this cause which is too frequently overlooked
—that of Local Deviation—which has caused enormous errors in reckon-
ing, and consequently the loss of many vessels. As scientific detail is out
of our province, we must refer the reader to those works more expressly
treating on the subject.

Terrestrial Magnetism.—The cause of the Magnetism of the earth, by
which the Direction, the Dip, and the Intensity of the Force of the
magnetic needle is controlled, is still involved in obscurity, and no per-
fectly satisfactory system or theory has hitherto been framed to account
for the multifarious changes and phenomena of the Compass needle.
Among the more modern enquirers into the source of this most wonderful
principle, we may mention Professor Hansteen, Mr. Bain, Mr. Barlow,
Mr. Christie, Sir Edward Sabine, Mr. Gauss, Capt. Johnston, Mr. Archibald
Smith, Captain Evans, R.N., and many others. From their labours we
have arrived at a tolerably correct notion of the general effects of magnetic
phenomena; and from these the laws by which they are governed have,
in some measure, been deduced.

Now, the most reasonable supposition is, that the earth itself is a
magnet, or that magnetic currents exist on its surface in certain direc-
tions, causing the various deflections of the needle; whether this Mag-
netism is induced from the sun, or other source, or whether the earth is
in a positive and permanently magnetic state, does not affect the present
question. From certain changes in the Compass, perhaps it might be
inferred, that the Magnetism is induced by temperature (heat) from the
sun; or that the ferruginous matters, which enter so largely into the
composition of the earth, have received an inductive Magnetism from the
game source. In 1839, Gauss, among other important conclusions derived
from his researches, considered that the agents producing the magnetic
force of the earth are situated exclusively in the interior of the earth, and
that they are not situated in external space.

In 1683 Dr. Edmund Halley published a theory of Magnetism, in which
occur the following ideas :—that the earth’s Magnetism was caused by
four piles or points of attraction, two of them near each Pole; and that in
those parts of the world which lie nearly adjacent to any one of those

— ee

MAGNETISM AND THE COMPASS. 665

Magnetic Poles, the needle is governed thereby, the nearest Pole being
always predominant over that more remote. This view of the earth’s
Magnetism was supported by the results of the labours of Professor
Hansteen, one of the chief promoters of the science, as shown in his most
valuable work (Magnetismus der Erde, Christiania, 1817). Having col-
lected all the observations of value that had been made on the Variation
of the needle, he proved that there were four points of convergence among
the lines of Variation ; viz., a weaker and a stronger point, in the vicinity
of each Pole of the globe. This, combined with the result of Sir D.
Brewster's inquiries, will certainly lead to the view of the connection
between the heat of the earth and its Magnetism. Professor Hansteen
considered that the strongest Poles, N.S., lie almost diametrically opposite
to each other, and the same is true of the weaker Poles n. s. These four
Poles he found to have a regular motion obliquely; the two Northern
ones, N. »., from West to Hast, and the two Southern ones, §. s., from
East to West. The following he found to be their periods of revolution,
and their positions in 1830 :—

Time of Revolution round

Latitude. Long. from Greenwich. each Pole of the Earth. - _
Pole. eeniG9™ 300 Nie. ceseccds. tes STM OR WVike. sacar oeaee tee 1,740 Years.
PGleusrm see OSe140) Ge Weaceseaccer es LMC TAN Gs b-aea secrecy 4,609 -
Gleii scs (OD MOWING. |v iccasteesweve MAO stub oresc scones eens 860 ~~
OlGIS) ees) 107 20 Ss astiscoeceves TS Te AD Wie ecececcmteteuase 1,304 a

From calculations based upon subsequent observations he slightly
varied these positions and periods ; but he showed very clearly that the
changes in the Variation and Dip of the needle, in both Hemispheres,
_ may be well explained by their motion.

Recently acquired knowledge enables us to understand the arrangement
of these Poles to be as follows. In each Hemisphere there is one
Magnetic Pole, where the magnetic needle would take up a vertical
position. The Northern Magnetic Pole is to the N.N.W. of Hudson’s Bay,
in about lat. 70° N., long. 96° W.; the Southern Magnetic Pole is to the
South of Tasmania, in about lat. 734° S., long. 1474° KE. These Poles
must not be considered as mere points un the earth’s surface, but rather
as limited areas; at the Northern Pole, the dipping-needle has been
found by actual observation to be vertical over a region of some 50 miles
square.*

Besides the Magnetic Poles, the directive power of the magnetic needle
is also affected by the Magnetic Force. This is not evenly distributed
over the earth’s surface, and the points of maximum intensity do not
coincide with the Magnetic Poles. In the Northern Hemisphere there are
two foci of maximum Force, the more powerful in about lat. 52°N.,
long. 92° W., near the great American lakes, the weaker in Siberia, in
lat. 65° N., long. 115° E. It is also believed that two similar foci, of

* “The Magnetism of the Earth. A Lecture on the Distribution and Direction of
the Earth’s Magnetic Force at the Present Time: the Changes in its Hlements, and
on our Knowledge of the Causes.” By Captain F. J. Evans, 0.B., F.R.S., in the “ Pro-
ceedings of the Royal Geographical Society,”’ No. iii., vol. xxii., 1878, pages 188—216,

Ne 8..C: 85

666 MAGNETISM AND THE COMPASS.

nearly equal power, exist in the Southern Hemisphere, one in lat. 65° S.,
long. 140° E., and the other in lat. 50° S., long. 120° E.

By the action of the dipping-needle, the line of Force is found to be
horizontal only in Equatorial and Tropical regions, and to lie below or
above the horizontal plane when to the North or South of the Magnetic
Equator. The direction taken by the Compass needle invariably leads to
the Magnetic Poles, around which the lines of Equal Dip are arranged in
a series of circular or elliptical curves. The maximum Magnetic Force is
not coincident with the Magnetic Poles, nor lines of Equal Force with
lines of Equal Dip.

The Magnetic Poles, or points on the earth’s surface over which the
dipping-needle would stand vertical, are separated by a Magnetic Equator,
which is not coincident with the earth’s Equator, but is an irregular
circle, which crosses it in two points, one in mid-Pacific, and the other
in 12° W. in the Atlantic; on this circle, of course, the dipping-needle
remains horizontal.

Respecting the North Atlantic Ocean, we may here state that in 1895,
the Magnetic crosses the Terrestrial Equator in about long. 12° W., and
proceeds south-westerly, across the Atlantic, to the coast of Brasil, which
it touches in lat. 14° 5. The line of Equal Dip, at 70°, runs from the
N.W. coast of Ireland, curving to the W.S.W., to about Washington, U.S.;
between these lines the lines of Equal Dip (or Isoclinal Lines) form nearly
regular divisions, as will be seen by referring to the diagram, page 459.

The Mariner’s Compass, as generally used, exhibits the direction of
the Magnetic meridian only; and in treating of the magnetic needle, for
the purposes of navigation, three points are to be inquired into—these
are, the Variation, or Declination; the Dip, or Inclination; and the
Intensity of the Magnetic Force.

The Declination, or Variation.—With this branch of the subject every
sailor must be perfectly familiar, and any comment on its actual state is
therefore unnecessary. It is described as positive when Westerly, and
negative when Easterly. But this Variation is not constant. There are
several elements of change in this part of the Magnetic Force, for it
undergoes Secular, Annual, Mensual, Diurnal, and also irregular Changes.
The Secular Change is a progressive alteration observed in the direction
of the magnetic needle during a series of years. Thus, in 1576, Robert
Norman found the Compass in London to point 11° 15’ Hast of North; in
1658, it pointed true North; it was on the increase in 1819, when it was
24° 41' West of North; and since then it has been retrograding, and in
December, 1891, was 17° 20’ 30”.

The Mensual Change is according to the season of the year, It was first
noticed by Mr. Canton about the year 1756. It amounted, in January,
to 7’ 8”; in March, 11’ 17”; in June, 13’ 21”; in September, 11’ 43”; and
in December, 6’ 58”.

The Diurnal Change is thus described from the observations of Pro-
fessor Lloyd :—‘‘ The mean daily curve of the Changes of Declination for
the entire year exhibits a small Easterly movement of the North end of
the magnet during the morning hours, which reaches its maximum about
7 a.m. After that hour the North end moves rapidly Westward, and it

——e

MAGNETISM AND THE COMPASS. 667

reaches its extreme Westerly position at 1.10p.m. It then returns to the
Eastward, but less rapidly, the Easterly Deviation becoming a maximum
about 10 p.m.; the mean daily range equals 9:3’.”’

The Irregular Changes or Magnetic Storms, as they have been termed
(see page 458), occur without any previous notice, and are of very great
extent ; some of them almost throughout the globe. At times this Devia-
tion amounts to 2°.

The ascertained Variation of the Compass, in various parts of the North
Atlantic Ocean, is attached to the Tables of Positions in the former part
of this work, and are also given on the Chart facing page 455.

The Dip, or Inclination.—The Dip of the needle is the angle which a
well-balanced needle forms with the horizon after it is rendered magnetic,
and when it has the power of free motion in the plane of the magnetic
meridian. As before stated, this angle varies in different parts of the
globe, being at zero on the Magnetic Equator, and 90° on the Magnetic
Poles. The Dip, like the Variation, undergoes a continual change,
increasing in some parts of the world, and diminishing in others. Thus
at Paris, in 1761, it was 75°; in 1829, only 67° 41’. At London, in 1576,
it was 71° 50’; in 1837, it was 69° 20’; in 1891, it was 67° 21:4’.

The Dip is a very important element in magnetic consideration, and is
too much overlooked by the sailor. The instruments for its measure-
ment, however, are expensive and delicate, and require great nicety in
their management; and for these reasons it is comparatively neglected ;
but as it is in some degree a measurement of the Intensity of the Magnetic
Force, and also greatly modifies the directive power of the Compass, it is
very important to the mariner. When the needle is perpendicular, as it
is over the Magnetic Poles, of course its directive force vanishes. The
diurnal change in the Dip amounts to 3’ or 4’, and is also about 15’ greater
in summer than in winter.

The Intensity.—The Intensity of the Magnetism of the earth varies also
with time and place. It is the power of the earth to bring an oscillating
needle to a state of rest; and it is in proportion to the squares of the
number of vibrations per second. The lines of Equal Intensity would at
first seem to coincide with those of Equal Dip, but, in consequence of the
double Magnetic Polar axes, they differ in their relation, though they still
form regular and symmetrical curves. As the Magnetic Latitude increases
so does the Intensity, but not the Directive Force ; for, when a needle is
on the Magnetic Equator, it naturally preserves its horizontality, and,
consequently, the whole of its Magnetism is employed in directing the
needle towards the Poles. But, in high Magnetic Latitudes, where the
Dip is great, the means employed to keep it parallel with the horizon of
course reduce very considerably its power of keeping in a North and
South direction ; and in the circum-polar regions the ordinary Compass
becomes so sluggish as to be of but little value to steer by.

Having thus very briefly sketched the general phenomena of Terrestrial
Magnetism, the reader will understand the general principles laid down
by Dr. Halley and Professor Hansteen, that in the Northern Hemisphere
the two points of convergence of the Magnetic Variation or Declination,
by revolving around the Pole of the earth, will cause a local change in

668 MAGNETISM AND THE COMPASS.

the Variation of all places lying in North Magnetic Latitude, and which,
in the case of London, has amounted to about 284° in 315 years. The
Dip, on the other hand, has changed but little, or 44° in the same period ;
this is obvious, because the two magnetic axes, while they change their
Terrestrial Longitude in a considerable degree, do not vary much in
Latitude, and, consequently, will not greatly affect the Dip in places at
some distance from them.

The points then, interesting to the navigator, are, first, the influence of
the earth’s Magnetism upon his Compasses, and the influence the ship and
her iron has upon them in neutralising or modifying the first; the second,
namely, the Local Deviation, is a subject which has become magnified
into vast and vital importance since the introduction of iron and steel into
the fabric of ships.

The North Atlantic Ocean has this peculiarity, in a magnetic sense,
that it has over nearly all its area but one kind of Magnetism—Westerly
Declination (or Variation) and Northerly Inclination (or Dip). The
Magnetic Equator, or the line of No Dip, passes, as before said, obliquely
across the Terrestrial Equator, from Africa to Brasil. The line of No
Variation passes from Charleston, across the West Indies, to the River
Essequibo. Hi

Now, as will be seen presently, as the force of the ship’s Magnetism
diminishes, so does that of the earth increase in its influence on the
Compass, so that a ship’s corrected Compass does not hold the same
relative position with respect to both, with the same correction, into a
different Magnetic Latitude. Thus, a vessel with a large original error
in England will find that error reduced, perhaps to one-half, on reaching
the Equator ; and if sailing Northwards a very different relation will be
found.

This is especially to be noticed on sailing into the Gulf of St. Lawrence,
or anywhere in a N.W. direction towards America. Frequently a ship
may be standing on one course to the southward of West across the
Atlantic, and then suddenly bears up to N.W.; and then, passing rapidly
towards the Magnetic Pole, the relation between the earth’s Magnetism
and that of the ship upon her Compass undergoes a rapid and important
change, which, unattended to, has doubtless been the cause of many em-
barrassments and accidents.

The Local Deviation of the Compass is its variation from the Magnetic
Meridian, which may be caused, as already noticed, by a peculiar state
of the atmosphere, Aurora Borealis, lightning, or the local attraction of
the ship, iron, &c. This is a subject of inquiry, which was first explained
by Captain Flinders, in the description of his surveys of the Australian
coast. To this subject his attention was directed, not only by some
anomalous differences which he found in the Compasses he used, but
by others recorded by Mr. Wales, who had accompanied Captain Cook in
the capacity of astronomer, and his deductions, referring as they do to
wooden vessels, are still held to be correct.

But the problem of Local Deviation in iron ships is a widely different
one, and includes a large range of phenomena and considerations which,
for many years after the introduction of iron as a material for building

MAGNETISM AND THE COMPASS. 669

ships, was but little understood, and even now is not established on a
firm basis in all its particulars.

This important discussion, upon the Magnetism of Iron Ships, began by
Professor Airy’s experiments, recorded in the ‘“ Philosophical Transactions”
for 1839. His conclusions were somewhat opposed by Dr. Scoresby, in
1854, which was replied to in the ‘‘ Mercantile Marine Magazine,” in
1854 and 1855. To further investigate the still obscured principles in-
volved in this very important topic, Dr. Scoresby undertook his well-known
voyage to Australia and back, in the Royal Charter, between February and
August in 1856. ~

The attention of the shipping interest was strongly called to this question
at the meeting of the British Association at Liverpool, in 1854, and the
result was the formation of the Liverpool Compass Committee, who re-
ported to the Government, in 1855 and 1856, and the valuable series of
observations they collected were discussed by their able secretary, Mr.
Rundell, and by Mr. Archibald Smith, Mr. Towson, and others, in 1857.
One important conclusion arrived at is stated by Mr. Archibald Smith, as
follows :—

‘Whatever differences of opinion may be entertained as to applying
corrections to the steering Compasses of iron ships, it can hardly admit of
question that every iron ship should have at least one Compass removed
as much as possible from the influence of iron and not corrected by magnets,
and should be swung at the beginning and end of every voyage of any
length, and the Deviation of the uncorrected and, corrected Compasses (if
any) observed. No man is competent to command an iron ship who is
not competent to make these observations.’’*

More refined calculations, for determining the relation between a ship
and her Compass, were given in a pamphlet by Archibald Smith, Esq.,
“ Instructions for the Computation of a Table of the Deviations of a Ship’s
Compass,” 1848, as a supplement to the “‘ Practical Rules for ascertaining
the Deviations, &c.,”’ 1854.

Dr. Scoresby gave the following summary of leading deductions on the
Character, Distribution, and liability to Change, of the Magnetism of Iron
Ships :—

(1.) As to the Sources of the Intense Magnetism of Iron Ships.—Ships
built of iron must not only be strongly magnetic, because of the vast body
of this metal which is subjected to the action of terrestrial induction ; but
by reason of the elaborate system of hammering, as well as from the bend-
ing of the plates and bars during the progress of construction, there must
be an extremely high development of the quality of Retentive Magnetism.

(2.) Effect of the Position of a Ship when Building.—Each iron ship
must have a special individuality of the magnetic distribution, depending
essentially on the position of the keel and head whilst building, such dis-
tribution having, in each individual case, a Polar axis and Equatorial plane
conformable to those of the earth at the place where the ship is built.

* From the Introduction to Dr. Scoresby’s ‘‘ Journal of a Voyage to Australia,” by
Archibald Smith, Esq., M.A., page 48.

670 MAGNETISM AND THE COMPASS.

(3.) Magnetic Lines of the Inductive and Retentive Magnetism the same.—
Whilst the spontaneous influence of simple induction must be to develop
a transient magnetic condition, having in each individual case a Polar
axis and Equatorial plane conformable to those of the earth at the place
where the ship is built; so, also, the Retentive Magnetism developed
during the building must have corresponding Polar direction and dis-
tribution.

(4.) Liability of original Magnetic Distribution to Change.—The original
distribution of the Magnetism, or casting of the magnetic lines, must be
liable to change, after the launching, under any violent mechanical action
on the ship, when lying with her head in a new direction, or sailing in
remote regions of the globe, having very different directions of the earth’s
Magnetic Force.

(5.) Sympathy of the Compass with a ship's Magnetic Changes.—All
changes in a ship’s magnetic condition must tend to produce disturbance
in the action of Compasses on or about the deck. And the effect must be,
in however minute or insensible quantity in some particular cases, to
change the amount of the original Deviations.*

It was the argument on the ‘retentive ’’ condition of the Magnetism of
the ship induced by her building, that led to the controversy between
Dr. Scoresby and Professor Airy, and caused the former undertaking, at
his advanced years, the voyage to Australia, from the effects of which he
may be said to have fallen a martyr to science.

Dr. Scoresby, in his letter to the Underwriters Association of Liverpool,
in 1854, drew up the following propositions, in addition to those he laid
down in his later work of the ‘‘ Voyage of the Royal Charter :”—

1. That the original Magnetism and Compass Deviation are specially
liable to change in new ships, when meeting with heavy weather on their
first going to sea.

2. That a Change of Course, after long steering in one direction, is liable _

to produce a Change in the Compass.

