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S\N ms AAAAAS- AAA a a : SRRRRAARAARE HY lealalalaaaialaaa rn“ \ Pm AAAAA am IRRIARAARRRARARARE EAS a RAAAA aaans> >> MAAR RAAAAAAAY AA * AAA A | RP alelapalcplapainpnaay te ~ | ARAR AAPA AP AR AAR a AARAA ARG ~ Aaa RS — ~~ a ‘ ARAVA BAAR PP AAAS A aS ee Vaal event AAA AA RARRARAREA AAA ee , A a | a aA AAARARAAAAAAAABAARRRAAR RRR RARER aA maa aalalaiaaaevaneaeaansonaanae tte aaaa Rian RARER GRRE AARRR ARR AR RR pp ~/- AF aa P\ PA | | FARRRA | aaa AAAS ARRARARAR RA SAR AARA aap ARRARARARRARAR AAA A AOS eR ee A ARARAAaA wl oo ARR oR | Pe mR PAEEAE sai am (emt PRPARAAAAARACERE EAE CORE aR AARAAAannAnAn og anpnnnnne- a Ne >| { I PAR Ly | a Se eee. = ana nAnARnAnAARnAnnaftAat Valo lalenlel AAA RRA aaninaee naan aan NAARAAAMARAARSS RE paren RAR: im BARRRARRRRAAAR A= pepaccecn | manana na Saaaaaaasnaace’ AR ARPAR ABA) DISCOVERY REPORTS Issued by the Discovery Committee Colonial Office, London on behalf of the Government of the Dependencies of the Falkland Islands VOLUME I \ \ \ i930 *) } yt / MUSE — CAMBRIDGE AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS 1929 PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN } CONTENTS LIST OF PERSONNEL . : : : E : : é ‘ F : ‘ : page vii PREFACE : ; : ; : ; : : : : : : : : : : ‘ ix OIRRIGENDA . : ; : : : : : : : : : ; : : ee xii FATION LIST 1925-1927 (published 6th February, 1929) INTRODUCTION . A : : : : : : : : : : 5 : : ; 3 R.R.S. ‘Discovery’, STATIONS 1-299 : : : : : : : : : : : 6 R.S.S. “WILiiAM ScoresBy’, STATIONS WS 1-136. : : : F : : : : 92 MarRINE BIOLOGICAL STATION, SOUTH GEORGIA, STATIONS MS 1-82 ; : : ‘ 2 1e2 SUMMARISED List OF STATIONS . : : : : : : : ; 3 F : 5 iets) Pirates I-VI . F ; i F : F : : 3 : : ‘ following page 140 OBJECTS, EQUIPMENT & METHODS (published 1oth July, 1929) By S. Kemp, Sc.D., A. C. Hardy, M.A. and N. A. Mackintosh, A.R.C.S., M.Sc. Part I. THE OBJECTS OF THE INVESTIGATIONS. : : : : . page 143 Part IT. THE SHips, THEIR EQUIPMENT AND THE NeTeORE USED IN Reseances : é : 5 GT Part III. THE Marte BIoOLoGicaL STATION. ; ; : : : : : E 3) 228 INDEX ; : : ‘ ; : : : : : ‘ : ; ; : 5 Aah Prates VII- XVII ‘ : : ‘ : : : : : : ; : following page 232 DAP SNAT URAL HISTORY OF THE ELEPHANT SEAL WITH NOTES ON OTHER SEALS FOUND AT SOUTH GEORGIA (published 31st July, 1929) By L. Harrison Matthews, M.A. ‘THE NaATuRAL History OF THE ELEPHANT SEAL ; ‘ : ‘ ‘ : : . page 235 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE ELEPHANT SEAL. ‘ , : : 2 : : : . 249 Notes ON OTHER SEALS FoUND AT SOUTH GEORGIA . : ‘ ‘ ; ‘ ; : e252) Piates XIX-XXIV . : ‘ : : ; , ‘ : : 5 ‘ following page 255 SOUTHERN BLUE AND FIN WHALES (published rath December, 1929) By N. A. Mackintosh, A.R.C.S., M.Sc. & J. F. G. Wheeler, M.Sc. INTRODUCTION . 2 : 3 ‘ : ; : : ; F : : : . page 259 EXTERNAL CHARACTERS. : : : : , : ‘ : ; : : : ee 7a Foop, BLUBBER AND EXTERNAL PARASITES . ; ‘ : : : : : ; : . 360 ‘THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS. : 6 : ; : : , : : : : ws 79 BREEDING AND GROWTH . : : 2 : 6 : : : : : : : 4 2 ‘THE STOCK OF WHALES. 5 : 5 : : ak: F : : 5 ‘ ese SUMMARY . : ‘ : : , : : : : : : : : 5 : a 467, List oF LITERATURE CITED F : 5 ; ; ‘ : ; : 3 : , . 470 APPENDICES. : F : ; : : 2 E ‘ : : ‘ : ; 472 INDEX , F : : ; 5 : . : ; : : : : ey PLATES XXV-XLIV. ‘ : : : : : F ; : : : following page 540 vi CONTENTS PARASITIC NEMATODA AND ACANTHOCEPHALA COLLECTED IN 1925-1927 (published 23rd December, 1929) By H. A. Baylis, M.A., D.Sc. NEMATODA ACANTHOCEPHALA THE BIRDS OF SOUTH GEORGIA (published 23rd December, 1929) By L. Harrison Matthews, M.A. THE BirDSs OF SOUTH GEORGIA . BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LITERATURE RELATING TO THE Birps OF SouTH GEORGIA PLates XLV-LVI page 543 died RPP) i page 563 : 594) following page 592 List OF PERSONNEL DISCOVERY COMMITTEE E. R. Darnley, M.A., B.Sc. (Chairman), Colonial Office Sir S. F. Harmer, K.B.E., Sc.D., F.R.S. (Vice-Chairman), British Museum H. 'T. Allen (Finance Member), Colonial Office J. O. Borley, O.B.E., M.A. (Fisheries Adviser), Colonial Office Rear-Admiral H. P. Douglas, C.B., C.M.G., Admiralty Sir J. Fortescue Flannery, Bt., M.I.C.E. (Consulting Naval Architect) H. G. Maurice, C.B., Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries J. M. Wordie, M.A., Royal Geographical Society Former Members Rear-Admiral R. W. Glennie, C.M.G. Sir F. Middleton, K.B.E., C.M.G. Captain #. D. Nares, D.S.O., R.N. Secretary: E. Baynes, O.B.E., 1923-1925 A. L. Ayton, 1925-1928 S.R. Pughe, M.B.E., 1928 F. H. Harper, M.B.E., 1928- Naval Architect: A. Harker, M.I.N.A.,F.C.M.S. (of Messrs Flannery, Baggallay and Johnson, Ltd., Consulting Engineers), 1923- Technical Officer: H. Horsburgh, A.M.1.C.E., Crown Agents for the Colonies, 1923- Shipping Officer: E. A. Nattriss, Crown Agents for the Colonies, 1927- Accounting Staff: R. A. Brown, 1925-1928. C. G. W. Lawrence, 1928. T. F. Hardy, 1927-1928. S. W. Smith, 1928- E. W. A. Scarlett, 1928— Clerical Assistants: Miss E. Showell, 1923-1928 Miss M. E. Jeffries, 1928- Miss B. M. H. Borley, 1928- Miss D. B. Meggitt, 1929- SCIENTIFIC STAFF Director of Research S. Kemp, Sc.D., 1924— Zoological Staff A.C. Hardy, M.A., 1924-1928 F. C. Fraser, B.Sc., 1925- N. A. Mackintosh, A.R.C.S., M.Sc., 1924— J. W. S. Marr, M.A., B.Sc., *1927-— J. E. Hamilton, M.Sc., 1924- G. W. Rayner, B.Sc., 1927- J. F. G. Wheeler, M. Se. , 1924— T. J. Hart, B.Sc., 1929- L. H. Matthews, M.A., 1924-1927 F. D. Ommaney, B.Sc., 1929- E. R. Gunther, M.A., 1924— A. H. Laurie, B.A., 1929- D. D. John, M.Sc., 1925- Hydrological Staff H. F. P. Herdman, M.Sc., 1924- G. E. R. Deacon, B.Sc., 1927— A. J. Clowes, A.R.C.S., M.Sc., 1924- Curators: Miss H. E. Bargmann, Ph.D., 1928- Mrs M. E. White, Ph.D., 1929- Clerical Assistant: Miss 8. Isaacson, 1924— * Seconded for service with the British, Australian, New Zealand Antarctic Expedition, August, 1929. Vili LIST OF PERSONNEL MARINE EXECUTIVE STAFF (Principal Officers only) Comdr. W. M. Carey, R.N. (Retd.), Executive officer in command. Captain R.R.S. ‘Discovery II’ 1929- Comdr. F. R. Stenhouse, D.S.O., O.B.E., D.S.C., R.N.R., Executive officer in command. Captain R.RS. ‘ Discovery’ 1923-1928 Lt.-Comdr. R. L. V. Shannon, R.N. (Retd.), Captain R.R.S. ‘William Scoresby’ 1927-— Lt-Comdr. G. M. Mercer, D.S.C., R.D., R.N.R., Captain R.R.S. ‘ William Scoresby’ 1925-1927 Lt.-Comdr. J. M. Chaplin, R.N., Second and Chief Officer R.R.S. ‘Discovery’ 1925-1927; detached for survey duties 1928— Lt.-Comdr. J. C. C. Irving, R.N. (Retd.), Chief Officer R.R.S. ‘Discovery II’ 1929- C. A. Milward, Chief Officer R.R.S. ‘William Scoresby’ 1929- A. Irving, Chief Officer R.R.S. ‘William Scoresby’ 1926-1927 Lieut. A. L. Nelson, R.N.R., Second Officer R.R.S. ‘Discovery II’ 1929- T. W. Goodchild, Third and Second Officer R.R.S. ‘Discovery’ 1925-1928 J. G. Bowers, Second Officer R.R.S. ‘William Scoresby’ 1929- Lieut. M. C. Lester, R.N.R., Second Officer R.R.S. ‘William Scoresby’ 1926-1927 ; Chief Officer 1928— 1929 Lieut. R. A. B. Ardley, R.N.R., Third Officer ‘Discovery II’ 1929- Lieut. C. Sanderson, R.N. (Retd.), Third Officer R.R.S. ‘Discovery’ 1926-1927 F. E. C. Davies, Acting Second and First Officer R.R.S. ‘William Scoresby’ 1927-1929; Fourth Officer R.R.S. “Discovery II’ 1929- W. P. O’Connor, Assistant for survey duties 1928— Eng. Lieut.-Comdr. W. A. Horton, R.N. (Retd.), Principal Marine Engineer. Chief Engineer R.R.S. ‘Discovery’ 1925-1927; R.R.S. ‘Discovery II’ 1929- Eng. Lieut. D. Roy, R.N. (Retd.), Chief Engineer R.R.S. ‘William Scoresby’ 1927— J. W. Ridley, Chief Engineer R.RS. ‘William Scoresby’ 1926-1927 A.N. Porteous, Second’Engineer R.R.S. ‘ Discovery’ 1925-1927; Second Engineer R.R.S. ‘ Discovery IL’ 1929- G. S. Hunter, R.N. (Retd.), Second Engineer R.R.S. ‘William Scoresby’ 1927— G. Brabender, Second Engineer R.R.S. ‘William Scoresby’ 1926-1927 R. Gourlay, Artificer-Engineer R.R.S. ‘Discovery’ 1925-1927; Third Engineer R.R.S. ‘ Discovery II’ 1929- E. H. Marshall, D.S.O., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., Surgeon 1924- DIOCOVERY - REPORTS Issued by the Discovery Committee, Colonial Office, London on behalf of the Government of the Dependencies of the Falkland Islands Vol. I, pp. i-xiii TITLE-PAGE, LIST OF CONTENTS LIST OF PERSONNEL, AND PREFACE Peers? a Ts, fp if ( G8 Sis e ROT OSG te CAMBRIDGE AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS 1929 Price one shilling and sixpence net 7 ; i ¢ / ; 7 7 7 7” > z ’ a a DISCOVERY REPORTS VOLUME I Cambridge University Press Fetter Lane, London New York Bombay, Calcutta, Madras Toronto Macmillan Tokyo Maruzen Company, Ltd All rights reserved Je iol dd eau CdD HALING operations by modern methods began in the Dependen- cies of the Falkland Islands in 1904 and rapidly developed. By 1g12-13 the number of the small steamships known as whale catchers which were employed had risen to twenty-one in South Georgia, and thirty-two in the South Shetlands. The whaling industry in the Dependencies had become the largest in the world, a position which it still retains. From Igog—1o to 1917-18, over three million barrels of whale oil were produced, valued at over £20,000,000. In the ensuing years the industry underwent a remarkable development, and in the single season 1928-29 the output was 1,047,000 barrels valued at £5,513,000. Almost from the beginning the Government of the Falkland Islands exercised control over the industry by means of a system of leases and licenses, which was given legal form in the Whale Fishery Ordinance, 1908. The primary object of such control was to regulate the use of Crown lands, harbours and territorial waters by the whalers. It was not long, however, before there were complaints that the whalers utilised only the blubber and abandoned the remainder of the carcases. As the industry grew, apprehensions were expressed that such intensive pursuit threatened the maintenance of the stock of whales. These apprehensions were strongly reinforced by the lessons of whaling history, which abounds in examples of the destruction of whaling industries in particular localities through over-fishing. Accordingly the Colonial Government sought to employ its control to effect the prevention of waste and the protection of the stock of whales. The first problem, that of the prevention of waste, at that time presented no difficulties except those of enforcement and of reasonable adaptation to commercial possibilities and requirements, and waste was in fact reduced within narrow limits during a long period. But there has now developed a type of whaling not amenable to control, to which reference is made below. When the Colonial Government approached the second problem, that of the protection of the stock, it soon became evident that the biological know- ledge required for scientific control was almost totally lacking and could not be acquired except by means of costly and prolonged investigations conceived on broad lines. Existing knowledge of the specific differences of whales was not inconsiderable, but was inadequate in important respects; in particular & PREFACE the question whether southern Blue and Fin whales were distinguishable from the northern forms was still unsettled. Very little was certainly known about the breeding habits, migrations, rate of growth, length of life or food of the whales hunted in the Dependencies. No indication could be given regarding the probable amount of the annual increase of a particular species, and consequently it was impossible to estimate the number of whales which might be taken annually without diminishing the stock. It was clear that no really scientific solution of the problem could be obtained for many years. In the meantime the Colonial Government could only have recourse to an empirical restriction of the pursuit of whales, based on the statistics of catch and the opinions of scientific men and practical whalers, and exercised mainly by means of a limitation of the number of licensed whale catchers, and to some extent by prohibition of the hunting of species which seemed especially endangered. Before the War the question of the researches required to place control on a scientific footing began to engage attention, and as a preliminary step the late Major G. E. H. Barrett-Hamilton was employed during the Southern summer of 1913-14 to make anatomical investigations of the carcases of whales at the whaling stations in South Georgia. Major Barrett-Hamilton died at his post, and nothing further could be done until near the conclusion of the War. A Committee, the Inter-Departmental Committee on Research and Develop- ment in the Dependencies of the Falkland Islands, was then appointed to consider not only the preservation of the whaling industry, but also other industries actual or potential, and in particular a scheme for the employment of a research vessel mainly in the study of whales. The Committee’s report was published in 1920, and the Discovery investigations are the outcome of that report. In the study of Blue and Fin whales considerable progress has already been made, and though the age which these species attain is still a matter of con- jecture, the principal features of their life history up to sexual maturity have been ascertained, while measures have been taken to decide whether the northern and southern stocks are specifically or racially distinguishable. These investigations are obviously essential to the enquiry, and there are others no less important. The industry in the South Atlantic suffers from marked annual fluctuations: these are bound up with the extensive migrations which the whales are known to undertake and, it may safely be assumed, are governed by alterations in the food supply and other factors in their en- PREFACE x1 vironment. To trace the reasons for these fluctuations is a fundamental part of the work. It involves a study of the migrations of whales, of their food, and of the conditions which affect its abundance; a study of the minute plants on which all animal life in the sea, including whale life, ultimately depends; and a study of the physical constitution and movements of the water. Such investigations will undoubtedly have as much importance in enquiries into southern whaling as they have been shown to possess in northern fishery problems. They all converge upon the central problem of estimating the number of whales of each species which may be taken annually without depleting the stock. Meanwhile changes have occurred in the conduct of the industry which have materially affected the administrative position. Until the last few years whaling could not be carried on without the use of harbours and territorial waters. Control by the Colonial Government was thus made feasible and was in fact effectual. The whaling companies have now, however, introduced methods which enable the utilisation of whales to be carried on in the open sea without the use of territorial waters. This kind of whaling is commonly described as pelagic whaling, and is carried out upon a scale already large and still increasing. Such whaling is of course beyond the jurisdiction of the Colonial Government, and the natural effect of its growth is that the problem of the control of whaling in the Dependencies has outgrown the sphere of the local Government and entered that of international affairs. ‘The need for the information which the investigations seek to obtain has not been diminished, but has indeed increased proportionately with the increased destruction of whales. It should be realised, however, that the machinery of international agreement is much more cumbrous than that of action by the local Govern- ment, and that the difficulties of utilising the results obtained will be corre- spondingly augmented. The Discovery investigations are concerned not only with whaling, but, so far as their resources permit, with all economic questions arising in the Dependencies. Apart from whaling, the principal subjects in which work is being carried on are those of marine survey, sealing and fisheries. In the immense area of the Dependencies there is an enormous amount of marine survey work remaining to be done, and such work is being undertaken as far as the means at the Committee’s disposal allow. At present the more active work of this department is confined to South Georgia, but visits have already been made to the South Shetlands and work has been begun in that area. ‘The xii PREFACE | records of marine casualties emphasize the need for such work and the regions at present under survey are those which are of particular importance for the navigation of whaling vessels. In regard to sealing, work is being done upon the fur-seal rookeries of the Falkland Islands, and the stocks of elephant-seals in South Georgia. The former now promise well for the future, and the latter are under conservative management and have been the subject of a profitable industry for a number of years, Some preliminary work has been done on fisheries, but no ground of special promise has yet been discovered. The main objects of the investigation are economic and it is to the econo- mic aspect of the work that the energies of the scientific staff are primarily directed. But the wide scope of the enquiry affords opportunity for many observations whose value, in the present state of our knowledge, would seem to be purely scientific. Such work, undertaken without ulterior motive, has in the past often yielded results of the highest economic importance, and has therefore been given a place in the general plan of operations; it is undertaken, however, only when it involves no interference with the economic programme. The Committee is indebted to a number of specialists in different branches of marine science for assistance in the preparation of results, and their papers, some of which will be of purely scientific interest, will be published with the others. It may be added that many of the reports which follow are records of work still in progress, and that in some cases they may need modification in the light of further experience. ROWLAND DARNLEY January 1930 CORRIGEN DA p- 9, St. 9, Depth 1000 m., S °/,,, for 34:29 read 34°47 Depth 1000 m., ot, for 27°37 read 27°52 p. 31, St. 96, N70 V, Time, Hauled, for 0845 read 1015 Pp. 35, St. 102, N roo H, 52 m., Time, Hauled, for 1324 read 1317 N 100 H, 104 m., Time, Hauled, for 1325 read 1317 p. 39, St. 117, N 100 H, Depth for 90(-o) read 99(-0) p. 41, St. 124, Depth 20 m., ot, for 27:04 read 27:06 p- 41, St. 125, Depth 100 m., ot, for 27°32 read 27:34 p- 43, St. 129, Depth 400 m., ot, for 27°70 read 27:63 Depth 600 m., ot, for 27°78 read 27°71 p- 45, St. 135, Depth 140 m., Temp., for 0-22 read — 0:22 p- 45, St. 136, Depth 210 m., ot, for 27°65 read 27°59 p. 49, St. 149, OTL, etc., Time, Hauled, for 1158 read 1128 St. 150, Gear, for N 70 H read N 100 H p. 51, St. 160, Depth 50 m., ot, for 26:95 read 26:97 p. 57, St. 190, N 70 V, Depth, for 100-0 read 100-50 p- 59, St. 194, Depth 300 m., ot, for 27°77 read 27°73 p. 62, St. 200, Hour, for 1455 read 1445 p. 81, for St. 256 TYF 250(-o) read St. 257 TYF 250(-o) p. 83, St. 265, for N 50 V 50-0, etc., read N 70 V 50-0, etc. p. 85, St. 265, for N 70 H 500-250, etc., read N 70 V 500-250, etc. St. 269, Gear, for TYF read N 450 p. 93, St. WS 8, Gear N 70 H, Depth, for 87 read 50 for 174 read 100 p- 95, St. WS 16, N 100 H, Depth 90 m., Time, Hauled, for 2122 read 2222 St. WS 20, N 70 V, Time, Hauled, for o915 read 1015 p. 99, St. WS 29, N50 V, Time, Shot, for 1315 read 1350 St. WS 30, Depth 100m., S °/,,, for 34:95 read 33°95 p. 1o1, St. WS 35, Depth, for 105 read 145 p. 107, St. WS 46, N 100 H, Depth, for 143 read 146 p. 108, St. W S 61, Position, for 53° 37’ 30” S read 52° 37’ 30” S p. 109, St. WS 54, Depth, for 600 read 500 St. WS 58, N 100 H, Depth, for 100 read 56 for 200 read 112 p. 110, St. WS 61, Position, for 53° 37’ 30” S read 52° 37’ 30" S p. 117, St. WS 95, DC, Time, Hauled, for 0522 read 0532 p. 119, St. WS 103, N 70 V, Time, Hauled, for 2315 read 2305 Pl. I, Longitude, on upper edge of Plate, for 15° E read 10° E for 20° E read 15° E Doubtful values: p. 61, St. 198, Depth 1500 m., S °/,, value 34:87 too high ot value 28-09 too high p. 63, St. 199, Depth 700 m., S °/,, value 35-01 too high ot value 28-18 too high p. 111, St. WS 61, Depth 2000 m., S °/,, value 34°47 too low ot value 27°66 too low ADDENDUM p. 51, St. 164, BTC, NCS-T, 24-36 m. A second haul made in same depth, 1200-1215 DISCOVERY REPORTS Vol. I, pp. 1-140, plates I-VI Issued by the Discovery Committee, Colonial Office, London on behalf of the Government of the Dependencies of the Falkland Islands SPATION DIS? 1925-1927 ae MET ig BC SY ) GAR 4: 18oU ej se c nee 7 ION aL muse Regen oS ITS ony CAMBRIDGE AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS 1929 Price Fourteen Shillings net [Discovery Reports. Vol. I, pp. 1-140, Plates I-VI, Fanuary, 1929] DisCOvEkRY INVESTIGATIONS See LON, LSE 1925-1927 CONTENTS INTRODUCTION ; : : : : ; . . page 3 R.R.S. ‘DISCOVERY ’, STATIONS I-299 . : : : ; 6 R.S.S. ‘WILLIAM SCORESBY ’, STATIONS WS I-136. : : : g2 MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION, SOUTH GEORGIA, STATIONS MS 1-82 132 SUMMARISED LIST OF STATIONS . : : 139 PLATES I-VI. : ; : : , ; . following page 140 > : , 5. { ¢ . . f - a é : i \ — Z » - af hs = i ‘ i = 7 + _ PRINTED So AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, CAMBRIDGE DESCOVERY INVESTIGATIONS > FAR LON Lis Tr 1925-1927 (Plates I—VI) EN PRODUC ETON si Bes following lists contain particulars of all stations made by the R.R.S. ‘ Discovery’, the R.S.S.‘ William Scoresby’ and by the staff of the Marine Biological Station at South Georgia up to the end of September 1927. Stations made by the ‘ Discovery’ are entered first and have no letters prefixed to the numbers. Those of the ‘William Scoresby’ follow (pp. 92-131) and are distinguished as WS 1, WS 2, etc. Finally (pp. 132-137) those of the Marine Biological Station are given, numbered MS 1, MS 2, etc. Positions are given either in latitude and longitude or as true bearings of some fixed point on land. The abbreviations used in denoting the nature of the bottom are: - blk. black g. gravel rad. radiolarian br. brown gl. globigerina rd. red c. coarse gn. green s. sand cl. clay gy. grey sft. soft crl. coralline h. hard sh. shells d. dark m. mud spk. specks di. diatom 0z. ooze st. stones f. fine r. rock w. white ~ placed above the figure for the sounding indicates that bottom was not reached. The directions of wind, sea and swell are true bearings and with the two first the force is expressed in terms of Beaufort’s scale. Weather is indicated by Beaufort’s symbols. Barometer readings are corrected for latitude and temperature. The air temperature was read in degrees Fahrenheit and is here converted to Centigrade. The age of the moon is expressed in days: the phases new moon, first quarter, full moon and last quarter are thus represented respectively by the numbers 1, 8, 15 and 22. In the chemical observations all temperatures are fully corrected. Salinity (S °/,.) was determined by the chemical estimation of the chlorine content. Density (co?) is calculated from the corrected readings for temperature and salinity. Estimation of the hydrogen-ion concentration (pH) was made by the colorimetric method, phenol red and thymol blue being used as indicators. Phosphate content was determined by Atkins’ method. The following symbols are used for nets, apparatus, etc.: B Oblique. BTS Small beam trawl. Beam 8 ft. in length (2:45 m.): mesh at cod-end } in. (12-5 mm.)*. 1DXC Conical dredge. Mouth 16 in. in diameter (40-5 cm.), with canvas bag. * All measurements are taken from knot to knot along one side of the mesh, not diagonally with the mesh stretched. Depth gauge, Admiralty pattern. Depth gauge, Budenberg pattern. Depth gauge, reversing thermometer type. Large dredge. Light pattern, 4 ft. in length (1-2 m.). Large dredge. Heavy pattern, 4 ft. in length (1-2 m.). Horizontal. Hand harpoon. Kelvin tube. Hand lines. Nets with mesh of 4 mm. or 7 mm. (0°16 in. or 0-28 in.) attached to back of trawl. 50cm. tow-net. Mouth circular, 50cm. in diameter (19-5 in.) : 200 meshes to the linear inch. 70 cm. tow-net. Mouth circular, 70 cm. in diameter (27:5 in.): mesh graded, at cod-end 74 to the linear inch. I m. tow-net. Mouth circular, 1 m. in diameter (3-3 ft.): mesh graded, at cod-end 16 to the linear inch. From July 1, 1927, this net was replaced by another, of similar pattern, but with the cod-end made of stramin with 11-12 meshes to the linear inch. 2m. tow-net. Mouth circular, 2 m. in diameter (6:6 ft.): mesh graded, at cod-end 4 mm, (0-16 in.). 44 m. tow-net. Mouth circular, 44 m. in diameter (14:8 ft.): mesh graded, at cod-end 7 mm, (0:28 in.). Coarse 50 cm. tow-net. Mouth circular, 50 cm. in diameter (19:5 in.): 25 meshes to the linear inch. Tow-net of coarse silk, with 16 meshes to the linear inch, attached to dredge, trawl, or other net. Hand net. High-speed tow-net. Mouth 3 in. in diameter (7-5 cm.): mesh 74 to the linear inch. Large rectangular net. Frame 8 ft. long and 2} ft. wide (2:45 m. x 0-7 m.) with bag of $ in. mesh (12°5 mm.). Medium rectangular net. Frame 4 ft. long and 1} ft. wide (1-22 m. x 0-38 m.), with bag of 7 mm. mesh (0:28 in.). Small rectangular net. Frame 3 ft. long and 1 ft. wide (0-9 m. x 0-3 m.), with bag of 4 mm. mesh (0°16 in.). Seine net. Length 30 fathoms (55 m.): mesh at cod-end r4 in. (3-8 cm.). Commercial otter trawl. Head rope 80 ft. long (24:5 m.): mesh at cod-end 1} in. (3°8 cm.). Large otter trawl. Head rope 40 ft. long (12:2 m.): mesh at cod-end 1} in. (3:2 cm.). Medium otter trawl. Head rope 30 ft. long (9-14 m.): mesh at cod-end 1} in. (3-2 cm.). Mussel rake. Sondeur Léger. Baillie Sounding Rod. Sounding rod, Nansen-Ekman type. ‘Transparency (or Secchi) disc, 50 cm. in diameter (19:5 in.). Large gauze fish-trap. Cylindrical, 3 ft. long and 1 ft. in diameter (0-9 m. x 0-3 m.): gauze with 8 meshes to linear inch. Medium gauze fish-trap. Cylindrical, 1} feet long and 6 in. in diameter (45 cm. x 15 cm.): gauze with 16 meshes to linear inch. Small gauze fish-trap. Cylindrical, 9 in. long and 3 in. in diameter (23 cm. x 7°5 cm.): gauze with 34 meshes to linear inch. * In some early labels this net is incorrectly referred to as “N75.” 4 TNL Large fish-trap. Rectangular, 4 ft. by 4 ft. by 2} ft. (1-2 m. x 1:2 m. x 0-75 m.), with netting or wire of + in. mesh (12-5 mm.). TYE Young-fish trawl. Mouth about 20 ft. in circumference (6 m.): bag of stramin with 11 to 12 meshes to linear inch. Fished until July 1926, with poles and otter-boards, thereafter attached to a circular tow-net frame 2 m. in diameter (6:6 ft.). W Vertical. Unless specially noted to the contrary (by the addition of V) nets N 200 and N 450 were towed horizontally. To the symbols for smaller tow-nets (N 100, N 70, N 50, NC 50) B, H or V is always added to indicate the direction in which the haul was taken. Vertical nets were hauled at 1 m. per second and, unless the haul ended at the surface, were closed by the Nansen method. Oblique nets were hauled as soon as shot at a speed of 10 m. per minute, with the ship moving at about 2 knots. Horizontal nets were shot open, but except for surface work were very frequently closed on the Nansen principle before being hauled. When no addition is made to the figures in the depth column, it is always to be understood that the tow-net or young-fish trawl was closed before hauling; but when such an expression as (— 0) or (— 50) follows the figure for depth, it is implied that the net, though fishing for the time indicated at the major depth, was hauled open to the surface or to a higher level. Plankton nets catch practically nothing while being shot: if closed before hauling there is good reason to believe that all the organisms were caught at the indicated depth. When, however, the net is hauled open to a higher level there is less certainty of this; for though it may have been towed for a considerable time at the greater depth, some organisms will have been caught during its upward passage. When, at a single station, a number of similar hauls was made with the same type of net, the hauls are distinguished by letters which are entered in the ‘‘ Remarks” column. For determining the levels at which horizontal nets were towed and from which oblique nets were hauled, Kelvin tubes or depth gauges were constantly employed. A symbol indicating the type of gauge will be found in the “Remarks” column, and if no such symbol occurs it is to be understood that the depth was estimated. Times are expressed on the 24-hour system, the day ending with midnight (0000). The entry under “shot”’ states the time when all the warp was paid out. That under “hauled” either gives the time when hauling began, or, with closing nets, the time when the messenger was estimated to have arrived. When series of vertical nets were taken, only the times for the beginning and end of the series are given. The times given are “ship’s time,” corresponding nearly with local mean time. In order to distinguish hauls which were made when it was dark, those times which fall between sunset and sunrise are printed in heavy type. Length of tow was measured by the ship’s log, by time and estimated speed, or by differences in observed positions. At the end of the lists (p. 138) will be found a summary of the stations made by the ‘Discovery’ and ‘ William Scoresby’ with references to the charts on which the positions are marked. A chart of South Georgia is added, on which the names of all places mentioned in the list of MS stations will be found. 5 Station 8 9 Position Clarence Bay, Ascension I, Fibs) 15 Sy WA 25 u000 a Clarence Bay, Ascension I, Catherine’s Pt and Collyer Pt 29° 31 06S, 13° 56’ 45” W Tristan da Cunha, 36° 55’ 00" S, 12° 12’ 00” W Tristan da Cunha, Quest Bay Tristan da Cunha, 3 miles N 30° E of Settlement 39° 24’ 30” S, 12° 08’ 00” W 42° 36’ 30" S, 18° 19’ 30” W 46° 11’ 30” S, 22° 27’ 30” W Date 3 il 8 ii II li Hour 1030 1200 1600 2000 R.R.S. Discovery Sounding (metres) 20 7-12 8.0. 80-140 r. 3200 gl. oz. WIND Direction WSW WSW WNW NW NW SEA o 5 Direction em 4 SE 3 SE 3 ENE 4 | NNW 5 conf. 6-7| WSW 6-7 = 2 | WSW 3 | WSW 3 | WSW 4 | WNW 4 NW 4 NW NW 3 NW oe ot Be » | Weather Es HO 8 Bg | ye é ge a 3 DakC=n | )LOL3 "2h e22850 2) || lee @s |/iehye)|| 25k 3 iI) bees) ||t0233)|| 20:0 4 | b.c. |rorg-4] 15-6 4 | b.c. |10rg-0| 16-7 6 |b.c.g.|1o14:8| 16-1 Oo bsca |) LOn6-0)| e167 AN) b-ichys | or'7=54|eenO:7 2 oO. 1016-7 | 12:2 3 Oo 1o16-1}] III 4 onm>) ||roonen | erie7 4 oO. 998-2} 111 4 | b.c. | 1000-5] 10:6 3 }0.m.p.] 1009-3] 4:4 2 || b.c | 1009-3] 7:8 Remarks mod. S swell mod. S swell mod. E swell mod. S swell mod. conf. swell heavy conf. swell heavy NW swell v. heavy SW swell ” v. heavy conf, swell ” mod. NW swell Depth (metres) Age of moon (days) R.R.S. HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS P.O, Temp. ° ped oi Gent Sizes ot pH Boe 10°85 | 34°83 | 26°59 | 8-22 | 95 2°65 | 34°74 | 27°74 | 8:14 | 125 bf 4°78 | 34:09 | 26:99 | 8-24 | 112 Discovery BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS N 200 N 100 H »” N 200 N 70 V » N 200 N 450 N 100 H Depth 600-700 0-10 ) 1500-1700 50-0 100-50 250-100 1250(-0) 3500(-0) O-5 TIME Shot |Hauled 1630 1130 | 1330 1000 | [100 1400 | 1423 1600 | 1620 1750 | 1855 2215 | ogoo 1430 | 1000 1500 | 1630 1315 | 1330 1410 | 1550 1520 | 1540 1615 | 1625 IgIO | 2123 0730 — | 0800 1137 | 1445 1137 | 1530 1206 | 1221 1-9 Lees Remarks of tow (miles) 2 DGB A B 30-31 i 1926 — | 301-1 ii 1926 several short hauls in- side Macrocystis belt — | dredge hitched 3 DGB ny 1 4 32 | DGB 44 DGB 44 | net partially lost 4 R.R.S. Discovery WIND SEA oo roy § ae eg | Be = Position Date | Hour (eneteesye 5 » | Weather 6a BS Remarks 7 Direction 5 Direction 5 a& Ac ea ez 1926 ; ai OW 46n 014309. 22 727.30, Winer cont 10 | 46° 35’ 00" S, 24°15’ 30” W | 131i | 1400] 4402 rad. oz. 1600 — SW 4 SW 5 oO. |1025'1] 6-1 11 | 50° 26’ 00” S, 30° 27’00” W_ | 16ii | 1000] 5000 rad. oz. 1200 — WNW | 4 | WNW | 4 0. |1005°6] 6-1 12 | 51° 55’ 00"S, 32°27’ 30” W | 18ii |1300] 2744 di. oz. | 1600 — — |o-z — Co) b. |10r14:0| 5:2 |v. heavy Wy swell I — ° b. Iol6:1| — Ny 2000 = = R.R.S. Discovery 9—12 HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS an | | | ER | | Remarks Depth Temp. ie 2 Depth eae Yl eee (metres) Cent. p.m.’ - pl. (metres) Shot |Hauled |} (miles) Age of moon 50-0 100-50 250-100 500-250 - 1615 — net slightly torn 1200-1500 2100 | 1°5 12—17 R.R.S. Discovery WIND Sounding) | aaeea | unn ne | VV.eather. Position (metres) Direction Direction 13 |5-7 miles N 493° E of Jason] 3 iii |0930 143 Lt, S Georgia gy. m. 1200 — SE 14 | 15-4 miles N 443° E of Jason] 3 iii | 1250 260 Lt, S Georgia gy. m. 15 |25 miles N 453° E of Jason| 3 iii | 1605 IgI Lt, S Georgia gy.m. 16 | 36:5 miles N 46° E of Jason] 3 iii Lt, S Georgia 17 | 46 miles N 46° E of Jason Lt,] 4 iii |oo00| 1950 S Georgia di. oz. st. Barometer (millibars) eke 998-2 2°2 Loa) Remarks Ps mod. NW swell mod. NW swell R.R.S. Discovery HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS Age of moon (days) (metres) 500 1°85 600 1°87 1100 1°58 1600 1:08 2000 0°63 2600 0°47 18 fo) 3700 5 gree: 10 3700 20 2°82 30 2:80 40 2°80 Do 2°77 ) 2°67 100 2°25 135 2°22 18 fo) 3°01 5 Seu 10 3°00 20 3700 30 2°96 40 2°96 50 2°90 75 Or 100 0:67 150 0-72 200 112 250 1-62 18 ) 2°77 5 2:77 ie) 2°77 20 2°72 30 2°67 ape 2D 50 1°62 75 | 084 100 0-72 140 0°64 MHC? 18 fo) 2°72 5 21: 10 2°72 20 2°72 30 2°67 40 2°64 50 2°63 75 OWE 100 0°42 150 0°64 200 1°41 300 1°88 400 2°04 500 0°50 2°03 2°62 5 2°62 2°62 Depth | Temp. Cent. ot 27°76 27°79 27°82 27°85 27°86 26°62 26°62 26°62 26°65 26-72 26°75 26°79 26°85 26:89 26-90 26-98 26°95 26°95 26°95 26°96 26°96 26°95 27°07 27°15 27°24. 27°32 27°40 26°97 26:90 26:90 26°88 26°92 26°86 26°93 27°04 27°08 27°11 26°97 26:97 26°93 26°93 26-98 27°00 27°01 27°15 27°23 27°25 27°35 27°40 27°47 27°58 26:97 P.O; pH |mgm. 3 p-m. Il Depth (metres) 50-0 100-50 135-100 130-0 50-0 100-50 250-100 100-0 250-100 50-0 100-50 IgO-100 50-0 100-50 185-100 50-0 100-50 250-100 500-250 700-500 50-0 100-50 500-100 100-50 TIME Length of tow Shot 1250 1605 1905 Hauled | (miles) 0950 1005 1305 1630 2045 2000 12-17 Remarks 17—21 R.R.S. Discovery WIND SEA se og : i Sa eee 23 Position aa 2 i: 9 Weather fe Remarks Direction] % | Direction} § ae ca eg 46 miles N 46° E of Jason Lt, S Georgia 18 | 4:8 miles N 34° E of C Saunders, S Georgia SW 3 SW Bybee mod. NW swell to miles N 39° E of C Saunders, 5 Georgia 14°6 miles N 41° E of C Saunders, 5 Georgia SW 2 SW 2 bc: mod. NW swell 20°5 miles N 44° E of C Saunders, S Georgia I2 | Station 19 20 21 Depth (metres) Age of moon (days) 19 ) 19 ) 19 fo) 100 150 200 R.R.S. Discovery HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS P.O; mgm. p.m.* 0. 2 ce, p.l. BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS Depth (metres) 500-250 Tole O° 50-0 100-50 500-100 50-0 100-50 135-100 135-0 50-0 135 moo 50-0 100-50 190-100 190-0 50-0 100-50 IQO-100 50-0 100-50 200-100 200-0 50-0 100-50 200-100 13 TIME Shot |Hauled Length of tow (miles) 17—21 Remarks 22—31 R.R.S. Discovery WIND SEA te] & ew, Bie) ae Position Date | Hour ee ny » |Weather Bs BO Remarks Direction 5 Direction = aF& Be cs ca ako. sa lool en 12 miles N 224° E of Jason Lt, | 4 iii — W 5 SW 5) |]) bate.) || 20x6;6)) 92:8 S Georgia 5:3 miles N 44° E of Merton] 14 iii 228 — |= = fo) c. 9820] 5:0 |v. heavy NW swell Rock, 5 Georgia gn. m. to miles N 72° E of Jason Lt, } 14 iii _ NW 5 NW 5 | b.c. | 984:9] 5:0 |v. heavy NW swell S Georgia 18 miles N 60° E of Jason Lt, | 14 iii — NW 5 NW 5 b.c. | 987-7] 5:5 |v. heavy NW swell S Georgia 26°5 miles N 54° Eof Jason Lt,] 14 iii S Georgia W Cumberland Bay, S 15 iii | 1200 — NW | 4 | NW | 4 Jo.f.g.} 987-3] 2:2 |v. heavy NW swell Georgia; 3:3 miles S 44° E 1230] 110 m.r. of Jason Lt W Cumberland Bay, 5 16 ili} 1050] 65 m. Georgia; 3:3 miles S 45° W r150| 168m. of Jason Lt 1200 — NNW | 3 — || lees |) GyFRO|| Cp W Cumberland Bay, S 16 ii | 1330] 23m. st.| NW 3 NW A || leo || Cy7Fol| Ger Georgia; 5:9 miles S 51° W of Jason Lt W Cumberland Bay, S 16 ili | 1450 | 251 m.st. Georgia; 2:8 miles S 24° W 1600 SW 7 SW 2.5 Wbacxqs|(98452)|)8-3 of Jason Lt 13°5 miles N 89° E of Jason] 17 iii | 1750 220 | Lt, S Georgia 2000] gn.m. SE 6 SE 5 | 0.g. | 963:°3] 3:9 | heavy conf, swell 14 Station 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 R.R.S. Discovery g HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS Eg os p PO;| 6, ee cecaiteces, |S ea) 2 | eH mam) ce. uy) I ° 2°67 | 33°80 | 26:98 | — — — 5 | 2°72 | 33°82 | 2699 | — | — | — 10 AOU || SEOUL | 2727) || = | = 20 2°52 | 33°91 || 27-08) | — || — — 30 2h 2033779) |20:95)| | ~ 40 | 2:38 | 33°84 | 27-03 | — | - = 50 | 2:32 | 33°89 | 27:07 75 2e2 233195 12a 1oo | 1°53. | 33°96 | 27°19 150 I-14 | 34°00 | 27-25 193 O94 | 34°04 | 27°29 I I 2 3 ) FO \\ SERCH || ZS) |) —— || = 5 2°56 | 32°84 | 26-23 10 2°85 | 33°60 | 26:81 15 3:00 | 33°62 | 26-81 20 2:84 | 33°66 | 26°85 30 | 2°84 | 33°74 | 26-92 49 | 2°74 | 33°74 | 26-93 3 fe) 278) |832°4C 25-86) — — = 5 2°65 | 33°12 | 26:44 10 2°78 | 33°66 | 26-86 15 | 2°83 | 33°75 | 27°93 20 2°83 | 33°73 | 27-91 8 fo) 2203) 9 |/032;081 (26:06) || == = 5 2:87 | 32°77 | 26-25°5) — | — | — 10 2°92 | 33°40 | 26°65 | — | — — 15 Px] || BHO || ASS || =) |) = = 20 28356387739 20:008]| le —- 30 2°82 | 33°78 | 26-95 40 | 282 | 33°77 | 26-93 50 | 2°72 | 33°77 | 26-94 75 | 2°57 | 33°78 | 26-97 100 2°39 | 33°82 | 27-02 150 1°67 | 33°84 | 27-08 200 0°92 | 34°00 | 27-26 4 fo) 3°02 | 33-71 | 26:88 | — | — — 5 | 3°02 | 33°73 | 2689} — | — | — 10 35020) 19335750 20:90)|/——— | — 205 92°949)(933:75) | 26792) |, — | —— | — 30 3°02 | 33°86 | 26:99 | — | — = 40 | 2°94 | 33°89 | 27-03 | — | — | — 50 2°50 | 33°88 | 27-06 | — | — = | 75 | 2°15 | 33°88 | 27-09 100 | 1°64 | 33°89 | 27°33 150 1°02 | 34°00 | 27:26 200 0°83 | 34:04 | 27-30 22-31 BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS R ks Goebel aes it Gnetres) lichen ||Ernicd | @nites) N 200 H 60(-o) 2020 | 2150 | 3 5 fe) 2030 | 2140 | 273 N70V 50-0 1215 s 100-50 - 190-100 N50 V 100-0 — 255 N 100 H 60(-o) 1305 | 1320 x fo) T3TOR |e: N 100 H 60(-o) 1600 | 1700 ” ° ” ” N roo H 60(-0) 1825 | 1935 ” 0-5 ” ” N 100 H 60(-o) 2045 | 2125 ” O-5 ” ” DL 110 1230 | 1255 | — | bag torn DC 168 II50 | 1205 DC 23 1345 | 1350 N70V 50-0 1500 “ 100-50 # 230-100 — 1600 DLH 251 1600 | 1610 | — | stop of bridle parted 3 251 1635 | 1645 N50 V 100-0 1755 N70 V 50-0 “ 100-50 6 220-100 — 1845 N 100 H O-5 1910 | 2045 3 » 50(-0) >» . 3 ” go(-o) ” ” 3 £5 32—41 40 41 Position 22°8 miles N 703° E of Jason Lt, S Georgia 33 miles N 37° E of Jason Lt, S Georgia 43 miles N 39° E of Jason Lt, S Georgia 53 miles N 4o° E of Jason Lt, S Georgia 38 miles N 39° E of Jason Lt, S Georgia 28 miles N 36° E of Jason Lt, S Georgia 18-5 miles N 33° E of Jason Lt, 5 Georgia E Cumberland Bay, S Georgia. From 8 cables S 81° W of Merton Rock to 1-3 miles N 7° E of Mac- mahon Rock 7 miles N 39° E of Barff Pt, S Georgia 163 miles N 39° E of Barff Pt, S Georgia 44 A | 164 miles N 39° E of Barff Pt, S Georgia. (Ship anchored by stern with kedge) R.R.S. Discovery WIND SEA Sounding (metres) : Direction SW SW SW SW SW 16 Direction Force I-2 Weather oO. b. Ss. C. Barometer (millibars) No} on “3 aN 984°8 989°1 993°6 MET] 992°0 995°7 988-5 IOIO'S Remarks v. heavy conf. swell heavy conf. swell heavy W swell v. heavy W swell v. heavy W swell v. heavy W swell heavy W swell slight N swell Station 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 41 A 41B 41C¢ Age of moon (days) > =n] |G nn Ieeenann nS Se ee Oe EE EEE EEE eee 12 6) HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS R.R.S. Discovery th : ° Be beac Gen ae S “loo gt pH pas ter ° 2°85 | 32°97 | 26:18 | — | — — 175 1:02 | 34:02 | 27-28 | — | — -— fe) 2°43 | 33°86 | 27-04 | 8-26 | — | 6-74 5 2°42 | 33°86 | 27-04 | 8-26 | — | 5:84 10 2°42. | 33°86 | 27-04 | 8-25 | — | 6°83 20 | 2-41 | 33°84 | 27°03 | 8:25 | — | 637 30 | 2-40 | 33°84 | 27:03 | 8:25 | — | 4-46 40 | 2°31 | 33°84 | 27:04 | 8:25 | — | 5:40 50 2°27 | 33°86 | 27:05 | 8-25 | — | 6°83 75 | 2:22 | 33°87 | 27°07 | 825 | — | 6-43 100 I-22 | 33:93 | 27:18 | 8:17 | — | 4:19 150 0-80 | 34:07 | 27-33 | 8:12 | — | 5:82 200 | 1°42 | 34°23 | 27-42 | 7:97 | — | 4°87 250 | 1°72 | 34°40 | 27°53 | 7°96 | — | 4°43 fo) 2:37 | 33°86 | 27-04 | 8-26 | 102 | — 5 2°42 | 33°86 | 27-04 | 8-25 | 111 | — $f) 2°42 | 33°84 | 27:03 | 8-25 | 128} — 20 2°42 | 33°84 | 27:03 | 8:25 | 128] — 30 2°40 | 33°85 | 27:04 | 8:25 | 131 | — 40 | 2:39 | 33°84 | 27-03 | 8-25 | 123 50 2 Bites §38°SOull| 217-05) || (6:25) || 023 75 2322) (833-870 ||| 27-07) ||| 6-26) ||| 128 BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS TIME Length of tow Gear Depth | Ie = 2H Shot |Hauled| (miles) (metres) N 100H O-5 2300 | 2358 ” 50(-0) ” ” N 100 H O-5 0945 | 1040 5 50(-0) 29 ‘» N 100 H o-5 1225 | 1335 » 50(-0) ” » N 100 H 0-5 1505 | 1620 ” 50(-0) ” »” N 100 H 0-5 2010 | 2150 : 50(-0) : ” N 100 H 0-5 0005 | 0120 WWWWWWW WWW WWW WD WD WW WD WH Ww Ww OTL | N4-T | 179-235 1445 | 1545 Ww N N 100 H o-5 1000 | 1018 ” 50(-0) ” ” 0 go(—o) r ¥» N 100 H o-5 TLI2 |) 1135 » 50(-0) %9 » 0» go(-o) Y» » N 70 V 50-0 1300 5 100-50 6 150-100 » 265-150 | — | 1345 a ee me Oe N70 V 50-0 1540 5 100-50 150-100 55 265-150 —- 1605 N 200 V 50-0 1500 3 100-50 150-100 » 265-150 | — | 1545 N50 V | 250-0 1715 | 1730 N70 V 50-0 1700 a 100-50 mn 150-100 240-150 — | 1728 32—41 Remarks DGA net slipped to end of warp af 41 Cc cont. 41D 41E 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 Position 164 miles N 39° E of Barff Pt, S Georgia. (Ship anchored by stern with kedge) Off mouth of Cumberland Bay, S Georgia. From 6:3 miles N 89° E of Jason Lt to 4 miles N 39° E of Jason Lt 15 miles N 58° E of Jason Lt, S Georgia 32 miles N 51° E of Jason Lt, S Georgia 2°7 miles S 85° E of Jason Lt, S Georgia 51° 13’ 00” S, 49° 50’ 00” W 50° 55’ 00" S, 54° 38’ 00” W 8:3 miles N 53° E of William Pt Beacon, Port William, Falkland I 13°5 miles N 51° Eof C Bou- gainville, E Falkland I 2°3 miles S 80° E of Eddystone Rock, E Falkland I Off Eddystone Rock, E Falk- land I. From 7 miles N 50° E to 7-6 miles N 63° E of Eddystone Rock Port William, E Falkland I, 74 cables N 17° E of Navy Pt R.R.S. Discovery SEA Sounding }—— (metres) , , ; Direction Direction Force Weather Remarks Barometer (millibars) NW SE NE WNW WNW 105 s. sh. NE 115s. sh. 450) Seal O. tT. N swell rising heavy N swell mod. E swell mod. NW swell mod. NW swell heavy NW swell mod. SSE swell slight eqn” swell slight s\ UL mod. conf. : well R.R.S. Discovery 41—52 § HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS 3 R k os emarks = Depth | Temp. ° P,Os O, Depth Tee Length ec) NiGnetres)l| 9 Gant Sitise ot pH |mgm. cecal Gear (GGeS) eo es of tow s p-m.* aD Shot |Hauled | (miles) 100 T°I2 | 33°93 | 27°19 | 8x7 | 197? 150 | 0°77 | 34°07 | 27°33 | 811 | 138 200 1°37 | 34°23 | 27°42 | 7°97 | 138 250 1:76 | 34°38 | 27°52 | 7-96 | 183? N 70 V 50-0 1910 _ 100-50 “s 150-100 ” 240-150 —* 1955 N 200 V 50-0 1900 5 100-50 Bs 150-100 . 240-150 — | 2030 — fo) 2°42 | 33°78 | 26:99 | 8-20 | — | 5:82 N 70 V 50-0 2105 5 2°42) |33°78 | 26:99) ||| 8:24. || —— ||| 16:13 . 100-50 sf) 2°42 | 33°83 | 26:99 | 8:25 | — | 4°82 a 150-100 20 2 A2na| 37045 (2720388725) | |95 393 4 250-150 — | 2140 30 2-AT |B BR04) 27203) .6:25) |e | 0207, 40 2°34 | 33°84 | 27°03 || 8:25 | — | 6:22 50 Pras || Beeld || Ay Hey || ROG || —— || Gaye 75| 195 | 33°87 | 27°09 | 8:25 | — | 6:03 100 E029) |833:05) [27222 |ss22) | ——) (5204: 150 | 0°72 | 34°07 | 27°34 | 7°98 | — | 5°38 200 1°38 | 34:23 | 27-42 | 7-97 | — | 2°81 250 | 1°50 | 34°25 | 27°43 | 7°96 | — | 3°65 18 | 100 2°08 | 33°86 | 27:06 | — | — oo OTL | N7-T |; 120-204 | 1210 | 1310} 4:6 N 4-T | 20 - |N100H 0-5 1338 | 1445 | I » 75(-°) » Di), & : ss 150(-o) 55 +5 I KT 20 N 100 H 0-5 1855 | 2000 13 » 55(-0) » » 358 ” I 10(—-0) ” ” 13 ” 170(-0) ” » I°3 23 ) 2°55 | 33°82 | 27:05 | — | — — NH fo) 1135 260 1°37 | 34:22 | 27-40} — | — os OTL | Ble | 238-270 | 1155 | 1306] 4 NCS-T | 10 fo) BO || evigon || Adres || —= ||| — — |Nti1o0oH 0-5 2200 | 2215 12 fe) eats} || Sys || aeRs) || —= || == — |Ntio0oH 0-5 2200 | 2220 20 fo) TPA || gkko |) Aor) || == || — — OTL 105 FAR INBB TT |P2O45A =e | = Pe 105-115 | 1214 | 1317 | — _ | net very badly torn NCS-T 20 fo) WS B77) || Aor || —= || — — |Nti1o00H 0-5 2100 | 2120 21 ) 8:25, | 33°82 || 26:33, | — | — — |Ni100H 0-5 1050 | IIIS ” 50(-0) ” ” 21 fo) 8-1 33°80 | 26:33 | — | — — DLH 115 1320 | 1328 110 Ges ||| gearteyoy || Xopeye) | = || — — OTL ae SOEs || UES | Syed NCS-T 22 = LH 17 2100 19 53—68 Station 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 Position Port Stanley, E Falkland I. Hulk of ‘‘ Great Britain” Port Stanley, E Falkland I Entrance to Port Stanley, E Falkland JI, 2 cables S 24° E of Navy Pt Sparrow Cove, Port William, E Falkland I, 12 cables N 50° E of Sparrow Pt Port William. E Falkland I, 53 cables S 20° W of Sparrow Pt Port Stanley, E Falkland I 51° 22’ 00" S, 57° 20’ 00” W 50° 45/ 00” S, 56° Biay 00” W 50° 00’ 00" S, 55° 36’ 00” W 49° 22’ 00" S, 54° 48’ 00” W 48° 50’ 00” S, 53° 56’ 00” W 48° 34’ 00" S, 53° 34 30” W 48° 18’ 00” S, 53° 09’ 00” W 48° 09’ 00” S, 52° 50’ 00” W 47° 18’ 00” S, us Bey 00” W 46° 40’ 00" S, 51° 22’ 00” W Date 1926 12 V I5 Vv I6v 16 Vv 16 Vv 22V 22V 23V 23V R.R.S. Discovery Sounding (metres) 4136 gl. oz. WIND Direction SE x E NNW NNW ESE SE 20 Force “I Nv SEA Direction NW ESE SEE NNW NNW ESE SE Force Weather o.d.m. o.d.m. o.d.m. Barometer (millibars) IOIO'5 1006°1 1005°6 1009'2 1009'0 .| LO16'1 1017°6 1020°8 1022°2 1020°0 1018-7 - | 1000°0 . | 1009°0 Remarks heavy N swell heavy N swell heavy N swell mod. N swell mod. N swell mod. N swell mod. N swell { conf. swell R.R.S. Discovery 53—68 § HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS Eg SSS SSS ere os P.O: TIME ben th emarks g~ | Depth | Temp. S$ °/ ns H OA O, . Depth 8 res iG oo Pp mgm. G ——— | gy? . < | (metres) Cent. peas ce. pl cae (metres) Shot lHauled ane 2 RM 0-2 1400 | 1500 5 = Sh. coll. — 1500 6 fe) 5 OStle32: 99h 20:03) |e | — BTS || 10 Gay || seKAS) || Ade || =" |) == — | NCS-T |{ Hoa are || ashe 6 fe) 6:10) | 33°37 || 26:27 | — || — _— BTS |) 7 “ 16 | 6:34 | 33°69 | 2650] — | — | — | NCS-T J ZnSO! [1530 (1545 6 fo) ROS || sere || aornz || — || = _- BTS || 1 hom RAGRE 15 6-29 - - NCS-T || = 8 N 70 H o-I I510 | 1520 RM 1-2 1530 | 1535 | — | piles of Govt Jetty N 70 H O-5 1600 | 1610 9 N 100 H O-5 1645 | 1725 I ” 40(-0) ” ” I ” 75(-0) ” »” I 5 fe) — = N 100 H O-5 0317 | 0350 I ” 40(-0) ” ” I »” 75(-0) ’ ” I 10 N 100 H o-5 1220 | 1240 I 55(-0) * : I ” 95(-0) ” ’ I II N 100 H O-5 0130 | 0207 I * 45(-0) % 55 I ” go(-0) ” ” I N70 H o-5 35 I net torn away .» 45(-0) > . I >: go(-0) » » I II - NH fo) 1000 II N 100 H O-5 1630 | 1705 I » 45(-0) ” » I 3 go(-0) s 3 I N 70H o-5 a “ I ” 45(-0) ” ” I » go(-0) ” -p I II - N200H|_ 120(-0) 2111 | 2141 I 12 N 100 H O-5 0355 | 0430 I > 45(-0) r» » I ” go(-0) ” ” I N 70H O-5 op I ” 45(-0) ” ” I .» go(-o) » » I 12 N 100 H O-5 1320 | 1345 I ” 45(—0) ” ” I ” go(-0) ot 9 I N 70 H O-5 5 56 I » 45(-0) » >» I . go(-0) %9 » I 13 N 100 H 0-5 0055 | 0120] I ” 45(-0) ” ” I te go(-o) ; . I net badly torn N 70H o-5 I e 45(-0) 5 I about half sample lost on go(-o) : : I net badly torn 21 g S = Position Dn 69 | 45°06’ 00"S, 49° 00’ 00” W 70 | 44° 15’ 00" S, 47° 58’ oo” W 71 | 43° 20’ 00” S, 46° 02’ 00” W 72 | 41° 43’ 20” S, 42° 20’ 40” W 73 | 41° 07’ 00" S, 39° 33’ 00” W 74 | 40° 30’ 40” S, 38° 14’ 50” W 1926 Date | Hou i=} 25 Vv | 1600 I vi | 1100 1200 1600 2000 2 Vi | 2000 0800 0930 3 Vi 1200 1600 R.R.S. Discovery WIND SEA Sounding (metres) 8 Direction] § | Direction (cm — E 6 E — ENE 7 ENE 5460 di. oz. rd. cl. — WSW 5 WSW — SW 6 SW _- SW 6-7 SW 5420 -— NNE 4 NNE - Nx W/] 3 | Nx W a NW 4 |NxW — WSW 3 SW — W 3 W 5446 di. oz. rd. cl — WSs |i 4 SW — W 3 W 22 Barometer (millibars) 5 fy 6 1027°7 7 1020°6 3 1006°0 6 1003°0 6 1006-9 4 1002°2 e) 997°5 2 996°3 4 101278 3 1018-5 4 1O18'5 3 1020°8 Air Temp. ° Cent eo) Ne) 10°5 Liitat 10’o 8-3 136 UWS 1S) Remarks conf. swell heavy conf. swell heavy NE swell mod. Bont swell mod. conf. swell mod. conf. swell heavy N swell v. heavy conf. swell ” } R.R.S. Discovery 69—74 HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS Age of moon TIME Leah Remarks Depth Temp. of. : 2 SS Sean (metres) Cent. p.m.? a. Shot | Hauled|] (miles) 50-0 100-50 250-100 500-250 750-500 1000-750 TYF 2000(-0) ” N 450 | 2000(-0) 4°5 | net torn NN WN N iS) DNHNDHNDHHHHBHHHO od [o) NNN G2 G9 Go G0 Op OD OO Gp Op oP Op OO op DOW WO 23 75—83 R.R.S. Discovery WIND SEA 8? 5 Soundin 28 3 Position Date | Hour ey 3 | Remarks 2) Direction Direction ae rc el ee ened al atl ee ee os | 75 | 40° 08’ 00" S, 37° 15’ 00” W 4 vi | 1600 — — mod. SSW swell 76 | 39° 50’ 30” S, 36° 23’ 00” W 5 vi | 1200 — Ww slight SW swell 17 39° 19 30" S, 350 27! 40" W 6 vi |o800 = — o-I slight SW swell 0950| 5186 di. oz. rd. cl. 1200 -- — |o-1 & 78 | 35° 18’ 00"S, 19° 01’ 10” W_ | 12 vi | 0800 — SW heavy SW swell 0935] 3410 gl. oz. 1200 — WSW heavy WSW swell 1600 _- NNE heavy conf. swell heavy SW swell 79 | 34° 48’ 00" S, 16° 36’ 00” W_ | 13 vi | 1200 — heavy conf. swell NxE 1600 — WxN WxN 80 | 32° 46’ 00" S, 10° 00’ 00” W__| 17 vi | 0000 — heavy W swell 81 | 32° 45’ 00" S, 8° 47’ 00” W 18 vi | 1200 -— Ww heavy conf. swell 82 | 32° 42’ 00" S, 2° 05’ 00” W 20 V1 | 2200 —- iS) bright moonlight 83 | 32° 30’ 50” S, 1° 23’ 30” W 21 vi |0930] 4308 gl. oz. 1200 — —_~ heavy S3W swell 1600 — WNW heavy gonf. swell 2000 -- WNW ” ‘ | Station 76 TEL 78 79 80 81 82 83 R.R.S. Discovery g HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS Eg 32 Depth Temp. 2 Gear Depth ade nese Bee = | (metres) Cent. nae Ccapule (metres) Shot |Hauled| (miles) 23 — | N70H 75(-0) | 1340 | 1550] 1 24 N 450 | 1500(-0) T52) |P134Ou|ee rer 25 o | 13:99 N 70 V 50-0 0950 S) || 2syee, ” Lom 5o TO! }) 23399 % 250-100 ZOR T3199 % 500-250 327 23399 5 750-500 FORTS 3O9 03 1000-750 — | |51230 50 | 13°36 7/5 |) HARE 100 | II‘II 150 8-75 200 7°22 300 5:12 Gro) a 78) 500 = 1000 2°93 1500 2°66 2000 2°65 3500 2°56 5000 O13 3 Oo} 14°19 — N70 V 50-0 0935 5 | 14:19 —- - 100-50 Io | 14°19 -- = 500-0 20 | 14°19 -- - 1000-0 — | 1215 30 | 14°19 TYF 1000(—0) 1300 | 1435 | 3 40 | 14°19 = NH fo) 1130 50 | 14°19 — |Ni100H|] rr1o(-0) 1355 | 1455 I 7) || WGrichs 100 | 14:02 150 | 13°04 200 | 12°19 300 | 11°16 400 | 10°49 500 8-36 1000 3°11 1500 2°08 2000 2°74. 3000 2°48 4 — N 450 1000-0 1420 | 1525 I°5 a) — N 200 30-0 2250 | 2325 8 — N 450 650(-0) NOOSH |X LS 5 |p 2-3 10 N 200 75(-0) 2210 | 2310 | 1°7 II oO} 16:31 N 70 V 50-0 0945 5 || dope a % 100-50 10 | 16°31 a . 250-100 20 | 16°31 3 500-250 30 | 16:31 - . 750-500 40 | 16°31 _ 1000~750 50 | 16-31 55 2000-1500 | — | 1230 75 | 16-30 — N 200 650(-0) 2012 | 2112 100 | 16-19 150 | 14:36 200 | I3°II 25 75—83 Remarks net largely torn away DGT 83—89 R.R.S. Discovery SEA Sounding Position (metres) Direction Direction B22 301 5OmS 23.30) AV 32° 52’ 00" S, 1° 55 00" E WNW 33° 07’ 40” S, 4° 30’ 20" E WNW 3325000019, 0 31.007 E ae sey 45” S, 9° 26’ 30" E 34° 04’ 00” S, 13° 00’ 00” E 27 vi | 0800 ‘ 1200 34° 05' 15” S, 16° 00’ 45” E 28 vi | 1110 1200 1600 Barometer (millibars) Remarks heavy NW swell heavy W swell ” mod. W swell »” heavy NW swell mod. NW swell heavy SW swell »”» heavy SW swell R.R.S. Discovery 83—89 g HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS s al = BO.) oe Ps TIME [Length Ros 2~ | Dept emp. ° are 2 ept Be (cseere) Cenc 9) 2) PH! meme. pn) Get | netes) [oa Pemacal oe 300 | 12°07 | 34°97 | 26°58 | 8:34 400 | 11°49 | 34°97 | 26°69 | 8:32 500 | 11:06 | 34:94 | 26-78 | 8-29 1000 5°16 | 34:32 | 27°13 | 8:07 1500 | 3°13. | 34°36 | 27°39 | 8:02 2000 2°80 | 34°60 | 27°61 | 7°97 2000 2°70 | 34°79 | 27°77 Meee | 2000-0 aes || Sere dielee fallee to reach o | 16:26 | 35:48 | 26:07 | 8:35 | 25] — N70 V 50-0 1345 5 | 6-19 | 35°50 | 26-11 | 8:34 | 28) — 5) 100-50 1o | 16:12 | 35:50 | 20:12 | 8-34 | 28} — 5 250-100 20 | 16:05 | 35°52 | 26-15 | 8°34 | 28 | — 6 500-250 30 || 16:02) || 35°52 || 26:16 | 8-34 | 28] — 35 500-0 40 | 16-01 | 35°51 | 26:15 | 8:34 | 29 | — s 750-500 50 | 15:98 | 35°52 | 26-17 | 8:34 | 30) — 5 1000~750 — | 1630 75 | 15:81 | 35°51 | 26:20 | 8:34 | 28] — N 450 | 2000(-0) 1805 | 2007 | 2-0 I0O | I5:0r | 35°50 | 26°38 | 8-34 | 28 150 | 14:24 | 35°50 | 26°52 | 8-34 | 28 200 | I3°II | 35-19 | 26°54 | 832] 38 300 | 11:66 | 35-02 | 26:68 | 8-30 | 48 400 9°95 | 34°83 | 26°85 | 8-20] 56 500 8-59 | 34:68 | 26-95 | 8:20 | 63 1000 3°51 | 34°41 | 27-38 | 8-07 | 106 1500 2°76 | 34:67 | 27°65 | 8-07 | 114 2000 2°74 | 34°88 | 27°84 | 8-02 | 112 3000 2°36 | 34:97 | 27°92 | 8:02 | 112 4800 Tor | 34°85 | 27-94 | 8-02 | 123 N 450 | 1000(-0) 1155 | 1615 | 3:0 o| 16°51 | 35°55 | 26:07 | 8-35 | — — N70 V 50-0 1045 5 | 16-5r | 35°55 | 26:07 | 8°35 | — — = 100-0 Io | 16°51 | 35°55 | 26:07 | 8-35 | — - * 100-50 ZOW PG: 516 1357551) 20°O7 19°35. | —— | 5 250-135 SON OS Ts ia57558) 20:07) 8:35. — | 9 500-250 40 | 16°51 | 35°53 | 26:06 | 8-35 | — — 9 1000-0 — | 1315 50 | 16°51 | 35°55 | 26:07 | 8:35 | — — TYF 1000(—0) 1540 | 1710} 1-7 75 | 16°51 | 35°55 | 2607 | 8-35 100 | 16°5r | 35°55 | 26:07 | 8-35 150 | 16:51 | 35-50 | 26:03 | 8-35 200 | 16:29 | 35°50 | 26:08 | 8:35 300 | 15:21 | 35°50 | 2633 | 8-35 400 | 14°31 | 35:28 | 26:36 | 8-34 500 | 13°37 | 35°17 | 26°57 | 8:34 1000 7°57 | 34°56 | 27-00 | 8-29 1500 | 3°42 | 34°31 | 27°57 | 8-08 2000 2°82 | 34°56 | 27°57 | 7:98 2900 | 2°49 | 34°85 | 27°83 | 7°97 4800 | 1-06 | 34°76 | 27°87 | 7°97 N 100 H | 3000-0 TTZOR|PEZES) seh oO} 16°53 | 35°55 | 26:07 | 8:35 | — = N70 V 50-0 III5 5} 1651 | 35°53 | 26:06 | 8-35 | — — 33 100-50 HOM L025 1) 1835553) 20-001 1,.8:35, |) — |) — » 250-100 20 | 16°51 | 35°53 | 26:06 | 8-35 | — — 55 500-0 20 | 16°5r | 35°53 | 26:06 | 8-35 | — = i 500-250 AOnTO;5 Ue 135753) 120-00) [8-35 | ——!|)) — » sees! |) | Leo 50 | 16:51 | 35°53 | 26:06 | 8-35 | — — |N200H] 18o(-0) 1435 | 1535 | 2:2 75 | 16-41 | 35°52 | 26:07 | 8:35 | — = TYF 1000(—0) 1420 | 1555 | 2:2 100 | 16:24 | 35:50 | 26:09 | 8:35 27 89—96 R.R.S. Discovery Sounding Position (GES Remarks Barometer (millibars) Direction 89 | 34°05’ 15” S, 16° 00’ 45” E cont. Simon’s Town, False Bay, | 10 vii S Africa. Basin of H.M. Dockyard II vil 12 Vil o'5 mile off Roman Rock, False Bay, S Africa 34° 30’ 00" S, 18° 29’ 00” E ix SW ce : . mod. W swell 33° 08’ 00” S, 17° 50’ 00” E SW f ] J Hes 24° . heavy SW swell heavy W swell 94 | 33° 18’ 00” S, 17° 40’ 00” E 23 ix 5 © : heavy W swell 95 | 33° 30’ 00”S, 17° 29’ 00” E 2230] 440 ix gn. m. 0000 — SW b.c. | 1026-1! 13:3. | heavy SW swell 96 | 33° 06’ 00"S, 17° or’ 00” E 24 1x | 0710 620 m. gl. oz. 0800 = Age of moon (days) R.R.S. HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS Depth | Temp. 89—96 Discovery BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS TIME Length Remarks of tow (miles) Depth Gear eal (metres) Shot | Hauled IO-II Vii II Vii II-I2 vil 12 Vii 15 vii. Dry dock 5 50 50-0 100-50 155-100 5) 70 140 5 70 140 TD 144 m. (sunlight) No — vo] NNN NN Lot Pop Doped Kop! Oj DOR 50-0 100-50 250-100 On5 go 180 go 180 Key sample lost KT 50-0 TD 16 m. (sunlight) 100-50 250-100 20 R.R.S. Discovery WIND SEA Be é 8 = os = e} Sound 5 S s Date | Hour Gace 9 3 ES eS s} Remarks 7) Direction] 5 | Direction] § cms! to ies (ox aS < moet Se ee ool eae me Bn ot al eel 96 | 33° 06’ 00" S, 17° 01’ 00" E 24 1X cont 97 | 33° 11’ 00"S, 16° 55’ 30” E 24 ix | 1200 — SW 3 SW 2 b. | 1025°6] 13-9 | heavy SW swell 133° 995 gl. oz. 1600 a SW 3 SW 2 b 1023°9| 14°4 BS 98 | 33° 23’ 00° S, 15° 50’ 00” E 25ix |0700} 3640 gl. oz. 0800 — Ww 4 WwW 3 | 0.d. | 1020-4] 11-1 | heavy W swell 1200 — Ww 3 Ww 3 |o.m.d.| 1021-2] 14-4 +H 1600 — Six Walesa Sicavvialnes Cc. 1020°2| 15:0 | heavy SW swell 99 A | 33° 20’ 00” to 33° 11’ 00” S,] 27 ix |o700] 47oh. 17° 17’ 00” to 17° 26’ 00” E 0800 — SE 5 SE 4 b. | 1030-0] 13:3. | heavy conf. swell R.R.S. Discovery 96—99 5 HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS g EB Remarks Bie) 22 | Depth| ‘Temp. | <- POs! , Depth TIME _|Length 2 acess) 2 Cart S */oo ou Be aoaa ce. pl. Gees (metres) shoes teenies cae 96 20 | 1511 | 35°48 | 26:34 | — — — N 70 V 500-250 — 0845 cont. 30 I5‘I1 35°48 | 26°34 -- —- —: N 100 H o-5 1020 | 1135 I 40 | 151 | 35:48 | 26:34 | — — _— 3 go 1025 | 1135 I 50 I5"I1 35°46 | 26°33 | — — — ss 180 1030 | I130 I KT 75 14°66 | 35:44 | 26-40 | — = -- N 70H 0-5 1020 | 1135 I 100 14°11 35°33 | 26°44 — — — . go 1025 | 1135 I 150 | 12°92 | 35°14 | 26°54 | — — = 180 1030 | 1130 I KT 200 | 12°49 | 35°05 | 26°54 300 | 12:11 | 34:81 | 26:45 400 | 10:28 | 34°60 | 26-61 600 4°78 | 34°38 | 27-21 97 | 18 o | 15°56 | 35°50 | 26:26 | — —- — N70 V 50-0 1340 | — — | TDi7m. 5 15°56 | 35°50 | 26:26 | — —- — Ps 100-50 Io | 15751 | 35°50 | 26:27 | — — — - 250-100 20 15°36 | 35°50 | 26:30 | — — —- s 500-250 30 | 15:29 | 35°46 | 26:29 | — — — Bs 750-500 — 1540 40 I5*Il | 35:44 | 26°31 _- — — N 100 H 0-5 1558 | 1645 I (fe) |) eke We il ive) ||| | » 75(-©) | 1555 | 1650] 1 75 14°41 35°41 | 26°43 a — _ o 150(—0) 1600 | 1655 I KT I0O 13°59 | 35°30 | 26°51 —- = — N 70 H 75 1555 | 1650 I 150 | 12°38 | 35:02 | 26°54 | — _- — 3 150(-75) | 1600 | 1655 I KT 200 | 12:01 | 35:02 | 26:62 300 II°I2 | 34°90 | 26-70 400 9°49 | 34°72 | 26°82 500 772 | 34°57 | 27°00 700 | 4°86 | 34°34 | 27-20 950 | 3°83 | 34°34 | 27°31 98 | 19 oO} 15°61 | 35°52 | 26:26 | 8-35 34 — N70 V 50-0 o715 5 15°61 35°52 | 26:26 | 8-35 33 — 5 100-50 IO | 15°61 | 35°52 | 26:26 | 8-35 30 = = 250-100 20 15°61 35°52 | 26:26 | 8-35 30 — re 500-250 30 | 15°61 35°52 | 26:26 | 8-35 34 — . 750-500 40 | 15°61 | 35°52 | 26:26 | 8-35 34 — * I000—750 50 | 15°51 | 35°48 | 26:23 | 8-35] 33 | — 33 2000-1500 75 | 14:62 | 35-43 | 26:40 | 8-35 38 = a 3000-2000 = 1300 100 | 13°91 | 35°30 | 26:46 | 8-32 | 44 — N 100 H O-5 1430 | I512 I 150 | 12°51 | 35-06 | 26°55 | 8:32 | 53] — ' 65 1428 | 1518 | 1 200 | 11:40 | 34:88 | 26-62 | 8-30 65 — 5 130 1435 | 1520 I KT 300 | 10°50 | 34°85 | 26-76 | 8-30 76 — N 70H 0-5 1430 | I512 I net slightly torn 400 8-71 | 34:63 | 26-91 | 8-30 84 = an 65 1428 | 1518 I 600 5°79 | 34°40 | 27°13 | 8-12 | 106 = » 130 1435 | 1520 I KT 800 3°36 | 34:23 | 27:26 | 8:07 | 114 1000 3°20 | 34°42 | 27-32 | 8-00 | 119 1500 2°78 | 34:65 | 27°65 | 7:96 | 129 2500 2°61 | 34:82 | 27-80 | 7-96 | 118 3500 2:16 | 34-82 | 27-84 | 7:96 11g 99 A} ar ©} 15:06 | 35-44 | 26:32 | — = — |Ni1ooH 0-5 0900 | 0957 I B |] BORO: |) ais) hoe || | 5 go » | 0952] 1 LO} | L5-OON |)315-440\|" 26-32) ||| = = _- - 182 i | CREE || 2 KT OREN S slay | S5e44a 2053 TN ne 55 266(-182)| ,, | rors | 1 SOR ieee een 3574452023 Tal 55 350(-266)| ,, | 1016] x | DGB 40 | I51T | 35°45 | 26-32 | — | — = N 70H O-5 1050 | 1106 + 50 | 14°82 | 35-44 | 26-37] — | — | — : 85 pee eee ae 75. | 14:06 | 35:30 | 26-43] — | — | — » 179 a 1g2205) | aes KOO! |) 13:87 835-23) | 26:47 |) — | — — 3 247 » TI05 + 150 | 12:22 | 35-00 aa ==) == |) == 4 325 » | 1106} 4 | DGB 200 | II'IO | 34°85 | 26-65 300 8:86 | 34:66 | 26-90 395 | 7°00 | 34°52 | 27-06 31 99—100 R.R.S. Discovery WIND SEA Ain 8 Positi D: H Sounding gs R k 5 osition ate our (metres) 2 6S emarks n Direction} §& | Direction SE | fy Ay | Foal os6a| at ecw ok. Alan 99 B | 33° 20’ 00” to 33° 11’ oo” S,} 27 1x | 1200 ~-- SE 5 SE heavy conf. swell 17° 17’ 00” to 17° 26’ oo” E 99 C 3 x 27 ix | 1600 — SE 6 SE v. heavy conf. swell i 99D ms 55 27 ix | 2000 _- SE 6 SE heavy conf. swell bright starlight 99 E 45 § 27-28 | 0000 — SE 6 SE heavy conf. swell ix moon rose O105 99 F . = 28 ix | 0400 — SE 4 SE heavy conf. swell 100 | 33° 20’ 00” to 33° 46’ 00” S,} 30 ix | 2000 — — |o-r — heavy conf. swell 15° 18’ 00” to 15° 08’ 00” E | 30 ix—| 0000 = SE 5 SE heavy SE swell Tax 1 x |0800 - SE 5 SE mod. conf. swell 1200 - SE 5 SE - 2x |0400 — SW 2 _- Rs 0800 WSW | 5 | WSW a R.R.S. Discovery 99—100 g HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS 8 | ee ee s 33 Temp. ° P,O5 oO, ‘ Dent TIME Length emarks Es 2 ey © Cent, S “Loo oe pH eee ce. pl. Gear Guedes) anal Fae ean 99 B} 21 N 100 H 0-5 1230 | 1316 | 1 x 70 5 regyitey || i 5 140 ve 1313 I KT x 215 * 1314] 1 » 290 QA | ee DGB N 70H o-5 1354 | 1406 4 » 65 » | 1404] ¢ » 130 » 1404 t > 202 * 1405 4 " 275 rs 1405 + | DGB 99 GC} 21] — — N too H 0-5 1654 | 1734] I > 80 53 NG AX) || ai 3 160 a 1733 I KT > 230 35 1734 | I * 300 55 1734 | I DGB N 70 H 0-5 1832 | 1847 4 5) Tl »» | 1846 t rf 155 = 1847 4 KT - 232 Pe eS 7 ee Fe 310 $5 1848 + | DGB 99D} 21 — = N 100 H 0-5 2047 | 2131 I . 2 "3 2129 | I 5a 105 " 2130 I KT 167 3 2130 I = 230 a 2131 I DGB N 70H 0-5 2209 | 2232 + ” 47 ” 2230 t 3; 95 i 2230 + | KT » 147 » | 223r) ¢ = 200 . 2231 4 DGB 99 E| 22 N 100 H 0-5 0033 | 0104 | I 5 51 5 o10o2 | I KT . 102 - o102 | I % 163 3 0103 I - 225 3 0103 I DGB N 70H 0-5 0143 | 0207 L ” 56 ” 0203 3 ia 112 * 0204 4 | KT a 221 ; 0204 4 < 330 5 0205 4 | DGB 99 F| 22 — | — — |N100H 0-5 0435 | 0535] I %9 80 » | 0534] 1 a 160 5 0534 I KT % 230(-0) 5 0535 | I net slightly torn e. 300 ie 0535 I DGB N 70 H o-5 0612 | 0627 4 te 39 3 0626 4 - 79(-0) 4 0626 | kee * 119 53 0627 + xz 160 A o6277 + | DGB 100 |24-| — — TYF O-5 1925 | 2027 | 2 A 30 ix 28 - 0-5 2337 | 0038 | 2:1 | B 30 ix-1 x . 0-5 0645 | 0746] 15 | C 1x N 450 250 1320 | 1420] 1-7 | 1x. DGB TYF 450-550 | 0630 | 0832 | 3:3 | C 2x. DGB of 475(-0) 0620 | 0832 | 3:3 | 2x. DGB 100—106 Position 235 20) 00!) to) 33-46) Co 1S; 15° 18’ 00” to 15° 08’ 00” E 33° 50’ to 34° 13’ S, 16° 04’ to 15° 49° E age 29' 20” S 18° Ba) 40" E 39° 04’ 00" S, 17° 38’ 00” E 41° 33’ 30” S, 17° 58’ 00” W 44° 32’ 00” S. 18° 17’ oo” E 44° 42’ 30” S, 17° 47’ 00" E R.R.S. Discovery Sounding (metres) Direction Direction NNW NNW WNW WwW WSW See SWxW WSW 34 4 5 Weather Barometer (millibars) 10138 LO16'5 1020'T . | I0r4-0 r. | 1008-9 1015-6 IO15°7 IOI5 "1 IO16°5 1020'I 1018°6 CG IOIO‘O | 16°1 0. r. g. | 1009°4 | .16°7 Remarks mod. conf. swell »”» mod. NW swell mod. W swell v. heavy SW swell mod. SW swell heavy SW swell ” mod. SW swell heavy conf. swell heavy NW swell v. heavy SW swell ” y. heavy SW swell ” heavy SW swell mod. SW swell R.R.S. Discovery 100—106 HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS Age of moon ; Remarks Benth emp: 2O; O Fabs Depth TIME Length (metres)} ° Cent. eo iS ce. pil. (metres) Shot |Hauled oni 2x. DGB 2-3 x. DGT 3 x. DGB 3-4 x 4x 4X 14x. DGT iva, IDXEb 15 x 15 x. DGB | 625-675 | 1319 | 1530 1500-1550 | 0045 | 0255 260-310 | o601 | o8o01 ~ gOO-I000 | 2340 | o140 2500-2000 | 0745 | 0948 2500(-0) | 0745 | 0948 2480-2580 | 2022 | 2325 1310-1410 | 0739 | 1040 850-950 | 1305 | 1610 350-400(-0)| 2042 | 2346 ro un DA NWW WwW N Nw Nw Un WwW 50-0 1005 - TD 17 m. (overcast) 100-50 250-100 500-250 eo 1000-750 ee om aL 4 1 ee 1 A 50-0 100-50 250-100 500-250 BRR RE 35 107—114 a eet ——— Position 107 | 45° 03’ 00” S, 17° 03’ 00” E 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 Ag? 44’ 00” S, TB 38" 30" E 46° 25’ 00" S, 15° 13’ 00” E 47° 54" 00” S, 12° 39 30" E Smit2/00: 19), 123m 1007 > 49° 31’ 00” S, 10° 48’ 00” E 0° 09’ 00” S, 10° 21' 00” E ? 52° 25'00"S, 9° 50’ 00" E Date 5 xi 5 xi psd 7 xi 12 xi Hour o800 1200 2000 0000 0800 1200 2000 0000 0800 1200 2000 0000 0800 1200 R.R.S. Discovery Sounding (metres) WIND Direction W Ww SWxW SWxW WxN WxN SWxs Ww “I SEA Direction W WxN NNW SSW SWxS Hon na Hon oO © Beh ae 5 g. Ba a, od Ed pS | Go as | <° 1023°5| 5:0 1020°8| 5:6 10179] 6:7 LOO 73 | aad: 10078} 5°5 1004°8 | 9-4 10018 | 6-7 9844] 2°9 9866 | 3:3 993°8| 1-7 9995] 11 9850] 2:2 995°3)) 22 gg1'8 992°9 DET |e 1003'0 |— I°I Remarks mod. SW swell mod. soni . swell v. heavy W swell ” v. heavy W swell mod. SW swell mod. NW swell ” heavy SW swell ” heavy NW swell ” heavy W swell mod. W swell heavy NW swell ” Age of moon (days) Depth (metres) R.R.S. Discovery HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS Temp. sient. BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS : Depth Gear (metres) TIME Length ——_,——_ of tow Shot |Hauled | (miles) N70 V 50-0 100-40 250-80 500-250 Ue 55 IO000~750 N 450 850-950 2°08 34°67 27°72 37 ogio | — = Pers nyse ar 107—114 Remarks TD 17 m. (overcast) 114—122 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 Position 52°25 00° S,g 50 oo E 52° 39’ 00" S, 9° 33’ 00" E GAmB ONO) 1S 35 a@400 4 About 5 miles N 72° E of Bouvet I, 54° 20’ 40” S aye 48’ 45° E 53° 07’ 00” S, 1° 26’ 00” W 53° 02’ 00" S, 1° 56’ co” W 51° 44’ 00" S, 5° 19’ 00” W 50° 59’ 00” S, 11° 44’ 00” W Maiviken, W Cumberland Bay, S Georgia ’ Date 14 Xi 17 Xi IQ Xi 19 Xl 14 Xi Hour 2000 0000 2000 0000 0800 1200 2000 0000 1200 2000 0000 R.R.S. Discovery Sounding (metres) WIND Direction SW xW SW xW NW x W NW x W WSW WSW NW N x W SSW NW x W NW x W 38 Ww N Ww ne SEA Direction SW x W SW xW NW NW WSW ww epee! SW NWxW NWxW Ww Ny aS 0.8. g. On Se Oe oo gq 9a Barometer (millibars) Air Temp. ° Cent. 10071 |— 1-7 LOLI*3 |— 1-7 1007°8 |— 2:2 9766} o-0 974°8 |— 06 L003 55) |eron9) 1002°I |— 33 995°3 | 28 TLOOTSO}}— her 1003°4 |— 0:6 1004°2 |— I'l 1013°2 |—I°I 1018-5 10179 1000°7 | 13°3 Remarks heavy NW swell heavy NW swell mod. NW swell heavy NW swell mod. E swell slight ESE swell heavy W swell mod. W swell Station 114 cont. 115 116 117 118 119. 120 121 122 Age of moon (days) Io 13 15 18 20 Depth (metres) HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS R.R.S. Discovery BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS Depth 100 150 200 300 400 — 1°58 = 1S) = SS = TSS) = ON = U5 meets 5 = S45 aA 0°45 1°10 1°45 1°45 33°86 33°93. 34°20 f 33°87 33°82 34°02 33°93 34°05 34°07 34°47 34°56 34°64 34°69 27:26 | 8-12 27°34 | 8:07 27°54] 8:07 27°28 | 8:07 27°24 | 8:07 27°40 | 8-07 27°34 | 8:07 27°41 | 8:03 27°43 | 7°97 27°67 | 7°97 27°79 | 7-95 27°74 | 7°95 27°78 | 7°95 250-100 750-500 . I1'7(—20) O-5 100 200 O-5 ” gt 182 0-5 ” go s 180 Oey »” go a 180 N 100 H | 340-360(-0) 575-675 N 100 H £ 58 N 70H TIME Shot |Hauled 1036 | 1104 ” ” » ” 1154 | 1354 2109 | 2133 »” »” » ” 2153 | 2202 »” »” » » 2020 | 2050 ” » op 3 2115 | 2125 ” » ” ” 1230 ar 1440 1505 | 1532 ” » » ” 1550 | 1601 3 9 »” ” ogig | 1001 »” ” »”» »” IO2I | 1035 ” ”» » ” 2034 | 2108 5 As A ” 2128 | 2137 » ” 59 ” TEES | els 247 III5 | 1334 2108 | 2137 »” ” ” ” 2155 | 2203 Length of tow (miles) vv) BIRR ain! a | reser sen H BIRR RIB HHH BID BIE H | BIR BIR BIE How PIR RR RI Ce aE en len! eters 114—122 Remarks KT DGT KT DGB KT KT | in upper freshwater | lake \ in lower freshwater } lake Maiviken beach 123—128 R.R.S. Discovery SEA SOUNGIN ES | acme | naan | ieeecmnannnn mama eat hier Remarks Position (metres) Barometer (millibars) Direction Direction 1926 E 123 | Off mouth of Cumberland | 15 xii | 1200 Bay, S Georgia. From 4:1 1305 miles N 54° E of Larsen Pt, tomen-2 smuiless S02 \Werok 1525 Merton Rock 1600 124 | 53° 45’ 30” S, 36° 32’ 30” W_ | 18 xii | 1600 125 | 53° 28’ 30” S, 36° 20’ 30” W 126 | 53° 58’ 30” S, 37° 08’ 00” W_ | 19 xii | 1055 127 53° 48’ 30” Ss, 37m 08’ 00” W 1345 1600 op : slight W swell 128 | 53° 38’ 30” S, 37° 08’ 00” W 1710 Vv. ‘1 | slight W swell 40 R.R.S. Discovery 123—128 “ E HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS e | ee § as th | Temp. x 0/ P,Os O, Depth TIME Length es = = eee S ae 5 “Too ge Be none ce. pil. Gear (metres) Wenoeleanieal ones 123 | 11 fo) iO || SE Pyy/ lie — | — _- OTL | ee ee = | |) ee 230-250 | 1315 | 1445 | 5:7 220 wo || eer) || 27a || = — — NCS-T 124 | 14 ) 1-80 | 33°78 | 27:03 | 8-30 | 144?! 7°58 | N50 V 100-0 1600 5 1-80 | 33°78 | 27:03 | 8-30 | 1267] 7-54 | N70 V 50-0 fe) 1-70 | 33°78 | 27:04 | 8-30 | 88 | 7:56 3 100-50 20 1°47 | 33°78 | 27-04 | 8:30 | 88 | 7°57 5p 210-100 — | 1650 30 I'rIo | 33°80 | 27-09 | 8-30 | 84 | 7:66 | N1rooH o-5 1742 | 1821 I 40 I-05 | 33°80 | 27-710 | 8-28 | 86 | 7-54 5 go " rr I 50 0°82 | 33°80 | 27-11 | 8-28 | gt | 7°56 . 180(—go) 3 5 I KT 75 0:20 | 33°86 | 27-19 | 8-28 | 96 | 7:58 N 70H 0-5 1838 | 1847 4 100 |—0°75 | 33°91 | 27-29 | 8-16 | 111 | 7-38 5 65 + * + 150 | —O-10 | 34:09 | 27°39 | 8-00 | 116 | 6:47 n 130 * + | KT 200 0:60 | 34:23 | 27°47 | 7:96 | 125 | 5:46 125 | 14 fe) 1°45 | 33°82 | 27:09 | 8:30 | 90| — N50 V 100-0 2300 10 1-43 | 33°82 | 27:09 | 8:30 | 94 | — N 70 V 50-0 20 1°20 | 33°82 | 27°11 | 8-30 | 93 | — i 100-50 30 I°IO | 33°82 | 27-11 | 8-30 | gt | — 55 250-100 40 1-00 | 33°86 | 27-14 | 8:30 | go - Er 500-250 50 | 085 | 33°86 | 27°15 | 8:30] 94] — » 750-500 60 PEA || eixteley || Ay mic || teksiey || Clg) -- 3 1000-750 — | or5o 80 | —0:20 | 33:91 | 27:26 | 8-19 | 101 — |N100H 0-5 0204 | 0243 | I I0O | — 0°50 | 34:00 | 27°32 | 8:04 | 105 -= Ss 70 2 » I : 150 0°36 | 34°18 | 27-46 | 7-98 | 110 | — “ 140 . ) I KT 200 1°50 | 34°36 | 27°51 | 7-95 | 116 — N 70 H o-5 0302 | 0317 t goo | 1-85 | 34-49 | 27°59 | 7-90 | 124 : 70 » fo» ss 400 | 2:02 | 34°58 | 27°66 | 7-92 | 12 : 140 3 5 ie || SIN 600 2:03 | 34°63 | 27°70 | 7-92 | 125 800 I-92 | 34°68 | 27°74 | 7-98 | 119 1000 1-82 | 34°72 | 27-78 | 7-98 | 116 1500 TsO 34°74) | 27°82.) 77-08 || 121 126 | 1s oO 1:28 | 33°77 | 27:05 | 8:30] 99] — N50 V T0020 1055 | — net touched bottom 5 o-7 33°80 | 27°11 | 8-15 | 100 — % 80-0 10 0°30 | 33°86 | 27-18 | 8-10 | 108 N70 V 50-0 20010215) 11 38:80) || 27-20 ||| 8:08: | 105 — x 100-50 = || wits) 30 | —o-18 | 33°87 | 27:23 | 8-08 | 108 - |N100H 0-5 1144 | 1203 I 40 |—0-25 | 33°87 | 27:23 | 8:08 | 106 - a 23 7 » I Vig 50 |—0-40 | 33°89 | 27-25 | 8:08 | 110 | — a 47 » » KT 60 |—0°55 | 33°89 | 27:26 | 8:05 | 111 - N 70 H 0-5 1214 | 1222 t 80 | —0°65 | 33°93 | 27:29 | 8-00 | 115 _ 5 22 » » t AS 95 | —0-60 | 33-95 | 27°31 | 8:00 | 119 | — s 44(-0) | » |» gy SE 127 | 15 fo) I-92 | 33°77 | 27:01 | 8-30 | 100 | 7-51 N50 V 100-0 1345 5 | 1:60 | 33°77 | 27°03 | 830] 99 | 7:51 | N70V 50-0 10 1°45 | 33°78 | 27:06 | 8-28 | 98 | 7:60 s 100-50 20 1°28 | 33°77 | 27°05 | 8:28 | 96 | 7-62 ; 150-110 — | 1407 30 0:89 | 33°78 | 27:10 | 8-28 | 95 | 7-64 |N100H O-5 1452} 151g} tI 40 0-70 | 33°80 | 27°12 | 8:26 | 96 | 7-78 3 41 » » I : 50 | —0°35 | 33°86 | 27-22 | 8-04 | 108 | 7-60 - 82 ” » I KT 60 | —0-61 | 33°87 | 27-25 | 8-00 | 108 | 7-55 N 70H 0-5 1530 | 1538 t 80 | —o-71 | 33°89 | 27:27 | 8-00 | 111 | 7:17 33 38 » » t ces 100 | —0-60 | 33-98 | 27°34 | 7-96 | 114 | 6-90 * 79 » ” } | KT 150 | —0°50 | 34:04 | 27°37 | 7°96 | 115 | 6°59 128 | 15 fo) 1°48 | 33°84 | 27-10 | 8-30 | 92 - N50 V 100-0 1710 5 1°40 | 33°84 | 27:10 | 8-30 | gt - N 70 V 50-0 10 ogy |) Bee) Ayre || feeXoy ||) Cope - 3 100-50 41 128—132 Position 53° 38’ 30” S, 37° 08’ 00” W 128 cont. 129 | 53° 28’ 30” S, 37° 08’ 00” W 180 | 54° 06’ 00” S, 36° 23’ 00” W 131 | 53° 59’ 30” S, 36° 11’ 00” W 3° 52’ 00" S, 35° 58’ 30” W Date 20 Xil Hour 2000 2015 0000 1700 2000 R.R.S. Discovery WIND SEA Sounding (metres) Direction Direction I0ol blk. s. gn. m. st. 240 gy.m. st. 180 h. 42 Weather Remarks Barometer (millibars) toro'2| xr | slight W swell 2:2 | slight W swell 1009°3 1005°5| 6-1 5°6 | mod. W swell 100371 1000'7} 1-7 | mod. W swell R.R.S. Discovery 128—132 HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS Remarks (days) M iv 4 ce a Shot |Hauled} (miles) Depth | Temp. (metres)}| ° Cent. Age of moon Gear (metres) 1:28 N 70 V 160-100 — 1748 0-72 N 100 H 0-5 1809 | 1831 0°30 “Te ” 50(-0) ” ” 0°00 ” 100 ” ” o'Io : N 70H O-5 1844 | 1851 o'51 ‘ 47 ” 0°55 ” 0°50 0°25 tb) 1°60 1°50 1°30 0°92 0°75 0°47 0°35 ool net torn 0°37 KT 0°55 I‘Ol I'90 2°03 2:00 194 1°92 1°85 1°78 7) Os) 1°15 OOF 0°22 0-02 0°20 0°31 0°30 1°95 1°85 : 5O5O 1-72 : 100-50 1°22 : 230-100 I‘Ol 0°04 0°88 0°50 0°65 0°63 0:28 or12 o°81 1°45 100-0 1°30 : 50-0 1°25 . 100-50 1°25 . 170-125 0-45 0°20 0°05 — 0°21 43 132—137 R.R.S. Discovery s WIND SEA ue & . PH g ray s Position Date | Hour eee S » |Weather Ee gg Remarks 2 Direction é Direction 3 ae = eee c Low Ded 0204) eden eat ala haloes | eel Rea 132 BBS 52" 00” 5, 35° 58’ Bou W 20 Xil cont. 183 | 53° 45’ 30” S, 35° 46’ 30” W_ ‘| 20-21] 2012] 802 h. Xli_ | 0000 — We |6-7 Ww 6 0. |1000'2] 1-1 |slight W swell 134 | 54° 22’ 00" S, 35° 56’ 00” W_ | ar xii | 1200 — WINIW3 |) WENIWE 335) Src og5:01|) 2:8 1440 |176gy.m. 1600 — NE 2 NE 2 oO. 994°7| 1:7 135 | 54° 22’ 00"S, 35° 39’ 00” W_ | 21 xii | 1805 |243 gn.m. 2000 = E 2 E mm || aoe |) Lofoylery|| aie) 136 | 54° 22’ 00"S, 35° 21’ 00" W_ | 21 xii | 2138 246 blk.st.m. 0000 — E 2 E T || o.£.) |/9993°0)|| o:0 137 | 54° 19 30” S, 35° 03’ 30” W | 22 xii|o307] 74or. 0400 — — |o-r — oy || @stin |] Goer || Cre! Station Depth (metres) Age of moon (days) R.R.S. HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS Temp. ° Cent. ot 132 80 cont. 100 140 175 133 | 16 fo) 136 | 17 f°) —o-40 — 031 — (epi Ko) 0°20 0°50 0°50 0°50 0°50 O45 0°50 0°50 0:00 = ier) — 0:68 0°22 1°81 I-92 2:08 2:02 195 2°41 2°41 2°29 1°22 1°10 1°05 0:80 0-72 0°42 0:23 or10 0700 1°88 1°85 1°80 1°40 1°21 0°88 0°72 0:22 009 0:22 o'21 0:88 1°40 1°32 1°09 0-72 0-70 0°50 OS) O-o1 — 0°20 0:20 L772 I°22 I°20 P,O; pH |mgm. p.m.3 8-04 | 116 7:97 | 118 ZF oN \| BA TQ | 123 8-16 | 95 8-16 | 94 8-16 | 95 8-16 | 105 8-16 | 96 8-16 | ror 8-16 | 104 8-16 | 104 8-02 | 105 8-00 | 110 7°96 | 114 7:96 | 118 7°96 | 119 8-00 | 118 8-00 | 120 8-07 | 123 8:30 | 94 8-30 | 94 8-30 | 93 8:30 | 89 8:30 | go 8-24 | 91 8:20 | 94 8-15 | 89 8-10 | 99 8-10 | 106 8-05 | 111 8-05 | 114 8:30 | go 8-30 | 85 8-2 85 8-24 | 86 8-20 | 89 8:20 | go 8:20 | 98 8-12 | 100 8-06 | 94 8:00 | III 8-00 | 115 7°96 | 120 8-30 | 118? 8-30 | 103 8-30 | 105 8-30 | 105 8-30 | 103 8-17 | 105 8-17 | 103 8-07 | 116 8-00 | 120 7°96 | 123 7°96 | 125 8-30 | go 8-30 | 93 a 1 SINT ™ axiI ~ malo Noms) Rew ana oun Gee WHIM of OM On N as Discovery BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS Gear Depth (metres) 100-0 50-0 100-50 270-100 500-250 759-500 o-5 50 100 O55 48 97 CS TIME Shot 1839 | 1847 2012 — | 2350 0012 | o119 ” ” ” ” 0136 | 0154 ” ” 1440 — 1502 1530 | 1604 ” »”» ” ” 1617 | 1630 ” ” 1805 — | 1830 1902 | 1931 ” ” »” »” 1944 | 1959 ” ” ” ” 2138 — | 2210 2234 | 2301 ”» ” ” ” 2317 | 2330 ” ” ” ” 0307 Length of tow Hauled | (miles) et sen si H RIA BIE RIE onl BIBI BIE al BIR BIR BIR | BIR BIR Re KT Kee 132—137 Remarks 137—143 R.R.S. Discovery WIND SEA Bell g eave Se | Ee E Position Date | Hour Gases 9 4 2 Weather Es BS Remarks U Di . 2 ° ° 2 S| fas irection RS irection RS gé a 137 | 54° 19’ 30” S, 35° 03’ 30° Ws} 22 xii cont. 138 | 54° 17’ 00"S, 34° 47’ 00” W | 22 xii | 0800] 2530 r. NE I — I Gs gg8'r} 11 1200 a ENE | 3 ENE | 3 Cs 9923] 2°8 139 | 53° 30’ 15" S, 35° 50’ 45” W_ | 22-23 | 2000 — NW | 1 = rt |b.c.f.] 994:2| 1-7 | heavy NW swell xii |2200] 3230 r. 0000 = WNW | 6 NW 6 c. ggr'g| 11 ae 140 | Stromness Hr to Larsen Pt, | 23 xii | 1440 136 S Georgia. From 54° 02’ S, 1600 | gn. m.st.| NW 4 NW 4 | o.r. | 989°6] 2:2 | slight NW swell 365 38) Wi to) 545 11 307)S, 1800 122 36° 29’ W en.m. st. 141 | ECumberland Bay, S Georgia, | 29 xii | 1453] 22 m. 200 yds from shore, under 1527| 27m. Mt Duse 1545] 17m. 1600 — NW /|3-6| NW I 142 | E Cumberland Bay, S Georgia. | 30 xii | 1200 — NE 5 NE 2 From 54°11’ 30”S, 36°35’ W 1300] 88m. to 54° 12’ S, 36° 29’ 30” W 1450| 273 m. 143 | Off mouth of E Cumberland | 30 xii | 1450] 273 m. Bay, S Georgia, 54° 12’ S, 1600 _- SW 9 SW 7 36° 29’ 30” W 46 R.R.S. Discovery 137—143 HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS TIME Length Remarks of tow Depth | Temp. ° O, (Gear Depth Shot |Hauled | (miles) (metres)} ° Cent. 3s \ccapil!. (metres) Age of moon (days) N70 V 100-50 250-100 500-250 700-500 5) 66 132 5) 60 120 BIR BIR BIR 100-0 - net split 50-0 100-50 250-100 500-250 75 m5 2° 1000-750 2000-1000 oS) 77 155 O55 74 148 IK UR IHAORIE 1 4 ah 4 a 4 net badly torn two short hauls on steeply shelving ground at edge of kelp 144—152 R.R.S. Discovery WIND SEA Position Date | Hour es > » | Weather Be E38 Remarks Direction 3 Direction iE & = aa ° O27] é Off mouth of Stromness Hr,] 51 | 1200 —- NW 4 NW 4 | b.c. | 990°6| 2:8 | mod. SE swell S Georgia. From 54° 04’ S, 1255 155 36° 27’ W to 53° 58’ S, 36° gn.m.s. 26’ W 1450 178 1600|gn.m.s.}| NE 4 NE |4-5| b.c. | 993:4| 2:8 | heavy SE swell Stromness Hr, S Georgia.]| 71 | 1200 — = I = o Jo.m.s.] 9986} 5:5 Between Grass I and Tons- 1454 26 berg Pt 1530 35 1600 a — I = o | os 998:6| 1:7 53° 48’ 00” S, 35° 37’ 30° W 81 | 1200 — ESE 3 ESE 2) || Ip @s || aceroKopru || ey 1345] 728 r. 1600 — SE B = b.c. |1o010°3| 4°4 53° 38’ 30” S, 36° 02’ 00” W gi |o0800 ~- WNW | 2 | WNW b.c. |1o10-2| 4-4 0945 | 126m 1200 = I aS Te Dee |) LOMG5) | et Off C Saunders, S Georgia.}| gi | 1600 —- WNW | 6 | WNW | 5 lo; |[awoeyore || 0) From 54° 03’ S, 36° 39’ W 1745 148 to 54° 05'S, 36° 36’ 30” W gy. m. st. 1855 132 2000 | gy.m.st.} WNW | 3 | WNW | 2 oy, |/atonlot} || ea) Mouth of E Cumberland Bay,| 101i | 0800 — WNW | 4 | WNW | 4 | b.c. |1015-0] 3-9 S Georgia. From 1-15 miles 1037 | 200 m. N 764° W to 2:62 miles 1200| 234m. | WNW | 7 | WNW | 4 b.c. |1orr5} 4-4 S rr° W of Merton Rock From 53° 52’ 30” S, 36° oo’ W | 15-16 | 1600 _- NNW |} 4 | NNW | 4 | o.f. |1006-r} 3:3 | heavy NW swell to 53° 31’ S, 35° 24’ 30” W 1 |2000 _ NNW |} 3 | NNW | 3 | of. | 10036] 2:2 51 0000 —- NNW | 5 | NNW | 4 Jo.f.w.|1000-4| 2:2 0400 — NNW | 3 | NNW | 3 | o.f. | 998:8| 2:2 | mod. NW swell o800 — ININIWV 1s || NINIWas 3 Ons 997'4| 2:2 - Smee SCO Saha T5 COM, 161 |og15| 3200 di. oz. 1200 — WSW | 3 | WSW | 3 | b.c. | 1000-4] 2:8 1600 — SW 5 SW Bie | ee DarGse | (MOOS Sil 3-3 53° 51 30’ S, 36° 18’ 30” W 171i |0800 — WSS || GW AW Sef |) 5 c.q. |1008:1] 2:2 | heavy W swell II00| 245 r. 1200 WxN] 4 |WxN] 3 | b.c. |1006-7} 2:9 |slight W swell Age of moon R.R.S. Discovery HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS 144—152 BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS TIME Length Remarks of tow Depth Shot |Hauled | (miles) (metres) ; cod-end, N 7-T and = N 4-T torn two short hauls on weedy ground OTL N 4-T NCS-T | - 132-148 OTL N4-T |; 200-234 NCS-T | N 70 H : 50 consecutive hauls (A-AAA) of 15 mins. duration. A halt of 15 mins. between NN and OO. Sample OO lost. Sunset 2026; sunrise 0355 100-0 - - TD 20 m. 50-0 100-50 250-100 500-250 750-500 1000-750 49 153—165 R.R.S. Discovery WIND SEA up 3 5 . os Be ze Position Date | Hour Soe 6 » |Weather Es é & Remarks n Direction é Direction é As se 1927 : AS! [545108 30019, 30, 27) 300 Wi 171i | 1600 — ANY Se INT 3) TAK Se ANT || O. 1002°3| 3:3 | slight W swell 1700] 106r 154 |Jason Hr to Larsen Pt,] 181i | 0800 — = I = o |o.r.m.] g91°2| 3:3 S Georgia. From 2-6 miles 1055| 60m. S 84° W to 54 cables S 26° E 1200 _ — I — o jo.r.m.| 984:3] 3:3. | slight W swell of Larsen Pt 1205| 160 m. 155 | 4:1 miles S 264° E of Larsen] 181 |1430] 260 m. Pt, S Georgia 1600 _- SE 5 SE 2 |o.f.d.| 980-4] 2:2 |slight W swell 156 | 53° 51’ 00’ S, 36° 21’ 30” W 201 |1500] 236r. 1540| 200r. 1600 — SSE 3 SE 3 oO. 997°5| 2:2 |mod. SE swell AB TMNSSmi5 OO, 40m TT aubalW) 201 | 1905 970 2000| di. oz. SSE 3 SE 2 O. 997:'2| 1:7 | mod. SE swell Sith & 158 | 53° 48’ 30” S, 35° 57’ 00" W | 211i |0800 — BSE | 3 SESE 3 O. 995°2|} 2°8 |slight SE swell 0840] 4orr. 0955| 41Ir. 159 | 53° 52’ 30” S, 36° 08’ 00” W 21i |1200] 160r. ESE | 4 | BSE 3 oO. 9946] 2:2 160 | Near Shag Rocks, 7 ii | 1200 = E 4 E 3 | 0.d. | 992°1] 2:2 | mod. SW swell 53°43 40" S, 40° 57’ 00” W 1320| 177 gy. m. st. r. 1600 — SSW | 2 — |) lees |) Geyet|| 3)R0) op 161 | 57° 21’ 20’S, 46° 43’ 30” W | 14 ii | 0800 — Ww 4 Vay 2 oO. 999°5| 2:2 0905) |(ps459)0 1200 — NNW |} 4 NW 2 Os ||ailofonryy || 162 | Off Signy I, S Orkneys, 17 ii | 1143 320 60° 48’ 00” S, 46° 08’ 00” W 1200] gn. m. -- I — |o-1]o0.m.s.}| 968-0} 0-0 163 |Paul Harbour, Signy I,] 17 ii | 1535 18 S Orkneys 1600 27 NE | 2-3 — jo-1] c.g. | 963:8) 2:2 164 | E end of Normanna Strait,] 18 ii | 1130 24 S Orkneys, near C Hansen, 1200 — -- I — o | o.m. | 9686} 3:3 Coronation I 1215 36 165 | Dove Strait, SE of Queen’s | 18-20 Bay, Signy I, S Orkneys ii 50 R.R.S. Discovery 153—165 g HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS e |e <= = Roe | oe P.O. : emarks b Z~ Depth vane: Soh. ot pH |mgm. re Or 1 Gear Deo Pee Bee < | (metres ent. c.p. (metres) Shot |Hauled | (miles) qq |q— |_| ej“ jo Sek || 27kexk || = || = DLH 106 W7O7s ete 70e7 33°80 | 27°13 trawl hitched; greater part of net lost 200-236 200-236 stop parted; bag torn 160 | 7 co) 3°00 | 33°77 | 26-92 | 8-28 | — — N50 V 100-0 1320 | — = || ANID) 115) san, 10 2°90 | 33°77 | 26°93 | 8-28 | — _ N70 V 50-0 20 2°88 | 33°77 | 26:93 | 8:28 | — — 35 100-50 30 2°87 | 33°76 | 26-93 | 8-28 | — — - 180-100 — | 1350 177 BIR BIR RI er sersey 1150 1154 1535 | 1540 24-36 1145 | 1200 51 166—171 R.R.S. Discovery WIND SEA se a : Position Date | Hour aes coker "eet WWreathes Ee Bg Remarks Direction] 5 | Direction] §& ae. sc a ca 1927 SE point of Paul Hr, Signy I,} 19 ii | 1200 = SSW | 2 = o | o.m. | 9898] 1-7 S Orkneys 1600 — = o-I = o | 0o.m. | ggi-4| 2:2 Off Signy I, S Orkneys, 20 ii | 0800 — SE 2 = fo) 0. 998-1] 2:2 | 192 icebergs in 60° 50’ 30” S, 46° 15’ 00” W 1045] 344 sight gn.m 1200 = NW 3 NW I c g95'0| I'l ES) 244 gn.m 60° 58’ 00” S, 48° 05’ 00” W | arii | 1200 = SW 6 SW 5 oO. 9890] o-0 60° 48’ 50” S, 51° 00’ 20” W__| 22 ii | 0800 — SSW | 2 = o | b.v. | 9941] o:o | alongside tabular 0905] 2514 berg, 35 miles in di. oz. length 1200 — SSW | 2 = ) |) loa we || @loyorg |] recm 1530| 1849 r. 1600 — Wie Sale) = O || lai || ore)! 997 Off C Bowles, Clarence I, 23 li | 1600 — NE 5 NE 5 Cc 9926] 11 61° 25’ 30” S, 53° 46’ 00” W 1635 | 342 r. 16 miles off C Melville, King] 25 ii | 0800 — ENE 3 ENE 2 |0.s.g.] 986-5] 1-1 George I, S Shetlands, 0905 1542 62° 07’ 00” S, 57° 03’ 00” W di. oz, 1200 — ENE |) 355) SENES | S23 (onsen. o87-4q= een 52 | R.R.S. Discovery 166—171 5 HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS oH Eg fe TIME encth Remarks 2 Depth | Temp. 6 — = me : Cent mates S25 (qig ties) SS Eee Ob tow: Shot |Hauled | (miles) Sh. coll. O=I 1500 26 N50 V 100-0 1045 26 N 70 V 50-0 -26 P 100-50 20 5 250-100 "20 ” 340-0 — 1130 20 244-344 | 1210 | 1230 | — | trawl hitched; net torn o-5 ” 78 r) ” I ” 157 ” ” N 70H 0-5 1239 | 1252 ” Tih ” ” ” 154 ” ” A 4 BIRR RS N50 V 100-0 0go5 - N 70 V 50-0 ” 100-50 » 250-100 3 500-250 »” 750-500 » 1000-750 ” 2500-1500 | —— | 1210 TYF 1000-1100 | 1238 | 1350 | 08 _ TD 19 m. DLH 342 1650 | 1655 N50 V 100-0 ©005)||— = — | TD 12) m. N 70 V 50-0 .; 100-50 * 250-100 500-250 53 172—184 R.R.S. Discovery WIND SEA we | a : : os Es Position Hour eee 5 » | Weather 5 =I B 3) Remarks Direction] § |Direction| & SE | & os 2 x 172 | Off Deception I, S Shetlands, 1200 _ NNW | 5 | NNW | 3 ) 981-5] 2°8 62° 59’ 00” S, 60° 28’ 00” W 173 | Port Foster, Deception I, S Shetlands. Close to SE shore, near Lake Point ) 0. 987:8} 1-7 ° oO. 986-6] 1-7 174 | Deception I, S Shetlands. Outside entrance, W of Lt 175 | Bransfield Strait, S Shetlands, 63° 17’ 20” S, 59° 48’ 15” W 2 Sc IES || 22 7/ 176 | 12 miles SW of Deception I, S Shetlands, 63° 09’ 30” S, 60° 46’ 00” W 984:0] 1-7 | mod. SSW swell 981-8] 1-1 = (©), {9) eign) 177 | 27 miles SW of Deception I, S Shetlands, 63° 17’ 30" S, 61° 17’ 00” W 178 | Melchior Hr, Schollaert Chan- nel, Palmer Archipelago 179 | Melchior I, Schollaert Chan- nel, Palmer Archipelago. In creek to S of SW an- chorage 180 | 1-7 miles W of N point of Gand I, Schollaert Channel, Palmer Archipelago 0944 | 160 m. st. 1200 |330m.st.| — I == 181 | Schollaert Channel, Palmer Archipelago, 64° 20’ 00" S, 63° o1’ 00” W 182 | Schollaert Channel, Palmer Archipelago, 64° 21’ 00" S, 62° 58’ 00” W 183 | Schollaert Channel, Palmer Archipelago, 64° 21’ 30” S, 63° 00’ 00” W 184 | Fournier Bay, Anvers I, Palmer Archipelago, 64° 30’ 00" S, 62° 54’ 00” W 4: R.R.S. Discovery 172— 184 —————— ee ee eS | 5 HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS et || Ses g | &e a == ee Se Remar g | os P.O TIME Length saan S | $2 | Depth | Temp. ° B5|| Oh Depth gth uae |) Gee) Cent 8 "foo e pH ome cc. p.l. oS Gaetes) Shot |Hauled (miles) 172 | 24 fo) o-75 ||| 33°77) 27529 | — — = DLH 525 1300 | 1306 | — stop parted 500 | 025 | 34°60 | 27°79 173 | 26 Sule EO lt 3377342748 Net alm |i) = SUS) lee Pee é three short hauls on NCS-T |jf 5 ee 1445 | 1525 steeply shelving 60 0°85 | 33°76 | 27°07 ground 174 | 26- TNE j| 28 EGS ena 175 | 28 fo) ray || syigeya ||| ayray || —= |) = DLH 200 2018 | 2025 190 | — 0-48 | 34°34 | 27°62 176 | 3 N 100 H o-5 0948 | 1023] I net slightly torn > 89 ei\erozn lez . 178 ms 1022 | I RG N 70H 0-5 1037 | 1050 4 ” 87 ” ” 4 22 175 ” ” z KT it || 3 fo) Crag || sere || ypu || = || = — NH fe) 1830 DLH 1080 1908 | 1914 178 | 7 TNL 17 179 | 9 DS 4-10 1430 | 1530 | — | three short hauls N 70H o-I 1500 | I510 Sh. coll 180 | 9 © || =er~e || ers || aoe || — || — — DLH 160 IOOr | 1007 150 One) |) evict) || ees || 9 |) OTL Eig 160-330 | 1304 | 1 N4-T 33 3047 152334 NCS-T N 100 H o-5 1436 | 1500] I » 55 56 1458 I ” II0 5%) 1459 | I KT N 70H 0-5 1514 | 1524 4 » 43 ” » 4 ” 86 ” ” ¢ KT 181 | 10 O) |= 0:05) | 33-10) || 26-59) || — ||| — OTL | : . : ee tae = N7-T 375 C4 SAO e | 27574 Nat - 160-335 | 1035 | 1048 NCS-T 182 | 12 ON 0;2 Ta 832-045). 