3. That adjusted Compasses are specially liable to change in the direc-
tion of over-compensation, and may dangerously mislead the navigator.

4, That a stroke of the sea may produce a sudden change in the Compass.

5. That a stroke of lightning may change a ship’s Magnetism and
Compass Deviation.

6. That ¢ “ot sun, shining partially on an iron ship, might change her
Magnetism.

7. That permanent magnets applied for the adjustment of Compass
Deviations must, with rare exceptions, tend to aggravate the error in ships
going far into another hemisphere.

8. That a compass aloft affords an easy, practical, and, if duly elevated
and prepared for, an effectual remedy for the ship’s disturbing influence.t

The experience gained by the voyage of the Royal Charter showed that
the blows and strains she underwent in her voyage out to Australia
diminished, or, so to speak, shook out the inequalities in her Compasses,

* «Journal of a Voyage for Magnetical Research,” 1859, pages 71, 72.
+ “The Compass in Iron Ships, &c.,” by the Rev. W. Scoresby, D.D., pages 67, 68.

ee

MAGNETISM AND THE COMPASS. 671

which were observed before her sailing, to such an extent, that the standard
Compass, which had originally a deviation of 20° to the port side when the
ship’s head was North, had this deviation reduced to 3° 22’ on her return
to Liverpool; while her steering Compass, which originally had been
rather over-corrected, having an error of 1° 43’, returned with it 22° 25’;
while the companion Compass, having an error of 1° 43’, returned with it
17° 35’. This change was one which had evidently taken place in the
Retentive Magnetism of the ship. The change shows the complete failure,
in such a voyage, for compensation by fixed magnets.

In 1843, when the Compass Department of the Admiralty wasestablished,
the science and the instruments were in an equally bad condition. The
labours of Captain E. J. Johnson, R.N., F.R.S., however, soon put a new
face on matters, and much was done in his time towards developing the
application of the principles enunciated. But the vast increase of iron
shipping has caused greater requirements, and the sailor is very largely
indebted to Captain (afterwards Sir) Fred. J. Evans, R.N., who produced
an excellent series of Variation Charts, and also devoted much talent to
the investigation of the problem of Magnetism in Iron Ships. From his
Report on the Deviation in the Iron Ships of the Royal Navy, April 18th,
1860, we extract the following :—

On the Nature of the Magnetism in Iron-built Ships.—The magnetic
influence of steam machinery having been reviewed, the nature of the
Magnetism of iron-built ships can be entered on free, to a certain extent,
of conditions arising from this extraneous source of Compass Error, and
those examples fairly eliminated where it tends to embarrass the discussion.

The investigation of the disturbance arising from the horizontal induc-
tion of the soft iron in the ship, or the co-efficient D, offers several novel
and suggestive points of inquiry ; the chief characteristics are :—

1. That it has invariably a positive sign, causing an Easterly Deviation
in the N.E. and S.W. quadrants, and a Westerly Deviation in the S.E.
and N.W. quadrants.

2. That its amount does not appear to depend on the size or mass of
the vessel, or direction when building, or on the iron beams.

3. That a gradual decrease in amount has occurred, when examined over
a number of years, in nearly every vessel that has been reviewed.

4. That the value remains unchanged in sign and amount, on changes
of geographic position, confirming theoretical deductions.

5. That a value for this co-efficient, not exceeding 4°, and ranging be-
tween that amount and 2°, may be assumed to represent the ey erterig or
normal amount in vessels of all sizes.

The opinion has been long entertained, that the original Masietisent of
an iron-built ship, or that acquired in the process of building, undergoes a
rapid change after launching, and that from this cause accidents have
occurred to recently launched and hastily equipped vessels. The records
of ships of the Royal Navy do not illustrate this subject.

I have alluded to the importance of the conclusions to be derived from a

672 MAGNETISM AND-THE COMPASS.

review of the examples and cases given in this report; for although vary-
ing Compass disturbances exist, and the inference is irresistible that they
arise from the nature of the iron employed in the construction of the hull
of the ship, there is no doubt that, by attention to a few leading prin-
ciples in the building and equipment of iron ships, larger and uncertain
sources of error may be modified and reduced within limits both of fluctu-
ation and amount, which will not seriously compromise the safety of the
ship in the hands of an ordinarily prudent seaman.

The points of practical import to which I would invite attention are :—

1st. The best direction, with reference to the Magnetic Meridian, for
the keel and head of an iron ship to be placed for building, to ensure the
least Compass Disturbance.

Qnd. The best position and arrangement for a Compass, to ensure small
Deviations, and permanency on changes of geographic position.

3rd. The changes to which the Compass is liable, from various causes,
when the foregoing conditions are fulfilled.

1. On the Best Direction for Building an Iron Ship.

In those built head N.H., East, West, and N.W., strong South polarity
(or an attractive force on the North end of the Compass needle) obtains on
one side of the ship, adjoining the Compass as usually placed between the
middle section and the stern ; the resulting disturbance is not lessened as
the Compass is moved in a fore-and-aft line within these limits.

In vessels built head S.E. and §8.W., North polarity obtains under the
same conditions.

In vessels built head North or South, the conditions arise, that in the
former the attraction is toward the stern (the topsides in their action
being neutral to a Compass in the middle line of the deck), and diminishes
in force as the Compass is moved towards the bow. In the latter, the
law is reversed, and small Compass Deviations are obtained as the stern
is approached.

In an iron sailing ship, built head to South, there will be an attraction of
the North point of the Compass to the head; and if built head to North, a
like attraction to the ship’s stern ; and so far there would seem to be no
advantage in one direction over the other. But in the first case the topsides
near the Compass have weak Magnetism; in the second case they are
strongly magnetic; the first position seems, therefore, preferabie.

In an iron steam-ship, built head to the South, the attraction due to
machinery is added to that of the hull; whereas, in one built head to the
North, the attractive forces of hull and machinery are, in the Northern
Hemisphere, antagonistic, and a position of small or no “‘ semi-circular ”
Deviation for the Compass may generally be obtained. In iron steam-
vessels engaged on the home or foreign trades in the Northern Hemisphere,
this direction of build is therefore to be preferred.

2. On the Position and Arrangement of the Compass.

The position of the Compass, whether standard or steering, must depend,
as will have been observed from the foregoing conclusions, on the direction

MAGNETISM AND THE COMPASS. 678 .

of the ship’s build ; that is, in those built head North, the Compass must
be as far removed from the stern as circumstances will permit; in those
built South, placed as near to the stern as convenient, without approach-
ing so close to the rudder-head, or iron taffrail, as to cause the ship’s
general Magnetism to be overpowered by the magnetic influence of those
masses.

In ships built East or West, there is little choice of position, except to
avoid, as a general rule, proximity to vertical masses of iron: in vessels
built with their heads on the inter-cardinal points, a position approximat-
ing to the bow or stern respectively, where the action from the topsides
(to be determined experimentally) is at a minimum, is to be preferred.

Ample elevation above the deck, and to be strictly confined to the middle
line of the ship, are the primary conditions of position for every Compass
in an iron ship, and no Compass, whether steering or standard, should be
negrer the iron deck-beams than 4 feet; for the steering Compass this
arrangement could be met by the use of a vertical card for the helmsman

The Standard Compass, which, as a rule, I should recommend to be
invariably uncompensated, requires an elevation of at least 5 or 6 feet
from the deck, and to be fitted on a separate and permanent pillar or stand;
it is by this superior elevation that the strong magnetic power of the iron
beams and adjoining topsides are correspondingly lessened.

As every piece of iron not composing a part of, and hammered in the
fabrication of the hull—such as the rudder, funnel, boilers aud machinery,
tanks, cooking galleys, fastenings of deck-houses, &c.—sare all of a mag-
netic character differing from the hull of the ship, their proximity should be
avoided, and, so far as possible, the Compass should be placed so that
they may act as correctors of the general Magnetism of the hull.

A Compass placed out of the middle line of the deck is affected by the
nearest topside, and its Deviations must necessarily be much increased if
that topside has the dominant polarity, as in ships built East or West.

Experience has proved that the practical value of mast or elevated
Compasses has, in some cases, been overrated ; they are, in fact, affected
by the ship’s Magnetism to an amount depending on their elevation and
the direction of the ship’s build ; thus, in ships built North and South,
but especially the latter—the Compass being on the mizen-mast—the
Deviations will be comparatively large. In ships built East or West, the
Deviations will be comparatively small, from the topside, which would
affect a deck Compass, being more directly under the mast Compass ; they
may, therefore, be useful in the latter cases, and valueless in a ship built
head to the South. The wear and tear on the pivots and agate caps of
mast Compasses, from the increased motion due to their elevation, require
constant attention when they are employed.

3. On various Sources of Error affecting a Compass placed under
favourable Conditions

Errors arising from changes of geographic position, as also incidental
causes of error due to anomalous rather than general conditions, have
been brought under review in the general progress of this report. There is,

N..A. O: 86

674 MAGNETISM AND THE COMPASS.

however, one source of compass-error (that arising from the Heeling of the
ship) which has not been alluded to, as the ship in all the points hereto
reviewed is assumed to be on an even keel, and neglect of this has led to
the stranding of numerous vessels.

Experiments made in ships of the Royal Navy tend to prove, as also
does the test of experience, that when the original Compass Deviations
are small, the errors from Heeling are generally small in proportion; and
conversely, the exaggerated errors from Heeling are the consequence of
exaggerated errors while on an even keel. Ample elevation from the deck,
in order to raise the Compass above the level of the topsides and adjacent
deck-beams, is one of the chief conditions for reducing this source of error.

With head built North, on Heeling, the North end of the Compass needle

will be attracted to the weather or nearest
side, from its South polarity.

os N.E. ma on + the same.
3 East fe 5: the same.*
re S.E. ee the North end of the needle will have but

little error, from the balanced conditions
of North and South polarity of topsides.
‘3 South __,, the North end of the needle will be
repelled to the lee side, by the North
polarity of the nearest or weather topside.

PA S.W. Be the North end of the needle will have
but little error, as at S.E.

ss West a3 the North end of the needle will be
attracted to the weather or nearest side.

se N.W. by “A os the same.

These laws only hold good so long as the topsides, in the immediate
vicinity of the Compass, retain their dominant polarity due to their original
direction of build in Great Britain. If in South Magnetic Latitudes, a
change of polarity takes place, the conditions of Heeling correspond to
such change.

The maximum disturbance on Heeling in all these vessels is when their
heads are (by disturbed Compass) magnetic North or South, and this
disturbance vanishes when the head is East or West. This law of dis-
turbance may be thus explained: when the vessel’s head is North or
South, on an even keel, (by disturbed Compass), the needle lies parallel to
the topsides by their combined action, which neutralize each other; on
Heeling, the nearest topside exercises its then dominant polarity at right
angles to the direction of the needle, and hence the maximum error. With
the ship’s head East or West, whether on an even keel or heeling, either
Pole of the Compass needle points directly to the topsides, and is conse-
quently unaffected except in a vertical plane.

As the amount of disturbance on Heeling varies under the various -con-
ditions of direction of build, height of Compass, and breadth of ship or
distance of topsides, added to the prevailing permanent or inductive mag-
netic condition of the latter and the deck-beams, each ship must have an
individual character, to be determined only by experiment or observation

ee

MAGNETISM AND THE COMPASS. 675

atsea. There are, however, strong grounds for inferring that by a judi-
cious position of the Compass, so as to ensure small errors while on an
even keel, the errors arising from a ship’s Heel will be so proportionally
reduced, as not practically to affect the navigation of the ship in the hands
of a prudent seaman.*

In the Northern Hemisphere, in ships built with their heads from about
§.E., through North, to S.W. (the usual effect of the permanent Magnetism
of the ship then conspiring with that of her vertical and transverse soft
iron), the North point of the Compass needle, assuming the Compass to
be on the upper deck and on the after portion of the ship, will, as a general
rule, be drawn to windward, or to the high side of the ship; the nearer
the ship’s head was to North whilst building, the greater the error that
may be expected ; the effect being to throw the ship to windward of ber
supposed position when steering on Northerly courses, and to leeward on
Southerly courses, the error decreasing as the Equator is approached, and
small, perhaps of a contrary name, in the Southern Hemisphere.

In ships built with their heads from about §.H., through South, to
S.W. (the usual effect of the permanent Magnetism, and that of the trans-
verse, &c., soft iron being then contrary to each other) the North end of
the Compass needle may be drawn to leeward, depending upon whether
the vertical force of the permanent Magnetism, or that of the induced
Magnetism of transverse and vertical soft iron, predominates, but the
error would then, as a general rule, be small in these latitudes, and large
in the Southern Hemisphere.

The Heeling error may be small or large, depending greatly upon the
position of the Compass—it has been known to exceed 2° for every degree
of Heel of the ship—and is directly proportional to the amount of Heel.
Consequently, if the error at North or South for 1° of Heel is known,
the error for any other direction of the ship’s head, and amount of Heel,
can be found by the usual methods.

Serious changes, however, frequently take place in the character and
amount of the Heeling error as the ship changes her Magnetic Latitude.
In the first place, from the vertical force arising from the permanent
Magnetism of the ship, the error from which is greatest in high latitudes,
diminishes until the Equator is reached, where it is least, and increases
again in the opposite Hemisphere, but still retaining the same name ; and
in the second place, from vertical induction in vertical soft iron, and
transverse soft iron generally (such as beams, &c.), the error from which
is greatest in high latitudes, diminishes until the Equator is reached,
where it becomes nil, and increases again (but of an opposite name) as
the vessel recedes from the Equator in the opposite Hemisphere. It is
difficult, therefore, to predict with any great accuracy the change that will
take place, observations at every possible opportunity being the only
reliable safeguard.

Mariners are further warned that the adjustment of Compasses by
magnets, soft iron, &c., which is for bringing the error within manageable

* « Reduction and Discussion of the Deviations of the Compass,” by Fred. J. Evans,
R.N., in the “ Philosophical Transactions,’ 1860, part ii., pages 334—358.

676 MAGNETISM AND THE COMPASS.

limits, and for equalising the directive force of the needle, must only be
considered approximate for the latitude in which the adjustment was
made, and they should lose no opportunity of verifying the error, both
in port and at sea, as it is usually constantly changing from numerous
causes, as before explained, the chief amongst which are Heeling, change
of latitude, change of cargo, collision, after repairs, and from the ship
remaining with her head in one direction for a length of time, &c.

One error very difficult to adjust is that caused by the Suwb-permanent
Magnetism, acquired by an iron vessel lying for a long time on one course,
or in dock, this error having, in some cases, amounted to 10°, after lying
on one course for 6 or 7 days. After steering for some time on Westerly
courses, you may expect Westerly error if the course be changed to North,
or Easterly error if it be changed to South. After steering for some time
on an Easterly course, you may expect Easterly error if the course be
changed to North, and Westerly error if it be changed to South.

The Permanent Magnetism is also liable to change in a new iron ship,
and it is recommended, that after launching, she should lie with her head
in the opposite direction to that in which she was built. ;

In some regions, such as near Cape St. Francis (Labrador), Iceland,
and the Isles de Los, the Compass is liable to be greatly deranged by local
influence. Magnetic Observations, made on the French cruiser Allier in
1883, when off the shores of Iceland, showed that the Local Deviation
sometimes amounts to as much as 20° or 30°. Its influence generally
ceases at 5 or 6 miles from the coast, but near Mount Sneefelds, Thorbak
Bay, Cape Reikianes, Westman Islands, and particularly on that part of
the East coast between Papey, Skraden, and Hvalsbak Islands, the influ-
ence of the land extended as far as 20'and 30 miles seaward.

From the foregoing it will be seen, that for the purposes of computing
the Deviation of the steering Compasses, caused by the iron used in the
construction of the vessel, an Azimuth Compass is employed as a Standard,
placed on the mid-ship line, as far as possible from any vertical objects of
iron, such as masts, funnels, davits, and stanchions, and no iron of any
kind allowed within 5 feet of it. It should also be kept at a distance from
any electric lighting machinery, and double wires should always be used
for leads. Where the electric light is used on a ship, it is also advisable
to find by experiment what is the effect on the Compasses; by day they
may be correct, but at night, when the dynamo is at work, the Compasses
may be affected to the extent of several degrees.

It is unnecessary here to describe the process of swinging a ship for the
Deviation of her Compasses, but this operation must not be performed till
her cargo is stowed, and she is in all respects ready for sea. If the voyage
should lead the vessel over a large extent of latitude, such as in passing
from the Northern to the Southern Hemisphere, or vice versa, the original
Deviation Tables will become incorrect, and new observations will be
necessary.

Cer)

8.—REMARKS ON THE BAROMETER
By the late Admiral FitzRoy, F.R.S.*

The words on the scales of Barometers should not be so much regarded
for weather indications, as the rising‘or falling of the mercury. For if it
stand at Changeable, and then rise towards Fair, it presages a change of
wind or weather, though not so great as if the mercury had risen higher;
and, on the contrary, if the mercury stand above Fair and then fall, it
presages a change, though not to so great a degree as if it had stood lower;
besides which, the direction and force of wind are not in any way noticed.
It is not from the point at which the mercury may stand that we are alone
to form a judgment of the state of the weather, but from its rising or
falling ; and from the movements of immediately preceding days, as well
as hours, keeping in mind effects of change of direction, and dryness, or
moisture, as well as alteration of force or strength of wind.

In Western Europe, towards the higher latitudes, the quicksilver ranges,
or rises and falls, nearly three inches—namely, between about thirty inches
_and eight-tenths (30:8), and less than twenty-eight inches (28-0) on extra-
ordinary occasions ; but the usual range is from about thirty inches and a
half (30-5) to about twenty-nine inches. Near the Line, or in Equatorial
regions, the range is but a few tenths, except in storms, when it some-
times falls to twenty-seven inches.

The sliding-scale (vernier) divides the tenths into ten parts each, or
hundredths of an inch. The number of divisions on the vernier exceeds
that in an equal space of the fixed scale by one.

If the Barometer has been about its ordinary height, say near thirty
inches, at the sea-level,t and is steady, or rising—while the Thermometer
falls, and dampness becomes less—north-westerly, northerly, or north-
easterly wind—or less wind—may be expected.

On the contrary, if a fall takes place, with a rising Thermometer and
increased dampness, wind and rain (or snow) may be expected from the
south-eastward, southward, or south-westward.

Exceptions to these rules occur when a north-easterly wind, with wet
(rain or snow), is impending, before which the Barometer often rises (on
account of the direction of the coming wind alone), and deceives persons
who, from that sign only, expect fair weather.

When the Barometer is rather below its ordinary height, say, near
twenty-nine inches and a half (at the sea-level only), a rise foretells less
wind, or a change in its direction toward the northward—or less wet ; but
when the mercury has been low, say near twenty-nine inches, the first
rising usually precedes and foretells strong wind—(at times heavy squalls) —

* It must be remembered that these remarks were written previous to the discovery
of the Cyclonic and Anti-cyclonic systems of Storms (page 198), which cross our islands.
' They are, however, quite in agreement with these systems.

t It stands lower, about one-tenth of an inch for each 100 feet of height directly
upwards, or vertically, above the sea, where its average height, in England, is 29-94
inches (at 32° F.).

678 REMARKS ON THE BAROMETER.

from the north-westward, northward, or north-eastward, after which
violence a rising glass foretells improving weather, if the Thermometer falls.
But, if the warmth continue, probably the wind will back (shift against
the sun’s course), and more southerly, or south-westerly wind will follow.*

The most dangerous shifts of wind, and the heaviest northerly} gales,
happen after the mercury first rises from a very low point.

Indications of approaching changes of weather, and the direction and
force of winds, are shown less by the height of mercury in the tube, than
by its falling or rising. Nevertheless, a height of about thirty inches (at
the level of the sea) is indicative of fine weather and mederate winds.

The Barometer is said to be falling when the mercury in the tube is
sinking, at which time its upper surface is sovvetvmes concave or hollow.
The Barometer is rising when the mercurial column is lengthening ; its
upper surface being then, as usual, convex or rounded.

A rapid rise of the Barometer indicates unsettled weather. A slow rise,
or steadiness, with dryness, shows fair weather.

A considerable and rapid fall is a sign of stormy weather and rain.
Alternate rising and sinking show very unsettled weather.

The greatest depressions of the Barometer are with gales from the 8.E.,
southward, or 8.W.; the greatest elevations, with winds from the N.W.,
northward, or N.E.

Although the Barometer generally falls with a southerly and rises with
a northerly wind, the contrary sometimes occurs; in which cases the
southerly wind is dry and the weather fine ; or the northerly wind is wet
and violent.

When the Barometer sinks considerably, high wind, rain, or snow will
follow ; the wind will be from the northward, if the Thermometer is low
(for the season)—from the southward if the Thermometer is high.

Sudden falls of the Barometer, with a westerly wind, are sometimes
followed by violent storms from N.W. or North.

If a gale sets in from the eastward or 8.E., and the wind veers by the
South, the Barometer will continue falling until the wind becomes S.W.,
when a comparative lull may occur, after which the gale will be renewed ;
and the shifting of the wind towards the N.W. will be indicated by a fall
of the Thermometer as well as a rise of the Barometer.

Three things appear to affect the mercury in a Barometer :—

1. The direction of the wind—the N.E. wind tending to raise it most—
the §. W. to lower it the most, and winds from points of the compass between
them proportionally as they are nearer one or the other extreme point ;
N.E. and §.W. may therefore be called the wind’s extreme bearing.

The range, or difference of height of the mercury, due to change of
direction only, from one of these bearings to the other (supposing strength
or force, and moisture, to remain the same), amounts in these latitudes to
about half an inch (shown by the Barometer as read off).

* In an Aneroid, a metallic, or a whee] Barometer, the motion of the hand should
correspond to that of the mercury in an independent instrument.

+ Southerly in South latitude.

+ In the best columns, those of standards for example, no concavity is seen at any
time,

REMARKS ON THE BAROMETER. 679

2. The amount, taken by itself, of vapour, moisture, wet, rain, or snow,
in the wind (direction and strength remaining the same), seems to cause
a change amounting, in an extreme case, to about half an inch,

3. The strength or force alone of wind from any quarter (moisture and
direction being unchanged) is preceded or foretold by a fall or rise, accord-
ing as the strength will be greater or less, ranging in extreme cases to
more than two inches. |

Hence, supposing the three causes to act together—in extreme cases—
the mercury might range from about thirty-one (30°8) inches to near
twenty-seven (27:1) inches, which has happened occasionally.

Generally, however, as the three act much less strongly, and are less in
accord, ordinary varieties of weather (the wind varying between 8. W. and
N.W., with more or less cloudiness or rain) occur much more frequently
than extreme changes.

Another general rule requires attention ; which is, that the wind usually
veers, shifts, or goes round with the sun (right-handed in the northern
regions, left-handed in the southern parts of the world) ; and that, when
it does not do so, or backs, more wind or bad weather may be expected
instead of improvement.

In a Barometer the mercury begins to rise occasionally before the con-
clusion of a gale, sometimes even at its commencement, as the equilibrium
of the atmosphere begins to be restored. Although the mercury falls lowest
before high winds, it frequently sinks considerably before heavy rain. The
Barometer falls, but not always, on the approach of thunder and lightning,
or when the atmosphere is highly charged with electricity.* Before and
during the earlier part of serene and settled weather, the mercury com-
monly stands high, and is stationary.

Instances of fine weather, with a low glass, occur exceptionally, but
they are always preludes to a duration of wind or rain, if not both.

After very warm and calm weather, rain or a storm is likely to occur ;
or at any time when the atmosphere has been heated much above the
usual temperature of the season.

Allowance should invariably be made for the previous state of the column
during some days, as well as hours, because its indications may be affected
by remote causes, or by changes close at hand. Some of these changes
may occur at a greater or less distance, influencing neighbouring regions,
but not visible to each observer whose Barometer feels their effect.

There may be heavy rains or violent winds beyond the horizon and the
view of an observer, by which his instruments may be affected considerably,
though no particular change of weather occurs in his immediate vicinity.

It may be repeated, that the longer a change of wind or weather is fore-
told by the Barometer before it takes place, the longer the presa; ed
weather will last ; and, conversely, the shorter the warning, the less tie,

* Thunder clouds sometimes rise and spread against the wind (lower current). It ig
probable that there is a meeting, if not a conflict of air currents, electrically different,
whenever lightning is seen. Their meeting, when the new one advances from the polar
region, does not affect the Barometer, except in oscillation, which is very remarkable
at the time.

680 REMARKS ON THE BAROMETER,

whatever causes the warning, whether wind or a fall of rain or snow,
will continue.

Sometimes severe weather from an Equatorial direction, not lasting
long, may cause no great fall of the Barometer, because followed by a
duration of wind from Polar regions; and at times it may fall considerably
with Polar winds and fine weather, apparently against these rules, because
a continuance of Equatorial wind is about to follow. By such changes as
these one may be misled, and calamity may be the consequence if not
thus forewarned.

This ends Admiral FitzRoy’s remarks: what follows is taken chiefly
from ‘ Instructions in the use of Meteorological Instruments” issued by
the Meteorological Office.

Further Remarks.—The Barometer was invented in 1643 by Torricelli,
consequent on attempts to raise water by pumps from a deep well in
Florence; by no method could the water be made to rise higher in the pump
tube than about 32 feet. Experimenting on this, he found mercury in a
short tube more manageable for showing changes in atmospheric pressure.

Various fluids have been used for filling the tube, but those giving off
vapour at low temperatures are very unsuitable, the space above the fluid
being far from a vacuum. Mr. J. B. Jordan invented a glycerine
Barometer, having a length of about 32 ft., showing slight variations in
pressure very clearly. For scientific purposes, however, mercury is the
only suitable fluid for Barometer tubes.

The Barometer now recommended by the Meteorological Office for use
at sea, is known as the Kew Marine Barometer. Each of these instru-
ments is tested at the Kew Observatory, and the scales correctly marked,
the errors due to the capacity of the cisterns, varying size of the tube, &c.,
having been allowed for. By means of the Vernier, the height of the
mercurial column may be read to one-thousandth part of aninch. For
the prevention of pumping, or oscillation of the column of mercury, the
lower part of the tube has a contracted bore down to the cistern, and the
upper part as far as the scale portion is, of even a finer bore. In the
larger bore, between these two fine bores, there is inserted a pipette, or
funnel, spout downwards, the object of this being to intercept any air
which, creeping up the sides of the tube, would, by getting into the
vacuum at the top of the tube, completely upset the working of the
instrument. The best test for moisture or for particles of air, between
the column of mercury and the side of the glass tube, is the magnifying
glass, by means of which the existence of such matter is easily detected.

Sometimes, though very rarely, a particle of dirt, or a bubble of air,
lodges in the very fine contraction of the tube of a marine Barometer, and
completely stops the action of the instrument. Whenever, therefore, a
marine Barometer becomes stationary or inactive, when it evidently ought
to be moving under the influence of atmospheric changes, there being no
evidence of fracture of the glass, the cause may be surmised to be of this
nature. It should then be taken down, the mercury allowed to fill the
. tube, and the instrument put aside, in an inverted position, for a few hours,
On replacing it, the cause of the stoppage will generally be found to have
been removed to a part of the tube where it can do no harm.

REMARKS ON THE BAROMETER. 631

Barometers when in use at sea are slung in gimbals, and suspended
from arms at least a foot long, so as to be perfectly free to assume the
vertical position under every movement of the ship, and at the same time
to keep clear of the bulkhead against which the arm is fastened.

Care should be taken that no readings from a Barometer which is not
hanging truly vertically should ever be recorded. Such readings will
always be too high in proportion to the degree of obliquity.

At Kew, all marine Barometers are rejected of which the index error at
the ordinary pressure is greater than 0-015 inch, or the capacity error
greater than 0-004 inch, or for which the mercury takes less than 3, or
more than 6, minutes to fall from the height of 1°5 inch, to that of
0:5 inch above the existing pressure. This latter condition is to ensure

~ the efficiency of the contraction as a provision against ‘‘ pumping,” as
well as to prevent the danger of the Barometer being too sluggish from
over-contraction.

Correction to be applied to Barometers, with Brass Scales extending from
the Cistern to the top of the Column, to reduce the observation to 32° F.

INCHES.

24-0 | 24-5 | 25-0 | 25-5 | 26-0 | 26-5 | 27-0 | 27-5 28-0 | 28-5 | 29-0 | 29-5 | 30-0 | 30-5 | 31-0

|
|
|
|
|
|

°° | Temperature.

tJti+}+f+e i+ /4+}4+ +/+) 4/4) 4] 4

.061 | -063 | 064 | -065 | 067 | 068 | 069 | .071 072 | -073 | -074 | -076| -077 | 078 | .080
10 | -040 | -041 | 042 | -042 | .043 | .044 | -045 | -046 -047 | -047 | 048 | .049| -050| -051 | -052| 10
90 | -018 | -019 | -019 | -020 | -020 | -020 | -021 | -021 | -021 | -022 | -022 | -023 | -023 | .023 | -024 | 90

30 | -003 | -003 | -003 | -004 | -004 | -004 | -004 | -004 -004 | -004 -004 | -004 | -004 | .004 | -004 | 30
40 | -025 | -025 | -026 | -026 | -027 | -027 | -028 | -028 | -029 | .029 | -030 | -030 | -031 | -031 | -032 | 40
50 | -046 | 047 | 048 | -049 | -050 | -051 | -052 | -053 | -054 | -055 | -056 | -057 | -058 | -059 | -060 | 50
60 | -068 | -069 | 070 | -072 | -073 | -075 | -076 | -077 | -079 | -080 | -082 | -083 | .085 | -086 | -087 | 60
70 | -089 | -091 , -093 | -095 | -096 | -098 | -100 | -102 | -104 | -106 | -108 | -109 | -111 | -113 | -115 | 70
80
90
00

-110 | -113 | -115 | -117 | -119 | -122 | -124 | -126 | -129 -131 | -133 | -136 | -138 | -140] -143 | 80
-151 | -134 | -187 | -140 | -142 | -145 | -148 | -151 | -153 | -156 | -159 | -162 | -164 | -167 | -170| 90
+153 | -156 | -159 | -162 | -165/} -169 | -172 | -175 -178| -181| -184 | -188} -191 | -194 | -197 |100

Correction for Temperature, or Reduction to 32° Fahr.—When the
Barometer is at a Temperature below 32°, the correction is (+), 7.e. to be
added, and when it is above 32° it is (—), z.e. to be subtracted. Thus
supposing the mercury in the Barometer tube to stand at 28-5 inches, and
the attached Thermometer registers the Temperature of the tube and cage
(not of the surrounding air) as 50°, the correction, according to the above
Table, of 055 inch, must be subtracted from 28°5 inches, to reduce the
reading to the Standard Temperature of 32°. In taking an observation,
the attached Thermometer should be read first, in case of its being affected
by the heat of the observer’s person. Brass is considered the most
suitable metal for Barometer cases.

The Aneroid Barometer is an instrument which has come into extensive
use, Owing to its convenient size and portability. In the Aneroid, atmo-
spheric pressure is measured by its effect in altering the shape of a small,

Ne ALO: 87

682 REMARKS ON THE BAROMETER.

hermetically sealed, metallic box, from which almost all the air Las been
withdrawn, and which is kept from collapsing by a spring. The top of
the box is corrugated. When the atmospheric pressure rises above the
amount which was recorded when the instrument was made, the top is
forced inwards; and vice versa, when the pressure falls below that amount,
the top is pushed outwards by the spring. These motions are transferred
by a system of levers and springs to a pointer, which moves on a dial like
that of a wheel-barometer.

It is at once evident that the instrument must be graduated experimen-
tally, as it cannot measure pressure absolutely, but affords indications
relatively to a mercurial Barometer, its sensibility depending, inter alia,
on the quality of the metal of which the box is made.

Aneroids are very sensitive, but unfortunately they do not preserve their
accuracy. Ifa table of corrections be determined for an Aneroid, it will
be found that after a time the latter has undergone some change, and
that the values of the corrections will require alteration, so that re-
comparison with a Standard Barometer will be necessary (see page 108).
In every case of such comparison the readings of the mercurial Barometer
should be reduced to 32°.

A most serious objection to the scientific utility of these instruments is
their liability to injury, owing to rust, or to the alteration of force in the
springs used in their construction. However, for the reasons above stated,
the Aneroid is especially suitable for fishermen and pilots, or seafaring
persons employed in boats or small coasting vessels, in which there is not
space to suspend a Barometer.

For further information, on the practical use of the Barometer, reference
should be made to the Section on ‘The Motions and Pressure of the
Atmosphere,’ pages 108—124.

Abercromby, Hon. R., On
Atmospheric — Circula-
tion, 101 ; On Weather
of Cyclonic Storm
Areas, 200; On Hurri-
canes, 230, 234; On
Waves, 653

Aco. 3; Islands, 570

Adams, Captain, On West
African Seasons, 162

Adou Coast, Winds, 160

Africa, West Coast of,
Positions, 36-43 ; Tides,
281—282, 290; Pas-
sages to and from, 501—
511; Winds and Cli-
mate, 566—570

AFRICAN CURRENT—See
GUINEA CURRENT.

AFRICAN MONSOONS, THE,
157—168. (80) Cause.
(81) Dampier’s Theory.
(82) Cause the Guinea
Current. (83) Captain
Maury on their Limits.
(84) On the Coast. (85)
Captain Midgley’s Re-
marks on the African
Winds and_ Seasons.
(86) Capt. J. W. Mon-
teath’s Remarks. (87)
Commr. Bourke’s Re-
marks. (88) Remarks
by Baron’ Roussin.
(89) Remarks by Lieut.
Bold. (90) Commr.
Bourke’s Remarks on
the Coast of Liberia.
(91) The MHarmattan.
(92) Remarks on the
Harmattan, by Baron
Roussin. (93) Remarks
by Captain T. Boteler.
(94) Mr. G. T. Carter
on Winds and Seasons
at the Gambia. (95)
Commander _ Bourke’s
Remarks on the Har-
mattan.

Agassiz, Prof., On South
Equatorial Current.352;
On the Florida ieets,

{ 683 )

INDEX.

0.

(Agassiz—continued.)
3882—383 ; On the Gulf
Stream, 395

Airy, Prof. G. B., Ob-
servations on Longi-
tude, 18; On the Tides,
271; On Magnetism
456, 669

Aitkin Rock, 609

Akett Island, 609

Ali Bey, Surveys, 36, 42

Allen, Lieut. B., Surveys,
94

Alof Kramer Bank, 609

Altona Observatory, 23

America Rock, 609

Ammen Rock, 601

Amplimont Rocks, 608

Amsterdam, 26

Andrau, Lieut., On Ocean
Temperatures, 403, 419

Anegada Passage, Cur-
rents, 354, 355

Anemometer, The, 203

Anfitrite Shoal, 609

ANIMAL Lire, &c., in the
Ocean, 648—652

Anna Rock, 601, 609

Anno Bom Island, Posi-
tions, 41

Anticosti, Positions, 57

Antigua Passage, Cur-
rents, 354
Anti-Cyclone, Origin of

the Term, 114

ANTI-CYCLONES-See ANTI- \

TRADES.

Anti-Cyclonic Wind Sys-
tems, with Diagrams,
185, 198—199, 200, 292
— 203

ANTI-TRADES or PASSAGE
WINDS, 124, 170—216.
(102) Definition. (103)
Frequency of Storms
in this zone. (104) Ob-
servations. (105) West-
erly Predominance.
(106) Wind ~ Charts.