20:475 || OTL : . : 2h = N7-T se Catz 034-449) 27.06 Na + 278-500 | 1512 | 1532 NCS-T 183 | 12 - N 100 H 0-5 1720) 7A, || ” 68 ” »” I ” 137 ” 5 I KT N 70 H o-5 1803 | 1812 } ” 69 ” ” 4 ” 140 ” ’ + KE 184 | 13 TNL 36 55 185—190 186 188 189 190 Position Gerlache Strait, Palmer Archi- pelago, 3°5 miles S 119° E of C van Wycks, Anvers I Fournier Bay, Anvers I, Palmer Archipelago, 64° 25’ 30” S, 63° 02’ 00” W Neumayr Channel, Palmer Archipelago, nea 64° 48’ 30” 5S, 63° 31’ 30” W SW of Bismarck Strait, Pal- mer Archipelago, 64° 58’ 00” S, 65° 11’ 00” W Port Lockroy, Wiencke I, Palmer Archipelago Bismarck Strait, Palmer Archipelago, 64° 56’ 00” S, 65° 35’ 00” W 16 ill 16 iil 18 il 19 iil Hour 1600 1700 0800 0945 1200 1218 1325 1600 1600 2000 1200 1600 2000 0000 0400 0600 0800 II4o I200 R.R.S. Discovery Sounding (metres) 295 m. 200 gy.m. 354 m. 259 m. 308 r. T415 | 315 m.r. 1541 1600 93 f. 126 Stam. i. WIND ENE ENE NE NE 56 wn HOH OWW OA oO SEA ENE ENE nur (0) (0) (©) (0) fo)! (oy fo) Weather Barometer (millibars) 990 996-1 988-6 ggI'l 996°7 998°4 995°1 968-0 9767 977°2 980-4 996°3 998°3 983°5 987°5 Air Temp. ° Cent. 06 0:6 eu Remarks v. heavy swell »” R.R.S. Discovery 185—190 HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS Remark TIME _|Length cas of tow Depth : ° as 2 Depth ee Shot |Hauled | (miles) metres : p.m. ; - pi. (metres) Age of moon 100-50 250-100 500-250 Oe) 95 190 CaS 74 148 I Ie 100-0 50-0 100-50 195-100 KT a ps 1 4 dl. 4 KT | trawl hitched; net | 259-354 mainly lost stop parted al abla KT RR RIS KT 21-23 ill 22 ill 22 ill A) 23 ui. Streamed BJ fromanchored ship 23-25 ill TD 20 m. 50-0 100-0 250-100 KT. Net touched bottom BRI RIE KT 191—194 R.R.S. Discovery WIND SEA Bo a 5 ‘ Sod es | Fe ee Position Date | Hour Genes) < 9 9 Weather 5s BS Remarks aI i ti uw i i = ‘Ss “Ho nN irection é Direction é aS) 2 1927 ; 191 |Gerlache Strait, Palmer] 25 iii | 0800 — = I — o | b.c. | 998-3 |—0-6 Archipelago, 1050 310 2°5 miles N 114° E of C m. di. oz. Astrup, Wiencke I 1200 _— = ° _ fo) b.c. |1000°9} 06 192 | Off C Kaiser, Brabant I,] 27 iii | 1200 — = I — I c: 10048 |— 0-6 Palmer Archipelago, 1440 800 64° 14’ 00" S, 61° 49’ 00” W di. oz. 1600 = = I — I Cc 1006-2] 0-6 193 | 174 miles N of Hoseason I,| 28 iii | 1100] 1021 r. Palmer Archipelago, 1200 — NE 3 NE 2 | b.c. | 1008-5] o-o 63° 24’ 00” S, 61° 33’ 00” W 1600 ~- NE 2 — I b. | 1008-3] 06 194 | 21 miles E of Deception I,] 28 iii | 2000 = = I —- I b. v. | 1008-7] 06 S. Shetlands, 2100 812 62° 57’ 30” S, 60° 22’ 00” W di. oz. 0000 = NW 2 NW 2 Co) 1009°0| 0-0 R.R.S. Discovery 191—194 HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS a a | 2s 2 Es Remarks s s~ | Depth| Temp. | ao, POs oO, Depth TIME Length e 2 | (metres)| ° Cent. S “Too ou pH |mgm ce. pl. Gear (metres) of tow Shot |Hauled | (miles) TD 183 m. IH IR ID) 22m. - 100-50 BO) fie Sas | 337530) 209508 20 ae — > 250-100 40 |—0°30 | 33°56 | 26:97 | 8-10 | — = x 500-250 5O)-=(0:30) |/23:60) | 277-02) ||(82L0) ||) — = ” 750-500 ws || tose 60 | — 0°29 | 33°60 | 27-02 | 8-09 | — — |Ni100H 0-5 1605 | 1634 | I 80) |) 0:22) 1/3370 ||| 27-101|"8:02) | — = 9 53 » » u MOO! |= 0:2) 1/°32°86) || 27-21 ||| 8:00) || — “= » 106 » » A KT 150 0:00 | 34:22 | 27-49 | 7:98 | — — N 70H Cs5 1648 | 1657 i Z00\| 0°00: | 34-38 | 27°63 | 7°95 | — | — ” 61 » ” z 300 @:02, 9 |Paqeen || 27273) 1147-05) | = 3 122 5) . + | KE 400 | — 0°06 | 34°54 | 27°76 | 7°95 600 | — 0°28 | 34°56 | 27-78 | 7°95 780 | — 0°49 | 34°58 | 27°81 | 7-96 193 | 24 fo) Hoey || Sera || Ze euey || tee) | — — N50 V 100-0 L100! |||) — — | TD25 m. 10 0-00 | 33°80 | 27-16 | 8-16 | — a N70 V 50-0 ZON|10:08) 139-0000 27-2011| O-14 | = 4 100-50 216) || =O || exe || 272%) |) CHel) |) == = % 250-100 fig) || = (orate || syiey> || Areaiy || tsHele) || = = ” 500-250 fo) |) —=Coraeis ) SYRiKo) || AGP re || Holy || — = » 750-500 60 |/— 0-17 || 34°14 || 27:45 | 8:07 | — = ” 1000-750 — || tae 80 | —0:20 | 34°27 | 27°55 | 8:04 | — — |Ni100H O-5 1253 | 1326] 1 100 | — 0:36 | 34°31 | 27°59 | 8:04 | — = » 73 » » u : E5005 || 34:33 || 27°00 | 8:00 | — | — - 146 » »» I KT 200 | —0°58 | 34°37 | 27°65 | 8:00 | — = N 70H 0-5 1345 | 1357 i 300 |— 0:66 | 34-44 | 27-70 | 7-98 | — = ” 75 ” » t p 400 | —0:26 | 34°51 | 27°74 | 7:96 | — = » 150 » ” # | KE BERR 59 195—199 R.R.S. Discovery WIND SEA Position Sounding | | aun |\weather (metres) Barometer (millibars) 195 | Admiralty Bay, King George I, S Shetlands, 62° 07’ 00" S, 58° 28’ 30” W 196 | Bransfield Strait, S Shetlands, 62° 17’ 30" S, 58° 21’ 00” W 1055| «1011 di. oz. 1200 — 1210 720 m. di. oz. slight SE swell 3 iv | 1600 — : .c. | 998-4]—6:1 | slight SE swell 197 | Bransfield Strait, S Shetlands, 62° 27’ 00” S, 58° 11’ 30” W 1620 1974 di. oz. 2000 = 1000°9 |— 6-7 198 | Bransfield Strait, S Shetlands, 62° 38’ 00" S, 58° 04’ 00” W rooro|—7-2 | slight SE swell OES | 7) 199 | Bransfield Strait, S Shetlands, 1002°2 |— I0°0 62° 49° 00” S, 57. 56’ 30” W 1001'0 |—8-9 196 197 198 199 g HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ES ict P.O; B [Depth| TER | Selec | ot | PH |mam.| cou. 26 fo) 0:92. s633-80) 27-00 | —- 380 CreyL |) syicato) || ezeou |) = | — 2 fo) Geils || Se Hey || yeutss || tePeoN| -- 10 0:18 | 33:86 | 27-19 | 8-16 | — -— 20 O18) |3ss05u |b27elo: | O20. | — 30 0:20 | 33°94 | 27:26 | 8-10 | — — 40 0:20 | 33°95 | 27°27 | 8:10 | — — 50 o-710 | 34°05 | 27°35 | 8:09 | — — 60 | — 0-04 | 34:05 | 27°36 | 8:07 | — — 80 | — 0-02 | 34°05 | 27°36 | 8:05 | — — 100 0:04 | 34:11 | 27-41 | 8:00 | — — 150 |—o-2I | 34°14 | 27°45 | 8:00 | — — 200 0:00 | 34:38 | 27-63 | 7:96 | — — 300 | — 0°72 | 34°42 | 27°69 | 795 | — | — AE) || (OW VGN ez 7ey || J) || a 650 | — 0°73 | 34°47 | 27°74 | 8-or 2 fo) 008 | 33°98 | 27°31 | 8:16 | — — 10 0:05 | 34:04 | 27°35 | 8:16 | — — 20 G07) ||'48295) (27232 |) oO) || — 30 O10 | 33°98 | 27°30 | 8-16 | — 40 O10 | 34:04 | 27°34 | 8:16 | — — 50 | 009 | 34°04 | 27°34 | 815} — | — 60 OOM |33°09)| 272301] 6-13) || — — 80 |—o-10 | 34:09 | 27-40 | 8-08 | — — 100 | —0:46 | 34:23 | 27°53 | 8:02 | — — 150 | —0°68 | 34:41 | 27°67 | 7-98 | — — 200 | —o-71 | 34:41 | 27°68 | 7-98 | — — 300 | — 0°82 | 34°56 | 27-81 | 7:96 | — — ACOs O85 nh 4557) lez Sse 7-90) | —— | 600 | — 1-11 | 34°60 | 27°85 | 7:96 800 | — 1°33 | 35:062] 28-237] 7-98 1000 | — 1°53 | 34°63 | 27:90 | 8:00 1500 | — 1:67 | 34:65 | 27-91 | 8-00 1g0o |— 1°70 | 34:60 | 27-87 | 8-00 2 © | —0:20 | 33°98 | 27:32 | 8:16 | — — 10 | —0:22 | 33°95 | 27:29 | 8:15 | — = 20 |—o-18 | 33°95 | 27:29 | 8:15 | — = 30 | — 0°45 | 34°04 | 27°37 | 812 | — = 40 |—0°56 | 34:12 | 27°44 | 8:09 | — | — 50 |—0'58 | 34°12 | 27-44 | 80g | — | — 60 | —0°58 | 34:18 | 27-50 | 8:09 | — = 80 |—o50 | 34°17 | 27°49 | 8:03 | — | — 100 | — 0°59 | 34:29 | 27°58 | 7-98 | — | — USO 0:08 1134-34) || 27:03) 17°98 | —— | 200 | — 0°63 | 34:42 | 27°68 | 7-98 | — — 300 |—0-70 | 34°47 | 27°74 | 796 | — | — 400 |—0'85 | 34°47 | 27°74 | 7°96 600 | —0-76 | 34:49 | 27°75 | 8:00 800 | —0-94 | 34°52 | 27°78 | 8:00 1000 | — 1°13 | 34-49 | 27°76 | 8:00 1500 |—1-74 | 34°87 | 28-09 | 8-o1 3 ©0775, |34c10| 27°44.) S12 | — | — 10 |—o-78 | 34:12 | 27-45 | 8:12 | — = ZON||—0:70)4|| 34°22) \\ 27-53 18:02) —— = 30 |—0°79 | 34°22 | 27°53 | 810 | — | — R.R.S. Discovery BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS 7 Depth Gear Gace) DLH 391 OTM N 7-T N50 V 100-0 N 70 V 50-0 100-50 250-100 61 TIME Shot 2220 0go0 Length of tow Hauled | (miles) BIS DRI erste 195—199 Remarks trawl hitched as soon as shot TD 18 m. touched bottom KT Key KT KT AMID) 23 sone 199—203 R.R.S. Discovery WIND Sounding (metres) Position Weather Direction 199 | Bransfield Strait, S Shetlands, 62° 49’ 00" S, 57° 56’ 30” W cont. 1455 345 m. di. oz. 1600 — 200 | Bransfield Strait, S Shetlands, } 4 iv 62° 59’ 30” S, 57° 49’ 00” W NNE | 4 | NNE 201 | Bransfield Strait,S Shetlands, } 5 iv — WNW | 5 | WNW | 3 63° 00’ 30” S, 59° 06’ 30” W 343 m. di. oz. — SE 1600 — 1720 909 di. oz. 2000 = 202 | Bransfield Strait,S Shetlands, | 5 iv 62° 48’ 00” S, 60° 05’ 00” W 203 | Bransfield Strait, S Shetlands, 5-6 62° 56’ 00" S, 59° 50’ 00” WI _siiv 2 o.S.m. Cah fp Remarks Barometer (millibars) 999°4 |— 0° 99352 imo nO 993°7 |— 61 Io) ae ye) 992°8 |— 5:0 OSI maa QOS EY R.R.S. Discovery 199—203 BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS i=] 6 | 23 ‘2 2 Remarks 8 Rohs) P.O; TIME Length a | 2 | Depth vee: Sis/an at pH |mgm. es 1 Gear wee a | ans (Ok tow: < | (metres) : p.m.* a eiic ; Shot | Hauled| (miles) 500-250 BRR RIS - 100-0 IO |—O°70 | 34°20 | 27-52 | 8:09 | — -— N70V 50-0 20 |—0-70 | 34:25 | 27°56 | 8:09 | — ~- * 100-50 250-100 ? not fishing properly KT KT 330-250 50 | —0-48 | 34°17 | 27-48 | 8-08 | — — 0-5 0930 | 1012 | I 60 |— 0-47 | 34:17 | 27:48 | 8-05 | — -— D 60 >» ” I 80 | — 0-61 | 34:18 | 27°50 | 8:04 | — = 55 120(-0) oe e I KT. Net torn 100 | — 0°72 | 34:27 | 27°58 | 7°99 | — ss N 70H O55 1047 | 1054 i 150 | —o-85 | 34:36 | 27-65 | 7-98 | — — 3 45(-0) 1026 | 1041 + go(-0) ; | KT 100-0 10 |—o-r4 | 33°95 | 27:29 | 815 | — | — | N70V 50-0 20) ||— 0:12) | 33:95 | 27-29 | 8-15) | — = » TOG 5S 30 | —o-1r | 33°96 | 27-30 | 8:13 | — = ” Zoe AO) |= 0:10))|| 34-00) | 27-32) ||| (8-13 |) — = » O90 Az5° 50 | —o-12 | 34:00 | 27-33 | 8-12 | — = ” TSS 939-759 203—209 Position 203 | Bransfield Strait,S Shetlands, 62° 56’ 00" S, 59° 50’ 00” W 204 | Bransfield Strait, S Shetlands, 63° 05’ 00" S, 59° 42’ 00” W 205 | Bransfield Strait, S Shetlands, 63° 14’ 00” S, 59° 34’ 00” W 206 | Bransfield Strait, S Shetlands, 63° 26’ 00” S, 59° 28’ 00” W 207 | Bransfield Strait, S Shetlands. From 62° 54’00"S, 59° 50’ 30” W to 62° 49’ 30” S, 60° 10’ 30” W 208 | Off Livingston I, S_ Shet- lands, 62° 49’ 30” S, 60° 10’ 30” W 209 | Port Foster, Deception I, S Shetlands R.R.S. Discovery Sounding (metres) Ren. Direction Direction o800 943 di. oz. 1545] 310 m. di. oz. 1600 ae Weather Remarks Barometer (millibars) QIN SS 2 |b.c.s.| 992°9 |—2°2 R.R.S. Discovery _ 203—209 HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS TIME _|Length Remarks _————S=, | Oi Oy Shot |Hauled | (miles) Depth | Temp. 2 “ (metres)| ° Cent. , Spall: (metres) Age of moon (days) o-5 0045 | O1I9 go ” ” 180 PP * O-5 0135 | 0146 68 a 4 139 ” ” fers eta 100-0 50-0 100-50 250-100 500-250 ets tsa 100-0 TD 153 m. 50-0 100-50 225-100 BRIE BIE KT TD 26 m. net torn els BH IH IH KT 32 consecutive hauls (A-GG) of ro mins. duration. Sunrise 0645 DGT TD 9 m. 209—214 R.R.S. Discovery: Sounding Position (metres) Direction Direction Port Foster, Deception S Shetlands Boyd Strait, 5 Shetlands. From| 14-15 62° 47'00"S,62°10'00" Wto} iv 62° 39’ 30” S, 62° 28’ 30” W Drake Strait, 15 iv 62° 35’ 00” S, 63° 20’ 00” W Drake Strait, 16 iv |0700 61° 15’ 00” S, 64° 42’ 50” W 0800 1200 Drake Strait, 16 iv 60° 45’ 30” S, 65° 27’ 30” W Drake Strait, 17 iv ca. 4000 60° 11’ 00” S, 66° 15’ 00” W = 66 Weather Barometer (millibars) 986°4) 0-0 989-0 |—1'1 990°3 |—1'1 991-6 |— 0-6 9942] 0-0 9948 | 0-6 Remarks SW swell mod. SW swell slight NW swell ” heavy NW swell »” heavy NW swell © mod. NW swell R.R.S. Discovery 209—214 HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS TIME Length Remarks of tow Depth Age of moon (metres)| ~ : a m. eRe (metres) Shot |Hauled| (miles) 0-5 : 40 consecutive hauls (A-PP) of 10 mins. 0-5 . duration. Moonlight, moon set 0400 100-0 Di265ms 50-0 100-50 250-100 500-250 Ua 1000-750 A 2000-1600 N 100 H O-5 N 70 H ” 100-0 50-0 100-50 250-100 500-250 750-500 1000~750 1500-1000 fo) 214—218 ee Sounding Position (metres) 214 | Drake Strait, cont. | 60° 11' 00" S, 66° 15’ 00” W 215 | Drake Strait, ° 59° 58’ 00" S, 67° 02’ 00” W 216 | Drake Strait, 18 iv 5On531.00" 9,672 155) Con Wi 217 | Drake Strait, 18 iv | 2000 Bon 2730 SO O7m5 5s CO! WV, 0000 218 | Drake Strait, 1g iv | 1200 57° 32 00" S, 67° 04’ 00” W [station repeated on 21 iv, St, 219] 4650 R.R.S. Discovery Direction NW Remarks Barometer (millibars) 4°4. | heavy W swell 44 »” 4:4 | heavy W swell ” 9791} 5°6 | heavy NW and ESE swell R.R.S. Discovery 214—218 g HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS Ee = SS | Depth | Temp. 8 P:Os! 0, De TIME |Length Remarks B Jimena) °Cear. | Seo ot | PH [memo pa] Cem Ca EE af fo 30 1°96 | 33°81 | 27-04 | 8-16 | — = N70 V | 250-100 40 1°93 | 33°81 | 27:05 | 8-16 22 5 500-250 50 1°93 | 33°82 | 27:06 | 8:16 | — — * 750-500 60 I'92 | 33°82 | 27-06 | 8-15 | — | 7-43 5 1000~750 80 I'gl | 33°82 | 27:06 | 8-15 | — — 55 2000-1000 | — | 1215 100 189 | 33°82 | 27:06 | 8-14 7°41 150 | 1°25 | 33°99 | 27°23 | 8:09 200 1°54 | 34°06 | 27-28 | 8-09 300 1°57 | 34°16 | 27°35 | 8:02 400 | 2:20 | 34°22 | 27°34 | 7:99 | — | 6-73 600 223934739) |) 744. | 795 800 | 2°34 | 34°49 | 27°55 | 7°95 1000 2:28 | 34°58 | 27°64 | 7°95 4:23 1500 | 2°07 | 34°67 | 27°72 | 7°97 2000 | 1°79 | 34°69 | 27°75 | 7:99 | — | 4°34 N 100 H 0-5 2216 | 2251 I 3 60(-0) r FF, I 120(—60) - aa I KT N 70H 0-5 2309 | 2321 i ” 64 » » i 5 128 5 5 || Tit fo) 3°92 | 34:00 | 27-02 | 8-18 | — | 6:80 | N50 V 100-0 SS || — — | TD 324m. fe) B:9L | 33599) || 27:02) ||| 8:18.) — = N70 V 50-0 20 3°90 | 34:00 | 27-02 | 8-18 | — | 6:96 5 100-50 30 3°90 | 34:05 | 27°06 | 8-18 | — — < 250-100 40 3°90 | 34°05 | 27-06 | 8-18 | — 5 500-250 50 3°90 | 34:05 | 27:06 | 8-16 | — — & 750-500 60 3°90 | 34°05 | 27:06 | 8-16 | — | 6:96 5 1000~750 80 3°90 | 34:09 | 27-09 | 8-16 | — — " 1500-1000 | — | 1550 | — | net foul 100 3°89 | 34°09 | 27-09 | 8-16 | — | 6-93 150 3°58 | 34°11 | 27°14 | 8-12 200 2°92 | 34°13 | 27°22 | 8-10 300 3°22. | 34°18 | 27-24 | 8-07 400 2°80 | 34:21 | 27:29 | 8:04 | — | 6:44 600 | 2°51 | 34°30 | 27°39 | 7°98 800 | 2°53 | 34°45 | 27°51 | 7°97 1000 2B eZAc54y |92700)\|7-90 | —— I) 4226 1500 | 2°19 | 34°70 | 27°74 | 7:96 2000 | 1°87 | 34°74 | 27°80 | 7-97 | — | 429 3500 o'9I N 100 H o-5 2207 | 2244 I . 5 I Slee el yee es a9 || N 70H O-5 2316 | 2325 t » 53 2258 | 2312 | 5 106(-0) : ” ¢ | KT ¢ 5°86 | 34°13 | 26-90 | 8-18 | — N50 V 100-0 Aes || — — | high wind and rough zo 5°85 | 34°13 | 26:90 | 8-18 | — — N70V 50-0 sea; much stray on 20 5°85 | 34:14 | 26-92 | 8:18 | — — 7 100-50 wires. Depths of 30 5°84 | 34:14 | 26-92 | 8:18 | — = a 250-180 water-bottles and 40 5°83 | 34°14 | 26-92 | 8-18 | — = zs 500-230 nets below roo m. 50 5°83 | 34:14 | 26-92 | 8-18 | — = Ke 750-500 unreliable. Nets be- Gow 53830 a4ce4s ll) 20:92) 6828 |) x 1000-750 | — | 1430] — low 250 m. not fish- 80 5°83 | 34:14 | 26-92 | 8-18 ing properly 100 5°83 | 34°14 | 26-92 | 8-18 150 5°20 | 34:20 | 27-04 | 8-15 200 4:98 | 34:23 | 27:09 | 8-11 69 218—224 R.R.S. Discovery SEA Sloe) | << —| Weather Remarks Position (metres) Barometer (millibars) Direction 218 | Drake Strait, 57. 32 00” S, 67° 04’ 00” W cont. 1200 ac! v. heavy conf. swell . . ” 219 | Drake Strait, 21 iv 1600 57° 32 00’ S, 67° 04’ 00” W y. heavy conf. swell ” Drake Strait, 57. 16’ 00” S, 67° 06’ 00” W heavy W swell Drake Strait, 56° 11’ 40” S, 67° 32’ 30” W St Martin’s Cove, Hermite I, Cape Horn St Francis’ Bay, C Horn, Bye Bit nS Ss, 67° 29' 30” W Off Cape Horn, x 3 : mod. N swell 55. 46’ 30” S, 66° 36’ 00” W x x . . 5 70 R.R.S. Discovery 218—224 g HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS Eg $5 - Remarks Z| Depth] Temp. 2 2 oO, TIME Length & Gee) ° ae S */oo ot pH |mgm. cc. pil. Gear (ee) ae OE WO p-m. Shot |Hauled| (miles) ——SE Ee ee ee 300 4°89 | 34:23 | 27:10 | 811 400 4°89 | 34°26 | 27-12 | 8:09 600 | 4°54 | 34°23 | 27°14 | 8:09 800 1000 fo) 5°88 | 34:11 | 26-88 | 8-18 | — | 6:93 10 5°88 | 34:11 | 26°88 | 8-18 | — _- 20 5°87 | 34°13 | 26-90 | 8:18 | — | 6-73 30 5°87 | 34°11 | 26°89 | 8-18 | — — 40 5°87 | 34°13 | 26-90 | 8:18 | — - 50 5°86 | 34:14 | 26-92 | 8-18 | — — 60 5°86 | 34°16 | 26-93 | 8:18 | — | 6-73 80 5°86 | 34:16 | 26-93 | 8:18 100 5°83 | 34°16 | 26-93 | 8:14 | — | 6°73 TD) 27m: KT KT. ?not fishing properly TD 18 m. TNL 30 -- — | 22-23 iv NRL || ate NCS-N |/ 30-35 6950) | LOTs || 2312V7 N 70H O-5 1000 | 1010 23 iv Sh. coll. = 1430 | 1600 | — | 23 iv TNL 35 = = — | 23-24 iv Sh. coll. = 1500 | 1630 25 iv. Freshwater —_— akes, 300-350 ft. NRL NCS_-N N 100 H ”» ~ 110 - - I KT N 70 H o-5 2210 | 2221 tL 56 t i. 4 aps 225—229 R.R.S. Discovery Seen. | —<———=—— Weather Remarks Position (metres) Barometer (millibars) Direction Direction 225 | 54° 28’ 30S, 65° 18’ 30” W 3°9 | mod. NW swell 226 | 54° 15’ 00” S, 64° 18’ 00” W WSW 227 | 54°02’ 00” S, 63° 16’ 00” W 228 | 53° 33’ 00"S, 61° 49’ 30” W 993'7| 7:2. | heavy WSW swell 992'4| 83 » 4v_ | 1600 = WNW | 4 pie 3:9 |v. heavy W swell 1640 | 384 s. st. 2000 — 229 | 53°40’ 00"S, 61° 10’ 00” W W 2 72 § g Onn £ Ee ~ wea iS on ~ o~ n & < 228 | 2 Depth (metres) HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS Temp. eiCent. NN HO Ny nN oN SYST SY STE ST SSNS ST N AWN UU IS) N R.R.S. Discovery BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS Gear N50 V N70V > N roo H ” ” N 70H Depth (metres) 75-0 50-0 85-50 o-5 32 64 O55 100-0 50-0 100-50 250-100 500-250 650-500 Oe 40(—0) 80(—40) O-5 45 go TIME Shot 1500 1539 Hauled Length of tow (miles) al RR RRR io RIE BIR aii! BIR BIR RIE 225-229 Remarks TD 19 m. KE KT TD 25 m. cay KT KT. Not fishing pro- perly TD 233 m. KT ? not fishing properly KT. ? not fishing properly mass of kelp on re- lease gear KT 229—234 R.R.S. Discovery WIND SEA Sick |-——— — | = Weather Remarks Position Date | Hour (metres) Barometer (millibars) Direction O27) 229 | 53° 40’ 00” S, 61° 1000” W | 4v cont. 230 | 53° 17'00"S, 60° 25’ 00” W heavy SW swell 231 | 51°29’ 30"S, 57°18’ 15” W 232 | 51° 19’ 45"S, 57°07’ 00” W slight E swell 233 | 51°07’ 40"S, 56° 53’00” W 7 — WNW | 2 | WNW INx Wi) 4{|NxWwW 234 | 50° 53’50”S, 56° 36’ 30” W 29V |1325| 492r. 1600 == NxW|3/NxW] 2 74 R.R.S. Discovery 229—234 BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS cont. 200 5°2 34°05 300 4°65 | 34:09 | 27:01 | 8:07 315 | 4°54 | 34°13 | 27°05 | 8:07 Tie) 100-0 g HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS fo] OK fe) ie et B | cs P.O 5 o~ | Depth} Temp. = Ete 2 Depth n Pp Pp 2 ept = | (metres)| ° Cent. S) des ot pH ar) ce. p.l. Gear (metres) 34:02 = — N70 V 50-0 20 6:2 24°03 | 2677 | 8:18) | — — 5 100-50 30 6:26 | 34:03 | 26°77 | 8:18 | — — 250-100 40 6:26 | 34°03 | 26°77 | 8:18 | — —_ . 500-250 50 6:25 | 34:04 | 26-78 | 8:18 | — — " 660-500 60 6:25 | 34:05 | 26-79 | 8-18 | — — |N100H 0-5 80 6:2 34:06 | 26-80 | 8-16 | — — FA 70 100 6:05 | 34:09 | 26°84 | 8:13 | — — i. 141 150 Rent ie34-3) | 20:049)|) 8203) | — N 70 H 0-5 200 | 5°33 | 34°15 | 26:99 | 8:09 | — | — » 77 300 | 4°65 | 34°18 3:07) Wea =n » 155 100-0 33°75 | 26°53 =) AN Oy 50-0 20 6:47 | 33°75 | 26:53 | 8:20 | — — : 100-50 39 6:47 | 33°75 | 2653 | 8:20 | — =, ” T35—q100 40 6°47 2.6°53)1|)8:20) ||) — — |Ntit00H 0-5 45 TIME Shot 1916 1943 1857 1929 = 1855 1917 | 1942 1955 | 2008 Length of tow Hauled | (miles) riers) HoH BIRR RIE PIR RIE RR BH IRR | BIE BIHAR Remarks Ken properly water-bottle touched bottom not fishing KT TD 24 m. 234—238 R.R.S. Discovery WIND Position Hour poe Weather Remarks Barometer (millibars) Air Temp 1740 600 aay 18 Ss blk. spk. 2000 — NW 235 | 50° 45’ 00" S, 56° 18’ 30” W 29 V 236 | 50°35’ 30S, 55°59 15° W ‘| 29-30] 2155 612 Vv Me t.S- blk. spk. 0000 = Nee Walls o800 — 0840 go4. meitese blk. spk. 1200 —- NW 237 | 50°17’ 40"S, 55° 31’ 30” W 30V slight N swell 238 | 48° 12’ 00"S, 51° 56’ 30” W 7 NW 5 NW 5 2 NWxW| 5-7) NW : R.R.S. Discovery 234—238 HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS P.O; mgm p. Age of moon Depth TIME Length Remarks 7 ———S | OF ion Shot |Hauled | (miles) Depth | Temp. O, Cen Gear (metres) a0) ce. pl. (metres) 1443 ” 1549 ” 100-0 50-0 100-50 250-100 500-250 O-5 70 I41 O-5 76 152 100-0 50-0 T00-50 250-100 500-250 Io KT. ? not properly 77 239—249 Position R.R.S. Discovery Sound | ee Hour Gaches) Weather Barometer (millibars) Direction 46° 56’ 00" S, 46° 03’ 00” W 46° 36’ 30” S, 45° 07’ 00” Ww 40° 34’ 30”S, 36° 35’ 30” W 39° 16’ 30”S, 30° 26’ 00” W From 38° 48’ 00” S, 27° 22’ | 8-9 vi oo” W to 38° 46’ oo” S, 27° 04’ 00” W 38° 26’ 30", 24° 48’ 30” W 38° 20’ 00" S, 22° 18’ 00” W 38° 00’ 30” S, 18° 27’ 00” W 37° 20’ 00"S, 12° 47’ 30” W 37. 15'00"S, 12°20’ 00” W 36° 19’ 30S, 8° 40’ 30” W NW NW NW SSW SSW WNW W WNW WNW Hat 15°0 Remarks mod. NW swell slight NW swell heavy SW swell slight SW swell ” conf. swell mod. W swell R.R.S. Discovery 239—249 HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS TIME Length Remarks a Sa LOnitow Shot |Hauled | (miles) Age of moon Depth | Temp. ! 5 (metres)} ° Cent. 80 ; 5 ol; (metres) 34°42 | 26°50 KT KT. Not fishing pro- perly CO(DD 2100| (time) = 42 consecutive hauls 0030 s (A-RR) of Io mins. 0400 a : duration. Moon set 0130 KT. Not fishing pro- perly KT 79 249—260 252 253 254 255 256 257 258 259 260 Position 36° 19’ 30” S, 8° 40’ 30” W 36° 09/00” S, 5° 33’ 00" W age 54. 30” S Bony 30" W 2542000" 9, 114g) 300 35° 06’ 00"S, 2° 19 00” E 35°04'00"S, 2°59 30 E 2415900! 93543100; 35. 1400'S, 6° 49’ 00” E 35 01 00'S, 10° 18’ 00” E 35° 03’ 30” S. 13°55’ 00" E 34° 59’ 00” S, 16° 39/00" E 331,00) 30) 95) 1745) B50 Date 20 V1 2I Vi 21 Vi 23 Vi 24 V1 25 Vi 26 vi 1g Vil Hour 2000 2000 0000 2000 0000 1200 2000 2000 0000 1200 2000 0000 2000 0000 2000 0000 R.R.S. Discovery Sounding (metres) WIND SEA Direction = Direction ios SES Sis) Ska SE 4 SE ESE 5 SE SE 5 SE ESE 5 ESE ESE 4 ESE SE 3 SE E o-I - ESE 3 ESE ENE 3 ENE NxW]|4|NxW INI | NE Wi SSW 4 SSW SW 3 SW ENE 2 ENE ENE 4 ENE S 4 S Ss o-I ~- 80 WwW Weather b.c. w. Barometer (millibars) 1029°9 1034'0 1O8 3% 10245 1023°9 1023°3 1024°2 1026°5 1024°4 1021°3 IOI4‘1 IOI2"4 10230 10240 1018°5 IOI4*4 1020°5 1021°6 14-4 12°8 I2°2 12'8 12:2 15"0 16°1 16°1 15°0 15°0 Remarks mod. SSW swell mod. E swell mod. SW swell ” heavy SSW swell heavy SW swell mod. SW swell heavy SW swell mod. SW swell mod. S swell R.R.S. Discovery 249—260 HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS : BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ; Remarks Depth | Temp. alts Os Gear ees ee eee (metres) ent. .m. ve ie mactres Shot |Hauled| (miles) Age of moon N 70H 2220 a | A PR }H o | 16:20 | 35-10 | 25-80 ON D729 35255) 25:9" 1135 2102 2115 LAT DGB \j PRR RH N XN oo DGB. Specimens er- roneously labelled 370-450(—o) m. Ka ee ond BRR RR 165-100 104-0 81 It 261—265 Position 261 | 33° 06’ 30’S, 17°33 15" E 262 | 33° 06’ 30'S, 17°21’ 30" E 263 | 33° 06’00"S, 17°08’ 00” E 264 | 33° 06’00"S, 16°55’00” E 265 | 33° 06’ 30”S, 16° 32’ 00” E 1g Vil 1345 19 vii | 1600 1648 IQ Vil | 2000 19-20 | 2330 Vil 0000 20 Vil | 0350 0400 R.R.S. Discovery Sounding (metres) ; Direction 351 st. 386 gn. m. blk. spk. 461 645 gl. oz. 1620 gl. oz. ‘Weather Remarks Barometer (millibars) b.c. |1020°6] 16:1 | mod.S swell 1020'0| 15:6 | SSW swell 1020°4| 15:0 | mod. SSW swell 15-0 | mod. 5S swell Age of moon R.R.S. Discovery HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS Depth (metres) BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS Depth TIME Length San mes ON COM Shot |Hauled | (miles) (metres) 100-0 50-0 100-50 250-100 450-250 104-0 100-0 50-0 100-50 250-100 500-250 640-500 80-0 100-0 50-0 100-50 250-100 261—265 Remarks 265—279 R.R.S. Discovery SEA wo . al) ade Position ee Weather ES ES Remarks Direction Direction Py = a :. 265 | 33° 06’ 30” S, 16° 32’ 00” E 29° 34/00" S, 14°24’ 00” E 13" E ut 00" b.h. | 1014-1 | 21-7 7°51 00"S, 12° 42’ 00” E 4-5 b. | 1017-1 | 22°8 5° 54 00"S, 11° 19'00"E iii b.c. | 1015-0] 21-7 | slight SW swell b. IO15'7| 23°3 ” 1° 44'00"S, 8° 38’ 00” E 0. |1014*3] 23:9 | slight SW swell 0. |1014:8| 23°73 Off Port Gentil, French Congo, O. IOI2:2| 24°4 8 miles N 37° Eof C Lopez Lt Off C Lopez, French Congo. From 8-5 miles N 71° E to 15 miles N 24° E of C Lopez 0. | 1018-2] 24-4 Lt R.R.S. Discovery 265—279 HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS : Ee Sarl Remark ce P.O5 TIME Length CHRIS & peor pene: Sisiea ot pH |mgm.| 51 Gear ee SS OF tow ‘ p.m.® “Px: metres: Shot |Hauled] (miles) Aol) 15-30) | 35-28 || 20:14) || 8:35 | — = N 70H | 500-250 BON Ses pa -20) 20205, S335) — |) — » 750-500 Gomes 2355-26) e20eT5 al 6235) | = - 1000—750 SON Pens LON 35-25) |) 20s TAOssOn = . 1500-1000 | — | 0555 TOON |PeLAcS'7, | (35°25) || 20:27) |o:201|) —— — |N100B }\ ts 2 - 150 | 12°95 | 35:08 | 26-48 | 8-21 | — — |N70B }|J sino C6207 |/0830 || BSE 200 | 11°31 | 34°94 | 26-69 | 8-19 300 918 | 34:69 | 26°94 | 8-15 400 | 7°48 | 34°52 | 26-99 | 8:05 600 6°88 | 34°56 | 27-11 | 7:98 800 6°74 | 34°56 | 27°12 | 7°98 1000 | 5°37 | 34°42 | 27°19 | 7°98 1500 | 4:20 | 34°42 | 27°32 | 7:96 TYF 200(-0) 2124 | 2224 | 1:5 | DGB N 100 B 2 N70 B 124-0 2131 | 2151 3 KT TYF | 450-550(-o)| 2135 | 2235 | 1°7 | DGB N 100 B 2 4 l rae 2 | KT N70 B |{ 117-0 2142 | 2202 5 TYF | 100-150(-o)| 2120 | 2220 | 2°3 ) N 100 B 73-0 2128 | 2148 & | KT TYF = |600~—700(-0) TYF 200(-0) 2121 | 2221 | I'0 N 100 B || 126-0 2131 | 2151 29 Kor N70B |/ = = TNL 18 -- — — | 28-29 vii LH 18 —- — — | 28-30 vii NS 5-0 = — — |29vu Sh. coll. — — — = || 29-30 vil OW |F7-00 |3'5°39))|| 25:53), —) || — OTL | go}|| 14-40) 35-17) || 26:28) ||| — |) = N4T |; 73-91 1148 | 1248 | 2:0 Ncs-T || nar TYF |200-230(-0)| 2044 | 2144 19 DGB ES 118-o 2053 | 2113 P|) cab @ || seksv, || Soe || eae ||) = || — = OTL | O32) 14-40 |) 35:25) 26:33, — | _ Aa > 64-65 1330 | 1430 | 2 NCS-T | N 50H o-2 0030 | 0035 N 70H 5 1 =a a TYF r50(-o) | 205r | 2151 | 2°1 DGB SE. j F10-0 2101 | 2121 |) Sab TYF 63(-0) | 2042 | 2142 | 2 KT Aaa } 88-0 2053 | 2108 a | Aka N 70H o-I 2000 | 2230 | — | from anchored ship Oo | 24:60 | 33:08 | 22:22 | — | — — OTL | GO) 524-94 9)|035:345) 20-278) — | — | — | N7-E |\ N 4-T | 58-67 1135 | 1250 NCS-T N 70 H 85 280—290 R.R.S. Discovery WIND SEA at S . —————————— Position ee Weather Barometer (millibars) Direction 1927 00° 36’00"S, 8° 28’ 00” E 10 Viil 00° 46’ 00"S, 5° 49/15” E 12 Vill = Ty LL OO! 15515)7 39) 100) 1B 12 Vili Off Annobon, G of Guinea, | 14 viii 0-75 to 1 mile N 12° E of Pyramid Rk, Annobon ZI QTOO MS a5 200m E: 15 Vili SSW SW 2° 43/30” S, 00° 56’ 30” W 16 vill SW SW 3° 06’ 30" S, 3° 53’ 00" W 17 Viii S SxE WwW NWNNN 2° 49' 30", 9° 25’ 30" W 19 Viii ESE ESE Ne 00° 56’00"S, 14°08’ 30” Wf ar viii 3° 04’ 45” N, 16°52’ 00” W 290 | 3°25’25” N, 16°50’ 52” W 24 Vili | 0400 . | 10r5§:2| 24°4 0420 0800 s .c. | 1016-6] 25-0 Remarks slight 5 swell mod. SSW swell slight SSW swell mod. SW swell slight SSW swell slight 5S swell mod. SE swell ” R.R.S. Discovery 280—290 HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS Remarks Age of moon (days) Depth | Temp s O. TIME Length ep bY 2 lle ce | OF tor (metres) Cent. p-m. nie (metres) Shot |Hauled | (miles) TYF | 100~-200(-0)| 2058 | 2158 N 100 B || ya N70B |j 34 2107 | 2127 N 70H fc) 1345 | 1415 TYF |850-950(-0)| 1347 | 1517 1520 | 1530" 2051 | 2151 2059 | 2119 fe) 21°32 35°79 | t000 1130 21 | 16:59 | 35°50 J 2205 | 2225 125-175(—0)| 2042 | 2142 TYF 125(-0) 2049 | 2149 | 102-0 2057 | 2117 ~ 800-1000 1852 | 2052 (-0) } 124-0 2013 | 2033 fo) 2145 250(-0) 1859 | 2125 73-0 2014 | 2034 100-0 2058 | 2118 fo) 2100 | 2120 100-0 2030 50-0 100-50 250-100 500-250 Ue 1000-750 Nn Mosca cojeo celts 5 fo) 125-225(-0) f 132-0 100-0 50-0 100-50 250-100 500-250 USSR 1000-750 100(—0) 291—294 R.R.S. Discovery Sounding |—— Remarks Position Gace Barometer (millibars) Direction Direction nO 27] 291 | 3° 46’ 00” N, 16° 49’ 00” W 24 vili] 1020] 6040 1200 -= 292 | 4° 03/15” N, 16°51’ 00” W 24 Vili] 1444] 5700 1600 ~- .c. | 1016-4] 25°6 1016-4 | 25:0 1019°8 | 25-0 293 | 4° 18’ 15” N, 16° 51’ 00” W 24 Vili | 2000 : 0000 294 | 4° 3315" N, 16°52’ 45” W 25 Vili | 0400 Age of moon Depth (metres) R.R.S. Discovery HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS TYF N 100 B N70B TYF N 100 B N 70 B NH TYF \ J TIME Length of tow Depth Shot |Hauled | (miles) (metres) 250-100 500-250 Te 1000-750 100(—0) 113-0 100-0 50-0 100-50 250-100 500-250 To lg5 2° 1000-750 100~180(—o) } II0—-O0 100-0 50-0 100-50 250-100 500-250 USS 1000-750 1000-0 100-120(—0) } 84-0 100-0 50-0 100-50 250-100 500-250 750-500 ' fo) 0300 100-150(—-0)] 0335 291-—294 Remarks 294—299 R.R.S. Discovery WIND SEA Sounding (metres) ‘ ‘ . f Direction Direction Position Weather Remarks Barometer (millibars) 4° 33/15" N, 16°52’ 45” W = | 25 viii 5° 30’ 30” N, 17° 45’ 00” W 25 Vili| 1200 1600 8° 12’ 00" N, 18° 49’ 00” W 26 vill | 2000 12° 08’ 00” N, 20° 53'30” W_ | 28 viii NG: : mod. SSW swell 13°01’ 45” N, 21°34'45”W_ | 29 viii] 1200 Tarrafal, S Antonio, Cape] 4ix | 1200 Verde Is go Age of moon (days) R.R.S. Discovery HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS P.O; pH |mgm. p.m.° Temp. ° Cent. 14:26 13°30 TOS 9:08 7°88 6-66 5°32 4°61 7°95 7°96 7°83 775 7°79 7°76 7°76 7°94 2°85 — 2 ce. p.l. 25°22 | 36°36 | 24°33 BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS Depth TIME (metres) Gear ———— Shot |Hauled N 100 B || Ries J N 70 B 0345 TYF 2500-2700 (-c) TYF = | 450-500(-0) N 100 B |) i266 N70 B |) TYF = | 200-300(-0) N 100 B }| N 70 B |j 163-0 TYF goo-1200 294—299 Length Remarks of tow (miles) KT DGB two short hauls WS 1—12 Position 31° 52°00" 9, 17-47 00 E 22924400) 9 91325100) 15 27° 50/00" S, 15° 12’ 00" E 32° 45/00", 18° 10’ 00” E 35° 08’ 00" S, 13° 46’ 00” E 35° 28 00"S, 12° 12’ 00” E 10° 34’ 00° E 40°36 00'S, 5711 00! E Al +3200) 9, 3:41 co B 44° 59’ 00” S. 2° 44’ oo” W 43° 53/00"S, 4° 30' 00” W 48° 00’ 00” S, 10° 27’ 00” W 25 Viil 13 ix 17 ix 30 1x 22x R.S.S. William Scoresby Sounding (metres) WIND Direction WNW g2 SEA Direction 6 Barometer (millibars) 1003°3 o. h. q. | 1002°6 Remarks heavy SSW swell heavy 5S swell heavy SW swell heavy conf, swell heavy SE swell heavy ESE swell heavy SE swell heavy SW swell heavy W swell heavy W swell v. heavy SW swell R.S.S. William Scoresby WS 1—12 HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS Age of moon (days) P.O; TIME eenerk Remarks Depth | Temp. ° 2s O, Depth ___TIME | gth (metres)| °Cent. | & /oo ot pH aaa ce. p.1. Gear (metres) Shot |Hauled cates) o | 12°59 | 34:92 | 26°51 46| — |Ni00H 37 1930 el I a o | 13:29 | 35:01 | 26°37 | — 95 — |Ni00H 62 2032 | 2052 | I KT H O° o} 12:19 | 34°81 1918 1838 13°6 - |N100H O-5 2130 | 2200 | I Ps 50 2125) || 2155) | = 3 100 2115 | 2155 Iz N 70H 0-5 2300 | 2317 3 » 50 2310 | 2317 t a 100 2320 | 2337 = ogt5 N 70 H O-5 1035 | 1043 IOIl IOI 2134 12 rs 55(-0) 2132 | 2202 | I s 110(-55) | 2410 | 2202 | 13 | KT N 70H ° 2132 | 2140 4 7 50 2135 | 2143 t 5 100 2125 | 2143 4 0913 I 5 87 ogit | 0943 I » 174 ogos | 0943 | 12 | KT N 70 H 0-5 1002 | IOI! - ‘ 87 1010 | 1018 i s 174 too4 | 1018 1 2114 ” 87 22 22 i 174 2105 . 4 N 70H O-5 2209 | 2217 4 ” 87 ” ” t % 174 2200 a 4 4°94 | 34°14 | 27°03 : 0975 : a 50(-0) ogi2 | 0942 I 7 100 0907 | 0942 | It N 70H fo) IOI7 | 1023 t 57 1022 | 1029 4 1016 4 34°93 2110 I - 50 2115 | 2145 I ie 100 2107 | 2148 1} N 70H 0-5 2155 | 2203 | + ie 50 2214 | 2222 4 1 2208 2 wy 33.87) eget = — 0-5 0925 I " 82 0936 | 1006 I " 164 og22 | 1006 | if | KT N 70 H 0-5 roor | 1009 ; m 104 1055 | 1106 4 x 165 1027 | 1035 + 93 WS 13—20 Position 50° 12'00"S, 15° 13’ 00” W 50° 55’00"S, 17° 49 00” W 52° 40’ 00"S, 23°52’ 00” W Gee 56’ 00” S, 26° 17’ 00" WwW 345700 5, 33 23,00" W 54.07’ 00"S, 36° 23’ 00” W 54. 00’ 30” S, 36° 20’ 30” W 53° 52 30” S, 36° 00’ 00” W R.S.S. William Scoresby WIND SEA Sounding (metres) Direction Direction Barometer (millibars) WNW WNW 1007'1 |— 08 1013°7 |—I°I I13gy.m.| NNW NNW |6-7]r.1rs.0.| 100771] 1-7 128 r. NNW | 6 | NNW | 6 94 Remarks heavy W swell heavy W swell slight 5 swell mod. conf. swell mod. W swell mod. conf. swell mod. NW swell R.S.S. William Scoresby WS 13—20 HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS rs Remarks 3 TIME Length Depth | Temp. mgm. Depth ———_————_] of tow. (metres) Cent. _m. 2 Deke (metres) Shot |Hauled | (miles) Age of moon 5) WTS) || MOUS ao 0953) 2023 100 0944 | 1023 0-5 1020 | 1028 50 1046 | 1054 100 1040 | 1054 top colt 0-5 2113 | 2143 50 2122 | 2152 100 2115 | 2152 0-5 2147 | 2155 50 2217 | 2225 100 2211 | 2225 to I 0913") ©943 O9T7 | 0947 ogro Fe 0949) || 9957 IOII | 101g 1004 | 1019 Do BIR RIS BIE 2107 | 2137 2152 | 2122 2109 | 2139 2152 | 2200 2136 | 2144 2128 | 2158 2213 | 2243 2125 | 2155 2209 | 2217 2313 | 2321 2254 | 2302 = = PORRORS 1710 =r 1730 1912 | 1942 1920 | 1950 1905 | 1950 1944 | 1952 2015 | 2023 2008 | 2023 top I J top 1025 1330 1333 1326 1426 1431 1425 bol RI RR BIR 0830 WS 20—26 R.S.S. William Scoresby WIND Sounding | ——— Wee (metres) Position Date | Hour Remarks Barometer (millibars) oO . . oO . . Direction] §& | Direction & 1926 28 xi WS 21 | 53° 45’ 30” S, 35°48’ 00” W 28 xi |1400] 899g. | NNW | 3 | NNW mod. NW swell WS 22 | 53° 38’ 00"S, 35° 35’ 00” W 30 xi |/1415| 2260 NNE |1-2| NNE c slight conf. swell WS 23 | Government Jetty, Grytviken, | 7 xii | 1500 -c. | 984-9] 4:44 S Georgia 54. 12/07" S, 36° 28’ 07” W 10 xl | 1530 |172gn.m. : 996°7| 2:2 | slight NE swell 212gn.m. WS 25] Undine Harbour (North), 17 Xi1} 2030] 18 m.s. S Georgia WS 26] 53° 33’ 15S, 37° 45/15” W 18 xii] 1800] 1180 ExN gy. m. R.S.S. William Scoresby WS 20—26 HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS TIME Length of tow Depth | Temp. Shot |Hauled| (miles) (metres)} ° Cent. Age of moon 50-0 100-50 250-100 500-250 Tom OO O55 95 192 eb) go 192 WR BR BR BIR au 4 at 4 1 4 ah rs 1 net streamed by current 50-0 100-50 160-100 200-100 100-50 250-100 97 3 WS 26—30 R.S.S. William Scoresby SEA aoe Sounding Position (metres) WS 26 | 53°33’ 15"S, 37° 45/15" W cont. WS 27] 53° 55’ 00"S, 38° 01’ 00” W 19 xi1}o600] 80g. 19 ll | 1000 |346gy.m.} NE x E WS 28] 53° 48’ 15”S, 38° 13’ 00” W I50gy.m. WS 29] 53° 41'15"S, 38° 24’ 45” W 1g Xl | 1350 2582 ENE WS 380} 53° 34’15”"S, 38° 36’ 15” W 19-20 | 1835 Xil Weather Barometer (millibars) Remarks R.S.S. William Scoresby WS 26—30 HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS Age of moon TSF Tl crave cscay Remarks Depth | Temp. i Depth TIME Length (metres)| ° Cent. ° 3 pil. (metres) Shot |Hauled ey 500-250 141(-70) 70-0 50-0 75-50 0-5 53 z 107 3 KT. Net touched 0-5 1 bottom 104 4 Kei 100-0 near large iceberg 50-0 100-50 145-100 Hom rere DS) 50-0 100-50 250-100 500-250 750-500 1000-750 0-5 67 134(-67) O-5 50 99 WS 30—36 R.S.S. William Scoresby WIND SEA Sounding (metres) Remarks Position Barometer (millibars) Direction WS 380] 53° 34’ 15”S, 38° 36’ 15” W | 19-20 cont. Xii WS 31 | 54°52’ 00"S, 35° 36’00” W_ | 20 xii | 1600] 76 st. r. WS 82] Mouth of Drygalski Fjord, } 21 xii | 1220 225 S Georgia gy.m. WS 83 | 54° 59'00"S, 35°24'00" W_ ‘| 21 xii | 1530 135 gy.m. st. WS 384] 55°06’ 00"S, 35° 11'00" W_ | 21 xii | 1915 | 121 r. st.| WSW WS 35 | 55° 13'15"S, 34°59’00"W | 21-22] 2305 | 161 s.g | WSW |6-7| WSW | 7 X11 WS 386 | 55° 20’ 15”S, 34°46’ 30” W | 22 xii 0430 W |5-6}0.p.s.] 989-9] 1-11 100 R.S.S. William Scoresby WS 30—36 HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS Remarks TIME Length Depth | Temp. 2 Gear Depth —————_| of tow (metres)| ° Cent. BE : 3 +p. (metres) Shot |Hauled | (miles) Age of moon (days) | : : : q N 70H 0019 53 Sf 225 100-0 50-0 100-50 130-100 KT. Net touched bottom Kel 100-0 50-0 100-50 150-100 0-5 51 102(—51) o-5 66 132(-66) BR RR RR 100-0 50-0 100-50 250-100 500-250 UST 1000~750 IOI WS 36—41 Position Station a WS 36 | 55° 20’ 15”, 34° 46’ 30” W cont. WS 37 | 54°45’ 00"S, 35° 11’ 00” W WS 38 | 54°01’ 00"S, 35° 14’ 00” W WS 39 | 54° 08’ 00"S, 35° 43’ 00” W WS 40] 55° 09’ 00"S, 35° 58’ 00” W WS 41 | 54° 32’ 45S, 36° 43’ 45” W R.S.S. William Scoresby Date | Hour 1926 22 Xii 22 xli | 1450 22-23 | 2150 Xil 23 xii | 0600 1927 71 |0630 71 | 1400 Sounding (metres) 318 gy.m. 2103 237 gy. m. 183 gy. m. 140 gy. m. WIND SEA Be ue i) 3 Direction] § | Direction] §& em fy WSW |1-2 — ° NExN| 4 |NEXxN] 3 SW |o-1 — ° 102 Weather O.S. 2 oe a og os Be | ES ae | 2 gg1:2} 2°78 ggr'1| 2:22 993°1| 2°22 999 Ale 2122 9983} I-11 Remarks R.S.S. William Scoresby WS 36—41 g HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS oN Eg ss Remarks ae Depth} Temp. se H P.O; oO, G Depth TIME Length 2 |(metres)| ° Cent. loo P msm! cc. p.l ear (metres) x of tow p.m.° Shot |Hauled | (miles) 500 2°15 750 | 1:99 | 34°63 1000 1°81 | 34°70 fe) 1°33 | 33°84 — | 100} 7730 | Ns0V_| 100-0 1450 Io 0:95 | 33°84 = tol | 7:27 | N70 V 50-0 20 0°85 | 33°84 — | 104} 7:31 Bs 100-50 30 0:83 | 33°85 = 100 | 7:06 : 250-100 40 080 | 33°86 — 98 | 7°31 5 300-250 — || 1530 50 0-75 | 33°86 — 99 | 7:08 | N 100 H 0-5 1622 | 1652 I 60 0°70 | 33°84 — || 100 | 7:27 7 80 3 7 I 80 | 0°53 | 33°84 — | 104 | 7:14 » 159 3 aoe | (MSI 100 0°45 | 33°87 — | 105] 7:31 | N70oH 0-5 1725 | 1733 a 150 | —0°03 | 34:00 — | 114] 6-61 3 64 3 * 4 — 0°43 | 34°13 — || 133 | 6:09 i 128(-0) i r ; | KT 39° E43 (| 34535 wen 239) e475 0-98 | 33°82 = 93 | 743 | NsoV 100-0 2150 fe) 0-95 | 33°82 = 94] 7°56 | N70 V 50-0 20 0-90 | 33°82 — 95 | 7°41 . 100-50 30 0-80 | 33°82 — 93) || -7°37 7 250-100 40 | 0-70 | 33°82 — | 93} 7°48 » 500-250 50 | 0-30 | 33°84 pera LOOT ?50 » 750-500 60 O23 138502 — | ror | 7°50 o% 1000~750 — | ooro 80 0°13 | 33°83 — | 103 | 7:28 |N 100H o-5 0247 | 0317 | 1 100 | —0:20 | 33°95 — | 114 | 6:88 - 53 os * I 150 I-05 | 34°25 — | 130] 5:15 “ 106(—53) 3 i I KT 200 1°50 | 34°36 — | 130] 462 | N70H 0-5 0405 | 0413 rs 300 | 195 | 34°43 ee ee E'S: . 59 0348 | 0356 | 4 400 2°00 | 34°53 — | 129 | 3°86 2 118 eh - 4 KT 500 2°00 | 34°58 75° | 1-90 | 34°69 1000 1°73 | 34°70 LAT 1°80 | 33°85 — 94 | 728 | Ns50V 100-0 0600 10 1°75 | 33°87 — | 100 | 737 | N70 V 50-0 20 1°70 | 33°87 — | 103 | 7:38 . 100-50 30 1-00 | 33°87 = || 2 || 7255 3 230-100 — | 0630 40 0-70 | 33°87 — | 105] 7:51 |N100H oe. 0723 | 0753 | 1 (e} o'70 8 —a 8 “40 ” 87 . ” ” I s aes ae — 98 ls . 173? i + I KT reading doubtful 80 0°38 | 33°89 — 99 | 741 | N70H 0-5 0821 | 0829 qT 100 0-08 | 33°89 — | 106} 7°30 x 59 » » t i 150 |—0-28 | 33°96 — | 118 | 6°85 ¥ 117 5 . + | KT 0°43 100-0 IrIg IO | 1:24 | 33°77 =) |) OUR eK) NAY 50-0 20 1:24 | 33°75 -- Qu ||) 7:29 % 100-50 30 2A 3777 — gt | 7:49 of 175-100 — | 0730 40 E20) 33-7 _— 96 | 7:45 | N 100 H 0-5 0812 | 0842] 1 5° I-Ig 33°78 = 95 7°41 ” 72 ” ” I a 60} 1-09 | 33°78 = || RN 3 144 » pe) 2 | Se 80 0:22 | 33°87 — | 115 | 7:26 | N70H 0-5 ogo8 | 0916 £ TOO) — 0:1 33°91 = 11g 7°14 ” 54 ” ” 4 3 150 | 0-49 | 34°15 — | 134 | 5:69 5 108 » |» z | KT 100-0 2i39 10 2°24 | 33°55 = 700 N70V 50-0 20 2TON|3Qu7 7 = ahs) || —— % 100-50 30 2°12 | 33:80 — 79 ~ 3 140-100 — | 1440 103 WS 41—46 R.S.S. William Scoresby WIND ow Sounding Position Hour (metres) Direction Direction WS 4f | 54° 32’ 45S, 36° 43’ 45" W cont. WS 42 | 54° 41’ 45"S, 36° 47’ 00” W WS 43] 54° 54’ 00", 36° 50’ 00” W WS 44 | 55° 06’ 00”S, 36° 57’ 00” W i |osoo| 1470 WS 45 | 54° 38’ 30S, 37° 30’ 55” W WS 46 | 54° 20’ 15S, 37° 32’ 30” W 104 Barometer (millibars) Remarks R.S.S. William Scoresby WS 41— 46 HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS Station Remarks Depth Temp. ° : Wace ieae = ee (metres)| ° Cent. 6||eo joke (metres) Shot |Hauled| (miles) Age of moon (days) KT KT. Water bottle touched bottom at 130 m. RRR 200-100 0-5 70 I4I 0-5 62 124 BIRR RE 100-0 50-0 100-50 250-100 500-250 RR RRR 100-0 50-0 100-50 175-100 0-5 51 102 O55) 53 106 BIKAR 100-0 50-0 100-50 171-50 net touched bottom O55 at I7I m. WS 46—51 Position WS 46] 54° 20’ 15”S, 37° 32’ 30” W cont. WS 47 | 54° 22’00"S, 37° 50’ 00” W WS 48 | 54° 24’ 00"S, 38° 09’ 00” W WS 49 | 54° 28’ 00"S, 38°22’ 15” W WS 50] 54° 30’ 30”S, 38° 40’ 30” W WS 51 | 54° 34’ 00"S, 38° 57’ 00” W R.S.S. William Scoresby WIND SEA Sounding (metres) Direction Date | Hour Direction HOT) $i gi |o5I0 224 gy.m. st. 91 |0820 223 WSW | 4 | WSW gy.m. st. gi | 1240 21o st. | WSW | 3 | WSW gi | 1535 106 5 2 Weather Barometer (millibars) Remarks R.S.S. William Scoresby WS 46—51 HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS Age of moon Remarks Depth | Temp. 2 TIME Length Bile Alig —————OtOW, (metres) Cent. So Shot |Hauled | (miles) | 50 1°22 : 6 2300 | 2330 60 0:87 ” ” ” 80 o'1g 87 C 2356 | 0004 o'1g 0°59 ” 2°29 2°29 2°24. 1°99 ¢ : 150-100 1:87 d oe) ; o-5 1°59 : : j 63 1°34 . . 126 064 : : - 0-5 0°29 ; “24 39 o'l4 . . . Wal 2:09 : : 100-0 2°09 : . 50-0 2°09 : : 100-50 1-99 : : 224-100 1°32 : . 0-5 e791 033: 96 0°49 ; : 192 0°34 : : Oa) 0°02 : : 100 0:06 . . 200 0°64 BORE BR 2°19 . . 100-0 PIT] : . 50-0 Zu) : ¢ 100-50 2°19 . . 225-100 2°14 1°82 1°34 0°62 0°34 org 0199 ARR) 2°22 2°19 2°12 1°99 : i ” 225-100 SO ; : =) I ‘79 . . 7) I 1°49 : 5 142 0°39 . . 0-5 0:09 2 : 82 0:06 3 : 164. 0-89 BI BIR RS 2°09 82 : 100-0 2°04 ; q 50-0 1°97 . : 100-50 1°97 : : 210-100 1°89 1°54 I-12 o'1g 0:07 107 WS 51—61 Position Station WS 51 | 54° 34’ 00” S, 38° 57’ 00” W cont. WS 82 | 54° 03’ 30”S, 38° 35’ 00” W WS 53 | From 54° 03’ 30” S, 38° 35’ 00” W to 53 29'00°S, 37° 13°45" W WS 54} 53° 29’ 00S, 37° 13/45” W WS 55 | 53°15’ 30"S, 37°13’ 45" W WS 56] Larsen Harbour, Drygalski Fjord, S Georgia WS 57 | 53° 37’ 00”S, 36° 51’ 00” W WS 58 | 53° 06’ 15S, 37° 06’ 30” W WS 59] 52°57’ 00”S, 37° 06’ 30” W WS 60] 52° 47’ 00" S, 37° 06’ 30” W WS 61 | 53° 37’ 30”S, 37° 06’ 30” W R.S.S. William Scoresby Date | Hour 1927 91 101 |0630 II—12 | 2130 i 121 |0320 I21 |0935 141 | 1300 171i | 1150 171 | 1702 171 | 1858 171i |2118 18i |0054 Sounding (metres) 2281 WIND Direction var. NWxW| 2-3 var. NW NNE NNE NNW 108 NW NW NW = 8 > @ Barometer (millibars) 3 Jo.m.e.| 1012-4 fo) 0. 101078 i || @atie Gs | ioe I |o.f.e. | 1017-4 L211} 1O-n LOOASS I-2]0. p. fr. | 1001‘2 3°06 5°55 0°83 353 Remarks R.S.S. William Scoresby WS 51—61 HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS Age of moon [ca tents a en ae ns a Remarks Depth | Temp. é 2 Depth TIME Length wae (metres) Shot |Hauled | (miles) Ly 1744 | 175 100-0 50-0 100-50 180-100 O-5 100 O55 54 108 BIRR RS II 23 consecutive hauls (A—X) of 15 mins. duration 1 4 af 4 af 4 KT collection of kelp root fauna 109 WS 61—67 Position WS 61 | 53° 37’ 30” 5, 37° 06’ 30” W cont. WS 62} Wilson Harbour, S Georgia WS 63] 54° 36’ 00"S, 39° 14’ 00” W WS 64] 53° 48’ 45”, 38° 34’ 00” W WS 65] Undine Harbour (North), S Georgia WS 66] 53° 31’ 15S, 42° 03’ 30” W WS 67 | 53° 19’ 00"S, 45° 16’ 00” W R.S.S. William Scoresby IIo Air Temp. ° Cent 2°5 36 WIND SEA Bo : a8 pana 2 9 Weather : S Directi 2 | Direct! ey) FI irection é irection é as 15-90 var. I — o |0.f.r.| 980-8 1752 SE |2-3 SE x || oC 996°6 gy.m. st. 137 gy.m. ESE | 3 ESE I | 0.g. | 994°4 = var I -- Co) Oo IOOI‘I 150 Wx N1]5-6| conf. |6-7] b.q 979°9 s. st. sh 1839 NNW }2-3 W 2 || Oe 999°8 Remarks mod. W swell] HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS Age of moon (days) Temp. > Cent. BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS R.S.S. William Scoresby N 70 H N50 V N70V ” dea tal Depth (metres) 159 100-0 50-0 100-50 250-100 500-250 Ug oe 1000-750 He) 26-83 100-0 50-0 100-50 250-100 500-250 Uae TIME Shot |Hauled 0157 | 0205 0230 Length of tow (miles) 1 4 een len! al 4 aL 4 ak 4 0-5 88 0-5 63 125 I00—O 50-0 100-50 250-100 500-250 750-500 1000-300 1000-750 o-5 66 133 0-5 66 133 IRR WS 61—67 Remarks current measure- ments by Ekman meter WS 68—73 R.S.S. William Scoresby Sones | ——<$<—$——— Weather Remarks Position Date | Hour (metres) Barometer (millibars) Direction Direction 1927 | WS 68 | 52° 53/00", 48° 48’ 00” W 21 ii }0215| 3197 SW |5-6; SW WS 69] 52° 19/00"S, 52° 11'00” W 2211 |0015| 2743 NNW | 3 .t. | 99675} 6-93 | W swell WS 70 | 51° 58’00"S, 55° 42/00" W | 22-23 | 2145 1000°9| 6-93 | conf. swell ll slight conf. swell WS 71] 6 miles N 60° E of C Pem-| 23 ii |1355] 82s. NNW | 6 ; 998-0 | 11-4 broke Lt, E Falkland I 80 s. le GONOO 1195957732) S01 AW WS 72 | 51°07’ 00"S, 57° 34’ 00” W 5 il 1009°3| 7:8 1620 95 WS 78] 51° or’ 00" S, 58° 54’ 00” W. | 6iii |0700 121 1007°8| 10:0 | NW swell From 51° 02’ 00" S, 58° 55’ 00” W 0840 to 51°00’ 00” S, 58° 53’00” W 112 R.S.S. William Scoresby WS 68—73 HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS Age of moon (days) P,O, TIME [Length NOTES Depth ‘Temp. Sic/ss ot pH |mgm.| . O, Gear Depth SSE ne (metres) Cent. sa || Seo pl. (metres) Shot |Hauled| (miles) 100-0 N70V 50-0 0215 20 Gots) |] Sees |) Aoeve || ——= | = 53 100-50 30 5°15 | 33°95 | 26:84 | — aa = 3 250-100 40 Fresh || Seopy |) Aeetey: |) ——= = . 500-250 Or | 5:14. 33°90) 26°85) —— | — > 750-500 60 4:90 | 34°03 | 2694 | — | — : ” LOOOS7 59 —= |, 0452 80 fini) || ayes) |) 237Psg) |) N 100 H 0-5 0630 | 0701 I 100 2-008 SALON p27204 | % 80 0631 : I 150 ays) || eyioado) || za7Pio) || — 7 || = *) 161 5 . I 1A 200 aire | Gyn) |) ze) || = = N 70H 0-5 0722 | 0730 z 300 3:00 | 34:22 | 27:28 | — = = . 66 0723 | 0731 + = 132 i 50-0 10 7:00) (34:07) 20770 ||| —— 6 100-50 20 Koy || sete || etorzAt || =) — — 5 250-100 — | o100 30 (Gro || aye || Aoezas || —— || — — N 100 H 0-5 0244 | 0315 | I 40 6°88 | 34:11 | 26°76 | — 5 73 > 0322 | I BO enO-77. \ies4.07|n 20°74) | 9 I ee $ 146 : . I KT Goll G76 || 340782074) — | —— | — | N70 o-5 0348 | 0356 | Bou |erG.720 1 \1634200))1526770) |) || .» 55 0344 | 0351 i 100 4°23 | 34:09 | 27°05 | — = - IIo . - a || 37 G0" Wi to 53° 54’ 00" S, 60° 32’ 00” W 54° 07’ 30" S, 58° 16’ 00” W. From 54. 09’ 00" S, 58° 16’ 00” W to 54°06’ 00" S, 58° 16’00” W 54° 00’ 00” S, 64° 57’ 30” W. From 54° 00’ 00” S, 65° 00’ 00” W to 54°00’ 00" S, 64° 55'00” W g miles N 21° E of Arenas Pt Lt, Tierra del Fuego. From 53° O01’ 00” S, 68° 07’ 00” W to 52°59’ 30’ S, 68° 06’ 00” W 13 miles N 83° E of C Virgins Lt, Argentine Republic. From 52° 18’ 00” S, 68° 00’ 00” W to 52° 19’ 30", 67° 57'00" W 52° 53° 45" S, 64° 37’ 30” W. From 52° 54’ 30’ S, 64° 39’ co” W to 52° 53'00” S, 64° 36’ 00” W 51° 58’ 30” S, 65° o1’ oo” W. From 52° 00’ 00” S, 65° 00’ oo” W to 51° 57/00" S, 65° 02’ 00” W 7 miles S 80° W of Beaver I, W Falkland I From 51° 51’ 00” S, 61° 30’ 00” W to 51° 54’00"S, 61° 30’00” W 50° 00' 15" S, 64° 57’ 45” W. From 50° 00’ 00” S, 65° 00’ 00” W to 50°00’ 30” S, 64°55’ 30” W 48° 58’ 15” S, 64° 45’ 00” W. From 48° 57’ 00” S, 64° 45’ 00” W to 48° 59’ 30”S, 64° 45’00” W 48° 00’ 45” S, 64° 58’ 00” W. From 48° 00’ 00” S, 65° 00’ 00” W to 48° or’ 30”S, 64° 56’ 00” W R.S.S. William Scoresby WIND SEA Sounding |— (metres) Direction Direction Weather Remarks Barometer (millibars) Air Temp NW swell conf. swell ENE swell NNE swell N swell N x E swell SE swell 1009'4| 8-89 10094} 8-89 9991 | 11:9 | NW swell 1oo1°8 | 12'2 |N~x E swell Station WS 94 Age of moon (days) 14 R.S.S. William Scoresby HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS P.O, Depth | Temp. ao 258 (metres)| ° Cent. S “loo ot pH ome 34°00 | 26°68 33°46 | 26:05 18 9°27 | 32°88 | 25-44 | — WSL S86 1°32°95 |25756)) — || — 200 33°83 | 26-47 135 33°48 | 26-07 125 7°30 | 33°88 | 26-52 | — | — fo) 8-48 | 33°44 | 26:00 | — | — 120 | 7°95 | 33°34 | 26:00 | — | — BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS 0. ce. pil. Gear DC - OTC N 7-T N 4-T NCS-T DC OTC N 7-T N 4-T NCS-T DC OTC N 7-T N 4-T NCS-T DC OTC N 7-T N 4-T NCS-T DC — OTC N 7-T N 4-T NCS-T DC OTC N 7-T N 4-T NCS-T DC OTC N7-T N 4-T NCS-T DC OTC LEZ, Depth (metres) 118 IgI IQI—205 145 145-143 £33 | 133-130 IIo 110-126 TIME Shot | Hauled Length of tow (miles) 0556 | 0612 0755 | 0855 1815 1910 1608 1130 | 1205 1752 | 1852 0654 0800 1442 SS) O51 | 0520 0550 | 0652 9705) 19715 0747 | 0847 Ww 16 2°4 WS 86—96 Remarks trawl torn in two places trawl torn WS 97—104 R.S.S. William Scoresby | WIND Sounding | Saal Weather (metres) Position Remarks Barometer (millibars) Direction WS 97 | 49° 00’ 30” S, 61° 58’ 00” W. i Oe: : é conf. swell From 49° 00’ 00” S, 62° 00’ 00” W to 49° 01’00"S, 61° 56’ 00” W WS 98 | 49° 54’ 15”S, 60° 35’ 30” W. From 49° 53 00” S, 60° 37’ 00” W to 49°55’ 30” S, 60° 34’00” W WS 99 | 49° 42’ 00" S, 59° 14’ 30” W. From 49° 41’ 00” S, 59° 14’ 00” W to 49° 43/00" S, 59° 15’00" W WS 100] 50° 53’ 00" S, 61° 26’ 00” W WS 101] 50° 27’ 00"S, 62° 06’ 00” W 23 iv | 1105 WS 102] 50° 05’ 00"S, 62° 37’ 00” W WS 103] 49° 40’ 00” S, 63° 13’ 00” W WS 104} 49° 18’ 00” S, 63° 40’ 00” W : 100 R.S.S. William Scoresby WS97—104 BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS TIME [Length REET a ao OO Shot |Hauled | (miles) Depth | Temp. x S Depth (metres)] ° Cent. Tae - pl: (metres) KT. Net touched bottom BHR) RP KT 50-0 100-50 150-100 100-0 Can) 52 104 O55 oy/ II4 BIS je 100-0 50-0 100-50 6) 44 88 5) 45 go a WS 103} 21- 22 KT a I WS 104] 22 no catch: haul re- peated at ogoo 11g WS 104—110 R.S.S. William Scoresby WIND Position Date | Hour ee Weather Direction Direction Remarks Barometer (millibars) 49° 18’ 00” S, 63° 40’ 00” W 48° 50’ 00” S, 64° 24’ 00” W 24 iv | 1515 48° 25’ 00" S, 65° 00’ 00” W 24 Iv | 2145 48° 00’ 00" S, 65° 29’ 00” W 48° 30’ 45° 5, 63° 33° 45” W. NNW | 3 | NNW From 48° 30’ 00” S, 63° 36’ 00” W to 48° 31’ 30”, 63°31’ 30” W 50° 18’ 48” S, 58° 28’ 30” W. WSW |6-7 From ads: 50° 19’ 00" S, 58° 27’ 00” W to 50° 18’ 36”, 58° 30’ 00” W 53° 46’ 00" S, 35° 47’ 00” W IZ0 cena nant a Ta a R.S.S. William Scoresby WS 104—110 g HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS BES Remark 5 Ss ; P.O; TIME Length aa BY 3° |Des| Teme | soz, | oe | ott |mort| | Gor | De, | TNE Cg : p.m.° Clee Shot |Hauled| (miles) WS 104 50 824 38°57) ||) 20:13 84 | — |N100H 119g 0601 | 0631 | I Ko cont. 60 8-24 | 33°62 | 26-18 84 — N 70 H 0-5 0744 | 0752 + 80 8-28 | 33°63 | 26-18 88 | — x 55 . 4 go Foo) || eee) || eXerehe || —> Nl aoe = IIo 53 4+ | KT ogoo ey) 1615 | 1645 | / : ” ” ” wn O° [o/c] mn O° w Cae wn wt Nv an fo} \o oo - | 4 ce) a = — , ” ” KT 60 8:47 ||| 33751 || 26:06 || — 84 - N 70H 0-5 1705 | 1713 4 80 P 88 ; 4 bl 4 elon ile! BIR BRR 118-120 WS110] 24 fo) 0°93 | 33°77 | 27°07 -- -- N50 V | 100-0 T100 10 OrOvL || see g) || eaXey) || —— || = N 70 V 50-0 2e°)l| 0794) 11933778) }.27°09 |, —" | —. |, = ” LOOT 5°. 30 | 0°94 | 33°78 | 27°09 es ” 25 roo AON ERO"O4) 11337755 (27:09 | —— | | » 500-300 50 WO G4 98077270 74\— f= | » 750-500 60 0:96 | 33°78 | 27:09 — -- 35 980-750 — | 1600 80 0:99 | 33°78 | 27°09 — — |Ni100H 0-5 1634 | 1704] I 100 ore) || Ze Hele) || yrio) |) — — —- - 51 5 »» I 5 150 I°I5 34:19 | 27°40 — — = re 102(—0) * <5 7, KT 200 ONS) || ayicae || Ar RAIG ||) | eN 70. Et 0-5 1741 | 1749 4 300 1°88 | 34°39 | 27°51 = | — — 35 62 9 9 $ =e 400 2°03 | 34°52 | 27°61 = | = = » 124 ” » ¢ | KI I2I ae R.S.S. William Scoresby WS 111—116 WIND SEA g . 2 Position Date | Hour ps: 5 ? Direction] 5 | Direction — 1927 - : WS 111] 53° 39’ 00”S, 35° 34’ 00” W 26-27 | 1930 1500 Vv 275, |\\NLOO}||) LsGastea|p Vix IN]| Sie) x ON WS 112| 53°54’ 30”S, 36° 06’ 00” W WS 113] 54° 07’ 00"S, 36° 24’ 00” W 28 v | 0845 155 WNW | 6 | WNW gy. m. st. WS 114] 54° 00’ 00"5, 36° 12’ 00” W 28 v | 1215 163 Ww 6 W WS 115] 51° 50’ 45”S, 37° 08’ 00” W 30 Vv | 2100 — W 2 W WS 116] 49° 02’ 00", 35° 06’ 00” W 31 Vv | 2100 -- SSE I 122 Weather Barometer (millibars) ° Cent. Air Temp. b. ggo'5 |—1°7 3-4] cc. 998°6 |— 11 6)|| Dace |) 7995745) 10:0 3 b.c. | 1014°4 |—1-4 fo) b. |1o19-8| 2:2 Remarks R.S.S. William Scoresby WS 111—116 HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS Remarks P5O; TIME Length Bel oer = pH |mgm.| ..02 a ttn SUM p.-m.° Dat ae Shot |Hauled | (miles) Age of moon (days) 250-100 500-250 (Bem 1000-750 SG (100)-50 (200)—100 O55 42 84 HBA I I 100-0 50-0 100-50 150-100 RRR RI BIH PR) H RIK RIS * Approximate times and depths given: actual data lost in storm following station 118 123 WS 117—122 R.S.S. William Scoresby WIND SEA Position Hour Sounding Weather Remarks (metres) Barometer (millibars) Air Temp. ° Cent Direction Direction op aS WS 117] 47° 24’ 15”S, 30° 19’ 15” W i NW NW WS 118] 45° 42’ 45” S, 25° 08’ 30” W to 45°37 30"S, 24°53 00° W WS 119] 42° 40’ 30”S, 17° 46’ 15” W WS 120] 41° 28’ 15”5, 13° 54’ 30” W WS 121] 40° 31’ 00” S, 11° or’ 00” W ‘i 2000 |NWxN] 4 |NWxN WS 122] 40° 23’ 00"S, 10° 29’ 00” W 124 R.S.S. William Scoresby WS 117—122 g HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS a aera SSS are 8 Ss PO TIME Length eS n a= Depth Pane Siv/ee ot pH aa ae I Gear mae of tow < © p.m? oe (GEES Shot |Hauled | (miles) 11°58 9°88 9°64 8-69 7°54 6°30 11°63 11-61 11°64 11°65 11°67 11°67 11°69 11°69 9°89 9°52 8-84 6:68 34°54 | 26°33 | — 34°79 1\-20:83))|— || — BA4°80)|520;88) |) — || —— 34°50 | 26:96 | — | — BE AON ez7 tay | 125 1000~700 O=5 50 IoI O55 59 119 100-0 50-0 100-50 250-100 500-250 Ue I000~750 os) 50 IOI Oe 52 104 2143 oe How BIR PIR Re KT KT Co RR RI Re le BERRA BIRR Be KT 1 4 i 4 r 4 | KT KT al 4 ay 4 Ree 28 consecutive hauls (A-CC) of 10 mins. duration WS 122—128 R.S.S. William Scoresby WIND SEA sts Sounding Position (metres) Direction Direction WS 122] 40° 23’ 00”S, 10° 29’ 00” W_ {7-8 vil. cont. WS 123] Gough I 8-9 v1 WS124] Gough I, Penguin I an-] gvi chorage, 40° 16’ S, 9° 58’ W WS 125] 40° 14’ 45”S, 10° 15’ 00” W 9 vi WS 126] 40° 23’ 00”S, 10° 15’ 00” W 10 vi |0700 NW WS 127| 40° 19’ 00"S, 10° 06’ 00” W 940 gl. oz. WS 128] West side of Gough I,inshore | 10 vi | 1615 | 120-90 40° 19’ 00” S, 10° 04’ co” W 126 3 Weather Barometer (millibars) b. c. p. | 1022-4 1020°2 oe 10°5 Remarks Age of moon Depth (metres) R.S.S. HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS William Scoresby BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS WS 122—128 Temp. ° Cent. Gear Depth (metres) 40-60 100-0 50-0 100-50 250-100 500-250 Uses 1000-750 100-0 50-0 100-50 250-100 500-250 Tale d0° 1000-750 8) gl 183 Oa) 73) 146 100-0 50-0 100-50 250-100 500-250 15 Se4 52 1000-650 Shot |Hauled TIME 1824 1915 Length of tow (miles) 1 4 at 4 a 4 BIR RR BIE BIR) Remarks KT. Physical obser- vations at 500, and 850 unreliable KT WS 129—134 R.S.S. William Scoresby WIND Sounding (metres) Position Hour Remarks Barometer (millibars) WS 129] 40° 10’ 30”, 9° 40’ 45” W II vi 1500 WNW |4-5| WNW WS 130] 40° 06’ 00”5, g° 22’ 00” W 11vi|1255] 1500 |NWxW 4-5|NWxW| 5 | 0o.r. | 1013-6 WS 181] 39° 35’ 00", 3° 33/15” W 12 vi | 2126 WS 132] 38° 21’ 30S, 0° 37/15” E 13 vi | 2102 WS 1383] 37° 49’ 30” S, 5° o1’ 45” E to} 14-15 | 2105 27 38" 45” 5, ha 50° 00” E vi WS 134 36° 57’ 00"S, 8° 44’ 30” E 15 vi | 2115 128 R.S.S. William Scoresby WS 129—134 Station Age of moon (days) Depth (metres) HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS Temp. °* Cent. S S56 ot | a WS 130} 12 12 13 14 11°65 11°59 11°59 11°59 11°59 11-59 11°59 11°59 II‘50 10°48 10°39 8-27 6:21 5°48 3°88 3505) 2°66 12°09 12°10 12°10 12°09 12°09 12°09 12°09 12°09 12°09 10°71 10°51 8-69 7:06 5°48 4°46 3°27 34°58 34°58 34°52 34°51 34°51 34°53 34°56 34°56 34°64 34°65 34°83 34°54 34°34 34°25 34°22 34°22 34°43 34°63 34°65 34°66 34°66 34°63 34°63 34°62 34°62 34°66 34°87 34°81 34°63 34°43 34°43 34°21 26°35 26°36 26°31 26°30 26°30 26°32 26°34 26°34 26°42 26°61 26°77 26-90 27-93 27°04. 27°19 27°28 27°48 26:30 26°31 26°32 26°32 26°30 26°30 26°30 26°30 26°32 26°74 26°80 26-90 26:98 27-19 27°33 Gear N 50 V N70 V 129 Depth (metres) BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS TIME Shot Hauled IO0O0—-0 50-0 TOO—-50 250-100 500-250 750-500 1000-750 o-5 50 99(-5°) o-5 55 I1o 100-0 50-0 100-50 250-100 500-250 750-500 1000~750 O-5 52 104 O-5 60 120 0715 1255 Length Remarks of tow (miles) ae | aki 1 4 ab 4 + KT aaa! I Ket 1 rt 1 4 4 | KT Lond BIR RE Re BIR BIR RIE KT 1 4 ab 4 |e ken 4 | 57 consecutive hauls (A-GGG) of Io 4 mins. duration. Sunrise 0705 WS 134—136 R.S.S. William Scoresby WIND Sounding Position (metres) Direction Direction cont. WS 135] 35° 29’ 45”"S, 13°04’ 45" E WS 136] 34° 16'15"S, 17° 15’ 15" E 130 Weather Barometer (millibars) Air Temp. Remarks R.S.S. William Scoresby WS 134—136 g HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS fo} 33 P.O, TIME [Length Remar Sale Depth Temp. See ot pH mem. O; Gear Depth SSS | OF oe a (metres) Cent. Ge p.m. ce. pl. (metres) Shot |Hauled] (miles) N 100 H 124 252%) |21Sk) | Lear N 70 H o-5 2213 | 2221 4 ”» 55 ” ”» + 9 III ” ” - KT N100B 126-0 2241 | 2301 N70B 123-0 cA 5 KT 16 — — -—— N 100 H O-5 2115 | 2145 I : 62 Pe PA I r 124(—62) a =A I KT N 70H O-5 2216 | 2224 4 - 62 “) %» t Ls 124 . A + | KT 17 = = = - N 100 H O-5 2114 | 2144 I ” 55 ” ” I ” I 10 ” ”» I KT N 70 H 0-5 2207 | 2215 i -) 85 " » t ” 171 99 9 ae) are 131 MS 1—28 Marine Biological Station WIND Moon (age in days) Station Position Sea Weather Direction | Force S Georgia 1 cable SSE of Hope Pt, E Cumberland Bay 23 cables E of Hope Pt, E Cumberland Bay E Cumberland Bay. 3 mile SE x S of Hope Pt, to } mile SE of Hobart Rk + mile SE of Hobart Rk, E Cumberland Bay E Cumberland Bay. 2 cables S of Hope Pt to 13 cables S x E of King Edward Pt Lt E Cumberland Bay. } mile S of Hope Pt to 14 cables S x E of King Edward Pt Lt + mile SW of Hope Pt, E Cumberland Bay E Cumberland Bay. } mile E to 1-8 miles E x S of Hope Pt 18 miles E x S of Hope Pt, E Cumberland Bay E Cumberland Bay. } mile SE of Hope Pt to 4 mile S of Govt Flagstaff + mile SSW of Hope Pt, E Cumberland Bay E Cumberland Bay. 1 cable E to 1 mile S x EE of Hobart Rk 1} miles SSE of Hope Pt, E Cumberland Bay From 1-5 miles SE x S to 1-5 miles S } W of Sappho Pt, E Cumberland Bay § Cumberland Bay. 3 miles SW of Merton Rk to 2} miles NNW of Dartmouth Pt 3 miles SW of Merton Rk, E Cumberland Bay 3 miles SW of Merton Rk, E Cumberland Bay 1¢ miles SW x W of Merton Rk, E Cum- berland Bay 2? miles N of Macmahon Rk, E Cumber- land Bay 1-3 miles N of Dartmouth Pt, E Cumber- land Bay 1; miles SW x W of Merton Rk, E Cum- berland Bay E Cumberland Bay. 3} cable SE of Hope Pt to 4 cables S x E of Hobart Rk E Cumberland Bay. 43 cables NE to 1} cables N x W of Hobart Rk E Cumberland Bay. (A) 3} miles SSW of Merton Rk to 43 cables NE of Hobart Rk. (B) 43 cables NE to 1} cables N x W of Hobart Rk 1; miles SW x W of Merton Rk, E Cum- berland Bay 1} miles E of Hobart Rk, ECumberland Bay 132 Marine Biological Station MS 1—28 HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS Station Depth | Temp. Depth ___-‘TIME _ Shot Hauled (metres) | ° Cent. (metres) 1745 1805 1830 1830 IgIo 1935 trawl did not reach bottom 25-60 Some 190-110 a little glacier ice IIO 40-0 160-0 120-80 80-40 200-160 40-0 40-0 40-0 40-0 80-40 120-80 160-120 220-160 30 10 36 10 10 10 40-0 some glacier ice 80-40 120-80 160-120 200-160 40-0 MS 29—68 Station Position S Georgia 11 miles N of Dartmouth Pt, E Cumber- land Bay 3 mile NE x E of Macmahon Rk, E Cum- berland Bay 2 miles N } E of Macmahon Rk, E Cum- berland Bay E Cumberland Bay. 44 cables NE of Hobart Rk to 1} miles SSE of Hope Pt 1 cable E of Hobart Rk, E Cumberland Bay E Cumberland Bay. (A) 3} miles SSW of Merton Rk to 43 cables NE of Hobart Rk. (B) 43 cables NE of Hobart Rk to 4 cable S of Hope Pt Coal Harbour Wilson Harbour King Haakon Bay King Haakon Bay King Haakon Bay to Wilson Harbour King Haakon Bay to 3 miles S of Undine Harbour 3 mile S of C Pariadin to 5 miles W of Welcome I 2 miles NE of C Saunders to 2 miles N of C Constance 2 miles N of C Constance to } mile S of Welcome I 4+ mile S of Welcome I to } mile N of Else Bay | Chemical observations, 5.5. Fleurus, be- tween S Georgia and Falkland Is E Cumberland Bay. 4 cable E to 3? cables S of Hobart Rk E Cumberland Bay. 1:3 miles S x E to 1°6 miles SE x 5S of Hope Pt 1°8 miles SE x S of King Edward Pt Lt, E Cumberland Bay E Cumberland Bay. 1:6 miles SE of Hobart Rk to 1 cable N of Dartmouth Pt E Cumberland Bay. 2} miles SE of King Edward Pt Lt to 14 cables W x N of Macmahon Rk E Cumberland Bay. 3 cables NE of Hobart Rk to $ cable W of Hope Pt E Cumberland Bay. 1-7 miles S } E to 84 cables SE x E of Sappho Pt Marine Biological Station WIND Direction Force Weather (age in days) Marine Biological Station MS 29—68 HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS Station 417 Remarks ee gemp. Goan Depth Hie (metres ent. (metres) Shot Hauled NC 50 V 40-0 NC 50 V | —- much glacier ice NC 50 V BTS NC 50H trawl hitched A. Much glacier ice B some glacier ice trawl hitched 135 MS 68—82 Marine Biological Station WIND Station Position Weather Direction | Force (age in days) S Georgia E Cumberland Bay. 14 cables E x N to 83 cables E x N of Macmahon Rk Maiviken, W Cumberland Bay E Cumberland Bay. 9} cables E x 5 to 1:2 miles E x S of Sappho Pt 1-4 miles SE of Sappho Pt, E Cumberland Bay (omitted) E Cumberland Bay. 1 cable SE x E of 17 ili Hope Pt to 3:1 miles SW of Merton Rk Saldanha Bay, S Africa South side of Riet Bay II Vili South side of Riet Bay 12 Vili Between Whaling St and Meuuw I 12 Vill Between Meuuw I and Schapen I 17 Vili Across Riet Bay 22 Vill NW of Meuuw I t mile W of Salamander Whaling St Off Salamander Pt Marine Biological Station MS 68—82 HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS Station TIME » Remarks Depth | Temp. Gan Depth (metres)| ° Cent. (metres) Shot Hauled 150 2°15 220 0°76 — DS 146 Sh. coll. BTS | NCS_T } 110-60 1500 1535 137 18 SUMMARISED LIST OF STATIONS The positions of all stations made by the R.R.S. ‘Discovery’ and R.S.S. ‘William Scoresby’ in 1925-27 are shown on the charts reproduced in Plates I-V. The following lists indicate on which chart each of the stations is to be found. Plate VI is a map of South Georgia on which the place names in the list of MS stations are entered. R.R.S. ‘DISCOVERY’ Station Date ty 2 16, 17. Xi. 25 Ascension Island B Bis 2b ly Ary Mid South Atlantic 4-6 30. iI. ti. 26 Tristan da Cunha 7-12 3-18. ii. 26 Tristan da Cunha to South Georgia 13-45 3. i1.—6. iv. 26 Off South Georgia 46, 47 21,235 vq20 South Georgia to Falkland Islands 48-58 3-19. v. 26 Off Falkland Islands 59-89 20. v.28. vi. 26 Falkland Islands to Cape Town go-I01 10. Vil.—14. X. 26 Off South-west Africa 102-116 28. X14. xi. 26 South Africa to Bouvet Island 117-121 1725 kl. 20 Bouvet Island to South Georgia 122-159 14. Xlil. 26-21. 1. 27 Off South Georgia 160, 161 75 TA. il. 27 South Georgia to South Orkneys 162-167 17-20. il. 27 Off South Orkneys 168-170 21-23. li. 27 South Orkneys to South Shetlands 171-177 25. 115. ili. 27 Bransfield Strait, South Shetlands 178-192 9-27. ill. 27 Palmer Archipelago 193-209 28. 11.14. iv. 27 Bransfield Strait, South Shetlands 210-221 14-22. 1V. 27 Drake Strait 222-230 23. 1V.-5. Vv. 27 Cape Horn to Falkland Islands 231-259 28. v.26. vi. 27 Falkland Islands to Cape Town 260-265 19-20. Vil. 27 Off South-west Africa 266-299 21. Vii.—4. ix. 27 Cape ‘Town to Cape Verde Islands Station R.S.S. ‘WILLIAM SCORESBY’ Date Place WS 1-4 WS 5-17 WS 18-65 WS 66-70 WS 71-99 WS 100-107 WS 108, 109 WS 110-114 WS 115-121 WS 122-130 WS 131-136 25. Vili.—30. ix. 26 22. X—5. Xi. 26 26. Xi. 26-22. 1. 27 18-230 27 23. i119. iv. 27 23-25. iv. 27 25, 26. iv. 27 26-28. v. 27 30. V.-7. Vi. 27 7-11. Vi. 27 12-17. Vi. 27 Off South-west Africa Cape Town to South Georgia Off South Georgia South Georgia to Falkland Islands Off Falkland Islands and between Falkland Islands and South America Falkland Islands to Port Desire, South America North of Falkland Islands Off South Georgia South Georgia to Gough Island Off Gough Island Gough Island to Cape Town 138 > PEATES [Vi DISCOVERY REPORTS VOL I. PLATE Eo os hy OR», O AVC er a oY Y t* « « p> . SS a a Te aT = SOUTH ATLANTIC AND * _ SOUTHERN OCEANS Track of R-R.S. “Discovery” ‘in Full line. » R-S.S. ‘William Scoresby” in pecked line. 7 A ” eas SS SS SSE by Sur Lambert’s Equal area Projection. —_ Ze 7 = Willis Js Poa 2126 x “—9o oO. Ses \ I= = Pe “a awl *W.S.38 oa: W.S.526 YU SOE AD) ~ : Oe a7 Ce / : oO wiset ge wes.e2* ss Sy *w.S.39 4 Ay Pa $ fj ~~ > ie : Ins” 1‘ Xx NS cy Cumberland B. F SY 7 Rit eK, y=) RS C NN > : N C.Nurtex SS Tes \ ) 138 ow.S.a6 f SA e oW.S.47 RS rae ° e 137 eW.S.48 mas Ip, >, 13+ 135 136 SS “op WSA9 Annenkov 1.2 NSE SS Sah 30 eW.S.SO SF TLOTHR Pl Fe W.S.416 SS. ar. | —<7 C. Charlotte \ N \ WS-43Dy chersgill LS as ( W.S.426 \ s) q ne : ey *w.S.37 eg (2 SWwetkse Cooper. MSE —e °w.S.31 W.S.430 <8 =< WS.33° - = 55 i= 33, ClerkeR* Se. E W.S.446 ry W.S.34, gl oW.S.40 : _ 70 = W.S.35¢ ISGe 252 ol57 | cae ee W.S.366 W.S.2 , 5 30 u . ; ; { | | | E Heel i} | 108 £ | ° E SOUTH GEORGIA 56 | H ' ik § | | uD atc te WE UVR oe ——— re a nt rs a a aT Sou 39° 30° 38° 30° 37° 30’ 36° . 30 35 30 Longitude West from Greenwich, es —— - a — HP IAUMa dk) WIOd, 9s \\ epPMPRAUOT 7 Ss 09S ofS 09S Ash 7 a old Pct) | oceania hn si — oom i = } : = tommy | —rr he 99g x = Irn | g9 2] 1) Sh | a | ODW 1d IHOUV UAW TVd | aNv SGNVILGHS HLOOS __ re a & ETT ae 5 lo” | T? FUARY AOPO LA | H | | a6l* | | | | ite Y 8 | 2) | | | | | | | \ | | $ | | | i} V ] US) BOeSOTT gers | | | LLte TZ AO S { Yi 1“ I | =a _———_F . | 4 | ey SS Ges e144 *; MOUS oe 2, os | "eo. } 4 \ | \ : | \ “a ; Z oa A aid FF 4 ty A Yyyyyy, | L6le x J a ed | « yy] "? a oa rn - om +2 — — a oe ase mY COVERY REPORTS VOL I. PLATE IV. S oe 86 64° 63" 62° 61" 60° 59 Sa ee | Se sR ay es 1 a mot ner peep te a ers — pe ag E. Tres Puntas | A ! | il eW.S.96 | - I ie B ' eW.S.108 | El i} | j a | w.S. il ‘i a eW.S.97 4 Ag n | || Ww.S.99 te - ° O H eW.S.98 } — eW.S.94 —> eS Sree, 7 7 : ‘2 ae } 2 W.S.109 Hf = | ! | | = rT =| | l | ALKL AN D TI S LA N | | W.S.80 iL eW.S.78 oW.S.77 9 W.S.79 e Jason [5 oy W.S.75.6 oW.S.76 ewevs. tee | a Rg > i Elephant 2 “Gws. o Blissey, eS! et9i ee Tasorel. : Vine 5085 ppougaree i] 5 Q oes BOuoe x Pao = | teen < Ness e Dak Nex ~ ain hs.) eWS.81 0 CS PU \ a ak 048 1| : a) W S71 f ! ! Sama | (ec 526 +w-S.92 ah E : A H | *W.S.90 { | A | i A | q ; H : *W.S.9! H oe ew.S.33 &Beauchene!. e E | } | ' i } | ewese| 9 ete) eee | Ls arktiteed ey W.S.87 oW.S.82 | ‘iia | IBuraw ood Bank | | | | a — a) FALKLAND ISLANDS Simo sammy _ ee ee ee ee — ee a @ ~ DISCOVERY REPORTS VOLI. PLATE V. Antonie Cc Nprde I WEST COAST OF AFRICA Track of R.R.S. “Discovery "in full line. + R.S.S.“William Scoresby in pecked line 1,2 ve . 0 Ascension I. = = =| ‘Rlephard Bs | SSI N \ M (See inset) | Capctown)} < es “yaq‘suog 7% Aqiew 0G 98 1 Ob {9% 0S ot Ss oe OL a0 0% ,8% 4 SS SS SS OS SSS wt Tf 1TAF Ss a a so os allel i) P20p Mog ym sus *g eb.scag 40 (az) yeogpuasunyy adr) 10S — S& Or {Sb swag eee (ones) Ly SYNE J 9 th, wan naSto oo Be) » 10S: “Yo tmMued..ry unto LE AWSOMA apnyrawory oLE os 3G ae a a ara Wenpeeeigee seas I yt 18a & ‘eas | tas Loy os oe oa ny It mosme TTS TT Fa TT FIAT J eT dt It FL Danas w a ests CT. SS sf Mbsuarpe: BEET NT UNADUD "WL APD INT AG UNDA OL SU “qoog wa sybrery VIDAOUD HLOAOS & : gs) AOqUcUUyy P70. 483 ‘LOKy OT TDs iS x ue) Yypyy pont a Yl ‘d PRP wsengyy in 2 Wz APT ISAM ING a4 oT a4 Dey Ww SADLY of x ¢ } ZG] ‘Atenaqay 07 dn uoyeutsropur uro.1F papeduro, aG ; (i eas ARR OD) 1 1 Tie Ls ne os os sO aaa ie p-to wa) ( i} ais) ‘TL IOA ‘SLHOdda AMAAOOSIGA B36 ¥ i peient UNIVERSI hus Mi Mana gee ¢ “ DISCOVERY REPORTS Vol. I, pp. 141-232, plates VII-X VIII Issued by the Discovery Committee, Colonial Office, London on behalf of the Government of the Dependencies of the Falkland Islands DISCOVERY INVESTIGATIONS OBJECTS, EQUIPMENT & METHODS by S. Kemp, A. C. Hardy and N. A. Mackintosh \’ Wis, . aia ee OMS CAMBRIDGE AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS 1929 Price nine shillings and sixpence net 716 [Discovery Reports. Vol. I, pp. 141-232, Plates VII-XVIIL, June, 1929] DISCOVERY INVESTIGATIONS OBJECTS, EQUIPMENT AND METHODS Part I THE OBJECTS OF THE INVESTIGATIONS By STANLEY Kemp, Sc.D. Part II THE SHIPS, THEIR EQUIPMENT AND THE METHODS USED IN RESEARCH By STANLEY Kemp, Sc.D., anp A. C. Harpy, M.A. Part III THE MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION By N. A. Mackintosu, A.R.C.S., M.Sc. CONTENTS Part I. THE OBJECTS OF THE INVESTIGATIONS . . . . . . page Part II. THe Surps, THEIR EQUIPMENT AND THE METHODS USED IN RESEARCH The Royal Research Ship ‘ Discovery’ . Construction and original design ea Purchase for whaling research and reconditioning Present accommodation and machinery . Arrangements for scientific work . ‘The Research Steamship ‘ William Scoresby’. Construction, accommodation and machinery Arrangements for scientific work . Apparatus and Methods Plankton nets and apparatus E Trawls, dredges and other apparatus . \ielecmeiiie ss 5 6 6 6 o « Hydrological instruments and methods Survey equipment . Laboratory Methods Part III. THe Martine BioLocicaL STATION INDEX PEATES SV IIE VILIM gn) ie a. se SP an een ee following page 143 223 231 232 DISCOVERY INVESTIGATIONS OBJECiS, EQUIPMENT AND METHODS Pah lotik OBJECTS OF THE INVESTIGATIONS By Stanley Kemp, sc.D. HE proposal to send a scientific expedition to Antarctic waters was initiated by Mr E.R. Darnley, Chairman of the present Discovery Committee, rather more than ten years ago. The proposal had in view the systematic exploration of all the economic resources of the Dependencies of the Falkland Islands, but the main reasons for it are to be traced to the very rapid development of the whaling industry in those Dependencies, and to the fears which arose that this industry, like others formerly existing in both northern and southern hemispheres, would prove shortlived. For this reason the in- vestigations undertaken bear mainly on the bionomics of the whales upon which the industry is based. The desirability of executing coastal surveys in the interests of the vessels which navigate these dangerous and largely uncharted waters was also realized. Antarctic whaling by modern methods owes its origin to the Norwegian whaling pioneer, the late Captain C. A. Larsen, for it was due entirely to his enterprise and pertinacity in the face of much discouragement that operations were first begun at South Georgia in the season 1904-5. The venture was immediately successful: in the next season a whaling factory under Mr Alexander Lange, also a Norwegian, visited the South Shetland Islands, and by 1912 twenty-one whale-catching vessels were employed at South Georgia and thirty-two in the South Shetlands. Further development was restricted by Government action in the fear that the stock of whales would be unduly depleted, but during the war period a temporary increase was permitted. From the first it was evident that a whaling field of the greatest importance had been discovered in the Dependencies of the Falkland Islands; before many years had passed it proved more productive than all those in the rest of the world combined and, until the present day, this leading position has been maintained. The history of whaling in other waters, for nearly all the species which have formed the object of commercial enterprise, has followed one and the same lamentable course." At first there is a period of great abundance, during which the industry develops rapidly and large profits are made. This, after a longer or shorter period, is followed by a decline which may be equally rapid, and culminates finally in the complete cessa- tion of operations. Such has been the history of the Atlantic Right Whale or Nordkaper and of the Greenland Whale, species which have been hunted to the verge of extermina- tion, while the northern rorqual fisheries, which have been conducted for little more than half a century, have declined to a mere vestige of their former greatness. 1 For an authoritative history of whaling see Sir Sidney Harmer, Proc. Linn. Soc. London, session 140, PP- 52-95, 1928. 143 I-2 144 DISCOVERY REPORTS In a few instances the decline of a whale fishery has been due in part to causes other than depletion of the stock; but, bearing all the facts in mind, grave apprehension was felt regarding the future of the great whaling industry in the Dependencies of the Falk- land Islands, and from the beginning the course of its development has been closely followed by Government. Regulations were put in force for the control of whaling, but it soon became evident that far more scientific knowledge was required for adminis- trative purposes, and that the acquisition of such knowledge was the only way by which the permanent prosperity of the industry could ultimately be secured. It was accordingly suggested that a series of scientific investigations should be undertaken in southern waters and the question was referred by the Secretary of State for the Colonies to an Interdepartmental Committee. The Committee made a thorough examination of all the problems involved and in its report, published in 1920,! indicated the more im- portant lines on which research was required. As a result of its recommendations the ‘Discovery’ was purchased, and in due course the present Discovery Committee was appointed by the Secretary of State to conduct the investigations. The cost of the work is defrayed from revenues raised from the whaling industry in the Dependencies of the Falkland Islands. The main object of the work was thus to obtain further information on whales and on the factors which influence them, and before coming to a detailed description of the equipment and methods which are being employed, it will be useful to give some general account of the plan of operations which the Discovery Committee has adopted. It was realized at the outset that a great deal of valuable information could be obtained by examination of whales brought in by whale-catchers. The precise identification of the common southern rorquals could not be regarded as definitely settled, for though it was generally recognized that the Blue and Fin Whales of the southern ocean closely resembled those to which the same names had been applied in the north, the possibility that the southern forms might represent a distinct race could not lightly be dismissed. Some might think this a question of purely zoological interest, but it must be pointed out that it has a very definite bearing on the economic aspect of whaling. If the rorquals in the south can be shown to be racially distinct from those which live in the north some degree of isolation of the two stocks may be inferred, and conversely, if no such distinction exists, some intermixture of these stocks is rendered probable. In dealing with migratory animals such as whales accurate knowledge on this point cannot fail to be valuable. It may set a limit to the area through which the southern stock ranges, and it will inevitably be of importance in studies of migration. This problem of the racial identity of southern whales is being attacked mainly by statistical methods. In the economic study of any mammalian stock there are certain elementary facts which must be thoroughly understood before progress can be made. Among the more important are the rate of growth, the age at sexual maturity, the time of pairing, the period of gestation, the number at a birth, the length of the suckling period and the 1 Report of the Interdepartmental Committee on Research and Development in the Dependencies of the Falkland Islands, Cmd. 657, London, 1920. OBJECTS OF THE INVESTIGATIONS 145 nature of the food. In whales most of these facts are less easily ascertained than in other mammals and the information already available was very deficient. By special anatomical investigation it is, however, possible to obtain results which will throw much light on such questions, and the Committee consequently decided to build a laboratory at South Georgia. This laboratory, which is known as the Marine Biological Station, is erected on King Edward Point in Cumberland Bay, close to the whaling station at Grytviken. Work has been in progress since January 1925, and it is hoped that the first series of results will shortly be published. A description of the building will be found on p. 223. During the southern winter whales are for the most part absent from South Georgia, and at Grytviken it is thus not possible to follow by anatomical investigation the full cycle of reproductive change throughout the year. ‘The Committee considered it most important that complete observations of this kind should be made, and mainly on this account they arranged for the transference of the shore staff to South Africa during the winter of 1926. Thanks to the kindness of Messrs Irvin and Johnson they were accommodated at the whaling station in Saldanha Bay. But work on shore, no matter how intensively it is undertaken, can only give solutions to some of the problems which are involved. It requires to be supplemented by observa- tions at sea, and the principal reason for such research is the necessity for a thorough study of the environment of southern whales. Experience has shown that the hydro- logical and planktonic methods employed by the International Council for the Explora- tion of the Sea have been productive of valuable results in the north-east Atlantic and it could not be doubted that equally good results would follow their application in the south. Whaling, like most fisheries, fluctuates greatly from season to season, and the causes of these fluctuations are to be sought in changes in the environment. The food of southern rorquals is now known to consist exclusively, or almost exclusively, of large Euphausian crustaceans, which themselves feed mainly on diatoms. On analogy with conditions ascertained in the north, the seasonal abundance of the Euphausians on the whaling grounds of the Dependencies will be preceded by a period of great reproductive activity in the phytoplankton. The phytoplankton in its turn is dependent on the physical and chemical constitution of the water, and it is to hydrological, and ultimately perhaps to meteorological conditions, that the fluctuations in the whaling industry are to be ascribed. So much could be inferred from the scientific work which had been done in the north, but much special investigation in the south was needed before theory and fact were brought into accord. The life history of the Euphausian which forms the main food of whales was unknown and no information existed on its relations with the other con- stituents of the plankton. Knowledge of the southern phytoplankton was limited almost entirely to the specific identification of the various species, and data on the water move- ments and general hydrology of the south were wholly deficient. It was accordingly decided to equip a vessel for oceanographic research in southern waters. The ‘Discovery’, originally built for the National Antarctic Expedition, 146 DISCOVERY REPORTS 1901-3, of which Captain (then Lieut.) R. F. Scott was leader, was purchased and refitted for her new work, and in July 1925, with the consent of His Majesty the King, she was commissioned as the Royal Research Ship ‘ Discovery’. In drawing up a programme for the scientific operations of this vessel the Discovery Committee recognized the immensity of the area in which observations were required and the numerous directions along which research might profitably be undertaken. But practical considerations made it necessary to set some limit to the scope of the work, and in the plan which was finally adopted preference was given to investigations holding the most early promise of useful economic results. To examine the conditions existing on the whaling grounds of the Dependencies was evidently of first importance and an intensive survey of the waters in the neighbourhood of South Georgia was planned. In this survey, which it was hoped to repeat annually, observations on the plankton and hydrology were to be taken at close intervals, the former comprising both vertical and horizontal tow-net hauls, worked on a scheme in- tended to give strictly comparable results, the latter designed to supply the fullest possible information on the temperature, salinity, hydrogen-ion concentration and phos- phate and oxygen content of the water. Such intensive surveys would not, however, yield all the information desired. Ex- perience in the north had shown that conditions in any localized area can be properly understood only by a study of the mass movements of water in the surrounding oceans ; alterations in the direction and intensity of these movements will involve marked altera- tion in the physical and biological environment of any small area situated in their path. It was thus necessary to supplement the survey of the South Georgia grounds by other investigations—necessarily less intensive—spread over a wider field. The region en- closed by lines connecting the Falkland Islands, South Georgia, the South Orkneys, the South Shetlands and Cape Horn was considered the most important, but observa- tions were to be made whenever practicable in other parts of the southern ocean. It is in these investigations that the ‘ Discovery’ has been primarily engaged during a commission which lasted two years,’ but before she left this country the Committee foresaw that the work was likely to be more than a single square-rigged vessel could undertake and that certain other lines of research were beyond her power. Whales are well known to be migratory animals. In the southern winter they are for the most part absent from the waters of the Dependencies and there is definite evidence that the Humpback travels up the west coast of Africa in the southern autumn and returns to the south in the following spring. There is good reason to believe that this species pairs, and that the young are born, during this sojourn in warmer waters, and the available evidence indicates that little or no food is taken at this time. In the south there are abundant food supplies and the migrations have in consequence been called respectively the breeding migration (northwards, in the southern winter) and the feeding migration (southwards, in the southern spring). Such information as we possess 1 Some indication of the degree of success which has so far attended the work may be obtained by in- spection of the charts accompanying the Station List, Plates I-V of this volume. OBJECTS OF THE INVESTIGATIONS 147 about Blue and Fin Whales suggests that these species have habits similar to those of the Humpback. In the economic study of whales it is of the utmost importance that we should have fuller and more accurate knowledge of these migrations. From what has been stated above it will be seen that north and south migrations of the three most valuable species may be inferred, but we have as yet next to no knowledge of the routes taken and not a particle of evidence regarding east and west movements. To ascertain whether such east and west movements exist is most essential; for if the whales move freely round the Antarctic Continent it follows that the southern stock forms a single entity: excessive hunting in any one area will affect all areas adversely. If, on the other hand, such movement does not exist, the depletion of one area will not reduce the stocks in other parts. In tracing the migrations of fish the method most generally adopted is that of marking. Fish are caught, suitable marks bearing a reference number are attached to them, and they are then liberated. A proportion of these marked fish are recaptured in the course of commercial operations, and the offer of a reward increases the chance that the mark, together with the necessary data, will be returned to the fishery authority. By this means valuable information on the migrations of fish has been obtained, and some years ago it was suggested that a similar method might usefully be employed with whales. It is, for obvious reasons, more difficult to mark whales than fish, but as a result of experiments made before the ‘Discovery’ sailed on her first commission, a practicable method was discovered. The method is explained on p. 208. In considering the design of a second ship for investigations in the south, the Com- mittee attached great importance to this question of whale-marking. A vessel of com- paratively high speed was necessary, built generally on the lines of a whale-catcher, but it was recognized that she would also be required to assist in routine work on plankton and hydrology, and it was also considered desirable that she should carry a full-sized otter trawl for the exploration of certain areas in the Dependencies which might prove commercially profitable. These varied requirements have been successfully met in the Research Steamship ‘William Scoresby’. This vessel is named after the celebrated whaling captain, whose Account of the Arctic Regions, published in 1820, may be regarded as the first scientific contribution to the study of whaling. The ‘ William Scoresby’ was launched at Beverley on December 31, 1925, and except for a brief return visit to England in 1927 has since been almost continuously at work in the south. It will be seen, from what has been said above, that in the organization of research into whaling problems the Discovery Committee is proceeding on three separate lines of enquiry. The work at the Marine Biological Station is designed to supply essential information on the biology of whales themselves, while the vessels are engaged in a study of the environment of whales and in experiments from which a knowledge of their migrations may be derived. Reference has already been made to the work on whales carried out at Saldanha Bay 148 DISCOVERY REPORTS in South Africa, and there have been other occasions when members of the scientific staff have been detached for special duty. Observations at whaling stations have thus been made at Durban in Natal and at Deception Island in the South Shetlands, while in the season 1927-8 a member of the staff accompanied the whaling factory ‘Anglo- Norse’ to the South Sandwich Islands—a region which had previously been little exploited by the whalers. ‘The whales taken round these islands were examined, so far as was practicable, and some information obtained on the plankton and hydrology of the area. During the present season (1928-9) another member of the staff is on board the ‘C. A. Larsen’, a large whaling factory working in the Ross Sea. Certain other work undertaken during the course of the investigations remains to be noticed. Notwithstanding the number of expeditions which have undertaken oceanographic research in the south, the Antarctic still remains an unrivalled field for scientific effort. Since the primary aim of the investigations was an economic one, priority of place had evidently to be given to enquiries which might lead to immediately useful results; but it was recognized that occasions would arise when work in other directions could profitably be undertaken without detriment to the main objects of research, and it was the wish of the Committee that full use should be made of such oppor- tunities. The examination of the plankton conditions on the whaling grounds was already an important part of the programme of the ‘ Discovery’, and in deciding what use might be made of occasions for work of a less obviously practical nature it was natural to consider an extension of these operations. The more strictly economic results were to be sought in the upper layers of the water, and work at greater depths, while it might also prove to have practical value, would without doubt result in a material increase in our know- ledge of the biology of southern waters. When opportunity permitted, plankton nets, up to 44 metres in diameter of mouth, were accordingly used at all depths, and by this means a large amount of valuable material has been accumulated during the two years of the first commission. An examination of the bottom fauna was evidently less relevant to the main purpose of the work, and it was decided that deep-sea trawling, which necessarily involves a great expenditure of time, could not be undertaken. ‘The ‘ Discovery’ was, however, supplied with a 4o ft. otter trawl and dredges, to be used in shallow water when circumstances allowed. The weather in the south is frequently unsuitable for off-shore work, and on a number of occasions the rich bottom fauna of the sheltered coastal waters of the Dependencies has been explored. The ‘William Scoresby’, as has already been mentioned, was designed to carry a full-sized commercial otter trawl and the main purpose of this equipment was an examination of the supplies of fish on the submarine plateau situated between the Falkland Islands and the South American coast. There are grounds for the belief that fish exist in marketable quantities in this area, and a survey was planned in the hope that it might result in the establishment of a trawling industry in the locality. The ‘ William OBJECTS OF THE INVESTIGATIONS 149 Scoresby’ has hitherto undertaken this work during the southern winter when the whaling stations in the Dependencies are closed. At South Georgia Elephant Seals are abundant, and each year, when they haul up on the beaches during the breeding season, great numbers are killed for the oil contained in their blubber. The industry is a profitable one and has been carried on for many years under strict Government control. The regulations are well devised and there is happily little fear that the stock is being depleted; but since there are many points in the natural history of these animals on which little is known, the Committee considered that some attention should be paid to them in the course of the Discovery investigations. It was also thought that the bird life of the island should not be neglected. These two branches of work have been in the hands of one of the staff of the Marine Biological Station. Prior to the commencement of the Discovery investigations little hydrographic surveying had been done in the Dependencies of the Falkland Islands, and the Discovery Committee hoped that in the course of their work it would be possible to make con- siderable improvements to existing charts. Of the known harbours few had been surveyed, the positions of many of the islands were doubtful and the whaling community was most anxious for better information. 'To carry out surveys in conjunction with the programme outlined above was admittedly not easy to arrange, but the Admiralty, through their representative on the Committee, strongly supported the proposal and a trained surveyor was seconded from their Hydrographic Department as one of the executive officers of the ‘Discovery’. In spite of limited opportunities this officer was able during the past commission to carry out some important surveys in the Depend- encies, and an account of the work done will be published in due course in these Reports. During the season 1928-9 assistants and a specially built motor launch have been placed at the disposal of this officer, who will be occupied entirely in hydrographic survey. In all the investigations which have been made in the south, the co-operation of the whaling community has been a very material advantage, and we owe a debt of gratitude in particular to the managers of the land stations. Facilities for work on the flensing plane and opportunities for cruises on whale-catchers were freely given; labour, which often could ill be spared, was furnished for the preparation of whale skeletons or for work at the biological station; transport for personnel and material was placed when needed at our disposal, and arrangements made for periodic supplies of fresh provisions. To these benefits the managers added their own most generous hospitality. Our thanks are specially due to Capt. V. Esbensen at Grytviken, to Capt. 'T’. Sérrle at Stromness, to Mr L. H. Hansen at Leith and to Capt. Ore at Deception Island. The reconditioning of the R.R.S. ‘Discovery’ and the construction of the R.S.S. ‘William Scoresby’ were carried out by the Crown Agents for the Colonies with the advice of Messrs Flannery, Baggallay and Johnson, Ltd., Consulting Naval Architects. The Crown Agents have been responsible for all contracts for provisions and other supplies for the two vessels, as well as for the erection and equipment of the Marine 2 KII ae 150 DISCOVERY REPORTS Biological Station. Their efficient assistance in all these matters has added largely to the success of the work. In concluding this brief outline of the objects of the Discovery investigations it may be pointed out that the work is still in progress and that henceforward the presentation of results and the accumulation of fresh data will proceed simultaneously. Thanks to the courtesy of the ‘Trustees of the British Museum accommodation for those of the scientific staff who are working up results in this country has been found at the Natural History Museum, South Kensington, where by reason of the reference collections and library, every possible facility is afforded. ‘The members of the scientific staff are taking up the economic aspects of the material and data which have been collected, but the Committee has been fortunate in receiving promises of help from specialists in a number of subjects, and it is hoped that their contributions, which will mainly be of scientific interest, will also find a place in these Reports. Pare piso COVERY INVESTIGATIONS, OBJECTS; BOUIPMENT AND METHODS Pant i THE SHIPS, THEIR EQUIPMENT AND THE METHODS USED IN RESEARCH By Stanley Kemp, Ssc.D., and A. C. Hardy, M.a. (Plates VII-XVII, text-figures 1-33) N the Reports of most expeditions which have engaged in marine biological research l such matters as scientific equipment and methods, if discussed at all, are dealt with very briefly. Yet there are reasons why these subjects should be treated in some detail: first because a description of methods, of nets and apparatus and of the way in which they were handled, will often be useful in the interpretation of results, and, secondly, because the experience gained by one expedition is likely to prove of service to another. In modern oceanographical work a technique of some elaboration is required, and if work is to run smoothly and without waste of time every detail of procedure must be thought out in advance. Mistakes are easily made and may be costly, and difficulties of many kinds must be overcome, especially if investigations in deep water are to be undertaken. In this paper the equipment of the ‘ Discovery’ and ‘ William Scoresby’ is described at some length, with notes on the arrangement and fittings of the ships’ laboratories and an account of the methods employed in hydrology and in the collection and pre- servation of zoological material. In various directions, but more particularly with biological gear, we have tried to make some improvement on established methods, and these attempts—not all of them successful—are discussed in their proper place. A large part of the biological work was concerned with plankton, and plankton methods and apparatus are in consequence treated in greater detail. It is necessary in the first place to give some description of the vessels employed in the investigations, and for the following account of their arrangement and accommoda- tion, together with the plans on Plates VIII and IX, we are indebted to Mr A. Harker of Messrs Flannery, Baggallay and Johnson, Ltd., Consulting Naval Architects to the Crown Agents for the Colonies. THE ROYAL RESEARCH SHIP ‘DISCOVERY’ CONSTRUCTION AND ORIGINAL DESIGN The ‘Discovery’ was constructed by the Dundee Shipbuilding Company for the National Antarctic expedition of 1901-3, and was intended essentially for Antarctic exploration and polar research. The vessel was designed by Sir W. E. Smith, late Chief Constructor at the Admiralty, and was built under his direction and with the assist- 2-2 I51 2-2 152 DISCOVERY REPORTS ance of Admiralty officials. She is rigged as a barque with fore, main and mizen masts, and her principal dimensions are as follows: ft ine Length overall —... ‘ia , ee 198 Oo Length on water line from fore ealee aes stem to axis of rudder: 172,90 Extreme breadth ... ws : ae 24 O Depth amidships from top of euling to top Sha upper feck beam 18 6 Designed draught .. 5 : ae 16 oO Designed displacement at 16 ft. o in. water rine: shout See tons Construction. The ship was constructed of wood throughout with the exception of the fastenings, which were mostly of galvanized iron, except within a radius of 30 ft. of the magnetic centre or magnetic observatory, where they were of naval brass. The framing of the vessel generally was of English oak, grown to form wherever practicable; the beams on the main deck were, however, of pitch pine. The main planking was of Canadian elm below water and pitch pine above water, varying in thickness from 7 in. at the keel to about 4 in. at the sheer. An outside sheathing or doubling of green-heart about 34 in. thick was fitted fore and aft, extending about 11 ft. below the water line except at the forward end of the vessel where it was extended down to the keel at the forefoot as a special protection against ice. The inner bottom planking was of Riga fir about 3} in. thick, excepting below the clamps in the ’tween decks where it was about 4 in. thick. The beam shelves and clamps were exceptionally heavy, also the main waterways and inner waterways, resulting in the vessel having an average general thickness of 2 ft. throughout her girth. The forefoot was of the most solid construction, with special ice protection extending to about 5 ft. above the load water line. This protection consisted generally of oak timbering built up behind the stem to a depth varying from 8 ft. at the head to about 10 ft. at the foot, and, on top of the wood, galvanized steel plates were also fitted to reduce chafe as far as possible. Beams and heavy diagonal timbers, all of oak, were in- troduced in the lower part of the vessel at the forward end to withstand ice pressure. The decks of the ship were of Dantzig fir, varying from 3 in. in thickness on the weather deck to 2} in. on the lower-deck flats. The bulkheads—which were five in number—were of wood throughout, with the exception of that at the forward end of the boiler space, which was of steel to guard against deterioration due to heat from the boilers. In the Original Design of the Vessel a topgallant forecastle was arranged forward, and the entrance to crew space and galley in a house abaft the fore-mast. Between the fore and main masts a magnetic observatory was built, with houses abreast of it on either side, occupied mainly by laboratories, and with the bridge above. The entrance to the wardroom was immediately abaft the magnetic observatory, and a large skylight for light and air to the wardroom was placed amidships. The engine and boiler casings were of steel, situated between the main and mizen R.R.S. ‘DISCOVERY’ 153 masts and extended at the forward end to forma winch house. This house accommodated a steam winch, having cylinders 8 in. in diameter and 12 in. in stroke. Hand steering gear only was fitted. It was of the ordinary barrel type, with purchase to the tiller at rudder head, and was placed at the after end of the vessel. Separate hatches on the after deck provided access to a store room on the starboard side and to a sail and canvas room on the port side. Two houses were built, one on each side of the ship abreast of the screw aperture, for use as paint lockers, stores, armoury, etc. Eight boats were provided in davits, the complement consisting of five 26-ft. whalers, one 20-ft. cutter, and two Norwegian prams. The steam windlass was fitted on the upper deck, below the topgallant forecastle, with a vertical spindle extending to a capstan head above. On its starboard side a donkey boiler was placed, and a small coal bunker. The anchors and cables were specially heavy, and of the ordinary Admiralty pattern. Below the upper deck, the ‘tween decks at the forward end was occupied by store rooms and chain lockers. Between two bulkheads immediately abaft the chain locker was the galley, arranged on the centre line of the vessel, with compartments on either side used as a laboratory, a sick bay and store rooms. 'The crew and petty officers were berthed immediately abaft the galley space. Between the forward end of the machinery space and the after end of the crew space was the wardroom, arranged centrally, with ten cabins on either side and across the after end, and a large pantry on the starboard side. The engine and boiler space, engineers’ stores and workshop, wing coal bunkers, sail and canvas room and store rooms were at the after end of the vessel. In the lower holds of the ship, below the accommodation spaces, the space was sub- divided into stores and provision chambers with room for fresh-water tanks in the forward part. These tanks had a capacity of 25 tons and were made of zinc plates cased outside with wood. Amidships were coal bunkers, with ballast tanks below, the latter so designed that they could be used for carrying coal when required. The propeller and rudder were both specially constructed, so that either could be removed and lifted on to the deck through trunk ways built between the skin of the vessel and the deck. This provision was made so that either the propeller or rudder could be dealt with at sea in the event of damage. The propelling machinery originally installed is still in use and a description of it will be found on p. 159, which deals with the vessel as at present arranged. A full and interesting account of the design and construction of the ship as originally built will be found in a paper read by Sir W. E. Smith on April 12, 1905, before the 46th Session of the Institution of Naval Architects. Service with the Hudson’s Bay Company. On completion of her service in Antarctic exploration the ‘Discovery’ was acquired by the Hudson’s Bay Company, who con- 1 Smith, Trans. Inst. Naval Architects, XLV, pt. 1, 1905. 154 DISCOVERY REPORTS verted her for commercial trading purposes, her great strength rendering her very suitable for work in the Arctic fur trade. For her special service with this Company the windlass was removed from below the forecastle deck and fitted on the forecastle head, the space below the forecastle deck being used as accommodation for the crew. The magnetic observatory and the dredging laboratories on the sides of the vessel were extended to accommodate the ship’s officers. The whole of the accommodation in the ’tween decks was removed, and the vessel was left with clear hold space from the collision bulkhead to the boiler-room bulkhead, so as to give as large a carrying capacity as practicable. The arrangements for unshipping the propeller at sea were dispensed with, and a permanent propeller shaft of the ordinary type was fitted. A number of fittings, including the engineers’ workshop, were also removed, since they were con- sidered unnecessary for ordinary trading purposes. PURCHASE FOR WHALING RESEARCH AND RECONDITIONING When the question of undertaking scientific research in Antarctic waters was con- sidered by the Interdepartmental Committee for Research and Development in the Dependencies of the Falkland Islands, a special subcommittee under the chairmanship of Captain C. V. Smith, R.N., was appointed to advise on the type of vessel and equip- ment which would be necessary. ‘The report of the subcommittee was published in 1920 with that of the Committee itself (Cmd. 657, p. 145), and recommended the provision of two wooden vessels with auxiliary steam power. A second interdepartmental Committee was then appointed to consider the acqui- sition of two research vessels such as had been proposed. This Ship Committee included the Director and Assistant Director of Naval Construction, representatives of the Department of the Engineer-in-Chief of the Admiralty, the Consulting Naval Architects to the Crown Agents for the Colonies, the Royal Geographical Society and other Departments concerned in marine biological research. It was found im- practicable owing to financial considerations to build the two ships required. The structural details and qualities of vessels which had already been used in polar research, and such whaling and sealing vessels as were on the market, were therefore examined, and after a number had been considered it was decided that the ‘Discovery’ most nearly met all requirements. In making this decision the Ship Committee was influenced largely by the great strength of the vessel and by the fact that she had been primarily constructed for work in the Antarctic. Navigating in ice-laden waters she would be safer than any other vessel afloat, and though it was realized that to winter in the south did not come within the scope of the work contemplated, the risk that she might on some occasion be hemmed in by ice could not be overlooked. In consequence of this decision, and before purchase was completed, as detailed an examination as possible was made of the ship and her machinery; with the consent of her owners she was dry-docked for this purpose in January, 1923. R.R.S. ‘DISCOVERY’ 155 Reconditioning. A preliminary inspection had already shown that the vessel had “hogged” to the extent of 3? in. in 130 ft., indicating that she had been badly strained, and it was also found that owing to the lack of air courses to the inner timbers consider- able deterioration had taken place. ‘The extent of this deterioration could not be fully determined since it involved practically the entire stripping of the vessel. It was, however, evident that renovation and repair on a considerable scale would be required and that new masts, spars, sails and rigging were necessary. The machinery generally was in excellent repair, the main engines requiring little work to restore them to good condition. The main boilers bore signs of deterioration, owing to corrosion, and the lagging throughout required renewal. These defects in condition were fully appreciated by the Ship Committee; but after careful consideration of the alternative of building a new vessel, and with the know- ledge that no other second-hand ship of such robust construction as the ‘ Discovery’ was obtainable, a recommendation was made that she should be purchased. After purchase, which was effected in 1923, timbers which could not be examined earlier were found on disclosure also to be deteriorated, necessitating further renewals. The main framing of the ship was more or less affected throughout, particularly that portion which was above water. The stern was very badly deteriorated, the planking mostly in bad condition, and the main keel was found to have been damaged and to require renewal in part. A number of beams on both main and upper deck were found to be defective and the deck planking generally required renovation. Detailed specifica- tions were prepared for the complete reconditioning of the ship, providing for renewal of all defective parts and including special accommodation and laboratories suitable for the intended service. Competitive tenders were invited, and the work was finally placed in the hands of Messrs Vosper and Co., Ltd., of Portsmouth. During the reconditioning of the vessel and the complete renewal of masts, spars, sails and rigging, advantage was taken of previous experience to make certain alterations which were expected to improve her sailing qualities. For this reason the centre of effort was moved forward, by placing the fore and main masts farther forward than in the original arrangement, and a slight increase was also made in sail area. ‘To facilitate the handling of sails it was decided to fit upper and lower topgallant sails (Plate VII) instead of the single topgallant sail of the original rig. PRESENT ACCOMMODATION AND MACHINERY The general arrangement of accommodation on the vessel after reconditioning is de- scribed below and illustrated in the profile and plans shown on Plates VIII and IX. The arrangements for scientific work are described separately on p. 160. On the Forecastle Head the deck planking was completely renewed. A capstan head is placed in the centre of the deck, and at its after end two skylights are fitted for light and air to the galley The usual bollards and fair-leads are provided, together with special deck lights, giving light and air to the space below. A powerful searchlight 156 DISCOVERY REPORTS is arranged near the after end of the deck, just forward of the skylights to the galley. Leadsman’s sounding platforms are fitted on either side. The Bridge is arranged on the top of the midship house and is of teak throughout, with rails, stanchions and weather boarding. 'The deck is kept very slightly wider than the width of the midship deck house, excepting for about 4 ft. fore and aft at the forward end, where it is extended on each side to about the maximum beam of the ship at the rail, to give good facility for conning the ship by the officer on watch. The standard compass is placed near the forward end of this bridge and telegraphs stand on each side for communication with the engine room. A steam and hand steering gear is fitted at the after end of the bridge, with a steering compass for the helmsman. The emergency batteries for the wireless installation are arranged in a special box im- mediately above the wireless house and on the port side. A laryngaphone telephone is fitted on the starboard side of the bridge for direct communication with the engine room. The boats conform to Board of Trade requirements and consist of two 24 ft. whalers, two 18 ft. lifeboats, a dinghy and a pram. The whalers are carried on either side of the bridge, the dinghy and pram on top of the winch house, and the lifeboats on skids farther aft. Upper Deck. Below the forecastle head a specially made steam and hand windlass is fitted for dealing with the vessel’s cables: it is provided with a vertical spindle extending to the capstan head. The sheltered space abaft the windlass is used as a carpenter’s shop, and on either side there is stowage for oilskins, and rooms and lockers for the storage of scientific and other gear. In the original arrangement an auxiliary steam boiler with a small coal bunker was fitted under the forecastle head; but this was removed, as it was not likely to be required and the room it was occupying could more usefully be devoted to other purposes. Immediately abaft the forecastle and in the middle of the fore deck a wood house is built, about 8 ft. square. This house is divided into two compartments, the forward compartment being the entrance to the galley and the aft compartment the entrance to the crew’s quarters. These two entrances being on opposite sides of the ship give the advantage of a lee door, since the galley and crew spaces are in communication below deck. Two large skylights are fitted, one forward and the other abaft the entrance to the deck house, supplying light and air to the galley and crew spaces. The upper parts of both skylights are portable to facilitate handling stores. A large teak deck house, 27 ft. fore and aft and about 16 ft. wide, is constructed just forward of midships, between the fore and main masts. At the forward end of this deck house is a large chart room and at the after end a deck laboratory, both extending the full width of the house. Between the chart house and the deck laboratory are, on the starboard side, a spare cabin, with the lobby and entrance to the wardroom abaft it, and on the port side, a large deck locker for survey instruments, and the wireless cabin between it and the laboratory. R.R.S. ‘DISCOVERY’ 157 The chart house, apart from the usual furnishings, contains several special features: a chronometer box for three chronometers with electric lights for keeping the box at a constant temperature, a distance thermograph for giving continuous readings of the temperature of the water at a few feet below the surface, and an echo-sounding apparatus for dealing with soundings up to about 130 fathoms.! In addition to the above an experimental deep-sea echo-sounding apparatus was originally installed, but proved ineffective owing to loud water noises. After the sister keels had been fitted in 1926 these noises increased to such an extent as to render the apparatus un- serviceable. The wireless cabin contains two separate Marconi wireless sets, each of 14 kw. capacity; one set being the well-known quench-gap type and the other the continuous wave type. With this apparatus communication was on one occasion successfully main- tained up to as much as 2680 miles. The deck laboratory is fully described on p. 169. The two deck houses referred to above—the entrance to the crew’s quarters and galley and the midship deck house—are both of exceptional strength, the coamings being of heavy section teak, and the sides constructed of two thicknesses of teak, clinched together and with insulation between, making a very strong combination to withstand the severest weather conditions. A large teak skylight is placed between the main-mast and the after end of the midship deck house, to supply light and air to the wardroom and the cabins which communicate with it. At the forward end of the boiler casing a large steel house ro ft. long and 16 ft. broad is erected to enclose the steam winch. The engine and boiler casings extend from the fore side of the mizen-mast to the after side of the winch house. On either side of the engine room casings is a series of ice tanks, fitted with steam pipes and with connections to the freshwater tanks. The tanks can thus be used for watering ship from ice when ordinary supplies are not available. Both casings and tanks are of steel, as originally fitted to the vessel. A single hatch is fitted abaft the engine casing on the after deck, for access to the sail and canvas store. A hand steering gear is fitted near the fore side of the propeller trunk hatch for use when under sail alone. Two teak houses, constructed similarly to the houses on the fore deck, are arranged at the after end of the vessel abreast of the propeller trunk and inset from the rail. In these houses are included the lamp locker on the starboard side and an ammunition store on the port side, each provided with a small hatch giving sheltered access to the after peak. Large gratings are fitted at about half the height of the bulwarks at the extreme after end of the ship, covering the steering gear leads and tiller and affording a platform for handling nets. The lighting of the compartments below deck is effected by means of deck lights. Port lights in the side of the ship would have been a danger in ice navigation and, in a wooden vessel, are difficult to arrange without materially reducing the strength of the 1 For an explanation of this method of sounding see Nature, March 29, 1924, p. 463. 158 DISCOVERY REPORTS top sides. These lights are arranged so that either mushroom ventilators or ordinary flat deck lights can be fitted. In addition the screw tops of the mushroom ventilators can be removed and cowl ventilators or deadlights substituted when required. Coaling scuttles, of cast iron and about 18 in. in diameter, are provided. Four of these scuttles are arranged immediately above the wardroom, and special portable trunks are provided for communication with the bunker space below the wardroom accommoda- tion when coaling ship. The space on the Main Deck forward of the boiler room is mainly devoted to living quarters. At the forward end of the ship immediately abaft the stem are stores for provisions and canteen supplies. Abaft this space the galley is situated on the centre line of the vessel; it is provided with a large cooking stove, and the galley store is placed on the port side abreast of the stove. On either side of the galley are separate compart- ments, that on the port side being the sick bay, while that on the starboard side consists of an insulating chamber with a CO, refrigerating machine, and abaft it a cabin for two petty officers. Abaft the galley space, as described above, the crew and petty officers are quartered, the petty officers’ cabins (four in number) being constructed on the port side, and the crew occupying the remainder of this portion of the ship. The wardroom accommodation extends from the forward end of the boiler room to the after end of the petty officers’ and crew space, and contains ten cabins all com- municating with a large wardroom about 24 ft. long by 12 ft. wide. The cabins and wardroom are comfortably furnished in polished mahogany. A pantry is provided for wardroom use and leading from the wardroom-lobby is a small officers’ bathroom. On the port side at the forward end of the wardroom accommodation is a laboratory, with a small darkroom attached. The furniture of the wardroom consists of a large central table with swivel chairs, a bookshelf, slow combustion stove and small upright piano. An electric fan is fitted at the after end to assist ventilation. Flush hatches are arranged in the main deck in convenient positions, as indicated in Plate [X, for communication with store rooms, provision lockers, freshwater com- partments and bunkers below the main deck. Abaft the machinery space a large compartment is provided for the stowage of sails, canvas, blocks and other rigging stores. Below the Main Deck, at the forward end and immediately abaft the stem, store rooms are arranged, with a chain locker in two compartments on the centre line. The remainder of the space between the chain locker compartment and coal bunker is a hold, divided into five compartments, the aftermost of which contains the freshwater tanks only. These tanks are six in number, each having a capacity of 5 tons, giving a total of 30 tons of fresh water for drinking purposes: they are all interconnected and any one tank can be used independently of the others. The freshwater tank compart- ment also contains bilge valve boxes, with pipes leading to each of the principal com- partments forward of the freshwater tank space, and with valves operated from the R.R.S. ‘DISCOVERY’ 159 main deck immediately above. A main suction line is led direct from the engine room to the bilge valve boxes. The remainder of the compartments between the freshwater tank space and chain lockers are arranged for the stowage of provisions and scientific and other gear. Between the after end of the freshwater tank compartment and the fore end of the boiler space is a coal bunker, the total capacity of this and of the wing bunkers being 208 tons. The whole of the spaces below the main deck are subdivided by means of wooden bulkheads, constructed of two thicknesses of tongued and grooved pine, one horizontal and one diagonal, with painted felt between. The two thicknesses are clinched with strong fastenings, providing a watertight construction. In addition to the thwartship bulkheads a similar fore and aft bulkhead extends from the after end of the bunker space to the after end of the chain locker, completely dividing the vessel on the centre line. The forward bulkhead of the boiler room is of steel as in the original arrangement, and in addition a light steel screen is fitted between the engine and boiler rooms. Full advantage is taken of the space available in the ’tween decks alongside of and above the boilers for bunker space, the bunkers in this part of the ship being constructed of steel. The Propelling Machinery is the same as in the original vessel and it has not been altered in any material way. Steam is supplied by two cylindrical boilers, each ro ft. 3 in. in diameter and 9g ft. long, each having two furnaces: the combined total grate surface provided is 67 sq. ft. The maximum working pressure is 150 lb. per square inch. The engines are of the triple expansion type designed to develop 450 H.P. when working at about go revolutions per minute. The diameters of the cylinders are: high pressure 144 in., intermediate pressure 22} in., low pressure 36 in.: length of stroke 30 in. The high and intermediate pressure slide valves are of the piston type, the low pressure being a flat valve, all actuated by the usual link motion. The condenser cooling surface is 560 sq. ft. The main air, feed and bilge pumps are worked by levers from the high pressure engine. The shafting is of steel, the crank webs being forged in one with the shaft. The propeller is two-bladed, 1o} ft. in diameter and with a pitch of 12 ft. The boss is of gun-metal, and the blades are of high tension bronze. The auxiliary machinery fitted in connection with the main engines comprises a reversing engine, two centrifugal circulating pumps and an auxiliary feed pump. The circulating pumps are each capable of pumping too tons of water per hour; they have connections to the bilge and each is arranged with an auxiliary air pump. The outlet of the main condenser circulating water is kept well above the water line, and all pipes are arranged so that they can readily be drained and, as far as practicable, kept above the floor plates. Owing to the special service on which the vessel was to be employed all cylinders, including those of the auxiliary machinery, are made self-draining and each main engine cylinder is water-jacketed. On reconditioning the ship certain new auxiliary machinery was installed: a 10 ton evaporator with freshwater distiller working in conjunction with it: an electric generating 3-2 160 DISCOVERY REPORTS installation, consisting of a compound steam engine directly coupled to an electric generator, having an output of about 15 kw. at full power: an emergency generating set, fitted on the ’tween decks flat on the port side at the after end of the engine room, con- sisting of a 15 kw. generator driven by a direct coupled Parsons 21 B.H.P. petrol/paraffin motor having three cylinders. Either of these generating sets is capable of lighting the whole vessel, as well as supplying power for the searchlight and wireless installations. The workshop, which had been removed whilst the vessel was in the service of the Hudson’s Bay Company, was again provided during the reconditioning of the ship. The shop includes a small 6 in. Drummond lathe of up-to-date pattern with screw cutting and slide surfacing gear, arranged to be driven by electric motor and foot- treadle, a full equipment of tools and a small hand-drilling machine. The arrangement whereby the rudder and propeller could be lifted on deck was dispensed with when the vessel entered the service of the Hudson’s Bay Company. It was, however, restored during the reconditioning of the ship and is of the same design as shown in plate vii of the paper by Sir W. E. Smith referred to on p. 153. In 1926, when the vessel was dry-docked at Simon’s Town, sister keels were fitted to reduce the heavy rolling, which had been found a serious disadvantage in scientific work. In order to obviate any danger which might arise through contact with ice, these keels are attached in short lengths by bolts which will draw under any exceptional strain. ARRANGEMENTS FOR SCIENTIFIC WORK Some difficulty was experienced in making suitable arrangements for scientific in- vestigations in the ‘ Discovery’. A square-rigged vessel was found to be ill-adapted for oceanographical work: standing rigging and running gear offer serious obstructions to the handling of large nets, and the plan which was finally adopted is not by any means ideal. With her high bulwarks (43 ft. above deck level) and the pronounced “tumble home” of her sides it was impossible to work vertical nets and water bottles in the usual way. It was necessary to place the operator outboard, on a platform slung at deck level, a position not without its discomforts when the ship was riding to a heavy swell. A general idea of the deck arrangements can be obtained from Plate IX. Main Winch. When the ‘ Discovery’ was altered and refitted for her new work it was not found possible to change the position of the winch, which is placed, as it was in Captain Scott’s time, abaft the main-mast and on the forward side of the engine- room casing. This position is not a good one, for the wires lead forward and must make two right-angle turns round fair-leads before they can be brought aft. The ideal position would be abaft the engine room, with ample clear space between the winch and the stern rail; but lack of room precluded this arrangement in the ‘ Discovery’. The winch (Plate X, fig. 1) was made by Messrs Clarke, Chapman and Co., Ltd. It is of the horizontal steam trawler type, with 8 x 12 in. cylinders and with both single and double purchase steel gearing, fitted with machine-cut helical teeth. It carries R.R.S. ‘DISCOVERY’: SCIENTIFIC EQUIPMENT 161 two steel drums, with cast steel ribbed end flanges, and in each of these the barrel is 12 in. and the end flanges 48 in. in diameter. The drum on the port side is 124 in. in length, designed to take 1000 fathoms of steel wire rope 13 in. in circumference. That on the starboard side is 5 ft. in length and carries 5000 fathoms of tapered wire rope, 1? to 14 in. in circumference. The rope is guided on to the larger drum by a traversing gear driven either mechanically or by hand, and a similar form of hand-operated gear is fitted to the smaller drum. The engine is capable of developing 50 H.P. with a steam pressure of 150 lb., giving a pull of 34 tons on the rope from the top of the coil. The winch, which weighs g} tons exclusive of wires, was designed to give a speed of haul on the top coil of roo ft. per minute; the average rate is, however, in excess of this figure and with large plankton nets and dredges a speed of over 200 ft. per minute can be attained when required. As a protection against weather the winch is fitted inside a steel deck house, and warping drums, fitted to each end of the shaft, extend outside the house. Though some defects are to be noted the winch on the whole proved very satisfactory, working smoothly and easily under all conditions. In order to resist the enormous lateral thrust caused by winding in long lengths of wire rope under high tension, the end flanges of the drums, as noted above, were specially strengthened. The larger drum, however, is built in three pieces, riveted together, and on one occasion after deep-water operations it was found that the inner end flange no longer ran true. Later, in Simon’s Town dockyard, the wire was rove off, and it was found that the rivets holding the end flange to the centre barrel had partially sheared. Repairs involved the dismantling of the winch house and occupied a considerable time. Experience indicates that large winch drums should, whenever possible, be cast in one piece. Some difficulty was experienced in fitting the automatic traversing gear to the larger drum owing to the taper of the wire rope. The pitch of the screw on the rod which carries the traveller was made to suit the middle diameter of the wire, but in practice this did not work well. When more than half the wire is outboard the traveller, on hauling, moves too slowly, and the wire takes riding turns. To obviate this a clutch and alternative hand gear was subsequently fitted, but it would probably be better if the screw pitch were adjusted to the maximum diameter of the wire. The rollers of the traveller should be fitted with ball or roller bearings and should be sufficiently staggered to allow free passage to the swivel and shackles which form the connection between the wire and the bridles of the trawl. The positions of the Pedestal Fair-leads are shown in Plate IX, and two of them are to be seen in Plate X, fig. 2: all are securely bolted to tie plates lying below the deck and stand with their centres 1g in. above deck level. In the single fair-leads the height of the revolving part is 9 in. and the minimum diameter g in.: in the double fair-lead these measurements are 64 and 12 in. respectively. The revolving parts were in the first place made of cast iron, but in the course of a year, during which compara- 162 DISCOVERY REPORTS tively little deep-water work was undertaken, it was found that the wire had cut deeply into them and spares made of manganese steel were substituted. It will be seen that the arrangement of fair-leads allows the longer wire to be used on either side of the ship and it was hoped that two flights of nets, one deep and one shallow, could be towed at the same time.! In the ‘Discovery’ this was found im- practicable in routine work, and though the young-fish trawl was often used with one wire, while a flight of shallow horizontal nets was towed with the other, it was not possible to work two sets of large nets simultaneously. It was found, moreover, that to shoot deep-water nets on the starboard side was likely to cause serious damage to the wire. After several long hauls had been made on this side of the ship it was dis- covered that the wire was rapidly becoming unlaid and it would no doubt have been ruined if this practice had been continued. This action, which was quite unexpected, is due no doubt to the two turns round the fair-leads, these turns being right-handed when facing the bow of the vessel. Hauling under a heavy strain on the starboard side tends to take out the lay; to work properly a wire laid up left-handed would be required, and this of course would prove equally inefficient on the port side. With the winch in a better position and straighter leads, trouble of this nature is not likely to occur. The port and starboard stern Fair-leads are mounted in the rail, which is cut away for the purpose. ‘They consist of four rollers, mounted in a heavy frame, with a snatch above: the vertical rollers are hourglass-shaped and all are brass bushed. The outboard horizontal roller was originally 33 in. in diameter, but was found to give too sharp a nip, flattening the wire unduly under heavy strains. A 5 in. roller was substituted and the diameter might be increased even further with advantage. The fair-leads gave a certain amount of trouble, for with heavy work it was found that the frames became strained and continual attention was needed to see that the rollers revolved freely. It is important that the frame should be of very solid construction and that all the rollers should be fitted with ball or roller bearings. The snatch at the top should be so made that, when it is open, the whole space between the vertical rollers is clear; if it overlaps the rollers, shackles and the screw stops used in plankton work are liable to jam when being hauled through the fair-lead. Heavy Accumulators. ‘The large compression springs shown in Plate IX (47) are for use as accumulators. By means of the nipper referred to on p. 207 the strain on the warp can be taken on this spring, which will thus compensate for sudden jars caused by the pitching of the ship and save the gear from damage. Full compression is reached with a strain of 6 tons. It was found in practice that the springs were too strong; they would need to be weaker and much longer in order to give sufficient play. Experience tends to show that heavy accumulators for deep-water work are not necessary. For plankton work at shallow depths a light accumulator giving plenty of play is an un- doubted advantage, but with deep nets sufficient compensation is afforded by the spring of the wire rope and by the fact that under varying strains its curvature will alter. 1 See Hjort, in Murray and Hjort, Depths of the Ocean, p. 49, fig. 32, London, 1912. R.R.S. ‘DISCOVERY’: SCIENTIFIC EQUIPMENT 163 Auxiliary Winch-drum. Close to the winch on the starboard side is a drum fitted with clutch, brake and hand-operated traversing gear, designed to accommodate 3000 fathoms of wire 6 mm. in diameter (Plate X, fig. 2). It is driven by a sprocket wheel on the main shaft of the winch by means of a roller chain, the brake handle being extended to the control position in the winch house. When not in use the chain was discon- nected. This auxiliary winch was intended for handling grabs and light bottom apparatus, but was used mainly for the storage of lengths of wire used with fish traps. Light Deck Machines. For hydrological work and vertical plankton nets three small engines and drums are provided in addition to the sounding machine. All are placed on the port side and are used with wire 4 mm. in diameter. One engine, coupled to a drum holding 3500 fathoms of wire, is placed near the winch house (Plate XI, figs. 1, 2) and is used for vertical nets. The second, just forward of the bridge (Plate XII, figs. 1, 2), has two drums, one on either side, each with 500 fathoms of wire, and is used mainly for insulating water bottles worked at shallow depths. The third engine (Plate XIII, fig. 1), with 3500 fathoms of wire, is placed on the forecastle head and with it deep-water temperatures and salinities are taken with reversing water bottles. All three machines are fitted with the same type of engine, made by E. Reader and Sons —a twin cylinder two-crank engine, class D.F., with cylinders 3} in. in diameter by 3 in. stroke, designed to develop 9 brake horse-power at 500 revolutions per minute with 155 lb. steam pressure at the stop valve. Originally these engines were directly coupled to pinion shafts, driving spur wheels bolted to the rims of the drums, the ratio of gearing being 1-87 to 1 in the machine carrying 500 fathom drums and 3-47 to r in those with 3500 fathom drums. The machine with the shorter length of wire was quite satisfactory with this ratio, but the two deep-water machines, though they doubtless possessed sufficient power, proved unable to start with a standing weight of 2? cwt." Even when the engine did start, with a lesser weight, it hauled very slowly and was liable to stop every time the vessel rolled to starboard. To overcome this difficulty further gearing was introduced by means of a lay shaft driven by sprocket wheels and a roller chain, the new gearing ratio being 6-3 to 1. This alteration was made to both deep-water machines and brought immediate improvement. The machines have since given complete satisfaction and we believe they could not be surpassed for oceano- graphical work. They start easily under any conditions, can on an average haul tooo m of wire in 54min.2 and can be throttled down to the slowest possible movement, so that an instrument attached to the wire can be brought without the least trouble to the exact height required. It may be noted that these machines, with 6-3 to 1 gearing ratio and with the drum full of wire, can just lift a dead weight of 55 cwt. 1 That is to say, with 3000 m. of wire, 3 reversing water bottles and a 28-Ib. lead. 2 With a series of Ekman reversing water bottles the rates of hauling were approximately: From 4000 to 3000 m. 306 7 min. 5 B00) 55) 2000), ears (ty »» 2000 ,, 1000 ,, ae [anes sy LOCO) ..pSuitace ae AL 164 DISCOVERY REPORTS The drums carrying 500 fathoms of wire are 16 in. in extreme diameter and 5 in. in clear width; those with 3500 fathoms of wire are 28 in. in diameter and g# in. in width. The centre hub in all the drums is 6 in. in diameter. The drums are a little small for the length of wire they are intended to carry; the full amount can only be accom- modated when wound on under considerable strain, and to do this on board ship is a task of some difficulty. The drums are of cast steel with the ends strengthened with radiating ribs. They are clutched to the engine and are fitted with large band brakes, operated by a foot lever which can be locked when desired by means of a screw clamp. Outboard Platforms, Samson Posts, Booms, etc. It has already been explained that in view of the pronounced “‘tumble home” of the ship’s side it was necessary to work from outboard platforms, but this does not apply to the apparatus for deep water bottles on the forecastle head. The wire from this machine is led through snatch- blocks to the anchor davit, and the instruments are lowered into the water close to the bow, where the sheer is ample. With the other two machines, platforms, fitted with movable stanchions and chains, are hinged to the covering board, folding against the bulwarks when not in use. When designing the equipment it was felt that the “tumble home” would also prove a difficulty in another way, for it seemed probable that if the wire were not to foul the ship’s side during heavy rolling, it must be slung so far out that it would be beyond the reach of the man on the platform. To obviate this difficulty a samson post, 4 in. in diameter and g ft. ro in. in length, is stepped in the rail and a boom of the same diameter and ro} ft. in length is hinged to the covering board opposite each of the drums of the two after machines. The boom is fitted with a sheave at the end and its topping lift passes through a fair-lead in the samson post to a small drum which can be turned by hand and locked in any position by ratchet and pawl. With this method the inclination of the boom, and consequently the distance of the wire from the ship’s side, can be regulated to suit the prevailing conditions: in heavy weather the boom can be inclined well outboard and can be topped up to bring the wire within reach of the operator when the apparatus is at the surface. The arrangement is indicated in Fig. 1. In actual practice it was found that there was less danger of apparatus being damaged against the ship’s side than was anticipated and that the use of booms and topping lifts was scarcely necessary. With the shallow-water machine they were, how- ever, retained, with the addition of a fair-lead consisting of a box of four small rollers, to prevent the wire jumping out of the jib sheave. At the after machine a high davit was substituted (Plate XI, fig. 1) and this simpler arrangement, which permits the use of a slung block for the jib fair-lead, is to be preferred. Light Accumulators. Light compression springs or accumulators, designed to take up sudden jars and minimise the effect of the rolling, are fitted to all the machines and in general design are somewhat similar to those used by Dr Schmidt in his oceano- graphical expeditions to the Mediterranean.' The plan adopted for the two after 1 Schmidt, Rep. Oceanogr. Exped. Mediterranean, 1908-10, I, p. 10, fig. 7, 1912. R.R.S. ‘DISCOVERY’: SCIENTIFIC EQUIPMENT 165 machines is seen in Fig. 1. It will be noticed that the recording sheave is hung low down on the samson post, in which position it can easily be read and the indicator LAE FLL ator f yx 1 2 3 SCALE OF FEET: LE ALLL N y Fig. 1. Section of rail of R.R.S. ‘Discovery’, showing light deck machine for hydrological or plankton work, with arrangement of boom, outboard platform, accumulator, etc. adjusted when necessary. For vertical nets in particular a considerable distance between water level and jib sheave is required, and if the recording sheave were slung from the KIL 4 166 DISCOVERY REPORTS head of the davit it would be difficult both to read and to adjust. For the lead from the forward machine on the forecastle head the anchor davit is employed, with a removable frame carrying the accumulator, and here, as shown in Plate XIII, fig. 2, the recording sheave is slung from the davit head. The sheaves used as fair-leads are all inter- changeable: they are 8 in. in diameter and are made of cast steel with a brass bushing. In the machine used for vertical plankton hauls it was hoped that the accumulator would tend to reduce inequalities in the speed of hauling due to the rolling of the vessel, and that with its help an even rate of 1m. per second could more easily be maintained. As will be seen, however, from the diagram, the arrangement adopted involves the use of a number of sheaves, and it was found by experience that, if the wire was to be paid out rapidly without over-riding the sheaves, it was essential to use a comparatively light spring on the accumulator. With the greater strain of hauling this spring was always in full compression, and though a moderate amount of compensation for rolling was afforded by the engine itself (which slowed automatically as the vessel rolled to starboard), the accumulator gave no assistance. But though the accumulator thus had little value for the purpose for which it was primarily intended, it proved of benefit in other ways, for the wire could be paid out more rapidly and, except in the roughest weather, it indicated by a sudden extension the exact moment when the messenger effected the closure of the net. It was thus easy to observe whether the apparatus had worked properly and whether the vertical haul had been taken to the desired level. With the machine used for the Nansen-Petterson water bottle the ac- cumulator was useful in the same way: it indicated the time of arrival of the messenger and hauling could begin at once. As originally constructed the arrangement for spreading the wire as it was wound on the drums consisted of a sheave (Fig. 1) running freely on a shaft whose length was equal to the breadth of the drum, the sheave being moved from side to side by a forked lever. In the forward machine this fitting was replaced, at an early date, by a small carriage with three rollers (one horizontal and two upright) moved by a worm gear. A similar method would have been advantageous with the two other machines, for when being paid out, the wire showed a tendency to jump the sheave. The sheave at the bottom of the accumulator was also loose on its shaft and was free to move laterally for half the distance of that used for spreading the wire. By this arrangement a straighter lead was maintained, but the wire was still liable to over-ride the lower sheave, and to prevent this happening two cheek-plates with small rollers were fitted. The Recording Sheaves used in the ‘ Discovery’ to indicate the amount of wire paid out are of two kinds. For the heavy wire ropes carried on the main winch a large sheave was fitted on either side of the winch-house (Plate IX (46); pl. X, fig. 2), lying in the path taken by the wire in its passage from the outer pedestal fair-lead to the stern fair-lead. Each sheave is of brass, 1} m. in circumference, and actuates a Hardinge revolution counter through bevel gearing. Close contact is ensured by two R.R.S. ‘DISCOVERY’: SCIENTIFIC EQUIPMENT 167 subsidiary sheaves, so arranged that the wire is slightly deflected in its passage aft. This system has worked extremely well, but has the disadvantage that it will not permit the passage of shackles and swivels. When, as in trawling, it is required to wind the bridles on to the drum of the winch it is necessary to “hang off” the wire with chain strops. This could be obviated by mounting the counter on one of the pedestal fair-leads, though the accuracy would not be so great, owing to the smaller diameter and the tendency to wear. The recording sheaves used with light wire on the plankton and hydrographic machines were slung sheaves of a comparatively cheap type; they were found to require continual attention, one of the principal difficulties being that the toothed wheel con- veying the movement from the axle was insecurely attached to its shaft. The reverse direction of movement in alternate dials is also an inconvenience and the more expen- sive types in which this defect is overcome are to be preferred. The Wire Ropes used are all of galvanized steel. The two light ropes were made by Bullivant and Co., Ltd., and the heavy warps by Thos. and Wm. Smith, Ltd. All have proved very satisfactory. The specifications of the ropes are as follows: Vertical nets Fish traps, nee Purpose for which used and water light plankton Ase) Harge bottles Pele ete: and large plankton nets ? plankton nets Diameter (mm.) 4 6 I 12-14 Circumference (in.) 3 3 18 ee x Strands 6x7 6 4/ 65a17 i Ne 1G x 19 Breaking strain... 19°9 cwt. 45°5 cwt. g°9 tons 7°3-11 tons Weight per roo ft. (Ib.) : 8-6 I o (average) Be yo IY 4 4 ge) Lengths used (fathoms) ... fees laste sate 1000 5000 The long length of tapered rope is made in three sections, the reduction in diameter being effected by dropping wires at varying points spread over a long distance. In deep-water work, wire ropes are subject to stresses which approach the breaking strain more nearly than in any ordinary commercial use, and since a considerable part of the available strength is absorbed by the mere weight of wire outboard, the advantages of a tapered rope are manifest. The short lengths, 6 mm. in diameter, have an eye spliced at each end and can be connected by shackles. They are used for fish traps, the rope being unshackled and attached to the buoy when a sufficient length has been paid out. : For greasing wire ropes a mixture of 50 per cent tallow and 50 per cent castor oil was applied hot, forming a durable coating which partially filled up the lay. In cold weather it was liable to become too hard and to fall off as a powder, but this can be prevented by increasing the proportion of castor oil. This method gave excellent results, 4-2 168 DISCOVERY REPORTS though we have since seen it stated that if tallow becomes rancid, free organic acids are developed which have a detrimental effect on wire ropes. For determining strains a Salter Dynamometer, reading to a maximum of 6 tons, was used in conjunction with the nipper referred to on p. 207. With this apparatus it is, of course, only possible to read the dead weight or towing strain. With series of water bottles and with any open plankton nets the hauling strain is the greater, and this could only be registered by an instrument similar to the “ tensimeter”’ sometimes used in aeronautical work. The following examples of the strains recorded with the dynamometer may be given: (1) With a 28 lb. sinker, three reversing water bottles and 3000 m. of 4 mm. wire: dead weight 2? cwt. (ii) With a too lb. sinker, one 4} m. tow-net and 1800 m. of 12 in. wire rope, speed 2 knots: towing strain 22 to 27 cwt. (iii) With a 100 lb. sinker, two Petersen young-fish trawls attached to 2 m. frames and 5000 m. of tapered warp, speed 2 knots: towing strain 41 cwt. (iv) With a 40 ft. otter trawl working at depths of 250 to 350 m., with 800 to 1000 m. of 12 in. wire rope, speed 2-3 knots: average towing strain 18 to 24 cwt., rising occasionally on heavy ground to 31 cwt. The Sounding Machine, of the well-known Lucas type, is placed on the port side of the forecastle head abreast of the hydrological machine (Plate XIII, fig. 1). ‘The machine with its engine is mounted on a bedplate, fitted on a pedestal elevated above the deck, and so arranged that when not in use the whole machine can be brought inboard by means of screw gear fitted under the pedestal. The iron framework seen in the figure is for the support of a canvas cover. The drum of the sounding machine is 14 in. in extreme diameter, the hub 8} in. in diameter, and the width 54 in. The drum carries 5000 fathoms of single-strand piano wire. The machine is driven by a Brotherhood 3 cylinder reversing engine, with cylinders set radially at equal angles of 120 degrees, all working on a common crankpin on the well-known Brotherhood principle. ‘The cylinders are of 4 in. diameter and 2$ in. stroke, and the drive from the engine to the sounding drum is by means of machine- cut gearing, the ratio of the gears being 2-4 to I. In bad weather the ‘ Discovery’ rolled heavily and in a strong wind she drifted fast to leeward. In such circumstances sounding often proved a matter of great difficulty, and on a number of occasions the wire parted and the sounding tube was lost. ‘These difficulties, however, were due to the conditions, the machine as a whole proving very satisfactory. One defect was the absence of a clutch. The gear wheel was secured to the shaft carrying the sounding drum by means of a set screw, which was removed at the beginning of sounding operations to allow free motion to the drum and inserted when bottom was reached. The engine was a little fierce in starting, and though it was always run free before hauling began, the delay occasioned by the adjustment of the set screw often prevented an easy start and the sudden jerk sometimes caused the R.R.S. ‘DISCOVERY’: SCIENTIFIC EQUIPMENT 169 wire to part. The fork for guiding the wire on to the drum did not prove satisfactory, and was replaced by a guide formed of three small rollers (two vertical and one horizontal) fitted to a transverse bar and moved by a lever. The wire used is single-strand piano wire, 0-028 in. in diameter and with a breaking strain of 220 lb. Experiments were also made with a fine 7-strand wire 0-039 in. in diameter with a breaking strain of 250 Ib.: it was found that the 7-strand wire was very perishable and its use was discontinued. A Kelvin sounding machine, driven by electric motor, was fitted on the poop deck. This machine can be employed in the ordinary way for determining the depth when the vessel is stationary, and with the use of the well-known Kelvin tubes, reliable soundings can also be taken while the vessel is under way. As an aid in navigation it is a most valuable instrument and it was frequently used for taking soundings in the course of scientific work. ‘The machine is provided with a dial which indicates the amount of wire run out, and the wire itself is ;; in. in diameter, composed of seven strands of 24 S.w.G., and has a breaking strain of 280 lb. The internal accommodation for scientific work on board the ‘ Discovery’ comprises two laboratories, a darkroom, two holds, and a locker in the topgallant forecastle. The Biological Laboratory, as already mentioned, is placed on the upper deck, at the after end of a deck house which also contains the chart room, a spare cabin and the wireless operator’s room. It has a door on either side to the deck, and one leading into a vestibule at the head of the companion to the wardroom. 'The general arrange- ments are sufficiently well shown in the sketch (Fig. 2) and plan (Fig. 3), but one or two points perhaps deserve special mention. The portholes are 14 in. in diameter and are placed much lower than usual, 34 in. above bench level, in order to give the best possible light for microscopic work; and, in view of the large amount of bench space that would have been taken up by their dead lights and screw clamps, those on the after bulkhead are reversed and are opened and closed from the outside. The benches give seating accommodation for four and are so placed that those using the centre table face thwartships, a position which is preferable for work in a rolling vessel. The chairs of the two side benches have folding backs ; they run on brass rails flush with the deck and can be pushed under the bench when not in use. All microscope stands are drilled and can be bolted to a brass plate countersunk in the bench surface. The swing table, 20 in. by 33 in., is built of teak, with iron stays carrying a tray below the table and a lead weight of 56 lb. This table was a very essential part of the equipment: except in the calmest weather it was in constant use. It would have been improved with more space round it. Two small swing tables, bracketed to the after bulkhead between portholes, were useful for small dishes of specimens. The sink is supplied with fresh and salt water from two small tanks placed on the bridge, and above it, in an alcove built out over the companion, are three 20 litre glass 170 DISCOVERY REPORTS Fig. 2. The Biological Laboratory in the R.R.S. ‘Discovery’, seen from the port door. A wide-angle view to show both sides of the laboratory: to obtain the correct perspective and idea of size, bend the page in a semicircle. jars containing 75 per cent spirit, ro per cent formalin and formalin of full strength. The supplies from these jars are led by rubber pipes to glass taps, mounted close together on a wooden base.' The jars are refilled by means of a small Merryweather hand pump, provided with rubber intake and outlet pipes. In practice this arrangement proved very convenient, but much labour would have been saved if it had been possible to accommodate larger jars. Successful hauls yielded vast quantities of material, and even when all the larger animals had been separately accommodated in tanks or stone- ware jars, 20 litres of spirit frequently proved insufficient. The dilute formalin jar also had to be refilled continually during plankton investigations. The rack for bottles, shown in Figs. 2 and 3, added greatly to the efficiency of work in confined quarters. It is built over a set of baize-lined drawers in which tubes were stored, and holds, in felt-lined pigeon-holes inclined at an angle of 20° from the horizontal, all the types of bottle used for the preservation of specimens. The main supply of bottles was kept in one of the holds, packed in felt-lined boxes, and in the rack 1 The arrangement shown in Fig. 3 was found inconvenient and was modified at an early date to that shown in Fig. 2. 171 SCIENTIFIC EQUIPMENT "DISCOVERY: R.R.S, WING TABLE | FOLDING TABLE ALAC CRCCUSERCLRECuLeanrences oo EEE UY \Zisesnnnasnsiss7 EEF EEE EERE SEES pis AS 8 ZL Lee Ze ZZ IN, —— STARBOARD DOOR. > ‘Discovery’. Fig. 3. Plan of Biological Laboratory in the R.R.S. 172 DISCOVERY REPORTS a i] TUTTI | ‘ ha RAE Ie rTM er tt ~ a be uy PUTT il = lie Mire ni wae Mili = ui a La ans i wi = Fig. 4. The Chemical Laboratory in the R.R.S. ‘ Discovery’: a view taken from the point marked * in Fig. 5. there is room for more than a boxful of each size. When it was found that only a few empties of a particular size remained in the rack, a fresh box was brought up from the hold and empty and full bottles interchanged. Large specimen tubes, 12 to 24 in. in length, were stowed in a special rack built behind two of the bookshelves on the after bulkhead, the tubes, when wanted, being withdrawn from below. A row of lockers above the bottle rack was useful for miscellaneous articles. : The numerous other fittings used need not be mentioned in detail. Bars were required to keep books on their shelves and to prevent thwartships drawers from opening, while special chocks, brackets and racks were necessary for glass bowls, dishes and tubes, measuring cylinders, reagent bottles, trays, Kelvin tubes and other apparatus. At first it seemed that to accommodate all necessary gear would be impossible, but eventually a place was found for everything. 'Tidiness in such cramped surroundings was essential and breakages were inconsiderable, even in the worst weather. The Chemical Laboratory (Figs. 4 and 5) is used for the chemical work and serves also as a workshop. It contains in addition to a work bench and large chart table, R.R.S. ‘DISCOVERY’: SCIENTIFIC EQUIPMENT 173 drawers, bins and cupboards for the storage of glassware and other gear. A small portion is shut off to form a darkroom, and both darkroom and laboratory are pro- vided with sinks and supplies of fresh and salt water. The chemical work was done in a very confined space, with stands for burettes and other apparatus screwed to the bench. Here the hydrogen-ion concentration of sea water was determined throughout the voyage, and, during the last year, all titrations CUPBOARD WITH SUIDING DOORS, 3-114" ALTERNATIVE POSITION OF CHART TABLE. LI SHELVES (OVER) DARK ROOM. BRCM BENCH (RRWERS UNCER). =" = Fig. 5. Plan of the Chemical Laboratory in the R.R.S. ‘Discovery’. for salinity were also made on board. On the chart table a chart-tracing table was fitted, constructed to a design kindly given us by Lieut.-Comdr. J. R. Lumby. This apparatus consists of a heavy sheet of plate glass, mounted in a wooden frame and lighted from below by an electric lamp which can be moved anywhere in a horizontal plane. With it tracings can be made on thick paper, clips suitably mounted on the sides of the frame serving to keep the sheets adjusted while the work is in progress. A chemical balance is screwed to the bulkhead, but could, of course, be used only when the ship was in KII 5 174 DISCOVERY REPORTS harbour. A Hearson electric oven, an electric hotplate and a Primus stove with water bath are also provided. The small workshop was in constant use for the adjustment and repair of scientific apparatus. The darkroom is 4 by 64 ft. and has a sink, a lead- covered bench and other usual fittings. THE RESEARCH STEAMSHIP ‘WILLIAM SCORESBY’ CONSTRUCTION, ACCOMMODATION AND MACHINERY As already explained this vessel was constructed to carry out investigations of three different kinds. She was to assist the ‘ Discovery’ in routine observations on plankton and hydrography, to make trawling surveys in the neighbourhood of the Falkland Islands with a full-sized commercial trawl, and to undertake experiments in marking whales. In designing a ship for these varied purposes special consideration had to be given to the intended work of whale-marking. For this a vessel of high speed, able to turn with great rapidity, was essential, and it was decided that the design so far as practicable should follow that of a modern whale-catcher. An additional consideration was the need for very large bunker capacity, for it was realized that in the course of her work the vessel would be required to make direct passages between Cape Town and the Falkland Islands. Construction. The vessel as finally designed was larger and more powerful than most whale-catchers. This was necessary to enable her to carry an exceptionally large amount of oil fuel and to attain a reasonably good speed, and also to accommodate the personnel which the work demanded. In other respects the vessel differs from most whaler-catchers in that she is considerably stronger in construction; her framing at the forward end is specially closely spaced and the bow plating doubled for a large extent of the forward part of the underwater portion of the vessel. In addition a doubling of steel plate extends throughout the length of the vessel at the water line. These special features are intended as protection against ice. The stem and rudder frame are also designed for encounter with ice, both being rabbeted or recessed so that the edges of the plating are protected against chafe. The vessel was built by Messrs Cook, Welton and Gemmell, Ltd., and her principal dimensions are as follows: es hal Length overall... “ide Zee See 134 0 Length on water line a Ba ass 125, 0 Beam moulded __... sis os of 26 oO Depth moulded... wats se ae 14 6 Designed draught ... ne am ss 13 6 aft Designed speed 12 knots When the ship returned to England after her first commission a few minor alterations were made. Her general arrangement, as now in service, is described below and is R.S.S. ‘WILLIAM SCORESBY’ 175 illustrated in Plates XIV-XVI. The equipment for scientific work is dealt with separately on p. 178. At the forward end of the Upper Deck there is a short forecastle head, providing a platform, protected at the bow by a stout wooden bulwark, from which whale-marking experiments can be undertaken. At the after end of the forecastle a 16 in. searchlight projector is fitted on an elevated pedestal. Immediately abaft the forecastle head is a steam and hand capstan, the base of the capstan head being fitted with a gypsey for dealing with the vessel’s cables. The main- mast is of extra heavy steel construction, suitable for whaling if required, and is fitted near the centre of the fore deck. Immediately abaft the mast is a combined steel companion way and skylight, giving entrance and lighting to crew space, chart room and officers’ quarters below deck. A large steam winch of special design is fitted at the after end of the fore deck. On the starboard side of the fore well deck, abreast of the main-mast, are the Lucas sounding machine and the hydrological reel, both driven by the same compound surface condensing engine. This machine and the winch are separately described on pp. 178, 179. Immediately forward of the boiler casing the laboratory is constructed. It is built of teak, fitted with unusually large port lights, the construction being similar to that adopted for the deck houses in the ‘ Discovery’. Above the laboratory is the navigating bridge, with a teak wheelhouse to enclose the helmsman. The forward part of the bridge is extended out to the sides of the ship to enable the officer of the watch to see fore and aft on either side when coming alongside, and this extension is supported on heavy teak beams. The wheelhouse contains an echo-sounding installation for depths not exceeding 130 fathoms, in addition to a Kelvin liquid card compass and the engine-room telegraph. The roof of the wheelhouse is surmounted by a small bridge, upon which the standard compass is fitted, enclosed by brass rails and stanchions. Portable awnings are arranged above the navigating bridge and standard compass position and a Morse signalling lamp is fitted forward of the compass. The engine and boiler casings, which are of steel, extend over practically the whole length of the engine and boiler space. On top of the casing between the funnel and the engine-room skylight a steel house is constructed for the wireless installation. ‘The wireless installation is similar to that fitted in the ‘ Discovery’, and consists of a Marconi quench-gap installation and a continuous wave set, both of 14 kw. capacity. In order to give quieter working conditions the alternator was fitted in the engine room, instead of in the wireless house as is customary. The engine-room skylight is fitted immediately abaft the wireless house on the top of the engine casing, and is of steel with brass frames for the glass. This type of skylight was specially selected as suitable for both tropical and Antarctic conditions. At the after end of the engine casing on the main-deck level, room is provided for the steam steering gear, which is thus immediately under the eye of the engineer on watch. The galley is arranged at the extreme aft end of the engine casing and is divided from the 5-2 176 DISCOVERY REPORTS steering-gear room by a thwartships alley way: this alley way has doors on both sides of the ship and affords sheltered access to the engine room as well as to the wardroom lobby and galley. Abaft the after end of the boiler casing, which is wider than the engine casing, small rooms are constructed on each side: the rooms on the starboard side are arranged for deck stores and lamp room, and on the port side as the crew’s washhouse. Abreast of the starboard side of the engine casing and fitted on the upper deck is the plankton reel, coupled to a compound surface condensing engine. This machine is described on p. 179. On the after deck, abaft the galley, is a large teak skylight above the wardroom and living rooms. Hand-screw steering gear is provided immediately above the rudder head as a stand-by, and the usual gratings are fitted at the stern of the vessel above the steering quadrant and chains. Advantage was taken of the room below the gratings to fit small freshwater tanks for increasing the drinking-water supply. Four specimen tanks are secured on the starboard side of the after deck and one on the port side. The trawl gallows are on the port side of the vessel and are suitable for working a full-sized commercial trawl. The usual pedestal fair-leads are fitted on the fore deck for working the trawl in conjunction with the steam winch. The following ship’s boats are provided : two teak lifeboats, each 20 ft. long, 7 ft. beam and 3 ft. depth, carvel built, constructed to Board of Trade requirements and fitted under special davits arranged to pivot outboard from the casing sides. The latter arrangement is provided to keep the davits clear of the ship’s rail for trawling and other purposes. A small teak dinghy is fitted on skids abreast of and level with the top of the galley and steering-gear houses. The davits for this dinghy are of the ordinary type, fitted on the starboard side. Below the Upper Deck the vessel is subdivided transversely into six compartments by means of three watertight and two oiltight bulkheads. Forward of the collision bulkhead is a store room for ship’s gear. Abaft the collision bulkhead is crew space, with accommodation for twelve men, to which access is obtained by a companion leading to a small lobby near the main-mast. Leading from this lobby is a small petty officers’ mess room on the starboard side and a large chart room at the after end. Opening off the chart room are four cabins, two on either side, for junior officers, each with two beds. Forward of these cabins there is on the starboard side the steward’s cabin, entered by way of the petty officers’ mess room, and on the port side a scientific store opening on to the lobby. The space below the forward accommodation is arranged with shelves, racks and bins for the storage of provisions, ship’s gear and scientific stores. The forward end is partitioned off to form a chain locker. Immediately abaft the forward accommodation the fuel bunkers are constructed. These bunkers have a capacity for 145 tons of oil fuel or 120 tons of coal. They are divided into four compartments: a cross bunker forward of the boilers with oiltight R.S.S. ‘WILLIAM SCORESBY’ 177 division on the fore and aft centre line, and two wing bunkers, one each side of the boiler space. This arrangement enables oil to be used from the cross bunker in the first place, thus easing the vessel’s trim when making a long passage such as that from Cape Town to South Georgia. Directly abaft the fuel bunkers, and on each side of the boiler, freshwater feed tanks are constructed, having capacity for a total of 11 tons of feed water The wardroom accommodation is situated immediately abaft the engine room, between the engine-room bulkhead and the aft peak bulkhead. The wardroom occupies the port aft portion of the space and, for a small ship, is very commodious: it is furnished and panelled in polished mahogany. ‘Two single-berth cabins (those of the chief engineer and chief officer) are placed on the starboard side of the ship and open into the ward- room. Forward of the wardroom a lobby is provided, giving access to the cabin of the senior scientific officer on the starboard side and to that of the captain on the port side. At the forward end of the accommodation space there is a small store room and a refrigerating chamber on the starboard side, and on the port side a bathroom. Between these is the wardroom pantry, with a small service lift communicating with the galley on the main deck. Below the after end of the wardroom accommodation a small aft peak tank is provided, having a capacity for about 1 ton of fresh water. The remainder of the space below the accommodation is divided into provision stores, bonded locker and freshwater tanks, the latter having a total capacity of 800 gallons. Machinery. The main boiler is practically amidships, with the main engines im- mediately abaft it, separated by a screen bulkhead. The boiler is of the cylindrical marine type, 15 ft. 6 in. in diameter and 11 ft. 6 in. long, working at a pressure of 180 lb. per square inch. The main engines are of the ordinary triple expansion surface con- densing type, having cylinders 16, 27, and 4o in. in diameter with a common stroke of 30 in. They are designed to develop 1050 H.p. when working at 120 revolutions per minute. The oil-fuel installation is of the Wallsend-Howden type; the gear is in two separate units, either of which is capable of supplying the necessary fuel independently. Forced draught is supplied by means of a Howden forced-draught fan fitted in the engine room, with air casings trunked through into the stokehold. The auxiliaries in the engine room are as follows: a centrifugal circulating pump with an all gunmetal casing driven by a single cylinder steam engine; a Weir’s multiflow surface feed heater, using exhausts from auxiliaries; a Weir’s feed pump with automatic feed control; a Caird and Rayner’s 10-ton evaporator and distilling plant, and a Caird and Rayner’s feed-water filter. The air pump, main feed pumps and bilge pumps are driven by levers from the main engines. 178 DISCOVERY REPORTS ARRANGEMENTS FOR SCIENTIFIC WORK On board the ‘ William Scoresby’, a smaller vessel, arrangements for scientific work are necessarily of a simpler character than in the ‘Discovery’. Apart from the main winch there are only two auxiliary deck machines—one of which also drives the Lucas sounding machine—and there is only a single laboratory. The Main Winch (Plate XVII, fig. 1) was specially constructed to carry three drums of wire rope: two of these are required for the heavy warps used with the otter trawl, and one, placed in the centre, for a long length of light rope employed in plankton investigations. The winch is of the horizontal type and was made by the Strath Engineering Works of Aberdeen. The cylinders are of 9 in. diameter and 14 in. stroke, working at the full boiler pressure of 180 lb. to the square inch. The side and centre frames are of cast steel, and clutches, fitted on machined squares, are provided, so that any one drum can be used independently. The three main drums are each 48 in. in diameter and 33 in. between flanges, built up with cast steel hubs and mild steel end plates. The two side drums each hold 1000 fathoms of trawl warp, 24 in. in circumference, while the centre drum carries 3500 fathoms of rope, tapering in circumference from 1} to 13 in, Warping drums are fitted at each end of the main shaft. The piston rods and valve spindles are of manganese bronze, the latter being specially large to resist heavy wear and exposure. Drain cocks, lubricators and other necessary fittings are suitably arranged for service in the Antarctic. The reversing gear is of the link type. An independent brake, lined with wood and operated by screw gear, is fitted to each drum, and hand traversing gear is provided for guiding the wire on to the drums. The whole winch is assembled on a cast-iron bedplate, which is seated on a pitch-pine bed on the fore deck immediately forward of the laboratory. The weight of the winch without wire ropes is about 104 tons: with the three drums full of wire rope the total weight is about 18} tons. Apart from being a little fierce in its action the winch has proved very satisfactory, giving no trouble in the course of long and continuous service. In trawling operations the ropes from the port and starboard drums are led by fair- leads of the usual pattern to the gallows on the port side of the vessel, the arrangement being closely similar to that found on commercial trawlers. The cod-end of the trawl is lifted by a purchase from the main-mast on to the fore deck, where a pound is placed to receive the catch. In plankton operations with horizontal or oblique nets the boom of the main-mast is guyed over towards the port side, and the wire rope from the centre drum is led to a recording sheave slung at its foot. The rope then passes by way of a snatchblock at the head of the boom to the port quarter, and as soon as the nets have been shot, it is triced up in this position. The topping lift of the boom is attached to a large spring placed vertically on the forward side of the mast. By this arrangement, which acts as an accumulator, a certain amount of play is given to the boom and to the rope which it carries. R.S.S. ‘WILLIAM SCORESBY’: SCIENTIFIC EQUIPMENT 179 The two Light Deck Machines are placed on the starboard side of the vessel, one of them on the fore deck opposite the main-mast, and one further aft, abreast the engine and boiler casing. Both these machines are equipped with the same type of engine, made by Philip and Son of Dartmouth. The engine is of the compound enclosed type, with cylinders 4 and 8 in. in diameter and a common stroke of 5 in., working at a maximum of 600 revolutions a minute with a boiler pressure of 180 Ib. to the square inch. Each of these engines is coupled to a drum which carries 3500 fathoms of light wire, 4 mm. in diameter. The drum is strongly constructed of cast steel; the centre hub is 8 in. in diameter, the extreme diameter over flanges is about 29 in., and the clear width between flanges is 10 in. With these dimensions the full amount of wire is easily stowed. The connection between the engine shaft and the gearing for driving the drum is by means of an ordinary dog clutch. The main spur wheel is bolted to the side of the drum, and the pinion wheel, driven direct from the engine shaft, gears with the spur wheel, giving a single purchase drive with a ratio of 5 to 1. A band brake operated by a foot lever is fitted, and is so arranged that the drum can be locked when desired. A fork, fitted with rollers and operated by hand-driven screw gear was originally provided for spreading wire on the drum. This fork proved unsatisfactory and it was replaced by a small traveller carrying three rollers—two vertical and one horizontal. The after machine consists of the engine and drum described above and is used for vertical plankton nets. The forward machine is for hydrological work, and the engine, in addition to driving the drum of 4 mm. wire, is coupled on its forward side to a sounding machine (Plate XVII, fig. 2). The three units composing this machine are mounted on a common bedplate. The sounding machine is connected with the engine by means of a dog clutch and is driven by machine-cut bronze gearing. During the first year of service it was found that in cold weather the drainage of the engines was insufficient, resulting in damage to the cylinders. On renewal larger drains and relief valves were fitted and the engines have since given no trouble. In the ‘William Scoresby’ the operation of vertical nets and water bottles is more easily effected than in the ‘Discovery’. Opposite each machine a davit is stepped in the rail, the wire from the drum leading direct to a recording sheave slung at the davit end. Accumulator springs of the type employed in the ‘Discovery’ were not fitted; "instead, the recording sheave is attached to a long pin which passes through a hole in the end of the davit and is supported on the upper side by a compression spring. This device is not very effective, for the spring is too short to give sufficient play to the wire. The Recording Sheaves for the plankton and hydrological machines are of the same pattern as in the ‘ Discovery’ and showed the same defects (p. 167). A sheave of different pattern is used with the centre drum of wire rope on the main winch; it was supplied by the Laboratoire Hydrographique at Copenhagen and is of the heavy type described by Knudsen in 1923.1 This sheave is of the most solid construction and has proved very satisfactory. 1 Knudsen, Pub. Circ., Cons. Explor. Mer, 77, p. 14, 1923. 180 DISCOVERY REPORTS The Wire Ropes were made by the same firms that supplied those of the ‘ Discovery’ and are to the following specifications: Purpose for which used Vertical nets and Horizontal nets Trawling water bottles Diameter (mm.) ... 4 9-13 20 Circumference (in.) 3 14-18 24 ie xa Strands... 58 Ses 6x7 +6 x 12 6 x 19 l6 x 19 Breaking strain ... See 19°9 cwt. 4°5-99 tons 21 tons Weight per too ft. (Ib.) ... 3°77 31 (average) 105 Length used (fathoms) ... 