~ (107) Von W. von Free-
den on the Winds be-
tween lat. 55° & 40°N.,

(Anti-Trades, &c—cont.)
with Tables of Fre-
quency. (108, 109)
Captain Toynbee’s Ex-
amination of Logs k>pt
by Capt. J. A. Martya.
(110) Captain R. Inglis
on North Atlantic
Weather, and Western
Limit of S.W. Winds.
(112) Eifects of Tem-
perature, &c. (113) Hy-
grometric Observations.
(114—127) Srorms be-
tween lat. 40° & 55° N.
(114) Course, Form, and
Size of Storm Areas.
(115) Series of Cyclonic
Wind Systems acrois
the Ocean. (116) Cant.
Toynbee on Cyclonic

Wind Systems. (117)
Atmospheric Disturb-
ances. (118) Descrip-

tion of Cyclonic Sys-
tem, with Diagram.
(119) Description of
Anti-Cyclonic Wind
System, with Diagram.
(120) Definition of the
Terms ‘‘ Cyclone ”’ and
‘** Anti-Cyclone.”” (121)
Capt. Toynbee on Cy-
clones and _ Anti-Cy-
clones. (122) Cyclonic
Gales of North Tem-
perate Zone, andAction
to take on encountering
them. (123) Ordinary
Gales of North Tem-
perate Zone, and Action
to take on encountering
them. (124) Captain
Toynbee on Polar Limit
of Westerly Gales.
(125) American Predic-
tions of Storms Cross-
ing the Atlantic. (126)
Capt. Toynbee on the
Origin and Tracks of
Storms Crossinz the
Atlantic, with Diagram.

684

(Anti-Trades, &c.—cont.)
(127) Von W. von Free-
den on the Storms of
the North Atlantic.
(128) Storms experi-

enced in the British
Isles. (129) Cause of
Prevailing Winds of

Western Europe. (130)
Hon. R. Abercromby
on Weather accompa-
nying Cyclonic Storms.
(181) Mr. Ley on the
Weather of Cyclonic
Storm Areas, with Dia-
gram. (133) Entrance
of English Channel the
most Stormy area of
British Isles. (134)
Wind Records at Green-
wich. (135—138) Wind
Records at Liverpool.
(139) Wind Records at
Bidston Hill Observa-
tory. (140) On Force
and Direction of Wind
on Land and Sea. (141)
Winds of the English
Channel ; observations
at Dieppe. (142) Winds
of the open Ocean.
(143) Westerly Predo-
minance of Winds.
(144) Winds and Waves
of the Bay of Biscay.
(145, 146) Winds of the
North Coast of Spain.
(146) Winds of the
West Coast of Spain &
Portugal. (148) Winds
at Cadiz. (149) Winds
in Strait of Gibraitar.
(150) The Winds of
the North American
Coast.

Antonio, Cape, Currents,
367

Aqueous Vapour, 184, 195

Arched Squall, The, 259

Arctic or LABRADOR
CURRENT, 430—140.
(424) Share in Oceanic
Circulation. (425)
Lieutenant Wandel on
Currents around Ice-
land. (426) In Den-
mark Sound. (427)
Branch from Spitzber-
gen, &c. (428, 429)
Around Cape Farewell.
(430) Up and Down
Davis Strait, &e. (431)
Along the Labrador
Coast. (432) Drifting
Ice. (433) Along the
American Coast. (434
— 436, 441) Over New-

INDEX.

(Arctic Current—cont.)
foundland Banks. (437)
Into and Out of Gulf of
St. Lawrence. (438) On
Nova Scotia Coast, and
Around Sable Island.
(439, 440) Along United
States Coast. (442)
Effects on Navigation.
(443) Cold Bands off
Cape Hatteras. (See,
also, pages 375, 394, 415,
418, 420, 422, 427, 428,
and Ice).

Arguin Bank, Currents,
323

Argus Bank, 586

Arlett, Lieutenant
Surveys, 36, 42

Ashton Rock, 609

Aspinwall, Winds
Currents, 148

Atila Rock, 576, 609

ATMOSPHERE — See Mo-
TIONS AND PRESSURE OF
THE ATMOSPHERE.

W.,

and

ATMOSPHERE, PRESSURE
of the, 102
ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULA-

TION, 98—107

Aylen Bank, 607, 609

Azores Islands, Positions,
44; Winds, 208, 570;
Tides, 281; Passing
East or West of, or
Among, 501, 503, 514,
515; Reported Dan-
gers, 574, 606

Azores, Vigia dos, 577,
608

Bache, Prof. A. D., Sur-
veys, 66—75; On the
Gulf Stream, 406, 408

Badgley, Lieut., Surveys,
41

Badia y Leblich, Don J.,
Surveys, 36, 42

Baffin’s Bay, Currents,
433

Bahama Islands, Posi-
tions, 77—80; Winds,

144, 150; Tides, 293 ;
Currents, 354—355

Barbados, 526 ; Currents,
354

Barbuda, 525, 526

Barencthy Rock, 609

Barnett, Capt. E., Sur-
veys, 74, 76—80, 88—
89, 95—96

BaRoMETER, Indications of
the, 108-124 ; Standard,
108; Normal Height,
108 ; Seale, 108; Cor-
rections in Reading,

| Beeche y>

(Barometer—continued.)
108 ; Isobars, 109; Areas
of High and Low Pres-
sures, 109—110, 118—
116, 155, 190—191, 546;
Variations in Pressure,
110 ; Range, 110—111 ;
Abnormally Low Pres-
sures, 111, 227; Baro-
metric Waves, 116-117,
193—195 ; Barometric
Gradients, 117—124;
Movements in Cyclonic
Wind Systems, 184;
Fluctuations, 195; Ac-

tion in Hurricanes,
226

BAROMETER, Remarks on
the, 227, 677—682;
Weather Indications,
677; Invention, 686 ;

Kew Marine Barome-
ter, 680 ; On Adjusting
and Using it, 680;
Correction for Tem-
perature, with a Table,
681 ; The Aneroid
Barometer, 681—682
Bartlett, Commr. J. R.,
On the South Equato-
rial Current, 351—352 ;
On the Gulf Stream,
387, 889, 395, 405, 406,
416
Bayamo Squalls, 144
Bayfield, Admiral, Sur-
veys, 52, 57—65; On
the Winds of the St.
Lawrence, 213—215
Beaufort, Sir F., On Wind
Force, 103—104 .
Beaufort Bank, 599
Beaumaris, 469
Beaupré, M. Beautemps,
Surveys, 28, 31
Beazley Shoal, 609, 611
Becher, Capt., On Equa-
torial Currents, 346 ; On
Drift of Bottles in the
Northern Atlantic, 423
Admiral, On
Tides of the English
Channel, 285
Belcher, Captain Sir E.,
Surveys, 33, 35—383;
On Crossing the Equa-
tor, 494
Belgium, Positions,
Tides, 280
Bell Rocks, 609
Belle Isle Strait, 544 ; Cur-
rent, 437; Ice, 442, 446
Bermuda Banks, 586, 606

26 ;

| , False, 610
| Bermuda Islands, Posi-
tions, 76; Winds &

Seasons, 169—170, 191,

(Bermuda Islands—con.)
585 ; Hurricane at, 217 ;
Tides, 281; Passing
North of and South of,
514, 515; Directions
for making, 587

Berry, Capt. W. C., On
Currents of Bahamas,
355 ; On Navigation in
Gulf Stream, 400—401

Bertel Bank, 591

Betsey Rock, 609

Bidston Observatory, 10 ;
Wind Records, 205-206

Birkenhead Bank, 607,
608 .

Birt, Mr. W. R., On Baro-
metric Waves, 116—
117; On Barometric
Gradients, 117; On
Hurricanes, 218

Biscay, Bay of, Posi-
tions, 29; Winds, 208
—211; Waves, 210—
211; Tides, 281, 290;
Currents, 301—302, 307
—308, 566

Blaesdale Reef, 609

Blanford, Mr., On Hurri-
canes, 218

Bold, Lieut., On
African Winds
Weather, 163

Bom Felix Shoal, 609

Bonacca, Currents, 365

Bonetta Rock, 584

Rocks, 609

Bonne, Roche, 597

Bonny, 43

Borda, Chev. de, Surveys,
36, 42

Bordelaise Rock, 609

Borden, Mr.S., Survey, 73

Borius, Dr. A., On the
Tornado, 262

Born, Capt., Surveys, 49

Bory, M., Surveys, 34

Boteler, Capt. T., Sur-
veys, 36; On the Har-
mattan, 166

Borries, CURRENT,—See
CURRENTS.

Bourke, Capt., On the
Sargasso Sea, 340

Bourke, Commr. E. G.,
On West African Winds,
161, 163; On the Har-
mattan, 168; On the
Tornado, 262

Bouvet’s Sandy Island,

West
and

609

Bowditch, Dr., Survey, 73

Brady, Lieut. W. H., On
Navigation between Ja-
maica and the Bahamas,
513

Brasil Rock, 598, 609

INDEX.

Brault, Lieut., Wind and
Current Charts, 125
Bréauté, M. N. de, On
Winds at Dieppe, 206—
207

Breton Rock, 609

Brewster, Sir David, On
Magnetism, 665

Brisa Parda, The, 581

Brisbane, Gen. Sir T.,
Surveys, 45, 47

Bristol Channel, Tides,
278, 287 ; Sailing Direc-
tions, 464

British Isles, Climate, 427,
428—429

Brito, Lieut. J. C. de, On
Force of Trade Winds,
129—131 :

Brownston Head, 472

Brussels Observatory, 26,
27

Buchan, Mr. A., On Winds
of the North Atlantic,
113; On Atmospheric
Circulation, 125; On
the Mean Atmospheric
Pressure and Prevailing
Winds, 190 ; On Hurri-
canes, 218

Buchanan, Mr. J. Y., On
Guinea Current, 331;
On the Salinity and
the Specific Gravity of
Ocean Water, 644-646

Bullock, Lieut. F., Sur-
veys, 52, 56

Bus, Sunken Land of, 609

Buys-Ballot, Dr. C.H.D.,
Law of Winds, 113, 118
=2194)-184

Cabot Strait, Ice, 442

Cadiz Observatory, 11, 34,
35; Winds, 212

Czsar Breakers, 609, 611

Calm Belts, Maury’s Di-
rections for Crossing
the, 501

Catms—Canary Islands,
141, 581—582

Catms OF CANCER, 114,
124, 168. (See, also,
WINDS AND CALMS ON
THE TROPIC).

CALMS OF THE Equator,
99—100, 124, 1382, 152
—156. See, also, Equa-
TORIAL CALMS.

Cambridge Observatory,
67, 72, 73

Canary Islands, 499, 503;
Positions, 42, 46, 47;
Winds, 141, 581 ; Tides,
281; Currents Among
the Islands,314,317,318,
321, 582; Climate, 581

685

Candler Rock, 609
Cannon, Lieut. J., Sur-

veys, 95

Cape Breton Island, Posi-
tions, 61—62; Tides,
282

Cape Clear, 472

Cape Verde Islands, 483,
493, 500, 504; Posi-
tions, 47—49; Winds,
134, 135, 140, 160, 5838 ;
Tides, 281; Currents,
314, 584

Capes, Capt. W. J., On
Currents between Ja-
maica & Honduras, 365

Capper, Col., On Hurri-
canes, 217

Caribbean Sea, Winds,
134; Currents, 380—
381; Temperature, 404 ;

Navigation of, 529—
530

Caribbee Islands, Posi-
tions, 88—89; Direc-

tions, 523—529 ; Winds,
526 ; Currents, 526-529
Carolina, Winds, 216
Carpenter, Dr., On Animal
Life in the Ocean, 650
Cartagena, Currents, 364
Carter, Mr. G. T., On
Gambia Winds and Sea-
sons, 167—168
Casamanze, River, 569
Cashe Ledge and Rock,
601
Cassini, M.M., Surveys, 27
Cayman Islands, Winds,
143
Chaderton Reef, 609
Chagres, Currents, 364
Challenger, Observations
by Officers of H.MS.,
—Wind Velocity, 104;
Ocean Currents, 297;
The Guinea Current,
329 ; Sargasso Sea, 338;
North Equatorial Cur-
rent, 343 ; South Equa-
torial Current, 351;
Eastern Extension of
the Gulf Stream, 415;
Deep-Sea Soundings,
626; Summary of the
Cruise, 629 ; Tempera-
ture and Thermometers,
636 ; Salinity and Speci-
fic Gravity Observa-
tions, 644-646 ; Experi-
ments on Undercurrents,
646; Ocean Circula-
tion, 647-648 : Animal
Life in the. Deep Sea,
650—652 ; Dredging
Apparatus, 651
Challenger Bank, 586

686

Channel Islands, Positions,
28

Chantereau Shoal,
608

Chapelle Rock, 609

Chapman, Mr. W., Sur-
veys, 42

Charleston Harbour, 74

Charlottetown, 63

Charts, and their Use, 3—4

Chaucer Bank, 599, 606,
609

Chepstow, Tides, 287

Chesapeake Bay & ltiver,
Tides, 283

Cheveley, Capt. G., Direc-
tions from the English
Channel to the West
Indies, 512 ; Directions
to Demerara from the
N.E., 537

Chimmo, Staff-Commr.,
Surveys, 51, 56,90; On
the Arctic Current, &c.,
415

Christiania Observatory.
22

Churrueca, Don
Surveys, 85

Cinco Palmas, Vigia de,
611

CirRcULATION of the Ocean,
646— 648

Clark Rock, 609

Cleveland Reef, 609

CLIMATE :—
Azores Islands, 570
Bermuda, 585

605,

G2, ade;

British Isles, 427, 428— |

429
Canary Islands, 581
Cape Verde Islands, 583
Dakar, 568
Gambia River, 568
Isles de Los, 570
Juby, Cape, 567
Liberia, 570
Madeira, 578
Norway, 428
Nunez, Rio, 569
Oil Rivers, 507
St. Michael’s Island, 571
Sierra Leone, 570
CiLoupbs, Classification of
the, 658—663
Clowes Reef, 609
Coasts, Extent of, North
Atlantic Ocean, 2, 4—6
Cochrane, Capt. G. S., On
Currents of Venezuelan
Coast, 360
Code, Capt. W., On Ma-
ranon and Equatorial
Currents, 350, 352
Coffin, Prof., On Wind
System of the North
Hemisphere, 107

INDEX.

Coimbra Observatory, 33

Colombian Coast, Cur-
rents, 359—363

Colon, Winds & Currents,
148

Columbine Shoal, 608

Columbus, Christopher,
Ocean Currents, 375

Compass, See MAGNETISM.

Compass, Variation of the,
See MAGNETIC VARIA-
TION. and Tables of
Geographical Positions.

Concepcion Bank, 605

Constante Reef, 576, 606,
608

Cook, Captain James,
Surveys, 2—3, 54, 56

Cooper, Capt., On Ren-
nell’s Current, 304—
305

Coral Shoal, 609

Corrected Establishment
of the Port, 275

Corsair Island, 609

Costa Rica, Positions, 94

Counter-Trade Winds,124

Courier Rock, 609

Craven, Commr., On the
Gulf Stream, 373, 387,
389

Croll, Mr. J., On the Gulf
Stream, 421

Cuba, Positions, 81—82,
83; Winds, 145; Cur-
rents, 367 ; Passages to,
520—521

CURRENTS, 294—440 ;
(236) The Distinction
between the Tides and
Currents. (237) Esti-
mating the Direction &

Velocity. (288, 239)
Current Charts of Major
Rennell, Commander

Maury, and the Meteo-
rological Office. (240)
Currents are, in many
localities, Devious and

Erratic. (241, 242)
Estimates by Dead
Reckoning. (243) Drift

of Bottles and Floats.
(244) Experiments by
Prince Albert of Mo-
naco, and Mean Daily
Velocity deduced from
them. (245) Researches
in Surface and Sub-
surface Currents. (246)
Circulation & Specific
Gravity of Sea-Water.
(247) Temperature of
the Ocean, (248) Origin
and Causes of Ocean
Currents. (249) Depth
reached by Surface

(Currenits—continued.)
Currents. (250) Drift
and Stream Currents.
(251) The General Sys-
tem of North Atlantic
Currents. (252) Enu-
meration of the Cur-
rents : 1. Rennell’s Cur-
rent. 2. North African
Current. 3. The Guinea

Current. 4. Sargasso
Sea. 5. The Equatorial
Currents. 6. Currents

of the Caribbean Sea.

7. Gulf Stream. 8. The

N.E. Drift to Europe.

9. Arctic or Labrador

Current. (See, also, the

Index, under these Head-

ings). (2538) Occasional

Irregularities.

CuRRENTS, On the Causes

of, 377—379

Africa, N.W. Coast of,
567, 568

Anegada Passage, 354,
355

Antigua Passage, 35-4

Antonio, Cape, 367

Arguin Bank, 323, 568

Aspinwall or Colon, 148

AzoresIslands, 573

Baffin’s Bay, 433

Bahama Islands and
Passages, 354—355

Barbados, 354

Belle Isle Strait, 437

Bermuda, 586

Biscay, Bay of, 301—
302, 307—308, 566

Canary Islands, 314,
317, 318, 321, 582

Cape Verde Islands, 314,
584

Caribbean Sea, 380—
381

Caribbee or Windward
Islands, 526—529

Colombian Coast, 359
—363

Cuba, 367

Darien, Gulf of, 364

Davis Strait, 431—433

Denmark Sound, 430

Dominica Passage, 354

Europe, West Coast,
312

Between Cape Finis-
terre and the Azores,
316

Flores Island, 573

Greenland, 431—433

Grenada, 534

Grenada Passage, 353

Grenadines, 353

Guadaloupe _ Passage,
354

(Currenis—continued.)

Guatemala, Bay of, 363,
366

Guinea Current, 482

Hatteras, Cape, 398,
439

Hayti, 354

Honduras, Bay of, 360,
363, 365

Iceland, 430

Ireland, West Coast,

312

Jamaica, 366, 368

Jeba River, 569

Labrador, 434

Madeira, 314

Between Madeira and
the Canary Islands,
582

Martinique Passage, 354

Mexico, Gulf of, 370—
373

Mona Passage, 354

Morant Kays, 366, 367

Morocco, 567

Mosquito Shoals, 366

Mosquito Shore, 360

Mount, Cape, 330

Newfoundland,Coast of,
213, 436

Newfoundland Banks,
375, 435—437

Nicaragua, 366

Nova Scotia, 438

Oil Rivers, 508

Palmas, Cape, 330

Pedro Shoals, 366

Porto Rico and Hayti,
533—534

Portugal, 313—318,321,
822

Rennell’s Current, 465
—466, 470, 472

Sable Island, 438—439

St. Lawrence, Gulf of,
437

St. Lucia Passage, 353

St. Vincent, 353

Santaren Channel, 400 |

Scotland, West Coast,
312

Senegal River, 323, 568

Spain, Coast of, 321,
322

Three Points, Cape, 330

Tortugas Bank, 372

United States Coast,
439—440

Venezuelan Coast, 359
—363

Verde, Cape, 323

Virgin Islands, 354, 355

Virgin Rocks, 436

Between Western Eu-
rope and the Cape
Verde Islands, 499,
500, 504

(Currents—continued.)
Windward _— Passages,
354
Yof Bay, 323, 568
Yucatan Channel, 369
—370
CycLones, 114, 124, 217.