3500 3500 1000 The Sounding Machine, as already mentioned, was coupled to the engine which drives the drum used for hydrological work. It is a Lucas machine and apart from the difference in the drive is identical with that used in the ‘Discovery’. In the position which the machine occupies, the jib sheave—which also registers the amount of wire paid out—extends outboard through an aperture in the bulwarks. Thus fitted it is liable to damage when the vessel is coming alongside; but the jib is portable, and can thus be removed when the machine is not required, while the aperture in the bulwarks can be closed by a sliding door. A Kelvin machine, for taking soundings in shallow water, is fitted in the stern: it is hand-driven, but otherwise similar to that in the ‘Discovery’. ‘This machine and the echo-sounding apparatus referred to on p. 175 were frequently used for taking soundings during scientific work. When trawling and dredging in coastal waters where the bottom was uneven the echo-sounding apparatus proved particularly useful. Continuous readings of the depth could be taken and the length of wire rope varied accordingly. The Laboratory is situated immediately below the bridge and is 16 ft. broad and 9 ft. long. It has port and starboard doors and large portholes on three sides placed close to the level of the benches as in the ‘ Discovery’. On the after bulkhead, in the middle there is a sink supplied with fresh and salt water, and above it are large glass jars, fitted with taps, for alcohol and formalin. The space on either side of the sink is occupied by cupboards and sloping bottle racks. Along the forward bulkhead is a bench, extending round to the doors on either side, and interrupted in the middle by a small swing table. Above the portholes there are bookshelves and below the bench there are tiers of drawers. Three stools are provided, and a movable flap, attached to the bench, can be used as a writing desk. In bad weather it was found that the laboratory tended to become over-heated and to remedy this defect two small ventilators were fitted, opening on to the bridge. For storage of scientific apparatus a locker is provided on the lower deck, opening off the lobby which gives access to the chart room; other scientific gear and material is stored in a hold below the forward accommodation. PLANKTON NETS AND APPARATUS 181 APPARATUS AND METHODS PLANKTON NETS AND APPARATUS Six different types of plankton net were used in the investigations: a small silk net on a ring of 50 cm. diameter, a series of four nets of graded mesh, with diameters of 70, 100, 200 and 450 cm. respectively, and the Petersen young-fish trawl, which was used at first with the otter boards as a trawl proper and later as a tow-net on a 200 cm. ring. These nets will be referred to as the N 50, N 70, N 100, N 200, N 450 and TYF respectively. The N 50 was almost exclusively used for vertical hauls, the N 70 vertically, hori- zontally or obliquely, the N 100 horizontally, obliquely, or very occasionally vertically, and the remainder horizontally only. All the nets could be closed, if necessary, by messengers and closing mechanisms on the Nansen principle. Whilst differing in size of mesh and details of construction, according to their different functions, all the nets, with the exception of the TYF, follow the same general plan shown in Fig. 6. Between the ring R and the conical catching part of the net BC there Fig. 6. Diagram of general tow-net design; for explanation see text. The smaller figure shows the net closed on the Nansen principle. is a cylindrical portion A, separated from the latter by the canvas band D, which 1s fitted with small rings G to take a closing rope. In the nets of graded mesh the catching part BC is made of netting of two different sizes, the front part B, which is one-third of the length,’ being of a coarser mesh than the remaining two-thirds C. ‘The 1 Except in the N 70, where the proportions are made to conform with a similar net used by Prof. Hjort in the north (see p. 183). KII 6 182 DISCOVERY REPORTS “cod-end”’ of the net tapers to join a canvas cylinder E, made to slip over and be clamped to the collecting bucket. With the exception of the TYF the nets were made to our designs by the Marine Biological Association at Plymouth. 'They were all treated with copper-soap preserva- tive as described by Dr W. R. G. Atkins, who kindly supplied much helpful advice as to the manner in which it should be applied. In spite of the fact that the nets were often kept under most unfavourable conditions, it was only on the rarest occasions that a net was found to have rotted: the use of copper soap as a preservative is strongly to be recommended. Specifications of Plankton Nets The design and function of each net will now be described in turn. Full details are included in order that references may be given and repetition avoided in future papers on plankton results. The N 50, designed for the capture of diatoms particularly and the smaller plankton forms generally, is made of the finest bolting silk: that with 200 meshes to the linear inch. Its use formed part of the routine at each full station, a vertical haul being made with it from 100 m. to the surface at a speed not exceeding 1 m. per second. Like the N 70, next to be described, it is similar in size and mesh to that being used by Professor Hjort? in his plankton investigations in the northern whaling areas, so that comparisons between the conditions in the two hemispheres may more easily be made. The ring, which has an opening of 50 cm. diameter, is made of galvanized iron, 2 in. thick with round cross section, and has at three equidistant points a pair of small eyes of $ in. opening, one on each side of it, as shown in Fig. 7. These eyes form the points of attachment in front for the three bridles and behind for the lines ge ae attached to the bucket and weight. The bridles are of 3 mm. diameter phosphor- bronze rope, 3 ft. in length and with a brass eye spliced into each end. These ce amare in 7? are secured to the eyes on the ring by small shackles and drawn together at a towing shackle in front. In this net the sections A and D (Fig. 6) are continuous and of the same canvas material, making a cylinder 26 in. long. At its front edge it is sewn on to the ring R and behind to the conical net; on its outside are sewn six small brass rings at equal intervals, each 3 in. from its hind end, so that the net may be closed by a throttling rope if desired. The actual net, BC, 5 ft. 5 in. long, is of one material and tapers from a diameter of 50 cm. to one of 6 cm., where it joins the small canvas cylinder, 7-5 cm. long, for the attachment of the bucket. The netting employed is the silk bolting cloth made by Messrs John Staniar and Co. of Manchester, and known as their “No. 25 1 Atkins, Journ. Marine Biol. Assoc., n.s., XIV, p. 63, 1926. * Nets of similar type are described and figured by him in Murray and Hjort’s Depths of the Ocean, p. 46, London, 1912. PLANKTON NET SPECIFICATIONS 183 First Standard Quality Double Twist Silk”, having approximately 200 threads to the linear inch. It was found that these nets, being made of such fine material, frequently split; in future they will be made with an outer cover of wide mesh netting to take the strain of the pressure when hauling. The brass collecting bucket, which is separately described with those for the other nets on page 189, is secured to the small canvas cylinder at the tail of the net by means of a brass band and tightening screw. The wire stays supporting the bucket are of the same material as the bridles, but g ft. long; they are attached by small shackles to the eyes on the ring, seized to the eyes on the bucket holder and when, as usually, the net is used vertically, meet below at a shackle supporting a 7 lb. lead. The net as rigged for vertical use is shown in Fig. 8. The N 70 net is designed for the capture of the medium and smaller sized organisms of the macroplankton, from small or young Euphausians and largest Copepods downwards, and is made with two grades of silk netting: 40 meshes to the inch in front and 74 behind. As explained elsewhere the use of this net formed part of the routine at all full stations, being used vertically and horizontally or obliquely. When used vertically it was hauled at a speed of 1 m. per second, and closed by messenger, closing mechanism and throttling rope when it had fished through the required layer. An account of the routine work with these nets will be found on pages 199-201. It will first be described as rigged for vertical use. The ring is similar to that used in the N 50, but has an opening 70 cm. in diameter. At first phosphor-bronze bridles were used, but when it was found that these sometimes fouled the closing mechanism on the way down, so preventing or precipitating its action, they were replaced by three brass rods. These are } in. thick, 32 in. long and have an eye at each end carrying a brass ring; they are each shackled to the frame at one end and at the other meet in a shackle for attachment to the closing mechanism, thus forming a rigid tripod. The section A (Fig. 6) is 21 in. long and made of strong } in. mesh (knot to knot) netting. In front, where it has a rope margin, it is lashed to the frame, and behind it joins the canvas band D, which is to in. wide and has, like the N 50, six brass rings to take the closing rope. The Fig.8. The N 50 catching part of the net BC tapers from this to the small canvas cylinder, et "igged for g in. in circumference, for attachment to the bucket. It has a total al length of 7 ft. 7 in., but is in two sections; the first, B, 3 ft. 2 in. long, is made from Messrs Staniar’s “Quadruple Extra Heavy Quality Double Twist Swiss Silk”’ bolting cloth, No. 40, having 40 threads to the linear inch, and the second section, C, 4 ft. 5 in. long, from the same quality bolting cloth, No. 74, having approximately 74 threads to the linear inch. 6-2 184 DISCOVERY REPORTS Three phosphor-bronze wire ropes, 3 mm. in diameter, 14 ft. long and having brass eyes let in at each end, support the bucket (described on page 189) and the weight. They are shackled to the eyes on the frame and they have rings to take the closing rope, similar to and seized at a point in line with those on the net; further, to prevent their twisting round each other, they are seized to a stout brass ring 7 in. in diameter which passes round the net some 6 in. above the bucket; and finally, after passing through and being seized to the eyes on the bucket holder, they meet below the bucket in a shackle which supports an egg-shaped 40-lb. lead. The rope for closing the net is 2 in. in circumference and 16} ft. long, with an eye at each end. It passes round the net through the rings on the band D and those on the stay wires; its two ends are shackled to a link on the closing mechanism, so that when the messenger releases the | “bridle” rods, the net falls away and is caught by it ina noose. The closing mechanism is described on page 192. As heavy a lead as 40 lb. was used below the net so that it would run out easily under its own weight. To facilitate the handling of the lead when the net comes to the surface a rope is kept attached to it; this is 15 ft. long and has at its upper end a small brass toggle, which can be slipped in and out of a ring on one of the support wires just below the closing band. A sketch of the net fully rigged is shown in Fig. 9. The arrangement of the bridle rods, support wires, rings, shackles, etc., has been evolved by the gradual modification in practice of less satisfactory designs. The rigging of such a net had seemed at first a simple matter; the practice, however, of carrying out routine hauls down to depths of 1000 m., often from a heavily rolling ship, showed that many and unexpected defects had to be overcome. For horizontal use the net is exactly similar except that it has no weight or supporting wires, its bucket is of a simple light pattern (see page 191) and the bridles, instead of being brass rods, are three phosphor-bronze wires, 3 mm. in diameter and 4 ft. in length. N 100. Designed for the capture of macroplankton, particularly the Euphausians and Amphipods, this net has been used extensively together with the N 70 for routine horizontal and oblique hauls. Only occasion- ally has it been fished vertically and then its rig was unaltered. The ring is made of round-section galvanized iron 1 in. thick, has an opening of 1 m. diameter, and has on the outside an eye, of 2 in. diameter opening, as a fair-lead for the closing rope. The three bridles are of 4 mm. phosphor-bronze wire, each 5 ft. in length. The net which is Fig. 9. The N 70 net rigged for vertical use. there is in the resistance of a towed net with round-section frame and PLANKTON NET SPECIFICATIONS 185 lashed to the ring has the cylindrical section A, 34 ft. long, made of } in. mesh (knot to knot) netting. The band D is of tarpaulin canvas, 6 in. wide, with six galvanized iron rings, 2 in. in diameter, sewn on the outside at equal intervals to take the closing rope. The conical catching part of the net, BC, is 104 ft. long, has a circum- ference in front of 11 ft. (100 cm. diameter), and tapers to a circumference of 1 ft. 8 in., where it joins a cylindrical section of canvas 1 ft. long for attachment to the bucket. Of the two sections B is 34 ft. long and made of 4 mm. mesh (knot to knot) netting, and C is 7 ft. long, made formerly of silk bolting cloth (Staniar’s ‘‘ Quadruple Extra Heavy Quality’’, No. 16), having 15 meshes to the inch, but replaced later, after July 1927, by stramin. The silk netting with only 16 fine threads to the inch was not strong enough and, even after being supported on the outside by a lacing of stout cord, had continually to be patched or renewed. The stramin is very strong and its threads, although only 11 or 12 to the linear inch, are very coarse, so that the filtration is no more, in fact rather less, than that of the silk netting formerly employed. Down the length of the net run three 1 in. circumference ropes of log line. ‘These are sewn through long thin strips of canvas to the netting sections B and C’,, sewn to the canvas band D, and in front threaded through the netting A and tied to the ring; behind they have a free end of about 18 in. for tying to the rings of the bucket. The closing rope is 15 ft. long, and at one end has a large eye through which the other end passes, forming a noose. The N 200 net, similar to the N 100 only larger and of wider mesh, is designed to capture the rarer and faster-swimming pelagic forms which might escape the N 100, or to collect, if necessary, such forms as Euphausians in greater quantity than does the N 100. This latter necessity rarely arose since the N 100 usually provided more than sufficient material. The ring is of galvanized steel, having a stream-line cross section as shown in Fig. 10, and an opening 2 m. in diameter. It was made up from two “‘half-rounds”’ and one “‘flat”’ riveted together: to those un- acquainted with hydrodynamics it is surprising what a great difference that of one with a stream-line frame. Along the hind margin of the frame are a number of } in. holes at 4 in. intervals for lashing on the net. At one point an eye 2} in. in diameter is attached to the frame, as shown in Fig. 12, as a fair-lead for the closing rope; by this means, — when the bridles are released, the frame is held by one edge, and is ee ee Danae thus less liable to surge from side to side while being hauled to the line frame for surface. the N 200 net. The bridles consist of three 2 in. circumference ropes each 12 ft. long. The cylindrical section, A, is of 1 in. mesh (knot to knot) netting and is 7 ft. long. The band D is of tarpaulin canvas 6 in. wide, with eleven 2} in. galvanized iron rings sewn on at equal intervals. The catching part of the net BC has a total length of 19} ft., and tapers from 186 DISCOVERY REPORTS a circumference of 22 ft. to 2 ft. 3 in., where it joins the canvas cylinder, 2 ft. long, for attachment to the bucket. The front section, B, 6} ft. long, is of 7 mm. mesh (knot to knot) netting! (Fig. 11a), and C is 13 ft. long, of 4 mm. mesh netting! (Fig. 11 6). As in the N 100 there are three longitudinal ropes, and in addition transverse ropes passing round the net, one between the sec- tions B and C and one in the middle of C. These were originally made of log line to prevent any tendency to twist and so bunch up the net; but it was found not to be strong enough and was replaced by ordinary manila rope of 2 in. circumference. The bucket, like the others, is described on page 191. The closing rope is similar to that of the N 100, but 40 ft. long, 2} in. in circumference and fitted with a large lignum-vitae bull’s-eye. In practice this net was not used a great deal. When the larger, rarer and more active pelagic organisms were required the N 450, next to be described, which has an opening over five times in area that of the N 200, was used whenever possible. For collecting large quantities of the smaller forms the ‘T'YF was found to be more efficient. N ¢ h N N N Hl Boas) zz > KI Ny < 7 Cel N Fig. 11. Fine-meshed netting used in tow-net construction. Nat. size. a, 7 mm. mesh; 6, 4 mm. mesh. N 450. This net, with an opening of 44 m. diameter, is, we believe, the largest tow- net yet fished. Its function, as already indicated, is to capture the larger and more active pelagic animals, particularly the deep-sea forms such as medusae, crustacea, cephalopods and fish. It was feared by some that the difficulties in handling so large a net, especially from a vessel encumbered with much rigging, might prevent its frequent use. These fears, however, proved to be groundless. That the resistance in towing so large a frame, and one stout enough to retain its shape out of water, should be reduced to a minimum was here a matter of great im- portance and, asin the N 200, a stream-line section of similar construction was adopted. The details and dimensions are given in Fig. 12. To facilitate stowage the frame was made in four sections to bolt together, and hinges were provided at two joints so that if necessary it could be collapsed into two semi-circular halves for taking inboard. This latter device, however, was found to be unnecessary and was never used. Despite its great strength it was found that, when hoisted into the air by one point, it tended to lose its circular shape; this was prevented by the introduction of a thin steel wire across the diameter of the ring from the point of suspension. As shown in Fig. 12 the bridles, 1 To find a make of strong and fine netting suitable for these large plankton nets was a matter of con- siderable difficulty. The two sorts of square-meshed netting shown in Fig. 11, which were also used for fine nets attached to the trawl and for other purposes, were obtained from L. de Séréville, 3 Rue d’Haute- ville, Paris X. The 4 mm. netting is supplied in widths of 2 m. 10 cm., and the 7 mm. in widths of 2 m. 50 cm. PLANKTON NET SPECIFICATIONS 187 four in number, are attached to shackles at the junctions of the four sections. The frames for both these and the N 200 nets were made and galvanized by Messrs F. Braby of Ida Works, Deptford, London. The four bridles are of galvan- ized wire rope 6 mm. in diameter, each 20 ft. long. Section A is of netting! with 1} in. mesh (knot to knot), 154 ft. long. The tarpaulin canvas band D is 6 in. wide, but should have been considerably wider; it has fifteen 3 in. galvan- ized iron rings sewn on at equal intervals. The catching part of the net, BC, is 45 ft. long, tapering from a circumference of 50 ft. (44 m. diameter) to one of 3 ft. at the cod-end, where it joins the canvas cylinder, 3 ft. long, for attachment to the bucket. The netting in section B is } in. mesh (knot to knot),! and that in C’ of 7mm. (knot to knot) mesh.? It was found an improvement to line the ‘“‘cod-end”’ of the net with finer 4 mm. material. The longi- tudinal ropes, four in number, and two transverse ropes were, like those of the N 200, originally made of stout log line, but later were replaced by a soft 2 in. circum- ference rope of tarred hemp, known in Admiralty dockyards as “Rumbo”. Experience showed, however, that any kind of twisted rope is liable to twist still further ( \ \ SY RS SSF NUN NN g UMM Fig. 12. Section and sketch of part of the stream-line frame for the N 450 net, showing the junction of two quadrants, a towing shackle, rings for the attachment of the net, and the fair-lead for the closing rope. in use, thus rolling the net up and decreasing its circumference. In consequence all the ropes had to be removed and sewn on again after the turns had been taken out. For roping large plankton nets a flat braided sennet would perhaps be suitable, if log line of sufficient strength cannot be obtained. The specifications of the five types of tow-net are summarised in the table on p. 188. 1 Made by Messrs Stuart and Jacks of Lowestoft. 2 Made by L. de Séréville, see footnote to page 186. 188 DISCOVERY REPORTS TYF. This net is the Petersen young-fish trawl, similar to that modified and de- scribed in full by Clark! as his type A. At first it was used in the normal manner with N 50 N 70 N 100 N 200 N 450 Frame Diameter 50cm. 7o cm. Im. 2m. 44m. Section 2in., round | 2in.,round | rin., round | Stream-line | Stream-line Towing bridles Material Bronze Bronze* Bronze Galv. steel Galv. steel Diameter 3mm. 3mm. 4mm. 6mm. 6mm. Length itt 4 ft. Sais 12 ft. 24 ft. Number . 3 3 3 3 4 Cylindrical section At Material Netting Netting Netting Netting Mesht din. din. I in. 1d in. Length 26 in. I ft. g in. 3h ft. Pats 15% ft. Closing band D Canvas Material Canvas Tarpaulin ‘Tarpaulin Tarpaulin canvas canvas canvas Width 10 in. 12 in.§ 18 in.§ 24 in.§ | Tapering section B Material Silk Netting Netting Netting Mesh || 40 to 4mm. 7 mm. din. Silk linear in. Length 200 to ett can). 34 ft. 64 ft. 15 ft. Tapering section C linear in. Material 5 ft. 5 in. Silk Stramin Netting Netting Mesh|| 74 to 12 to 4mm. 7mm. linear in. linear in. Length 4 ft. 5 in. Fit 13 ft. 30 ft. Section FE (canvas) Circumference Sin. gin. 1 ft. 8 in. 2 ft. 3 in. 3 it. Length 24h in. 3 in. Maite 2 ft. 3} itt Longitudinal ropes) : Material Bronze Bronze Log-line Manila “Rumbo” line** SWAS) oot 3mm. diam. | 3mm. diam. | 1 in. circum. | 2 in. circum. | 2 in. circum. Number 3 3 33 3 4 * Brass rods were substituted when used vertically. + The letters refer to Fig. 6, p. 181. { Measured from knot to knot. § Widths latterly adopted. || Measured from knot to knot unless otherwise stated. {| With transverse ropes also in N 200 and N 450. ** A specially flexible rope of tarred hemp. poles and otter boards as a pelagic trawl, when it had a rectangular opening 6 ft. by 4 ft.; but later, after July 1926, the boards were discarded and the net, mounted upon the N 200 frame, used as an ordinary tow-net. In this form, as used by Russell? and 1 Clark, R.S., Journ. Marine Biol. Assoc., n.s., X11, p. 163, 1920. 2 Russell, F.S., cbid. x111, no. 4, 1925. APPARATUS USED WITH PLANKTON NETS 189 others, it is almost equally efficient, a good deal easier to handle, and can if necessary be closed on the Nansen principle. It is an excellent net, yielding large catches of macroplankton with a wide range in size. It was used effectively at all depths. Other Plankton Apparatus The Continuous Plankton Recorder, a new instrument for giving, as the name im- plies, a continuous record of the plankton through which it has been towed, was tested on many occasions and in all recorded just over 2400 miles of plankton. A preliminary description has already appeared;! the full description will be published later in a report dealing with the results obtained by its use. Small plankton indicators? were occasionally used to indicate the presence or absence of diatoms or young Euphausians. Buckets for Vertical Nets. In order to save time on routine stations when a number of vertical hauls are taken—and time in intensive plankton work is a vital factor—special buckets were designed. These are shown in Figs. 13 and 14. They are made of phosphor bronze and consist of two main parts: the holder a, a cylinder attached to the canvas end of the net by the band d, and the easily detachable bucket 6, which is screwed tightly up to the holder a by the loose collar c. The collar is well milled, so that it can be tightly screwed up and quickly undone, and held to the holder a by a flange. The inside of the holder which fits into the canvas cod-end of the net is gently bevelled at the top so that no organisms can stick round the edge. The collar d grips the canvas where it joins the silk netting immediately round the outside of this edge; a piece of tape or rubber inside this band improves the grip. On the outside of the holder are three eyes g, to which are seized the supporting wires to the weight below. The bucket 5 bears a strong screw thread round its upper margin for engagement with the collar c. Below this is a series of windows covered with phosphor-bronze gauze: 140 meshes to the inch in the N 70 and 200 meshes to the inch in the N 50. Thus when the net leaves the water and is washed down, the plankton sample is reduced to a reasonable size in that part of the bucket below the windows. It is then unscrewed, replaced by another similar bucket, and is closed by the screw-on lid f, so that it may be put down without fear of upsetting, and the work carried on. Each lid bears on the top an oblong strip of ivorine, upon which the depth from which the haul was taken may be written. Opposite the gauze windows the top of the jar is hollowed out on the inside to form a lip for pouring out the sample. The windows of the larger jar are so shaped that they are the maximum size that will allow the sample to be poured out from the opposite side without fouling them: those of the smaller jar are made small and circular on account of the fragile nature of the very fine-meshed gauze. After the sample has been poured out a little water is washed through the windows from the outside and added to the sample, so collecting any 1 Hardy, A. C., “A New Method of Plankton Research”, Nature, Cxvul, p. 630, 1926, 2 Hardy, A. C., Min. Agric. Fisheries: Fishery Invest., ser. ii, VIII, no. 7, 1926. K II 7 190 e DISCOVERY REPORTS Fig. 13. Bucket, with attachment and lid, for vertical N 50 net: for ex- planation see text. Fig. 14. Bucket, with attachment and lid, for vertical N 70 net: for explanation see text. APPARATUS USED WITH PLANKTON NETS IQI organisms which may have remained behind. These buckets were made by Messrs E. R. Watts and Sons. Buckets for Horizontal Nets. For N 70 horizontal nets simple light cylindrical buckets, made from sheet brass, were used; they were 2? in. in diameter and 5 in. tall, with a wired strengthening rim round the top. The bucket is slipped inside the canvas cod-end until the rim comes just below the silk netting; here it is tied securely with twine. The buckets used for the N 100, N 200 and N 450 nets, though differing in size, are all of the same pattern —that shown in Fig. 15. They are made of zinc with a wired edge at the top. Those for the N 100 nets have three rings on the side for the attachment of the longi- tudinal ropes; in those for the N 200 and N 450 nets the ropes are tied below the bucket. In all three the canvas cod-end is secured by a brass band with a fly nut. Fig. 15. Buckets for N 450 and The dimensions of the three buckets are as follows: Nigeoshorgen ne N 100 N 200 N 450 Diameter... a2 Bre sie 6 in. Sint 124k Eleight ... ns ie ae 12 in. r6in. 18in. Width of band ... oa sas 3 in. Tin. 1in. These buckets and securing bands were found very convenient; but in time the former became distorted by the pressure exerted by the fly nut; to give greater strength a narrow band of galvanized iron was fixed on the inside, just below the rim. The bucket for the TYF is the standard one made by the Marine Biological Associa- tion at Plymouth for this type of net. It is of galvanized iron 7} in. in diameter and 114 in. in height, and is fitted with four hinged lugs for attachment to the net, each 44 in. from the top. In handling the plankton nets specified above attempts have been made in one or two directions to introduce improved methods. The smaller nets, N 70 and N roo, towed vertically or horizontally and used for routine observations, have with few exceptions been closed before being hauled, and the same procedure has been adopted, though with less success, with the larger nets. Depth gauges of various kinds have, moreover, been employed to determine the level at which horizontal nets were being towed. Before giving an account of the methods of handling the various plankton nets it will be con- venient to describe this subsidiary apparatus. The closing mechanisms used may be divided into three classes: those for vertical nets, those for 1 m. and 70 em. horizontal nets and those for large horizontal nets. 4. 7-2 192 DISCOVERY REPORTS Closing Mechanisms for Vertical Nets. The apparatus used during most of the com- mission for the closure of vertical nets is that shown in Fig. 16: in general design it closely resembles that employed by Hjort.! In our hands this type was found to give a certain amount of trouble: it was liable to release prematurely and sometimes the wire was found to have come out from the slot in the top lever, and by jamming the Fig. 16. Closing mechanism for vertical Fig. 17. Improved closing mechanism nets: a, mechanism; 64, messenger. for vertical nets: x4. movement to have prevented release altogether. These difficulties were met by in- creasing the strength of the spring and by inserting a cotter pin through the ends of the forked lever to keep the wire in its proper place. With these alterations the apparatus worked well in smooth water, but in bad weather, with the ship rolling, premature releases were still liable to occur. If the wire strayed much from the vertical it would bear on the cotter pin and eventually effect release. During the second year of the commission a different pattern of closing mechanism was made by the engine-room staff and this has been found to be a great improvement on the former model, working 1 Hjort, Depths of the Ocean, p. 48, fig. 31, London, 1912. Lj APPARATUS USED WITH PLANKTON NETS 193 with certainty under all conditions. This type is illustrated about half size in Fig. 17 and does not call for detailed description. Fig. 18. Closing mechanism for small horizontal nets: for explanation see text. Two kinds of messenger are ordinarily used with these mechanisms, both of the torpedo pattern described by Knudsen;! they weighed 405 and 615 grm. respectively. 1 Knudsen, Pub. Circ., Cons. Explor. Mer, 77, p. 15, fig. 5, 1920. 194 DISCOVERY REPORTS Closing Mechanism for Small Horizontal Nets. The apparatus shown in Fig. 18 is used for closing 1 m. and 70 cm. nets towed horizontally. In attaching nets to the wire for horizontal work it is essential, as Hjort has pointed out, that the net should be free to revolve on the wire rope; for the rope is continually twisting, and the net, if clamped to it, will become wound round and will not tow properly. The closing mechanism 1 consequently made to swivel freely on the wire rope, and is supported by a brass screw stop a similar to those used by Hjort. The mode of action of the mechanism is evident from the figure. It is attached to the wire rope at the points marked b by two screw bolts. The messenger depresses the striking piece c, and the link which carries the bridles of the net is slipped from d. The throttling rope, by which the net is hauled to the surface, is attached at e. It will be noticed that a ring for the release of a messenger to a lower net can be passed through a slot f in the base plate and secured by a pin on the moving portion. he second messenger is thus released simultaneously with the closure of the net. In Fig. 18h the apparatus is shown assembled on the wire rope, with a messenger for the release of a lower net. This type of release gear has proved very satisfactory, but the heavy messengers that were used tend to bend or break the cast brass fork of the moving portion. Repairs were easily effected, but it would perhaps be better if this movable part were made of steel. ‘The messengers (g) were of a very simple type, stream-line in form, 3 lb. in weight, and made in two halves seized together with a piece of twine. A still heavier messenger, that shown in Fig. 19 m, was also sometimes used with this apparatus. Both messengers took approximately half a minute to travel 100 m., the time varying somewhat with the angle of the warp. In serial work it was found best to attach the messenger for the lower net to the release of the upper by means of a length of stiff galvanized wire, rather than by cod-line and a ring: by this method all chance of the line fouling the stop was prevented. Opening and Closing Mechanism for Large Horizontal Nets. The apparatus used with large nets is more elaborate and is shown in Figs. 19 and 20. Like the smaller mechanism described above, it is designed to swivel on the warp, to which it is attached by means of the two sliding clamps a and b. The primary release is at c and is opened by a small messenger striking the forked lever d. At the same time another small messenger for despatch to a lower net can be released from the catch e. The secondary release is at f. This link takes the whole towing weight of the net, and since it was anticipated that if the messenger acted directly (as with the primary release) the friction would be so great as to prevent movement, a double action was fitted by inserting the tumbler block g, the whole being arranged to give a leverage greatly in favour of the messenger. The rods effecting this release are attached above to the semi- circular striking piece 4, which must of course be large and wide enough to permit free passage to the primary messenger; at the lower end they actuate another catch, by which the secondary messenger can be slipped to a net attached lower down the warp. We found in practice that with a net towing from the link f the apparatus was canted out APPARATUS USED WITH PLANKTON NETS 195 of the straight line, and in order that the messenger may meet the striking piece h fairly, the latter is set at an angle of 20° to the horizontal. The apparatus. is supported Scale in inches. Fig. 19. Opening and closing mechanism for large horizontal nets: for explanation see text. on the stop shown at k, which is attached to the warp by six bolts, and, with a view to obtaining a better grip, it is so made that it causes a slight bend in the warp. This stop 196 DISCOVERY REPORTS proved unsatisfactory. It frequently slipped and it is almost certain that a simpler pattern, with two screws at most, would prove more efficient. If a large net is lowered rapidly there is a tendency for both net and closing mechanism to slide up the warp, and if this happens the lines by which the messengers for the lower net are attached will break: it is also very likely that when the apparatus slides back to the stop the momentum consequent upon the impact will be sufficient to effect release. This possibility was foreseen when the apparatus was designed, and room is made for the insertion of a small stop / at the upper end to prevent any movement in an upward direction. The primary messenger is shown at m and the secondary Fig. 20. Opening and closing mechanism for large horizontal nets, shown in use. at m: the former is 54 lb. in weight and stream-lined in form, the latter 1s 22 lb. in weight and apart from the conical extension piece is similar in shape. The smaller messenger travels at a rate of 34-4} min. and the larger at about 4-5 min. per 1000 m., the speed depending largely on the angle of the warp. The entire apparatus is made of phosphor bronze except for certain pins, at points where exceptional strength is required, which are of steel. Apart from the defects shown in the stop this apparatus proved all that could be desired, but as is explained further on, the results obtained with these large horizontal nets were not always satisfactory. Depth Gauges. To determine with any accuracy the depth at which mid-water nets are being towed is a matter of some difficulty. In most deep-water investigations the data on this point appear to be based mainly on guess-work, and in a recent expedition all attempts to determine the level are abandoned, and the only information given regarding APPARATUS USED WITH PLANKTON NETS 197 depth is the number of metres of wire rope paid out. The depth at which a towed net is working is governed by a considerable number of factors, the most important being the length and size of the rope, the size and pattern of net, the weight of the lead and the speed of the ship, and since there must nearly always be some variation in one or more of these particulars it is hardly possible, even with the most carefully standardized system of hauls, to work out a table of calibration. The only reliable method is to use a depth-gauge with each haul, and unfortunately no perfect instrument for deep-water work has yet been invented. In the ‘Discovery’ investigations a number of different types of gauge have been used: (i) the Admiralty pattern, recently employed with such good results by Mr F. S. Russell in his studies of vertical movements of plankton in the English Channel; (ii) the Kelvin tube, commonly used by seamen to determine shallow soundings from a moving ship ; (iii) the Budenberg gauge, made by Schaffer and Budenberg and formerly used by the Prince of Monaco; and (iv) a pattern in which the depth is determined by the difference in the readings of protected and unprotected reversing thermometers. In addition a new pattern of gauge was tried, but proved unsatisfactory. The vibration of the warp caused the index to shift and the readings were unreliable. It was unfortunately only possible to use the Admiralty pattern gauge to a very limited extent, for though it gives excellent results, it cannot be employed below depths of about 50 fathoms. With most of the shallow horizontal nets a Kelvin tube was used, inserted in a brass case lashed to the shaft of the stream-line lead. By this means a depth for the lower net is obtained without difficulty, but the method is, of course, open to the objection that only a single reading is taken and that the level at which the net is fishing may alter while it is being towed. The Kelvin tube was occasionally used to depths of roo fathoms, but the scale above 75 fathoms becomes very small and cannot be read with any accuracy. For work in deeper water the Budenberg gauge! was used on many occasions. ‘The instrument is large and very heavy, and was attached to the end of the warp either with or without a stream-line lead. It works on the Bourdon principle, and gives a graph which can be read with reasonable accuracy to about 25 m.; but since its limit of depth is 1500 m., it can only be employed in the upper layers of the water. In certain series of hauls, when five nets were being towed simultaneously, this gauge was used at the bottom in conjunction with a Kelvin tube on the second net from the surface. The Budenberg gauge gave excellent results, but it has one serious defect which detracts greatly from its usefulness. The instrument is lenticular in shape, made in two halves with a large circular washer as a joint, and is held together by twelve steel bolts, all of which must be removed in order to open it. In practice it was found almost impossible to make the joint watertight. No matter what means were tried a small leakage occurred, and this, though insufficient to have any appreciable effect on the reading, made it necessary to dismantle the entire mechanism and clean it thoroughly 1 Described in Forschungsreise S.M.S. ‘Planets’, 1906-7, Cx1, Ozeanographie, Berlin, p. 11, 1909. KIL 8 198 DISCOVERY REPORTS after each operation. Parts of the clock-work were of steel and would rapidly have been destroyed if continual care had not been taken. For depths below 1500 m. the only gauge used was of the reversing thermometer type!. If carefully calibrated beforehand a pair of thermometers, one protected against pressure and the other unprotected, will give a more reliable indication of depth than can be obtained by any other means. The thermometers were made by Richter and Wiese of Berlin, and were used at first in simple reversing frames supplied by the makers. These frames, though doubtless strong enough for vertical work, proved to Fig. 21. 56-lb. stream-line lead, with Fig. 22. Ball-bearing swivel for use with bar attached. trawls, dredges and large tow-nets. be too frail for our purpose and others of heavy cast gunmetal were substituted. These proved satisfactory, but later were replaced by an ordinary Ekman reversing bottle adapted to fit on wires of large calibre. The bottle serves equally well and has the added advantage that it provides a water sample as well as the temperature. In placing such instruments as these on a long length of towed wire rope, a stop should be used and the instrument attached above it with a loose-fitting clamp, so that it will not revolve as the rope twists and untwists. The thermometer type of gauge will, of course, only record the depth at the moment when the messenger arrives, and for biological work it 1 For description of the method see Ruppin, Wiss. Meeresuntersuch. Kiel, Helgoland, Abt. Kiel, neue Folge, Ix, p. 182, 1906, and Brennecke, Ann. Hydrographie, 41, p. 363, 1913, and 42, p. 34, 1914. METHODS OF HANDLING PLANKTON NETS 199 is thus less suitable than an instrument which provides a graph. In practice the reading of the gauge was taken as the mean depth, and an estimate of the levels in which the net was towing was arrived at by making an allowance (usually of about 50 m.) above and below the reading. For all horizontal nets Stream-line Leads, as shown in Fig. 21, were used. These leads are an improvement on the ordinary pattern, offering less resistance to the water and giving a greater effect for the weight employed. Each lead is 56 lb. in weight, and the bar, which is 3 ft. long and also stream-lined in section, is bored with a series of holes so that any number of leads, up to four, can be attached to it. In using stream-line leads and with every type of net Swivels are necessary. For the leads and light mid-water nets a simple galvanized swivel answers well enough, but with trawls, dredges and large plankton nets something better is required. For such purposes the ball-bearing pattern shown in Fig. 22 was used—made by Thos. and Wm. Smith, Ltd. These swivels with their links are tested to 2} tons; they are compact and pass easily through the fair-leads, and in every way proved most satisfactory. Methods of Handling Plankton Nets The engines, reels, wire ropes, nets and fittings used in plankton work on board the ‘Discovery’ and ‘William Scoresby’ have now been described and figured. It remains to describe the method of working. Vertical Nets. On ordinary routine stations one haul is made with the N 50 net from 100 m. to the surface, and a series of hauls with the N 70 net, soundings per- mitting, as follows: 50 m. to the surface, 100 to 50, 250 to 100, 500 to 250, 750 to 500 and 1000 to 750. When possible deeper hauls were taken from 1500 to 1000, 2000 to 1500, 2500 to 2000 or 3000 to 2500. In the ‘ Discovery’ three persons are required to work the plankton unit efficiently : two scientific officers and a deck hand. Of the two officers one is on the outboard platform to adjust the closing mechanism and net before descent, to despatch messengers and to wash down and take the sample at the end of the haul; the other, who is in charge of operations, is inboard to control the engine, the depth reached and speed of winding, and to time the despatch of the messenger. In the ‘ William Scoresby’ outboard platforms were not necessary and only one scientific officer was required. The deck hand guides the wire on the drum, pulls up the weight and holds the net for washing down. After an examination, when the closing rope is seen to be open to the full extent, the net is lowered to the surface and the hands on the dials of the recording sheave adjusted to zero. This being done, the net is lowered to the depth from which the haul is to be taken. When the ship is rolling heavily—a not infrequent occurrence in the vicinity of South Georgia—the wire must be let out with great care. As the ship 8-2 200 DISCOVERY REPORTS rolls to starboard, that is, away from the side of operation, the wire must be allowed to run out easily; as it rolls to port the drum must be checked by the brake or the wire may become slack, over-ride a sheave and possibly kink. The danger of this happening becomes less the further the net goes out, because the strain on the wire is increasing with its own increasing weight; in hauling in the strain completely removes the danger. It has already been explained in a previous section (page 166) that modifications were made to the apparatus to prevent the wire from over-riding the sheaves when being paid out, and that the spring accumulators were of considerable assistance in mitigating this nuisance. But when all possible improvements had been made, the danger of kinking still existed and great care was always necessary in paying out the wire. If a hitch occurred the strain outboard was taken up by means of the brass clamp shown in Fig. 26. Reference has already been made, on page 183, to the defects in the original design of the net which caused failure of operation. The fouling of the closing mechanism by the wire bridles or throttling rope was most likely to occur when the net was allowed to run out too fast. Even now that these difficulties have been overcome, and under favourable conditions of sea, a limit should be set to the speed of descent; for at great depths the wire by its increased total weight may fall faster than the net itself if allowed to run out at full speed. This, with the rolling of the ship, was another cause for pre- mature releases with the old type of gear (see page 192). As soon as the net reaches the required depth, the drum is stopped and put into gear, and the messenger, unless a haul to the surface is being made, is attached to the wire and held by a piece of line until the moment for despatch. The net is wound up at the speed of 1 m. per second. An even and exact rate of winding may be maintained, after a very little practice, by regulating the steam valve whilst watching the metre-recording sheave in conjunction with a stop watch. The times that the particular messenger in use takes to fall to the different depths required has been calculated from previous trials. Thus when the haul is (say) from 750 to 500 m., the messenger, which is known to fall 500 m. in 160 sec., is released from the surface when the metre wheel records that the net, in its upward passage, has reached 660 m. The upward haul is continued without a break, so that the net meets the messenger at 500 m. and is closed. After this the net, no longer fishing and offering less resistance, may be hauled more quickly, but never more than 4 or 5 m. per second if damage to the net is to be avoided. In the haul from 1000 to 750 m. the messenger, which takes 240 sec. to fall 750 m., must be released when the dial reads ggo: i.e. 10 sec. after the haul is started. At greater depths it may be necessary to release the messenger and wait before starting the haul: thus from 3000 to 2500 m. one must wait 5 min. A table of dial readings and times is easily drawn up for any particular type of messenger. Careful winding should ensure accuracy of release to within 1 or 2 m. in the shallower hauls and not more than 10 m. in the 1000-750 m. haul. When the ship is drifting before a wind so that the wire is off the vertical a slightly longer time must be allowed for the falling of the messenger. It has already been explained (p. 166) that the spring accumulators METHODS OF HANDLING PLANKTON NETS 201 afford a means of checking the accuracy of the haul, for they indicate by their sudden extension the exact moment when the closure of the net is effected. On reaching the surface the weight is pulled up by its special rope and the net washed down on each side with water from a bucket. The brass net bucket is now detached, replaced by another, the net fully opened and the mechanism reset for the next descent. When all is working properly the routine of N 50 and the six N 70 hauls takes 2 hours to complete. Routine Horizontal Nets. On arrival at South Georgia it was necessary in the first place to find a method by which comparable hauls of Euphausia superba (whale-food) and associated organisms could be obtained. ‘This Euphausian, which is the largest in the group to which it belongs, swims actively, and we soon discovered that it could not be caught in nets hauled vertically. It can escape even the N 200 hauled as quickly as possible, and though a vertical N 450 proved more successful, this net was too difficult to manipulate. Experience showed, however, that very good catches could be obtained in horizontal nets. Towed N 100 often yielded thousands of the species and it was frequently taken in abundance in the N 70. Horizontal N too and N 70 were therefore adopted as a routine method of investigation; they were used open at the surface and with a closing mechanism working on the Nansen principle at depths of about 60 and 120m. At first both the N 100 and the N 70 were shot together and towed for 1 mile at a speed of 2 knots; but it was found that unduly large catches were then made in the finer net and subsequently the two sizes were towed separately, the N roo for 1 mile and the N 70 for } mile. The method proved very satisfactory: closure of the nets could be effected with reasonable certainty and none of the difficulties referred to below in connection with the larger nets was experienced. So far as can be ascertained the catch is not appreciably diminished if the net is closed, and the material was always in first-rate condition, with the majority of the organisms still alive. With nets worked on this principle hundreds of hauls have been made, both in the whaling areas of South Georgia and the South Shetlands and in other parts of the South Atlantic. During some special investigations off the African coast repeated hauls were made with a surface net and four closing nets used in series on the same wire rope, the total length of rope being 400 m. One objection to the use of these flights of horizontal nets is that a patch of plankton may occur at a level which lies between those at which the nets are fishing. Euphausia superba lives in swarms or patches which are sometimes very strictly localized hori- zontally, and on more than one occasion the fore part of one of the nets (in front of the throttling rope) came to the surface covered with Euphausians, though few or none at all were found in the bucket. In June 1927 experiments were made with oblique hauls and these proved so satisfactory that in routine work they have been substituted for the horizontal hauls. It is thought that they give a better indication of the total plankton which is present, and for economic purposes this is a more important consideration than information, which the horizontal nets might yield, on the vertical distribution 202 DISCOVERY REPORTS of the various species. For oblique hauls open N 100 and N 70 were attached to the warp close together and 3 or 4m. above the lead. With the ship steaming at 2 knots 200 m. was paid away, and as soon as this had been done hauling commenced. ‘The rate of hauling was 10 m. per minute; each haul thus took 20 min.and the distance covered was two-thirds of a mile. In working Large Horizontal Nets attempts were made to effect some improvement in methods. As a general rule large horizontal nets are fished open and no matter how long they may have been towed at a particular level many organisms must necessarily be caught during the ascent of the net. As a result it is only by a careful comparative study of a large number of hauls that any good estimate can be formed of the horizons at which an abundant species lives, while with scarcer forms the data are nearly always insufficient. If the larger and more active planktonic animals are to be secured, a net of large dimensions is a necessity, and it appeared important to find out some method by which these large nets could be closed. Originally it was hoped that it might be possible to send nets down closed, to open them when the full amount of warp had been paid out, and to close them again before hauling. In the arrangement suggested a number of rings were sewn to a canvas band some distance from the mouth and on the inside of the net. A short running line was passed through these rings and the whole fore part of the net drawn through the frame. The fore part thus took the form of a cone inside the bridles, and the running line at the apex of the cone was linked to the primary release of a mechanism attached to the wire rope (a description of this mechanism will be found on p. 194). The after part of the net tailed out in collapsed form from the inner apex of the cone, the bucket itself extending well behind the frame. When, by despatch of the first messenger, the running line was released, the net would be carried by the weight of water through the frame and would take up its normal form. To close the net when the haul was completed the Nansen method was employed. A link carrying the bridles was slipped from the secondary release, and the net was closed and hauled to the surface by a running line passing through another series of rings on the outer side of the canvas band and through a fair-lead on the frame of the net. Experiments carried out on these lines resulted, in part at least, in failure. To shoot a large net, closed as described above, proved a matter of very great difficulty, due partly to the inherent inconvenience of the arrangement, and partly to the limited deck space and to the obstruction caused by the mizen rigging. Although on one or two occasions the N 450 has been successfully opened and closed by this method, the operation was far too awkward for routine work and the idea of shooting large nets closed was abandoned. This is perhaps not a matter of vital importance; for if horizontal nets are shot at a fair speed they catch practically nothing during the process, as has been shown by closing them immediately after they have been let out. ‘To close the net before hauling is a much more important consideration: in this manceuvre greater success was attained, and with experience in manipulation it was METHODS OF HANDLING PLANKTON NETS 203 found that large horizontal nets can be closed with a reasonable degree of certainty. But though almost all difficulties in the actual operation were overcome, the results fell much below expectation. Frequently the catch was disappointingly small and on a number of occasions the condition of the material left much to be desired. ‘Throughout these hauls with large nets a speed of about 2 knots was maintained, and it is possible that the smallness of the catch when a net is closed indicates that an unexpectedly large proportion of the material obtained in an open net is caught on the way up, when the speed through the water is augmented by hauling. The poor condition of the material in some hauls is probably to be attributed to the surging movement of the net while being drawn to the surface. When a large horizontal net is hauled from deep water after having been closed on the Nansen principle, it appears sometimes to behave like an ill-constructed kite, the bucket lashing from side to side and causing serious damage to the contents. If the fair-lead on the edge of the frame is omitted the trouble is aggravated. On one occasion it was found, when the net had been hauled, that this fair- lead had carried away, and the condition of the material was far worse than anything previously seen. Except for the most heavily constructed organisms practically every- thing was destroyed: even the limbs of the larger Crustacea were broken up into their component segments. In spite of these disadvantages a large amount of material has been obtained in good condition and with accurate data of the horizon at which it was caught, and this, though less in quantity than that obtained in large open nets, should prove of considerable biological interest. It is hoped in the future to conduct further experiments, with a view to finding some method of closing large midwater nets which obviates the dis- advantages referred to above. The N 450 was usually carried with the frame outboard, just abaft the mizen rigging. When shooting; the bucket and net were put overboard and the lashings were cast off, leaving the net suspended only from a slip-hook on the masthead tackle. When the frame had been lowered sufficiently the slip-hook was tripped. In hauling, the net was brought directly to its proper position on the port quarter, where it remained until it was next required. The N 200 and TYF could of course be handled very easily and no description of the procedure in shooting and hauling is necessary. When these large tow-nets were fished open, the net was shackled to a ball-bearing swivel at the end of the wire rope, and a length of stray line, attached behind this swivel, was used to carry the weight. The swivel is an important part of the equipment. When ~ any considerable length of rope is paid out, it is continually twisting and untwisting, and unless a swivel is used, the stray line and weight will become foul of the net and prevent it from fishing. Other nets can be employed at any desired point by fixing a stop on the wire and attaching the net above this point by a shackle in the manner recommended by Hjort (Depths of the Ocean, p. 49). When the net was to be closed, the weight was attached directly to a swivel at the end of the wire rope and 20 or 30 m. paid out. The stop and large mechanism were now attached to the rope just inside the fair-lead on the after rail, and when a final 204 DISCOVERY REPORTS inspection of bridles and throttling line had shown that all were clear and properly adjusted, a snatchblock was placed on the rope in front of the gear and the rope hauled up until the apparatus could pass clear of the fair-lead. The net was now put out, the frame lowered and tripped, and as soon as all was clear and well away the rope was slackened back into the fair-lead. On some occasions a second net and mechanism were added at an intermediate point on the wire, with messengers slung below the stop to operate the release of the lower net. It is no doubt possible to shoot a whole series of closing nets on the one warp, and, as explained above, this has been managed very successfully with small nets worked at shallow depths. TRAWLS, DREDGES AND OTHER APPARATUS The scientific programme for the ‘ Discovery’ did not include trawling and dredging at great depths, and work on the bottom was for the most part limited to areas in the south where the depth did not exceed 600m. Plankton and hydrography were, moreover, the subjects with which this vessel was more particularly concerned and investigation of the bottom fauna was only undertaken at irregular intervals. As has already been explained, a trawling survey of the grounds lying between the Falkland Islands and the South American coast formed part of the work of the ‘ William Scoresby’. Trawls. ‘The trawl in the ‘ William Scoresby’ has a headline 80 ft. long and is made to the specification shown in Fig. 23: it was used with otter-boards ro ft. long and 4 ft. 4 in. 16 MESHES 16 MESHES 30 MESHES 30 MESHES (azn LOWER 250 MESHES O'MESH SQUARE LOWER END o~ i=) 5 i ES Bal Fig. 23. Plan of otter trawl used in the R.S.S. ‘William Scoresby’. high, fitted with brackets. The trawl used in the ‘Discovery’ was a small one, with head-rope 4o ft. in length, made to the specification shown in Fig. 24; the otter-boards were 5 ft. long and 2 ft. 11 in. high, fitted with chains. TRAWLS, DREDGES, ETC. 205 In the ‘ William Scoresby’ the trawl was towed from two wire ropes in the manner usual in commercial vessels. In the ‘ Discovery’, bridles, 25 fathoms in length, were used in conjunction with a single wire rope; in connecting them a ball-bearing swivel of the pattern shown in Fig. 22 (p. 198) was always used. In the south, and especially in the Palmer Archipelago, trawling is attended with some risk, for the bottom is frequently strewn with large stones and boulders, presumably ice-borne, which are very liable to damage the gear. 8 MESHES 8 MESHES I& MESHES de MESHES LOWER 180 MESHES square * MESH 160 MESHES 160 MESHES 445"MESH BAITINGS 4°MESH SYMESH OR BELLY 60 MESHES 60 MESHES 3" MESH 40 MESHES LOWER END. Fig. 24. Plan of otter trawl used in the R.R.S. ‘ Discovery’. The trawls, which were made by the Gourock Ropework Company, proved very satisfactory and their catching power was greatly augmented by the addition of fine- meshed bags attached to the back. On several occasions when the cod-end of the trawl was so badly torn that it retained practically nothing, quantities of valuable material were taken in these fine nets and almost always they yielded large supplies of small a d Fig. 25. Diagram of trawl, showing positions of fine-meshed nets: a, net of coarse silk; 6, net of 4 mm. mesh; c, net of 7 mm. mesh; d, head-rope; e, foot-rope; f, cod-end. organisms, particularly of Crustacea, which would inevitably have escaped through the meshes of the main net. Three sizes of fine-meshed net were used on the trawl, one made of coarse silk with 16 meshes to the inch, one of 4 mm. and one of 7 mm. mesh, and these were stitched to the baitings and lower end in the positions shown in Fig. 25. As the foot-rope passes over the bottom it disturbs small organisms, which are carried by the swirl of the water through the meshes of the back. The smaller and lighter KII 9 206 DISCOVERY REPORTS organisms tend to be lifted most and consequently the silk net is placed in front and the 7 mm. net nearest the cod-end. The precise positions for obtaining the best results are easily found by experiment. It will be noticed that the nets must be specially shaped, with the upper side longer than the lower, so that they may stream out properly when the net is fishing. For the silk net an old tow-net may be used with the fore part cut away obliquely at an angle of about 40°. This system of attaching fine nets to a trawl was apparently first advocated by the late Dr E. W. L. Holt! and deserves to be more widely adopted. It can be employed equally well with beam trawls, but is of course impossible with an Agassiz trawl, which is fitted with two foot-ropes and is designed to fish either way up. Since Hjort has shown that a 4o ft. otter trawl can be worked successfully even in mid-ocean, little can be said in favour of the Agassiz pattern, and the impossibility of attaching fine nets is a very serious objection to its use. On board the ‘ William Scoresby’ the procedure in shooting the trawl is the same as that used on commercial vessels and does not require description. In the ‘ Discovery’ the trawl was shot first of all from the port side of the ship, where, by swinging one of the life-boats on special davits, a length of clear rail had been provided between the main and mizen rigging. This position was, however, inconvenient and it was found better to shoot the net over the stern, with one board hanging on each quarter. If, when using the warp on the port side, the starboard board was slipped a few seconds later than the other, the trawl could always be shot clear. A 30 ft. beam trawl was carried in the ‘Discovery’ in addition to the otter trawl, but the latter proved to work so well that it was not used. One of the 30 ft. nets was, however, adapted for use with otter boards and was employed on a few occasions. Small beam trawls, with beam 8 ft. in length and with } in. mesh (knot to knot) at the cod-end, were carried on both vessels and were used mainly from boats in shallow water, generally with a coarse silk net attached to the back. Rectangular Nets consist merely of a rectangular frame with a long bag of netting, towed by four bridles: for all practical purposes they are identical with what is usually called the D-net. ‘Three sizes were taken: (i) with frame 8 ft. by 2} ft. with bag of $ in. mesh, (11) with frame 4 ft. by 14 ft. with bag of 7 mm. mesh, and (iii) with frame 3 ft. by 1 ft. with bag of 4 mm. mesh. In the first of these the frame was made of flat steel, 2 in. broad and + in. thick, with a series of holes along one edge for the attachment of the net. In the other sizes the frame was of ;% in. round galvanized steel, which proved rather weak for the larger of the two. In these frames the ends were not welded, but were connected by means of an eye on the one part and a screw thread and nut on the other. The nets were attached to galvanized rings threaded on the frames. ‘The two larger sizes were used from the ‘Discovery’ and coarse silk nets were sometimes attached to them: the smallest was for work from boats. Nets of these types are efficient on suitable ground, but were not used on many occasions. 1 See Calman, Fisheries, Ireland, Sci. Invest., 1904, 1, p. 4 (1905). TRAWLS, DREDGES, ETC. 207 Dredges. Two kinds of naturalists’ dredge were used, both supplied by the Marine Biological Association and both of the double-sworded type. In working them the usual procedure was adopted: one arm only was shackled to the warp and the other was seized to it with several turns of trawl twine. If the dredge hitches, the seizing parts, and by this means the chances of loss or damage are lessened. Both dredges are galvanized, 4 ft. in length, 1 ft. in breadth, with arms 43 ft. long, and the only difference between them is that one is of much heavier material than the other. The lighter pattern proved much too weak for the very rough bottoms which were met and after one or two trials its use was discontinued. In the heavier type the frame is 3 in. wide and bevelled from ? to 14 in. in thickness; the double bars which form the arms are each # in. in diameter. The weight is about 140 lb. For work in the south dredges of exceptional strength are required; bags, even of the heaviest netting, with plenty of chafing material attached to the outside, were not infrequently torn away, and we believe that they might more suitably be made of steel link. The conical dredge, with mouth 18 in. in diameter and a canvas bag, is designed to bring up large samples of the bottom and for this purpose is a most efficient instrument. Its use was adopted as a routine in the trawling survey made by the ‘ William Scoresby’. This dredge has been described in detail by Borley.! Small naturalists’ dredges and oyster dredges were also taken, the former for boat work. Fish Traps of various sizes were constructed for use from the ‘ Discovery’, and it was hoped that good results would be obtained with them in comparatively deep water. The largest was 10 ft. by 4 ft. by 4 ft., made of galvanized angle iron and netting; it was only used once and was then unfortunately lost. It had been buoyed in deep water off South Georgia, and with the onset of heavy weather two days elapsed before it could be picked up. The buoy was discovered far away from its proper position and the wire, though of over 2 tons breaking strain, was found to have parted. There is little doubt that its loss was due to an iceberg having drifted across the position. It is hoped that opportunity will be found for further experiments with large traps in deep water. Off the north-east coast of South Georgia the bottom between depths of 300 and 2000 m. is exceedingly rough and traps appear to afford the only means of obtaining those animals which can escape a dredge. Smaller traps were 4 ft. by 4 ft. by 24 ft., covered with } in. wire netting, and three different sizes of a cylindrical pattern, covered with brass gauze. The latter were (i) 3 ft. by 1 ft. with § in. mesh, (ii) 14 ft. by 6 in. with {!; in. mesh, and (iii) g in. by 3 in. with .}; in. mesh. These were used in shallow water, the largest sizes proving the most effective. They were generally baited with whale meat. Nippers and Clamps. In trawling from the ‘ Discovery’ a nipper was used to transfer the towing strain to a light rope stopper which broke at about 35 cwt., the arrangement being that shown in Science of the Sea.? If the trawl hitches the stopper breaks, the 1 Borley, Min. Agric. Fisheries: Fishery Invest., ser. ii, 1V, no. 6, p. 5, 1923. 2 Science of the Sea, p. 276, fig. 195, London, 1912; 2nd ed., p. 315, fig. 193, Oxford, 1928. 9-2 208 DISCOVERY REPORTS wire pays out from the drum of the winch, and the gear can often be recovered without serious damage. The nipper was made by Bullivant and Co. and is of the type illustrated in the figure quoted above. It has a double cam action and releasing plate, and the jaws have two grooves to suit 14 grooved brass wedges driving into a steel casing, was tried, but could not be made to grip the wire satisfactorily. A smaller nipper, also with cam action, and with brass interchangeable jaw plates, was occasionally used for the 4 mm. and 6 mm. wires; but the simple screw-clamp, shown in Fig. 26, was at least as easy to manipulate. With these light wires the nipper or clamp was for the most part only required when some misadventure made it necessary to take up the outboard strain. Hand-Nets, Harpoons, etc. Hand-nets and lines were of course frequently employed and a sort of mussel rake, with heavy teeth and a triangle of wire netting extending from the cross- piece to the handle, was useful for collecting organic growth attached to hulks and to the piles of jetties. Equipment for obtaining porpoises and dolphins was taken, including a small har- poon gun of the type used in hunting the bottle- nose. ‘The hand harpoons were provided with a swivel head, as shown in Fig. 27, which gives a and 1} in. wire. Another type, with Fig. 26. Simple screw- clamp for light wire ropes. Fig. 27. Hand harpoon with swivel head. very effective grip: in use one end of the head is tied back to the shaft with a piece of thin twine. WHALE-MARKING As already explained (p. 147), one of the objects for which the ‘ William Scoresby’ was built was to undertake whale-marking—the only means by which the migrations of whales can be traced with any certainty. Preliminary experiments made in 1925 in- dicated that the best way of attempting to mark whales would be by shooting a mark into the blubber. An ordinary 12-bore gun was found suitable and trials were made on a shooting range with various patterns of mark. Portions of blubber obtained from whales stranded on the British coast were used as targets, and eventually the form of mark shown in Figs. 28 and 29 was evolved. Fig. 28. Whale marks. WHALE-MARKING 209 As will be seen the mark resembles a large drawing pin. The disc is 13 in. in diameter and the shank 23 in. long and ,’; in. in diameter, provided with three large barbs. The dise bears a serial number on both sides, and on its underside, where it is least likely to be affected by corrosion, the inscription ‘‘ Reward for return to Discovery Committee, Colonial Office, London”. The precise form of the barbs was the subject of prolonged experiment: a number of kinds were tried and it was found that quite small variations in form produced large differences in the amount of grip exerted on the blubber. In this respect barbs which folded back along the shank showed no superiority over those which were fixed, and the latter were to be preferred on the ground of expense. The selected pattern has a very powerful grip and can hardly be removed from the blubber by any means except cutting. The marks are made of annealed iron and silver-plated. Brass was rejected on account of the danger of copper poisoning in the wound, which might ultimately result in the mark dropping out. The mark is used in conjunction with a light wooden shaft (Fig. 29), provided with three wads and sufficiently long to extend the whole length of the bore. The end of the rod fits into a small hole in the centre of the upper side of the disc, the mark itself lying just outside the muzzle when the gun is loaded for use. The wooden shaft breaks off short on impact, leaving the mark embedded in the blubber.! The guns are single-barrelled, with the sights heightened so as to give a clear view over the edge of the disc. With this mark and gun and a cartridge containing 1 dram of black powder, the trajectory is reasonably flat at ranges up to about 75 yards, this being approximately the maximum distance at which whales are harpooned in commercial operations. It was found that when the target is hit obliquely the mark tends to straighten itself, coming to rest in nearly every experiment that was made with the disc flush with the surface of the blubber. ite. Sou Wi Marks and guns were supplied by Messrs Holland and Holland, Ltd., mark fitted to who gaye expert technical advice and lent their shooting range for the — wooden shaft. experimental work. First attempts at the use of this equipment on board the ‘ William Scoresby’ were not very promising, one of the greatest difficulties being the amount of icy-cold spray taken over the bows in any but the smoothest water. This was overcome at the end of the first commission by the erection of a light forecastle head, as shown in Plates XIV and XV, and very satisfactory results were obtained in the early months of 1928 during the brief periods which could be allotted to this work. In the near future it is hoped to undertake 1 Tt may be added that Capt. T. Sérrle, Manager of the whaling station at Stromness in South Georgia, has taken great interest in whale-marking experiments, and has devised a new form of mark with folding barbs designed to fit down the bore of the gun. Experiments with this mark are now being made. 210 DISCOVERY REPORTS marking on a more extensive scale. It will be understood that the method cannot be regarded as beyond the experimental stage until it has been demonstrated that the marks are retained in the blubber for at least some months. HYDROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND METHODS Methods and apparatus in hydrology are more nearly standardized than those em- ployed in biological work, and in consequence call for less detailed description. Apparatus for Bottom Sampling. The apparatus used for obtaining bottom samples in routine work was supplied by the Admiralty. In shallow water, up to about 500 m., the sinker shown in Fig. 30 was employed. This sinker is 28 Ib. in weight and the upper part is composed mainly of lead. At the lower end is a short cylinder, of 2? in. internal diameter, in which the bottom sample is collected. This cylinder has a pair of butterfly valves a at the lower end to prevent the sample from washing out during its passage to the surface, and a series of holes 6 at its upper end to allow the water to escape when it strikes the bottom. In deep water greater weight is re- quired, and with the very light wires used in sounding it is not possible to haul the weight back to the surface without risk Ayu) ~2]D9g r 7 i ° of breaking the wire or damaging the sounding machine. The Baillie rod, which was used for deep-water sound- ings, is illustrated in Fig. 31; it is itself only 10 lb. in weight and is used in con- junction with separate cast-iron sinkers ly which are detached on striking the _ a i bottom. The rod itself is hollow through- ab aces | Yl out the greater part of its length; it has _ sectional view. Fig.31. Baillie rod for deep-water a pair of butterfly valves a at the lower soundings: sectional view.gHer explanation see text. end to retain the bottom sample, and a mushroom valve 6 at the upper end to allow the water to escape. The tube below the mushroom valve can be unscrewed from the upper part, and when this has been done, a long panel or shutter c can be removed, giving access to the bottom sample within. The shaft d, which bears the eye for the attachment of the sounding wire, is free to move vertically within the limits set by a cross-piece at its lower end, which engages in slots e cut in either side of the casing. 'To the shaft is attached a small projection f, HYDROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS 211 and this, when the shaft is at its lowest, is housed within the conical upper part of the instrument. The cast-iron sinkers g each have a hole in the middle through which the rod passes and they are suspended by a bight of wire to the projection f. When the instrument strikes the bottom the rod is driven backwards, the wire is disengaged from f by the conical head-piece, and the sinkers are detached. As will be seen from the figure the sinkers are of two shapes, conical and flat, the former being 23 lb. and the latter 20 lb. in weight. For most deep-water soundings it was customary to use four sinkers—two cones with two flats between. These two pieces of apparatus proved very reliable: except on rocky ground they rarely failed to provide a sample of the bottom. Snapper leads, with both fixed and detachable weights, were also used on a few occasions, but appeared to be less certain in their action. ‘The “ Sondeur Leger”’,! a light form of grab originally constructed for the Prince of Monaco, was sometimes employed for obtaining larger samples of the bottom in shallow water, but as already stated the conical dredge was used for this purpose during the trawling operations of the ‘William Scoresby’. For obtaining cores of ooze in deep water an instrument similar to that described by Ekman? in 1905 was constructed. It is similar in principle to the Baillie rod, but is much longer and carries glass tubes inside which can be withdrawn without disturbing the enclosed bottom sample. ‘This instrument, which is illustrated in Fig. 32, differs from the Ekman-Nansen pattern in that the weight is detachable—a necessity for deep-water work. As in the Baillie rod there is a mushroom valve at the top of the tube; closure at the bottom end is effected by two cup-shaped valves, actuated by a spring and similar to those used in snapper leads, which slide down the outside of the tube when the sinker is released. The rod is 5 ft. 2 in. in length and contains three 15 in. glass tubes separated by thin leather washers. The internal diameter of the glass tubes is about 1} in., and the pear-shaped cast-iron sinkers are 53 lb. in weight. The instrument was made by the Telegraph Construction and Maintenance Co. and with it cores up to 47 cm.in length have been obtained. Deeper penetration could perhaps be effected by using a heavier weight and a tube of smaller diameter. 3 i a J3 : Te : Fig. 32. Modified f of 1 Richard, Les Campagnes scientifiques de S.A.S. le Prince de Monaco, p. 17, eee fenadine figs. 12-14, Monaco, 1910. rod, for obtaining cores 2 Ekman, Pub. Circ., Cons. Explor. Mer, 27, pp. 1-6, 1905. of ooze in deep water. 212 DISCOVERY REPORTS Water Bottles and Thermometers. Water bottles were supplied by Dr Martin Knudsen from the Laboratoire Hydrographique at Copenhagen and are of three kinds: the Nansen-Pettersson insulating water bottle, the Ekman reversing water bottle and the Knudsen full speed water bottle. In the Nansen-Pettersson instrument the water sample is insulated by a number of concentric jackets and the temperature is read by a thermometer of normal type in- serted in the top of the water-chamber. This pattern is made for attachment to the end of the wire and in consequence only one instrument can be used at a time; it can, how- ever, be shot and hauled very rapidly since the thermometer will take up the tempera- ture while being hauled to the surface. If used in deep water the temperature is liable to rise, owing to the heat given off by the expansion of the water as the instrument is hauled to a higher level; it was, however, never used at greater depths than 400 m., the error arising from this cause being then negligible. The water bottle is of the type described and figured by Knudsen in 1923.1 The release mechanism in this pattern is effected by a messenger with a conical excavation in the bottom, which impinges on a small striking plate set in the conical headpiece of the bottle. This mechanism was not considered entirely satisfactory and a different form, in which a flat-bottomed messenger strikes a horizontal lever, was substituted. It is believed that a similar arrangement has been adopted in the latest models. The Nansen-Pettersson bottle proved most reliable on both vessels, thousands of tempera- tures and water-samples being taken without the smallest hitch. For deeper water the Ekman reversing bottle was used, the model also being that de- scribed by Knudsen in 1923.! In this pattern the cylinder in which the water is collected capsizes when the messenger reaches the instrument, and the thermometers, two in number and carried in brass tubes attached to the cylinder, are capsized also. The thermometers are of a special type in which the mercury column is cut off at a particular point when they are reversed, and the only alteration in the reading while the instru- ment is being hauled to the surface is that due to the contraction or expansion of the cut-off column of mercury. In order to correct this error, which is always small, a secondary thermometer is sealed up in the same tube as the main thermometer, the correction being calculated from the two readings by means of a simple formula. A single bottle of this type cannot be operated so quickly as one of the insulating pattern, for it must remain at the desired level until the thermometer has taken up the temperature. The bottles, however, are made so that they can be clamped on the wire at any point, and each is fitted with a device by which a messenger can be released on the wire below it. In consequence a series of bottles can be used at a single operation, and in deep-water work a great saving of time is effected. The Ekman reversing bottle is a most reliable instrument. The only defect noted is that the cylinder is if anything too evenly balanced on its pivots, with the result that there were occasions when it failed to engage in the clip on the lower part of the frame 1 Knudsen, Pub. Circ., Cons. Explor. Mer, 77, pp. 1-16, 1923. HYDROLOGICAL METHODS 213 when it was reversed. This was remedied by the addition of a small weight, after which no further difficulty was experienced. The Knudsen full-speed water bottle! was tried on a number of occasions in the ‘Discovery’, but it was found that the manometers, which indicate the depth at which the samples are taken, failed to give accurate records. If this defect, which possibly does not exist in other instruments of the same pattern, can be overcome, this type of bottle should give valuable results. The thermometers used with the water bottles were all made by the firm of Richter and Wiese of Berlin, who also supplied the unprotected thermometers which were used, as explained on p. 198, for determinations of depth. The simple thermometers used with the Nansen-Pettersson bottle are of two patterns, one having a range of — 2° to + 32° C., for use in tropical and sub-tropical waters, and one with a range of — 2° to + 20° C. for use in colder areas. The reversing thermometers have a range of — 2° to + 16°C. All the thermometers are scaled to o-1° C. and provided with certificates from the Physikalisch-Teknische Reichsanstalt. In all work at stations the Nansen-Pettersson bottle was used for taking surface samples. For observations between stations, when the ships were under way, a sample was taken in a leather bucket and the temperature read with thermometers made by Messrs S. and A. Calderara. These thermometers are scaled to 0-2° C. and have certificates from the National Physical Laboratory. Transparency or Secchi Disc. ‘This apparatus, which is used to determine the transparency of the water, consists merely of a circular disc, painted white and 50 cm. in diameter, which is lowered in a horizontal position to the depth at which it just ceases to be visible. It is extremely easy to manipulate, but recent investigations have unfortunately shown that the reliability of the method is open to doubt. In studying the penetration of light into sea water, Poole and Atkins? have endeavoured without success to correlate observations made with the Secchi disc with those obtained with their photo-electric apparatus. Hydrological Methods.*? Water samples and temperatures in routine work were usually taken at depths of 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 80, 100, 150, 200, 300, 400, 600, 800 and 1000 m. and thence at 1000 m. intervals to the bottom. Samples of water for deter- mination of salinity, hydrogen-ion concentration and phosphate-content were taken in 6 oz. swing top milk bottles, and tie-on labels were used giving particulars of station number, date and depth. Samples for oxygen work were preserved in numbered glass- stoppered bottles, each with a certificate of its volume, placed in a corked outer flask. The analysis of water samples was for the most part carried out at the Marine Biological Station, South Georgia. In the ‘William Scoresby’ with her scanty accommodation it was not possible to do any of this work, but in the ‘Discovery’ 1 Knudsen, Pub. Circ., Cons. Explor. Mer, 50, pp. 1-11, 1909. 2 Poole and Atkins, Journ. Marine Biol. Assoc., n.s., XV, p. 480, 1928. 3 We are indebted to Mr H. F. P. Herdman for assistance in this section. 214 DISCOVERY REPORTS determinations of hydrogen-ion concentration were regularly made, and during a con- siderable part of the commission all samples were titrated on board for salinity. On certain occasions when the vessels were at Cape Town titrations for salinity were made in the physical and chemical laboratories of Cape Town University, while oxygen samples were worked up in the Government Chemical Laboratory. Thanks are due to Prof. E. Newbery and Dr Marchand for these facilities. Salinity was determined by the method described in detail by Oxner and Knudsen,' in which the samples are titrated against a solution of silver nitrate of known strength, a solution of potassium chromate being used as an indicator. The strength of the silver nitrate is determined previously by titration against standard sea-water of a definite chlorine value supplied by the Laboratoire Hydrographique at Copenhagen. The special burette used in the work is graduated to give the chlorine value as a direct reading, and tables have been drawn up by Knudsen? from which the salinity can be quickly calculated from the titration. A special pipette for drawing off the required amount of water from the sample is also used, both burettes and pipettes being supplied by the Laboratoire Hydrographique. Analysis of samples for dissolved oxygen was carried out by Winkler’s method. The samples are fixed on board by the addition of small quantities of each of two solutions, manganous chloride and a mixture of sodium hydroxide and potassium iodide. Man- ganous hydroxide is immediately formed, and on absorbing the oxygen becomes manganic hydroxide. In order to prevent air from entering the sample bottle, it is placed in a flask filled with water from the same depth and corked until required for analysis. The fixed sample will keep for some considerable time. In the analysis the sample is well shaken after the addition of concentrated hydrochloric acid. The manganic hydroxide is broken up and manganic chloride formed, the latter immediately reacting with the potassium iodide present and setting free iodine. Titration against a standard solution of sodium thiosulphate, using starch as an indicator, will give the amount of iodine liberated, and hence, by a simple calculation, the percentage of oxygen in the sample. Phosphate content was estimated by Atkins’ application of Denigés’ method,* in which the amount of phosphorus pentoxide is found by comparing the blue colour formed on the addition of two solutions to tubes containing (a) the sample of sea water and () a solution of potassium dihydrogen phosphate of known strength. By adjust- ment of the heights of the columns, which is easily done in Hehner tubes fitted with stopcocks, the intensity of colour in the lengths of the columns can be matched with accuracy. The solutions used are ammonium molybdate in 50 per cent sulphuric acid and tin dissolved in hydrochloric acid with the addition of a drop of copper sulphate. 1 Oxner and Knudsen, Bull. Comm. Internat. pour l Explor. sci. de la Mer Méditerranéenne, no. 3, pp. 1-36, 1920. 2 Knudsen, Hydrographische Tabellen, Copenhagen, rgo1, and Pub. Circ., Cons. Explor. Mer, 11, 1904. 3 Atkins, fourn. Marine Biol. Assoc., n.s., X11, pp. 119-50, 1923, and Harvey, Biol. Chem. and Physics of Sea Water, p. 42, Cambridge, 1928. SURVEY EQUIPMENT 215 Observations on hydrogen-ion concentration were made colorimetrically owing to the impossibility of setting up delicate electrical apparatus on board ship. Special sets of sealed standard tubes, made up from Palitzsch’s buffer solutions! of borax and boric acid and a 0-02 per cent solution of phenol red as indicator, were supplied by British Drug Houses, Ltd., and renewed several times during the commission. hese had a range of pH 6°8 to 8-4, ascending by 0-05. A thymol blue range was also used, giving a range of pH 8-0 to g-0. The method employed in determining the pH value of a sample was to measure out 10 c.c. from an accurate pipette into a test tube of the same internal diameter as the tubes of the standard range. A fixed quantity of indicator (varying with each set of standard tubes) was then added, and the tube compared with the ‘standards by the light of a “ daylight”’ electric bulb shining indirectly from behind, with the rest of the laboratory in darkness. SURVEY EQUIPMENT Existing charts of the Dependencies of the Falkland Islands are deficient in many respects, and with a view to their improvement the services of a trained surveyor were placed at the disposal of the Discovery Committee by the Admiralty. This officer, Lieut-Comdr. J. M. Chaplin, R.N., was Navigator and (later) Chief Officer on the ‘Discovery’. Opportunities for hydrographic survey were necessarily limited by the fact that the vessel was almost continuously engaged in work on hydrography and plankton, but during the last commission useful work was done at various times in the ‘ Discovery’, and on a number of occasions it was found possible to free the survey officer from his duties on board, thus enabling him to carry out coastal surveys in the Dependencies. In South Georgia particular attention was paid to harbours, hitherto uncharted, which are habitually used by vessels of the whaling fleet, and since these are for the most part uninhabited it became necessary to establish temporary camps. Small tents, sleeping bags, stoves and other gear from the ship’s sledging equipment were used in these operations, and provisions were worked out with a margin of at least 30 per cent above the full supply for the agreed period, in view of possible difficulties in affording relief. The personnel of these survey expeditions consisted of the survey officer, a cadet and one seaman, accompanied sometimes by the ship’s doctor and by a member of the scientific staff. A light pulling boat—a Norwegian pram—was taken, fitted with a small Lucas sounding machine, together with an 8 ft. tide pole and poles and flags for beacons and marks. The surveying instruments were supplied almost entirely by the Admiralty and most of them do not require description. We are indebted to Lieut.-Comdr. Chaplin for the following notes: Of the theodolites the Zeiss 3 inch transit theodolite no. 1, with automatic mean reading, was used most extensively: it was found to possess great accuracy, and its light weight and compactness were important factors. Owing to the friable nature of the rock in South Georgia no attempt was 1 W. Mansfield Clark, Determination of Hydrogen-ions, pp. 115, 117, Baltimore, 1923. 10-2 216 DISCOVERY REPORTS made to obtain heights by theodolite except at sea level. ‘The pocket aneroids were therefore most useful for determining such heights and contours: the pocket sextant was also useful in similar circumstances. ‘The Dover compass was satisfactory, but was found after the first passage to have worn the pivot flat through the constant rolling of the ship. The station pointers were the only instruments which gave any trouble. The brittleness of the metal owing to cold and the hardening of the lubricant caused the arc attached to the legs of one instrument to crack and rendered it useless until roughly repaired. One notable point was the long life of the silvering on all the sextant mirrors, due partly to the very able work put into them and also partly to the dryness of the atmosphere. The chronometers deserve special mention. All of them without exception worked extra- ordinarily satisfactorily and especially the chronometer marked C, which was taken on the first camping expedition as an experiment. So far as could be seen the rate hardly varied at all. Every precaution was taken to keep the temperature even, but it can be realized that under canvas the temperature is bound to conform to that in the open air even through blankets and padded cases. The chronometer was kept in the cooking tent and wound after cooking was finished in the morning, i.e. when the tent was at its warmest. The rate was compared twice or three times with Nauen or Lyons before leaving and again on returning, and was never found to have varied much: it was low to begin with, in the region of o-1 sec. per day, which of course was good. One point to be observed in this connection is that the W/'T time signals in Schollaert Channel and generally in the Palmer Archipelago were heard with greater strength and clearness than any- where else. The tide readings were always a source of difficulty except in Leith Harbour, South Georgia, where the pole was secured to a wooden wharf. In other harbours it was erected with its foot below low-water mark and secured with stones tied round the foot and guys at suitable angles. Unfor- tunately the male elephant seals in South Georgia seemed to have a dislike for it and frequently we found the pole down in the morning, or waking up would find elephant seals in the act of pulling it down. This did not affect the reduction for soundings but rendered the readings useless for calcu- lating tidal data even if we had been able to get a sufficient number. During the course of the work it was never cold enough to make the use of the leather protection on eyepieces and screws necessary. For the latter a pair of washleather gloves afforded sufficient protection to the fingers; if leather was used it was found that it became dry and rendered round the screws, thus increasing the awkwardness of working with cold fingers. The only improvement in the equipment that can be suggested is that a small W/'T receiving set should be taken on any future expedition which will involve camping away from the parent ship or whaling station. LABORATORY METHODS On board ship laboratory accommodation is necessarily limited, and except in very fine weather the rolling of the vessel renders any elaboration of technique impossible. In intensive plankton work rapid disposal of the material is a first essential: the collec- tions must be dealt with in bulk and even the most cursory examination of the material must frequently be postponed. Sorting Collections. As a general rule the contents of 1 m., 70 cm. and 50 cm. tow-nets were preserved in bulk, sometimes with the subtraction of specimens of un- usual interest, and often (more particularly with the 1 m. nets) with the omission of species, such as Salps, Euphausia and Euthemisto, which by their abundance swelled LABORATORY METHODS 217 the volume of the catch beyond all reasonable dimensions. When specimens were sub- tracted from a tow-netting a note was made on the back of the label and in the biological log book. Hauls with the larger plankton nets and most of the bottom organisms obtained in dredges or trawl were usually sorted on board, specimens of different groups being placed in separate tubes or bottles and noted in the log book. In plankton work in whaling areas, where it was necessary to form some idea of the contents of the nets without waiting for detailed analysis, a preliminary examination was made on board as soon as an opportunity presented itself. The variety of organisms in the 1 m. nets was generally not great, but one species or another frequently occurred in prodigious numbers and it was often difficult to arrive at a fair estimate of the quantity present. The procedure adopted was to find how many organisms were required to displace a given amount of water and then to determine the number of the remainder by a similar method of displacement. This system worked well, but the individuals of a particular species taken in one haul often differed considerably in size from those of the same species taken in another, so that it was usually necessary to repeat the initial count for each gathering examined. With tow-nettings made with the 70 cm. and 50 cm. nets the volume of plankton was measured after the larger organisms had been extracted and a rough estimate made of the proportionate abundance of the different organisms expressed in percentages of volume. In the Fixation and Preservation of Specimens no novel methods were employed, but experiments were continually being made, and it will perhaps be useful to include some notes on the subject. The Antarctic fauna is exceedingly rich; a successful haul of the trawl entailed much heavy work and it was often difficult to find time for any but the simplest technique. On one occasion, off Clarence Island, a dredge was shot in 342 metres. It was only on the bottom for some five minutes, but yielded such a huge mass of material that three of the staff were kept fully occupied for over twenty- four hours. The anaesthetic most commonly used was menthol. Crystals sprinkled on the surface of the water gave excellent results with many groups of animals, particularly with Actinians, Alcyonaria, Hydroids, Polychaetes and Holothurians. Generally it was found best to leave the bowls of animals on deck in a cool temperature, but Polychaetes react very slowly under these conditions. If brought into the laboratory they were always perfectly anaesthetized in about twelve hours.! For Pteropods a few drops of 1 per cent chloral hydrate gave splendid results and crystals of chloral hydrate often worked well with Nemertines. For Nudibranchs and Tectibranchs menthol proved reasonably efficient, but great difficulty was experienced in obtaining well-extended specimens of Gastropods in shells. On a few occasions moderate success was obtained by menthol, followed by a slow and careful addition of strong spirit to the surface of the water. This, however, could only be done on the swing table and in fine weather. 1 By this method, however, the proboscis is rarely found extruded, a condition which facilitates systematic examination. 218 DISCOVERY REPORTS For fixation ro per cent formalin and weak spirit were the reagents most commonly employed. Speaking generally the formalin was used for soft-bodied animals and those that had been anaesthetized, and the spirit for Sponges, Crustacea, Echinoderms and other animals in which delicacy in tissue fixation was not required. The hardening properties of formalin render it a most valuable reagent, and as a fixative it is to be recommended even for animals with calcareous spicules, such as Alcyonaria and Holo- thurians, which if permanently preserved in it would be ruined. Fish and all mala- costracous Crustacea are best fixed in weak spirit, but even in these groups formalin has its uses: deep-water pelagic species are frequently very soft and are much improved by a preliminary hardening in formalin. For many delicate planktonic organisms a salt- water solution of formalin was employed. This proved very satisfactory with Lepto- cephalus larvae, which always blister if fresh water is used. With some of the transparent pelagic Polychaetes no success could be obtained with menthol, but they turned out well if a little weak formalin was added to the salt water. Other Polychaete worms, when fully anaesthetized, were straightened out with a brush on a filter paper saturated in formalin, more formalin being added as soon as they had acquired sufficient rigidity. Special methods of fixation were adopted for certain animals and for those which seemed to possess particular anatomical interest. Of these Bouin’s fluid was most frequently employed, and was very successful with a large range of organisms. It proved excellent for the polypides of Gephalodiscus and it gave such good results with Diphyids that it was adopted so far as possible as a routine method. Salps of soft consistency were frequently fixed in Bouin and afterwards preserved in formalin. For Crustacea and their larvae Bouin’s formula was replaced by that of Duboscq, and for Turbellaria, Cestodes and 'Trematodes one of the corrosive mixtures (Schaudinn or Petrunkewitsch) was used. Hot 70 per cent spirit was used for the fixation of Nematodes. As recom- mended by Lo Bianco, Crinoids were fixed by quick immersion in strong spirit and, with some species at least, this appears to be the only method by which perfect specimens can be obtained. With most of the Ctenophores indifferent success was attained ; some kinds could be fixed in formalin and transferred afterwards to spirit, while others, though they shrank greatly in the process, gave moderate results with Bouin’s fluid; others, however, seemed to defy all attempts at preservation. As permanent preservatives 10 per cent formalin and 75 per cent spirit were almost invariably employed. Most organisms were preserved in spirit, and those that had been fixed in formalin were usually placed for a time in weak spirit before being transferred to the stronger solution. To bring specimens through more gradations of spirit was usually impracticable and it was only attempted with those that were of special interest. Neutralized formalin was used as a permanent preservative for Medusae, Copepods, for transparent pelagic animals such as Sagitta, Tomopteris and Carinaria, and for bulk collections of plankton. The contents of large plankton nets were partially sorted on board and the Crustacea, Cephalopods, fish, etc., preserved in spirit. The Alcohol used for making the 75 per cent solution was the ordinary commercial LABORATORY METHODS 219 product from which methylated spirit is made, but without the addition of any methyl- ating substances. In strength it varied from 94 to 95 per cent, and it was carried in 10 gallon drums. These drums gave a considerable amount of trouble, for in less than a year many of them rusted on the inside and the spirit became turbid with fine rust in suspension. At sea there was no opportunity for the rust to settle and for a time it was necessary to filter all supplies. Later, a galvanized tank was supplied to the ‘ Dis- covery’ and filled with clear spirit whenever the ship was in port. The Formalin was neutralized, as recommended by Atkins,! by the addition of 5 grm. of borax to every litre of undiluted solution. Experience showed that special care must be taken of formalin in the Antarctic. During the first season it was dis- covered that a large proportion of the formalin which had been stowed in carboys on the boat-skids of the ‘ Discovery’ had become converted into paraformaldehyde, forming a white insoluble precipitate which cannot apparently be reconverted into its original form. It became necessary to filter the supplies, and with some carboys almost half the quantity was lost in the process. The same thing occurred with formalin which had been left in cases out-of-doors at the Marine Station, South Georgia. So far as can be ascertained the difficulty is due to low temperatures, for formalin kept in the ship’s hold, or indoors at the Marine Station, did not deteriorate. Storage of Specimens. All smaller organisms were preserved in tubes or bottles. Flat-bottomed tubes of all sizes from 1 x }in. to 64 x 14 in. were used and these tubes, when filled, were plugged with a ball of cotton-wool wrapped up in tissue paper and stored in bottles. The reason for wrapping the wool plug in tissue paper is that certain organisms entangle themselves in wool and cannot afterwards be freed from it without damage. This method is to be preferred to corks, which sometimes cause discoloration of specimens and are liable to shrink and allow the contents to dry up. If wool is placed at the bottom and top of the bottles in which the tubes are stored, the danger of breakage is very slight. ‘These tubes were used for bulk plankton as well as for isolated specimens, but they are better adapted to the latter than the former. Plankton might more conveniently be stored in } lb. screw top bottles, a method which would save a great deal of the labour involved in reducing samples to a small volume. Copper funnels with short and wide necks were found most useful in the reduction of plankton samples. Those used were 6 in. and 4 in. in diameter of mouth and 14 in. and # in. respectively in diameter of neck. After the bulk of the fluid had been filtered off through fine silk the remainder of the sample was poured into a tube or jar through one or other of the funnels. Extra long tubes, 14 in. in diameter and 12, 18 and 24 in. in length, were taken for the preservation of long and slender animals, and for these corks had to be used. ‘These tubes were sealed by dipping the ends in melted wax, and they were specially packed 1 Atkins, fourn. Marine Biol. Assoc., n.s., X11, pp. 792-4, 1922. 220 DISCOVERY REPORTS in boxes which were always kept right end uppermost. ‘The long tubes were used for many animals, but more particularly for Alcyonaria, Crinoids, large worms and deep- sea fishes. Seven standard sizes of bottles were carried, the types being those shown in Fig. 33. Most in demand were the four kinds with screw tops (a-d), which have capacities respectively of 1 lb., 2 lb., 3 lb. and 5 lb. These have a rubber washer and glass lid kept tight by a screw ferrule and are similar to those used for preserving fruit. The ferrules, Fig. 33. Bottles used for the storage of zoological material. which are ordinarily made of lacquered tin plate and rust rapidly under sea-going con- ditions, were specially manufactured in copper. In the bottle shown in Fig. 33 e, which was used mainly for large samples of plankton and for the preservation of fine material obtained in small nets attached to the trawl, the glass lid is kept in position by a simple but very effective spring clip made of galvanized wire. This type, if made in a sufficient range of sizes, and with larger lids, would be ideal for biological pur- poses. Bottles f and g have glass lids and rubber washers like the others, and in the middle of the lid a recessed perforation covered by a circular glass disc resting on a small rubber washer. The bottle is made tight by means of a small exhaust pump / placed over the centre of the lid: when this pump is used the glass disc forms a non- return valve and a partial vacuum is created inside. These bottles were stocked not because the vacuum device was thought an advantage, but because their shapes rendered them particularly valuable for biological work. Fish nearly 10 in. in length can be put in one of them, while the other, with a mouth more than 5 in. in diameter, LABORATORY METHODS 221 was very useful for echinoderms, sponges and other bulky organisms. The vacuum system appears to do no harm to zoological specimens—it may even assist in the pene- tration of the preserving fluid—but in practice it proved troublesome. When a bottle was first closed a slight leakage frequently occurred and this, in time, would break the vacuum and allow the lid to fall off. To seal the bottles properly required much care, but when once it had been done they remained tight indefinitely. All the bottles were stored in partitioned boxes lined with thick felt (see p. 170). Larger specimens were preserved in stoneware jars and tanks. The jars were made by Messrs Price, Powell and Co. of Bristol and were of 3 gallon capacity, with mouth 6 in. in diameter. The stoneware lid was kept tight by means of a rubber washer and iron tri-radiate screw clamp. The tanks were of two sizes, some 30 x 18 x 18 in. and some 48 x 18 x 12 in.; they were mostly of cast iron, made by Messrs T. and C. Clark and Co. of Wolverhampton, but a few of the 30-in. size were of welded steel. The steel tank is preferable to the cast iron because of its greater lightness; it is, however, much more expensive. All the tanks were stove-enamelled inside; a flange round the upper edge matched a similar flange on the lid, and between the two there was a thick rubber washer cut in one piece. The lid was kept tight by a large number of bolts and fly-nuts passing through both flanges and the washer. I'wo large rings were attached to each side, and through these rings poles could be passed when it was necessary to move the tanks. The shorter tanks were each fitted with four trays, with sides made of teak, pegged together with wood, and with cane bottoms. They were provided in order that the upper layers of specimens should not crush those below and in this respect proved very useful. It was found, however, that teak, when soaked in spirit, gives out a dark brown colouring matter and that several changes are necessary before all has been extracted. Possibly some other wood is to be preferred, for there seem to be strong objections to the use of any form of metal in trays which are to be used with both spirit and formalin. To accommodate the large number of specimens obtained during her trawling survey six of these tanks were installed in the ‘William Scoresby’. In the ‘ Discovery’ three were taken and spares were kept at the Marine Biological Station in South Georgia. Heavy wooden boxes, 8 ft. in length, 24 ft. in breadth and 2} ft. in depth were carried on both vessels for salting porpoises. The seams were caulked and each had a plug in the bottom for drainage and a light lid. Labels, Log Books, etc. Printed labels used for specimens were of ro sizes, varying from 7 x 2} in. to 1 x 2in. They were of heavy paper of the best quality! and had spaces for station number, date, net and depth of net. The type of net was specified by means of the symbols shown at the beginning of the Station List (supra, p. 3). As a help in sorting, the name of the group, family or genus to which the specimens belonged was written in the lower left-hand corner, and occasionally a note was added 1 The paper adopted after some preliminary experiment was that known as “Antique parchment, cream wove”, supplied by Messrs Waterlow and Sons, Ltd. KIL Ir 222 DISCOVERY REPORTS on the method of fixation. All entries were made in soft pencil, B or BB, and the labels curled round inside the tube or bottle with the written side against the glass. Specimens in stoneware jars and tanks were more difficult to label permanently, for in a rolling ship paper labels sometimes get detached or become obliterated by friction. Fish stored in tanks were sewn up in cotton material with two labels, one of which was folded and placed in the mouth or behind the operculum. For other specimens serially numbered bone labels were sometimes employed and of these labels a special register was kept. The more important log books were quarto and of two kinds. One of these, the General Scientific Log Book, contained all the particulars shown in the Station List, and, in addition, a record of all observations made between stations. In the Biological Log Book fuller details were given of all nets that were shot, with notes on the catch. Each of these books was in duplicate—a bound volume for use on board and loose sheets, punched for filing in suitable covers, which were posted periodically to London. For deck use smaller octavo books with similar ruling were employed, with pages punched on the left-hand side and perforated at the top. After the entries had been copied the sheets were torn out and filed in loose-leaf covers: they are thus readily available for reference if doubt arises regarding any particular observation. Other books on the loose-leaf principle were used for whale-measurements, whale observations, and for original records of salinity and phosphate determinations made at the Marine Biological Station. Short notes on particular organisms were usually written on the back of the label. For longer notes, drawings, water-colour sketches and photographs a quarto loose-leaf “Note and Sketch” book was used. The entries in this book were numbered serially and a printed ‘‘ Note” label, bearing the same number, was put in the tube or bottle with the specimen concerned. ji Opportunities for making valuable sketches of living animals were numerous, and whenever possible advantage was taken of them. Unfortunately, interesting specimens were usually obtained at times when other work was very heavy. Ridgway’s Color Standards and Color Nomenclature! was in frequent use for recording the colours of living animals. It appears to be much superior to any other book of the same kind and for marine biological work we recommend it very strongly. In spite of the great difficulties caused by the rolling of the ship, successful photographs of living specimens, up to magnifications of 6 diameters, were taken by Dr E. H. Marshall on the ‘ Dis- covery’. His apparatus consisted of a Leitz camera with 64 mm. “summar”’ lens and a Sanderson camera with Zeiss f 6:3 lens of 18 cm. focal length. Both cameras were generally used vertically and the illumination was by a mercury vapour lamp. 1 Published by A. Hoen and Co., Baltimore, Md. THE DISCOVERY INVESTIGATIONS OBJECTS, EQUIPMENT AND METHODS BART Tk THE MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION By N. A. Mackintosh, a.R.c.S., M.Sc. (Plate XVIII, text-figs. 34, 35.) HE Marine Biological Station at South Georgia is situated at Grytviken, a small land-locked harbour in East Cumberland Bay, at the head of which lies the whaling station of the Cia Argentina de Pesca. The house, together with the Magistrate’s house, Government quarters, wireless station and Argentine meteorological station, is built on a small spit of land known as King Edward Point, marking the entrance to the cove (see sketch map, Fig. 34), and was designed to accommodate seven persons—four officers and three men. fy gs FLENSING PLATFORM 1 MARINE BIOLOcICAL STATION "2. MAGISTRATE'S HOUSE 3 WIRELESS STATION 4 GOVERNMENT QUARTERS 5 PRISON 6 ARGENTINE METEOROLOGICAL STATION 7 SHEDS 6B TRUCK RAILWAY 9 WIRELESS HASTS Fig. 34. Sketch map of Grytviken, South Georgia, showing positions of the whaling station, the marine biological station and other buildings. The building (Plate XVIII, fig. 1) was constructed to designs supplied by Mr C. H. Rose, A.R.I.B.A.; it was completed in January 1925 and since then has been con- tinuously occupied except during the winter seasons of 1926 and 1927. It is of the bungalow type, but has a large storage space under the roof. Full details of its architecture and construction need not be given here, but some remarks may be made 223 II-2 224 DISCOVERY REPORTS on the general principles which were followed. In designing the house the severe climate of South Georgia, characterized by a heavy snowfall in winter and violent winds at all times of the year, was taken into special consideration. The building consists of a stout wooden framework bolted on to a concrete foundation, and the walls were con- structed with the special object of insulating the house against cold. On the outside of the wooden framework there are two layers of boarding, enclosing a layer of felt and a layer of waterproof paper, and on the inside another layer of boarding and a layer of compressed cork finished with asbestos sheeting (poilite), The interior partitions consist simply of the wooden framework covered with poilite. The roof is of galvanized iron, with a layer of boarding and insulating material beneath, and all the windows are double, having an outer iron and an inner wooden framework. These arrangements serve admirably to insulate the walls. Brickwork was used for the chimneys and walls of the boiler house, coal cellar, etc., and for part of the outside store shed. The arrangement of the rooms is shown on the accompanying plan (Fig. 35). The house is so placed that the windows of the laboratory face the beach, and the con- servatory and windows of the living rooms, while having a restricted view, are on the sunny side of the house. >> CEILING VENT is? LABORATORY BEDROOM BEDROOM DINING ROOM —— — 7 CONSERVATORY BEDROOM s FLAGSTAFF Fig. 35. Plan of Marine Biological Station, South Georgia. MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION 225 In the construction of a house at South Georgia some attention needs to be paid to the accumulation of snow during the winter. Snow falls only occasionally in summer, but in winter it reaches an average depth of five or six feet, even round the coast line, and imposes a very considerable weight on the roofs of buildings. At the Biological Station the warmth of hot-water pipes in the loft prevented any very heavy accumula- tions of snow on the greater part of the roof, but a weak spot was found in the glass roof of the conservatory. ‘This is situated in a corner of the house, where it catches the snow sliding down from more than one section of the iron roof. ‘The snow frequently becomes partially converted to almost solid ice through alternate melting and freezing, and was found to crack and break the glass if it was not regularly scraped away. The snow sliding off the roof also forms large accumulations on the ground and if not removed will mount up to the eaves and obscure the windows. The plan of the laboratories has been found very convenient. ‘The large laboratory (Plate XVIII, fig. 2) measures 32 ft. by 15 ft. and has a series of bays along one side, each with benches, shelves, cupboards and sink. There is a long bench in the middle of the room and various shelves, drawers, cupboards, etc., on the side opposite the windows. The main laboratory is connected with the exterior by a small laboratory. This has a concrete floor, a lead lined table and a bench with a sink. In connection with work carried on at the whaling station this small laboratory has proved indispensable. It is used mainly for handling large specimens and rough work generally. It also contains an apparatus for the preparation of distilled water, and has been used for miscellaneous operations, such as filtering formalin and preparing skins of birds and seals. A small store room opens out of the main laboratory and is used for storing specimen bottles and chemicals. Other rooms not included among the living rooms are the workshop and dark room. A workshop of some sort is of course essential for a station in such a place as South Georgia. That at the Biological Station is equipped with a small treadle lathe and suffi- cient tools for all ordinary purposes. Little need be said of the living rooms as they do not differ much from those of an ordinary house at home. The walls of the laboratories, workshop and bathroom were painted with washable enamel, and this treatment would have been preferable through- out the building. The house is fitted with a central heating apparatus, burning coke, and there is a coal fire in the sitting room and kitchen. The wireless station close by provides electricity for lighting purposes, and a power circuit is fitted, principally for use in the laboratory. A pipe line from a dam a few hundred yards away on the mountain side provides water for the Biological Station, Magistrate’s house and wireless station. ‘Trouble is experi- enced with this from time to time during the winter. The water in the pipe will never freeze when there is plenty of snow on the ground, but in the early part of the winter, in May and June, there are often sharp frosts before the snow has accumulated to any great extent, and the ground becomes frozen down to a depth of about 3 ft. A water pipe therefore, unless it is buried at a considerable depth along the whole of its length, 226 DISCOVERY REPORTS is very liable to become blocked with ice. The only remedy for this is to expose the pipe and melt out the obstruction, and since no tool except a pickaxe will make any impression on the frozen ground, the task may present considerable difficulties. Drainage is effected by a 5 in. pipe running down to the beach. In addition to the main building of the Biological Station an outside store shed measuring 32 ft. by 13 ft. was erected, the walls being mainly of brick. This is divided into three compartments and was planned principally for the storage of fuel. More recently a larger store shed has been built close to the jetty. Owing to the heavy winter snowfall in South Georgia buildings cannot conveniently be constructed except during the summer months. To avoid delay in erection the frame- work of the buildings was cut to measure in England, so that the separate pieces had only to be fitted together in South Georgia. The Marine Biological Station possesses two boats, a 30 ft. motor launch and an 18 ft. dinghy. The care of boats at South Georgia presents certain points of difficulty owing to the exceptional climatic conditions. Sudden storms with violent gusts com- monly take place and necessitate strong and reliable moorings. The launch was usually moored to a buoy about 30 yards from the jetty. It was found that the only reliable method of attachment was by a length of strong flexible wire rope. Ordinary rope is quickly chafed through by the plunging of the boat in bad weather. The launch was also moored from time to time behind the projecting arm of the jetty. his had the advantage of accessibility, but a tendency for the bottom to silt up at this point resulted in a risk of the keel or stern frame being damaged. The dinghy was usually moored by a stout painter to the end of the arm of the jetty. In winter the boats must be taken . out of the water, owing to the ice which is liable to accumulate in the harbour and to the heavy falls of snow. During the first winter the boats were housed at the whaling station, but accommodation for the motor boat is now available in the newly con- structed shed. The launch was originally intended as part of the equipment of the ‘ Discovery’. She is carvel built of teak, with copper fastenings, and has a 28 H.P. Parsons internal com- bustion engine giving a maximum speed of ro} knots. The engine runs on parafhin, but is started up with petrol. The launch is an open one, decked only at the bow, with a folding hood to shelter the engine and seating space. She has been used partly for scientific work in East Cumberland Bay (for plankton and hydrological in- vestigations and for trawling and dredging), and partly for transport of personnel and stores between the Biological Station, the ships and the whaling station, In this work the launch has given constant and most valuable service, though she is not altogether suited to conditions at South Georgia. A boat with greater beam, to ensure steadiness in choppy water, and fully decked except for a small cockpit, would be more con- venient. The dinghy is built of teak and is equipped with a dipping lug sail. The design of the boat was entirely satisfactory, but the sail was not used much as there is rarely a steady moderate wind at South Georgia. MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION 227 Owing to the difficulty of procuring supplies regularly, it is necessary to find space for sufficient food and other consumable stores to last over considerable periods. There must also be room for large quantities of scientific stores and miscellaneous articles, such as rope, canvas, benzine, timber, nets, boats’ equipment, etc. As already men- tioned, the original store shed was found to be insufficient. Some difficulty was experienced in finding a suitable place to store provisions. These were at first kept in the roof space, but as many of the hot water pipes were led under the roof the heat was found to have an injurious effect on some of the tinned articles, and all the provisions were removed to a temporary shed outside. This was found more satisfactory, though some bottled provisions were broken by frost during the winter. Provisions are now kept in the new shed by the jetty. Articles for which the greatest amount of storage accommodation is required are those which belong to the scientific equipment, especially as it is often necessary to keep at the Biological Station sufficient boxes of preserving bottles, drums of spirit, spare nets, etc., to form a reserve supply for the ships. The main part of the roof space was occupied by boxes of specimen bottles; the drums of preserving spirit, which it was unsafe to keep in the house, were stored in one compartment of the fuel shed together with benzine, paraffin, etc. Another part of the same shed was kept for such gear as nets, dredges, coils of rope and boats’ equipment, and the third compartment for coal and coke. As the last provided insufficient accommodation, it was sometimes necessary to stock bags of fuel on the ground outside. This is an unsatisfactory procedure as the bags become frozen together in winter and extremely difficult to handle. In regard to supplies of food it was at first considered advisable that the Biological Station should be equipped with a quantity sufficient to render it entirely independent of local resources. Facilities were, however, arranged for the purchase of fresh meat and vegetables from the whaling companies and the Falkland Islands. It has been found that a full supply of preserved food is unnecessary at South Georgia, for fresh meat and vegetables can be readily obtained from several sources during the summer. Salt meat was hardly used at all, being replaced by whale meat, frozen beef from the whaling station and mutton from the Falkland Islands. An unlimited supply of whale meat is of course available throughout the season, and, if cut from a fresh carcass and hung for some days, is very palatable. Chickens can be kept at South Georgia with little trouble, and fish are often easily caught in large numbers, though they are not to be depended on. In winter these supplies are necessarily much restricted, but can be supplemented if an occasional sea-leopard is killed. The flesh of this seal is dark and coarse, but the liver, brain and tongue can be recommended. It remains now to consider some points in connection with the scientific equipment and methods of work at the Biological Station. The work is divided into three cate- gories : (1) investigations on whales brought in to the whaling station, (2) the chemical analysis of water samples collected by the ships, (3) general work on the fauna of South Georgia. 228 DISCOVERY REPORTS As may be seen from the sketch map, the Biological Station is situated about 800 yards from the whaling station. There is a rough path leading round the north side of the cove, but the station is more easily reached by boat, especially as it is often necessary to carry various gear and specimens to and fro. It will not be necessary to give here a description of the process by which the whale’s carcass is disposed of, or of the details of the observations which are made, as these things will be dealt with in the forthcoming report on the work at whaling stations; but some remarks may be made on the routine of work and the equipment used. The whale boats usually bring in their catches during the night, and work on the flensing platform begins at 6 a.m. and continues with intervals for meals until 6 p.m., or until the day’s catch has been disposed of. In order to carry out the programme of observations it is necessary for two people to be present on the flensing platform, and usually one officer and the laboratory assistant attended each day while the whales were being cut up. This work at the whaling station consists in (i) taking a number of measurements including total length, bodily proportions, thickness of blubber, etc., of each whale; (ii) noting the external characters and variations; (iii) the examination of organs and tissues ; and (iv) the collection of specimens. The equipment needed for all this is com- paratively simple. The most important articles are rough note-books, measuring tapes, flensing and sheath knives, whale hooks, and tubes and bottles for preserving specimens. Everything used on the flensing platform becomes soiled in a short time and loose-leaf note books with a supply of spare covers are advisable. All measurements were made in metres, and the measuring tapes, reading to 30 m., were of the linen variety and wound on large fishing reels. This is much more satisfactory than a steel tape, or any kind which is rolled up ina case, but the actual tape lasts only a few weeks if detailed measure- ments are being taken and a good supply is therefore necessary. Flensing knives and whale hooks are important and can be obtained at any whaling station. They are used mainly in dissecting out the reproductive organs and foetuses. Smaller knives are also necessary for cutting off pieces of tissue and a variety of minor operations, and for this purpose sheath knives with blades 9 to 12 in. long are convenient. The kinds of specimens most frequently collected are small foetuses and parts of larger ones, ovaries, food specimens, parasites and external scars, pathological growths, etc., and small pieces of tissue for histological examination. These can mostly be accommodated in glass tubes and jars ranging from 1 lb. to 5 lb. capacity, but ovaries and foetuses are best stored in large enamelled iron tanks, of which four or five were available for this purpose at the Biological Station. The records and data obtained at the whaling station are entered in ‘lgree log books or ledgers kept at the Biological Station. These are of three types. In the first, or general log book, a double page (reading right across the book) is kept for each whale, and here all details referring to external characters, blubber, parasites, food, repro- ductive organs, occurrence of foetuses, etc., are entered. ‘The second, or measurements log, is kept for the measurements of bodily proportions. In the third, or foetus log, MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION 229 a single page is kept for the details, including bodily measurements, external characters, etc., of each foetus. Laboratory work in connection with the work at the whaling station (apart from the examination and analysis of the log-book data) consists in the detailed examination of such specimens as ovaries and foetuses, routine section cutting of pieces of testis, mammary gland and other tissues, and the examination of parasites, etc. In the hydrological work undertaken at the Biological Station water samples from the ships were analysed for salinity and phosphate content, and occasionally for oxygen content. The methods used in this work are indicated on p. 213. In addition to the usual equipment required for work of this kind it is necessary to have an apparatus for the preparation of fairly large quantities of distilled water. It is also advisable to have a good supply of spare beakers, flasks and other glass ware. The chemical equipment of the laboratory includes apparatus for various other investigations to be carried out as opportunity arises: among these are the determination of the oil content of blubber and the analysis of whale’s milk. Work on the fauna of South Georgia consisted in shore collecting, trawling, plankton and hydrological work in East Cumberland Bay and some investigation of the local birds and seals. ‘The gear most frequently used in Cumberland Bay has been an 8 ft. beam trawl towed from the launch, but owing to the great depth of the water (largely from 50 to 100 fathoms) this can only be used close to the shore. The fauna of Cumber- land Bay, however, is very rich, and many interesting specimens may be obtained in this way. A small dredge was occasionally used, but better results were obtained with the beam trawl. The launch was fitted with a winder carrying 100 m. of 4 mm. wire, a small davit and a recording sheave. This outfit was used both for sounding and for working water bottles and vertical nets. INDEX Accommodation, ‘ Discovery’, 155 Marine Biological Station, 22 ‘William Scoresby’, 174 Accumulators, light, 164, 179 ' heavy, 162, 178 Alcohol, see Spirit Anaesthetics, 217 Analysis of water samples, 213, 229 Baillie rod, 210 Beam trawls, 206, 229 Biological laboratory, ‘Discovery’, 169 ‘William Scoresby’, 180 Birds, 149, 229 Bottles for preserving specimens, 220 rack for, 170 Bottom sampling apparatus, 210 Bouin’s fluid, 218 British Museum, 150 Buckets for plankton nets, 189 Budenberg depth gauge, 197 Bunker capacity, ‘Discovery’, 159 ‘William Scoresby’, 176 Cameras, 222 Chart-tracing table, 173 Chemical analysis of sea water, 213, 229 Chemical laboratory, ‘ Discovery’, 172 Chloral hydrate, 217 Chronometers, 216 Clamps for wire ropes, 208 Closing mechanism for horizontal nets, 194, 201, 202 for vertical nets, 192, 200 Collections, sorting of, 216 work on, 150 Colour nomenclature, 222 Conical dredge, 207 Continuous plankton recorder, 189 Copper soap as a net preservative, 182 Crown Agents for the Colonies, assistance given by, 149 Deck machines, 163, 179 Depth gauges, 196 ‘Discovery’, 145, 151 accommodation, 155 arrangements for scientific work, 160 biological laboratory, 169 boats, 156 bunker capacity, 159 chemical laboratory, 172 construction, 152 dimensions, 152 machinery, 159 original design, 152 purchase, 154 reconditioning, 155 service with Hudson’s Bay Co., 152 sister keels, 160 Dredges, 207 Dredging, 148 Duboscq’s fluid, 218 Dynamometer, 168 Echo-sounding apparatus, 157, 175, 180 Ekman-Nansen sounding rod, 211 Ekman reversing water bottle, 212 Elephant seals, 149 Equipment of ships, 151 Euphausians, 145, 201 Fair-leads, pedestal, 161, 178 stern, 162 Fine-meshed nets on trawl, 205 Fine-meshed netting, 185, 186 Fish traps, 207 Fixation of specimens, 217 Formalin, 219 as a fixative, 218 storage on ships, 170, 180 Gauges to determine depth, 196 Grease for wire ropes, 167 Hand-lines, 208 Hand-nets, 208 Harpoons, 208 Hydrogen-ion concentration, 215 Hydrographic survey, 149, 215 Hydrological instruments, 210 machines, 163, 179 methods, 213 work, 145, 146 Interdepartmental Committees, 144, 154 Investigations, objects of, 143 Jars, stoneware, 221 Kelvin sounding machine, 169, 180 Kelvin tube, 197 Knudsen full-speed water bottle, 213 Labels, 221 Laboratories, ‘ Discovery’, 169, 172 Marine Biological Station, 225 ‘William Scoresby’, 180 Laboratory methods, 216 Leads for plankton nets, 183, 184, 199 Log books, 222, 228 Lucas sounding machine, 168, 180, 215 Machines, for plankton and hydrographical work, 163, 179 for sounding, 168, 169, 180 Marine Biological Station, 145, 223 Marking whales, 146, 208 Mechanism, for closing horizontal nets, 194, 201, 202 for closing vertical nets, 192, 200 Menthol, 217 232 Migrations of whales, 146 Motor launch, 149, 226 Nansen-Pettersson water bottle, 212 Natural History Museum, 150 Nets, plankton, 181 rectangular, 206 Netting for plankton nets, 185, 186 Nippers for wire ropes, 207 Objects of investigations, 143 Otter trawls, 204 Outboard platforms, 164 Oxygen, analysis for, 214 Pedestal fair-leads, 161, 17 Petersen young-fish trawl, 181, 188 Petrunkewitsch’s fluid, 218 Phosphate, analysis for, 214 Photography, 222 Plankton, work on, 145, 146 of deep water, 148 Plankton apparatus, 181 Plankton machines, 163, 179 Plankton net, N 50, 182 N 70, 183 N 100, 184 N 200, 185 N 450, 186 TYF, 188 Plankton net rings, 182, 185, 186 Plankton nets, methods of handling, 199 specifications, 182, 188 Plankton recorder, 189 Plankton samples, methods with, 217 Porpoises, preservation of, 221 Preservation of specimens, 218 Preservative for nets, 182 Recording sheaves, 166, 179 Rectangular nets, 206 Rings for plankton nets, 182, 185, 186 Ropes, see Wire ropes Ross Sea, work in the, 148 Salinity, titrations for, 214 Samson posts, 164 Schaudinn’s fluid, 218 Secchi disc, 213 Sheaves, recording, 166, 179 Ships used in investigations, 151 Silk for plankton nets, 182, 183 Sinkers for sounding, 210 Sketches of living animals, 222 “Sondeur Leger’, 211 Sorting biological collections, 216 Sounding machine, Kelvin, 169, 180 Lucas; 168, 180, 215 Sounding rods, 210 Sounding wire, 169 South Africa, work on whales in, 145, 148 INDEX South Georgia, biological station in, 223 work on fauna of, 229 work on whales in, 145, 228 South Sandwich Islands, work at, 148 South Shetlands, work on whales in, 148 Specifications of plankton nets, 182, 188 of wire ropes, 167, 180 Spirit, 218 storage on ships, 170, 180 Storage of specimens, 219 Stramin, 185 Stream-line leads, 199 Stream-line rings for plankton nets, 185, 186 Survey equipment, 215 Swing table, 169, 180 Swivels, 199, 203 Tanks for specimens, 221 Theodolites, 215 Thermograph, 156 Thermometers, 213 unprotected, 198 Tide readings, 216 Tow-nets, see Plankton nets ‘Transparency disc, 213 Traps, 207 Trawling, 147, 148, 204, 229 Trawling winch, 160, 178 Trawls, 188, 204 Tubes for specimens, 172, 219 Water bottles, 212 Water samples, analysis of, 213, 229 collection of, 213 Whale-marking, 146, 208 Whales, economic study of, 144. investigations on, 145, 148, 228 migrations of, 146 Whaling, history of, 143 in Antarctic, 143 regulations, 144 Whaling community, assistance given by, 149 “William Scoresby’, 147, 174 accommodation, 174 arrangements for scientific work, 178 boats, 176 bunker capacity, 176 construction, 174 dimensions, 174 machinery, 177 Winch, 160, 178 Winch-drum, auxiliary, 163 Wire for sounding, 169 Wire ropes, 167, 180 damage to, 162 strains on, 168 Wireless sets, 157, 175 Wireless time signals, 216 Young-fish trawl, 181, 188 PLATES VII—XVIII ISCOVERY REPORTS VOL. I Plate VII a" wis Y p ) , ‘ ; Aocyal Research hip I Nscovery ere atte Wy apArd. ‘YREVOORIG’ ait = dooCl opbinl brs sbussos0'l to nelq bastion Rte ae oe - ie Hoisliinsy : ae of ey = +. Pe Ne On Ai WN PLATE VII R.R.S. ‘DISCOVERY’ Profile and plan of Forecastle and Bridge Deck . Anchor davit . Deck lights and mushroom ventilators Capstan . Sounding platform . Searchlight Lucas sounding machine Deep-water hydrological machine . Pedestal for small harpoon gun . Galley skylight . Windlass . Chain locker . Stores . Galley and kitchen . Galley companion . Skylight to kitchen . Crew-space companion . Skylight to crew space . Quarters of crew and petty officers . Chart house . Standard compass . Flag locker . Wireless accumulator box . Chart table . Engine-room telegraph . Laryngaphone to engine room 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. apie 32. 33: 34: 35- 36. . Main bunker . Winch house and winch . Main boiler . Engine-room casing and skylight . Engine room . Norwegian pram . Dinghy . Lifeboat . Sail locker . Propeller well . Officers’ water-closet . Armoury . Lamp locker . Rudder well Deck cabin Whaler Wardroom entrance Steering compass Steam and hand steering gear Deck laboratory Bathroom Wardroom companion Freshwater tank Wardroom skylight Wardroom - DISCOVERY REPORTS, VOL. I PLATE VIII PROFILE FORECASTLE AND BRIDGE DECK pets fb / ar ! 2 9 | aera ; P20 a esa) lf ———s OO a —— Pi eee o a oe ato EPORTS, VOL. 7 & a ‘ Aa 2 = \ ® ~ 9 MA ND a ha x , yt j ' Bi Ks \ ope ; ¥ i a = ie / VAN : ; ' f { i —, ) H ; t hae F, i i is } » \ {i H if ‘ 7 wits H H i my eA ST Add 7 ae bp AG : wore hptbenel pn sow. on, 2) muyooerce at ace ai Ee. cdootha it ia soqalltplehalt {5 =wldppot Be r= Pe uy gelawe 3 ae bom bo Bart hh & FEES TSS oes 88 SOME 5 5 mn . Mies, 4 rivene ri o- Bat AP AD AY ar y eee ; cig t el i if ‘i Ww ; 8 ; as : Wil es ye J | ; iy 7 y 4 i) me emcee ff N ie ih R Oh Are taeneermaensine i a] ii iy ip diy w | DO DI ANBWN HOO ON ANB W DN PLATE IX R.R.S. ‘DISCOVERY’ Plans of Upper and Main Decks . Bow stoppers for cables . Windlass Lockers . Chain locker Store Crew’s water-closet Trunk to galley skylight . Fife rail round mast . Pantry store . Galley and kitchen . Refrigerator engine room . Refrigerator air-lock . Refrigerator cold chamber . Sick bay . Petty officers’ cabin . Skylight to kitchen . Galley companion . Crew-space companion . Crew space . Skylight to crew space . Shallow water hydrographic machine with topping booms and platforms . Deck lights and mushroom ventilators . Chart house . Deck cabin . Survey store . Wireless cabin . Bathroom . Wardroom entrance . Dark room . Lower laboratory . Wardroom lobby . Wardroom pantry 33- Hatch to compartments below deck . Deck laboratory . Wardroom . Wardroom skylight . Coaling scuttle . Cabin . Captain’s cabin . Cabin of Director of Research . Piano . Stove . Pedestal fair-lead for wire ropes . Winch auxiliary drum . Winch house and winch . Recording sheave . Accumulator spring . Plankton machine with davit and platform . Boiler room . Fiddley casing . Engine-room casing . Engine room . Ice tanks . Downton hand pump . Bunker . Workshop . Hatch to sail locker . Sail locker . Hand steering gear . Officers’ water-closet . Armoury . Lamp locker . Stern fair-lead DISCOVERY REPORTS, VOL. I PLATE IX MAIN DECK UPPER DECK re DISCOVERY REPORTS, VOL. I PLATE X ~~ AY ye 0 / -. WF. = % SMe Bat of or te pe Che sg > cx Clarke, Chapman & Co. phot. Fig. 1. R.R.S. ‘Discovery’. Main winch. Sned o sane eave oe E. H. Marshall phot. Fig. 2. R.R.S. ‘Discovery’. View looking aft, showing winch house, auxiliary winch-drum, pedestal fair-leads and recording sheave. Pane a lo tert * oa ee pe ar ree my ee DISCOVERY REPORTS, VOL. I PLATE XI S. Kemp phot. Fig. 1. R.R.S. ‘Discovery’. Plankton machine. | E. H. Marshall phot. Fig. 2. R.R.S. ‘Discovery’. Engine of plankton machine. 'DISCOVERY REPORTS, VOL. I PONS SOUL S. Kemp phot. Fig. 1. R.R.S. ‘Discovery’. Shallow water hydrological machine. ALS ee E. H. Marshall phot. Fig. 2. R.R.S. ‘Discovery’. Engine of shallow water hydrological machine. — aes Se i a a aan a cee - ? a DISCOVERY REPORTS, VOL. I PLATE XII — a E. H. Marshall phot. Fig. 1. R.R.S. ‘Discovery’. View on forecastle head, looking aft, showing Lucas sounding machine on right, and deep-water hydrological machine on left. E. H. Marshall phot. Fig. 2. R.R.S. ‘Discovery’. View on forecastle head showing anchor davit rigged with accumulator and recording sheave for deep-water hydrological work. d PLATE XIV DISCOVERY REPORTS, VOL. I k youd ssapunvy "Br * Kqsasoog went , drysurvayg yosvasoy oy,T, St e ir -) - VE GTA TI | : ‘YEETAOO® MALEIIW 2.201 - es pug sooqurl srignT Per. = 22 saanidowen > Sala ailaydosned . ' #iysh soronk .. s1018 Assy o107, . rowso! Bini >-. AsieqE.masie 3p _ gyroiies S10 ot slospeghix grinwé 17 ae jet ea a ~ S0eG2 WoO” Ft. =. frend iti 4x HTS STeVIGL oF Sane .ZT * morRb Sr ate OF #. Wed *. ee a a? ce 2, ot ae PLATE XV R,S.S, ‘WILLIAM SCORESBY’ Profile and plan of Forecastle and Bridge Deck . Weather boarding as protection for whale marking Light harpoon gun . Searchlight . Searchlight platform Anchor davit Store . Fore peak . Chain locker . Steam capstan . Fore gallows . Awning ridge pole . Ladder . Crew space . Derrick boom . Entrance to forward accommo- dation . Skylight . Trawling winch . Chart room . Chart table . Morse lamp . Standard compass . Wheel house . Steam steering wheel . Steering compass . Chart table . Engine-room telegraph . Flag locker . Ventilator . Navigation light . Spirit tank . Freshwater tank . Laboratory . Main bunker . Boiler room gratings . Davit . Lifeboat . Wireless room . Stokehold and wing bunkers . Boiler . Engine-room skylight . Engine room . Water tank . After gallows . Steering engine house . Dinghy . Galley skylight . Galley funnel . Passage giving access to after accommodation . Galley . Steering rod channels . Wardroom skylight . Wardroom . Cabin . After peak . Hand steering wheel . Hand steering gear . Quadrant “DISCOVERY REPORTS, VOL. I PLATE XV PROFILE 35 & Oo —)——) [1] ac \ FORECASTLE AND BRIDGE DECK tte ie: we as ' o| 49 |! i 6 53 eS] [es] 24, 6 4 H H 1 H f { { J ' t H SSS Sees aae yeas 7 yee ft ee “PEATE RYE = : fix” } if ak | aaa Fa 7 ie - i } ‘ ; . i @i .3 | ? 3 oe 4 ae od Hans ¥ ~ Rao sro ) onidonn gaibavol .p onbfonar paibavoe of boiqnas saiga® .or _ cath inbigoiorbyd. bak ed fesigolorbyyit Bi: dived .2x 4avao octiq on A bed oe i iy « On PLATE XVI R.S.S. ‘WILLIAM SCORESBY’ Plans of Upper and Lower Decks al lomo) on Auk W NH . Flare of forecastle head Ventilator Steam capstan . Fore gallows . Sounding machine 43. 48. 49- : . Engine room . Feed heater Accommodation ladder . Hawse pipes 44. Boiler Scuttle to fore peak 45. Feed water tank . Hand pump 46, Crew’s wash house Sounding pipe 47. Crew’s water-closet Lamp room Deck store . Engine coupled to sounding machine 52. Condenser and hydrological drum 53- Main circulator . Hydrological drum 54. Evaporator and distiller . Davit 55. Forced draught fan and engine . Steam pipe cover 56. Steering engine . Crew space 57- Officers’ water-closet . Chain pipes 58. After gallows . Fish pound 59. Plankton engine . Pedestal fair-lead 60. Plankton reel . Drum for mooring wire 61. Specimen tanks . Companion to forward accommodation 62. Passage giving access to after . Skylight accommodation - Deck lights 63. Galley . Ladder 64. Lift . Lobby 65. Skylight to wardroom . Scientific store 66. Steering rod channel . Petty officers’ mess 67. Kelvin sounding machine . Chart room 68. ‘Towing ring plate . Chart table 69. Wardroom lobby . Medicine chest 70. Hatch to store . Cabin 71. Bathroom . Pantry 72. Pantry . Trawling winch 73. Store room . Manhole door to bunker 74. Cold store . Laboratory 75. Captain’s cabin . Sink 76. Cabin of senior scientific officer . Bench 77. Wardroom . Swing table 78. Cupboards . Bottle rack 79. Cabin . Sliding desk 80. Hand steering compass . Seat 81. Hand steering wheel . Main bunker 82. Grating support . Wing bunker 83. Quadrant . Recess for ladder to bridge 84. Scuttle to after peak ee. 5 ‘DISCOVERY REPORTS, VOL. I PLATE XVI NS Sie l H IW ce SS { =| — A\ 8) 7 Pp ©) i / / / / vA 2/ 7 : ore #3 NoOoo 1 2 se ! toca — f=] : ie pakh. all Lal LOWER DECK UPPER DECK IDES COVERY REPORTS, VOL. I PLATE XVII Strath Engineering Works phot. Fig. 1. R.S.S. ‘William Scoresby’. Three-barrelled trawling winch. Philip & Son phot. Fig. 2. R.S.S. ‘William Scoresby’. Drum of wire for hydrological work (left) and Lucas sounding machine (right) coupled to the same engine. wa y i i DISCOVERY REPORTS, VOL. I PLATE XVIII } N. A. Mackintosh phot. Fig. 1. The Marine Biological Station, South Georgia. r 4 N. A. Mackintosh phot. Fig. 2. Part of the Laboratory of the Marine Biological Station, South Georgia. toqe sheb s es mse sd ms 90 TSqqU ad? ;oiqgin towol ads sa ealdous Pig. 1. eon 2'quq sit syods 4 GEORGIA, PLATE XxX Fig. 1. A newly born Elephant seal pup and its mother. A portion of the attached umbilical cord can be seen below the abdomen of the pup. Fig. 2. A cow suckling her pup. She is lying on her side while the pup suckles at the lower nipple; the upper one can be seen as a dark spot above the pup’s nose. DISCOVERY REPORTS, VOL. I PLATE XX A. Saunders phot. A. Saunders phot. Eion2e ELEPHANT SEAL OF SOUTH GEORGIA i oh os 5 ta Ts * Aas T 3 vse as | mare a bas eWoa ciot “itiw bud 5. lsse teres a ods mot] marateoda-esdoss anrout.brgaos) ative boldniwse sxe equ; “Sq sar ino waved e Sk disnpd act re bdtbrear ea oid PHiiiw. qnisioy {se rendqatd Wad A .g att UN AE oie . € 7 PN TES wet Wen oieq PLATE Xx Fig. 1. A small harem of Elephant seal, a bull with four cows and their pups. A bachelor bull watches the harem from the water. The backs of the cows and pups are sprinkled with the sand thrown up. The head and neck of the central cow show well the light-coloured scars caused by the bites of the bull, while the neck and back of the bull are covered with the scars of wounds received in fighting. Notice the wet patch on the side of the bull’s face, due to tears streaming from the eye. Fig. 2. Elephant seal pups herding on the beach after leaving their mothers. Fig. 3. A bull Elephant seal roaring, with the proboscis inflated. Com- pare with Plate XXII, fig. 1. | DISCOVERY REPORTS, VOL. 1 SLATES F.. Hurley phot. L. H. Matthews phot. ELEPHANT SEAL OF SOUTH GEORGIA 7 gilt alge quinkas biex gatapor lage anseqal’t land boydine ah 84 bs - hed 903 75 eq boid Soymmere prod, ssnitriga Jees tinadqeld fd owT uf .gi4 PLATE XXII Fig. 1. A sleepy bull Elephant seal, with the proboscis not inflated. Fig. 2. An enraged bull Elephant seal roaring and rearing up on the hind part of the body. Fig. 3. Two bull Elephant seal fighting. DISCOVERY REPORTS, VOL. I PLATE XXII A, Saunders phot. Fig. 1. A. Saunders phot. ; A. Saunders phot. ELEPHANT SEAL OF SOUTH GEORGIA & + % 7 fo gnimo tisd blo edt silo nse inedqul lind pottivom A. 1 rl poiloted pt Hon # eidend ees i “se sotaie sisi nide sted.odt sola ; banivdit einst to oissiy ed bas PLATE XXIII Fig. 1. A moulting bull Elephant seal. Notice the old hair coming off in patches. Fig. 2. A moulting bull Elephant seal. The proboscis is not yet fully developed, as this is a young full-grown bull, three or four years old. Notice the bare skin left where the sheets of old hair have peeled off, and the stream of tears flowing from the eye. Fig. 3. A cow Elephant seal breathing through one nostril only. DISCOVERY REPORTS, VOL. I PLATE XXIII B mre > al phot. ~. 63 A. Saunders phot. ELEPHANT SEAL OF SOUTH GEORGIA A rote Sai ni 1 OurTH G et) a Dl a oe ae uF o PLATE: XX1V Fig. 1. Elephant seal pups that have sunk into a depression in the snow, melted by the heat of their bodies. Fig. 2. A cow Elephant seal calling to her pup. Fig. 3. Sealers flensing an Elephant seal. The dorsal blubber has been divided into four pieces, of which the first is being peeled off. This photograph shows the thickness of the blubber. The sealing vessel lies at anchor off the beach. PLATE XXIV | DISCOVERY REPORTS, VOL. I *goud smaynw yy “FY "7 a oP. - ws "€ Bt “youd sdapunog "Fr e a Wi, VIDYOXUD HLNOS 40 "1 BI ‘204d smaynvyy "HT IVdS LNVHda Ta aS (aN Rao Ne ce See, f DISCOVERY / REPORTS Vol. I, pp. 257-540, plates XXV-XLIV Issued by the Discovery Committee, Colonial Office, London - on behalf of the Government of the Dependencies of the Falkland Islands SOUTHERN BLUE AND FIN WHALES -_N.A. Mackintosh, A.R.C.S., M.Sc., and J. F. G. Wheeler, M.Sc. with Appendices by A. J. Clowes, A.R.C.S., M.Sc. vA OE MEV 8, \ is A ; xy 4% . v Ee TSS pM CAMBRIDGE AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS 1929 Price Thirty shillings net eee tar oe hey Tea as estas! . i Rae i 3 [Discovery Reports. Vol. I, pp. 257-540, Plates XXV-—XLIV, November 1929.] SOUTHERN BEE AND FIN WHALES By N. A. MACKINTOSH, A.R.C.S., M.Sc., anp J. F. G. WHEELER, M.Sc. With Two Appendices by A. J. CLOWES, A.R.C.S., M.Se. INTRODUCTION Objects of the whaling investi- gations e 5 . page The southern w haling stations Methods of work Material and data . EXTERNAL CHARACTERS Blue whales General remarks External proportions Colour Baleen Ventral grooves. Hair Fin whales General remarks External proportions Colour eee Baleen Ventral grooves Hair . Foop, BLUBBER, AND EXTERNAL PARA- SITES Food Blubber . External parasites 'THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS . The external genitalia . The vaginal band The ovaries The uterus . CONTENTS ‘THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS (cont.) The mammary Be . page The testes ao poms BREEDING AND GROWTH Sources of information on Breeding . Sexual maturity The breeding season ; The sexual cycle and growth of the calf Ea noe oe The ages of whales "THE STOCK OF WHALES The constitution of whale populations een < Conclusions regarding the whole stock Peete ce vc SUMMARY . LisT OF LITERATURE CITED APPENDIXES 1. A Note on the Composition of Whale’s Milk . 2. A Note on the Oil Content of Blubber : 3. Measurements of bodily proportions ete INDEX 401 405 412 45 420 428 446 453 463 467 470 472 476 479 537 PLatEs XXV-—XLIV following page 540 SOUTHERN BLUE AND FIN WHALES By N. A. Mackintosh, A.R.C.S., M.Sc., and J. F. G. Wheeler, M.Sc. (Plates XXV—XLIV, text-figs. 1-157) INTRODUCTION OBJECTS OF THE WHALING INVESTIGATIONS HE section of the Discovery investigations which consisted in direct observations He: the whales brought into the whaling stations, required less elaborate preparations than were needed for the equipment of the ships, and it was therefore possible to start this branch of the work at a somewhat earlier date. The Marine Biological Station in South Georgia was opened in January 1925, and from the following February the observations were continued at South Georgia, and for a time at South Africa, until April 1927, during which period a total of 1683 whales were examined. The present report is not to be regarded as final, for the investigations were reopened at South Georgia early in 1928, but in the meantime sufficient material has been gathered for a detailed examination of the results. There is still, of course, much to be done and the future prospects of the work are discussed towards the end of the report. The procedure which has been followed in the work at whaling stations is based on the recommendations made in the Report of the Interdepartmental Committee on Research and Development in the Dependencies of the Falkland Islands (Cmd. 657, 1920). In this report the relation of the work on shore to the other investigations is explained, and a brief account is given of what was then known or conjectured of the distribution, migrations, breeding and other habits of the whales in question. In discussing the problems which have to be studied it is necessary to remember that the main object of the work is to find out as much about the effect which whaling is having or is likely to have on the stock of whales as it is possible to discover by observations on the carcasses of whales which are brought into the whaling stations. The lines of investigation which may be expected to supply information bearing on this question may be roughly classified under the following headings: (1) a thorough examination of the specific characters (i.e. external features, bodily proportions, etc.') of the various species, and the extent to which individual variation may occur; (2) an investigation of the reproductive processes and breeding habits, and the reproductive potentiality of the whole stock of whales; (3) the interrelations of breeding, migrations, feeding, etc. 1 Osteological specimens are, of course, to be included in the examination of specific characters, but although some whale skeletons have been collected they are not ready for examination and cannot be reported on for some time. 260 DISCOVERY REPORTS Work under the first of these headings provides a basis upon which it will ultimately be possible to make a specific comparison between the whales of different localities (using this word in its broadest sense), and thus to ascertain whether there are, asso- ciated with different localities, any specific or sub-specific differences. From informa- tion of this kind one may be able to judge the possibility of the replenishment of the stock of whales in one locality from another, and to estimate within what limits it is possible for migrations to take place. The North and South Atlantic, for instance, must be regarded as two different localities in which both Blue and Fin whales commonly occur. They are rarely seen in equatorial waters as a general rule, but, as Harmer (1928) has pointed out, both species are caught off the coast of Ecuador, which is so near the equator that it is difficult to say whether they actually belong to the northern or southern hemisphere, or both. At any rate, the possibility of these whales crossing from one hemisphere to the other has to be considered. If it can be shown that there is even a slight racial distinction between the whales of the two hemispheres such a possibility is ruled out. Similarly, the whales found in South African waters must be compared in respect of their specific characters with those of the Dependencies of the Falkland Islands. Perhaps the most important part of the work is concerned with the breeding of whales. This includes a study not only of their breeding habits, but also of their growth and life history. Information is needed on the seasons and localities at which pairing and parturition take place, the nature of the oestrous cycle, the frequency of the recurrence of pregnancy, the lengths of the periods of gestation and lactation, the rate of growth and the intervals between the various stages and events in the sexual life. With a knowledge of these processes it is possible to say in what circumstances hunting is liable to do the most damage and to judge the general ability of the stock of whales to withstand or recuperate from the effects of hunting on a large scale. The study of breeding and growth is closely related to the problems of migration, distribution and feeding of the whales, many of which are, of course, beyond the scope of the work at whaling stations. It is here, however, that these direct observations on the whales may be made to supplement the work of the ships, which is concerned ‘mainly with the whales’ environment. The examination of the food in the stomachs of the whales, for example, is of value for comparison with the catches of plankton at sea, and by systematic measurements of the thickness of the blubber a check can be kept on the variations in the condition of the whales at different seasons. Important information is to be had from a study of the different classes of whales which go to make up the populations of different localities. There is evidence of a certain amount of segregation of these classes (i.e. whales of different sexes, ages and stages in the reproductive cycle) and it is necessary to study their local movements and times of arrival and departure in different localities. Since the breeding of whales is governed by a seasonal periodicity it is obviously desirable that observations should be made over the whole year, so that the whales can be studied at each stage in the reproductive cycle. The whaling season in the THE SOUTHERN WHALING STATIONS 261 Dependencies lasts only through the southern summer, but at South Africa it is con- ducted only during the winter. By visiting a whaling station at Saldanha Bay in Cape Colony for one season we were able to fulfil the double purpose of examining the whales in a different locality and of carrying the observations over a whole year. On the South African coasts there are only two whaling centres of importance: at Saldanha Bay 60 miles north of Cape Town, and at Durban in Natal. A consider- able number of whales are taken annually in these places, but the African coast as a whaling centre is hardly comparable with the Dependencies. At South Georgia, apart from the South Shetlands and South Orkneys; nearly 6000 whales were killed in the 1924-5 season. The two stations at Saldanha Bay took less than 1600 whales in 1925, and at Durban 1285 whales were taken in the same year. The average size of the whales at South African stations is also much smaller than at South Georgia and the South Shetlands. It has already been explained that the work at South Georgia was conducted from the Marine Biological Station on King Edward’s Point, at the whaling station of the Compana Argentina de Pesca. Four whale boats operate from this station and the season lasts from October to May, as is also the case with the other companies at South Georgia. At South Africa the work was continued at Messrs Irvin and Johnson’s station at Donkergat, Saldanha Bay. Here nine whale catchers were working during the season we were there, and the fact that with twice as many boats fewer and smaller whales were taken at this station than at South Georgia indicates the comparative richness of the latter locality from the point of view of the whaling industry. We may take the opportunity here of acknowledging the courtesy we have received from the Norwegian community during the whole of our stay at South Georgia, particularly from Capt. V. Esbensen, the manager of the station at Grytviken, who has done much to facilitate our work. THE SOUTHERN WHALING STATIONS It is not within the scope of the present memoir to enter into an exhaustive description of the southern whaling industry, but a brief account of a southern whaling station and the routine of the whaler’s operations will not be out of place. The whale boats operate from one of two types of base. Either there is a shore _ station which is built at the water’s edge in some cove or well-sheltered part of the coast, or there is a floating factory or factory ship which may be anchored throughout the season in a similar situation, or may operate at a distance from land. The central part of a shore station is the flensing platform, a wooden structure on which the dismemberment of the whale’s carcass takes place, and which slopes gently down to the water. This platform may measure up to about 50 yards square and is fitted with a number of steam winches by means of which the flensing process is carried out. Built round the platform are sheds which house the various boilers in which the 262 DISCOVERY REPORTS oil is extracted from the blubber, flesh, viscera and bones. Further back from the beach are a number of large tanks used for storing the oil. Various other buildings, such as living quarters, workshops, forges, store sheds, etc., bring the station up to the dimensions of a moderate-sized village. Altogether two or three hundred men are employed there. Near the flensing platform is constructed a wharf or jetty for the accommodation of the whale boats and transport steamer. The latter is usually an oil tanker of about 8000 tons register which brings coal and other stores out to South Georgia and oil back to Europe. Two trips are generally made each year. The transport leaves South Georgia at the end of the season (usually the middle of May) with a full cargo of oil and with the majority of the men employed on the station. A few are left behind over the winter to take charge of the station and to prepare for the next season’s work. In the following October the ship returns and within a few days whaling commences. The floating factories are vessels of about 10,000 tons or more, and are equipped with all the necessary plant for the treatment of the carcasses. Their working expenses are less than those of a shore station, but their capacity is also less, and they are not able to utilize the carcass to the fullest advantage. The subject of floating factories, however, may be dimissed for the present as our own work has been conducted ex- clusively at land stations. At King Edward’s Cove four whale boats are employed by the Cia Argentina de Pesca. ‘These boats spend nearly their whole time at sea, though they return to the station with their catches after an absence of from one to about three days. Usually they arrive during the night and are away again before dawn. Whales are generally to be found between ten and forty miles from the coast, and one or two at a time are usually brought in by the boats, though if they are only to be found a long way off the boats stay out longer and bring in a larger catch. It is desirable, however, that a whale should be brought back fairly soon after it is killed as decomposition sets in very rapidly, and, owing to the higher percentage of fatty acid which is formed, the value of the oil is seriously reduced in a whale which has been dead for several days. When whales are first brought in they are moored temporarily near the flensing plat- form, and when work starts in the morning they are hauled out of the water one by one and cut up with flensing knives aided by steam winches. By this means the biggest whale can be completely disposed of in little more than two hours. Work at the station commences at 6 a.m. and continues until 6 p.m. with intervals for meals. In the course of a day about twelve average sized whales can be dealt with, since work can be started on a second whale when the first is half finished. The method of dealing with the carcass is as follows. A steel hawser connected with a powerful electric winch is attached to the whale’s tail, and the body is drawn up until it is completely out of the water. It is now almost invariably lying half on its back and half on one side. Three long slits are cut in the blubber from the head to the tail, one from near the eye down the shoulder and flank (now the top of the whale) and the other two from the chin on one side and near the blowhole on the other side, METHODS OF WORK AT WHALING STATIONS 263 along the body and as near the ground as possible. This virtually separates the blubber into three longitudinal strips, upon one of which the whale is resting. The two free strips are simultaneously peeled off from before backwards by wires from steam winches. By means of flensing knives the workers loosen enough blubber at the head end for the attachment of the wires, and separate it from the flesh as it is pulled away. After the tongue and a mass of filmy connective tissue beneath it have been removed from the lower jaw and thorax, the carcass is rolled over by means of a tackle passed over the shoulder and attached to the lower flipper, and the third strip of blubber is removed in the same way. The blubber is drawn away to a corner of the flensing platform, where it is cut into smaller pieces and put through a machine which slices it into yet smaller strips which are shot into the blubber boilers. A number of steam jets open into the boilers, and these rapidly melt out the oil. Next the lower jaw is removed and the carcass is drawn over to another part of the platform so that a fresh whale can be taken up. The baleen plates, which are but lightly attached to the skull, are now removed en bloc. The head is separated from the body at the condyles and drawn up to the “bone platform” which is built immediately above a set of pressure boilers. Here it is cut up by a steam saw and the pieces are dropped into the boilers beneath. The carcass is now opened up in the following manner. The whale is lying on its left side and a longitudinal cut is made down the mid-ventral line through the abdominal muscle wall and as far back as the anus. The wire from a winch is attached to the upper flipper and drawn tight enough to put considerable tension on the shoulder. Cuts are now made through the cartilaginous attachment of the ribs on this side to the back- bone and when all these have been disarticulated the whole right shoulder, the right side of the abdominal wall and right side of the thorax come away with all the viscera attached. The shoulders and ribs are taken up to the bone platform, and there are separate boilers near by for the flesh and entrails. The remaining part of the carcass consists simply of the vertebral column with a considerable quantity of flesh. ‘These are easily separated and taken to the appropriate boilers and the actual work of dis- memberment is completed. The best oil is obtained from the blubber, and with the least amount of trouble, but the bones provide a grade of oil which is very little inferior. From the meat, and especially the “guts”, the oil contains a higher proportion of fatty acids and is thus of a poorer quality. The bonemeal and guano, consisting of the dried and powdered remains of the bones and flesh are sold as fertilisers. From the blubber there is hardly any residue left except a small quantity of fibrous material. The baleen is in fact the only part of the whole carcass which is not utilized. METHODS OF WORK Before an account is given of the routine observations made at the whaling stations and the methods by which conclusions can be drawn, something should be said of the investigations of this kind which have been made by previous workers. 264 DISCOVERY REPORTS The first attempt to carry out systematic observations on the whales brought into the whaling stations appears to be that of Cocks (1886-go), who published a series of papers on the catches at some Lapland whaling stations. He examined only a few whales personally, however, and most of his information was derived from the whalers. Important work was done by True (1904), who examined some whales at a New- foundland station in the course of his investigation of the specific identity of the whalebone whales of the western North Atlantic. True’s observations were mostly confined to bodily measurements and the external characters, and were not so much concerned with the breeding and other habits of whales. The paper consists of an exhaustive examination of the specific characters of the Fin, Blue, Humpback, Little Piked whale, and North Atlantic Right whale, and is based to a large extent on the study of museum specimens. It contains excellent descriptions, however, of the external characters of these northern whales, and summarizes in many cases the descriptions given by other authors. The main object of the paper was to show that the whalebone whales of the western section of the North Atlantic are specifically identical with those of the eastern section. Later, some observations were made by Haldane (1904-10) on whales brought into a Shetland whaling station. He published a series of brief papers dealing with various notes on the general biology of the whales he examined. Lillie (1910) visited an Irish whaling station at Innishkea, Co. Mayo, and published a paper which was principally concerned with some anatomical details. The same author (1915) visited a whaling station and two floating factories at New Zealand and published some useful observations on the anatomy and habits of the Humpback. Burfield (1912) and Hamilton (1914 and 1915) made some observations at the Bell- mullet station in Ireland. The observations included the total length of the whale and twelve other measurements, notes on colour and some other external characters, and records of the stomach contents, external and internal parasites and various patho- logical specimens. A few foetuses also were measured. At almost the same time (in the 1913-14 season) observations of the same kind were instituted, apparently for the first time in the southern hemisphere, by Major Barrett- Hamilton, who examined nearly 300 whales at Leith Harbour, South Georgia, between November 14, 1913, and January 16, 1914. His untimely death at South Georgia put an end to this work, and his notes were handed over to Mr M. A. C. Hinton of the British Museum (Natural History), who used them as the basis of an important paper (1925) on whales and whaling, in which also the results of various previous authors are summarized. In this paper all Barrett-Hamilton’s observations are set out and various problems discussed, in particular those relating to the breeding and migrations of whales. Barrett-Hamilton’s observations alone were not sufficiently extensive to lead to any very general conclusions as to the habits of whales, but the chief value of the paper lies in the fact that material from various other sources is brought together and considered as a whole. As an example of this, extensive lists of foetuses from the METHODS OF WORK AT WHALING STATIONS 265 North Atlantic are compiled from the records given by Collett (1911), Guldberg (1886), Cocks (1886-go), True (1904), Hamilton (1915) and others. Several papers have been published by D’Arcy Thompson (1918, 1919 and 1928) which consist mainly of a general examination of the catches at Scottish whaling stations during the last twenty years, with notes on the various species and their habits, but these papers are not based on actual examination of the whales at the stations. The routine of observations which has been carried out in our own work has con- sisted in making notes, in the case of each whale, on the following subjects: (1) Mea- surements of bodily proportions. (2) Description of the external characters. (3) Blubber, food, parasites, etc. (4) Genitalia. All measurements are recorded in metres or centi- metres. As the whale is drawn out of the water on to the flensing platform a note is made as to the date, species and sex, and the measurement series is commenced. The measurements are as follows: 1. Total length. 'This is measured in a straight line from the tip of the snout to the notch of the tail flukes. It is appreciably shorter than the overall length of the whale, but is the only reliable method of measuring the length. 2. Lower jaw; projection beyond tip of snout. ‘This measurement is very rarely taken since, when the whale is lying on the flensing platform, the lower jaw is hardly ever in its natural position. 3. Tip of snout to blowhole. 'This is measured to the middle of the two slits of the blowhole. 4. Tip of snout to angle of gape. This is not a very reliable measurement and is often omitted when there is any difficulty in locating the angle of the gape. 5. Tip of snout to centre of eye. 6. Tip of snout to tip of flipper. This measurement must of course be taken only when the flipper lies in its natural position. 7. Eye to ear, centres. 8. Notch of flukes to posterior emargination of dorsal fin. This is the most reliable means of fixing the position of the dorsal fin. g. Flukes, width at insertion. This is measured from the notch of the flukes to the nearest part of the anterior margin of the flukes. 