See, also, ANTI-TRADES.

Cyclones, Fall of Baro-

meter in, 110

Cyclonic Wind System,

with Diagrams, 183,

Dechevrens,

198—199, 200—202

Dacia Bank, 605

Deedalus Rock, 603, 608

Dahomey, Winds, 163

Dakar, 568

Dalton, Professor, On
Aqueous Vapour, 101

Dampier, Wm., On the
African Monsoons, 157 ;
On the Gulf Stream,376

Dangers, Doubtful, 4, 593
—596

Daniell, Prof., On Atmo-
spheric Waves, 117

Daraith Island or Rock,
601, 608, 609

Darby, Mr., On Sable
Island, 4838—439

Darien, Gulf of, Currents,
364

Dario Rock, 604, 609

Darwin, Mr. Charles, On
Falls of Dust in the
Atlantic Ocean, 62i—

624
Davis Strait, Currents,
431—433

Davy, Mr. H., Bermuda
Winds and Seasons, 169

Pére, On
Hurricanes, 218

Delaware Bay and River,
Tides, 283

Delaware Shoal, 608

De Mayne, Mr. A., Sur-
veys, 80

Demerara, 528, 531, 537
—538

Denham, Capt., Surveys,
39

Denmark, Positions, 23—
24; Tides, 280

Denmark Sound,
rents, 430

Depra of the North At-
lantie Ocean, 626—634:
—Deep-Sea Sounding
and Exploring Expedi-
tions, 626—633 ; H.M.S.
Challenger Expedition,
629 — 630; Apparatus,
631—638 ; Greatest
Depths, 633 ; Deep-Sea
Deposits, 634

Cur-

687

Des Barres, M., Surveys,
65

Descending Squail, The,
260

| Desertas Islands, 45
' Desmaires Rock, 609

Devil Rocks, 608

| Dieppe Harbour, Winds,

206—207
Dines, Mr. W. EL.,
Wind Pressure, 106

Oa

| DrreEcTIONS :—

Barbados & Demerara,
528—529

Barbados to St. Thomas,
&c., 528

Bermudas, For Making
the, 587

Bristol Channel, 464

Canary Islands, 582

Caribbean Sea to Guay-
ana, 530—531

Caribbee or Windward
Islands, 523—529

Demerara, from
N.E., 537—538

English Channel, 462—
466

Gulf Stream, 400—401,
521—523

Jamaica to Maracaybo,
535—535

St. George’s
467—A74

St. Lawrence, To the
Gulf of, 5438—544

West Indies, during the
Hurricane Season,
245 — 248; Steam
Navigation Between
Tobago & Demerara,
531; St. Thomas to
Jamaica, 532—534;
Grenada to Jamaica,
534—335

the

Channel,

DIsCOLOURED WaTER,&c.,

5387, 615—620

Doberck, Dr., On Hurri-

canes, 218

) Dobson, Dr. M., On the

Harmattan, i64

| Do.tprRuMs, THE, 124, 181,

Dominica Passaze.

Dové,

152—156
Cur-
rents, 354

Dorie Bank, 607
Doubtful Dangers, 4, 593

—596

Prof., On Wind
System of North Hemi-
sphere, 107; On Law
of Gyration, 107; On
Atmospheric Waves,
117; On Rise and Fall
of the Barometer, 195 ;
On Hurricanes, 217

Dover, Tides, 463

688

Downie, Mr. M.,
Waterspouts, 265

Drontheim, 22

Druid Reef, 609

Dublin Observatory, 16,
18

Dubreuil’s Vigia, 609, 611

Dufferin, Lord, On Cur-
rents of the Northern
Atlantic, 427

Dunsink Observatory, 16,
18

Dunsterville, Captain E.,
Positions, 84—85; On
Winds and Currents of
the West Indies, 368 ;
Sailing Directions, Ja-
maica to Maracaybo,
535—536

Dust, Falls of, 99—100,
165—166, 568, 583, 621
—625

Dvina Rock, 598, 608

Dyet Rocks, 609

On

Earru, Tue, Ellipticity
and Mean Density, 9;
Relative Proportions of
Land and Water, 102;
Mean Height of the
Land and Depth of the
Ocean, 102

EastTeERLY Drirr Cur-
RENT See NorTH
AFRICAN CURRENT.

Echo Bank, 607

Edinburgh Observatory,
12, 15

Ehrenberg, Professor, On
Falls of Dust in the
Atlantic Ocean, 621,
623

Eight Stones, 578, 605,
609

Ellicott, Mr., On_ the
Gulf Stream, 384
Elliott, Mr., On Hurri-

canes, 218

Ellis, Mr. W., On Wind
Records at Greenwich,
203

Embata, The, 581

Emily Rocks, 584, 609

England, Coast of, Posi-
tions, 8—12; Tides, 278,
279

England Rock, 610

English Channel, Winds,
206—207, 464, 465, 466
—477 ; Tides, 278, 280
—281, 285, 462—468 ;
Sailing Directions, 462
—466, 566

Equator, Approaching
and Crossing the,—See
PASSAGES.

INDEX.

EQuaTorIAL CALMS AND
WInps, 99—100, 124,
152—156. (75) Defini-
tion of the ‘‘ Doldrums,”’
& Remarks by Commr.
Maury. (76) Limits,
and Table of Extent.
(76—77) Crossing the
Calm Belt. (78) Capt.
Toynbee on Barometric
Indications. (79) Capt.
Maury’s “ Cloud Ring,”
and the “* Rains.”

EquaToriAL COUNTER-
CuRRENT—See GUINEA
CURRENT.

EQuATORIAL CURRENTS,
343—353, 527
North Equatorial Cur-

rent, 343—347. (302)
Origin, Course, and
Velocity. (303) Ob-
servations on H.M.S.
Challenger. (304) The
Westerly Drift. (305)
Limits and Rate for
each Month. (306)
Capt. Toynbee’s Re-
marks. (307) Sources
of Estimate of Mean
Velocity. (308) List
of Bottles and their
Drift,byCapt. Becher.
(309) Other Examples
of Bottle Drifts, &c.
(310) Region of Divi-
sion between the two
Currents.

South Equatorial Cur-
rent, 347—353. (311)
Course and Velocity.
(312) Direction is to
Westward. (313) Re-
marks by Lieutenant
A. H. B. Greevelink.
(314) Influence of the
Trade Winds and
the River Maranon.
(315) Observations on
H.M.S. Challenger.
(316) Mr. Strachan’s
Remarks. (317) Ob-
servations of Commr.
J. R. Bartlett and
Lieutenant Pillsbury,
U.S.N., and of Prof.
Agassiz. (318) Drift
of Bottles. (319)
Example of Extra-
ordinary Velocity.

Esmeralda Rock, 610

Espérance Rocks, 610

Espinosa, Admiral, Sur-
veys, 87 i

Espy, Mr., On Hurricanes,
217

Essequibo River, 531

a

Establishment of the Port,
274

Europa Rock, 575, 606,
608

Evans, Capt. F. J., On
the Magnetism of Iron
Ships, 456, 665, 671—
675

Evans, Lieut. John, On
Bayamo Squalls, 144—
145; On the Norths,
147; On Hurricanes,
218, 227—228, 234-241 ;
On the Sargasso Sea,
840; On the Mexican
Sea, 372—373 ; On the
Gulf Stream, 384, 411;
On Icebergs, 447.

Evaporation, As a Cause
of Ocean Currents, 378

Feroe Islands, Positions,
49; Tides, 280

Faithfull, Capt. H., Direc-
tions for Demerara
River, 5387—538

Falcon Rock, 578, 605

Falconer Rock, 610

Falmouth Harbour, 12

False Bank, 591

False Bermuda Rocks, 610

Farewell, Cape, Currents,
431; Ice, 446

Fernando Po, Positions,
&e., 41, 508

Ferreira Reef, 576, 606,
608

Ferrel, Professor W., On
Hurricanes, 218, 224;
On Temperature and
Ocean Currents, 378

Ferrol Harbour, Winds,
211

Fidalgo, Don J. F., Sur-
veys, 80, 93

Field’s Vigia, 610

Findlay, Mr. A. G., On
Oceanic Currents, 312;
On the Gulf Stream, 373

Finisterre, Cape, 478—
479 ; Causes of Wrecks
near, 3807, 308—309

FitzRoy, Admiral, Sur-
veys, 49; Meteorology
of Equatorial Region,
128 ; Wind Charts, 171;
On Force of Wind on
Land and Sea, 206 ; On
the Seas of the Bay of
Biscay, 210—211; On
White Squalls, 260 ; On
Currents, 294; On
** Lanes ”’ for Steamers,
554; Remarks on the
Barometer, 677—680

Five Heads Rocks, 610

Flemish Cap, The, 591

Fleurieu, M., Chart drawn
up from observations
by, 2; Surveys, 45

Flinders, Capt. M., Sur-
veys, 45, 46

Florez, Don J. F., Sur-
veys, 35

Florida, Winds,
Tides, 293

Florida, Cape, 74

Kays and Reefs,

382—383, 388, 410

Strait, 513, 521;
Winds, 150, 152; Gulf
Stream, 375,&c.; Depth,
387—388 -

FLoripA STREAM, 425.—
See GutF STREAM.

Fogs, St. Lawrence, 214
—215

Fonseca Island, 610

Forchhammer, Dr. G., On
Currents of Northern
Atlantic, 426; On the
Composition of Sea-
Water, 642-644

Foster, Captain, Surveys,
48

150 ;

France, Positions, 27-31 ;
Tides, 280—281 ; Coast,
566

Franklin, Capt., On Ice-
bergs, 447—448

Franklin, Dr., On the Gulf
Stream, 374, 377, 384

Freeden, Von W. von, On
Winds of the North
Atlantic, 171—177 ; On
Storms and the Locality
and Frequency of their
Occurrence, 196—198 ;
On Tracks for Steamers
between England and
New York, 554—556

French Shoal, 610

Funchal, 45, 46

Fundy, Bay of, Winds,
216; Tides, 283, 292

Galerna, The, 210

Gates, 179.—See ANTI-
TRADES.

Galissioniére Rock, 610

Galleon Bank, 610

Galton, Mr. F., On Anti-
Cyclones, 114

Galveston, Winds, 150—
151

Gambia River, 568

, Winds, 160, 166—

168
Gandaria Rocks, 610
Gareas, Baxo das, 610
Garcia Guerra Rock, 604,
610
Geiger, Captain, On the
Gulf Stream, 410

NN, AsO.

INDEX.

George Banks & Shoal,602

Shoals, Tempera-
ture, 440

Germany, Positions, 23,
26; Tides, 280

Gettysburg Bank, 604;
Tides, 290

Gibraltar, 34, 35

Strait, Winds,
213; Tides, 290

Gilchrist Rock, 610

Giles, Capt., On the Gulf
Stream, 390

Glaisher, Mr., On Wind
Force, 104; On Clouds,
660

Glas, Capt. Geo., On the
Canary Islands, 582

Glasgow Observatory, 14

Gold Coast, 511; Winds,
160, 163

Gombaud Rock, 610

Goree Island & Bay, 502

Gorringe Bank,604; Tides,
290

Gosse, Mr., On the Sea
Serpent, 652

Gough Rocks, 576, 598,
606, 608

Graah, Captain, Surveys,
50, 55; On the Arctic
Current, 4382, 433

Gradients, Barometric,
117—124

Grain Coast, Winds, 160

GRAND TRIGONOMETRICAL
Survey of the British
Isles, Positions, 8—18 ;
Base Lines, 8

Grange Rock, 544

GREAT CIRCLE SAILING,
459—4.60, 476, 477, 495,
514, 518, 5389, 562

Green Rock, 610, 611°

Greenland, Positions, 50
—51, 55—56 ; Currents
around, 431—483 ; Ice,
444, 446

Greenwich Observatory,
8, 11; Wind Records,
203; Magnetic Obser-
vations, 457

Greeve Ledge, 610

Greevelink, Lieutenant
A. H. B., On South
Equatorial Current, 348
—349 ; On Currents of
the Caribbean Sea, 359,
and of the Venezuelan
Coast, 360 ; On the Na-
vigation of the Carib-
bean Sea, 529—530

Grenada, 534

Passage, Cur-
rents, 353
Grenadines, Currents

among the, 353

i}

689

Ground-Swell, West In-
dies, 356—358

Guadaloupe Passage, Cur-
rents, 354

Guatemala, Bay of, Cur-
rents, 363, 366

Guayana, 5380;
141, 145,

Guigou Bank, 610

GUINEA CURRENT,
318, 325—334.
(274) Origin & Course.
(275) Examples of Drift,
&c., from Maury. (276)
Recent Records of Bot-
tless) (207) Mire Sa As
Mann’s_ Observations.
(278) Influence on the
Westerly Crossing of
the Equator. (279) Its
Velocity and Direction
along the African Coast.
(280) The Temperature.
(281) Observations by
H.M. Ship Challenger.
(282) Junction with the
South African Current.
(283) Near Cape Mount
and Cape Palmas. (284;
Experiences of French
Cruisers. (285) Mr.
J. Y. Buchana:, On
Temperature, &¢c. (286)
Monthly Rate & Limits.
(287) Capt Toynbee’s
Remarks for each
Month. See, also, p. 482.

Winds,

312,

| Guinea, Gulf of, Winds,

160

GuLF STREAM, 373—421.
(354) Authorities. (355)
Character of Investiga-
tions. (356) Erroneous
Ideas of its Magnitude.
(357) Dr. Petermann’s
Investigations. (358)
Connection between the
Stream and N.E. Drift.
(359) Origin & Course.
(360) Early History.
(861) Remarks of Dam-
pier & Franklin. (362)
Causes. (363) Trade
Winds the Chief Agent.
(864) Commences in the
Caribbean Sea. (3865)
Currents between the
. Caribbee Islands. (366)
Current Eastward of
the Islands. (867) Gulf
Stream is the Cause
of Numerous Wrecks.
(868) The Channel of
the Stream. (369) The
Characteristies of the
Water. (370) Extent.
(371) Positions of the

88

690

(Gulf Stream—continued.)
Greatest Velocity. (872)
Its Breadth.

(373—380) Depth and
Accounts of the Sur-
veys. (874) Between
Kay West and Havana.
(375) Between Som-
brero Kay & Salt Kay.
(376) Between Carysfort
Reef and Orange Kay.
(377) Narrows of Florida
Strait. (878) Between
Jupiter Inlet and Little
Memory Rock. (379)
Between Florida: Strait
& Cape Hatteras. (380)
Between Cape Hatteras
& Newfoundland Banks.

(881—387) Velocity.
(381) The Divergence
between Various Ob-
servers. (382) Uniform
Velocity cannot be
expected. (383) Captain
Sabine’s Remarks. (384)
Mr. R. Strachan’s Re-
marks, with Limits and
Rate of Stream for each
Month. (385) Action of
the Wind
Strait. (886) Influenced
by the Moon. (387)
Average Velocity of the
Stream.

(388) Investigations
by Lieut. J. E. Pillsbury,
U.S.N., inthe Blake, on
Direction, Temperature,
and Velocity of the
Stream. (389) Remarks
by Capt. W. C. Berry,
on the Navigation.

(390—398) 'Tempera-
ture. (390) The Surface
Temperature. (391)
Value of the Thermo-
meter. (392) Maury’s
and Andrau’s Thermal
Charts. (893) Variations
in Temperature. (394)
Investigations by U.S.S.
Blake. (395) Alterna-
tion of Cold and Warm
Bands.
** Cold Wall.’’ (398) Sub-
Surface Temperatures.

(899—405) Counter-
Currents. (400) Along
Florida Reefs. (401) Re-
marks by Capt. Geiger,
Capt. Richardson, and
Lieut. Pillsbury. (402)
On the Cuba side.

(403) Easterly Drift
North and N.E. of the
Bahamas, (404) Surface

in Florida |

(396, 397) The |

INDEX.

(Gulf Siream—continued)
may be Roof-shaped.
(405) Effects of Winds
along American Coast.

(406) General Conclu-
sions, Recapitulation of
its Features, & Volume
of the Stream. (407)
Diversion to the East-
ward from the American
Coast.

(408) Eastern Exten-
sion of the Stream, be-
tween 68° and 48° W.,
and Temperature Ob-
servations. on H.M:S.
Challenger, &e. (409)
Dr. Petermann’s In-
vestigations. (410) En-
eounter with the Arctic
or Labrador Current.
(411) Temperature Ob-
servations. (412) The
Locality where Stream
encounters the Arctic
Current. (413) Heat-
bearing properties of
the Stream. (414) Ter-
mination of the Gulf
Stream East of the
Newfoundland ~Banks.
See, also, pages 521-523,
541, 573; Meeting with
the Arctic Current,
4.49

| Gulf Weed, 335—343, 384
; Gunnlaugsson,

Mr: Bs
Surveys, 49—50
Guyana, Positions, 92

Ifalifax Observatory, 64,
65

Halley, Dr. E., On Mag-
netism, 664

Hamburg Observatory, 23

Ilamilton Rock, 601, 609,
610

Iiannah Breakers, 610

Hannah’s Coral Shoal,
610

Hansteen, Professor, On
Magnetism, 665

Hanus, Lieut. G. C,, On
Currents between the
Bahamas & Cuba, 355,
and in the Caribbean
Sea, 358; On the Gulf
Stream, 386

Harding, Lt., Survey, 65

Hare, Lieut. C., On a
High Northerly Route
to North America, 540
—542

HARMATTAN, THE, 164—
168, 506

Harris, Sir W. S., On Wind
Force & Velocity, 104

| Holme, Dr. D.