10. Notch of flukes to anus. 11. Notch of flukes to umbilicus. 'This is taken to the centre of the umbilicus and can be done before or after flensing. 12. Notch of flukes to end of ventral grooves. The ventral grooves sometimes do not end evenly at a definite point, in which case this measurement cannot be taken. 13. Anus to reproductive aperture, centres. 'The centre of the reproductive aperture in females is taken as opposite the posterior end of the clitoris, and in males at the centre of the base of the penis when the latter is extruded. 14. Dorsal fin, vertical height. KIv 2 266 DISCOVERY REPORTS 15. Dorsal fin, length of base, This is a rather unsatisfactory measurement as it is very difficult, especially in the case of Blue whales, to say where the anterior part of the fin begins. Ratt 16. Flipper, tip to axilla. The axilla is taken as the most anterior point on the dorsal rim of the flipper. 17. Flipper, tip to anterior end of lower border. 18. Flipper, length along curve of lower border. Taken with the preceding measure- ment this gives the relative curvature of the flipper. 19. Flipper, greatest width. 20. Severed head, condyle to tip. 21. Skull, greatest width. This is not a very reliable measurement and can usually be taken only indirectly. The width of the head is measured from eye to eye, and that of the skull is determined by feeling for the bone behind the eye with the point of a knife. 22. Skull length, condyle to tip of premaxilla.'To take this measurement it is necessary to cut down the tip of the snout until the premaxilla is found. 23. Flipper, tip to head of humerus. The head of the humerus is not often accessible, so that it is difficult to take this measurement systematically. 24. Tail, depth at dorsal fin. This is taken in a straight line from a point opposite the base of the dorsal fin. 25. Flukes, notch to tip. As the flukes are always cut off at sea this can only be taken in the case of foetuses. 26. Flukes, total spread. Taken only in the case of foetuses for the same reason. Only measurements 1 to 16 can be taken when the whale is first drawn up. The rest are taken later on as opportunity permits. Notes are made on the external characters as follows: 1. Colour. Routine notes are made only on features which are subject to variations. In Blue whales observations are made on such points as the number of white flecks over the posterior part of the ventral grooves, the size and degree of differentiation of the spots of pale colour over the back and flanks, the striations on the ventral surface of the tail flukes, ete. Among Fin whales there is some variation to be noted in the degree to which the dark pigment extends over the ventral surface, of which the greater part is white. In some also the dorsal pigment is lighter than in others. 2. Baleen. In the case of a large number of whales the number of baleen plates has been counted, and in still more cases the longest plates have been measured from base to tip. The spacing of the plates has also been measured. It does not appear, however, that these routine observations on the baleen lead to any very useful results, though measurement of the length of the plates in young whales has some bearing on the study of the whale’s growth and feeding. 3. Hair. The hair which occurs on the mandibles and snout is subject to some variation, and routine notes as to the numbers and disposition of the hairs were made for some time. It does not appear, however, that differences were more than individual variations. METHODS OF WORK AT WHALING STATIONS 267 4. Ventral Grooves. Here again the numbers of grooves vary to some extent. They were counted in a number of cases, sufficient to show that the number depends only on individual variation. There is also some variation in the small grooves in the neighbourhood of the genital aperture in females. 5. Palate and Tongue. These show very little variation, and comparatively few notes were made under this heading. As soon as the flensing process is commenced measurements can be made of the thickness of the blubber. The flensers make certain long cuts running longitudinally down the body of the whale in dorsal, lateral, and ventral positions, and piercing just to the depth of the blubber. A measurement was made regularly at two points on these cuts, the first at the apex of a V-shaped deflection of the dorsal cut near the shoulder, and the second at a point on the lateral cut opposite the dorsal fin. It is the latter rather than the former measurement which has been used in estimating the condition of the whales at different seasons. Any external parasites are counted except when present in large numbers, and a note is made as to their position. Remarks are made also as to the number of healed or open scars which commonly occur on the flanks, and the appearance of a film of diatoms on the skin is noted. Before flensing, observations are made on the external genitalia. In the case of males it has usually been noted whether the penis is extended or retracted, though this observation does not now appear to have much value. The penis is sometimes measured, but this should not be done unless one is certain that it is fully extruded. In the case of females records are made as to whether the genital aperture is open or closed and whether the vagina is congested or not. ‘The mammary glands are best studied after the removal of the blubber, but if lactation is in progress it can usually (though not always) be observed as soon as the whale is out of the water. On one or two occasions milk has been found spouting out of the nipples as the whale was drawn up, and it was possible to collect a pure sample of it. By means of an incision into the gland after flensing, if the whale is fresh one can see at a glance whether lactation is taking place or not, or whether the whale is immature. In many cases the depth of the gland has been measured, and samples were occasionally preserved for histological examination. At a later stage, when the longitudinal cut has been made down the abdominal muscles, one can draw out the internal genitalia by opening the peritoneum at the posterior end of the abdominal cavity. In males the testes are to be found against the coils of intestine just behind the bladder, and they can easily be pulled out and cut away. In females the uterus is found in the same way, but as it is often very large some trouble may be experienced in pulling it completely out, and it may be difficult to locate the ovaries which are often concealed in fold upon fold of the blanket-like uterine mesentery. In the case of males the length, breadth and depth of the testis are measured, and if it is sufficiently fresh a small piece is preserved for histological examination. In the case of adult females (in immature females there is little object in systematically 2-2 268 DISCOVERY REPORTS examining the genitalia) the ovaries are examined, and if a functional corpus luteum is present the uterus is searched from end to end for signs of a foetus. Before being opened, however, if there is not a large foetus present, the width of the uterus is measured across one cornu as it lies on the platform. After it is opened a note is made if there is congestion of the internal wall, and in some cases a piece is preserved for histological examination. The ovaries are examined in some detail. A full series of observations consists in measurements of size and weight, counting all the corpora lutea, fresh and old, and measuring each in three dimensions, and describing the condition of the Graafian follicles and measuring the larger ones. It appears now, however, that if the presence of a functional corpus luteum, the number of corpora lutea and the size of the largest follicles are noted, the rest is not of much importance. Shortly after the internal genitalia become accessible the stomach is exposed by the opening up of the carcass, and can be split with the touch of a knife. The possibility of the stomach being damaged by the harpoon, and the contents thus escaping, has to be borne in mind when it sometimes appears to be empty. The series of observations is usually brought to a close by a brief examination of the intestines for internal parasites. Very occasionally it is possible in the final stages of the dismemberment of the carcass to examine the degree to which the vertebral epiphyses have fused with the centra. When work is finished at the whaling station any specimens are taken back to the Biological Station and the notes are entered up in log-books. These are in the form of large ledgers of which three patterns are kept. The first, for general notes, has a double page for each whale, the pages being divided into a number of sections in which notes can be made under the various headings such as colour, food, internal genitalia, etc. In the second book all the measurements of bodily proportions are entered, and in the third particulars of every foetus found, including bodily measure- ments, external characters, etc. The primary difficulty of investigating the habits of whales is that it is almost impos- sible to make direct observations on them. It is for instance impossible to keep one whale or a group of whales under observation for any length of time and direct observa- tions on their breeding habits have been few and far between. Indirect methods must therefore be employed. By observations at whaling stations information is mainly gained (apart from questions regarding specific identity) by studying the seasonal changes which take place through the year in whales of the same species and sex and in the whale population as a whole. For instance the changes which take place through the year in the lengths of foetuses provide information on the seasons of pairing and parturition and the rate of growth of the foetus; the seasonal changes in the condition of the reproductive organs give rather more direct evidence on the breeding season; the times of year at which ovulating and lactating females and young calves are most abundant are to be examined in connection with the general sexual cycle; and the movements and migrations of the whales are to some extent reflected in the seasonal variations of the food and thickness of the blubber. WHALE WORK: MATERIAL AND DATA 269 Perhaps the greatest difficulty in investigating the habits of whales lies in the fact that they do not conform to any definite rules. For instance there is an unmistakable pairing season in winter, but it is only the season at which the maximum number of pairings takes place. It appears that breeding can go on exceptionally through most, though probably not all, of the year. Again, the majority of whales leave the Depen- dencies in autumn on their northward migration, but there are always some to be found there throughout the year. Such examples could be extended indefinitely, and it is in consequence of this general irregularity that it is necessary to have a fairly large bulk of material on which to base inferences about the breeding and other habits of whales. The most that can be done in fact is to frame general rules about the behaviour of the majority, based on the average of a large number of individuals. Through the courtesy of the Director of the British Museum (Natural History) we have received much assistance in some cases where a specially large number of whales has been required, from an examination of the Museum’s statistics of the catches at whaling stations. These have been compiled by Sir Sidney Harmer from the returns of the whaling companies and give the date, species, sex, length and foetuses of many thousands of whales caught in various localities over a number of years. Much useful information is to be derived from these statistics, but their value is impaired by the fact that the figures cannot always be regarded as necessarily quite accurate, especially those relating to the sizes of the whales and the occurrence and lengths of the foetuses. Sir Sidney Harmer has, however, made an analysis of some of these figures in several reports by the British Museum to the Colonial Office on the progress of the whaling industry, and further reference to his work will be made later. MATERIAL AND DATA The whales examined in the course of the work at South Georgia and South Africa may be tabulated as follows: South Georgia S. Africa Feb. to Season Season Season Total May 1925| 1925-6 1926-7 1926 | Males 50 58 155 120 383 Blue + Females 58 71 146 127 402 (Total 108 129 301 247 785 Males 56 210 61 II4 441 Fin ~ Females 75 139 62 75 351 (Total 131 349 123 189 792 Males = — 14 4 18 Sei +, Females — —_— 49 6 55 Total — —_— 63 10 73 (Males I 5 — 2 8 Humpback Females I 13 = 2 16 Total 2 18 —_— 4 24 Males = I = I 2 Right . Females = — = I I Total = 1 -- 2 3 (Males = = 4 I 5 Sperm - Females —_— — — I I (Total — — 4 2 6 Total for all species 1683 270 DISCOVERY REPORTS The British Museum statistics available up to date are as follows: Tocalit Period Number y covered of whales South Georgia 1913-25 37,462 South Shetlands 1918-24 17,291 South Orkneys 1922-26 1,749 Cape Colony 1920-25 3,650 Natal 1922-26 4,845 Angola 1924-25 781 Work was started at Grytviken, South Georgia, on February 5, 1925. By this date, the South Georgia whaling season was half finished, but both Blue and Fin whales were fairly plentiful and 241 whales were examined up to May 11 before the stations closed for the winter. Among these Blue and Fin whales were fairly equally represented and both large and small specimens were plentiful. ‘The average size of the Blue whales, however, was small, more than half being actually immature. ‘The catching was fairly regular during February, but few whales were taken in March until towards the end of the month. There was no special feature about the catches in April and May, except that fewer whales were caught as the season advanced. The 1925-6 season opened in the middle of October, the first whale being examined on October 15. Up to Christmas the whales were phenomenally scarce, and of both species those which were taken were on the average very large. At the end of December there was a sudden and enormous increase in the numbers of whales, due to the unexpected appearance of an immense quantity of male Fin whales about 70 miles off the north-east coast of South Georgia. Later on they approached closer to the island and began to feed, and more females were caught with them. Blue whales remained scarce until the latter part of February and the beginning of March when a fair number of small ones were caught. The average size of the whales of both species declined considerably during the last two months of the season. The greatest number was caught in January and February, and of these the vast majority were Fin whales. The season continued into May, but we were unable to examine any more whales after the end of March owing to our departure for South Africa early in April. The total number of whales measured at South Georgia from February 1925 until Christmas was 296, but by March 29, 1926, the figure had risen to 738. The work was resumed at Messrs Irvin and Johnson’s whaling station at Saldanha Bay, Cape Colony, on June 15, 1926. Saldanha Bay lies about 60 miles north of Cape Town, and the whales are mostly caught from 20 to 30 miles off this part of the coast. Four hundred and fifty-four whales were examined between June 15 and October 11. The catches here are quite different from those at South Georgia except in the fact that the great majority are Blue and Fin whales. The majority of the whales are small and immature, only 10-20 per cent being adult. At South Georgia again there is a great deal of variation in the numbers of whales caught at different times, whereas at Saldanha Bay they are brought in in moderate numbers with great regularity throughout the season. This is partly due to the more settled weather off the African coast, but there EXTERNAL CHARACTERS OF WHALES 271 is no doubt at all that the local whale population is subject to far less fluctuation off the south-west African coast than in the neighbourhood of South Georgia. We left the Cape in October 1926, arriving again in South Georgia in November. Work was recommenced on November 15 and continued from then to April 25, 1927. This season’s catch showed certain points of special interest. A feature of the first part of the 1925-6 season was the great scarcity of whales, especially of Blue whales. ‘The 1926-7 season was characterized by a great abundance of Blue whales which was maintained right on to March, and a scarcity of Fin whales in the earlier part of the season. From the whaling industry’s point of view the season was even more successful than the preceding one, for although whales were at no time quite so abundant as in January and February 1926, the supply was plentiful throughout the season. As in the last season the whales caught in November and December were on the average very large. During the second half of the season smaller whales began to appear and the average size became considerably less. A peculiar feature of this season’s catch was the appearance towards the end of February of Sei whales. These were the first which had been caught at South Georgia during the whole of our stay, and through March and April they became very plentiful, 63 being examined before the end of the season. It should be mentioned that the 1926~—7 season was characterized by the phenomenal amount of ice which had drifted as far north as, and even farther than, South Georgia. There is little doubt that this was correlated in some way with the exceptional abundance of Blue whales throughout the season. In May 1927 the Marine Biological Station was closed and the staff returned to England. It was reopened early in 1928 and work on the same lines was started again at the whaling station on February 15 by Messrs Fraser and Rayner. EXTERNAL CHARACTERS Among all the whales examined six distinct species are included, and representatives of each of these have occurred both at South Georgia and at Saldanha Bay. Not many whales have been examined apart from Blue and Fin whales, and the present memoir is really concerned only with the two latter species. The other species will no doubt be dealt with in due course when more material has been collected. The following are the names now generally adopted for the six species mentioned above: Mystacocort! (Baleen whales) BALAENOPTERIDAE (Rorquals) Blues =... sic wie cise sits .... Balaenoptera musculus Fine 3: ses ane sie sie ... B. physalus Sei os des Son a ... B. borealis Humpback ... bas Sis ar ... Megaptera nodosa 272 DISCOVERY REPORTS BALAENIDAE (Right whales) Southern Right a oa She ... Balaena australis OpontocoET! (‘Toothed whales) PHYSETERIDAE Sperm si it aa ane ... Physeter catodon Several other species not included in the above list have been taken from time to time in the Dependencies, but their value is negligible from the point of view of the whaling industry. Among these are the Bottlenose (//yperoddon), the Killer or Grampus (Orcinus orca), the Lesser Rorqual (Balaenoptera acutorostrata) and the Ca’aing whale (Globicephala melaena). The Killer, though of little value, may be said to have some economic importance owing to its habit of occasionally attacking the larger whales and their calves. At South African stations one other species is frequently taken, namely Bryde’s whale (Balaenoptera brydei). This whale is not very well known, but it resembles the Sei whale and has been described by Olsen (1913, 1914/15 and 1926). Unfortunately none was brought in to the station at Saldanha Bay during our work there. A general account of the bodily proportions and external and specific characters of Blue and Fin whales can best be given separately under each species. BLUE WHALES GENERAL REMARKS This species together with the Fin whale constitutes over go per cent of the catches of most southern whaling stations. The two are caught nearly everywhere in roughly equal numbers, but the value of the Blue whale is greater owing not only to its greater size, but also to the fact that even allowing for its size, the yield of oil is slightly greater. The average yield of oil from a Blue whale is 70 to 80 barrels, but as many as 305 barrels were once obtained from a Blue whale at Walvis Bay, West Africa (see Risting, 1928, p. 41). A higher bonus is paid to the whalers for the capture of a Blue whale than for any other species, so that when more than one species is open to attack it is usually the Blue whale which suffers. This species is widely distributed in temperate and arctic and antarctic waters, and it has been hunted more or less regularly since the invention of the harpoon gun, though during the period when the Humpback formed the main prey of the whalers, the largest specimens were sometimes avoided owing to the comparative lightness of the gear then used. At South Georgia it was caught in comparatively small numbers from 1904, when the industry started there, until about 1913 when the Humpback fishery began to decline. With some fluctuations a great increase in the catches of Blue whales took place during and after the war, and in the recent 1926-7 season greater numbers of this species were taken than ever before. EXTERNAL CHARACTERS OF BLUE WHALES 273 The largest Blue whale measured by us was No. 667. This was a female 28-5 m. long, or 93 ft. 6in. Only two others measured 28-0 m. or over (No. 1281, 28-2 m., and No. 1417, 28-0 m.), but there were ten measuring between 27-0 m. and 28-om. All these were females. The method of measuring the total length from the tip of the snout to the notch of the flukes is the shortest measurement which could be called the total length, and it has already been explained that this is appreciably shorter than the overall length. One would therefore hardly expect to find a whale measuring too ft. (30°48 m.) according to this method, but if the projection of the lower jaw beyond the snout, and the tips of the flukes beyond the notch are included in the measurement, too ft. is not at all an improbable length for a Blue whale. The largest whale measured by Barrett-Hamilton at South Georgia was g5 ft. long, but this was taken from the notch of the flukes to the tip of the mandible. The length to the tip of the snout was g2 ft. This appears to be the longest measurement ever made up till now which can really be regarded as authentic. In a recent paper based on the statistics of the Nor- wegian Whalers’ Association, Risting (1928) quotes five instances of whales measuring 100 ft. or more. ‘The measurements, however, appear to be unreliable, for according to Risting’s data the smallest pregnant Blue whale measured 63 ft. or 20 m. (allowance being made for Norwegian feet) and 11-4 per cent of the 71 ft. (22-5 m.) whales were pregnant. Now Blue whales are rarely adult at a length of less than 23-5 m. and it is in our opinion extremely improbable that 11-4 per cent of those measuring 22-5 m. were pregnant, or that a 20:0 m. Blue whale could be pregnant, and it must be supposed that some of the measurements were inaccurate. The size of the Blue whale is also discussed at some length by True (1904) who concludes that the maximum authentic measurement of a Blue whale from the North Atlantic is 88 ft. 7in. or 27-0 m. Authentic measurements from the South Atlantic were not to be had at that time and it appears that in the North Atlantic the whales in general do not attain to so great a size as in the south. More recently, however, a huge Blue whale, said to measure 98 ft., was killed in the Panama Canal, and Harmer (1923), from an examination of the cervical vertebrae, estimates that the reputed length was not exaggerated. The fact that the average size of the Blue whales of South Georgia is considerably greater than that of the corresponding form in the North Atlantic is commented on by Hinton, who suggests that if it could be shown that the Blue whales of the two regions do not mingle in equatorial waters, the differ- ence in size might be regarded as sufficient ground for recognizing the two forms as distinct sub-species. In the same paper, however, Hinton mentions that the small size of the whales examined by True at Newfoundland suggests that during the whaling season the herds in that region consist principally of adolescent individuals with a few young adults. In view of the fact that at south-west African stations the average size of the whales is extremely low, solely on account of the high percentage of immature whales which are caught there, it does not seem impossible that a similar factor may operate in more than one part of the North Atlantic and that the comparatively small average size of the whales taken there may be due to a high percentage of immature whales in the catches. K IV 3 274 DISCOVERY REPORTS Before going on to an analysis of the systematic measurements of bodily proportions it will be convenient here to examine the sex ratio and the differences which exist between the two sexes. In investigating the proportions between the numbers of existing male and female whales certain difficulties arise which make it impossible to estimate the ratio with accuracy. It is certain that Rorquals of one sex sometimes associate in large herds, and it may be assumed that members of one sex may move to some extent (though perhaps a limited extent) in different places or at different times from members of the other sex. Consequently one sex might actually exist in smaller numbers than the other and yet be caught in greater numbers in some particular locality. The ratio of the numbers of each sex which are born could be estimated from the sex ratio of foetuses, but the number of foetal records is hardly great enough for this purpose. Some good material, however, is to be found in the statistics of the catches at various whaling stations, for here there are records of the numbers of each sex taken through a considerable number of seasons and at several different localities, and the number of whales recorded is so large that it might be expected to some extent to swamp any differences due to local movements of the whales. The British Museum statistics cover the following localities and seasons: (a) Dependencies of the Falkland Islands. South Georgia, 1913-25... as ... 18,484 Blue whales South Shetlands, 1918-24... Aa nae 7,625 -< South Orkneys, 1922-26... Bes we 519 ms (b) South Africa. Cape Colony, 1920-25 an av cas 2,667 35 Natal, 1922-26 Sa = Bae a 927 - Analysis of these figures gives the following results: (a) Dependencies of the Falkland Islands. Of all whales recorded 53 per cent were males. Of 22 seasons in different localities there were five with from 51 to 57 per cent of females. One season had equal numbers of males and females. The remaining 16 seasons all showed a majority of males. Of these, 14 seasons showed 50 to 60 per cent of males and two seasons showed between 60 and 70 per cent of males. (6) South Africa. Of all whales recorded 53 per cent were females. Of 14 seasons in different localities 10 showed a majority of females, all between 50 and 60 per cent. In the four remaining seasons there were 51 to 58 per cent males. From the above we see that while males have been found to be more numerous at South Georgia and the other Dependencies, at South African stations larger numbers of females have been taken. Among the Blue whales examined by us at both localities there was a slight majority of females. 51 per cent of the whales and 60 per cent of the foetuses were female. The results are therefore rather inconclusive though the EXTERNAL CHARACTERS OF BLUE WHALES 275 total of all Blue whales, of which there are records, consists of 48 per cent females and 52 per cent males. Any attempt to explain these differences must, however, be very speculative. The main fact is that in general there is very little difference in the abun- dance of the two sexes. It is well known that among the Rorquals the female reaches a greater size than the male, and it will be interesting to examine briefly the extent of the difference which exists. The largest recorded specimen of each sex hardly provides a fair com- parison in itself. Perhaps the best criterion of the difference in size is to be found in a comparison of the lengths at which each sex becomes adult. It will be shown later that up to a point the rate of growth of the two sexes is probably equal, but that the female appears to begin growing faster than the male some time after it is weaned, and that when sexual maturity is reached there is a definite difference between the two. The mean length at which sexual maturity is reached in the female Blue whale can be fairly accurately estimated at 23-7 m. and the corresponding length in the male at 22°6 m. Thus there is approximately 1 m. difference between the two or the length of the male is 95-4 per cent of that of the female. The largest female measured was 28-5 m. and the largest male only 26-45 m. ‘Thus although the largest specimen met with of either sex is perhaps a matter of chance, this seems to show that there must be an increased divergence in size after maturity is reached. The difference between these two specimens was 2:05 m., and the length of the male was 92-5 per cent of the female. Besides the difference in size there are one or two differences between the sexes in respect of the bodily proportions, but these will be considered in the general analysis of the measurement records. EXTERNAL PROPORTIONS It has already been explained that an essential part of the work at whaling stations is to establish as thoroughly as possible the external characters of the southern whales and the limits of the ordinary individual variations which may occur. ‘There has been no evidence to show that the southern whales differ specifically from the corresponding northern forms, or that there are racial distinctions among the southern species them- selves, but the equatorial regions appear to constitute something of a natural barrier between the whales of the two hemispheres (so far at least as the genus Balaenoptera is concerned) and the circumstances are therefore not unfavourable to the development of separate sub-species. Similarly, it is not proved that the whales of the Dependencies are the same whales which are found at a different time of year in South African waters, so that here again some distinction may exist. Consequently a basis is required for the comparison of the whales of different localities, and the first step will be to quote the average condition (in respect of the external characters) of a large number of whales in each region. The bodily proportions, recorded by the system of measurements described on p. 265, are of course included in this connection among the external characters. ‘The entire series of measurements has hardly ever been carried out on any one whale, for 3-2 276 DISCOVERY REPORTS some of them, such as the length of the flipper measured from the head of the humerus, are difficult to obtain and have been performed only on a small number of whales. However, a more or less complete series has been recorded in some 783 Blue whales and 692 Fin whales. The actual measurements of each whale are of course of little value for purposes of comparison, and they have therefore been reduced in the case of each whale to per- centages of the total length. As a preliminary analysis of the measurements the following table shows the mean value of all the measurements taken for male and female Blue whales, expressed as percentages of the total length: South Georgia South Africa ‘Total Males Females Males Females Males Females ' 1 ' 1 ' 1 oO i) vo o o >) =I =) uw =I u =I Measurement i 2 - 2 é 2 a 2 a A . 2 3 [38 3/8 2/38 3 (8 2/8 2 /8 ie Sales Be oles Beadle Se Be Fl Pic elem we ee Rie ero Ga) oe ee % s -¢ : é 5 c o oo o o°o o oo v oo v oo v oo 2 Ge = Ze = Zé = Zé = Aé = Zé 1 Total length fpr 100 — | 100 — | 100 — | 100 ——| |) Loo —= || iteye) = 2 Lower jaw, projection be- 1°53 8 1-72 10 —_— —_— 1°00 2 1°53 8 1°52 12 yond tip of snout Tip of snout to blowhole 238 18-03 | 243 16-90 | 116 17°07 | 123 17°59 | 354 17°71 | 366 mn Bw I Tip of snout to angle of | 1 gape Tip of snout to centre of | 20°53 | 255 20°40 | 266 19°52 | I19 19°60 | 126 20°21 | 374 20°14 | 392 eye Tip of snout to tip of flip- | 42-99 | 229 | 43:00 |.230 | 42:20 | 106 | 42:18 | 110 | 42-74 | 335 | 42-73 | 340 per Eye to ear (centres) 5°49 | 215 5 Notch of flukes to pos- 24°46 | 169 | 24: terior emargination of dorsal fin Flukes, width at insertion 5°17 | 245 5:2 249 5-2 120 5:26 | 126 5°20 | 365 5°25 | 375 Notch of flukes to anus 28-98 | 256 29°19 | 268 29°85 | 116 30°34 | 123 29°25 | 372 29°55 | 391 Moreh of flukes to um- 45°50 | 252 45°49 | 259 46°93 | 115 46°95 | 124 | 45:94 | 367 45°96 | 383 ilicus Notch of flukes to end’ of | 42-52 157 | 42°82 | 163 | 44:20] 91 | 45-40] 99] 43:13 | 248 | 43:79 | 262 ventral grooves Anus to reproductive 6-13 | 239 2°57 | 268 6:90 | 107 2°67 | 118 6:37 | 346 2:60 |.386 aperture (centres) Dorsal fin, vertical height 1:28 | 154 1:23 | 183 1°35 96 1°23 1°23 Dorsal fin, length of base 4°49 | 173 4:19 | 195 4°53 | 108 |* 4°38 | 105 4°51 | 281 4:26 | 300 Flipper, tip to axilla : 9°84 | 224 9°85 | 22 9°98 | 109 9°74 | 114 9°89 | 333 gor Flipper, tip to anterior 13°20 | 159 TZ-T3) | 075 13°10 go 12°90 | IOI 13°17 | 249 13°05 | 276 end of lower border Flipper length along curve| 13-88 | 152 13°85 | 171 13°81 88 13°64 | 98 13°85 | 240 | 13°77 | 269 of lower border 1 Flipper, greatest width 3°66 | 171 3°65 | 181 3°68 | 87 3°64 | 98 3°67 | 258 3°65 | 279 Severed head, condyle to 24:81 | 170 24°93 | 183 23°82 66 24°26 67 24°53 | 236 24°75 | 250 tip Skull, greatest width 11°53 | 156 11°53 | 174 10°45 64 11°30 55 II‘2I | 220 11-48 | 229 Skull length, condyle to | 26-99 I 23°81 2 tip of premaxilla Flipper, tip to head of | 14-71 I 15°24 2 14°59 2 13°86 3 14°63 3 14°41 5 humerus Tail, depth at dorsal fin 9°57 | 142 9°37 | 129 8-61 96 8-64 | 91 g'18 | 238 9:07 | 220 The number of measurements actually made under each heading is quoted to show the reliability of each mean result. The majority are based on over a hundred readings and are therefore very reliable, but measurements Nos. 2, 22 and 23 are based on two EXTERNAL CHARACTERS OF BLUE WHALES 277 or three readings only and owing to the individual variation which naturally occurs, are not to be depended on for purposes of accurate comparison. It is seen from the table that the only marked difference in bodily proportion between the sexes is that shown by measurement No. 13, in which the mean distance between the anus and reproductive aperture works out at more than twice as great in the male as in the female. In the other measurements the differences are comparatively insig- nificant, though there is a very slight indication that in males the head is relatively slightly larger than in females, while in the latter the tail measurements are slightly greater. It will be shown below, however, that as a whale grows larger the head becomes slightly larger in proportion to the tail and the slight difference in these measurements is very probably due to the fact that females are on the average a little larger than males. As a result of this comparison between the sexes it may be said that no distinction is apparent in respect of the bodily proportions except in the case of the interval between the anus and reproductive aperture. This distinction of course is simply due to the fact that the penis occupies a more anterior position than the vulva. A comparison between the general average measurements from South Georgia and South Africa shows a corresponding difference between the relative sizes of the head and tail which in this case is much more marked. The mean value of all the anterior measurements is distinctly greater in the South Georgia whales, while the posterior measurements are, with one exception, greater in the South African whales. This exception is found in No. 24—‘‘ Depth of tail at dorsal fin’’—which is, on the average, greater for South Georgia whales. A possible explanation of this is that, in general, the blubber of whales taken at South Georgia tends to be relatively thicker than at South Africa, and since the blubber is very massive in the mid-dorsal and ventral lines on the tail, the effect of an increase in thickness would be quite likely to exaggerate this particular measurement. The fact that the tail is, on the average, relatively large in South African whales, and the head relatively large in South Georgia whales, is undoubtedly due to the difference in the average sizes of the whales from the two localities. The manner in which the bodily proportions vary according to the size of the whale may now be considered. It has been found that there is a very definite variation of this description, and it follows that the value of the general average measurements, which include whales of any and every size, is much reduced for purposes of comparison. In the following tables the mean value of each (percentage) measurement has been worked out as far as possible for each metre of whale-length, foetuses being included. Metre lengths 278 2. Lower jaw, projection beyond tip of snout DISCOVERY REPORTS Male Blue Whales: South Georgia Measurements expressed as percentages of total length. 3. Tip of snout to blowhole 4. Tip of snout to angle of gape of eye 5. Tip of snout to centre No. of measure- ments Range No. of Mean |measure- ments Range No. of Mean |measure- ments Range No. of Mean |measure- ments Range Foetus 10. Notch of flukes TL. to anus 12°80-16°67 13°86-16°74 14°51-16°38 13°88-16-90 1421-17795 14°92-20°94 15°21-19'18 15°72-18-60 14°00—-19'98 16°46-21°24 17°00-21:02 16°47—20°62 18-13—20°38 Notch of flukes to umbilicus 14°45 14°76 15°36 15°16 15°81 16°04. 16°58 17°16 17°49 17°72 18°44 19:06 18-72 19°01 14°40-18'82 16°52-19:07 16-00-17°81 16°85-18°75 17°47-20°11 17°69-22°88 16:96—20°09 16°90—21°71 17°82-21°43 18°57-22°45 19°47-21°30 19°39-21'33 19°47-19'66 17°24 17°58 17°16 18-32 15°90 17°93 18°53 19:06 18°55 19°52 19°44 20°08 20°54 20°61 19°56 aperture, centres 16:00-19°84 17°62—20°93 17°87-20°11 16°85—-17°52 16°20-19°77 15°72-20'33 17°53-23°04 17°76-20°49 16°90-20'93 16°22-22°14 1941-2301 19°29-24°79 1941-22784 20°53-21°92 12. Notch of flukes to end 13. Anus to reproductive of ventral grooves No. of measure- ments Range No. of Mean ments measure-)| Range No. of measure- ments Range No. of measure- ments Range Foetus Metre lengths 18. Flipper, length along curve of lower border 28 -80-32:92 29°50-34°17 28°74-33°07 30°38-32°05 28-61-3211 2769-322 28°39-32°99 27°82-32°35 27°79-31°29 27°43-31°63 NNN b 30°67 31-71 31°43 30°11 mw om NNHNN He HWHUN ON aN 44°74-49°69 44°55-52°38 41°09-48-00 47°20-48°66 45°89-48'86 45°21—51°32 44°79-50°00 43°66-47:80 41°33-47°66 41°04-47°98 41°70-47°20 42°41-44'80 19. Flipper, greatest width 44°36-47°83 | 41°63-47°86 | 41-93-5132 38°13-50°00 38°22-45'87 40°46-47°43 41°64-48°15 4197-4961 42°19-44°83 40°00-45°97 40°44—48:01 39°49-47°86 34°44-45°82 38°54-45°47 40°92-42°72 20. Severed head, condyle to tip 3°11-6°58 3°72-7°39 5°17—-6°62 *42-4°75 *67-8-o01 *50-8°31 *66-7°93 *12-8-79 72-785 +25-8°63 *10-8°39 *84-7°89 "37-7 66 *16-7°50 4 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 3 3 5 21. Skull, greatest width No. of measure- ments Range No. of measure- ments Mean Range No. of measure- ments Range No. of measure- ments Mean Range Mean Foetus 13°60—-18-82 14:00-18-60 17°24-18-60 13°29-14°40 12°59-17°76 12*2I-15°00 13°12-14'68 11'27—14'60 10°67—16°56 12°99-15°79 12°50-14°84 12°60-14°75 13°61-13°69 15°78 17°25 17°81 17°26 13°95 14°22 13°74 13°73 13°20 14°15 14°19 13°71 13°82 13°65 3°20-4:30 3°75-5°12 453-473 WWWWWWWW NNW or DAD ANN OMA OWN men OF MNO KF OW DTD NN 20°77-22°42 20°96-23°45 19°78-25:80 21°13-24'87 22°77-25'49 21°13-25°81 20'00-27:20 22°Q1-27°47 23°63-28:-48 23°93-28-01 13°82-14°40 8-89-12°78 9°76-13°26 10°59-12'04 10°3I-12'10 10°28—-12'27 9°98-12°38 10°21—12'82 10°55—13°30 10°86—12°60 14°11 EXTERNAL CHARACTERS OF BLUE WHALES 279 Male Blue Whales: South Georgia Measurements expressed as percentages of total length. 6. Tip of snout to tip 8. Notch of flukes to posterior . Flukes, width of flipper 7. Bye tojear, centres emargination of dorsal fin at insertion Metre lengths | No. of No. of No. of No. of measure- Range Mean |measure- Range Mean |measure- Range Mean |measure- Range Mean ments ments ments ments Foetus 1-2 5 40°00-46°77 | 43°46 4 6°40-7-14 6-91 5 25°20-29°19 | 27°30 5 | 6:30-8+55 7-25 x 2=3 8 4130-48-84 | 44°33 8 6:44-8:09 6-95 6 25:00-29°77 | 27°26 8 6:67-8°37 739 » 3-4 3 44°16-47°13 | 45°45 3 6°40-6-94 6:65 3 25°86-27°76 | 26°76 3 5:67-8:27 6-75 © 4-5 I 7 43°16 I =a 6°53 I = 26°74 I = 7°16 Whale 16-17 I — 38°87 I ~- 5°43 _- _ — I =. 5°22 e 17-18 12 40°00—42°2 40°90 13 4°91-6'63 5°40 II 24°44-28°35 | 26-04 13 4°86-5:97 5°37 Ss 18-19 17 38°56-44°56 | 41°58 16 4°53-6:22 5°28 15 22°22-27°03 | 25°17 17 4°57-6°19 5°30 3 19-20 20 38°92-43°49 | 41°32 17 5"01-6:00 5°28 II 23°67-27°39 | 25'2 21 4°71-5'74 5°21 3 20-21 16 39°16-43°87 | 41°71 14 4°29-5°63 5°22 7 24°78-26-96 | 26-01 16 4:68-5:88 5°28 » 21-22 20 40°84-45°03 | 42°63 17 4°79-5°77 5°34 14 23°51-28:89 | 25°18 22 4°64-6:07 5°32 3 22-23 20 39°42-46°30 | 42°81 20 4:67-6:07 5°50 19 22°60-26°73 | 24°39 23 4:67-5:88 5°18 33 23-24 37 39°74-49°15 | 44:06 35 4°94-6°91 ay) 31 22°08-26-29 | 23°89 38 4°76-5°86 5°27 33 24-25 55 38-02-47°85 | 44°36 2 4:04-6°25 5°55 39 21'23-26°45 | 23°87 59 4°32-6'02 511 A 25-26 27 40°48-46°32 | 43°69 2 4°88-6:10 5°38 20 21°93-26-00 | 23°73 2 3°92-5°88 5°05 39 26-27 2 43°86-44°59 | 44°22 3 5°22-5°77 5°49 2 22°69-25°33 | 24°01 3 4°69-5°09 4°86 14. Dorsal fin, vertical 15. Dorsal fin, length 17. Flipper, tip to anterior height of base 16. Flipper, tip to axilla end af lower bordee Metre lengths | No. of No. of No. of measure- Range measure- Mean |measure- Range / Range Mean ments ments ments Foetus 1°18-1°86 1°25-2°33 I-72-2°31 10°56-11'29 : 12°80-17°31 9°50-12°56 S 13°00-16°74 11°67—-12:07 : 3 16:00—16:09 Ort NWN SR QW I'16—-1'°59 o'85-1-61 1°09-1°83 0°94-1°59 0-60-1°98 0-98-1°79 0°34-1°84 0°65-1°76 0'59-1°60 1°04—1°59 | 10°03-12°75 c = 8-22-10°17 ; 11°16—-13°77 8-24-11°47 ; 12°21-16°72 8-42-11:03 : I1°60-14°40 8-13-10°19 F 12°37-13°93 7°QI-11°55 : I1°26-14-01 8:22-12°08 C 10°22-15°25 8-74-11-92 22 12°51-14°95 7°66-12°16 ; | 11°89-14:27 8°51-12°20 : 12°04—-14°26 9°26-9°81 : 12'96-13°04 RARAAARAR OFANNODH OMB NNT HH oo ~o Pe - Ww 22. Skull length, condyle 23. Flipper, tip to head ioltip of premaxilla af humeris 24. Tail, depth at dorsal fin 25. Flukes, notch to tip No. of No. of No. of No. of measure- Range Mean |measure- Range Mean |measure- Range Mean |measure- Range ments ments ments ments Foetus 9°60-11°18 | 10°46 9°47-12°37 10°40-13'02 | 11°46 12°38-15°81 10°0g-II-21 | 10°74 12°33-13°07 —_ Ir‘16 8-15-12°18 8-87-10°01 8-29-10°95 9°36-10°78 9:07—-10°92 7LI-IL'15 8-13-10°85 8-10-11°45 8-57-10°20 | POO DOO GODS WwUWwWO O DW o nb aonmbhoOO0 ON Metre lengths 2 Measurements expressed as percentages of total length. Lower jaw, projection beyond tip of snout DISCOVERY REPORTS Male Blue Whales: South Africa 3. Tip of snout to blowhole 4. Tip of snout to angle of gape of eye 5. Tip of snout to centre No. of measure- ments Range No. of Mean |measure- ments Range No. of Mean |measure- ments Range No. of Mean |measure- ments Range Foetus Whale NANTON H 12-36-13 -13 16:09-16°99 15°20-17°68 14°84-18°31 14°95-18°25 1598-18-91 16°80-19°13 1'7':06—19°67 17°74-19'63 16°73-19°70 12°75 17:06 16°54 16°22 16:63 16°49 17°00 17°16 17°78 18°35 18:67 17°72 18-22 Dwui Nw 17°50-17°98 18-34-19°76 ig Mii Co r7/at 16°94-19°95 17*10-19°59 18-16-19°75 19'26-20°45 19'61—22°01 19°79-20°85 19°15—21'29 17°74 19°05 18:27 18-44 18°48 18-92 19°45 19°72 20°54 20°26 21°63 20°22 18-00-18°75 18-82-19°88 16°96—20°29 17758-20738 17°72-20°68 18-76-20°25 20'00-21'1I 19°49-22'18 20°41—21°51 20°54-22°62 19°62-22'24 12. Notch of flukes to end of ventral grooves 10. Notch of flukes to anus 11. Notch of flukes umbilicus 13. Anus to reproductive aperture, centres Metre lengths No. of measure- ments No. of measure- ments No. of measure- ments No. of measure- ments Range Mean Range Mean Range Mean Range Foetus Whale Metre lengths nN 30°09-30°47 28-20-32°17 28-23-3211 27°96-32°49 27°55-31°75 27°73-29°60 NNNININD HB N& ON H 18. Flipper, length along curve of lower border N COICO RO OR RINOTOROROMO NO aRWNN CW OMe NWONN CO HNWH NNNAIN DHBW DN CON H NNNN NW NWWW PwWwrHMmor 43°82-46°25 47°20-47°34 45°62-51°76 45°22-49'31 45°34-49°74 4471-48-50 44°98-46°46 39°96-45°69 44°47-46°77 44°25-45°56 4481-4487 45°03 45°80 47°27 47°76 47°53 47°30 46°68 46-68 45°99 44°24 45°71 44°01 44°84 19. Flipper, greatest width 20. Severed head, condyle 42°49-44°84 43°19-50°00 40°27-47°55 42°93-46°43 39°90-46°89 42°14-45°23 39°75-43°78 40°08-45°15 40°48-43°24 40°30-41°54 to tip 6-25-6°74 751-767 399-841 3'17-8:60 4°15-8-42 4:35-8:13 4°62-7°42 6°03-7'°51 4°95-7°79 6:94-7:14 6-15-6°84 . Skull, greatest width No. of measure- ments Range Mean No. of measure- ments Range No. of measure- ments Range No. of measure- ments Mean Range Mean |» NNW OTH NBUNN 12°58-14'00 13°96-13°98 12°89-14°32 12°9I-15°83 12°93-14°86 12°60-14°69 13°50-14°86 13°43-15°11 12°83-14°78 13°10—-13°82 12°96-13°19 » | Nv N HoH NNU DDH HO 3°75-3'82 8 Z 3°93 3 g rs) rN) NOT Te Peery Spar eat atten) nN ahaa ool WWWWwW KQwWWWW Brad po nnwes COOTER SD | oe I oo DOARIA ARGU oO OR OUMNIH GNI WWWWWWWWWWwW w 23°37-23°60 20°45-23°88 21°33-25°52 22°14-24°68 22°40-25°62 24°67-25°41 25°21-27:06 25°25-26-80 23°54-27°00 NHBRWHOODOON I1°54-11°92 9°83-11°29 9°78-12°68 10°53-11°86 10°2I-12°44 II‘O5—I1-22 10°26-11°30 II‘OO-11°70 II‘OO-I1°41 EXTERNAL CHARACTERS OF BLUE WHALES Male Blue Whales: South Africa Measurements expressed as percentages of total length. 6. Tip of snout to tip 8. Notch of flukes to posterior of flipper . Eye to ear, centres pia . Y J emargination of dorsal fin Metre g. Flukes, width at insertion lengths | No. of measure- ments No. of Mean |measure- ments No. of | | Mean |measure-) ments Range No. of measure- ments Mean 2°70-43°75 | Ny 41°66-41-89 40°28-42°90 37°00-44:06 | 36°20-45°03 | 37°29-4438 oun NNNNNN HHRMA Nu OF NUOUWSUH HTS uuu Ui DO COOH SINOMNO HAHN NNNNN WHWWNU “SIO OOO mOOH O | NNN ONT HWNT | 42°57-47°05 41°49-45°53 41°96-44°67 44:79-46'83 41°54-44°68 | | DO DADNUN DWH CHADS ANS BR ORBNNNNWHWWO ° NOODHN AOH ADO rue NN N Noi N ur Quiuni OV KON oxi nip RwW NNNNNN Oat Ee NNNNN | NNN NWN WNNNN Wwumunun DMO ~I WO Ke) 14. Dorsal fin, vertical 15. Dorsal fin, length height aE base 16. Flipper, tip to axilla Metre | | Ov ss mA OOwW 0 CO~IH AION NEURwWPRW NE NY NNNTININT RH BWW HD hRAUE ARAL PARAM UMMA AIONNOHNWWUMO AKAD nN EE o0o00#™I iS) 17. Flipper, tip to anterior end of lower border No. of measure- ments lengths | No. of measure- No. of measure- ments Range Range Mean No. of measure- ments Range Mean 0°45-0°63 10°06 N 10°00-10°II o-88-1-24 1:03-1°80 0-70-1°87 0°73-1°78 0-79-1°84 9°76-10°03 Q'I2-I1'1I 8-86-11°09 9°32-10°97 8-g9—10°92 9°99 980 9°83 10°05 9°94 WNN NW I-02-1°55 I°O7-1°59 0°92-1°43 8-85-10°77 9°22-10°68 8-55-11'07 10°42-10°52 9°38-10°27 10°13 IO'I5 9°86 10°47 9°83 NEN CO CGAL WO BAGG Roma Re tel 0 DMOROWU CON N HRTOORNAOD BRWWwW DN au “nO oO . Skull length, condyle 23. Flipper, tip to head to tip of premaxilla of humerus 24. Tail, depth at dorsal fin Metre nN 12'36-13°75 | 13°06 | 13°20-13°33 12°36-13°62 11°98-14:78 12°47-13°68 21I-13°90 13°27 13°04 13°14 13°17 13°05 13°64 13°36 13°19 12°65 12°87 12°50 HH NW NNW OH HRUN ND 12°39-14°07 12°76-14°04 11-98-13°25 | "54-13°20 °27-12°74 25. Flukes, notch to tip lengths | No. of measure- ments No. of measure- ments No. of measure- ments Range Mean Range Mean Range No. of measure-| ments Range 8-g9-10°00 | 8-46- 8-85 | 782-1114 757— 9°74 7°83- 911 8-03— 9°98 8-30- 9°77 8-12-10°09 7:36— 8-96 7:22— 8-21 8-65- 9:01 COrINO On CUI AAC WrnNO OM ONMN OM 8-09—-10°00 282 2. Lower jaw, projection beyond tip of snout Metre DISCOVERY REPORTS Female Blue Whales: South Georgia Measurements expressed as percentages of total length. 3. Tip of snout to blowhole 4. Tip of snout to angle of gape 5. Tip of snout to centre of eye lengths | No. of measure- ments Range No. of Mean |measure- : ments Range Mean No. of measure- ments Range No. of Mean |measure- ments Range Foetus estes halted isnt | . Notch of flukes Metre to anus Il. I1°61-13°40 13°93-15'96 13°94-15°71 14°77-17 54 14°58-17°42 14°61-17°21 13°70-19°34 13°95-19'49 15°44-18°75 1465-19738 16°63-19°65 16-48-20°96 15°94-20°45 16°43-21°60 16°54-20°65 16:21-19°56 18-75-19°68 12°69 14°90 15°00 15°52 13°46 14°30 16°17 15°99 16°43 16:24 17°24 17°30 17°85 18:38 18-29 19°16 18:89 18-41 19°22 Notch of flukes to umbilicus 12. Notch of flukes to of ventral grooves 14:06—-16°56 1692-18-62 1731-18-20 17°51-18'12 14°03-18°35 16°85—18-54 15°38-20°44 15°31—22°56 16:38-20°53 16°84—20°85 18:g0—20°66 19:06—21°37 19°67—20°52 18-38—21°18 19'OI—21°44 13. Anus to reproductive 1648-18-18 18-46-20-21 18-01-19°62 17°27—19'06 15°20-19°52 1725-1955 16°43-21°21 16°53-24°12 17°37-20°90 17°44-22°86 19°56—-21°83 18-53-21°80 I9°20—22°67 .19°21-22°87 19°43-23°67 20°04-21°08 20°54-22:09 aperture, centres lengths | No. of measure- ments Range No. of measure- ments Range Mean No. of measure- ments Range Mean No. of measure- ments Range Foetus 18. Flipper, length along curve of lower border Metre 29°09-31°25 28-19-33°85 29°37-33°65 57-31-79 °97-39°77 °97-31°43 pas 0253 “78-31°20 "23-31°23 *57-30°50 -27-27°86 28- 29° 28: 27 25 28 27 27 25 25 24 27 27 46:02-46°88 44°15-49°23 44°66-53°55 41°24-48-96 46-60-51°69 46°54-49°58 45°50-49°15 45°13-50°79 45°32-48'54 4360-46-91 44°35-49°09 43°88-49°57 41°90-46°99 41°80-47°52 40°90-47°60 42°73-46°04 43°62-45°00 | 46°36 47°58 47°61 46°33 50°00 43°65 49°12 48-19 47°35 47°70 46°34 45°63 45°90 45°99 44°64 44°37 44:28 44:21 44°31 19. Flipper, greatest width 42°55-53°85 40°78-50°71 42°59-46-01 42°74-48°19 42°41-47°85 43°81-47°74 41°79-47°14 40°71-45°47 41°85-46°15 41°29-46°54 38:66-44°17 37°98-44°75 39°70-44"10 41°29-43°24 48:20 44°92 44°39 50°00 41-90 45°26 45°51 44°43 45°67 44°09 43°36 43°69 43°22 42°18 41°78 41:68 42°26 40°78 20. Severed head, condyle to tip . Skull, greatest width 1°65-3'09 2:01-2:30 1°94-3°40 2:27-3°15 2:08-3°12 2°02-3°37 1°37-3°99 1-72-3151 1°74-3°15 190-329 2°22-3°12 1°48-3°04 2°O1-3°07 SOS a7) 1°69-3°73 1°92-3°63 2713-2768 lengths | No. of measure- ments Range No. of measure- ments Mean No. of measure- ments Range No. of measure- ments Range Foetus it | a eo | 10°9I-14°29 15°00-17°09 15°49-16°94 17°71-19:06 14°15-14°46 13°41-15°32 13°06-15°30 12°42-15°I1 12°77-14°98 1212-15-08 13°02-15°06 12°72-14:96 12°09-16°19 12°OI-15"94 12°22-15°17 11°44-15°86 13°65-14'18 12°74 16°07 16°16 18-45 16°73 19°52 14°31 14°13 13°97 13°64 13°77 13°85 14°33 14°13 14°14 13°87 13°75 13°17 13°92 WWWNWWWNNWWW NWWOHKHWONDWH D WWW Noloi. | OW ~ WHWWWWWWHWWWWWW AAR SMUT ADA QU ADAG si aun HOBRTNOBRANHOWD Ano 23'09-24:02 21°07—24°30 21°50-26°24 21°99-25°34 21°84-26°42 23°70-26°43 24°12-26:20 23°93-27°23 23°68-27°35 23°81-27-98 23°18-28:03 24°19-25'91 25°36-26-42 14°73-15°43 g'85-11'11 10°50-12°92 10°90-12°29 10°71I-12°41 10°58—12'40 I1'03-12°71 II*IO-12'23 10°43-12°55 10°39-12'85 10°16-13'56 9°47-12'97 10°33-11°66 11°74-11°79 EXTERNAL CHARACTERS OF BLUE WHALES Female Blue Whales: South Georgia Measurements expressed as percentages of total length. 6. Tip of snout to tip Metre of flipper 7. Eye to ear, centres 8. Notch of flukes to posterior emargination of dorsal fin 283 g. Flukes, width at insertion lengths ments No. of measure- Range No. of | measure- ments Range ] No. of Mean |measure- ments Range Mean No. of measure- ments Range Foetus 40°63-43°64 43°08-46:28 2°79-45°28 43°04-44°94 37°78-42°45 38°44-42°74 38°44-42°55 38°86-44-61 39°45-44°40 38-05-4429 41-08-4428 41°84-45°73 38-84-4656 41°38-46'00 40°92-46°96 41°87-44°28 40°71-44°82 14. Dorsal fin, vertical height 15. Dorsal fin, length 7°53-7°69 6°53-7°79 5°10-7°14 6:00-6:82 Dd lial DULL atone | On ° w CaOmnN AH | COmO CONON AnATOnNnn St A Gaon On Ho UbAREAAAA AEH | CA ve) 3 NGAI OS OS DAHS acpi meal un un BRON Onn of base WwW OP NON DALO AAW Ut Ut HHWWUEKHHDNNHNSG NNN N Does mon 23°86-28-81 it || Ono N Duin QDu~sIninti~t NNNNNNNN BR ONNNRWHW NW NNIUWNMN DH DW O mn Tete thor Deu | NNNNNNNNNNN Fi COS S Hop NN ONFOOOOHMN OF oo NNN SIOHN OHNONNAT FO ON OOP HNWAIWW DADO PROGAAR UU Que Stor) <1 Ox e e NNNNNNNNNNNDNDN 16. Flipper, tip to axilla est il OO N ek DIO ADS PUA ANUNAMU Dau } ea ies [es Nr ] HISuRort NE AVNWIHTWO QOH 4H HERE AL AEE EY HDHRUNTAAIO DoOLMN cour 0 HOS SINT 9 “IW oO | Ont RAMU UU UL CONT NOR RP NWNNARRWND HI OWOOOCOUN OIF COUN aN 17. Flipper, tip to anterior end of lower border Metre lengths ments No. of measure- Range No. of measure- ments No. of measure- ments Range Mean No. of measure- ments Range Foetus ii | OuikwW NH Shea atl Now “I 5 4 i 5 I I 4 17 16 14 9 WW HHH WNIORN HO 0°55—1°03 0°82-1°33 1-17-2°64 1°53-2°06 1'23-1'°47 0°95-1°57 0°77-1°80 0°87-2°55 0°70-1°84. 1°05—-1'°86 0°67-1°75 0:63-2:07 0-62-1°62 0°66-1°53 o-61-1°65 0°54-1°39 22. Skull length, condyle to tip of premaxilla 23. Flipper, tip to head hal Qure Golgate au ON CVONU ST ADDN OufuUNS Qu dT PNONN DOWN WANS aren of humerus 8-79-10°31 1000-12-02 10'1O—-15°38 1250-1412 9°61-10°70 8:91— 9°89 7°98-11°75 7°32-11:08 8-93-12°27 8-53-11°04 8-81-10°83 8-85-11-52 8-21-11°29 8-69-12°55 8-02-11°79 8-30-11°27 9°64-10°11 9°48 24. ‘Tail, depth at dorsal fin 10°9I-13°19 14°62-15°96 14°42-16°23 16:67-17°88 13°54-13°81 12°92-14°45 12'20-14°36 11°65-14'21 12'40-14'23 I1°89-14'20 12'00-14°61 II‘92-14'23 1180-1484 I1'12-14'80 11°43-14°75 10°83-15°68 12°86-13°05 . Flukes, notch to tip Metre lengths | No. of measure- ments Range Mean No. of measure- ments Range No. of measure- ments Range No. of measure- ments Range Foetus 9°09-10°94 Q:02-I1'17 9°61-12°32 9°65-12°78 9°39- 9°94 8-23-10°07 8-16-10°31 8-74— 9°85 7°98—10°07 8-57-10°18 7-89-11:00 8-25-11:06 7°78-11°37 7°84-10°65 TAT— 9°97 9-09- 9°89 1-77-12 II*§5-14°72 12*II—-14°77 DISCOVERY REPORTS Female Blue Whales: South Africa Measurements expressed as percentages of total length. 284 2. Lower jaw, projection beyond tip of snout 5. Tip of snout to centre of eye 4. Tip of snout to angle 3. Tip of snout to blowhole of gape Metre lengths No. of measure- ments Range No. of measure- ments Mean Range Mean No. of measure- ments Range No. of Mean |measure- ments Range Foetus Whale 3 l NNNNNNNN H CON DifwWN NNNNNNN SS EN Metre lengths | lw HONOANUM OHWUM OI . Notch of flukes in. to anus 13°11-13°84 14°49-16°86 15°47-17°61 15°28-18:08 15°26-18'14 15°19-18'20 16°58-19'02 17°18-19°55 17°55-19°28 16°23-20'16 17°73-19°84 18:25-19°73 Notch of flukes to umbilicus 0919 LINES CSG ee | Lal 14°61-14'84 16°86—-19°56 17°13-19°52 17°47-19°14 17°10-20'25 | 18°13—20°00 18-43-20°66 19°64-20°22 18-47—20°96 20°12-21°67 20°60-21-02 16:07 14°73 | law 18-16 18°47 18:25 18:60 19°26 19°63 19°93 20°75 19°72 20°99 20°75 HONTIDNM CONW COO! 1498-1563 16°92-19°68 18-04—20'55 17°890-19'94 17°78-20'66 17°93-21°49 19°21—21'27 20°'23-21°79 20°21—-21'38 18:88—22°37 20°43-22°29 21°17-22:98 12. Notch of flukes to end 13. Anus to reproductive of ventral grooves aperture, centres No. of measure-| ments No. of Mean |measure- ments Range Mean No. of measure- ments Range No. of measure- ments Mean Range Metre lengths I 2 HONTIANU OH WNIUNT 18. Flipper, length along curve of lower border oo 09 NNNNN SP RSIS) NN 30°36 ll = NN HONTIANUN OHR AON ONL Anud~T NNNNNN O00 MO O FTO NUM 50°54-52°28 47°33-49°70 42°29-50°38 46°13-50°26 40°67-49°37 43°84-48-50 45°47-47°46 44°19-46°81 45°91-46°23 44°15-47°62 42°80-47°10 43°20-46°24 | 44°64 51°41 48°59 47:80 47°77 47°09 46°68 46°53 45°54 46:07 45°60 44°81 44°73 46°50 19. Flipper, greatest width lle MONTE NHR DO OOHD 20. Severed head, condyle 48°75-50°19 45°56-48:03 43°50-46°59 42°89-48'05 40°52-46°908 42°23-46°33 42°69-45°21 38°93-45°14 42°30-42°55 41°73-45°55 39°30-44°31 40°61-45°48 to tip 2:02-2°87 2'50-3'27 1°97-3°75 2°05-3°14 1°95-3°12 2°39-2°98 1°87-3°05 2°24-2°58 2°72-2°96 2°01-3°29 2°33-2°89 2°29-3'04 21. Skull, greatest width No. of measure- ments Range No. of measure- ments Mean Range Mean No. of measure- ments Range No. of measure- ments Mean Range Foetus Whale NNNNNN CON Dui WwW HN H | Daun OMONN 13°91-14°98 14°62-14°63 12'62-14°60 12°43-14°45 12°84-15°72 12°75-14°27 12'80-13°95 12°45-14:06 13°53-13°66 1188-14731 12°85-14°41 12°33-14°85 nN HAT QUIN OONNWN NOG WWWWWWWWWWwW ne aan Se aes) Oo Bro, 11% “NI OR RN WWWWWWWWWWwWwW LOM AWN DU ADI DW HOD DON ON ela HW OUW HN BNI HH DOW Paden Il | h nen NNNNNNN NNNNNNN MBWN NW He NARROW Rw oSWIO NHN Oamoonun he COS aC Con rents NNN uke N SIDR UL Sh Shy NNN WON Mm On | HOW HH NNT OONNIN 10°71-10°87 10°33-13°50 g°89-11'58 10°3I-I1°59 10°99-12'20 11°44-11°71 10°88—12°75 10°60—-12°37 10°79 11°24 10°79 II‘00 11°53 11°58 11°36 10°90 11°88 11°68 II‘lI-15‘g1 | 12:08 10°66 Metre lengths 6. Tip of snout to tip EXTERNAL CHARACTERS OF BLUE WHALES Female Blue Whales: South Africa Measurements expressed as percentages of total length. of flipper 7. Eye to ear, centres 8. Notch of flukes to posterior emargination of dorsal fin 285 g. Flukes, width at insertion No. of measure- ments Range No. of Mean |measure- ments Range No. of | Mean |measure- ments Range | Mean No. of measure- ments Range Foetus Whale Metre lengths lle x = NN HDONADANW DHW NW D 14. Dorsal fin, vertical 37°53-37°83 41:07 37°73 39°88—42°60 39°54-42°94 39°45-43'27 39°21-45°18 39°75-44°22 40°55-43°52 42°27-43°18 42°93-44'44 39°96-45°67 42°51-46°24 42°48-45'59 height 41°19 41°38 41°44 41°45 42°13 42:87 4280 43°69 43°53 4411 44°48 42°68 mOnuntr HON DHS | | AWN UN wo OD DNDOR ADDN | bw NAT Cohn at MnInInT COnINI un A aTO8 | it ° Un huonbpUp eens Danvers ees | Ur WN 15. Dorsal fin, length of base fon AMANANNnnnnn NWWABRWABARN NWN NNO OMDWH HR NIP O RON NE DONAIN DN | mw NUH et al NNNNNNNNNNDND NIU DDOAIN D NNNNNNNNN RW WWWwWwwtwwft ONUSIS | NB ODDAHDIKON NN | Nv MUnBhRRREUUNUNKNN HOONWOONORUNAI mANnofFOHONOMN+ NNNNNNNNNNN 16. Flipper, tip to axilla One OMNI HONIANN lon | holt 1 MMAAMNAWN TW Durr | Lipa DHDowor~r nn DI ARDMANAD | NNW QuuUMNS O Ho hhh AUES AW O DDI HAO wr mw 1Pal ON | UUM wu Ut HOR ew NWW DN 17. Flipper, tip to anterior end of lower border No. of measure- ments Range No. of measure- ments Mean Range No. of measure- ments Mean Range Mean No. of measure- ments Range Mean Metre lengths 2. Skull length, condyle I'22—2:32 | I'00-1°42 o-89-1-62 0:84-2:09 0°94-1°85 0°79-1°90 0°99-1°24 I'O9-1'52 o-gi—-1'65 0°54-1°47 0°85-1°76 HH Ne RON HUNT OOW NUN to tip of premaxilla fe Ne) oe . Flipper, tip to head of humerus NWNRW HW ADR COCO FQGUAROO RAUL NOTNNEOSO NSA HNN NB OOH AND 10°19-10°61 10°71 10°40 I 2 8-92-10°59 8-88-10°39 8-81-10°86 8-57-11°25 8-28-10°15 8-83-10°67 9°03-10°04 8-64— 9°72 8-82-10°28 8-59-1094 9°20-10'91 9°86 9°54 9°96 9°69 9°41 9°65 9°51 9:18 9°55 9°53 10°03 II°02 24. Tail, depth at dorsal fin = Ne HOANMNB OOO N AN 12'90-13°86 13°49-13°60 12°01—13°48 11°78-13'°84 10-99-1455 II°50-13°45 1221-13748 12'04-13°I2 12°15—12°98 I1-39-13°58 12°39-13'23 11°65—-13°94 12°50 13°38 13°55 12°86 13°06 13°04 12°67 12°84 12°38 12°57 12°59 12°80 12°85 13°89 25. Flukes, notch to tip No. of measure- ments Range No. of measure- ments Mean Range No. of Mean |measure- ments Range Mean No. of measure- ments Range Mean 22'00-22°10 10°7I—10°75 13°82-15°10 HNINTR NW DOI 7°37- 8°87 7:97- 9°44 745- 9°57 6:58— 8-89 7°31 9°61 8-06— 9°52 7'27- 962 Q°OI-10°57 8-68-10°08 7°78-10'23 8-06-— 9:86 8-93 10°73 | NER AN PDO OO MORN OS NR HO © oc | WG OD fo} SSNS OSA N 9°82 286 DISCOVERY REPORTS The above tables have been drawn up for two purposes: (a) As a criterion of the alterations in bodily proportions which occur as the total length of the whale increases. (6) To provide a standard of comparison between the whales of South Georgia or South Africa and the whales of any other localities. The first object is considered below. As regards the second, the tables have been prepared to provide for such cases as that of an investigator who, having procured a number of measurements of Blue whales from a locality in some other part of the world, wishes to ascertain whether these whales differ in any way from those of the South Georgia or South African region. Such measurements would be compared with averages given in the table under the appropriate whale-lengths, but it would also be required to know how much deviation could be allowed for individual variation. For this reason the maximum and minimum readings of the measurements from which each average is calculated are quoted in the table in addition to the average figure itself. The value for this purpose of these maxima and minima is of course dependent on the number of readings from which they are taken and the number of readings is there- fore also quoted in each case. Under some whale-lengths the number of readings is insufficient to show the extent of deviation which might occur, but by reference to other columns there would be no difficulty in forming an idea of how much margin should be allowed for individual variation. In this way a series of measurements of even a single whale from some other locality could be profitably compared with the averages given in the tables. Comparisons of bodily proportions are in general best made by reference to the tables themselves, but the variations of the bodily proportions according to the length of the whale are more conveniently shown by means of charts. In Figs. 1 to 23 the averages shown in the table are plotted for each metre of whale-length in the case of measurements 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 18, 20 and 24. The other measurements do not show any definite variation with the whale-length or other points of interest. The figures show in the first place no significant difference in the shapes of the curves for the two sexes except in the case of No. 13 (anus to reproductive aperture) to which reference has already been made. In the second place no distinction can be drawn in respect of these curves between whales of South Georgia and South Africa, at least so far as the majority of the graphs are concerned. There are some slight differences between the whales of the two localities in respect of the interval between the anus and reproductive aperture in males (Fig. 19), the length of the flipper (Figs. 20 and 21) and the depth of the tail (Figs. 22 and 23), but these are really very slight and need not be regarded as of any significance. With the exception then of the genito-anal measurements the averages for male and female Blue whales may be considered together. ‘The averages for foetuses have not been included in the graphs as there are not yet sufficient data upon which to base sound conclusions so far as they are concerned. It will be seen that in both sexes the percentage measurements referring to the anterior end of the whale (see Figs. 1 to 10) show a more or less regular proportional 19 ~ a ~ cs AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL LENGTH Coal © EXTERNAL CHARACTERS OF BLUE WHALES 15 20 25 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES Fig. 1. 1 - no nw nan o o _ J 4 ~ — 1 ~ i-7) ao tl 155 AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL LENGTH Fig. 3 Male Blue whales. Measurement No. 3. Tip of snout to blowhole. wu T T ty 15 20 25 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES . Male Blue whales. Measurement No. 4. Tip of snout to angle of gape. South Georgia whales. _ o ~ ao — _ oo - ao i = = AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL LENGTH oF) T T ar aa = eee UI 15 20 2 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES Fig. 2. Female Blue whales. Measurement No. 3. _ Lond fr) _ | 1 AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL LENGTH _ a 6 o li _ © —— ~ oo 4 Tip of snout to blowhole. ae T T =n T 15 20 25 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES Fig. 4. Female Blue whales. Measurement No. 4. Tip of snout to angle of gape. - - - - South African whales. 288 21 AL LENGTH I no oo o So _ a a a 1 o AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF TOT — A 15 20 25 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES Fig. 5. Male Blue whales. Measurement No. 5. Tip of snout to centre of eye. is rS) AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL LENGTH oy Ss Oo s 1 15 20 25 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES Fig. 7.. Male Blue whales. Measurement No. 6. Tip of snout to tip of flipper. — South Georgia whales. DISCOVERY REPORTS no to So - _ =) _ ao ~ <7 = for) _ or AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL LENGTH 15 20 : 25 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES Fig. 6. Female Blue whales. Measurement No. 5. Tip of snout to centre of eye. ra rs co = i rw AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL LENGTH 15 Ol 25 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES Fig. 8. Female Blue whales. Measurement No. 6. Tip of snout to tip of flipper. - - - - South African whales. EXTERNAL CHARACTERS OF BLUE WHALES 289 n for) no ~ no oo 22 21 AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL LENGTH 15 20 25 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES Fig. 9. Male Blue whales. Measurement No. 20. Severed head, condyle to tip. AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL LENGTH 15 20 25 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES Fig. 11. Male Blue whales. Measurement No. 8. Notch of flukes to posterior emargination of dorsal fin. — South Georgia whales. no no a no or no rs no eo ro ro to 1 AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL LENGTH T 15 20 25 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES Fig. 10. Female Blue whales. Measurement No. 20. Severed head, condyle to tip. no is} ao © no a7 AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL LENGTH to oo 15 20 25 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES Fig. 12. Female Blue whales. Measurement No. 8. Notch of flukes to posterior emargination of dorsal fin. - --- South African whales, 290 oe i) ao to i o rn no wo ee AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL LENGTH n 15 20 25 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES Fig. 13. Male Blue whales. Measurement No. 10. Notch of flukes to anus. = cs = > = = Oo for) ~ fore} oO AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL LENGTH > 15 20 25 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES Fig. 15. Male Blue whales. Measurement No. 11. Notch of flukes to umbilicus. ——— South Georgia whales. DISCOVERY REPORTS i) Ge I oo nw ao AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL LENGTH ro Q 15 20 25 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES Fig. 14. Female Blue whales. Measurement No. 10. Notch of flukes to anus. a i oo So > ior) = or AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL LENGTH 15 20 25 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES Fig. 16. Female Blue whales. Measurement No. 11. Notch of flukes to umbilicus. - --- South African whales. FS fh. i rs ~ ro a -_ Oo [~-) ~ AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL LENGTH » I EXTERNAL CHARACTERS OF BLUE WHALES 291 15 20 25 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES Fig. 17. Male Blue whales. Measurement No. 12. Notch of flukes to end of ventral grooves. AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL LENGTH 15 20 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES rs 2 is a > ou rs i > ro ~ = AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL LENGTH ~ eo 15 20 25 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES Fig. 18. Female Blue whales. Measurement No. 12. Notch of flukes to end of ventral grooves. 25 Fig. 19. Blue whales (upper curves males, lower curves females). Measurement No. 13. Anus to reproductive aperture. South Georgia whales. - - - - South African whales. 29 DISCOVERY REPORTS AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL LENGTH 20 25 15 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES Fig. 20. Male Blue whales. Measurement No. 17. Flipper, tip to anterior end of lower border. Measurement No. 18. Flipper, length along curve of lower border. (See below.) 15 14 AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL LENGTH 1 re} a 15 20 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES Fig. 21. Female Blue whales. Measurement No. 17. Flipper, tip to anterior end of lower border. Measurement No. 18. Flipper, length along curve of lower border. ——5.G i = nassontoe Sh. i oe &. S. Reel Measurement No. 17. CRANE, A sh = Real Measurement No. 18. EXTERNAL CHARACTERS OF BLUE WHALES ro) oo AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL LENGTH 15 20 25 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES Fig. 22. Male Blue whales. Measurement No. 24. Depth of tail at dorsal fin. AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL LENGTH wo 25 15 20 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES Fig. 23. Female Blue whales. Measurement No. 24. Depth of tail at dorsal fin. South Georgia whales. = - - - - - South African whales. 293 294 DISCOVERY REPORTS increase as the total length of the whale increases from 16 to 26m. At about 26 m. in females and 25 m. in males a change occurs in this process and the size of the head begins to decrease in proportion to the rest of the body, as is shown by a sudden turning down of the curve when the greater lengths are reached. Contrasting strongly with this we find a lag in growth of the tail region. The curves for measurements of the posterior part of the body (Figs. 11 to 18) are almost mirror images of those for the anterior part. In the graphs of the first two or shorter measure- ments (notch of flukes to dorsal fin, and to anus, Figs. 11 to 14) the lag is less marked than in the two longer measurements (notch of flukes to umbilicus and to ventral grooves, Figs. 15 to 18), so that although the whole tail region undergoes a proportional decrease to compensate for the increase of the head and shoulders, the greatest lag in growth occurs in the region between the anus and the umbilicus. Corresponding Fig. 24. Greatest difference in average relative sizes of the head and tail in small and large female Blue whales. to the slight reduction in the size of the head at 25 or 26 m., there is a tendency for a slight increase in the size of the tail at about these lengths. The proportions of the head and tail in 13-5 m. and 26:5 m. whales are contrasted in the outline sketches in Fig. 24. Hinton (1915, p. 75), dealing with twenty male Humpbacks examined by Barrett- Hamilton, found that measurements of (a) snout to axilla, (b) notch of flukes to penis, (c) notch of flukes to navel, (d) notch of flukes to posterior insertion of the dorsal fin, become relatively shorter as growth proceeds, and concluded that, during adolescence, the thoracic region was the principal seat of growth in the Humpback bull. An examination of the percentage measurements of immature and mature Fin and Blue whales listed by Hinton (pp. 104 and 134) reveals a proportional increase anteriorly and a decrease posteriorly similar to that which has been described above. The general conclusion is that with increasing total length, up to a point, the anterior part of the body up to the axilla becomes relatively larger and the posterior part corre- spondingly smaller. It may reasonably be inferred that so long as these steady changes EXTERNAL CHARACTERS OF BLUE WHALES 295 in bodily proportions are taking place full physical maturity has not yet been reached. It is possible, however, that the rather profound change indicated after 25 m. in males and 26m. in females is concerned with physical maturity, but more measurements of these very large whales are needed before one can ascertain whether the relative proportions of the body alter at this period or whether perhaps abnormally large whales are abnormal in their proportions as well as in their size. So far only the mean values of the measurements have been considered. The individual variations which occur are best examined by the method of frequency curves ; that is, the range of values over which each measurement varies may be divided into groups and the number of individual measurements for each group may be plotted out to form a curve. Owing to the fact that a certain amount of variation depends on the length of the whale it is not permissible to draw curves which include all the measurements which have been made. There are relatively large numbers of measure- ments for males about 23 and 24 m. and females about 25 and 26 m. Thus by using the bodily measurements of males measuring from 23-00 m. to 24:99 m. and all females from 25:00 m. to 26:99 m. we have enough material for the construction of curves which will at least show the nature and approximate extent of the individual variations which occur. One could perhaps apply a correction for length, but the value of the result would hardly be sufficient to make such an enormous task worth while. In the following tables and in Figs. 25 to 44 this plan is carried out. In the tables the range of values obtained for each measurement (still of course expressed as per- centages of the total length) is divided into an arbitrary number of groups. The individual readings of each measurement for male Blue whales from South Georgia measuring from 23:00 m. to 24:99 m. and females from 25-00 m. to 26-99 m. are sorted out, and the number which fall into each of the groups are shown. 296 3. Tip of snout to blowhole DISCOVERY REPORTS VARIATION OF MEASUREMENTS Blue Whales: South Georgia Males, 23-25 m.; females 25-27 m. 4. Tip of snout to angle of gape 5. Tip of snout to centre of eye 6. Tip of snout to tip of flipper 7. Eye to ear (centres) Number of readings Range of values (% of total length) sone Number of readings Range of values (% of total length) 419 Number of readings Range of values (% of total length) Number of readings Range of values °%, of total length) Number of readings Range of values (% of total length) 3 | 9 1e) 16-0-16°5 16°5—17-0 EIS 17°5—18-0 18-0-18°5 18-5—19:0 COIL ES 19*5—20°0 20°0-20°5 20°5-21°0 2IO-21°5 21°5—22°0 HoH COCONT FP DOW iol ol St olen 13. Anus to reproductive aperture (centres) 18-0-18°5 185-190 EEO UGTS) 19*5—20°0 20°0—20°5 20°5—21°0 21°O-21°5 =] NONTUWW H TOR LO® 19°5—20°0 20°0-20°5 20°5—21°0 21°O-21°5 21°5—22°0 22°0-22°5 21°5-22°0 22°0-22°5 il 14. Dorsal fin, vertical height 22°5—23°0 23°0-23°5 23°5-24°0 38-30 39-40 40-41 41-42 42-43 43-44 44-45 45-46 46-47 47-48 3°75-4°00 4°00-4°25 4°25-4°50 4°50-4°75 4°75—-5°00 5°00-5°25 5°25-5°50 595 Oa 5°75—-6:00 6:00-6:25 24°0-24°5 24°5-25°0 15. Dorsal fin, length of base 48-49 49-50 16. Flipper, tip to axilla 6-25-6-50 6-50-6°75 6:75-7:00 17. Flipper, tip to anterior end of lower border Number of readings Range of values (% of total length) | Number of readings Range of values (% of total length) a ( ie) Number of readings Range of values (% of total length) 9 Range of values (°% of total length) Number of readings 3 Range of values (% of total length) I°5—2°0 2°0-2'5 2°5-3°0 3°0-3°5 3°5-4°0 4:0-4°5 4°5-5°0 =I OO 0°2-0'4 0:4-0°6 0-6-0°8 o:8-I'0 I'O-I'2 1:2-I°4 1-4-1°6 Sons) 5°5-6:0 6:0-6'5 6-5-7°0 OY EIES 75-80 8-0-8:5 HN NTO NO 1°6-1'°8 1°8-2'0 HOH cat | H Dw || OR Neo 7°5-8-0 8-0-8°5 8-5-9:0 GRO SES 9°5—10°0 10°O-I0°5 I0°5—I1°0 TiO-Tie5 II*5—-12°0 12*O-12°5 12*5—13°0 II‘O-1I°5 II‘5—12°0 12*O-12°5 12*5—-13°0 NOUS) 13°5—14:0 UG ONES) I 4 16 16 18 4 TAsh— 15:0) |) 8. Notch of flukes to posterior emargination of dorsal fin EXTERNAL CHARACTERS OF BLUE WHALES VARIATION OF MEASUREMENTS Blue Whales: South Georgia Males, 23-25 m.; females 25-27 m. g. Flukes, width at insertion 10. Notch of flukes | 11. to anus Notch of flukes to umbilicus 12. Notch of flukes to end of ventral grooves Range of Number values of °%, of total | Teadings length) aD Range of values (% of total length) Number of readings 20°5—21'0 21°O-21°5 21°5—22°0 22°0-22°5 22°5-23°0 ZB OTZB IS) LENCE) 24°5-25°0 25) C255 25°5-26:0 26-0-26°5 26°5-27°0 23°5-24:0 | LES Speen es 2 Gens wt | _ Lal 18. Flipper, length along curve of lower border 4°25—4°50 4 Oa lS) 4575909 BE SEN Zo) yam) See) 16) 5°75—-0:00 6:00-6:25 || at W\ @ 22025 24 | 31 22 | 20 12 || 0) @ || 2 || 2 19. Flipper, greatest width Range of Number Range of Number Range of Number values of values of values of (°% of total | Teadings | (o/ of total | Teadings | (0/, of total | Teadings length) 312 length) g | 2 length) 419 BZA 23100 Wel £1 39:0-3075 i | te agac4e || ol 23°0-23°5 39°5-40'0 BROS | lp 23°5-24°0 40°0-40°5 35-36 | ZA:0-24°5 | —= | 1 | 40°5-41-O | — | 1 | 36-47 |) | 24°5-25°0 4I°O-41°5 I |,— 37-38 ei ac Aemeishy |i |) Coe Sia) eisai) |) | 25°5-20:0 | I | 2 | 42°0-42°5 | 2] 5 39-40 7, 16 260-265 | 3| 4| 425-430] 4] 7] 40-41 | 12 | 14 26°5-27°0 | g | 5 | 43°0-43°5 | 4 | 11 41-42 12 | 20 27-0-27°5 | 10 | 11 | 43°5-44:0 | 14 | 15] 42-43 | 13 | 13 27°5-28-0 | 19 | 22 | 44°0-44°5 | 18 | 17 | 43-44 | a 28-0-28'5 | 18 | 23 | 44°5-45°0 | 17 | 10 | 44-45 7 \ 4 28-5-29'0 | 18 | 13 | 45:0-45°5 | 18 | 14 45-46 2|— 29°0-29'5 | 13 | 14 | 45°5-46:0 | 7] 5 | 46-47 If ee 29°5-30°0 | 7 | 5 | 460-465] 6| 9] 47-48 ee 30°0-30°5 | 2] 5 | 465-470] 1] 5 3075 -32-Oulmeta| 1 470-475 | 3) 3I1°0-31°5 | — | 2] 4775-480 | 2] 2 20. Severed head, condyle to tip 21. Skull, greatest width 24. Tail, depth at dorsal fin Range of values (% of total length) Number of readings gs | 2 Range of values (% of total length) Number of readings 2 Range of values (% of total length) Number of readings Range of values (% of total length) Number of readings é | 2 Range of values (°% of total length) 12°0-12°5 12°5—13°0 ESjOSUS 5 13°5—-14:0 Ng OATS) ee tH) ©) EOE 15°5-16-0 | | tm ADOO NON 22°5—-23'0 235052355 23°5—24°0 21 OE Ts) 24°5—25°0 AIO 5) 25°5—-26-0 26-0-26°5 26-5-27°0 Ai aA as 27°5-28-0 28-0-28°5 SoS OF 6:0— 6°5 9°5—10-0 10°O-10°5 I0*5—I1‘O II‘O-11°5 I1-5—12-0 12°O-12'5 12°5-13°0 NS OME 13°5-14°0 | alone! Lal Mm HAO ©On 65> 770 Fox 75 d= O20 8-0— 8-5 8-5— 9:0 9'0- 9°5 9*5-10°0 10°O-10°5 Io°5—II°0 II‘O—-11°5 | NO DTI DOW DISCOVERY REPORTS 25 20 15 = i=) NUMBER OF MEASUREMENTS 16 18 17 19 PERCENTAGE VALUE OF MEASUREMENT 20 21 22 Fig. 25. Blue whales. Variations of measurement No. 3. Tip of snout to blowhole. ro or 15 _ S NUMBER OF MEASUREMENTS on 20 21 22 23 17 18 19 PERCENTAGE VALUE OF MEASUREMENT Fig. 26. Blue whales. Variations of measurement No. 4. Tip of snout to angle of gape. ----- Males. Females. EXTERNAL CHARACTERS OF BLUE WHALES 35 80: bo uo NUMBER OF MEASUREMENTS ° 22 28 24 25 19 20 21 PERCENTAGE VALUE OF MEASUREMENT Fig. 27. Blue whales. Variations of measurement No. 5. Tip of snout to centre of eye. 30 15 [= i=} NUMBER OF MEASUREMENTS o 45 50 40 PERCENTAGE VALUE OF MEASUREMENT Fig. 28. Blue whales. Variations of measurement No. 6. Tip of snout to tip of flipper. ----- Males. Females. 300 NUMBER OF MEASUREMENTS NUMBER OF MEASUREMENTS ” So pe 20 15 DISCOVERY REPORTS 4 5 PERCENTAGE VALUE OF MEASUREMENT Fig. 29. Blue whales. Variations of measurement No. 7. Eye to ear, centres. 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 PERCENTAGE VALUE OF MEASUREMENT Fig. 30. Blue whales. Variations of measurement No. 8. Notch of flukes to posterior emargination of dorsal fin. pega ae Males. Females. EXTERNAL CHARACTERS OF BLUE WHALES 80 20. 15 ou NUMBER OF MEASUREMENTS 3-5 4-0 45 50 55 6-0 65 PERCENTAGE VALUE OF MEASUREMENT Fig. 31. Blue whales. Variations of measurement No. 9. Flukes, width at insertion. NUMBER OF MEASUREMENTS 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 PERCENTAGE VALUE OF MEASUREMENT Fig. 32. Blue whales. Variations of measurement No. 10. Notch of flukes to anus. ----- Males. Females. 302 DISCOVERY REPORTS NUMBER OF MEASUREMENTS 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 PERCENTAGE VALUE OF MEASUREMENT Fig. 33. Blue whales. Variations of measurement No. 11. Notch of flukes to umbilicus. NUMBER OF MEASUREMENTS 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 PERCENTAGE VALUE OF MEASUREMENT Fig. 34. Blue whales. Variations of measurement No. 12. Notch of flukes to end of ventral grooves. wae Males. — Females. EXTERNAL CHARACTERS OF BLUE WHALES 50: 40 80 tn NUMBER OF MEASUREMENTS ° 2 8 4 5 6 7 8 PERCENTAGE VALUE OF MEASUREMENT Fig. 35. Blue whales. Variations of measurement No. 13. Anus to reproductive aperture, centres. 20 15 ~ i] NUMBER OF MEASUREMENTS a 0 0-4 0:8 1-2 16 2-0 PERCENTAGE VALUE OF MEASUREMENT Fig. 36. Blue whales. Variations of measurement No. 14. Dorsal fin, vertical height. Females. 393 DISCOVERY REPORTS 15 _ o NUMBER OF MEASUREMENTS a 2 8 4 5 6 7 8 PERCENTAGE VALUE OF MEASUREMENT Fig. 37. Blue whales. Variations of measurement No. 15. Dorsal fin, length of base. 80 20 15 _ —] NUMBER OF MEASUREMENTS a 10 11 12 13 12, 8 9 PERCENTAGE VALUE OF MEASUREMENT Fig. 38. Blue whales. Variations of measurement No. 16. Flipper, tip to axilla. Se Males. Females. NUMBER OF MEASUREMENTS NUMBER OF MEASUREMENTS a EXTERNAL CHARACTERS OF BLUE WHALES 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 PERCENTAGE VALUE OF MEASUREMENT Fig. 39. Blue whales. Variations of measurement No. 17. Flipper, tip to anterior end of lower border. T 5 11 13 14 15 16 17 PERCENTAGE VALUE OF MEASUREMENT Fig. 40. Blue whales. Variations of measurement No. 18. Flipper, length along curve of lower border. Seeks Males. Females. N 305 306 DISCOVERY REPORTS NUMBER OF MEASUREMENTS 25 8:0 32 34 3:6 38 4:0 42 PERCENTAGE VALUE OF MEASUREMENT Fig. 41. Blue whales. Variations of measurement No. 19. Flipper, greatest width. 20 ~ —} NUMBER OF MEASUREMENTS o 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 PERCENTAGE VALUE OF MEASUREMENT Fig. 42. Blue whales. Variations of measurement No. 20. Severed head, condyle to tip. Females. 25: 15 ~ So NUMBER OF MEASUREMENTS 25 NUMBER OF MEASUREMENTS EXTERNAL CHARACTERS OF BLUE WHALES 9 10 ll 12 13 14 15 PERCENTAGE VALUE OF MEASUREMENT Fig. 43. Blue whales. Variations of measurement No, 21. Skull, greatest width. 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 PERCENTAGE VALUE OF MEASUREMENT Fig. 44. Blue whales. Variations of measurement No. 24. Tail, depth at dorsal fin. Sees Males. Females. 307 308 DISCOVERY REPORTS We may consider first the degree of variation shown by each measurement. In this respect the actual spread of the curve is not to be relied on, for the range of percentage measurement values (shown as abscissae) is not on the same scale in all the charts. Perhaps the best idea of the amount of variation is to be had by dividing the largest reading by the smallest. Thus, in No. 21, “Greatest width of skull,” except for two “‘outsize”” measurements, the largest reading is only 1-3 times as great as the smallest, indicating a narrow range of variation, while in No. 14, “ Vertical height of dorsal fin,” the largest reading is nine times as great as the smallest, indicating a very wide range of variation. It should be mentioned, however, that No. 14 (like Nos. 12 and 15) is a bad measurement in the sense that it is difficult to take it each time in a uniform manner, and the wide range of the readings may be due, to a limited extent, to this cause. It will be unnecessary to discuss the range of variation of each measurement, as this can be seen at a glance from the tables, and the information may be supplemented by reference to the charts on pp. 298-307. Normal variation should give normal frequency curves from data treated in this way, and with one or two exceptions the curves are undoubtedly of this type. Minor irregularities can be attributed to the comparatively limited data from which they are constructed. Of the curves which do not conform to the normal frequency type measurement No. 4 (males) may be quickly disposed of since its lack of shape is simply due to paucity of data. Measurement No. 8 is somewhat erratic, but would probably resolve itself into a normal curve with more data. The curves which need more careful examination are those of measurements Nos. 13, 15, 17 and 20, for either in one or both sexes these curves show a tendency to resolve themselves into two peaks. One object of studying the variations of the external characters is to find whether by any chance more than one race is to be distinguished among the whales examined, and if any measurement constituted a distinguishing feature between two such races the probable effect would be two separate maxima in the frequency curve. On the other hand, two peaks in this curve, if not very marked, might be due to chance (unless constructed from a great number of readings) or to faults in the actual taking of the measurements, for there are one or two cases in which there is always some doubt as to the exact point to which the measurement should be taken. Although measurement No. 20 increases relatively as the whale length becomes greater, the variations of measurements Nos. 13, 15 and 17 are independent of the length of the whale. ‘Thus for these three measurements we may compare the curves already obtained with curves constructed from the whole of the data relating to Blue whales instead of only those between certain lengths. In other words, we may see whether these double-peaked curves can be shown to be in reality single when a larger amount of data is used. In measurement No. 20 this irregularity appears only in the curve for females. Now the length of the head is very little affected by the length of the body between about 23 and 28 m. (see table on p. 282), so that we may at least draw EXTERNAL CHARACTERS OF BLUE WHALES tw NUMBER OF MEASUREMENTS ou 2 3 4 2 6 7 8 PERCENTAGE VALUE OF MEASUREMENT Fig. 45. Male Blue and Fin whales. Variations of measurement No. 13. Anus to reproductive aperture. (Whales of all sizes.) 100 rad i] NUMBER OF MEASUREMENTS 1 So 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 PERCENTAGE VALUE OF MEASUREMENT Fig. 46. Blue whales. Variations of measurement No. 15. Dorsal fin, length at base. (Whales of all sizes.) seisye3 Males. — Females. 3°99 310 DISCOVERY REPORTS 100 50 60 ” 2 40 ww = w me P ” —) i) — no —) » So Otani LENGTH OF LONGEST BALEEN PLATES IN CENTIMETRES 5 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES Fig. 49. Mean curve of growth of baleen in Blue whales. The plotted points represent the length of the baleen in individual whales. further growth has taken place. Details of the development and histology of the baleen of Blue whales are given in an important memoir by Tullberg (1883) and the matter need therefore be dealt with only very briefly here. The first rudiments of the two blocks of plates are found after the foetus reaches a length of 2 m. or more. Then two plain strips of a soft whitish material appear, one on each side of the upper jaw. At 25 to 3m. minute transverse ridges appear on these strips and later develop into whalebone plates. The two rudimentary strips appear first along the outer edges of the EXTERNAL CHARACTERS OF BLUE WHALES 315 mouth leaving a broad, more or less flat palate between. As the plates grow the basic strips spread inwards until, when they are fully developed, no part of the palate remains except a narrow ridge in the median line. This condition, however, is not reached until long after the whale is born. Even when the foetus is ready for birth the longest plates measure only about 2-5 to 3-0 cm. and are arranged along the outer edge of the jaw, leaving a wide area of uncovered palate. The rate of growth of the baleen in relation to the rate of growth of the whale can be examined in quite a simple manner by plotting the recorded lengths of the longest plates against the length of the whale. There are unfortunately very few baleen measure- ments for whales between 7-0 and 17-0 m., but there are just enough to indicate the course taken by the curve of growth. In Fig. 49 all the records of the lengths of the longest baleen plates are shown, and it will be seen that the plotted points may be divided in a sense into two groups. The first of these consists of the points derived from whales measuring 17:0 m. or more and forms a wide but regular series sloping upwards from baleen lengths of about 40 cm. to lengths of 70 to 100 cm. for the largest whales. This must mean that though there is some little individual variation in the length of the baleen, the plates must grow by about 5 cm. for every increase of 1 m. in the length of the whale. The second group consists of only a very few points derived from foetuses and young whales of less than 17-0 m. These points fall into a compara- tively well-defined line which indicates a rate of growth appreciably slower than in the larger whales. The important feature of the graph, however, is that if a line is drawn to represent the average slope of the plotted points, or in other words the mean rate of growth of the baleen, the part built on the smaller group of points is not directly continuous with the part built on the larger group, and one must conclude that there is a sudden spurt in the growth of the plates during the whale’s growth from about 16 to 18 m. The possibility arises that this is some functional development. ‘The ques- tion, however, will be dealt with when the growth of the calf is considered and it will be shown that the sudden increase in size of the baleen plates is in fact almost certainly associated with a change from a diet of milk to a diet of krill. As to other features of the chart we see that considerable individual variation occurs, but that there is no particular grouping which might suggest any racial distinction. Taken as a whole, the plotted points show that in general the length of the plates varies fairly uniformly with the length of the whale. Observations on the numbers of baleen plates (excluding some subsidiary inner plates which are not seen from the outside) show that they vary from about 250 to 400 on each side. A sufficiently thorough analysis of the records is given by the table of frequencies given at top of page 316. This gives an idea of the numbers of baleen plates normally present in southern Blue whales and the extent to which the numbers may vary. It also shows that there is no significant difference in this respect between males and females or between the Blue whales of South Georgia and South Africa. As regards the width of the baleen at the base only twelve measurements were made 8-2 316 DISCOVERY REPORTS Blue Whales : Males Females Number of plates pang side S. Georgia| S. Africa |S. Georgia} S. Africa 240-260 — — = = 260-280 2 = = == 280-300 I — 5 — 300-320 10 I 8 2 320-340 10 I 9 B 340-360 I I 2 2 360-380 I — 2 = 380-400 I — 2 = Total 26 3 28 7 Average No. of plates 318 327 324 326 Maximum ,, 9 395 347 380 354. Minimum ,, - 270 310 280 306 in the case of Blue whales, and as the number is so small they are shown individually in the following table: Males Females Width as Width as Whale Baleen percentage Whale Baleen percentage length width of baleen length width of baleen length length *17-80 38 79°0 18-80 43 93°5 *18-55 55 89-0 *22-00 56 747 *18-80 45 83°5 22°75 48 77 23°10 53 94°7 24°25 55 80-0 23°30 67 106-0 *26-10 61 67:8 24°10 63 77° 26°30 75 87°5 Those marked with an asterisk are South African whales. There are few enough data here for any comparisons to be made, but it can be said that there is no indication of any difference in the width of the baleen between either males and females or South Georgian and South African whales. Measurements of the spacing of the largest baleen plates similarly give only negative results. The distance separating these plates varies from about I-ocm. in 16-0m. whales to about 2:5 cm. in 27-0 m. whales. The readings are plotted in Fig. 50 from which it will be seen that no particular distinction exists between males and females or between whales of South Georgia and South Africa. EXTERNAL CHARACTERS OF BLUE WHALES 317 VENTRAL GROOVES The presence of ventral grooves is common to all the Balaenopteridae and their arrangement in Blue, Fin and Sei whales is very similar. In Blue whales they run from a point slightly behind the tip of the mandible back to a point rather behind the umbilicus (see Plate XXX, fig. 3). Laterally they extend round to the shoulders and up to the level of the eye (Plate XXVIII, fig. 1) or slightly below it. Here they are very short and one or two run forwards into the corner of the mouth. A few grooves immediately below this run forwards for a short distance along the side of the mandible, but the rest stop short on the lower edge leaving the side of the mandible smooth. The longest grooves are those in the mid-ventral line and it is only these that SPACING OF LONGEST BALEEN PLATES IN CENTIMETRES 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES Fig. 50. Spacing of the baleen in Blue whales. The plotted points represent the spacing of the baleen in individual whales. (Black symbols represent South African whales, and circular ones South Georgia whales.) run back as far as the umbilicus. The rest become progressively shorter so that their posterior ends form a line which curves forwards to the axilla. Posteriorly the median grooves may end evenly behind the umbilicus, as in Plate XXX, fig. 3, but there is a certain amount of variation here, for some grooves may extend further back than others, or the posterior ends may be broken up and very indefinite, and sometimes in males there is a median groove continuous with the umbilicus and genital aperture (see Plate XXIX, fig. 3, Plate XXX, figs. 1 and 2, and Plate XXXI, fig. 4). On each side of the genital aperture in females there is often, in addition to the mammary grooves, a varying number of small grooves not more than a foot or two long 318 DISCOVERY REPORTS which may be mentioned here though they are quite separate from the main mass of grooves. These are to be seen in Plate XXX, figs. r and 3. The four rough sketches in Fig. 51 show some typical examples and give an idea of the kind of variations which occur. The best method of estimating the number of the main ventral grooves is to count their anterior terminations, beginning at the middle of the chin and counting along the mandible past the angle of the gape up to the last groove near the eye, and doubling the result. The estimation of the number of grooves is of no particular value except (as in the case of other characters) for the purpose of fixing the normal condition and range of variation of this character for purposes of general comparison. Differences which occur in the numbers of ventral grooves of whales from South Georgia are evidently due simply to individual variation, for the differences between parent and foetus (in cases where the ventral grooves of the foetus are fully developed) are of the same order as the differences between adults. Whale No. 54 for instance had 94 grooves and its foetus had 78, while whale No. 154 had 80 grooves and its foetus 96. ‘The variations in the numbers of groovesis best shown by the following table, in which the records are analysed on the same principle as the table for numbers of baleen plates given on p. 316. Blue Whales | Number of | Males | Females ventral grooves | S. Georgia] S. Africa |S. Georgia) S. Africa “| at = aes 70-80 4 As | 2 2 80-90 7 6 8 5 go-100 8 I 8 5 100-IIO0 I 3 7 I I 10-120 I _ | 4 I Total 21 14 | 29 14 Average go | 85 95 89 Maximum 118 | 102 116 | nz, | Minimum | 70 | 70 76 70 An inspection of the above table shows again that no distinction exists between the sexes, and the fact that the averages for South African whales are slightly lower than for South Georgia is more likely due to the small number of records than to the existence of any real distinction. The ventral grooves appear in the foetus earlier than the baleen plates. The first traces are to be found when the foetus measures from about 1:0 to 1:25 m. The anterior ends appear to materialize first and then spread backwards, and by the time the foetus reaches 2-0 m. they are usually sufficiently complete and well defined to be counted. EXTERNAL CHARACTERS OF BLUE WHALES 319 m nN m Wh. no. 46 nn Wh. no. 48 ‘ : asta —— ne — a ———— ee Wh. no. 50 Wh. no. 49 Fig. 51. Mammary grooves, genital aperture, etc., of female Blue whales (semi-diagrammatic) ; to show variation of the extra grooves in this region. ™, mammary grooves. 48 141 145 (47 148 ary 2° ee oe Bee Sve aor os 5 @ Oot eed ° e omnis r Ow ee e @ oe O e e e ee A e 3 e °° = e e : A a 8 ° e ee ‘ ce = a © _ e ° © e e e . e e e oo © ¢ e CO A 0 a e e e e e ee e L) °e e ° e e e e e e e ° ° ° e e : e e e 0 OG e © e ° . 5 Os e e ° e 0 e e e ss 60 274 270 274 e **e “ : 2° ° S % e e . = i of 30 ° ee e eo e e “od Pi e e e e ee ee e e ° O ry e ‘é ° O 2 « ° e e e Fig. 52. Diagrams showing different arrangement of the hairs on the chin of seven and the rostrum of three Blue whales. The beard in each case is sketched from a view immediately in front of the mouth, and the rostral hairs from a dorsal aspect. The numerals refer to individual whales. 320 DISCOVERY REPORTS HAIR In both Blue and Fin whales hairs occur (a) at the symphysis of the mandibles, (6) along each ramus of the lower jaw, (c) on the dorsal surface of the rostrum. They are best developed in young whales and foetuses, for in old whales they tend to become rather short and reduced in number. Previous descriptions of the hairs have been given by Lillie (tg10) and Japha (1911). The latter gives an account of the structure and histology of the hairs in five species of whalebone whales and six species of toothed whales. The ‘“‘beard”’ consists, in most whales, of between twenty and forty hairs arranged in two vertical rows which are often a little asymmetrical, and which tend to diverge slightly. The actual length of the rows is about 1 ft. in medium sized whales. In Fig. 52 the arrangement of the chin hairs of seven Blue whales and the hairs on the rostrum of three are shown. Along each mandible there is normally a row of a few hairs varying in number from about two to a dozen. In Fin and Sei whales two rows on each side are occasionally found, but this does not seem to occur in Blue whales. Blue Whales Number of Males Females hairson | chin S. Georgia} S. Africa |S. Georgia} S. Africa 8-11 I = I £05 12-15 — = _ 16-19 — = = = 20-23 2 — 5 _ 24-27 II — 9 I 28-31 8 — 14 ee 32-35 5 — 4 ee 36-39 2 3 I I 40-43 2 I I = 44-47 — = 2 = 48-51 I = = Total 32 4 a7 2 Average 29 38 29 31 Maximum 50 43 44 37 Minimum 9 36 10 25 On the rostrum also the number of hairs is very variable. It is practically impossible to examine the hairs on both sides since on the flensing platform the whale lies with the dorsal surface of the head resting on the ground, but usually there are between ten and twenty on one side. There is usually a row along the edge of the rostrum, a small group near the blowhole, and a few odd hairs in other positions. The hairs of the chin have been counted more systematically than those of the EXTERNAL CHARACTERS OF FIN WHALES 321 mandible and rostrum, and a table of the type used for the numbers of baleen plates and ventral grooves may be drawn up to show the extent of variation. - Here, as usual, no difference is found between males and females. There are only half a dozen records from South African whales, but these fall well within the limits of variation shown by South Georgian whales, and we may therefore suppose that the whales of the two localities do not differ in this respect. In the foetus, hairs are numerous and well developed at an early stage. In the foetus of No. 270, which measured 0-55 m., the hairs were represented by small white spots in the positions where they would later have grown out, but in No. 1151 which measured 0:445 m. the incipient hairs were already distinct. FIN WHALES GENERAL REMARKS The characters of the Fin whale may be dealt with in the same manner and in the same order as those of the Blue whale. Since each step is fully explained in the section on the Blue whale much repetition may be avoided here, and though the Fin whale is of at least as great commercial importance as the Blue, less space need be devoted to it. The average yield of oil from a Fin whale is 35 to 50 barrels, as compared with 70 to 80 from a Blue whale?. The distribution and history of the hunting of the Fin whale is very similar to that of the Blue whale. It was caught only in small numbers at South Georgia and the other Dependencies up to about 1912, but during and since the war it has been taken regularly in great quantities. The largest Fin whale we examined measured 24°53 m., or 80 ft. 5 in. This was a female, No. 478. There were altogether four females measuring over 24:0 m. (Nos. 478, 200, 263 and 463). As No. 478 was the largest out of nearly 800 Fin whales one would expect that the limit for this species is somewhere about 25:0 m. (or 82 ft.), so far at least as the length is measured from the tip of the snout to the notch of the flukes. The largest Fin whale measured by Barrett-Hamilton was 82 ft. long, measured from the tip of the mandible, or 80 ft. 3 in. from the tip of the snout. Risting (1928) mentions that the largest Fin whale among his records measured 27-3 m. or 89 ft. 6in. This is one from a great number of records, but it has already been pointed out that we are unable to put entire confidence in the accuracy of Risting’s data. As to the Fin whales of the North Atlantic, a female of 24:55 m. or 80 ft. 6 in. has been recorded by Cocks (1887), but it is uncertain how this was measured. ‘The largest whale examined by True was 21-5 m. or 70 ft. 8 in. In order to examine the sex ratio of Fin whales we may, as in the case of Blue whales, use the British Museum statistics of catches at the southern whaling stations during previous years. ‘These include the following: ! It appears that, owing to improved methods, a somewhat higher yield has been obtained in recent seasons. K Iv 9 322 DISCOVERY REPORTS (a) Dependencies of the Falkland Islands. South Georgia, 1913-25 vas sa ..» 15,535 Fin whales South Shetlands, 1918-24... as see -O,L53 55 South Orkneys, 1922-26 ae 380 ee LE ZOO 3 (b) South Africa. Cape Colony, 1920-265... ad = Bop a bs Natal, 1922-26... es eee a be edB@ * Analysis of the figures gives the following results: (a) Dependencies of the Falkland Islands. Of all whales examined 54 per cent were males. Of 22 seasons in different localities there were six with from 51 per cent to 55 per cent of females. The remaining sixteen seasons all showed a majority of males. Of these, 12 seasons showed 50 to 60 per cent of males, three seasons showed 60 to 70 per cent of males and one exceptional season (1924-5 at the South Orkneys) showed as much as 82 per cent of males. (b) South Africa. Of all whales recorded 56 per cent were males. Of 14 seasons in different localities only one showed a majority of females (54 per cent). The other 13 seasons all showed a majority of males of which eleven fell between 50 and 60 per cent and two between 60 and 70 per cent. Here we have a more decisive result than in the case of Blue whales, males being in an all-round majority both in the Dependencies and in South African waters. Our own records agree with this, for 56 per cent of the whales examined and 54 per cent of the foetuses were males. It seems difficult, therefore, to avoid the conclusion that among Fin whales males are in a slight majority. Of all the Fin whales of which we have records 45 per cent are females and 55 per cent males. As to the differences which exist between the sexes the male Fin whale becomes mature on the average at 19-4 m., and the female on the average at just 20-0 m. Thus there is approximately 0-6 m. difference between the two, or the length of the male is 97 per cent of that of the female. As in Blue whales the difference between the largest specimen of each sex is even more marked, for the largest female measured 24-53 m. and the largest male only 22:40 m., giving a difference of 2:13 m., the length of the male being 91-3 per cent of that of the female. Thus it is on the whole probable that there is an increased divergence in size after sexual maturity is reached. EXTERNAL PROPORTIONS A more or less complete series of measurements has been carried out on some 692 Fin whales, and the following table shows the average value of all the measurements taken for male and female Fin whales, expressed as percentages of the total length. EXTERNAL CHARACTERS OF FIN WHALES 323 South Georgia South Africa Total Males Females Males Females Males Females o vo & vo o e o vo 3 Measurement = 2 = z E Z £ z is z = z g o g o $ o g o g o BS o o =I o & 2 & 2 5 2, & 2, § = joel = iloel = (sel = [Sel = |Sal = “bcs oO - a oO - a oO -& vo - a o -& o -& > Ooo > oo = ou rs ou > ou > ou 20-21 4 27°16-29'02 | 28-21 4 43°95-47°96 | 45°32 42°47-46'04 | 43°75 » 21-22 4 27°12-29°95 | 28°44 4 43°87-47°22 | 45°30 42°45-46°30 | 44°24 Metre lengths 18. Flipper, length along Gane chlowen border 19. Flipper, greatest width 20. Severed head, condyle to tip 21. Skull, greatest width No. of measure- ments No. of measure- ments No. of measure- ments Range Mean Range No. of measure- ments Whale 2°59-3°O1 2°40-2°89 252-301 2°54-2°92 10°68-12°05 10°23-13°29 10°39-13°04 10°70—12'06 10°52-11‘61 2°59-2°77 10°40—-11°47 2°69-2-92 SOI QUA RO ATAH OOF TM | ow | | pow | na68 32 NNNNNNNNNDN NNNNN UUwWWN WNHANNTOMNI 9°59-I1-10 9°72-10°79 9°63-10°49 9°46-11:27 10°64-11°62 10°53-10°55 10°42-I1°32 Metre lengths EXTERNAL CHARACTERS OF FIN WHALES Female Fin Whales: South Africa Measurements expressed as percentages of total y33u9] 6. Tip of snout to tip of flipper 7. Eye to ear, centres 8. Notch of flukes to posterior emargination of dorsal fin 331 9g. Flukes, width at insertion No. of | measure- ments Range Mean No. of measure- ments | Mean No. of | measure- ments Mean No. of measure- ments Range Metre lengths HN Hw BRRHNONKRNHH 37°92-41°74 38-46-4335 38°62-42°34 41°13-42°46 41°49-43°78 41°25-42°22 40°74-42°45 37°65 39°78 39°52 49°47 40°46 41°81 42°63 42°19 41°60 41°33 14. Dorsal fin, vertical height OO OWN OOnRH ont © 00 Om CI ONRFNO OW ON Polini hen taiieicenicticteict ON Hxt 15. Dorsal fin, length of base NNNNNNNNNN UnphhUNN Oust MO DST AH UN DY ORBONEN COON 16. Flipper, tip to axilla bon MUU O OHH em COD CONUM Reateaue Idi 6 HCO 17. Flipper, tip to anterior end of lower border No. of measure- ments Range Mean No. of | measure- ments No. of measure- ments Range No. of measure- ments Range Mean Metre lengths 22. Skull length, condyle to tip of premaxilla AM NnNDIUWUIN Au He ULONINI CONTI OP WwW NUOTIHO 23. Flipper, tip to head of humerus BRHNORUNHH 24. Tail, depth at dorsal fin No. of measure- ments Range No. of measure- ments Range Mean No. of measure- ments Mean lm lua ln | 11°96 12°99 12°16 12:87 GOO 99.9 00.09 GO 0 Rove IO DOVE on NARON ON HO 10°34—-11°85 9°64-12°89 I0°09—12"50 10°59-11°83 10°32—-II'I1 10°2I—-I 1°34, 12°47 10°63 10°99 II‘05 II-02 II‘1g 11°76 10°68 10°72 10°83 332 DISCOVERY REPORTS Graphical representations of selected measurements from the foregoing tables are shown in Figs. 53 to 75, and it will be seen that in general the results are very similar to those which appear in the case of Blue whales. There is no important difference between the curves for the two sexes, except of course in the case of measurement No. 13, and though a slight distinction appears between Fin whales of South Georgia and South Africa, which will be dealt with immediately, there is no difference between the shapes of the curves. As in Blue whales, the anterior measurements (Figs. 53 to 62) show a relative increase as the whale-length increases. The increase is about 0-45 per cent per metre of whale- length as the whale-length increases from 14 to 22m. The measurements referring to the posterior part of the body show a corresponding decrease. A feature of the anterior measurement which is very noticeable in female Fin whales and is distinguishable in males (and, incidentally, in Blue whales of both sexes), is that the curves for South African whales fall in advance of the curves for South Georgian whales, to which, however, they correspond in shape. This means that the South African whales have relatively larger heads than those of the same total length at South Georgia. In Fin males the difference is about 0-7 per cent of the whale-length and in females about 0-8 per cent of the whale-length. Among the posterior measurements we find that the female Fin whales again show a South African curve in advance of the South Georgian curve, which means that the South African whale has a relatively smaller tail than the South Georgian whale of the same size. In male Fin whales and Blue whales of both sexes this difference is not noticeable. As growth is accompanied by a relative increase in the size of the head and a relative decrease in the length of the tail, one may say that the South African whales (female Fin whales especially) have heads and tails whose proportions correspond with whales I to 2m. longer at South Georgia. If the attainment of physical proportions goes on to some extent independently of growth in length, whales of the African coast would appear to be stunted and their smaller size accentuates the relatively increased size of the head and decreased size of the tail, while at South Georgia exactly the opposite happens. In support of this interpretation it may be pointed out that in the graphs of the anterior measure- ments a maximum head size is reached in Fin whales of South Africa at about 1g to 20 m. and the curve then drops to the level of the South Georgian whales which reach the maximum at about 23 m. It is possible that this difference in the bodily proportions of South Georgian and South African whales is due to a slightly emaciated condition among the latter, caused by the relative scarcity of food. As to the other measurements illustrated in Figs. 71 to 75, we find no difference between the whales of the two localities in respect of measurement No. 13 (Fig. 71) or of measurements Nos. 17 and 18 (Figs. 72 and 73), but the depth of the tail (Figs. 74 and 75) is again slightly greater in South Georgian whales. The size of the whale appears to make no difference to this measurement. EXTERNAL CHARACTERS OF FIN WHALES eS ix © i) _ [>] _ a AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL LENGTH _ = 15 20 25 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES Fig. 53. Male Fin whales. Measurement No. 3. Tip of snout to blowhole. 22 ~ ao AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL LENGTH _ o 15 20 25 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES Fig. 55. Male Fin whales. Measurement No. 4. Tip of snout to angle of gape. South Georgia whales. AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL LENGTH 20 15 25 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES Fig. 54. Female Fin whales. Measurement No. 3. Tip of snout to blowhole. n we bo ~ _ o a wo = ~ — a AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL LENGTH 15 20 25 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES Fig. 56. Female Fin whales. Measurement No. 4. Tip of snout to angle of gape. Secas South African whales. 333 334 DISCOVERY REPORTS -_ - nr ne rn 5 5 =) Ss re & AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL LENGTH ~ Q 15 20 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES ro ou Fig. 57. Male Fin whales. Measurement No. 5. Tip of snout to centre of eye. i) a AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL LENGTH ee ro) 4 © 15 20 25 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES Fig. 59. Male Fin whales. Measurement No. 6. Tip of snout to tip of flipper. South Georgia whales. is} ao i} bo be — AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL LENGTH 15 20 25 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES Fig. 58. Female Fin whales. Measurement No. 5. Tip of snout to centre of eye. AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL LENGTH 15 20 25 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES Fig. 60. Female Fin whales. Measurement No. 6. Tip of snout to tip of flipper. ----- South African whales. EXTERNAL CHARACTERS OF FIN WHALES ro ao ro = rn ao to 0 nm 1 AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL LENGTH 15 20 25 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES Fig. 61. Male Fin whales. Measurement No. 20. Severed head, condyle to tip. to to to 2 oa oS no a te rs AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL LENGTH i) ) or) a 15 20 25 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES Fig. 63. Male Fin whales. Measurement No. 8. Notch of flukes to posterior emargination of dorsal fin. ——— South Georgia whales. AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL LENGTH AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL LENGTH 335 to = eS bo 15 20 25 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES Fig. 62. Female Fin whales. Measurement No. 20. Severed head, condyle to tip. 15 20 25 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES Fig. 64. Female Fin whales. Measurement No. 8. Notch of flukes to posterior emargination of dorsal fin. 55555 South African whales. 336 DISCOVERY REPORTS to no to i) S Pd $ s 2 8 AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL LENGTH ro 15 20 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES 25 Fig. 65. Male Fin whales. Measurement No, 10. Notch of flukes to anus. 51 ao & s i ") i 2 AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL LENGTH > i can Q 25 15 20 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES Fig. 67. Male Fin whales. Measurement No. 11. Notch of flukes to umbilicus. — South Georgia whales. iv} to eo = i) So to ~ no > AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL LENGTH T T T aT 15 20 25 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES Fig. 66. Female Fin whales. Measurement No. 10. Notch of flukes to anus. oa = oa o = oo 46 AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL LENGTH rs XQ 15 20 25 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES Fig. 68. Female Fin whales. Measurement No. 11. Notch of flukes to umbilicus. - ---- South African whales. EXTERNAL CHARACTERS OF FIN WHALES 337 cs a ry cs AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL LENGTH = - co or 15 20 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES i uo Fig. 69. Male Fin whales. Measurement No. 12. Notch of flukes to end of ventral grooves. AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL LENGTH 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES Fig. 71. Fin whales (upper curves males, lower curves females). 49 i for) i rs rs oo AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL LENGTH = is = o 15 20 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES nr a Fig. 70. Female Fin whales. Measurement No. 12. Notch of flukes to end of ventral grooves. 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 a Teasurement No. 13. Anus to reproductive aperture. South Georgia whales. ----- South African whales. Il 338 DISCOVERY REPORTS oO Ss 10:5 AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL LENGTH ll 12 13 14 15 16 7 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES Fig. 72. Male Fin whales. Measurement No. 17. Flipper, tip to anterior end of lower border. No. 18. Flipper, length along curve of lower border. (See below.) - ~ So on AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL LENGTH ° a 1l 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES Fig. 73. Female Fin whales. Measurement No. 17. Flipper, tip to anterior end of lower border. No. 18. Flipper, length along curve of lower border. hoe a a Measurement No. 17. ¥icecs = nee | Measurement No. 18. EXTERNAL CHARACTERS OF FIN WHALES 339 10-0: 9-5 9-0: e ® So o AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL LENGTH Go ll 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES Fig. 74. Male Fin whales. Measurement No. 24. Tail, depth at dorsal fin. 10:0: 9:5 9:0: © ca a AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL LENGTH a or 3) 12 13 14 15 16 17 13 13 20 21 22 28 24 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES Fig. 75. Female Fin whales. Measurement No. 24. Tail, depth at dorsal fin, South Georgia whales. = - - - -- South African whales. 340 3. Tip of snout to blowhole DISCOVERY 4. Tip of snout to angle of gape REPORTS VARIATION OF MEASUREMENTS Fin males (S. Georgia), 20 to 22 m. Fin females (S. Georgia), 21 to 23 m. 5. Tip of snout to centre of eye 6. Tip of snout to tip of flipper 7. Eye to ear (centres) Range of values (% of total length) Number of readings 2 Range of values (% of total length) Number of readings A 12) Range of values (% of total length) Number of readings 10) + Range of values (% of total length) Number of readings Range of values (% of total length) Number of OIE) 1775-180 18-0-18°5 18-5—19°0 19:0-19°5 | 19"5—20°0 20°0-20'5 20°5—21°0 21°O-21°5 21°5—22°0 22°0-22°5 22°5—23°0 NN # | DAM N 4 Hew OO COON 13. Anus to reproductive aperture (centres) 17°5-18-0 18-0-18°5 18-5—19:0 IQiON9 55 19°5—20°0 20°0-20°5 20*5—21°0 21:0-21°5 21°5—22°0 22°0-22°5 22°5—23°0 = A NN HH -OwRNTI ONI-FS NN 14. Dorsal fin (vertical height) Oat O eS NNN N FePWW NN HH NNN N HN NW H Dwae OH CONT noe) 15. Dorsal fin, length of base 37-38 38-39 39-40 40-41 41-42 42-43 43-44 44-45 45-46 46-47 4°00-4°25 4°25-4°50 4°50-4°75 4°75—-5°00 5°00-5°25 5°25-5°50 5°50-5°75 5°75—-6:00 16. Flipper, tip to axilla 6:00-6:25 6:25-6°50 17. Flipper, tip to anterior end of lower border Range of values (% of total length) Number of readings 7 O (o) : Range of values (% of total length) Number of readings A fo) Range of values (°%, of total length) Number of readings Range of values (°% of total length) Number of readings Range of values °/, of total length) Number of I-5—2°0 2°0-2°5 Zoe easy Spa AiOe ED SS mONe SS) 5°5-6°0 6:0-6°5 6-5-7:0 PETS 7°5-8-0 8-0-8:5 8-5-9:0 12 Tod. BS 1-4—1°6 1°6-1°8 1°8-2:0 2:0-2°2 2°2-2°4 2°4—2°6 2°6-2°8 2°8-3:0 Bim r= 3°2-3°4 3°4-3°6 3°5-4°0 4:0-4°5 4°5-5°0 5°0-5°5 5°5-6:0 6:0-6°5 6°5—7°0 7TO-7'5 7°5-8-0 8-0-8°5 NNW DN HW OF NTOW NHN NO 6-5— 7:0 LEAS 7°5~ 8:0 8-0— 8:5 8-5— 9:0 Ges YS g'5—10:0 10°0—-10°5 10°5—II°o 8-0— 8-5 8-5— g:0 Rem OS g'5—-10-0 10°0-I0°5 I0°5-II-O II‘O-II°5 II*5—12:0 12:0-12'5 12°5—I3'0 NOUS) EXTERNAL CHARACTERS OF FIN WHALES VARIATION OF MEASUREMENTS Fin males (S. Georgia), 20 to 22 m. Fin females (S. Georgia), 21 to 23 m. 341 8. Notch of flukes to posterior emargination of dorsal fin 12. Notch of flukes to end of ventral grooves 10. Notch of flukes to anus g. Flukes, width at insertion 11. Notch of flukes to umbilicus Range of values (% of total length) Number of readings 2 Range of values (% of total length) Number of readings Range of values Number of (% of total readings length) 3, 2 | Range of | values (°% of total length) Number of readings A [o) Range of values (°% of total length) Number of readings oA (o) 19°0-19°5 19°5—20°0 20°0-20°5 20°5—21:0 Lie [ae 4°00-4°25 4°25-4°50 4°50-4°75 4°75-5°00 21°0-21°5 21°5—22°0 22°0-22°5 22°5-23°0 ZA OSE AEE 235552450 245245 2A See 5 O Zin z 555 2575-260 26:0-26°5 26°5-27°0 21m ies, 27°5-28:-0 28-0-28°5 28-5-29'0 HK Nee Less 18 ONIN DOH H 18. Flipper, length along curve of lower border 5'00-5'25 5°25-5°50 5°50-5°75 5:75-6:00 6-00-6°25 1g. Flipper, greatest width 22°5-23°0 S0mto 23°0-23°5 23°5-24°0 40-41 41-42 24°0-24°5 24°5~25°0 25°0-25°5 25°5-26-0 26:0-26°5 26°5-27°0 27°0-27°5 27°5—28:0 28-0-28°5 28-5—29°0 29°0-29°5 29°5—-30°0 30°0-30°5 30°5-31°0 20. Severed head, condyle to tip 42-43 43-44 44-45 45-46 40-47 47-48 48-49 49-50 21. Skull, | nN DL N ew eH COODAT ANN greatest width 39-40 40-41 41-42 42-43 43-44 44-45 45-46 46-47 47-48 How STO NT COM H = lurve 24. Tail, depth at dorsal fin Range of _| values (% of total length) Number of readings gs | © Range of values (% of total length) Number of readings 2 Range of values (°% of total length) Number of readings $ | Range of values (% of total length) Number of readings Range of values (% of total length) Numbez of readings 8-5— 9:0 2°3-2°4 9505955 g*5—-10°0 10°0-10°5 10*5—II:0 II‘O-11'5 II*5—12°0 12°O-12°5 12°5—13°0 ES iOS S55 ey a 1 ONS) 2°4—2°5 2°5-2°6 2°6-2°7 2°7-2°8 2°8-2°9 2°9-3°0 BiCesit 3:1-3°2 3°2-3°3 23 0R 238i 23 mac) 2 SOAS) 24°5-25°0 eas) 25°5-26°0 26-0-26°5 26:5-27°0 2 On27 5 27°5-28°0 28-0-28°5 28-5-29°0 ZA HOSES) ANS JOO 30°0-30°5 HBr H DOO ALN al = ies) | 2 Swen Ore ORs) g*5—-10°0 10°0—-10°5 10°5—II‘O LE-O—[0s5 11-5—I2:0 12°0-12°5 12°5—13°0 OSS Lo To 75 Tete 8-0— 8-5 8-5- 9:0 9°O— 9°5 g*5—10°0 10°0-10°5 IO*5—I1‘0 ELOST I°5 342 DISCOVERY REPORTS To illustrate the variations likely to occur in the bodily proportions the tables on Pp. 340, 341 are drawn up in the same way as for Blue whales. The range of percentage values for each measurement is divided into an arbitrary number of groups, and the individual readings for each measurement for male Fin whales from South Georgia, measuring from 20-00 to 21:99 m., and females from 21-00 to 22:99 m., are sorted out, and the number which fall into each group are shown. The results are plotted in Figs. 76 to 95. A comparison between the charts illustrating the above tables with the corresponding charts for Blue whales shows that the range of variation for each measurement corre- sponds closely in the two species, and it will not be necessary to comment on the separate measurements. It may also be said that, with the exception of No. 13 (anus to reproductive aperture), all the curves approach as closely to the normal frequency type as one would expect with the amount of data on which they are constructed, and it may therefore be con- cluded that only normal variation occurs in these measurements. The explanation of the two maxima in the curve of measurement No. 13 for males has been dealt with in the section on Blue whales. COLOUR The best description of the colouring of Fin whales from the North Atlantic, as of Blue whales, appears to be that of True (1904), who gives a general account of the features of the pigmentation of northern Fin whales and details of the colouring of ten specimens examined by himself. Of southern Fin whales Barrett-Hamilton made some brief notes on the colouring of thirty-nine whales examined by him at South Georgia. The pattern of the pigmentation of southern Fin whales is perhaps more complex than that of Blue whales, but there is probably less individual variation. The most obvious feature is that pigment covers the whole of the back and flanks, while the ventral surface remains unpigmented. This pigment is of a bluish slate-grey, varying to some extent in tone and not at all unlike the groundwork colour of the skin of Blue whales. As was pointed out by True and others, the tone rapidly deepens on exposure to light and air until the skin becomes practically black. The flippers are in general pigmented on the outer and white on the inner surface (though there may be a little pigment on the inner surface of the left flipper). ‘The white of the inner surface reaches round the rim of the lower border of the flipper, and sometimes the tip is white dorsally. The upper surface of the tail flukes is entirely pigmented, and the under surface is white except at the anterior and posterior borders, where there is a margin of pigment. The most remarkable feature of the colouring of Fin whales is that the pigment is arranged asymmetrically. This asymmetry is to be noticed on the outer ventral grooves, the side of the head and shoulders, the under surface of the flippers, the upper and lower jaws, the baleen, and inside the mouth. In reality it consists of a shifting of the EXTERNAL CHARACTERS OF FIN WHALES 50. 40 nm So NUMBER OF MEASUREMENTS i} 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 PERCENTAGE VALUE OF MEASUREMENT Fig. 76. Fin whales. Variations of measurement No. 3. Tip of snout to blowhole. 50 40. 30 ix} =] NUMBER OF MEASUREMENTS ~ °o 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 PERCENTAGE VALUE OF MEASUREMENT Fig. 77. Fin whales. Variations of measurement No. 4. Tip of snout to angle of gape. ----- Males. Females. 343 344 DISCOVERY REPORTS NUMBER OF MEASUREMENTS 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 PERCENTAGE VALUE OF MEASUREMENT Fig. 78. Fin whales. Variations of measurement No. 5. Tip of snout to eye. 50: 40: 30 nh > NUMBER OF MEASUREMENTS _ i) 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 87 38 PERCENTAGE VALUE OF MEASUREMENT Fig. 79. Fin whales. Variations of measurement No. 6. Tip of snout to tip of flipper. ----- Males. Females. EXTERNAL CHARACTERS OF FIN WHALES 60 50 40 80 isd i) NUMBER OF MEASUREMENTS “ ° 5:0 55 60 65 40 45 PERCENTAGE VALUE OF MEASUREMENT Fig. 80. Fin whales. Variations of measurement No. 7. Eye to ear, centres. 40 30 i So - So NUMBER OF MEASUREMENTS 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 PERCENTAGE VALUE OF MEASUREMENT Fig. 81. Fin whales. Variations of measurement No. 8. Notch of flukes to posterior emargination of dorsal fin. hehe ores Males. Females, 346 DISCOVERY REPORTS NUMBER OF MEASUREMENTS y 40 45 5:0 55 60 65 PERCENTAGE VALUE OF MEASUREMENT Fig. 82. Fin whales. Variations of measurement No. 9. Flukes, width at insertion. NUMBER OF MEASUREMENTS 23 25 26 27 28 29 80 2 24 2 PERCENTAGE VALUE OF MEASUREMENT Fig. 83. Fin whales. Variations of measurement No. 10. Notch of flukes to anus. os es Males. Females. EXTERNAL CHARACTERS OF FIN WHALES 347 60 50 40 30 iS) ° ~ i} NUMBER OF MEASUREMENTS 44 46 48 50 40 42 PERCENTAGE VALUE OF MEASUREMENT Fig. 84. Fin whales. Variations of measurement No. 11. Notch of flukes to umbilicus. 30 to So NUMBER OF MEASUREMENTS i 42 44 46 48 38 40 PERCENTAGE VALUE OF MEASUREMENT Fig. 85. Fin whales. Variations of measurement No. 12. Notch of flukes to end of ventral grooves. ----- Males. Females. 348 DISCOVERY REPORTS 50 40 30 to o NUMBER OF MEASUREMENTS i=} 5 6 7 8 2 3 4 PERCENTAGE VALUE OF MEASUREMENT Fig. 86. Fin whales. Variations of measurement No. 13. Anus to reproductive aperture, centres. 30: i) Ss NUMBER OF MEASUREMENTS So 1:2 1-4 16 18 2:0 2-4 2-6 2:8 3-0 3-2 3-4 3-6 PERCENTAGE VALUE OF MEASUREMENT 2:2 Fig. 87. Fin whales. Variations of measurement No. 14. Dorsal fin, vertical height. Sa Males. Females. EXTERNAL CHARACTERS OF FIN WHALES 40 30 n i) ~ oS NUMBER OF MEASUREMENTS 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 PERCENTAGE VALUE OF MEASUREMENT Fig. 88. Fin whales. Variations of measurement No. 15. Dorsal fin, length of base. 50 40 30: ty i) NUMBER OF MEASUREMENTS ° 6 uf 8 PERCENTAGE VALUE OF MEASUREMENT Fig. 89. Fin whales. Variations of measurement No. 16. Flipper, tip to axilla. Females. 349 350° DISCOVERY REPORTS nw B Zz wa = w 4] P n” < wa = ke ° ~ a [==] z P Z 8 9 10 11 12 13 PERCENTAGE VALUE OF MEASUREMENT Fig. 90. Fin whales. Variations of measurement No. 17. Flipper, tip to anterior end of lower border. n 5 Zz w = ww i =) ” =< w = & ° 4 wy a = =) Zz 8 9 10 ll 12 13 14 PERCENTAGE VALUE OF MEASUREMENT Fig. 91. Fin whales. Variations of measurement No. 18. Flipper, length along curve of lower border. ----- Males. Females. EXTERNAL CHARACTERS OF FIN WHALES 50: 40 is) —) NUMBER OF MEASUREMENTS —) 21 22 28 24 25 26 27 28 29 380 31 32 33 PERCENTAGE VALUE OF MEASUREMENT Fig. 92. Fin whales. Variations of measurement No. 19. Flipper, greatest width. 50 no So NUMBER OF MEASUREMENTS a =) 30 25 26 27 28 29 23 24 PERCENTAGE VALUE OF MEASUREMENT Fig. 93. Fin whales. Variations of measurement No. 20. Severed head, condyle to tip. Sa5os Males. Females. 351 352 DISCOVERY REPORTS 50 40 80 np i NUMBER OF MEASUREMENTS o 11 12 13 14 8 9 10 PERCENTAGE VALUE OF MEASUREMENT Fig. 94. Fin whales. Variations of measurement No, 21. Skull, greatest width. 50 40 30 no —) NUMBER OF MEASUREMENTS ° 9 10 il 12 6 7 8 PERCENTAGE VALUE OF MEASUREMENT Fig. 95. Fin whales. Variations of measurement No. 24. Tail, depth at dorsal fin. a Males. Females. EXTERNAL CHARACTERS OF FIN WHALES 353 whole mass of pigment slightly to the left side of the body, except inside the mouth, where it predominates on the right. The junction of the ventral white area with the dorsal pigment is rather irregular, and in places without any very definite line of demarcation. In the thoracic region the pigment reaches down on each side in irregular projections over the outer ventral grooves (see Plate XXXII, fig. 2, and Plate XXXIV, fig. 1), which in places may be pigmented in the actual grooves but white on the ridges. The degree to which it extends over the grooves is variable, but the pigment on the left-hand side always reaches farther down than on the right. The ventral white area may reach without interruption to the ventral surface of the tail flukes, but frequently the pigmented area of the tail reaches farther down behind the anus to meet in the mid-ventral line and cut off the white area just in front of the flukes. At a point a short distance behind the anus there is on each side a narrow projection of pigment which reaches downwards and forwards towards the anus. These promontories may be so ill-marked as to be almost indistinguishable, or they may be about a yard long and meet at the anus. In Plate XX XIII, fig. 2, one of these promon- tories can be seen, but the other is obscured by high lights on the whale’s skin. In this whale the white ventral area extended well back to the tail flukes, while in Plate XXXIII, fig. 1, which was a heavily pigmented whale, almost the whole of the white area behind the anus was obliterated by pigment. The rim of the pigment on each side, from about the region of the genital aperture (or sometimes farther forward) back to the tail flukes, may be fairly regular or may be broken up by a kind of mottled condition suggestive of galvanized iron. In the head region the left mandible is pigmented externally while the right is white. The outer edges of the baleen plates are all pigmented on the left side except for a few at the extreme anterior end, which may or may not be white. On the right side the anterior baleen plates, more than a third of the total number on that side, are white. The rest are pigmented, and the demarcation is always sharp. The right upper jaw is pigmented opposite the dark plates and is white opposite the unpigmented plates. The left upper jaw is pigmented along the whole of its length. All these details are illustrated in Plate XXXII, figs. 1 and 2, which show the right and left sides of the head of the same whale. Inside the mouth the asymmetry of the pigmentation is reversed. The inner side of the right mandible is pigmented while that of the left is whitish, and on the tongue pigment is predominant on the right. Very little pigment is present on the palate though a few pale streaks are usually visible at the posterior end and the extreme anterior tip is sometimes pigmented. The bristles on the inside of the baleen plates are all unpigmented. Certain light and dark streaks occur about the head and shoulders. There is always a well-marked narrow pale streak reaching backwards from the ear, which is well seen in Plate XXXII, fig. 2. It takes a slightly upward course at first and then turns down, becoming more diffuse and fading near the insertion of the flipper. There may also be an indefinite and not very pronounced pale streak running upwards and backwards from the axilla. There is regularly a V-shaped pale streak on the back. The apex of K IV 13 354 DISCOVERY REPORTS the V is opposite the insertion of the flippers and lies in the mid-dorsal line pointing forwards towards the snout. This mark is very noticeable in foetuses in which the dorsal pigment has started to develop. A long black band, 2 to 3 in. wide at first but increasing in width, runs backwards and upwards from the eye (see Plate XXXIV, fig. 3). The asymmetry of the pigmentation is very noticeable here, for the right shoulder and right side of the head are very much paler than the left, and in consequence the black band stands out in great contrast on the right side, while on the left it can hardly be said to exist, since almost the whole shoulder region is pigmented. On the whole, there is little individual variation in the pigmentation of Fin whales except around the ventral region posterior to the anus, and perhaps in the degree to which the pigment of the flanks extends over the ventral thoracic region. The restriction of the ventral white area and the prominence of the projecting strips of pigment behind the anus seem to go largely together and there is not really very much to say of the variation of an individual Fin whale, apart from the tone of the pigment, except that it is a heavily or lightly pigmented whale. From the descriptions given by Sars (1865) and True (1904) of the colouring of Fin whales from the North Atlantic one must suppose that the whales of the North and South Atlantic are very similar if not identical in colour and arrangement of the pigment. Pigment appears at a fairly early stage in the foetus. When the latter measures 0-5 m. to I-om. it is present as a darkening of the skin on the top of the head, the anterior part of the back, the tip of the dorsal fin, the dorsal surface of the flukes and the outer surface of the flippers. At this stage the pigment is of a faint grey colour, confined apparently only to the superficial layer of skin, while the rest of the body is of a pinkish colour. As the pigment spreads backwards from the neck over the dorsal surface, the pale dorsal V-mark makes its appearance. ‘The development of the colouring from now on through gestation consists in the deepening of the colour on the dorsal surface and the spreading of the pigment downwards over the flanks. The dorsal V-mark appears soon after the foetus measures 1:0 m. and it soon becomes even more prominent than in the adult whale. At 1-5 m. the lower jaw is well pigmented and the asymmetry of the colouring is already distinguishable. Before 3m. is reached the pigmentation is similar to that of the adult except that the colour is still rather paler and the pigment has not reached so far down the flanks. The asymmetry of the pigment appears to be an invariable feature of the colouring of Fin whales. Among northern Fin whales this asymmetry may on rare occasions be reversed, as described by Collett (1912), the right instead of the left being the darker side. No such case, however, has appeared among all the whales we have examined, and if such a reversal does occur in the south it must certainly be extremely rare. It may be suggested, as a possible explanation of the shifting of the pigment over to the left side, that Fin whales swim slightly on their right side while under the water. Such a habit would seem rather peculiar, though perhaps not more so than the dis- placement of the pigment. We have made attempts to test this possibility by observa- EXTERNAL CHARACTERS OF FIN WHALES 355 tions on whales at sea. While actually on the surface the Fin whales swim on an even keel. When they sound the last part of the body to disappear is the dorsal rim of the tail just above the insertion of the flukes. Our impression is that at the last moment there is a slight rotation to the right, but it is difficult to say for certain and more observations will be needed before the point can be confirmed. LENGTH OF LONGEST BALEEN PLATES IN CENTIMETRES 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ll 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 «24 25 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES Fig. 96. Mean curve of growth of baleen in Fin whales. The plotted points represent the length of the baleen in individual whales. BALEEN The description already given of the development of the baleen in the Blue whale foetus applies equally to its development in the Fin whale foetus, and we may proceed with the growth of the baleen in relation to the growth of the whale. The recorded lengths of the longest plates are plotted against the length of the whale in Fig. 96. Except for the records of baleen in foetuses there are in the case of Fin whales, no measurements of the length of the baleen in individuals of less than 12:0 m. 13-2 356 DISCOVERY REPORTS It is evident again that considerable individual variation takes place, but in this case the path of the plotted points indicates that the plates increase in length quite uni- formly, at any rate from 14 m. onwards. Therefore if there is any sudden spurt in the rate of growth of the baleen in young Fin whales it must be supposed that it takes place before the whale reaches 14m. It is fairly certain that this spurt in growth takes place in Blue whales and it is consequently very probable that something of the same sort occurs in Fin whales. The curve representing the mean rate of growth of the baleen plates is therefore drawn as a continuous line for whales of more than 14 m. and as a dotted line for the smaller whales where its shape depends rather on analogy with Blue whales. This dotted line is intended to represent the most probable course of the rate of growth, the suggestion being that the rate suddenly increases when the whale measures about 13 m. The numbers of baleen plates in Fin whales are on the average greater than in Blue whales. The records may be tabulated as follows: Fin Whales Number of Males Females plates on one side S. Georgia S. Africa S. Georgia S. Africa 260-280 280-300 300-320 620530 340-360 360-380 380-400 400-420 gee 440-460 460-480 I — | Reva -exsa| eorees | | | H Hoe lesion oles mete ie ay | ee eee | Total 25 2 39 aN Average 356 340 365 392 Maximum 460 366 473 440 Minimum 268 314 262 352 The above table gives an idea of the limits within which the numbers of baleen plates may be expected to vary and shows that there are no grounds for drawing any distinction between males and females, or between the whales of South Georgia and South Africa in respect of this particular character. Observations on the baleen of Fin whales have also included the counting of the numbers of white plates (i.e. plates whose outer edges are white) on the right-hand side of the mouth. The results, analysed in the same way, are as follows: EXTERNAL CHARACTERS OF FIN WHALES 357 NBenioe Males Females white plates ; : S. Georgia S. Africa S. Georgia S. Africa 60-80 2 = I — 80-100 — — — — 100-120 — = 1 i 120-140 6 4 12 2 140-160 15 2 17 4 160-180 8 3 13 I 180-200 3 3 3 I 200-220 I -- _ _- Total 35 12 47 9 Average 152 157 155 146 Maximum 200 190 190 184 Minimum 68 120 77 118 Here again very similar results appear for the different sexes and localities. ‘The two males from South Georgia with less than 80 white plates are rather aberrant, but need not be regarded as of any particular significance as the number of whales in which these white plates were counted is not very great. Only seven measurements were made of the width of the baleen of Fin whales. These were as follows: Males Females Width as a Width as a Whale Baleen percentage Whale Baleen percentage length width of baleen length width of baleen length length *14°45 32 68-0 05:35 34 68-0 19°75 40 715 *15°47 2 61°5 21°10 42 738 22°40 46 60°5 23°00 46 71:0 Those marked with an asterisk are South African whales. Here again there are not sufficient data for a valid comparison to be made, but there is no suggestion of any difference between the sexes or the two localities. Measurements of the spacing of the longest baleen plates also give negative results. The distance separating them varies from about 1-0 cm. in 14m. whales to about 1-8 cm. in 23 m. whales, the increase varying uniformly with the length of the whale. The readings are plotted in Fig. 97 from which it will be seen that no special distinction exists between males and females, or between whales of South Georgia and South Africa. 358 DISCOVERY REPORTS SPACING OF LONGEST BALEEN PLATES IN CENTIMETRES 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES Fig. 97. Spacing of baleen plates in Fin whales. The plotted points represent the spacing of the baleen plates in individual whales. (Black symbols represent South African whales and circular ones South Georgia whales.) VENTRAL GROOVES The description already given of the ventral grooves in Blue whales may be taken as applying also, in almost every particular, to Fin whales. A minor distinction perhaps is to be found in the posterior endings of the grooves. In Blue whales they may end evenly in the neighbourhood of the umbilicus but in many cases may be continued beyond this point in the form of irregular or broken up extra grooves and there may be a median groove joining the umbilicus and genital aperture. In Fin whales, on the other hand, the grooves always end very evenly near the umbilicus, and the median a = Fig. 98. Mammary grooves, genital aperture, etc., in female Fin whales (semi-diagrammatic); to show variations of the extra grooves in this region. m, mammary grooves. EXTERNAL CHARACTERS OF FIN WHALES INUmber Males Females of ventral |- grooves S. Georgia S. Africa S. Georgia S. Africa 60-70 I = a _ 70-80 10 2 5 I 80-90 a 3 12 10 go-100 4 3 8 2 100-110 3 — 6 — 110-120 _- -- 3 - Total 25 8 34. 13 Average 84 85 gI 85 Maximum 106 94 II4 98 Minimum 68 76 72 78 359 grooves do not show a very marked apex to the grooved area. The endings of the grooves are shown in Plate XXXIII, figs. 1 and 3. Other illustrations of the ventral grooves of Fin whales are Plate XXXII, fig. 2, and Plate XXXIV, fig. 1. As in Blue whales there are some small extra grooves on each side of the reproductive aperture of the female. Examples of these are illustrated in Fig. 98. 61 66 e ° at Cs +s qi ae e ons ss aes sian ee e ece eo ° eve e O ese) ee ° 152 169 e e ee e 4 ee e e ee 5 es ae ae e CO eo e e i ate ee reise e ? ee e° e eis e e ef@ 67 192 ee 137 144 Ses sae ee en Ee: e Fig. 99. Diagrams showing different arrangement of the hairs on the chin of eight and the rostrum of one Fin whale. The beard in each case is sketched from a position immediately in front of the mouth and the rostral hairs from a dorsal aspect. The numbers refer to individual whales. 360 DISCOVERY REPORTS In Fin whales again the number of ventral grooves which occur seems to be purely a matter of individual variation. Whale No. 67, for instance, had 72 grooves and its foetus 96; No. 179 had g2 and the foetus 88; and No. 186 had 100 grooves and the foetus go. The numbers of grooves recorded and the variations which occur are shown in the table at top of page 359. Here again there is no particular distinction between the sexes and localities. In development the ventral grooves have usually appeared by the time the foetus reaches 1 m., and the full number is present at about 2:0 m. HAIR The positions at which the hairs are found have already been described in the section on Blue whales. In Fig. 99 diagrams are shown of the arrangement of the hairs on the chin of eight Fin whales and the rostrum of one. The arrangement on the chin in Nos. 137 and 169 is very typical of Fin whales. The hairs on the chin occur in about the same numbers as on Blue whales. The following is an analysis of the records made: Niesberiok Males Females hairs on chin : p E : S. Georgia S. Africa S. Georgia 5. Africa 16-19 2 — I _- 20-23 4 = 6 — 242i] 3 oF 5 = 28-31 13 I 20 2 32-35 6 = 8 = 36-39 4 = 6 I 40543 2 = 5 a 44-47 = a I =a Total 34 I 52 3 Average 30 30 31 37 Maximum 40 30 44 39 Minimum 17 30 19 31 Thus the figures for males and females correspond very closely and the few readings from South Africa fall close to the averages for South Georgia. FOOD, BLUBBER, AND EXTERNAL PARASITES It will be convenient to consider the food of whales together with the blubber and parasites in this section. The three subjects are not so disconnected as they first appear to be, for variations in the condition of the blubber are directly dependent on the whale’s feeding, and the study of certain parasites involves investigations into the structure, and normal and pathological conditions of the blubber. THE FOOD OF WHALES 361 FOOD The food of whales is principally the concern of the ships employed in the investi- gations, for it is only by operations at sea that it can be effectively studied. A certain amount of information, however, is to be had from the examination of the stomach contents of the whales at the whaling stations. The species which constitute the whale’s food can be determined, and a rough idea can be formed of the fluctuations in abundance and types of “krill” which occur on the whaling grounds. The whales caught at South Georgia (excluding the Sperm whale) feed exclusively on Euphausia superba (Fig. 100) and have no other food whatever in their stomachs apart from a few specimens of the Amphipod Euthemisto, which is so abundant in the plankton round South Georgia that the whales can hardly help swallowing a certain quantity. \\ Fig. roo. Outline sketch of Euphausia superba (x 13 approx.). Off the South African coast the little food in the stomachs was found to include Euphausia recurva, E. lucens and Nyctiphanes africanus, species which grow to a length of less than 1 in. Doubtless all species of Euphausian occurring in the locality are consumed without discrimination. One or two Humpbacks and one of the Fin whales examined at Saldanha Bay had fish in their stomachs. Sperm whales were feeding on cuttlefish, some of which appeared to have been of considerable size. The question of the migrations of whales has not yet been referred to, but it may be mentioned here that there is a general movement northwards into warmer waters for breeding during the southern winter and southwards for feeding during the southern summer. Little food is available in the lower latitudes, but in certain parts of the Antarctic and sub-Antarctic waters Euphausia superba flourishes in immense quantities. It is to be found in dense shoals usually in the neighbourhood of land, and thus the great feeding grounds of the southern whales are situated in such places as the vicinity of South Georgia and the other Dependencies. The enormous abundance of the krill round South Georgia is revealed by an examination of the stomach contents of the whales caught there. Normally the stomach was found to be well filled with compara- tively fresh Euphausiids and an empty stomach was at most times an uncommon occurrence. Plate XXXV, fig. 1, illustrates a typical case of the appearance of the stomach after a slight opening in it had been made. The whales examined at Saldanha Bay showed a marked contrast. Here the stomach was normally found to be empty or to contain a very small quantity of food and the K IV I4 362 DISCOVERY REPORTS whales were correspondingly lean and ill-fed, except in cases where they appeared to have recently come north from the Antarctic. One may sometimes receive a false impression of the amount of food in the stomach when a small cut is made in some part of its wall. Part of the stomach may be isolated from the rest by the weight of some mass of flesh for instance, when the whale has been partly cut up, and most of the food may have been pushed into or away from this particular part. Further, the whale’s stomach is separated into several different com- partments and one cannot always be certain which of these one is examining. It frequently happens that the stomach is torn or damaged in some way by the harpoon, so that much of its contents is lost in the body cavity. Allowance, however, can always be made for such an occurrence, as it can be detected by the presence of blood inside the stomach. Again, there is no doubt that a whale occasionally vomits when it is shot and the whole of the stomach contents may be lost. There has been more than one occasion on which we have noticed partly digested shrimps entangled in the bristles of the baleen, or inside the blowhole of a whale whose stomach was practically empty. Allowing for these occasionally deceptive conditions, however, one can in many cases say whether the stomach is empty or whether there is much, a moderate amount of, or little food in it. Occasionally it is also worth while examining the contents of the intestines. This is always of a reddish-brown colour in whales which have been feeding on the ordinary krill. The whales examined at South Georgia usually had very well-filled intestines, while in those at Saldanha Bay the intestines rarely contained more than thin patches of food, those in which the stomach was empty often having only a little greenish substance. In order to give an account of the fluctuations in abundance and type of the krill on which the whales examined were feeding it will be convenient to draw up a table showing for each half-month (a) the number of whales recorded as having empty stomachs or as having at least some food in the stomach, (4) the amount of food present in those cases where an opinion could be expressed, and (c) the dominant type of krill present. There are of course many more records of the actual presence of krill than there are of the amount of krill present. The “dominant type of krill” refers to the size of the individuals and the following symbols are used in the table: L = E. superba. Large, from 5-5 cm. to 6-5 cm. (rostrum to tail). Vie = Medium sizes, from about 4:0 cm. to 5:0 cm. T= i Small, up to about 4 cm. xX z Mixtures of conspicuously different sizes. R = E. recurva, ete., which do not show much variation in size. This classification is very rough and is not to be regarded as referring to definite instars of Euphausia (which can, indeed, be determined only with very great difficulty) ; but it will serve to give a general idea of the kind of fluctuations which take place. All krill-feeding species are included in the table. THE FOOD OF WHALES 363 \I 1925 1926 1927 Z/= = alesis = [Si sls = | ~ fi E|,| 3 22) 2l_| 2 Hi) 2/2/ >| E SaRea | asec oi §|s]/a] 4 ell i feet || ways! 3 % = g = B Sia 2 po : & 13 = s/o 2. $ : & — asic =| 2 Locality Half- a fe) | i tee | ES ls % acta) ll ts || Sill oe SS fil) eel 5 months a Bp eh 5] Ayes ee) Sa ies Pyle |e 3 S/s|se| Fils siale| 23]. | g\g|e| ={| S| tl Micah geht) i) len cet {geht EN SA) i) A Sl eh |] ce |] ee 5 =f =| || = Vi mane = Vs =i =U 5S PSanea es lees 2 a & || = < || 2 < | a c=} & ie n re Z n a c=} on ~l'a SB |) = Ea R] 2) 8 la 2| 2 aa | Gs 2) 2] Ella : ea bots | all #2 iS) z O.||o | + 2 9! Os) tase | als i} S|) ai) a || Sell) ones Whee | elie POH alee cs] =| =| 2 Z ies Wa Seale SS el ea Cala WeSiay) oI lies South Georgia | January —}—J/—} — |—|]/—!]—/—]| 24] 12} 12] so] tr] x] 5|/M|!15}14] 1/93] r] 1] 4/X ”» =| = 52|44| 8| 85|21]/10|10|M|/ 22/20) 2/91) 3/—| 4)|M February 1} 1;—|(100)} 1}/—|]—|M|/65/59| 6| 91] 26|17|10}M|/ 10] 8} 2/80] 2] 2}—|/X aA 8} 8|/—] 100 | 2/—]| 2]/L |l29/2 4| 86/12] 4] 8|M||28]25] 3/89] 2] 2] 2/X March 5 ale Coll a ¢ QI 8|—|—|L || 21]21|}—|100}11] 5] 5|M|| 26|22| 4/85|) 3)/—] 3/X ” 20 | 20] —| 100 8] 2/—]L |) 15) 14] zr] 93) 8| 3}/—|M|/20/19| rl95)—|—] rx April 10] g}] 1 goulai|| or ere —_— 18| 14] 4|78|/—|—] 3/X 5 re lL ae yl] Sl tei72 |) yl) eal) ea —- —||15|12] 3]/80)/—|]—] 2|X May 5|/ 5|—| 100 ri) 3/5 i= = = | = | Wee al South Africa | June | » = = 36|13]23] 36/—| 2] 9/R July 20/12] 8| 60] 1] 2] 9|R ” —|;10]} 4] 6] 40/—/—]| 4|R August = rH) |] Ee) || All| ae eh RR ” 54/30/24] 56] 3] 6|19|R September |} — 15) 41x) 27) \—|— | 4 7 27) c2rOl Sill gil eal aol eR: October — I4| 10) 4) 40]) tr] ©] 7\R South Georgia | October 8] 7} xr] 87] 5|/—] 2/L — = = November || 7| 7/—J] 100 | 5} 2}/—/L || — = = = a alee eau | Om eral ere lee ome zo eae OS) Oi — i leaa |S) December (| 7A) 66 23) rel) see | eksh |e all elk Gla) say seal), ae) | DsS ” Say eee (ae ras iooorae | mn | seme | eam | | 2-4: 9 5 64 I |= |/28 The table suggests that fluctuations of the following nature took place in the food supply during the periods in which the whales were examined : South Georgia, February to May 1925. Large krill were abundant and the whales well fed during February and March, but the supply seems to have been slightly reduced during April and May. South Georgia, 1925-6 Season. Plenty of large krill were present in October and the first part of November, but they became scarcer later in November and in the first part of December. No whales were examined in the second half of December, but in January the large krill appear to have been suddenly replaced by a smaller type, scarce at first (unless the whales had difficulty in finding it) and then eaten in fair quantities. This krill seems to have become most plentiful in the earlier part of March. It is an interesting fact that the new type of krill which appeared in January was accompanied by a striking change in the whale population round South Georgia, for whales were very scarce during October, November and December, especially during December. But at about the new year immense numbers of Fin whales appeared. They were found first about 70 miles from the island and seemed to be finding very little food. Later they came closer to the coast and larger quantities of food were found in their stomachs. Saldanha Bay, 1926. Food was extremely scarce here compared with South Georgia, 14-2 364 DISCOVERY REPORTS as may be seen from the high proportion of empty stomachs. Even of those in which food was present the vast majority are noted as containing only a few very small Euphausiids. South Georgia, 1926-7 Season. Food appears to have been fairly plentiful during the second part of November and first part of December, but to have fallen off a little in the second part of December. It was fairly plentiful again during January and February, but less abundant in March and April. The krill differed from that of other seasons in the fact that there was in most cases a noticeable mixing of Euphausiids of different sizes. These were not always mixed indiscriminately in the stomach. Large or small indi- viduals might be found together in different parts of the mass of stomach contents, or patches of large ones might occur in a mass of smaller forms, suggesting that the whale had been feeding on separate shoals which differed in respect of the sizes of the individuals. During this season there was a high proportion of unusually small Euphausiids, though fully grown forms were also found from time to time. BLUBBER The highest grade of whale oil comes chiefly from the blubber, and the quantity and quality of the blubber is therefore a matter of direct importance to the whaler. If blubber were always of the same thickness and contained an invariable percentage of oil, the size of the whale would be the determining factor in the total yield of oil from the blubber. Other factors are present, however, which have an appreciable effect on the yield, although the size of the whale must of course be the predominant factor. It is already known that differences of a regular nature occur in the thickness of the blubber. Risting (1912), speaking of the Humpback, says that on the average it is very fat in proportion to its size, and the blubber thickness varies according to the season and food. In a later work (1928) the same author states that the quantity of oil produced from a whale depends upon a number of factors, especially the size of the animal, thickness of the blubber and the content of fat in the blubber and carcass. Again, speaking of the stock of whales off the coast of South Africa, Risting mentions the extreme fatness of pregnant whales—a fact which is noticeable at South Georgia as well as at South Africa. Olsen (1914-15), reporting on the whales of South Africa, notes that Fin whales caught from March to June were nearly all small and lean. The fattest whales were females with foetuses. If accompanied by young the females were leaner. Risting has used the total oil output of the whaling stations with the total number of whales caught to give a figure for the ‘‘fatness”’ of each season’s catch in barrels of oil per ‘“‘ Blue whale unit.”’ This unit is based upon the assumption that a Blue whale gives twice as much oil as a Fin whale, two and a half times as much as a Humpback, and six times as much as a Sei whale from the same field of operations. Calculated on these lines the results show that whales in the south (South Georgia and South Shet- lands) are far more productive than those occurring further north, say at Saldanha Bay or Durban. THE BLUBBER OF WHALES 365 Other differences in the thickness of the blubber are recognized by the flensers at the whaling stations in South Georgia. Thus whales covered with the brownish-yellow film of diatoms are fatter than those without it, and the large Blue whales taken at the end of the season are fatter than those taken earlier. During our three seasons’ work at South Georgia and one at South Africa a large number of blubber measurements were obtained. It is not suggested that the work done in these areas is complete, for many more measurements must be collected before more than good general indications of the changes in the blubber can be shown. Further, it is unfortunate that the data in any year must be broken by a period of several months owing to the closing of the stations. Our measurements, however, are sufficient for tracing the effect of differences in the length of the whale, changes taking place during the year, the effect of pregnancy and lactation, and so on. As explained on p. 267, the thickness of the blubber was generally measured at a point opposite the dorsal fin and on the flank midway between the mid-dorsal and mid-ventral lines. Changes in blubber thickness with length of whale. The Blue and Fin whales taken at the whaling stations have a fairly definite range of size. Nearly all Blue whales measure from 17 m. to 26m. and nearly all Fin whales from 15 m. to 23 m. By comparing the averages of blubber thickness for metre length differences between these limits it is possible to find whether the thickness of the blubber is correlated with the size of the whale. The results for each species and sex are shown graphically in Figs. 1or to 104. It is seen from these that in addition to differences in the volume of blubber present, due to the different sizes (i.e. areas) of the whales, there is a relative general increase in thickness with increasing whale length. The average difference in actual thickness of the blubber of the smallest and largest whales is about 2-5 cm. The large whales captured off Saldanha Bay are relatively fat. The graphs show that they were actually fatter than whales of corresponding length at South Georgia, while South African whales at the average length at which sexual maturity is reached were leaner than those of South Georgia. The explanation of the differences in the average thickness will be apparent later when the thickness of the blubber in relation to the size of the whale is considered and the nature of the stock of whales off the South African coast is examined. By calculation of the thickness of the blubber as a percentage of the total length of the whale, comparison is possible between the thickness of the blubber of all whales of the same species and sex apart from the changes due to differences in length. This method shows whether any seasonal increase or decrease in thickness occurs and —in the females—how much the blubber is affected by pregnancy and lactation. Before considering the results it should be pointed out that at the station in Saldanha Bay the catch was almost entirely composed of immature animals giving a decided impression of leanness which contrasted strongly with the extra fatness of the few large whales captured there. This fact suggested that a separation of the measurements in both areas into two groups might show changes in the blubber of the immature AVERAGE THICKNESS OF BLUBBER IN CENTIMETRES 366 DISCOVERY REPORTS 11 i o C-} oe 2 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES Fig. ror. Male Fin whales. Variations of thickness of blubber with length of whale. ll ~ AVERAGE THICKNESS OF BLUBBER IN CENTIMETRES 18 19 20 2) ry 23 24 25 26 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES Fig. 102. Male Blue whales. Variations of thickness of blubber with length of whale. South Georgia whales. = - - - - - South African whales THE BLUBBER OF WHALES 367 lo) _ AVERAGE THICKNESS OF BLUBBER IN CENTIMETRES oo a 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES Fig. 103. Female Fin whales. Variations of thickness of blubber with length of whale. AVERAGE THICKNESS OF BLUBBER IN CENTIMETRES for) 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 18 19 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES Fig. 104. Female Blue whales. Variations of thickness of blubber with length of whale. South Georgia whales. = - - - - - South African whales. 368 DISCOVERY REPORTS whales which did not occur among the large adults. It was felt that although the number of percentage measurements on which averages were based would be lessened by doing this, the large and small whales had evidently very different histories and must on that account be separated from one another. The averages for each month of the thickness measurements (each measurement having been expressed as a percentage of the whale length) are shown in Figs. 105 to 110. Small whales certainly immature have been separated from the large adult whales. Thus Fin whales shorter than 18 m. and Blue whales shorter than 19 m. represent the immature group, while Fin whales longer than 20:0 m. and Blue whales longer than 23:0 m. are considered mature. The average blubber thickness for all Fin whales is about 0-3 per cent of the total length. This represents a whale of normal fatness. For example, a 20 m. Fin whale should have blubber 6 cm. thick. The corresponding average for Blue whales is 0-35 per cent, which means that a Blue whale of 20 m. is fat or lean according as to whether its blubber is thicker or thinner than 7-0 cm. We will now consider each sex of the two species in turn. Male Fin Whales (Fig. 105). In this graph the 1925-6 season is separated from that of 1926-7, but the results are very similar, An evident increase in thickness takes place among mature whales during the season at South Georgia. It will be noticed that the immature whales appeared at the island in February and March, i.e. towards the end of the season, and that they were far less fat than the adults. At Saldanha Bay the lean immature whales contrast well with the few fat mature whales of August and September. There is a hint of a decrease in blubber thickness here which is more evident in the other groups. Male Blue Whales (Fig. 106). In the case of male Blue whales the increase in the thickness of the blubber in adults from below normal in November to above normal in March is seen. A rapid fattening of immature whales in the second half of the season is also evident. At Saldanha Bay the fatness of the large whales and leanness of the small ones is apparent, as it was among male Fin whales. Here again is a suggestion of a decrease in thickness as the season advances. Female Fin and Blue Whales. Among the female whales complications arise due to pregnancy and lactation. Pregnancy is known to have a profound effect on the blubber, the fatness of pregnant whales being noticeable at the whaling stations as soon as the blubber is cut. Lactating whales, characterized by leanness at South Georgia, have been found at Saldanha Bay to be extraordinarily fat. To deal with these differences pregnant, lactating and resting females have been separated. The resting females of both species (i.e. those neither pregnant nor lactating) may be taken first (Figs. 107 and 108). The mature whales at South Georgia, of normal fatness from November to February, show a rather sudden increase in blubber thickness at the end of the season. The immature females, like the immature males, arrived for the second half of the season, and on arrival were normal or rather lean. THE BLUBBER OF WHALES 369 At Saldanha Bay a decrease in blubber thickness among the mature whales balances the increase shown at South Georgia in both species. The immature whales are again thinner than the normal. CH or ers 3o (Jv) (Jt) ~ ~ o Cr So or ENTAGE OF WHALE LENGTH i) or BER THICKNESS AS QO w me OCT. NOV. DEC. JAN. FEB. MAR. APR. MAY JUNE JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT << SOUTH GEORGIA——————> I —————— A ONOIUSE AYO KC/ Fig. 105. Male Fin whales. Monthly average thickness of blubber. (Separate curves for 1925-6 and 1926-7 seasons.) Whales more than 20:0m. long. ~——- - - - - Whales less than 18-0 m. long. S nS or 2 is So 2 co i=) ° te or PERCENTAGE OF WHAT LENGTH i) or BLUBBER THICKNESS AS OCT. NOV. DEC. JAN. FEB. MAR. APR. MAY JUNE JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT C—O OUMNH GEORG AS Ee SEL Ey ANE RL Gi eee Fig. 106. Male Blue whales. Monthly average thickness of blubber. Whales more than 23:°0m. long. ----- Whales less than 19:0 m. long. The similarity of the results obtained for the males and resting females indicates the general conclusion that whales are fatter at the end of the season at South Georgia than they are at the beginning and that a decrease in blubber thickness takes place in South African waters. The increase in average blubber thickness of adult whales at South Georgia should be due to good feeding and fattening in that neighbourhood, where the food, as already explained, is available in abundance. The possibility might be suggested that the increase in fatness may be due to increasing numbers of fat whales arriving in South Georgian waters from other, apparently richer, feeding grounds as K IV 15 370 DISCOVERY REPORTS the season advances. If the small whales that appear about January have come from northern waters, as their leanness, size, and frequently parasitized condition very strongly suggest, the upward trend of their average blubber thickness shown in Figs. 106 and 107 favours the theory that fattening actually takes place on the local feeding ground. 7 0°30 ; BLUBBER T PERCENTAG 2 i) or OCT. NOV. DEC. JAN. FEB. MAR. APR. MAY JUNE JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT SOU HG EO RG A <—_ SOUTH AFRICA——> Fig. 107. Female Fin whales. Monthly average thickness of blubber. Whales more than 20-0 m. long (excluding pregnant and lactating whales). ----- Whales less than 18-0 m. long. OCT. NOV. DEC. JAN. FEB. MAR. APR. MAY JUNE JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT SOU GE ORIG TA << SOUTH TARR CAs Fig. 108. Female Blue whales. Monthly average thickness of blubber. Whales more than 23-0 m. long (excluding pregnant and lactating whales). ----- Whales less than 19-0 m. long. ‘Turning now to the South African whales we see that the adult Fin whales make a late appearance in the catch at Saldanha Bay. Both Fin and Blue whales are very fat at the beginning of the season, as fat indeed as the end-of-season whales at South Georgia. This points to a migration to the African coast from rich feeding grounds, though not necessarily from the Dependencies of the Falkland Islands. Certainly they have THE BLUBBER OF WHALES 371 not been staying for long off the coast of South Africa, for the majority of their stomachs were empty in spite of their fatness. Further, the average thickness of blubber shows OCT. NOV. DEC. JAN. FEB. MAR. APR. MAY JUNE JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT SS — BOWE CHONG —————— adil le aa) x oo i rs on Ss or So or Oo PERCENTAGE OF WHALE LENGTH So to or BLUBBER THICKNESS AS Fig. 109. Pregnant and lactating Fin whales. Monthly average thickness of blubber. Pregnant. = ----- Lactating. 0:60 oS co or 2 o ran) 2 rs or \ = o> So PERCENTAGE OF WHALE LENGTH ° ° ro oo oO or BLUBBER THICKNESS AS OCT. NOV. DEC. JAN. FEB. MAR. APR. MAY JUNE JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT <———— SOUTH GEORGIA ———————> eS OU iE Al Roll GA ee Fig. 110. Pregnant and lactating Blue whales. Monthly average thickness of blubber. Pregnant. § ----- Lactating. a decided tendency to fall as the season advances. In other words the longer the whales stay the leaner they become. The reason now appears why the large whales at South Africa have a higher average thickness than those of the same length at South Georgia as shown in Figs. 1o1 to 104. 