Harrison Rocks, 576, 598,
606, 608 °

Hartnup, Messrs., On
Liverpool Wind Re-
cords, 205

Hatteras, Cape, Currents
off, 398, 439

Havana, 83, 521

Havre, Tides, 290

Hawksley, Mr. T., On
Wind Pressure, 106

Hayden, Lieut., On Hur-
ricanes, 218, 228, &c, ; ~~
On Waterspouts, 264

Hayti, 532; Positions, §4
—85; Currents, 354

Hebrides, Positions, 14, 15

Heerdt, Baron von. On
Tracks for Steamers
between England and
New York, 557

Hellmann, Dr., On Falls
of Dust in the Atlantic
Ocean, 624

Henderson Bank, 610

Herschel, Sir John, On
the Origin of Storms,
99 ; On relative propor-
tions of Land and
Water, 102; On Baro-
metrie Waves, 116; On
Anti-Trade Winds, 124;
On Temperature and
Ocean Currents, 377

Hervagault Breakers, 610

Hildebrandsson, Prof., On
Hurricanes, 218; On
Clouds, 660

Hilton Rocks, 608

Hinman Shoal, 611

Hoffmeyer, Captain, On
Weather Charts, 125;
On Storms, i190

Holbrook, Mr. Geo., Sur-
veys, 56

Holland, Positions, 23-26 ;
Tides, 280

M., On

Whirlwinds, &c., 219
Holyhead, 469
Honduras, Winds, 145
————,, Bay of, Cur-

rents, 360, 363, 365
Hopkins, Mr., On the

Trade Winds, 100
Horsburgh, Captain, On

Limits of Trade Winds,

132
Horse Latitudes, 114, 124,

168
Howard, Mr. L., On Cloud

Nomenclature, 658
Huddart, Captain Joseph,

Survey, 15
Humboldt, Baron A. von,

On the Currents of

Venezuelan Coast, 360

Hunt, Capt. E. B., On the
Gulf Stream, 388, 410

Hunt, Mr. T. C., Winds at
the Azores, 571—573

Huntley Rock, 610

Hurd, Capt. T., Surveys,
76

HourRICANnES,124, 149, 217
—259. (151) Definition.
(152) Enumeration of
Authorities. (153) Theo-
ries of various Authors.
(154) Rotation of the
Wind Round Low Ba-
rometric Area. (155)
Indraft or Incurvaturt
of the Wind towards the
centre. (156) Simiies.
(157) Origin, and Mode
of Formation. (158)
Direction of Rotation,
&c. (159) Form, Vortex
or Focus, &c. (160)
Capt. Jinman’s Views.
(161) Season of Occur-
rence. (162) Regions of
Origin and Occurrence.
(163) Path or Track,
and Explanation of Re-
curving. (164) Remarks
by Mr. Redfield. (165)
Velocity or Force of the
Wind. (166) Indications
of Approach, & Action
of Barometer. (167) The
Storm Centre. (168)
Means of Finding Posi-
tion of Centre. (169)
Padre Vines on Finding
Position of the Centre.
(170) Rules for Action
on Encountering a
Hurricane, & the Eight
Point Rule. (171) Line
of Progression. (172)
Dangerous & Navigable
Semicircles. (173, 174)
Lieut. J. Evans’ Storm
Card, & Method of Use.
(@75) Veering of the
Wind. (176—179) The
Changes in the Direc-
tion of the Wind, in the
Four Quadrants of the
Compass. (180) Circu-
lation of the Wind is
unchangeable. (181)
Lieut. J. Evans’ Rules
for Action, on Encoun-
tering a Hurricane.
(182) Capt. Leighton’s
Remarks. (183) Indica-
tions of Storm Recurv-
ing. (184) Sir W. Reid’s
Rule for Laying Ships
To, with Diagram. (185)
Most Recent Rules for

wh ee. OO

INDEX.

(Hurricanes—continued.)

Action. (186) Mr. Mel-
drum’s Brief Rules for
Action. (187—189)
Padre Vines’ Practical
Hints for Vessels in the
West Indies, during
the Hurricane Season.
(190) The Storm-Wave.
(191) Oil on Rough
Seas. (192) List of
Examples given on the
Diagram, with a Short
Description of Each.
(193) Tracks & Descrip-
tion of Principal Hur-
ricanes, 1888—1892.
(194) Description of the
Great Hurricane of
1780. (495) Trinidad
Hurricane of 1831.
(196) Barbadoes Hurri-
cane of 1831. (197—
199) Hurricanes of 1830,
Along the American
Coast. (200) The Cy-
clone of August, 1870.
(201) Martinique Hur-
ricane of August, 1891.
(202) Experiences of
two Steamers passing
through the Vortex.
(203) On Making Use
of Hurricanes.

Hurricanes, Sir John

Herschel on the Origin
of, 99; Fall of Baro-
meter in, 110; West
Indies, 142 ; Bermuda,
170

Ick, 434, 543, 544, 550 ;

Between Iceland and
Feroe Islands, 427;
St. Lawrence, 214

IcE IN THE ArcTIC CuR-

RENT, &c., 441—454.
(444) Various Forms.
(445) Field Ice. (446)On
Coasts of Labrador and
Newfoundland. (447)
Icebergs, & their Origin.
(448) Size of Icebergs,
(449) Formation of Ice-
bergs. (450) Colour &
Structure. (451) Ice-
land. (452) South Coast
of Greenland. (453)
Newfoundland. (454)
Newfoundland Banks,
&e. (455) Collisions.
(456) Precautions for
Avoiding Ice, Ice Blink,
Temperature, &c. (457)
Season. (458) Limits.
(459—463) Experiences
of Vessels ameng Icé.

=

691

Iceland, Positions, 49;
Tides, 280; Tempera-
ture, 427; Currents,
427, 480; Ice, 445—
446 ; Compass Unrelia-
ble near, 456, 676

India Shoal, 609, 610, 611

Inglefield Bank, 610

Inglis, Capt. R., On North
Atlantic Weather, 178
—180

Ireland, Positions, 16-18 ;
Tides, 279—280 ; N.W.
Coast, 469—470

Irminger, Admiral, On
Temperature of the Sea
Around Iceland, 426;
On Greenland Currents,
431, 432—433

Irminger Current, 430

Isles de Los, 570, 676

Isobaric Lines, 109

Ivory Coast, Winds, 160

Jackson, Mr. J. G., On
Danger of Drifting on
the African Coast, 319

Jacmel, 534

Jahneke, Mr. F. A., On
White Squalls, 260

Jamaica, Positions, 82—
83; Winds, 142—143 ;
Currents near, 366-368 ;
Passages To and From,
512—514

Jaquet Island, 610

Jean Hamon Rock, 610

Jeba River, 569

Jesse Ryder Rock, 591

Jinman, Captain G., On
Hurricanes, 218, 222

Job Rock, 610

Johnson, Capt. E. J., On
the Compass, 456; On
Magnetism, 671

Jones Bank, 597

Jordan, Mr. W. L., On
Ocean Circulation, 648

Josephine Bank, 605

Josyna Rock, 610

Juby, Cape, 567

Karlowa, Capt. R., Rules
for Use of Oilin Calming
Heavy Seas, 655—656

Kay West, 74; Winds,
150—151 ; Formation,
382, 388

Kellett, Lieut. H., Sur-
veys, 36, 42

| Kelly, Capt., Surveys, 39
Kelly, Mr., On Rennell’s

Current, 303
Kerhallet, Capt. C. P. de,
Surveys, 36
Kerr, Staff-Commr., Sur-
veys, 53

88%

692

Keuchenius, Captain, Sur-
veys, 24, 26

IKXeus Rock, 575, 606, 608

Kew Observatory, 8

Key West, 74

K'ng, Capt., Surveys, 48

Kingstown, 18

Klint, Admiral,
issued under, 22

Charts |

Knipping, Mr., On Hurri- |

canes, 218

Kohl, Mr. J. G., On the |

Gulf Stream, 376
Kortright, Lieut., Survey,
65
Kotonou, 43
Kramer Bank, 609
Krayenhoff, Baron, Sur-
veys, 24, 26
Kroumen, 505

Kriimmel, Dr. O., On the |

Sargasso Sea, 335; On
the Salinity of Ocean
Water, 644

Kutusoff Bank, 574, 606,
608

Labrador, Positions, 51—
52, 56,57; Tides, 282;
Current, 434; Ice, 442

Lady’s Gulf, The, 128

Laidman Rock, 610

Land and Water of the
Globe, 102

Lane, Mr. Michael, Sur-
veys, 56

Lang, Sir
tions, 88

Laughton, Professor, On
Atmospheric Circula-
tion, 101; On Land and
Sea Breezes, 107

Laura Ethel Bank, 600,
608

Law of Storms, 217

Lawrance, Lieut. E., Sur-
veys, 88—89, 96

Lawrence, Lieut. G. B.,
Surveys, 86—87

Lean Shoal, 610

Leeward Islands,
tions, 89—91

Leiden Observatory, 25,26

Leighton, Capt. R., On
Hurricanes, 241—242 ;
Directions for English
Channel, 464—466

Lenz, Prof., On Ocean
Circulation, 646

Leontina Shoal, 606

Leste, The, 579

Ley, Rev. W. C., On the
Velocity of Wind, 104 ;
On Weather Changes
and .Atmospherie Cir-
ciation, 111; On Cy-
clonic Wind Systems,

A., Observa-

Posi-

INDEX.

(Ley, Rev. W. C.—cont.)
183—184; On Anti-
Cyclonic Wind Systems,
185; On Weather of
Storm Areas, 200—202 ;
On Hurricanes, 218;
On Clouds, 658

Liberia, Winds, 163; Cli-
mate, 570

Lights, Dangers of Altera-
tions of, 468

Limits of the Atlantic
Ocean, 1

Lisbon, 11 ; Observatory,
11, 33, 35

Liverpool, 18, 468, 474;
Wind Records, 203

Livingston, Captain A.,
Winds of the West
Indies, 141; On Squalls,
259; On the Sargasso
Sea, 339; On Currents
near Cuba, 367; On
Winds and Currents of
the West Indies, 368 ;
On the Gulf Stream,
377, 384, 390, 412;
Translation of Spanish
Directions for Sailing
To and From the West
Indies, &c., 519—523 ;
On Deep-Sea Thermo-
meters, 638—639

Lloyd, Dr., On Law of
Winds, 113; On Baro-
metric Gradients, 117

London, Winds, 464

Long Island Sound, Tides,
283

Longchamps Rock, 610

Longitude, Ascertaining,
by means of Telegraphic
Signals, 7

Loomis, Professor E., On
Atlantic Storms, 190;
On Areas of Low Baro-
metric Pressure, 224

Los, Isles de, 570, 676;
Winds, 161

Loudon, Captain, On the
Gulf Stream, 411

Louisiana, Winds, 150

Lourp Breakers, 610

Lubbock, Sir J., On the
Tides, 271, 273

Luminous Seas, 504—505

Maalstrom, The, 610

Mackellar, Capt., On the
Currents of Caribbean
Sea, 366

Mackenzie, Mr. Murdoch, —

Surveys by, 3, 15

McKirdy, Captain J., On
Winds off the Coasts of
Spain and Portugal, 211
—-212

|
|

i
|

|
|

Maclear, Sir T., Meteoro-
logical Observations at
the Cape of Good Hope,
114—115

Mac Mahon, Capt. C., On
Causes of Wrecks near
Cape Finisterre, 309

Madeira, 479, 499, 578—
580; Positions, 45, 46
—47; Winds, 141, 578 ;
Tides, 281; Currents,
314

Maffit, Lieut., On the
Gulf Stream, 387

Magdalen Islands, 544

Magnetic Storms, 458, 667

MAGNETIC VARIATION, 455
—458. (464) Import-
ance of the Compass.
(465) Declination, Dip,
and Intensity. (466)
Secular Variation, or
Change. (467) Isogonic
Lines. (468) Compass
Unreliable around Ice-
land. (469,470) Changes
Not Regular. Table of
Variation and Dip at
Greenwich, 1844—1891.
(471) Magnetic Storms.

MAGNETISM AND THE CoM-
PASS, 663-676. History,
663; Definition, 663 ;
Terrestrial Magnetism,
664; Magnetic Poles,
665; Magnetic Force,
665 ; Magnetic Equator,
666; Declination or
Variation, 666; Mag-
netic Storms, 667 ; Dip
or Inclination, 667 ; In-
tensity, 667; Local
Deviation, 668; In Iron
Ships, 668 ; On Position
of the Compass, 669 ;
Dr. Scoresby’s Deduc-
tions on the Magnetic
Changes, &c., in Iron
Ships and their Com-
passes, 669; Captain
F. J. Evans’ Report on
Deviation in Iron Ships,
671 ; On Best Direction
for Building an Iron
Ship, 672 ; On the Posi-
tion and Arrangement
of the Compass, 672 ;
‘On Various Sources of
Error, 674; Heeling
Error, 674; Azimuth
Compass, 676 ; Regions
of great Local Devia-
tion, 676; Sub-Perma-
nent and Permanent
Magnetism, 676

Malté-Brun, M., Om the
Tides, 271-

Man, Isle of, Positions,
11; Tides, 278

Manderson, Capt., On the
Gulf Stream, 377

Mann, Mr. J. A., On the
Guinea Current, 328

Mannevillette, M.D’ Aprés
de, On Crossing the
Equator, 475, 499—501

Manzanillo, Currents, 364,
366

Maracaybo, 535—536

Maria Rock, 610»

Marinero Rock, 610

Marquand Breakers, 610

Marsala Bank, 606

Martin Reef, 610

Martinique Passage, Cur-
rents, 354

Martyr Reef, 577, 608

Mathiesen, General H.,
On Ocean Currents, 378;
On the Gulf Stream,
395 ;

Maury, Commr. M. F.,,
On the Trade Winds,
99, 135--186; Pilot
Charts, '#5, 128; On
the Doldrums, 152-153 ;
Wind Charts, 171; On
Currents, 294; Gn Cur-
rents between Canary
& Cape Verde Islands,
818—319; On Guinea
Current, 825—3827 ; On
Currents of the Gulf of
Mexico, 871; On the
Gulf Stream, 879, 403,
406, 412 ; On Approach-
ing and Crossing the
Equator, 475, 479—481,
495; On Crossing the
Calm Belts, 501 ; Routes
between Europe and
the West Indies, &c.,
516—519; On Sailing
Routes’ between Eng-
jand and New York,
546—549; On Steam
Tracks To and From
America, 550—554; On
Passages from the U.S.
to the Equator, 562—
564; On Animal Life in
the Ocean, 648

Maxwell, Mr. G.,
Waterspouts, 267

On

Maxwell, Staff-Commr.,
Surveys, 51, 54, 56,
59

Mayda Rocks, 609, 610

Meldrum, Mr., On Baro-
metric Waves, 195 ; On
Hurricanes, 217, 2384,
24,4, :

Mer de Varec’h, 335. See,
also, SARGASSO SEA.

INDEX.

Mercator’s Projection, 459

Mercer, Mr. S. M., Sur-
veys, 37

Meridians, Prime, 7, 11,
18

, Secondary, 7

Mexico, Gulf of,Positions,
96; Winds, 146—150 ;
Tides, 284; Currents,
370—373 ; Water Level,
380

Midgley, Captain, On the
West African Winds
and Seasons, 158—160 ;
On Gulf Weed, 341;
Sailing Directions for
St. George’s Channel,
467—474 ; Directions,
&e., for the Navigation
of the West Coast of
Africa, 503—510.

Midgley Shoal, 598, 608

Miller-Casella Thermo-
meter, 685—638

Milne Bank, 599

Mirage, 502

Mitchell, Prof., On the
Gulf Stream, 387

Mobile, 74

Bay, Winds, 150

—151

| Mohn, Prof., On HEzurri-

eanes, 218

Mona Passage, 535 ; Cur-
rents, 354

Monaco, Prince Albert
of, On Currents, 296,
308

Monsoons, THE, 1380, 132,
157—168. See, aiso,
ABRICAN MONSOONS.

Monte Christi Shoals, 532

Monteath, Captain J. W.,
On West African Winds,
160; On Currents near
the Coast of Cuba, 368 ;
On the Yucatan Cur-
rent, 369

Montravel, M., Surveys,
92

Montreal, 59, 638

Moon, Effect of the, on
the Gulf Stream, 394,
896—397 ; on the Tides,
271—272

Morant Kays,
366, 367

Morning Star Rocks, 610

Morocco,Coast of,42,566—

Currents,

568; Caution against
Landing, 566

Mosquito Shoals, Cur-
rents, 366

—Shore, Positions,
94; Winds, 145; Cur-
rents, 360

Mossman Rock, 599, 608

|
|

693

MOTIONS AND PRESSURE
OF THE ATMOSPHERE,
108-124. (21, 22) Read-
ing and Correcting
Barometer Indications.
(23) Barometer Nor-
mals. (24) Isobarice
Lines. (25) Areas of
High & Low Pressure.
(26) Variations in Pres-

sure, (27) Range of
Barometer. (28) Mr.
Ley on Atmospheric

Pressure in relation to
Weather Changes. (29)
Connection between
Barometer Changes and
the Weather. (80—41)
Weather Reports, and
How Compiled. (31)
Weather ‘Predictions.
(32) Mr. Redfield’s Cy-
clone Theory. (32, 33)
Buys-Ballot’s Law.
(34) Capt. H. Toynbee
on Buvs-Ballot’s Law.
(35) Capt. Toynbee on
Areas of High and Low
Pressure. (36) Sir J.
Herschel on Barometric
Waves. (37) Mr. W. R.
Birt on Barometric
Waves. (39—41) Baro-
metric Gradients and
Weather Predicting.(41)
Observations at Sea.

Mouchez, Captain, Sur-
veys, 92

Mount, Cape, Currents,
330

Mourand Bank, 610
Mudge, Capt. Wm., Sur-
veys, 16, 47—49
Munn Reef, 608
Murdoch, Mr., Chart of
the Atlantic Ocean, 2
Murray, Dr. John, On the
Height of the Land &the
Depth of the Ocean, 102

Nansen, Dr. F., On the
Arctic Current, 433

Nantucket, Tides, 292

——__——— Shoals, 415,
592, 602

Napier, Capt., On Water-
spouts, 268

Negre Rocks, 610

Negretti and Zambra’s
Thermometer, 638

Netherlands, Tides, 280

Neva Rocks, 608

Nevis, 524

New Brunswick, Positions
60, 65 ; Tides, 282, 283

—— Granada, Positions
$3—94,; Winds, 145

694

New Orleans, 74—75
Newfoundland, Positions,
52—56 ; Currents, 213,
436; Tides, 282, 290;
Ice, 442
NewfoundlandBanks, The,
543, 550, 590; Fogs,
415; Currents, 375,
435—437 ; Origin, 444 ;
Ice, 448
Nicaragua, Currents, 366
Nictheroy Bank, 607
North Cape, Climate, 426
Channel, 469—470

Sea, Tides, 279,
280
Shoal, 597
North-About Routes, 466
—467, 560
Norra AFRICAN CURRENT,
312—324.

(262) Currents North &
South of the English
Channel. (263) Origin
and Course. (264) Its
Direction and Velocity.
(265) General Descrip-
tion, and Limits and
Rate for each Month,
by Mr. R. Strachan.
(266) Drift of Bottles,
&c., on the Coast of
Portugal, &c. (267) Ob-
servations between the
Canary and Cape Verde
Islands, from Commr,
Maury. (268) Mr. J. G.
Jackson, on the Danger
of Drifting on African
Coast. (269) Alexander
Sectt’s Experiences.
(270) Major Rennell’s
Remarks on the Cur-
rents between Cape
Finisterre & the Canary
Islands. (271, 272) Cur-
rents on the Coasts
of Spain and Portugal.
(273) Baron Roussin’s
Remarks on Currents
of West African Coast.
Velocity of the Current
along the African Coast.
Irregular during Rainy
Season.—See, also, page
582

Norra ATLANTIC OCEAN :
Limits, 1; Coast-lines,
2, 4—6 ; Charts, 3—4;
Surveyors, 3—5.

Norra ATLANTIC WINDS

AND WEATHER, 124-128.

(42) Wind Regions.
(43) Hurricane Regions.
(44,45) Wind & Weather
Charts of the North
Atlantic Ocean.

INDEX.

(North Atlantic Winds—
continued.)
(44) Lieut. Maury’s and

other Pilot Charts.
(45) Monthly Weather
Forecasts on United

States ‘‘ Pilot Chart.’

North Atlantic Monthly
Pilot Chart, 109, 125,
126, 229, 269, 297,
441, 462, 558—562

NortH-East TRADE WIND
—See TRADE WIND.

Norta-EAsTerty Drirt
to the Coasts of Western
Europe, &c., 421—430.
(415) East of the New-
foundland Banks. (416)
Influence on Climate of
Northern Europe, &c.
(417) Drift of Bottles,
Wrecks, Timber, &c.
(418) Other Evidences
of the Drift. (419) Tem-
perature and Isotherms.
4420) Dr. Petermann’s
Remarks. (421) Effect
on Climate of British
Isles. (422) Mr. Buchan
on Climate of Orkney.
(423) Temperature at
Great Depths.

NortH-EquaToriauL Cur-
RENT—See EQUATORIAL
CURRENTS.

Norths, The, 145—150

Norway, Positions, 19—
22; Tides, 280; Clhi-
mate, 428

Nova Scotia, Positions,
63—65 ; Winds, 215—
216; Tides, 282— 283 ;
Currents, 438

Nun Rock, 597

Nunez, Rio, 569:

Nymph Bank, 473

OcEAN, THE, Depth, Tem-
perature, Salinity, Spe-
cific Gravity, Circula-
tion, Animal Life,
Waves, &c., 626—653

Oil Rivers, 506—507

O1t, On the Use of, for
Calming Rough Seas,
248, 653—657 :—Best
form of Oil, 654; Method
of Using, 654; Rules
for Use under varying
circumstances, 655—
656; Examples of Use,
657

Oliver, Commr. W. B.,
Directions, Bight of
Benin to Sierra Leone,
510

Ordnance Survey, Posi-
tions, 8

Orion Rock, 610

Orkney Islands, Positions,
13,15; Tides, 279

Orlebar, Captain, Surveys,
53, 61—65

Ormes Heads, 468, 474

Orta, Don B. de, On the
Winds of Vera Cruz,
146

Osler’s Anemometer, 203

Owen, Capt. R., Surveys,
37, 77-—85, 94—95

Owen, Capt. W. F., Sur-
veys, 35—43, 65

Palm Oil Season, 507
Palmas, Cape, Currents,
330

‘Paris Observatory, 11, 27,

Parsons, Mr. J., Surveys,

86, 88—90

Passage Islands, Positions,

78—80

PASSAGE WINDS, 124, 170.

—WSee, also, ANTI-TRADE

WINDS.

PassaGES OVER THE

Ocean, 459—563.

1. General Remarks,
459—462.

(472, 473) Great Circle

Sailing. (474) The Use

of Sailing Directions.

(475) Vessels under

Steam. (476) Sailing

Tracks Dependent on

the Wind Systems.

2. To and From the
English Channel,

*462—467.

Outward Voyage, 462
—464, Contrary Winds,
463—464. Prevalent
Winds in London, 464.
Homeward Voyage, 464
—467. Bristol Channel,
464. Soundings, 464—
465, 466. Easterly
Winds, 465, 466—467.
Route North of Scot-
land, 467.

8. To and From the St.
George’s Channel,
467—A7A4.

Tides and Currents,
467. Liverpool to Holy-
head, 468—469. Liver-
pool to Tory Island, by
the North Channel, 469
—470. To the Ocean,
by the South Channel,
470—472. From the
South of Ireland to
Liverpool, 472—474.

(Passages Over the Ocean
—continued.)
4. Between England and
Gibraltar, 474.
5. Across the Equator,
475—501.
General Remarks,475.

Great Circle Routes
for Steamers, 476.
Leaving the English

Channel, 477-478. The

Passage to Madeira, 478

—481. Approaching &

Crossing the Equator,

481-501. Best Monthly

Routes, by Capt. Toyn-

bee, 483—492. East or

West of the Cape Verde

Islands, 493-494. Lieut.

Maury’s Remarks, 495.

Captain Toynbee’s Re-

marks on a Westerly

Crossing, 495-499. The

Old Directions for

Crossing the Equator,

by M. D’Aprés de Man-

nevillette, 499-501. Re-
turning toward Eng-
land, East or West of

the Azores, 501, 503.

6. To and From _ the
Senegal & Gambia,
501—503.

From Senegal’ to
Goree, 502; South of
Goree, 502; Return to
Europe, 503.

7. To and On the Coast
of Western -Africa,
503—511.

Capt. Midgley’s Re-
marks and Directions,
503-510. Passage from
England to Madeira,
the Canary, and Cape
Verde Islands, 503-504.
Weather and Currents,
504. Luminosity of the
Sea,504-505. Kroumen,
505. Navigating along
the Coast, 505. Seasons
and Climate, 506—508.
Current, 508. Home-
ward Passage, 508-510.
Crossing the Equator,
509.

From Bight of Biafra
to Sierra Leone, by
Commr. Oliver, 510.

Navigation on Wind-
ward & Gold Coasts,

ols
8. To and From and
Among the West

Indies, 511—538.
Toward Jamaica, &c.,
'512—-514. From the

INDEX.

(Passages Over the Ocean
—continued.)

West Indies to the

English Channel, 514—

515. Maury’s Routes

between Europe and

Southern Ports of the

U.S., West Indies, &c.,

516-519. Toand From

the West Indies and

North America, from

the *“‘ Derrotero,”’ 519—

523. In the Strait of

Florida & Gulf Stream,

521-528. To the Wind-

ward or Caribbee Ids.,

523—525. Navigation

Among the Windward

Islands, &c., 525—529.

Navigation of the Carib-

bean Sea, by Lieut.

Greevelink, 529—531.

Steam Navigation be-

tween Tobago & Deme-

rara, 531. To Jamaica.
via North side of Porto

Rico and Hayti, 532—

534. Between Grenada

and Jamaica, South of

Hayti, 5384—535; Ja-

maica to Maracaybo,

by Capt. Dunsterville,

535—536. Providence

Channels, 536-537. To

Demerara,&c., from the

N.E., 587—538.

9. To and From _ the
Northern Ports of
America, 539—544.

Great Circle Courses,

539. Capt. Hare’s In-

structions for Northerly

Route, 540-542. South-

ern Route to the West

Indies and the United

States, 543. To the

Gulf and River of St.

Lawrence, 543-544.

10. Between Europe and

New York, &c.,
545—549.
General Remarks,

Weather, &c., 545-546.

Maury’s Tables of the

Routes and Time, be-

tween England & New

York, 546—549.

11. Steam Tracks To
and From North
America, 549—562

Maury’s Remarks,
550—554, Distances,
552. Courses of the

* Lanes,”’ 553. Admiral
FitzRoy’s Remarks,554

The Monthly Normal
Tracks for Steamers, by

695

(Passages Over the Ocean
—continued.)
Herr von Freeden, with
Tables, 554—557.
Uniform Tracks for

Steamers, as laid down

by U. S. Hydrographic

Office, 558-562. Bound

Westward, 559. Bound

Eastward, 559. Routes

North-About, 560.

Between Gibraltar,

&c., and New York, 561

—562. Vessels Bound

Westward, 561. Bound

Eastward, 562.

12. Sailing Routes from
the U.S. to the
Equator, by Capt.
Maury, 562—564.
Time Table of the
Old, Middle, & New

Routes, 563. Re-
marks upon this
Table, 564.

Patton, Prof., On Aqueous
Vapour, 102

Patty Overfalls, 610

Pedro Shoals, Currents,
366

Pepper Coast, Winds on
the, 160

Perez Shoal, 606

Perseus Shoal, 610

Petermann, Dr. A., On
the Gulf Stream and
Arctic Current,374, 418,
422, 425—428

Picard, M., Surveys, 27

Piddington, Mr., On the
Barometer, 111; On the
Law of Storms, 112,
217, 258

Pillsbury, Lieut. J. E., On
the South Equatorial
Current, 352; On the
Yucatan Current, 370 ;
On the Gulf Stream,
373, 378, 380, 381, 386,
395—400, 402, 405, 406,
407, 411, 414

Plymouth Sound, 11

Poey, M. A., On Hurri-
canes, 223

Poncé de Leon, The Gulf
Stream, 376

Ponta Delgada Harbour,
573

Porcupine Bank, 598

Porgas Bank, 607, 608,
609, 610

Pornton, Captain, On the
Arctic Current, 434

Port Royal, 533

Porto Bello, Currents, 364

Grande, 48, 49
Praya, 49

696

Porto Rico, 583; Positions,
86; North Coast, 358

Santo, 45
Portsmouth, 9
Portugal, Positions, 33,
35; Winds, 211—212 ;
Tides, 281; Currents,
313—318, 321, 322
PosiTIONS, TABLES OF,

See CONTENTS.
Potomac Soundings, 610
Pouchet, Prof., On Cur-

rents, 296
Predicting Weather, 112,

118—124
Prime Meridian, The, 11
Prince Shoal, 610
Edward Island,

Positions, 61, 63 ; Tides,

282
Princes Island, Positions,

41
Princess Elizabeth Shoal,

606, 608
Pronk Rocks, 576, 611
Providence Channels, 536

—537
Pryce Shoal, 611
Purchas, Capt., Surveys,

38
Purdy, Mr. John, Chart

of the Atlantic Ocean,

2

Quaqua Coast, Winds on
the, 160

Quebec Observatory, 59,
62-—63

Race, Cape, Ice, 442

Rainfall, Liverpool, 206

Ramigeau’s Vigia, 611

Redfield, Mr. W. C., On
Cyclonic Theory of the
Winds, 112 ; On Storms
of the American Coast,
217; On MHiurricanes,
225; On the Arctic
Current, 434—485 ; On
Ice, 448, 452

Regvuera! Shoal, 604, 611

Reid, Col. Sir W. On the
Law of Storms, 112,
217, 242 ; On Winds at
the Bermuda Islands,
588

Rennell, Major, On the
African Monsoons_ 157 ;
On Currents, 294, 303 ;
On North African Cur-
rent, 320; On the Gulf
Stream, 336, 374, 390,
419; On Wind as a
Cause of Ocean Cur-
rents, 379 ; On Passage
to England from the
West Indies, 515

INDEX.

RENNELL’S CURRENT, 301
—312. (854) Origin in
Bay of Biscay. (255)Not
a Permanent Stream ;
Major Rennell’s Infer-
ences and Rules. (256)
Major Rennell on the
Effects of Westerly
Winds in Raising the
Level of the English
Channel. (257) Further
Investigations. (258)
Experiments by Prince
Albert of Monaco.
(259) Caution necessary
in Approaching Cape
Finisterre, with records
of disastrous Wrecks in
this locality. (260)
Drift of Bottles, &c.
(261) Estimate of Daily
Rate of Inset into the
Bay of Biscay. Final
Remarks on Arguments
and Facts Enumerated.
See, also, pages 465-466,
470, 472

Reported Dangers Around
Azores Islands, 574, 606

Revolving Storms, 217

Rheology, 430

Rhoon Rocks, 576, 611

Richardson, Capt., On the
Gulf Stream, 410

Rink, Dr. Ii., On Icebergs,
443

Roallon Rocks, 611

Robinson, Comm. G., On
Ice near Newfoundland,
441, 442, 446

Rocas Reef, 496

Roche Bonne, 597

Rochette, M. de la, Chart
of Atlantic Ocean, 2

Rodman, Ensign H., On
Ice, 441

Rogers Shoal, 602

Rollers, West Indies, 356
—358

Romantico Rock, 606, 608

Romme, M., On Hurri-
canes, 217

Rotary Gales, 217

Roussin, Baron, Surveys,
36, 37, 42; On West
African Winds and Sea-
sons, 161—162 ; On the
Harmattan, 165; On
North African Current,
323; On Passages to
and from the Senegal
and Gambia, 501—503

RoutEes—See PassaGEs.

Rudge, Capt. C. T., On
Guinea Current, 330

Rules for Avoiding Hurri-
canes, 232—248

Ryder Shoal, 608
Ryk, Admiral, Surveys,
24, 26

Saba, 525

Sabine, Captain, Surveys,
43

Sabine, General E., On
Currents, 304; On the
Gulf Stream, 374, 391

Sable Island, 63, 65, 438—
439, 540; Tides, 282;
Currents, 438-439

St. Anne Shoals, 570

— Brandon Island, 582

— Christopher, 524

— Esprit Reef, 611

— Eustatius, 524

— Francis, Cape, 676

| — George’sChannel,Tides,

278, 288—289, 467, 470;
Sailing Directions, 467
—AT4, 566

— Iago de Cuba, 533

— John’s Harbour,
442

— Lawrence, -Gulf and
River, Positions, 57—
60, 62—63; Winds, 213
—215; Tides, 282, 291
—292; Currents, 437 ;
Ice, 442

—Lucia Passage,
rents, 353

— Martin, 524, 525

— Mary Bank, 574, 606,
608

— Michael’s Island, 571—
573

— Nicolas Channel, Cur-
rents, 354

— Shot’s Bay, 436

— Thomas Island, Posi-
tions, 41, 43

— Vincent, Currents, 353

— Vincent Island, 49

Sainthill Bank, 599

Sauinity of Sea-Water,
642-645 :—Source, 642 ;
Constituents, 642—645

Samana, Cape, 532

San Boronbon Island, 582

Fernando Observa-

tory, 34, 35

Juan Harbour, 5382,

533

Roque, Cape, and
Shoals, 475, 483, 561

Sands, Commr., On the
Gulf Stream, 387

Santander, Winds, 211

Santaren Channel, Cur-
rents, 354, 400

Santo Domingo, Positions,
84—85

Saona Island, 535

Ice,

Cur-

Saraasso Sea, 335—342.
(288) Urigin of Name.
(289) Limits. (290, 291)
Causes and Conditions.
(292—295) Description
of the Sargasso or Gulf
Weed, and the Locality
of its Origin. (292) The
Temperature. (296)
Observations, H.M.S.
Challenger. (297) Notes
by Capt. A. Livingston.
(298) Mr. Turner’s Re-
marks. (299) Remarks
by Captain Bourke and
Lieutenant J. Evans.
(300) Captain Midgley’s
Remarks on Gulf Weed
off the African Coast.
(301) Mr. Luccock’s
Remarks. See, also,
pages 299, 300, 650

Saulnier de Vauhello, M.,
Surveys, 34

Schomburgk, Sir R. H.,
Surveys, 87, 92; On
Currents near Virgin
Islands, 355; On Rol-
lers, or Ground Swell,
356

Schott, Dr., On Waves,
653

Scilly Islands, 465

Scoresby, Capt., On Ice-

bergs, 443
Scoresby, Dr., On Magne-
tism, 156; On Waves,

652 ; On the Magnetism
of Iron Ships, 669-671
Scotland, Positions, 12—
15; Tides, 279
Scott, Mr. R. H., On Ba-
rometric Gradients,118;
On Buys-Ballot’s Law,
118—124 ; On Weather
Charts & Storm Warn-
ings, 198; On Hurri-
canes, 218; On Currents,
295
Sea Islands, 383
Sea Serpent, The, 652
Seal Island, 66
Seasons :—
Gambia, The, 569
Oil Rivers, 506—507
Wet and Dry, Mexican
Sea, 146, 149; West
Coast/of Africa, 161
— 163; West Indies,
142
‘Secondary Meridians, 7
Seine Bank, 605
Senegal River, 502, 568 ;
Currents, 323
Sharpe, Captain, On the
Best Track Home from
the West Indies, 515

INDEX.

Shetiand Islands, Posi-
tions, 13; Tides, 279
Shortland, Commr., Sur-

veys, 62—65

Siemens’ Electric Ther-
mometer, 638

Sierra Leone, Positions,
42—43; Winds, 160;
Climate, 570

Sigsbee Rock, 601

Smalls Rocks, 473

Smith, Capt. W. S., On
Currents in the Bay of
Guatemala, 366

Smith, Lieut. T., Surveys,
36, '78—80

Smith, Mr. A., On Mag-
netism, 456; On the
Compass, 669

Smith Rock, 611

Smokes, The, 506

Smyth, Admiral W. H.,
Surveys, 35, 42; On
Waterspouts, 268

Smyth, Prof. Piazzi, On
the Longitude of Edin-
burgh, 15

Solis Island, 610

Sombrero Island, 526

South Channel, 470—472

Southampton, Tides, 286

SoutH-East Drirtr—
See Norra AFRICAN
CURRENT.

Southern Four Kays, Cur-
rents, 365

Spain, Positions, 31—33,
34—35; Winds, 211—
213; Tides, 281; Cur-
rents, 321, 322

Spanish Shoal, 611

Spartel, Cape, 42

Speciric Gravity of
Ocean Water, 181, 645
—646

Spence, Mr. Greeme, Sur-
veys, 3

Spitzbergen Current, 432

Sprigg Rock, 611

SQUALLS, 259—261
(204) Description by
Captain A. Livingston.
(205) Capt. FitzRoy on
White Squalls. (206)
Mr. F.. A. Jahneke and
Captain Toynbee on
White Squalls.

Squats, Bayamo, 144;
Bermuda, 170, 585

Steam Tracks To & From
America, 549—562

Steen Ground, 580, 611

Stevenson, Mr. T., On
Barometric Gradients,
118

Stewart, Mr. A., On

Waterspouts, 268

697

Storm Card, 235

Storms, Azores Islands,
571—573 ; In the Nor-
thern Atlantic Ocean,

545 — 546; See, also,
ANTI-TRADES.

Storms, Magnetic, 458,
667

Strachan, Mr. R., On Cur-
rents, 294; On North

African Current, 312—
315 ; On South Equato-
rial Current, 351; On
Currents of the Carib-
bean Sea, 353, 358 ; On
Yucatan Current, 369 ;
On Currents of the Gulf
of Mexico, 371—372 ;
On the Gulf Stream,
391—394

Strachey, General R., On
the Winds of Western
Europe, 199

Styx Bank, 578

Submarine Volcanic Erup-
tions, 574—576, 604,
611—614

Sunken Land of Bus, 609

Surgeac Vigia, 611

Surveyors, 3—-5

Sweden, Positions, 22

Teeth Coast, Winds, 160

TEMPERATURE, 180; Asa
Cause of Ocean Cur-
rents, 377—378 ; Tem-
perature of Sea near
Ice, 447.

Temperature of the
Ocean, 635-642.—Deep-
Sea Thermometers, 635
—-639 ; Sun’s Influence,
&c., 640; The Surface
Temperature, 640-641 ;
Sub-surface Tempera-
ture, 641—642

Testigos Rocks, Currents,
361

-Texeiro Shoal, 611

Thames, River, Tides, 284

THERMOMETER, THE, 508 ;
As a Guide in Naviga-
tion, 401—402; Ther-
mometers for the Deep
Sea, 407, 6835—639

Thom, Dr., On the Law
of Storms, 112; On
Hurricanes, 217

Thomas, Mr. G., Survey
138

Thomson, Sir Wyville,
On the Sargasso Sea,
338; On the Arctic
Current, 435 ; On Ocean
Circulation, &¢c., 647—
648 ; On Annal Life in
the Ocean, 651

698

Thoroddsen, Mr. T., On
Ice Around Iceland, 446

Thoulet, M. J., On the
Arctic Current and Gulf
Stream, 421

Three Chimneys Rocks,
611

Three Points, Cape, Cur-
rents, 330

Tiarks, Dr., On Longitude
of Falmouth, 12; On
Longitude of Funchal,
47

TiprEs, The, with a Tide

Table, 271—293.

(217) Cause. (218) The
Action of the Moon.
(219) Action of the Sun.
(220)Height of the Tidal
Wave. (221) Equinoc-
tial Tides. (222, 223)
Dr. Whewell’s & Sir J.
Lubbock’s Observa-
tions. (224) The Tidal
Wave. (225) Velocity
of the Tidal Wave.
(226) Time of Slack
Water. (227) The Es-
tablishment and Cor-
rected Establishment of
the Port. (228) Semi-
menstrual Inequality.
(229) Age of the Tide.
(230) Difference of the
Two Diurnal Tides.
(281) Height of Mean
Water Level.
Variations due to Atmo-

spheric Pressure. (233) |

Tidal Currents, & Direc-

tion and Rate of Pro-

gress of the Tidal Wave.

(234)Observations made

on Atlantic Coasts, in

1834 and 1835. (235)

Explanation of the Tide

Tables.

TipE TABLE, 278—284;
Remarks on, 284-293
TIDES :—

Africa, West Coast, 290

Baharnas, 293

Biscay, Bay of, 290

' Bristol Channel, 287

Chepstow, 287

Dover, 463 ~

English Channel, 285—
286, 462—463

Florida, 293

Fundy, Bay of, 292

Gettysburg Bank, 290,
605

Gibraltar Strait, 290

Gorringe Bank, 290, 605

Havre, 290

Nantucket, 292

Newfoundland. 290

(232) |

INDEX.

(Tides—continued.)
St. George’s Channel, |
288—289, 467, 470
St. Lawrence River, 291
—292
Southampton, 286
Thames, River, 284
United States, 292—293
Tofino, Don Vicente,
Surveys, 34, 45
TORNADOS, 261—264.
(207) General Descrip-
tion, & Comm. Bourke’s
Remarks. (208) Capt.
Toynbee’s Remarks.
(209) Remarks by Dr.
A. Borius. See, also,
pages 124, 160, 161, 162,
166, 167, 217, 261—-264,
570
Tortola Island, 357
Tortugas Bank, Currents,
372
Tory Island, 469
Town, Mr., On Currents
of Colombian Coast, &c.,
363
Toynbee, Captain H., On
Buys-Ballot’s Law, 113
—1l15; On Areas of
High and Low Baro-
metric Pressure, 115—
116; Meteorology of
the Equatorial Region,
128 ; On Trade Winds,
136—140 ; On the
Equatorial Calms, 155
—156 ; Examination of
Eight Logs kept by
Capt. Martyn, between
the Channel and New
York, 177—178; On
Cyclonic Wind Systems,
183 ; On Westerly Gales,
188; Storms Crossing
the Atlantic, 190—196 ;
On Storms of the Bri-
tish Isles, 198; On
Hurricanes, 218; On
Squalls, 260; On Tor-
nados, 262 ; On Guinea
Current, 332 ; On Equa-
torial Currents, 345;
On Approaching and
Crossing the Equator,
475—476, 481—492,495
—499; On Storms of
the Northern Atlantic
Ocean, 545—546; On
Cloud Motion, 658
Tracks—See PASSAGES.
TrapDE WIND, THE, 124,
128—140.
(47) Area of Region.

(48) The Sources of
Statistics. (49) Mean
Barometric ‘Pressure,

| (Trade Wind—continued.)

Direction, and Duration
of N.E. and S.E. Trade
Winds compared. (50—
52) Force or Velocity.
(51) Sailing Tracks
through Trade Winds.
(52) Variation in the
Strength. (53) Area and
Northern Limit. (54)
Southern Limit, with
Table of Equinoctial
Limits of N.E. and
S.E. Trade Winds.
(55) Equatorial Belt of
Calms. (56) Direction
of N.E. Trade. (57-59)
Duration and Direction
of N.E. Trade Wind,
with Diagrams. (60)
Calendar Seasons. (61)
Summary by Commr.
Maury. (62) Captain
Toynbee’s Monthly Re-
marks on N.E. and
S.E. Trade Winds.
(63) Atlantic Islands.
(64) Winds of the West
Indies. (65) Jamaica.
(66) Cayman Islands.
(67) Bahama Islands.
(68) Bayamo Squalls.
(69—74) Coasts of the
Caribbean Sea and Gulf
of Mexico. (70-73) Vera
Cruz. (71; 72) ene
Norths. (74) Gulf of
Mexico, North Coast.
See, also, pages 99,
124.

Travesia, The, 211

Tregarthen Rock, 609,
610, 611

Trondhjem, 22

Truxton, Commodore, On
the Gulf Stream, 401

Tudor, Mr. E.O., Surveys,
37

Tulloch Rocks, 574, 606,
611

Turner, Mr., On the Sar-
gasso Sea, 340

Tuskar Rock, 473

Typhoons, 217

Ugarte Shoal, 604, 611
Under-Currents, 646
Uniform Tracks for
Steamers, 557—562
United States Coast, Po-
sitions, 66—75 ; Tides,
283—284, 292—293;
Currents, 439—440
Ushant, 477, 478

Vache Island, 534
Valentia Harbour, 17, 18

Van Keulen, Chart of
Atlantic Ocean, 2

Van Rhyn, Captain, Sur-
veys, 24, 26

Varec’h, Mer de, 335

Variable Winds, 124

VARIATION OF THE ComM-
pass—See MAGNETIC
VARIATION ; also, Tables
of Geographical Posi-
tions.

Vendaval, The, 145, 146,
209, 213

Venezuela, Positions, 93;
Winds, 145; Currents,
359—363

Vera Cruz, Winds, 146—
150

Verde, Cape, 502;
rents, 323

Verte, Banche, 597

, Ile, 610, 611

Vidal, Capt. A. T. E.,
Surveys, 38—43, 44—
45, 47

Viejo Frangais, Cape, 582

Vientos de Cabeza, 146

Vigias, 5983—596

Vigia dos Acores, 577, 608

Vincendon-Dumoulin, M.,
Surveys, 36

Vines, Padre, On Hurri-
canes, 218, 224-231, 245

Virazones, The, 150

Virgin Gorda, 356, 526

Islands, Positions,

86—88 ; Currents, 354,

355

Cur-

Rocks, 590, 600;
Current, 436

Volcanic Eruptions, Sub-
marine, 574—576, 604,
611—614

VoLcANIC REGIONS, near
the Equator, &c., 611—
614, 617

Wahlstein Breakers, 611

Wales, Positions, 10;
Tides, 278

Walker, Mr. W., On Mag-
netism, 456

Walker Shoal, 611

Wallace Rock, 611

Wallich, Dr., On Currents
of NorthernAtlantic,427

Wandel, Lieut. C. F., On
Currents around Ice-
land, 430; On _ Ice
around Iceland, 441,
» 445—446

Warley Shoal, 611

Washington, Capt., Sur-
veys, 36,42

Washington and Observa-
tory, 70, 74

Waterford Harbour, 472

INDEX.

WATERSPOUTS, 264—270.
(210) Definition, (211)
Lieut. Hayden on their
Formation. (212) M.
Malté-Brun’s Descrip-
tion. (213) Mr. Murdo
Downie’s_ Description.
(214) Mr. G. Maxwell’s
Description, with an
Illustration. (215) Capt.
Napier’s Description.
(216) Some Accounts of
Recent Experiences.

Watson Rock,601, 608,609

Waves, Their Height,
Speed, &c., 210, 652—
653; in the Bay of
Biscay, 210—211

Waves, Barometric, 116
—117, 198—195

Weather, 200—203

————— Charts, 125

Weather and Winds of the
North Atlantie Ocean,
124—128

Weather Forecasts for the
North Atlantic Ocean,
Monthly, 126—128

Weather Predicting, 118

—124
Weather Reports, & How
Compiled, 112—124

West Greenland Current,
431

West Indies, Winds, 141
—152; Tides, 284

WEsT INDIES, CURRENTS,

358—373

(3820) Westerly Drift in
the Caribbean Sea.
(321) Windward Islands
& Passages. (322) The
North Coast of Hayti
& Windward Passages,
(323) Capt. W. C. Berry
on Currents of Bahama
Islands. (324) Observa-
tions by Lieut. Hanus,
U.S.N. (825) Sir R.
Schomburgk on Cur-
rents of Virgin Ids., &c.
(326) On the Rollers or
Ground Swell. (327)
In the Caribbean Sea.
(328, 329) The Velocity
of the Westerly Drift.
(330, 334) Remarks by
Lieutenant Greevelink.
(331) Spanish Observa-
tions. (832) Remarks by
Baron von Humboldt.
(333) Remarks by Capt.
C. S. Cochrane. (335)
Observations on U.S.S.
Blake. (336) Bays of
Guatemala & Honduras.
(337) Observations on

699

(West Indies, Currenits—
continued.)

Currents of Colombian
Coast, by Mr. Town and
others. (338) Remarks
by Capt. Lima. (339)
Capt. W. J. Capes on
Currents of the Bay of
Honduras. (340) Capt.
W. S. Smith on Cur-
rents of the Bay of
Guatemala, &c. (341)
Currents near Morant
Kays and Pedro Bank.
(842) Coast of Cuba.
(343) Cuba, Jamaica,&e.
(344) Current Bottles.
(845) Yucatan Channel.
(346) Lieut. Pillsbury’s
Observations on the
Yucatan Current. (347)
Gulf of Mexico. (348)
Remarks by Captain
Maury. (349) North of
Yucatan Channel. (350)
Mr. R. Strachan’s Re-
marks. (351) Circula-
tion in Gulf of Mexico.
(352) Tortugas: Bank.
(353) Temperature of
the Water, &c.

West Indies, Passages To,
From, and Among, 511
—538

Westenenk Shoal, 608

Whale Rock, 575, 606, 611

Whewell, Rev. Dr., On
the Tides, 271, 273

White, Capt. M., Survey,
28

White Sea, Tides, 280 -

White Squall, The, 260—
261

Wild, Dr. J.J., On Deep-
Sea Thermometers, 635 |
—638

Wilhelmshaven Observa-
tory, 23

Williams, Capt., On Ren-
nell’s Current, 304

Williams, Colonel J., On
Thermometrical Navi-
gation, 401, 402

Wilson, Mr., On Hurri-
canes, 218

Wind Charts, 125

Roses, 138, 207

Regions of the North
Atlantic Ocean, 124

Winps, General Remarks,

97—107.
(1) Introduction. (2)
Circulation of the At-
mosphere. (3) Halley’s
and Hadley’s Theories.
(4) Theory of the Trade
Winds. (5) Theory of

700

(Winds—continued)
Anti-Trade Winds. (6
—8) Equatorial Calms.
(9) Theories of Mr.
Hopkins, Prof. Laugh-
ton, and others. (10)
Hon. R. Abercromby’s

Theory. (11) Aqueous
Vapour. (12) Height
of the Atmosphere.

(13) Line of Division
between N.E. and S.E.
Trade Winds. (14—17)
Force of the Wind at
Sea and on Land. (14)
Sir F. Beaufort’s Nota-
tion. (15) Mr. Glaisher’s
Notation. (16) Observa-
tions, H.M.S. Challenger.
(17) Actual Force and
Velocity, with Tables.
(18)Alternation of Land
and Sea Breezes. (19)
Dové Law of Gyration.
(20) Areas of the several
Wind Zones.

See, also, Morions
AND PRESSURE OF THE
ATMOSPHERE; TRADE
WIND ; AnTI-TRADE
WIND; EQUATORIAL
Catms; &c.

WINDs AND CALMS ON THE
Tropic, 168—170.
(96) Definition. (97)
Causes. (98, 99) Range.
(100) Westward of long.
50° W. (101) Bermuda,
Winds and Seasons.
Winds and Weather of the

North Atlantic Ocean,
124—128
WIinps, Northern Atlantic
Ocean, 545—546
WINDs :—
Bayamo Squalls, 144
Brisa Parda, 581
Chocolatero, The, 147
Embata, The, 581
Equatorial, 152—156
Galerna, The, 210
Gales, 1'79
Harmattan, The, 164—

168, 506
Land and Sea Breezes,

141—142, 161

INDEX.

(Winds—continued.)

Leste, The, 579
Norths, The, 145—150
Passage, The, 170
Portuguese Trades, 211
Squalls, 259—261
Tornado, 261—264
Travesia, The, 211
Vendaval The, 145, 146,
209
Vientos de Cabeza, 146
Virazones, 150

Winds :—

Adou Coast, 160
Africa, West Coast of,
157—168, 566—570
Aspinwall or Colon, 148

Atlantic Islands, 141

Azores, 208, 570—573

Bahamas, 144, 150

Bermuda, 169-170, 191,
585

Bidston Hill, 205—206

Biscay, Bay of, 208—
211

Bissao, 569

Cadiz, 212

Canary Islands,
581

Cape Verde Islands, 134,
185, 140, 160, 583

Caribbee Islands, 526

Caribbean Sea, 184, 141

Carolina, 216

Casamanze River, 569

Cayman Islands, 143

Cuba, 145

Dahomey, 163

Dieppe, 206—207

English Channel, 206—
207, 464, 465, 466-467

Ferrol, 211

Florida, 150

Florida Strait, 150, 152

Fundy, Bay of, 216

141,

Galveston, 150—151
Gambia, &c., 160, 166
—168, 568

Gibraltar Strait, 213
Gold Coast, 160, 163
Grain Coast, 160
Greenwich, 203
Guayana, 141, 145
Guinea, Gulf of, 160
Gulf Stream, 541
Honduras, 145

W inds—(continued.)

Isles de Los, &c., 161,
570

Ivory Coast, 160

Jamaica, 142—143

Jeba River, 569

Juby, Cape, 567

Kay West, 150—151

Liberia, 163

Liverpool, 203

London, 464

Louisiana, 150

Madeira, 141, 578—580

Mexico, Gulf of, 146—
150

Mobile Bay, 150—151

Morocco, 567

Mosquito Shore, 145

New Granada, 145

Nova Scotia, 215—216

Oil Rivers, 506

Pepper Coast, 160

Porto Praya, 583

Portugal, Coast of, 180,
211—212

Quaqua Coast, 160

St. Lawrence Gulf and
River, 218—215

Santander, 211

Senegal River, 568

Sierra Leone, &c., 160

Spain, 179—180, 211—
213

Teeth Coast, 160

Venezuela, 145

Vera Cruz, 146—150

West Indies, 141—152

Windward Coast, 160,
163

Yucatan, 145—146

Windward Channel, 512

Coast, 511;
Winds, 60, 163
Islands and

Passages, 91, 526—529 ;
Currents, 354

Wojeikof, Professor, On

Hurricanes, 218

Woodall Rock, 611
Yof Bay, Currents, 323,

568

Yucatan, Positions, 96;

Winds, 145—146
Channel, Currents,
869—370

PRINTED BY THE ANOHOR PRESS LTD. TIPTREE ESSEX ENGLAND

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