152 372 DISCOVERY REPORTS In these figures the actual thickness of the blubber is shown. The large whales of South Georgia are a mixture of thin and fat individuals occurring during the season, while at South Africa the large whales are all fat. The outstanding feature of the catches at Saldanha Bay is the high proportion of immature whales taken, and it is to be noted that they had a very low average thickness of blubber all through the season. The west coast of Africa seems to be a sort of nursery area for young whales and it does not seem unreasonable to connect them in some way with the thin immature whales which arrive in southern waters usually late in the season. Pregnancy and Lactation. The blubber is always thick during pregnancy. A glance at Figs. 109 and 110 will show that the average thickness is always above the normal. They appear to follow the general rule that the whales of South Georgia become fatter towards the end of the season. Many more measurements of blubber thickness are needed for both pregnant and lactating whales, but the few records available for the latter are very interesting. ‘The thinness of the blubber of these whales at South Georgia, and its thickness at South Africa have already been mentioned. In Fig. 110 the results are shown for Blue whales. here is a decrease in thickness from June to October (South Africa). At South Georgia lactating whales were lean and those taken in February, March and April were apparently rapidly becoming leaner. Of the Fin whales there were no records for lactating females at Saldanha Bay. Those captured at South Georgia from December to March were, like the Blue whales, very lean. There seems to be no doubt of the significance of the great difference in the measure- ments at the two places. The blubber is very thick at Saldanha Bay because the whales have not long given birth. From the fact that the blubber during pregnancy is at all times above the normal thickness one would expect that at the onset of lactation the whales would be fat. This explanation covers also the fact of the leanness of the whales at South Georgia which are thus very near the end of the lactation period. Diatom film. Little can be said with regard to the correlation of the diatom films with fatness in whales. Small patches of film occur on some whales at South Georgia throughout the season. From February onwards thick films covering a large part of the body were sometimes recorded. The immature whales were usually free but patches were found occasionally in the later months. Two immature Blue whales in March and April 1927 had thick and extensive films. Small spots of diatoms were seen on a few immature whales at Saldanha Bay in August and September, but all the mature whales at this station appeared to be free. Conditions favouring the rapid growth of diatoms occur in southern waters in February, March and April, and as has been shown, at this time the whales are rapidly becoming fatter. EXTERNAL PARASITES OF WHALES 373 EXTERNAL PARASITES The species of external and internal parasites of whales will be dealt with in separate papers. They have not been thoroughly examined at the time of writing and are there- fore dealt with only very briefly here. The greater part of this section is devoted to an account of certain scars, of which the origin is rather obscure, but which are probably to be attributed to a parasite or parasites of some kind. The external parasites of whales are mostly crustaceans, and the commonest internal parasites are tapeworms and Acanthocephala. The following external parasites have been collected from Blue and Fin whales (apart from certain more or less minute forms found on the baleen): Cirripedia. Copepoda. Coronula regina. Pennella sp. Conchoderma auritum. Amphipoda. C. virgatum. Cyamus sp. Xenobalanus globicipitis. Diatoms. Ectoparasites in general are rarely found on Blue and Fin whales at South Georgia. Infection seems to take place more easily in the warmer waters of the South African coast, where Pennella is particularly common. At South Georgia such external parasites as do occur are generally fully grown, while those observed at South Africa included, at any rate in the case of Coronula and Pennella, young ones in all stages besides the fully grown individuals. It appears that whales become infected with these external parasites during their stay in the warmer waters, but lose them on migrating to the colder waters of the south. The film of diatoms is the only exception to this, for it is undoubtedly contracted in the summer in the Antarctic or sub-Antarctic waters. Early in the season it may be seen in its initial stages in the form of little round green patches on the skin, an inch or so in diameter. These patches appear to be growing colonies, which gradually expand from numerous centres and eventually cover perhaps the whole body within a few months. These diatoms were described by Bennett (1920) and identified by Nelson (1920) as a species of Cocconeis. The ability of a whale to throw off the Pennella which most commonly attack Blue and Fin whales, seems to have some physiological significance, for it is often found that a whale taken at South Georgia with a number of these parasites in its blubber is suffering from some internal growth or disease. Internal parasites are to be found more commonly than the external Crustacea, and they are often present in great numbers in whales from both South Georgia and South Africa. Blue whales are more often parasitized than Fin whales, in fact more than half the individuals of the former species from both localities contain tapeworms or Acantho- cephala or both in their intestines. In both species the younger whales are normally more heavily infected than the older ones. We may now turn to an account of a kind of disease to which all southern Blue and Fin whales seem to be subject. All the whales of these species caught at South Georgia are marked by numbers of whitish scars which are very different in appearance from 374 DISCOVERY REPORTS the irregular white or grey flecks scattered over the skin in Blue whales which are due, apparently, simply to incomplete pigmentation of the epidermis. The scars are obviously the result of wounds or sores. They °° occur mainly on the posterior end of the body, sometimes in such numbers that the colour of the animal is distinctly paler on the sides above the anus than at the head or in the flipper region. The scars are normally more numerous on the larger whales than on the smaller ones. They are usually of an oval shape with the long axis of the oval parallel with the long axis of the animal’s body (Plate XXXVI, fig. 10). Sometimes they are quite white and sometimes composed of radiating white streaks. The centre line is an elongated cicatrix generally somewhat sunk below the level of the epidermis. Occasionally the scars take the form of a white crescent (Plate XXXVI, fig. 5). At Saldanha Bay nearly all the whales captured had open wounds or pits on the flanks and tail, as well as various healing stages of these pits and white scars like those found on the whales at South Georgia. The open, unhealed pits of the South African whales were not seen at South Georgia and only rarely were the partly healed pits to be found there. The open pits of the South African whales are very re- markable (Plate XXXVI, fig. 6). They are oval, scooped-out wounds in the skin and blubber about 7 cm. long, 4-5 cm. broad and 3 cm. deep. The long axis is usually parallel to the long axis of the whale’s body. From the appearance of the wounds one might think that a lump of blubber had been scooped out at a single stroke by some sharp spoon-shaped instrument, but a close examination shows that a fringe of minute processes arise at the edge of the pit just beneath the border of the epithelium (Plate XXXVI, fig: 6). No marks suggestive of teeth outside the lip or inside the pit can be seen, and the fringed edge does not give the impression that it has been caused by say a sucking mouth. The surface of these pits is naked, unaltered blubber. Of almost equal frequency are pits of similar shape with a flabby disc of greyish tissue attached by its centre to the middle of the base of the pit (Plate XXX, fig. 8). This disc, ap- parently, is thrown off during the process of healing of the pit. Sometimes crescent-shaped wounds were found. The ap- Fig. 111. Successive stages pearance of this kind of pit suggests that the scooping action in the formation and healing which might have gouged out the open pits had been arrested ° @ Pit in the blubber. so that a free flap of tissue remained attached to one side of the pit (Plate XXXVI, EXTERNAL PARASITES OF WHALES 375 figs. 2 and 4). Sometimes the crescent is short, as though only slight penetration had occurred, at other times the scooping action seems almost to have been completed so that the free flap of blubber and skin remains attached by a thread as it were to the edge of the pit. A kind of scar tissue covers the blubber surfaces within the crescent pit, and this peels at the edges during healing. In the healing stages the epidermal layer loses its sharp edges and grows gradually inwards, while the blubber fibres grow up and draw together (Plate XXXVI, fig. 9). Pigment is not present in the later stages so that when the wound is completely healed the scar is white. In sections the scar tissue shows up as a mass of converging fibres (Plate XXXVII, fig. 3). White crescent scars, formed probably by prompt healing of a wound which never got beyond the initial stages, are found sometimes, but they are not numerous. Careful examination of the whales at Saldanha Bay led to the discovery of occasional crescentic grooves with a few minute slots in the course of the groove (Plate XXXVI, fig. 1). The slots led into a subcutaneous crescentic canal following the are of the surface depression. Microscopic examination of the contents showed nothing in the canal but numerous bacteria. Specimens of all the stages observed have been collected from whales at Saldanha Bay and South Georgia, and examined from the histological point of view. Sections show a number of interesting points connected with the earlier stages and a possible causative agent. As the primary cause of the pits remains in some doubt it is of course not certain that the stage of the curved groove with its minute punctures is connected with the pits. It seems logical, however, to connect this stage with the crescent-shaped incisions. If one imagines a continuation of the process forming the crescent flap and the final throwing off of the latter, an open pit will be formed. Thus the stages fall into a natural order, beginning with the arc-shaped groove and the epidermal canal followed by the crescent pit. Occasionally this heals, to form the crescentic scar, but more frequently the whole centre is thrown off leaving scar tissue over the surface of the exposed blubber. This is sloughed off as the flabby disc referred to above, and leaves the clean open pit (Fig. 111). It is quite probable that the initial stages are more frequent in regions further north than Saldanha Bay. This is suggested by the difficulty of obtaining evidence as to the primary cause of the pits and by the fact that whales in the colder waters of the south show only scars and a few late healing stages. It is reported by Olsen (1913) that wounds “filled with mortifying fat”” were very numerous in the few old and apparently diseased specimens (of Bryde’s whale, B. brydei) taken at Port Alexander, which is over 1000 miles north of Saldanha Bay. Similarly, the blubber of whales off the coast of Ecuador is, according to Risting, often more or less covered with deep holes filled with matter. Sections of the arc-shaped groove show a deep cleft in the pigmented epidermal layer. In the blubber beneath is a wedge-shaped mass of tissue with deeply staining nuclei (Fig. 112). In this area the blubber has been completely replaced by this 376 DISCOVERY REPORTS nucleated tissue. At the edge of the wedge of blubber cells are to be seen in process of destruction and some are filled with small brownish needle-shaped crystals. These are probably blood-crystals (Fig. 113). = ~ AY Se. ae’ we e =o S ie _ = = = 4? 4 Md Fig. 113. Blubber cells with blood crystals at the edge of the inflammatory tissue of a wound. (Part of section shown in Fig. 112 enlarged.) Fig. 112. ‘Transverse section of an arc-shaped wound in the epidermis and the blubber beneath. Dr John Taylor, pathologist at St Thomas’s Hospital, kindly undertook to examine some of the specimens. He found that at all the exposed surfaces inflammatory tissue was present. The wedge-shaped mass of nucleated tissue was inflammatory in character EXTERNAL PARASITES OF WHALES 377 and might result from a wound or abrasion of some kind. In sections of the flabby disc (Fig. 114) he found a number of ciliated protozoa (Fig. 115) embedded in the tissue by which the base \ os ie my of the disc was attached to the bottom of the pit. He (\\% ) considered that these might quite likely be the cause of wounds if the epidermis had been damaged slightly to allow their entry. On the under surface of the free edge of the flabby disc there are matted ribbons of what look like rod- shaped bacteria (Fig. 116). From their position one would suppose that these are a secondary infection. The flabby disc itself consists of an outer zone of disintegrated cells. Farther in are dead blubber cells. Beneath these is a zone of inflammatory tissue and then come the fibres already mentioned in which the protozoa were found. In seeking the cause of these pits we must consider a number of possible agents. ‘The balance of proba- bility indicates that they are primarily the work of micro-organisms, but this cannot be regarded as proved. On the other hand, it does not seem possible to explain the various stages by any of the theories previously advanced. Coronula (Goodall, 1913), Pennella (Olsen, 1913), and sucking fishes (Olsen, 1913) have all been blamed, and biting fishes have been suggested. Lillie (1915) supposed that open wounds of evidently the same nature in Humpbacks at New Zealand had been caused by damage from sharp rocks. Fig. 114. Section of the “flabby disc.” Taking these in turn it can be shown first that @, dead cells of surface disc; 6, heavily Coronula can hardly be responsible. This parasite Be CE SUE) CrrerOLn cep aaLare : é of attachment to centre of pit. leaves a surface impression, but even when somewhat Fig. 115. Ciliated protozoa in scar tissue. embedded in the skin it does not penetrate below the pigmented epidermis (Plate XXXVII, fig. 1). When the furrows and ridges of the impression have flattened out KIV 16 378 DISCOVERY REPORTS after the disappearance, from one or other cause, of the barnacle, there 1s left a greyish symmetrical pattern on the epidermis that cannot be mistaken for the scars caused by healed pits (Plate XX XVII, fig. 2). Pennella grows very deeply into the blubber—much further than the depth of the pits—and affects the skin and blubber only immediately stalk.”’ Secondary infection of the open 4, la pits with Pennella often takes place, but there seems no op possibility that this parasite is responsible for the formation of the pits either by its own activities or as a reaction on the part of the whale to these activities. It is true that Pennella may leave a scar of its own, but this is smaller and quite *, aR ety. cies : I distinct from the scars left by the pits. Vi eR There have been reports from the whalers at Saldanha Bay of fishes (apparently Myxinoids) occasionally attached eee eee to the whales at sea. Soon after the capture of the whales the fishes were said to loosen their hold so that specimens were never taken. Myxinoid fishes can in fact be caught by hook and line in Saldanha Bay, though these are far too small to have caused the pits. In this connection Olsen (1913) remarks as follows: “A species of Myxinoid makes similar wounds in Bryde’s whale, but I did not obtain specimens because they always leave the whale when it is dragged out of the water. I do not know whether they are to be found on the whale when alive or only after its death”. There is no doubt that the wounds noted by Olsen at Durban are the “pits” under discussion. A very good illustration of them is given in his paper. He describes them as “‘fresh wounds with a length of as much as 10 cms. and 3-4 cms. deep, caused by parasites, generally Pennella”. It is probable that wounds caused by a sucking fish would show signs of the method by which they had been made, and such fishes cannot be imagined to make the crescentic pits. The same objection applies to biting fishes, although certain species might possibly manage to make the open pit in one bite. It is in fact the partially cut pit shown in Plate XXXVI, fig. 4, with its free flap of practically unaffected blubber which constitutes the great objection to any kind of bite, gash or macro-parasite, as a possible cause of the open pits and the scars, for there seems to be no conceivable process by which such agents could cause this particular stage. One can only suppose that there is some micro- organism which, having penetrated the skin, propagates itself through a peculiar kind of curving plane, undermining a piece of blubber which finally drops out and leaves an open pit. It should be mentioned that instances of fishes biting into the blubber of whales have been known. Scoresby (1820) describes how the Greenland Shark (Laemargus borealis) bites “‘ hemispherical pieces’’, “‘nearly as big as a person’s head’’, out of the blubber of the living Greenland whale. Laemargus does not occur, however, in the south, and if it did it could hardly be the cause of the pits in question. It is con- ceivable that the whale’s epidermis might be pierced by a bite of some kind and that ce around its narrow THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS 379 infection by some micro-organism then sets in, resulting eventually in the formation of the pit. Callorhynchus, for instance, is a fish with remarkable projecting teeth, but there is still the difficulty that the walls of the pit are normally absolutely vertical at the edge (i.e. at right angles to the surface of the blubber), and it is difficult to imagine any kind of teeth even starting such a wound. The presence of pits and scars on whales from widely separated localities such as New Zealand, Ecuador, South Georgia and South Africa, gives a kind of unity to the southern whales. It shows a common experience confined to whales in the warmer water of the ocean, leaving its mark on the whales that migrate. It strengthens the theory of a north and south migration between the temperate or sub-tropical waters and the Antarctic and sub-Antarctic regions. The open pits seem never to have been described in whales of the northern hemi- sphere. They are mentioned neither by True (1904) nor by Sars (1878, 1880) and they do not appear to be present on the whales of which True shows photographs. Irregular grey patches on the flanks and white patches on the ventral grooves are mentioned by these authors, but this is probably concerned with the normal colouring of the whales. White scars are mentioned by Collett (1912) on Sei whales from West Finmark and by Burfield and Hamilton on Fin whales from Bellmullet, Ireland. From Burfield’s description of “large oval grey spots with radiating dark lines 2} in. x 1} in.”, one would perhaps suppose that these whales had at some time suffered from open pits. More than one kind of scar, however, is liable to appear on the skin of whales, and further observations are needed from northern stations before the point can be settled. We THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS The systematic examination of the genitalia includes some of the most important observations in the work at whaling stations, and certain aspects of the physiology of the reproductive organs must be examined in considerable detail. Previous descriptions of the genitalia of Cetacea have been few, and for the most part, not very helpful. Turner (1871) describes the uterus and foetal membranes of Orcinus, but the paper by Meek (1918) on the reproductive organs of the porpoise and some other species is probably the most useful general description though this does not include any account of Blue and Fin whales. Since there is no difference of any importance between the genitalia of Blue and Fin whales the following account may be considered to have a general application except where otherwise indicated. THE EXTERNAL GENITALIA There is not very much to be said with regard to the external genitalia, but systematic notes have been made on them and their appearance sometimes gives a little information on the sexual condition of the whale. In the female the vulva is 16-2 380 DISCOVERY REPORTS situated in a deep groove immediately in front of the anus (Plate XXIX, fig. 2, and Plate XXXIII, fig. 3). In immature whales this groove is usually tightly closed, but in mature whales it is generally slightly open so that the clitoris is just visible. On each side of the genital groove are the slits which contain the nipples of the mammary glands. As stated on p. 276, the average distance between the anus and reproductive aperture in, for instance, female Blue whales is 2:6 per cent of the total length, or 0-65 m. in a 250m. whale. The most important observations to be made are probably those concerned with indications of ‘‘ heat”’ in females, but we have met with only one case in which a whale appeared to be in this condition. In No. 775 the genital groove was rather more open than usual and the clitoris was pushed outwards by a slight eversion of the vagina. The latter was noticeably congested and contained some clear mucus. ‘The actual presence of mucus appears to mean little, for it is present in most whales and is often found to be issuing in considerable quantities from the vagina, but instead of being clear it is normally cloudy and viscous. The condition of the external genitalia may also occasionally be useful in indicating the approach of parturition in pregnant whales. In Nos. 154 and 175 the vulva was greatly swollen and the genital groove stretched open to a remarkable extent as though from considerable internal pressure. ‘These two whales were found to contain foetuses measuring 6-3 and 6-05 m. respectively, and it is to be supposed that parturition was to take place very shortly. In the male, the penis is retractile and is normally completely withdrawn into the cavity within the genital groove. The exterior then presents a long groove which differs from that of the female in its shape and in its more forward position (Plate XXX, fig. 2). Whereas in the female the anus lies immediately at the posterior end of the genital groove, in the male there is a considerable distance between the two. The average distance between the anus and genital aperture in this sex is 6 to 7 per cent of the total length, and this measurement gives in fact the most obvious distinction between the sexes. Theshape and proportions of the penis are illustrated in Plate XX XIII, fig. 1. In the carcasses of males brought to the whaling station the penis is frequently fully extruded, but this takes place gradually, after the whale has been killed, during the period when it is being towed back to the whaling station. In fully grown Blue and Fin whales the penis measures usually from 2 m. to 2-5 m., but adult specimens (e.g. No. 1229) have been recorded in which the penis measured considerably less than 2 m. Observations on the size of the penis may be useful as a means of deciding at a glance whether a whale is sexually mature or not, for this organ undergoes considerable growth at maturity. This method, however, is unreliable in the case of whales which have recently been or are about to become mature. THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS 381 THE VAGINAL BAND The vaginal band is a unique structure which is of sufficient interest to be considered separately from the other external genitalia. It was first noticed in a specimen of the external genitalia of a Fin whale sent to England from the South Shetlands by Mr J. E. Hamilton. It was then thought to be an abnormality of an interesting type, but the examination of whales at South Georgia and Saldanha Bay shows that it is by no means a rare occurrence among Fin whales and so should be included in any description of their structure. In most immature female Fin whales, as already mentioned, the genital groove is closed so that little or nothing can be seen of the genitalia; and when the blubber is removed the vulva is frequently removed with it. This probably accounts for the fact that no mention of a vaginal band appears previously to have been made. The clitoris is an incurved, keeled structure about 8-o cm. long, with a trilobed apex directed backwards. Under the clitoris are the openings of a pair of small glands; and immediately behind these, between a pair of fleshy lobes, opens a larger unpaired duct which is the urethra. Behind the urethra and nearly covered by the apex of the clitoris is a small projecting mass of tissue with papilliform appendages. From the posterior side of this mass stretches a thick strand 7 or 8 cm. long and not less than 1 cm. in diameter, across the large, somewhat star-shaped entrance to the vagina, to the posterior border of which it is attached (Plate XX XIX, figs. 1, 2 and 3). In mature Fin whales one end of this band was sometimes found as a tag 5 or 6 cm. long usually attached anteriorly, but signs of recent rupture of a complete band were not found. The band is composed mainly of fibrous connective tissue with a few small blood- vessels. Many minute convoluted ducts course through the tissue, which also con- tains a few droplets of oil. Transverse sec- tions show that the character of the band is not similar throughout. That part—about one-third—which faces the opening of the vagina is covered with papillae. At each side the papillae give place to a typical epi- dermis which covers the remaining two- thirds of surface and resembles the epi- dermis covering the blubber (Fig. 117). Sections give the impression that the outer surface epidermis has grown in round a solid strand of the underlying tissue but has not completely covered the inner surface. Fig. 117. Section of the vaginal band. Of the total of 145 immature female Fin Dy GEE eA Ol QIN QUIRRSS: whales, the band was present in 31 (21-4 per cent) and in the total of 206 mature Fin 382 DISCOVERY REPORTS whales the tag was observed in 14 (6:8 per cent). Not all these whales were examined for this structure, but it was definitely not present in 40 immature Fin whales. Of 36 female Fin whale foetuses 5 (14 per cent) possessed the band while 2 definitely did not. Again in some cases observations could not be made. There is some evidence that this peculiarity is not hereditary. In Fin whales Nos. 173 and 289 vaginal bands occurred in the foetuses but there was no sign of a tag in the adults. ‘The broken ends, however, may possibly have been reabsorbed so far as to be inconspicuous. In Nos. 286 and 332 there was a tag in each of the parent whales and no band in either of the foetuses. One foetus, however, was very rotten and it is just possible that a band may have been missed. Whale No. 1494, a Blue female, possessed a tag attached anteriorly. This was the only case where evidence of the vaginal band was found in any species other than Fin whales. The presence of an unbroken vaginal band usually denotes sexual immaturity, for it is difficult to see how coition could occur without rupture of the band, and coition probably occurs quite shortly after the female becomes adult. In this way it appears to be somewhat analogous to the hymen in the human subject. There are two cases, however, of vaginal bands occurring in whales, one of which appeared to be on the threshold of maturity, and the other just passed maturity. In the former, whale No. 139, one of the ovaries showed a large vesicle 6-5 cm. in diameter which was apparently an enlarged Graafian follicle. The ovaries appeared otherwise to be immature. They were small, weighed comparatively little (8 and 13 0z.) and the other follicles present were minute. ‘The whale was smaller than the smallest certainly mature female Fin whale, and it was captured at the end of March. Whale No. 76 appeared to have just reached maturity, for it measured 20-2 m. (the mean size at which maturity is reached is 20-0 m. in female Fin whales) and although a vaginal band was present a body was found in the ovaries which appeared to be an old corpus luteum. In this whale, which is referred to again on a later page, either an ovulation had taken place or an ovum had ripened and become atretic. ‘The second possibility is the more likely as no path could be traced from the capsule to the exterior of the corpus luteum. The vaginal band appears not to have been previously described, and it is difficult at present to put forward any explanation of its occurrence. It has been found in too large a percentage of Fin whales to be dismissed as an abnormality, yet no correlation has been noticed with the measurements or other features of these whales to distinguish them from whales in which the band is absent. THE OVARIES The ovaries are, from our point of view, the most important of the reproductive organs, for they are an unfailing index of the sexual condition, and to some extent of the sexual history of the whale. They are elongated bodies measuring usually between 20 and 4ocm., and differ from the ovaries of most other mammals in their highly convoluted condition and the prominence of the frequently numerous corpora lutea and follicles, which give the surface a very irregular appearance. THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS 383 (a) Growth of the Ovaries In discussing the physiology of the ovaries it will be convenient to start with an account of their growth in the foetus and the young whale. In Blue and Fin whale foetuses measuring about 1 m. they are small elongated bodies whose flattened surfaces are marked by a number of furrows (Fig. 118). The whole genital tract of the young foetus at this stage is engorged with blood so that the ovaries are of a deep red colour. In larger foetuses the furrows are more pronounced and more numerous (Plate XX XIX, figs. 3 and 4). After the calf is born the majority of the furrows are smoothed out by the growth of the ovaries, but some remain to mark the convolutions of the adult ovary which are referred to above, and some of the minor furrows occasionally persist to give the surface of the ovaries a curious appearance which has been described in notes on the internal genitalia as “bramble-marking.” This is illustrated in Fig 119 and Plate XXXIX, fig. 4. Fig. 118. Ovary of foetus Fig. 119. Small portion of ovary of measuring I-13 m. immature whale, showing ‘‘ bramble (Natural size.) markings.” x 1:5. Although the ovaries do not grow very much from birth to sexual maturity, consider- able changes take place. From rather rounded, soft structures they become pale, flat, compact organs (Plate XL, fig. 1). They remain, however, small up to this stage, for in Fin whales measuring less than 18 m. and in Blue whales under 20 m. the two ovaries together weigh less than 1 lb. The ovaries of immature Fin whales practically never weigh more than 2 lb., nor those of Blue whales more than 3 lb. After sexual maturity is reached the weight of the ovaries, as shown in Figs. 120 and 121, appears to increase up to a point with the increasing length of the whale. Although the ovaries of large whales are as a rule bigger than those of smaller whales, the increases illustrated in these graphs are in reality due more to the presence of a larger number of old corpora lutea than to an increase in the actual size of the ovary. When a corpus luteum of pregnancy is present the weight of the ovary may be nearly doubled, so that in connection with the growth of the ovary, only those of non-pregnant females can be taken into consideration. 384 DISCOVERY REPORTS ai o o = t WEIGHT OF OVARIES IN POUNDS _ ro) 19 20 21 22 23 24 26 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES a Fig. 120. Blue whales. Weight of ovaries in whales of different lengths. @ Immature whales. o Mature whales (not pregnant). WEIGHT OF OVARIES IN POUNDS 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES Fig. 121. Fin whales. Weight of ovaries in whales of different lengths. @ Immature whales. o Mature whales (not pregnant). THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS 385 The positions of the plotted points in Figs. 120 and 121 suggest that at least in the case of Fin whales there is a general increase in the weight of the ovary from 20m. (at about which length sexual maturity is reached) up to 22 m., that a maximum is reached here, and that there is subsequently some regression. This apparent regression may be a coincidence or it may be an indication of actually different conditions in the very large whales. The two whales of 23-6 and 24-15 m., plotted in Fig. 121, had thirteen and twenty corpora lutea respectively, and the fact that in spite of this their ovaries weighed so little, supports the suggestion that the ovaries do become lighter in the largest whales. (b) Growth of the Ova It will be convenient next to trace the growth of the ovum and development of the Graafian follicles. Sections of the ovary in young foetuses show large numbers of deeply-staining nuclei towards the surface. In a 2-76 m. foetus the germinal nuclei Fig. 122. Section through ovary of a 2-76 m. foetus Fig. 123. Early Graafian follicles in of a Fin whale. g.n., germinal nuclei; p., Pfliiger’s 6°05 m. foetus of a Fin whale. tubes. were collected in cavities (Pfliiger’s tubes), the intervening tissue being connective tissue and large blood spaces (Fig. 122). In a 6-05 m. foetus definite Graafian follicles are present some distance in from the surface (Fig. 123), while near the surface the conditions remain as they were in the smaller foetuses. In the follicles shown in the figure, the ovum is seen as a large cell round which several nuclei (often showing signs of division) are grouped. KIV 17 386 DISCOVERY REPORTS In small immature whales the follicles are less than 1mm. in diameter, and it is necessary to section the ovaries before they can be seen. In larger whales they become evident as dark round blurrs beneath the surface ; and when ripening they project from the surface as thin-walled vesicles 30-50 mm. in diameter (Plate XL, fig. 2). The ovum can be obtained from a large follicle by examination of the squeezed-out follicular liquor. It is usually surrounded by follicular nuclei and can just be picked out against a dark background without magnification. An ovum from one of the largest follicles (of a Fin whale) was 0-0165 mm. (0-00065 in.) in diameter. The follicle was about 40 mm. in diameter and probably was not fully ripe. Among Blue whales follicles measuring as much as to cm. in diameter have been found. In one of this size no ovum could be found, but the cloudiness and bad smell of the liquor folliculi suggested that this large size might be a pathological condition. In ripening ovaries there are many follicles visible, but usually there is only one of large size. This implies that one ovum is shed at a time, and further that if fertilization does not take place, another follicle ripens and is shed, or in other words that the whale is polyoestrous. If more than one ovum were shed at one ovulation, records of two or more foetuses should be more frequent than they are. Only two instances of twins were recorded among the whales examined, and it is possible that these were identical twins, i.e. two foetuses from the same ovum, or from two ova from the same follicle. In one case there was only one corpus luteum of pregnancy, and the six old corpora lutea which were also present were shrunken, hard and small and did not appear to have been concerned in the twin pregnancy. In the other case the internal organs were too decom- posed for examination. There are, however, the following records, among the statistics from South Georgia stations, which seem to show that occasionally several ova are shed at once, viz. seven foetuses in one Blue whale, six in one Fin whale and three in a Sei whale (see Norsk Hvalfangst Tidende, Sept. 1925, p. 99). Unfortunately, of course, no notes were taken of the condition of the ovaries of these whales, but it seems hardly likely that six or seven twins could develop other than from the discharge of several ova. Enlarged follicles are found in a few ovaries during most of the year. Enlargement is sometimes general, both ovaries containing bulging follicles which give a decided impression of coming ripeness. Sometimes one or two follicles of about 20 mm. diameter are visible, while the remainder are very small and hidden beneath the ovarian epithelium. In Fig. 124 the diameters of the largest follicles in Fin whale ovaries throughout the year are shown, all records for the seasons 1925, 1926 and 1927 are included. Although the numbers of ovaries examined in different months vary considerably, it will be seen that the “resting” ovaries, in which only small follicles are present, are commonest in the early months of the year, i.e. the latter part of the southern summer. The very few mature whales taken at Saldanha Bay had large follicles, and three whales which, though exceeding 19:0 m. in length, were still immature (female Fin whales become THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS 387 adult at about 20-0 m.) also had large follicles. This predominance of ripening follicles during the southern winter argues in itself a period of sexual activity, and the increase in size of the follicles of the three whales exceeding 19-0 m. suggests the approach of sexual maturity. 60: eo i} no i=} S DIAMETER OF LARGEST FOLLICLE IN MILLIMETRES JAN. FEB. MAR. APR. MAY JUNE JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT. NOV. DEC. Fig. 124. Fin whales. Size of the largest ovarian follicles during the year. @ Mature females neither pregnant nor lactating. o Immature females longer than 19:0 m. (c) The Corpus Luteum of Pregnancy It is from the condition of the corpora lutea that the most important conclusions can be drawn as to the sexual condition and history of the whale. It will be convenient to start with an account of the corpus luteum of pregnancy. When an ovum is shed the follicle from which it was liberated becomes a corpus luteum by inward growth and hypertrophy of the follicular epithelium, carrying with it blood-vessels from the surrounding tissue (see Marshall, 1922, who discusses in detail the physiology of the ovaries and gives references to original work on the subject). If fertilization occurs, the corpus luteum persists to all intents and purposes in its original condition throughout the period of gestation, but if pregnancy does not super- vene it persists for a comparatively short time and then begins to undergo involution. In whales of all the species examined the corpus luteum of pregnancy is a very large and conspicuous body (Plate XL, figs. 3 and 4) with a scar marking the point of rupture of the follicle. The scar, which is sometimes of considerable size, consists of a dimple about 5 mm. in diameter surrounded by a raised area which may be called the “corona” and which may measure as much as 6-0 cm. in diameter. Internally the corpus luteum 17-2 388 DISCOVERY REPORTS shows fine connective tissue strands radiating from the centre and dividing up the soft pale buff luteal tissue. In young luteal tissue the cells are vacuolated. This is illustrated in Fig. 125 from a section of the corpus luteum of a whale containing a 30 mm. foetus, and may be compared with the older tissue shown in Fig. 126. The mean diameter of the young corpus luteum is 10:5 cm. in Fin whales and 12-7 cm. in Blue whales. There is some indication that in both species it increases slightly in size up to the stage when the foetus measures about 1 m., and then gradually becomes slightly smaller. This is shown in Fig. 128 in which the sizes of the corpora lutea are plotted according to the length of the foetus. It will be seen that in general the smallest corpora lutea Fig. 125. Young luteal tissue from ovary of Blue Fig. 126. Older luteal tissue from ovary whale with 30 mm. foetus. v., vacuolated cells. of Blue whale with 6-3 m. foetus. of this kind were those with which no foetus was found and which were therefore either corpora lutea of ovulation or corpora lutea of pregnancy which accompanied foetuses so minute that they were missed. It appears that the regression in size of the corpus luteum is accompanied by the disappearance of the vacuoles in the luteal cells. The luteal tissue now stains intensely with Nile Blue, indicating the presence of plenty of fat. It is difficult to say whether the size of the corpus luteum continues to decrease up to the end of gestation owing to the small number of large foetuses which have been recorded, but in Fin whales there seems to be a slight decrease. It may be mentioned here that there are invariably many enlarged follicles in the ovaries of pregnant whales, and these range in magnitude from 40 mm. to 50 mm. in diameter to 10 mm. and less. During lactation one or two large follicles are found but the smaller ones are no longer visible. It is known that a functional corpus luteum inhibits the growth of ova and the incidence of ovulation, so that the follicles seen THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS 389 in pregnant ovaries are those that would later have discharged their ova had not fertilization occurred. During lactation the larger follicles, having apparently attained a size that is beyond retrogression, remain large but lose the turgidity they had before and during pregnancy, while the smaller follicles retrogress to become again hidden beneath the surface of the ovary. (d) The Corpus Luteum of Ovulation In certain whales no foetus was found in the uterus yet a corpus luteum similar to the corpus luteum of pregnancy was present in the ovaries. Assuming that no foetus was missed in these cases, it may be said that these were corpora lutea of ovulation, i.e. representing an ovum which had been shed quite recently. There are, in such circumstances, two occasions on which a foetus may be missed. It may be lost at sea through premature birth when the whale is killed, or it may be so minute that it cannot be found. The former could hardly occur except when the foetus is fully large enough to leave unmistakable evidence of its presence in the uterus. There have in fact been two clear cases in which it has occurred, for in No. 373 (Fin) and No. 1602 (Sei), although no foetus was present, some of the membranes were still in the uterus, and even had these been lost the swelling and congestion of one cornu of the uterus could not have been missed. With regard to the second possibility it may be said that the smallest foetus can hardly be missed if searched for in the proper manner. When a functional corpus luteum is present in the ovaries the uterus is at once spread out and slit open from end to end. The foetal membranes of even a 2 mm. embryo form an object about the size of a thrush’s egg and can readily be seen. It may be said then that those functional corpora lutea which were not found to be accompanied by a foetus, were corpora lutea of ovulation or were accompanied by a foetus not exceeding I or 2mm. in length. It is in any case certain that in all the whales in question ovulation had occurred relatively very recently. Of these whales there were nine Blue and four Fin whales. None had any sign of a foetus and the copora lutea were on the average smaller than the corpus luteum of pregnancy except in No. 250 (Blue) in which the corpus luteum had a mean diameter of 14°7 cm. ‘This contained an enormous _ cavity and was obviously a very young structure. Corpora lutea of ovulation in Fin whales occurred at South Georgia once in February among fifty-two mature females, and at Saldanha Bay once in June (the only adult female), once in July (also the only adult female) and once in September (among three mature females). Very small embryos were found twice at South Georgia in January (one in 1926 and one in 1927) and once at Saldanha Bay in the only mature female taken in August. Now only 8 per cent of the female Fin whales taken at Saldanha Bay were adult, whereas at South Georgia over 60 per cent were adult. Thus the ratio of ovulating females to other mature females is overwhelmingly greater at Saldanha Bay than at South Georgia. That is to say, a far greater percentage of Fin whales are ovulating during the southern winter than during the southern summer. Among Blue whales again at South Georgia one corpus luteum of ovulation was 390 DISCOVERY REPORTS recorded in February among twenty mature whales taken in this month, two in March among thirty-six mature whales, one in May from among four adults, and one in October among seven adults. At Saldanha Bay there were three such corpora lutea in June among six mature females, and one in July among five adults. Early foetuses were found in July and August. Thus in the case of Blue whales also ovulation takes place to the greatest extent during the southern winter. It is not known for certain whether ovulation takes place spontaneously, but there is evidence besides that furnished by the corpora lutea of ovulation to show that the ovum is shed at oestrus whether coition occurs or not. The corpora lutea simply show that fertilization of the ovum probably does not always occur, but this does not neces- sarily mean that copulation had not taken place. In a Fin whale (No. 76) of 20-2 m., the ‘‘vaginal band”’ was found intact, showing that coition almost certainly had not taken place. A small body like an old corpus luteum was however found in one of the ovaries which otherwise appeared to be immature. Luteal tissue was present in this structure surrounding a tough capsule with viscid contents. It is to be supposed that the follicle had matured early (the whale was captured at South Georgia in March) and formed a corpus luteum of ovulation following spontaneous rupture. ‘The condition of the corpus luteum appears to have been abnormal, and it is not entirely certain that an ovum was actually shed, but the formation of luteal tissue shows that the follicle had at least attained a size ripe for shedding. (e) The Corpus Luteum subsequent to Parturition It is reasonably certain that ovulation does not normally take place after pregnancy until the end of lactation. Among all the whales examined no lactating whale was pregnant or showed any indication of ovulation. There have been reports of lactating whales which were pregnant (see Hinton, pp. 97 and 98), and one may suppose that though ovulation and fertilization may possibly occur during lactation, such an occurrence is extremely rare. In the ovaries of whales captured during lactation there are normally several old corpora lutea, one of which is still conspicuously bigger than the others (Plate XLI, fig. 1). This is the former corpus luteum of pregnancy persisting after the birth of the foetus. It is much smaller and tougher than it was during gestation and the change appears to have taken place comparatively abruptly. In Fin whales the size varies from 4cm. to 8 cm. diameter, with an average of 5:3cm. In Blue whales the average is 7-0 cm. diameter. The changes in size and consistency are due to shrinkage of the luteal cells and growth of the connective tissue which take place rapidly after parturition. Sections of these corpora lutea stain faintly and generally with Nile Blue. It remains now to consider the old corpora lutea which are often present in con- siderable numbers in the ovaries, and in various stages of degeneration (Plate XLI, figs. 2 and 3). More than one functional corpus luteum (i.e. corpus luteum of ovulation or of pregnancy) has never been known to occur at one time in the ovaries, but over thirty old corpora lutea have sometimes been counted in the two ovaries together. THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS 391 The structure of these corpora lutea is similar to that which the corpus luteum of pregnancy assumes after parturition and the beginning of lactation, but they are smaller and still more compact and tough. Sometimes little more is seen than a scar at the apex of a hard and inconspicuous knob on the surface of the ovary. This, when cut open, shows radial white connective tissue strands with a small amount of whitish yellow tissue between them. Careful slicing of the ovaries reveals no traces of older corpora lutea which are not to be distinguished on the surface. The staining with Nile Blue is again faint and general. It will be seen that two quite different types of corpus luteum are to be found in the ovaries of these whales. In the first place there is the functional corpus luteum of ovulation or pregnancy which is a large and conspicuous structure composed mainly of soft luteal cells. One cannot say how long the corpus luteum of ovulation (i.e. where pregnancy does not supervene) remains unchanged, though this is presumably for a comparatively short period. The corpus luteum of pregnancy persists as such only until the end of gestation. In the second place there is the old functionless corpus luteum formed by a kind of metamorphosis of the functional corpus luteum of ovulation or pregnancy. This body remains essentially the same during its earlier stages in the period of lactation and in its later stages of gradual absorption. The two types may for purposes of convenience be referred to as corpus luteum a and corpus luteum b. There are several reasons for inferring that the retrogression of the corpus luteum after gestation and lactation is extremely slow, so much so in fact that it is probably never completely absorbed. The co-existence of a corpus luteum of pregnancy with several of these corpora lutea b, some at least of which must have persisted since a previous breeding season, is in itself evidence that this is the case. It is at least quite certain that the corpus luteum persists for more than a year since, although there is an annual breeding season among whales which falls only in a certain season, no mature female is ever found, except those which have evidently only just become mature, which has not several corpora lutea b in the ovaries no matter at what time of year it is captured. A slight indication of the rate of absorption of the corpus luteum 6 is shown in Figs. 127 and 128 in which are plotted the mean diameters of the largest (and therefore presumably the most recent) corpus luteum 6 in either of the ovaries where a corpus luteum of pregnancy was present. The plotted points show in general in the case of Fin whales a gradual reduction in size of the corpus luteum 6 during gestation, but there are insufficient data referring to the latter part of the period of gestation to allow of any quantitative estimation of the average rate of regression. ‘The data in the case of Blue whales are insufficient to show any very definite results. In any pair of ovaries containing fairly numerous corpora lutea 6, it is found that the smaller corpora lutea are more numerous than the larger, and since the size is a rough indication of the age, it follows that the older the corpus luteum the slower becomes its rate of decrease in size. Fig. 128 suggests that in the case of Fin whales the youngest corpus luteum 6 shrinks from about 5 cm. diameter to 3 or 4 cm. during a period of about 10 months (i.e. the period of gestation). Thus one might say on a 392 DISCOVERY REPORTS 16 14 1 10 (i cs or fez) ~ ~ MEAN DIAMETER OF CORPORA LUTEA IN CENTIMETRES 9 3 on 6 1) 1 2 ‘ 4 LENGTH OF FOETUS PRESENT IN THE UTERUS IN METRES Fig. 127. Blue whales. Mean diameter of corpora lutea in ovaries of pregnant females, and length of foetus. © Corpus luteum of ovulation. © Corpus luteum of pregnancy. @ Former corpus luteum of pregnancy persisting during lactation. . Largest old corpus luteum co-existent in the ovaries with a corpus luteum of ovulation or pregnancy. 19 18 15 13 10 MEAN DIAMETER OF CORPORA LUTEA IN CENTIMETRES THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS 393 © wo ~ f-r) or Ps ao no _ on o>) 0 1 2 3 4 LENGTH OF FOETUS PRESENT IN THE UTERUS IN METRES Fig. 128. Fin whales. Mean diameter of corpora lutea in ovaries of pregnant females, and length of foetus. (For meaning of symbols see Fig. 127.) 18 394 DISCOVERY REPORTS rough estimation that in its first year the diameter of the corpus luteum b probably becomes reduced by about 4o per cent, and since this is the period during which reduction is most rapid it is to be supposed that many years must pass before it could completely vanish if indeed the last traces of it ever do disappear. It seems that this much may be inferred, even though a quantitative estimation of the average rate of regression is inadmissible. Further evidence of the longevity of the corpora lutea b may be obtained by com- paring their numbers in the ovaries with the lengths of the whales from which they were taken. This comparison is shown in Figs. 129 and 130. It will be seen that there is a great diversity in the numbers of corpora lutea at any given whale length, but the important fact emerges that in general the smaller whales have fewer corpora lutea than the larger whales, the correlation being better defined in the smaller than in the larger whales. Now up to a point the length of a whale is obviously some indication of its age, and it must be supposed that the correlation existing between the number of corpora lutea and the length of the whale is in fact a correlation of some kind between the number of corpora lutea and the age of the whale. Female Fin whales become adult when they reach a length between 19:5 and 20-5 m. (see p. 417) and one would expect that they would normally continue subsequently to grow a metre or two beyond this length, some ceasing to grow at about 22-0 m. others going on to 23-0 or 24:°0m. On the supposition that the number of corpora lutea are an indication of the age of the whale this fits in well with the fact that in Fig. 130 there is a more obvious correlation in the case of whales measuring 19:5 to 21:5 m. than in the case of the larger whales, many of which will have ceased to grow and whose length is thus little indication of their age. If all the corpora lutea in the ovaries were those of the previous season (as was suggested by Barrett-Hamilton) this correlation with the length of the whale should not exist as there is no reason why large whales should ovulate without the occurrence of fertilization more times than small whales. Persistence and accumulation of the corpora lutea, however, explains the correlation at once. It has already been pointed out that although the number of corpora lutea varies to some extent with the length of the whale, there is still a great diversity in the number occurring at any particular whale length. This can be set down to one of two causes. The first of these is the differences in length attained by the whales at and after sexual maturity, and has already been discussed in certain particulars. Although female Fin whales become mature mostly at about 20-0 m. and Blue whales at about 23-7 m. the difference actually between the smallest mature and the largest immature whale is relatively large. Then where for instance two whales differ slightly in length, the differ- ence may be due to age, the rates of growth having been equal, or it may be due to differences in the rate of growth, the ages being equal. The second cause for the variation in the numbers of corpora lutea is due to the difference between the number of pregnancies and the number of ovulations which may have occurred. From evidence already given it may be taken that ovulation THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS 395 NUMBER OF CORPORA LUTEA 24 25 26 27 28 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES Fig. 129. Blue whales. Length of female and number of corpora lutea in the ovaries. NUMBER OF CORPORA LUTEA 20 21 22 23 24 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES Fig. 130. Fin whales. Length of female and number of corpora lutea in the ovaries, 396 DISCOVERY REPORTS can take place without fertilization, and that many follicles are ready for subsequent ovulation should fertilization not occur. Now if fertilization occurs at the first ovulation every season the number of corpora lutea represents the number of pregnancies which have taken place and the number of years since sexual maturity was reached (except possibly in the case of the oldest whales in which the oldest corpora lutea might have finally vanished). With ovulation, however, taking place spontaneously and no method of distinguishing the corpora lutea formed from those of pregnancy it is evident that there will be great differences in the numbers of corpora lutea present among whales of similar length, differences depending on the number of dioestrous cycles which may have taken place each season before pregnancy supervened. Finally, a few words may be said in recapitulation of the more important facts which emerge from the study of the ovaries. ‘There are two specially characteristic features of the ovaries of the Balaenopteridae. These are the abundance of ripening follicles which are so often present and the curious longevity of the old corpora lutea. The number of follicles implies a capacity for producing numerous ova in quick succes- sion, and this favours the supposition that these whales are polyoestrous. ‘The suggestion is further supported by other evidence. ‘There are several cases for instance in which over thirty old corpora lutea have been counted in a single pair of ovaries, and if whales are monoestrous it follows that some of these have persisted for not less than thirty years. It seems much more reasonable to suppose that the large number is the result of several unsuccessful ovulations in a comparatively few seasons. Again, it will be shown later that the breeding season is a protracted period covering several months. This in itself suggests that a succession of dioestrous cycles may occur and that in some cases conception occurs after the first ovulation and in other cases not until several ovulations have occurred and the season is well advanced. The longevity of the corpora lutea provides a useful indication of the history of the whale in which they occur. The weak point here, however, lies in the fact that the number of corpora lutea depends partly on the number of years which have elapsed since sexual maturity and partly on the number of ovulations which have occurred in each sexual season, and there is no means of knowing how much each factor has contributed to the number of corpora lutea which are found. However, one would not suppose that more than a very few ovulations would occur before pregnancy super- vened among animals living in a state of nature, even though it is likely that ovulation may occasionally take place at times of year outside the season at which breeding activities become general. It follows from this that a whale having twenty or thirty corpora lutea 6 in the ovaries can hardly have been adult for less than five or six years, and has more probably been adult for say twelve or fifteen years. On the other hand, a whale having only three or four corpora lutea will probably be not more than two or three years old. THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS 397 THE UTERUS The uterus consists of a relatively short corpus and two long cornua which are generally to be found close to the ventral wall of the abdominal cavity. There is no particular feature of its gross anatomy which needs any special consideration but an account of its growth in the young whales and the alterations in size which it undergoes at different stages may be given. The routine observations which have been made on the uterus consist in the measurement of the width of one cornu DIAMETER OF UTERUS IN CENTIMETRES 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 18 19 20 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES Fig. 131. Blue whales. Size of uterus in whales of different classes and different sizes. e Immature. @ Resting. o Recently ovulated. © With very small foetus. Lactating. as it lies in the collapsed condition on the flensing platform, and records of any con- gestion observed when it has been slit open. Histological examination has also been undertaken in many cases. During the period between birth and sexual maturity the uterus undergoes no important change other than a gradual increase in size to keep pace with the growth of the body. The sizes of the uterus in immature whales of various lengths is shown in Figs. 131 and 132 and it is seen that it does not much exceed 8 cm. in Blue whales measuring less than 22-0m., or 7cm. in Fin whales measuring less than 19:0 m. 398 DISCOVERY REPORTS Maturity is reached in Blue females at about 23-7 m. and in Fin females at about 20-0 m. and it will be noticed that just before these lengths are reached the still immature uterus undergoes an acceleration in its growth, and by the time maturity is reached it has become conspicuously bigger, measuring not less than 13 cm. in Blue whales, or (with one exception) less than 11 cm. in Fin whales. Fluctuations of course take place subsequently in the size of the uterus, but once the functional enlargement has taken place it never returns to its original size. 30 25 DIAMETER OF UTERUS IN CENTIMETRES 18 19 20 21 22 23 Q4 15 16 17 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES Fig. 132. Fin whales. Size’of uterus in whales of different classes and different sizes. ¢ Immature. @ Resting. © Recently ovulated. © With very small foetus. x Lactating. In “resting” whales (i.e. those mature females which are neither ovulating, pregnant nor lactating) the average size of the uterus is about 17 cm., but, as will be seen in Figs. 131 and 132, it may range from less than 10 cm. to over 25 cm. A new increase in size, however, takes place at ovulation for it will be seen that the size of the uterus is clearly above the average in those whales in which a corpus luteum of ovulation or an early foetus not yet big enough to necessitate an increased size, has been found. In pregnancy the uterus grows to an enormous size, for the foetus reaches a length of 6 or 7 m. before it is born, but after parturition involution takes place with surprising rapidity. In almost all the lactating whales examined involution has been complete. THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS 399 In a few cases the size of the uterus has been still above the average for resting females, but in the majority of cases it has been as low as, if not lower than, the average. This may be seen in Figs. 131 and 132. In the latter figure attention may be drawn to two Fin whales having remarkably large uteri in which involution was evidently not com- plete. In only one case (not included in the above figures) did the uterus appear to have actually been in an early stage of involution. This was in a Blue whale, No. 770, caught at Saldanha Bay on June 21. One cornu of the uterus measured 48 cm. and was thin walled. The other measured only 21 cm. The congestion of the large cornu was evident before it was opened, and the corpus of the uterus, which measured 30°0 cm., was also congested. This whale had evidently given birth to a calf quite recently, and it is interesting to note that though involution of the uterus had hardly begun, the corpus luteum had completely changed from the a to the b type. Although only this one whale has been met with in which the uterus had not recovered from pregnancy, it must be remembered, in discussing the rate of involution, that the majority of lactating whales killed are those accompanied by large rather than small calves. This is partly because the waters which come within the sphere of the whaling operations appear to be frequented less by the whales which have recently given birth than by those accompanied by large calves, and partly because the whaling regulation in force in the Falkland Island Dependencies, against the killing of mothers with calves, is probably applied more to the small calves than to the large ones which may be very difficult to recognize as such at sea. Since it conveys some idea as to whether parturition has occurred recently or not, the involution of the uterus is the most important point for observation so far as this organ is concerned. The changes in the size of the uterus are mainly caused by alterations in the blood content of the uterine mucous membrane, and accompanying them are changes in the mucous exudation from the vagina. For the histological study of the uterine mucosa small pieces of the uterus were occasionally taken from the cornu about half-way between the uterine end of the Fallopian tube and the junction of the cornua. They were fixed in Bouin or formol- saline, and after sectioning were stained in haematoxylin and eosin. The mucous membrane of the uterus is typical, but the ciliated epithelium is rarely intact over the surface. Even in immature whales (Plate XLII, fig. 1) it is usually lost except in the openings of the glands. In sections of the mucosa no very striking difference is apparent between immature and mature “‘resting”’ whales, though the latter may or may not show some congestion. In two Fin whales, Nos. 111 and 193, for instance, there was a considerable amount of blood in the capillaries, and in some other whales taken in the same months as these (March and April) some congestion at the edge of the mucosa was found. During early pregnancy blood is present in large quantities throughout the mucosa and is especially evident at its edge (Plate XLII, fig. 3). Extravasation of blood takes place, but it is possible that the extra blood supply is kept up until after parturition, 400 DISCOVERY REPORTS since during early lactation more blood appears to break away (Plate XLII, fig. 4). The material collected did not cover the later stages of gestation. Sections were cut of the uteri of six pregnant whales, and the foetuses present were all in comparatively young stages, viz. Blue whales 0:55, o-g1 and 1:52m.; Fin whales 0-81, 1-09 and 1-63 m. Later in lactation the uterus returns to the resting stage shown in Plate XLII, fig. 5. Fig. 137 shows the uterus of a whale (Fin, No. 877, 13. vii. 26) in which ovulation had taken place, i.e. there was a corpus luteum a in the ovary but no sign of a foetus in the uterus. The capillaries at the edge of the mucous membrane appeared to be dilated—they were more evident in this section than in any of the others—but they contained no blood corpuscles, while vessels in the deep mucosa were full of blood. The change in size of the uterus at ovulation is due to the increasing supply of blood and the congestion of the uterine tissue. If ovulation passes without fertilization the uterus tends to return to the normal. If, however, pregnancy supervenes the congestion remains, at least for a time. At parturition also it is congested and presumably it has remained so throughout gestation. During lactation the uterus returns again to normal, both in size and in condition of the mucosa. A number of smears of vaginal mucus from different whales were collected and stained in an endeavour to trace the course of the generative processes. This method was used with some success by Long and Evans (1922) in their work on the oestrous cycle in the rat. Care was taken that no apparent injury had been done to the internal organs in the whales from which the smears were taken, for blood for instance may sometimes be present in the vagina as a result of injury by the harpoon. The whales examined were as follows: four immature (Nos. 191, 203, 187 and 192), five mature ‘resting’ (Nos. 184, 185, 208, 260 and 264), one recently ovulated (No. 250), two pregnant (No. 253, foetus 1-52 m., and No. 186, foetus 2°65 m.), and two lactating (No. 244, uterus 22-0 cm., and No. 271, uterus 17-0 cm.). The results were constant although in this small number of cases only the obvious differences in the cells occurring in the mucus can be pointed out. In immature (Fig. 133) and resting mature whales the mucus contains small clumps of epithelial cells (portions of epithelium) and many isolated cells, some from the surface of the mucosa, others from the epithelium of the glands. In immature whales a few red blood corpuscles 74.c, . occur. The presence of epithelial cells may account in cgi. part for the absence of much of the uterine epithelium Fig. 133. Cells from vaginal mucus 3 : of immature whale. ep.c., epi- in sections of the mucosa. thelial cells; c.gl., cells from In regard to pregnancy a smear from a whale containing — glands; _r.b.c., red blood cor- a foetus of 1-52 m. showed that the dominant cells were Pus red blood corpuscles with a few polymorphonuclear leucocytes. In a whale with a larger foetus (265 m.) the mucus was very thick and few cells could be seen. Epithelial THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS 401 cells together with blood corpuscles were, however, present. If this second case is typical it suggests that extravasation of blood may not continue throughout pregnancy. The smear from the ovulating whale differed entirely from those from the pregnant whales. There were many isolated epithelial cells present, with many other cells with smaller nuclei of doubtful origin. As one would expect from observations on sections of the uterine mucosa, no blood corpuscles could be seen. In lactating whales the epithelial cells and red blood corpuscles were few. In No. 271, which had a uterus of 17-0 cm., more epithelial cells were present than in No. 244. In these whales apparently the extravasation of blood had almost ceased. THE MAMMARY GLANDS The mammary slits are situated on either side of the genital groove, and lie parallel to it. The teats are normally completely withdrawn and invisible, but in lactating whales drawn on to the flensing platform they are more or less everted, though not always m.g ‘ , Fig. 134. Diagram of ventral view of whale to show position of mammary glands. m.g., outline of mam- mary glands; r.a., reproductive aperture; ¢., teat in mammary groove; a., anus; u., umbilicus; v.g., endings of ventral grooves. completely. Sometimes when plenty of milk is present the pressure of the carcass on the edge of the platform causes it to spout from the teat in such a way that a sample can be collected sufficiently pure for chemical analysis. An account of the composition of whale’s milk appears in Appendix I. A good description of the mammary glands of the Humpback is given by Lillie (1915, p. 101). This however deals mainly with the gross anatomy of the gland and the process of suckling, while we are concerned more with the changes which take place in the gland in the different phases of the sexual cycle. In Blue and Fin whales the mammary glands lie between the blubber and flesh and are situated almost entirely anterior to the teats. They are of an elongated pear-shape, the apex of the pear being anterior to and remote from the teats (Fig. 134). The length of the gland is about 2 m. and its depth varies according as to whether the whale is sexually mature or immature and whether milk is being secreted or not. In an immature whale the gland is usually not more than 2 cm. deep at the widest part. In a mature whale it is usually 5 to 6 cm. deep, and in a lactating whale 15 to 30cm. deep. When KIV 19 402 DISCOVERY REPORTS the gland is in full activity the swelling is usually distinguishable externally (Plate XXX, fig. 1), and is very evident after the blubber has been removed from it (Plate XXXV, fig. 3). When milk is not being secreted the outline may be almost indistinguishable even after flensing. . Several large ducts run longitudinally through the gland. These are fed by numerous smaller ducts and become enlarged posteriorly to form sinuses or reservoirs for the milk. They join finally in one large sinus which communicates with the teat. If the gland of a sexually mature whale which is not lactating is cut across, it is seen to consist of numerous lobes subdivided into small pinkish lobules, with ducts of all sizes and blood-vessels. There may be some variation in the amount of blood which is present. These pink lobules are not seen in immature whales, but the connective tissue in which they subsequently develop can be distinguished quite easily. When examined histologically the gland in whales does not appear to differ in any essential from that of other mammals. The greater size of the gland appears to be allowed for by increased numbers of the alveoli in a lobule, and multiple subdivision of the lobes of the gland, rather than by any different structure. It will be convenient to describe first the immature gland. This shows the same structure both in the foetus and in large though still sexually immature whales. When examined histologically it is found to consist mainly of connective tissue in which a few ducts and blood-yessels are seen, of which the former are surrounded by clusters of cells forming imperfect alveoli grouped together in small lobules (Fig. 135). In some cases (such as adult whales which have not yet been pregnant) the distinction between the immature and mature condition is not very sharp, but as a rule there is no difficulty in recognizing the immature type. Among sexually mature whales the gland may be found in no less than four different conditions. These are as follows: 1. Lactating, in which milk is being actively secreted. 2. Intermediate, in which the lobules of the gland are better developed than in the resting condition, but less than in the lactating condition. This condition appears to occur immediately before lactation and again in the apparently prolonged involution of the gland afterwards. 3. Resting, in which compiete involution appears to have taken place. 4. Virgin, which occurs in a few young adults which have probably never been pregnant. In the lactating gland (Fig. 136) the lobules are greatly swollen, and the space between them which is occupied by connective tissue is considerably restricted. The alveoli are distended and their outline is rounded and relatively distinct. Droplets of secretion are clearly seen in the lumen of the alveolar cells which are noticeably swollen and have small, densely staining nuclei. The lumen of the alveoli is filled with larger droplets, the size of which, however, may vary. This variation might possibly depend on the freshness of the whale when the tissue was fixed, or it might be correlated with the rate at which the secretion is being drawn off, or with variations in the constitution THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS 403 of the milk. Sometimes the outlines of these droplets is in the form of a complete circle; at other times (possibly when the gland has been emptied by suckling) the outlines are broken up or fragmentary. Where an osmic acid fixative is used the droplets are densely blackened, no doubt owing to the very high percentage of fat which is present in whale’s milk. In such cases the droplets within the lumen of the cells are similarly blackened. The depth of the mammary gland during the secretion of milk varies in Blue and Fin whales between about 15 and 30 cm. Fig. 135. Section of the immature Fig. 136. Section of mammary gland mammary gland. in functional activity. The intermediate stage occurs in certain sexually mature whales in which the mammary glands are not functionally enlarged. It has been seen that during lactation the lobules become greatly swollen and compress the intervening connective tissue into the smallest possible space. In the intermediate stage the lobules appear either to have started swelling in preparation for lactation, or, more often, are in the process of contracting after the end of lactation. This condition is never found in pregnant whales except at the very end of gestation, but it is curious that it occurs more often in “resting”? whales than the normal resting condition which is almost always present in pregnant whales. The lobules are still large (Fig. 137), and, though noticeably smaller than in lactating whales, they are considerably better developed than in the resting stage. The connective tissue space is still restricted, but the alveoli are shrivelled and smaller than in the lactating gland, their outline is less easily traced, and their lumen, at least in haematoxylin-eosin preparations, is not easy to distinguish. Droplets are practically absent from the alveoli, though one or two may sometimes be visible 19-2 404 DISCOVERY REPORTS here and there. The nuclei of the cells lining the alveoli are larger than in the lactating gland, and stain less densely. The thickness of the gland during this stage rarely exceeds 10 cm. The resting stage occurs in a certain number of whales which are neither pregnant nor lactating and has been found with one exception in the case of all pregnant whales in which the gland has been histologically examined in this respect. It differs from the intermediate stage principally in the size of the lobules (Fig. 138) which are definitely Fig. 137. Section of mammary gland not completely Fig. 138. Section of mammary gland after returned to the normal condition. complete involution. smaller and more numerous in a given area of section. The nuclei are usually more numerous in a given space but are similar in individual appearance. The alveoli have shrivelled to such an extent that they cannot now be distinguished. Usually the lobules are flattened or elongated in cross-section, perhaps owing to collapse of the gland as a whole. This is not an invariable rule, however, and the appearance of the lobules no doubt depends to some extent on the plane in which the section was cut. The thickness of the resting gland is usually between about 4 and 8 cm. and is only a little less than that of the intermediate gland. The fourth condition of the mammary glands, which is found in young whales which in all probability have never been pregnant, or are pregnant for the first time, differs from the state of the gland in immature whales only in a slightly better develop- ment of the lobules which are still less developed than in the resting gland. This condition has been found in several whales with only one or two corpora lutea. The thickness of the gland here is of course intermediate between that of the resting and that of the immature gland. The latter is usually about 2 cm. deep. THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS 495 Excluding lactating and immature whales the number of Fin whales of which the mammary glands have been sectioned is thirty-three and of Blue whales eight. ‘The numbers of these occurring in each condition are as follows: Fin Blue “Resting”’ whales: Intermediate 7 3 Resting 3 I Virgin 3 a Doubtful 4 = Pregnant whales: Intermediate I <= Resting I4 4 First pregnancy I _ Total 33 8 Taking pregnant whales first it is found that only in one case was there a mammary gland in the intermediate condition. This whale, No. 175, had a foetus measuring over 6:0 m. which was evidently about to be born, and there is no doubt that the lobules of the glands were beginning to develop in preparation for active secretion. Now, where the gland is found in this condition in whales which are not pregnant it must be supposed that, lactation having ceased, the gland is now reverting to the normal resting condition, and since the ratio of the intermediate to the resting conditions is 7 to 3 among Fin whales and 3 to 1 among Blue whales it can only be supposed that though the development of the gland is rapid at the end of pregnancy, its involution after the period of secretion is very slow. It seems improbable that the majority of “intermediate” non-pregnant whales had only just finished lactation, since the resting whales are caught in far greater numbers than the lactating whales—a fact which argues that the resting period is correspondingly longer than the lactating period or at least as long, even if the nursing mothers lead a more secluded life less open to the attacks of whale boats. Since the intermediate stage is never found in pregnant whales except at the approach of parturition it follows that the involution of the gland is always completed before pregnancy again takes place, but since in some young but clearly adult whales the gland is sometimes found in a state far less developed than the normal resting condition, it is to be supposed that it becomes permanently altered after the first pregnancy. THE TESTES It is well known that in Cetacea the testes remain permanently in the abdominal cavity. In the whalebone whales, as explained on p. 267, they can be found without difficulty near the abdominal wall at the posterior end of the cavity. The testis is a rounded cylindrical organ, the size of which is subject to considerable variations which are very difficult to correlate with any particular factor. However, it is worth while 406 DISCOVERY REPORTS to examine the matter as closely as possible. It should be explained first that for con- venience the size of the testis may be represented by a number obtained by multiplying together the length, breadth and depth measured in centimetres. ‘This gives a rough approximation to (actually rather more than) the volume of the testis in cubic centi- metres. The size of the smallest testis of a Blue whale recorded in this way was 330 (No. 594) and of a Fin whale 300 (No. 705). The largest testes were of a Blue whale 58,000 (No. 1331) and of a Fin whale 56,000 (No. 51). As an accurate representation of the size of the testis is unnecessary a figure may be used giving the number of thousands of cubic centimetres in the approximate volume. Thus the largest Blue whale testis may be considered to measure 58, and the smallest 0-3. 50 40 iv) So ho i=) VOLUME OF TESTIS — i=) . oe Avo ®e gs 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 LENGTH OF WHALE IN METRES Fig. 139. Size of the testis in Blue whales of different lengths. As was to be expected, the size of the testis up to a point varies with the size of the whale, this being in part due to the fact that the former becomes much larger at the advent of sexual maturity. Fig. 139 shows the testes of 180 Blue whales plotted according to the size of the testis and the length of the whale. It will be seen that up to a length of about 23-5 m. there is a general tendency for the size of the testis to increase, but from 23:5 m. onwards it cannot be said that there is any correlation between its size and the length of the whale. The plotted points represent all the Blue whale testis measurements which have been taken (in large numbers of immature whales of course the testes were not examined) and are plotted therefore quite irrespec- tively of the time of year. It is to be supposed from Fig. 139 that during immaturity the testis increases its size very slowly, but that when sexual maturity is reached (around 22°5 m.) it rapidly increases in size, and continues to increase over the period during which the whale increases its length by one or more metres. Among whales over 23-5 m. THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS 407 in length, the age or size of the whale evidently ceases to be the factor which dominates the size of the testis, and other factors must be sought in order to explain the great variations in its size in large whales. In the porpoise the testis is described by Meek (1918) as undergoing an enormous development in the summer (northern hemisphere), the breeding season being in July and August, and it is natural to suppose that some- thing similar might occur in the Balaenopteridae. If this were so the size of the testis might provide a valuable clue to the period and duration of the breeding season. Unfortunately, however, there is no evidence that this is the case. If the testes of all the sexually mature whales are plotted, according to the time of year and volume of the testis, there is no indication of any correspondence between the two. The great diversity in the size of the testis in different whales might be accounted for if there is considerable individual variation and at the same time a slight increase in size in answer to a stimulus associated with breeding. The most instructive observations on the testis are those made from the histological point of view. One of the most striking features of the testis is the extraordinarily small number of spermatozoa which are normally to be seen in sections, and it may be said at once that the examination of sections gives no support to the supposition that the testis might undergo any important increase in size when breeding takes place, for the largest testes appear to contain no more spermatozoa than the smaller. Sections of the immature testis (Fig. 140) show small tubules, of which the wall consists of a layer of small cells with small, strongly staining nuclei. The lumen of each tubule is completely filled by a comparatively small number of large cells with large nuclei which do not stain very strongly and of which only about half a dozen appear in transverse sections of tubules. There is often plenty of inter- stitial tissue, but the spacing of the tubules varies considerably. In immature Blue whales the tubules appear often to be rather more tightly packed and slightly larger than in Fin whales. The histological appearances of the testis in the foetus do not appear to differ in any way from those of the large immature whale. At the approach of maturity the first indication of a change is the appearance here and there of division stages in the nuclei of the large cells in the lumen of the tubules. After this the tubules become greatly enlarged and various other changes take place. he general appearance of sections of the mature testis is subject to considerable variation in any particular species, and this is only in part due to the different degrees of freshness in which the material is fixed. For good fixation of Fig. 140. Section of testis tubules of an immature Fin whale. 408 DISCOVERY REPORTS mammalian testis the material should be fixed within a very few minutes of death. In the case of whales, one is fortunate if the tissue has been dead less than three or four hours. However, surprisingly good fixation can sometimes be achieved and, the nuclei being very large, even some cytological observations can be made. The mature testis can of course be distinguished at a glance from the immature. The tubules are much larger and may be filled with nuclei in various degrees of abundance. In some cases the lumen is packed with a dense mass of cells, and in others the latter may be loosely scattered, or clustered only round the rim of the tubule, leaving an empty space in the middle. In extreme cases the tubule appears to be practically empty. It is difficult to say whether these spaces are in part due to bad preservation, but in the testis of No. 114 (Fin), in which the fixation was probably better than in any other, the tubules showed large spaces (Fig. 141). Fig. 141. Section of normal testis of an adult Fin whale. Germ cells may be seen in various stages of development, but it is difficult to follow out much of the process of spermatogenesis. Figs. 142 and 143 illustrate some of the stages most commonly seen. (Both are from the same specimenas Fig. 141.) Among all the testes, of which sections have been cut, the conditions are found to vary at different times of year. In the majority of cases spermatozoa are present in very small numbers. They appear to be produced all the year round, but only in very small quantities, except at one particular season. Sections have been prepared from whales killed in every month except June, and it is found that in April and May, and in the case of one whale in July, the testis assumes a different histological appearance from that of whales killed in other months. The difference is noticeable partly in the relative abundance of spermatozoa throughout the tubules, but mostly in the enormous quantity of nuclei which appear in the tubules. In other months the tubules show THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS 409 considerable empty spaces or may be loosely filled with cells. In some cases large quantities of cells may be present, but the densely packed tubules which are found in the testis in May for example are practically never seen. In April and May sperma- tozoa are also present in much increased quantities, and the appearance of the sections Fig. 142. Germ cells in normal testis. Fig. 143. Germ cells in normal testis. a., spermatogonia ; b., spermatocytes ; a., spermatogonia; b., spermatocytes ; c., spermatids. c., spermatids; d., spermatozoa. Fig. 144. Section of active testis of Fin whale during the male sexual season. indicates unmistakably an active proliferation of germ cells, and a speeding-up in the production of spermatozoa. In Figs. 144 and 141 this active condition of the testis can be compared with the relatively passive condition. It happens rather often in a testis in the latter condition that the section of a tubule shows numerous spermatozoa which may be as abundant as in the active testis, but the distinction lies in the fact that KIV 20 410 DISCOVERY REPORTS the numerous spermatozoa are to be seen only in one tubule out of half a dozen or more, whereas in the active testis they are uniformly distributed as a result of active proliferation throughout the tubules. Since this indication of a male sexual season is of considerable importance in its relation to the problem of the breeding season of whales, it will be worth while to make a systematic examination of the data. The following is an account of the testes of whales taken in different months, which have been examined histologically. (a) Blue Whales January. Two specimens. Both with tubules lightly filled with cells, but with rather few spermatozoa. February. Four specimens. In three of these the tubules were mostly still in a practically immature condition. In the fourth there were few spermatozoa and there were empty spaces in some of the tubules. March. One specimen. Empty spaces in the tubules and few spermatozoa. April. Six specimens. In two of these the spermatozoa were not many and in one there were empty spaces in the tubules. In the other four the tubules were packed with nuclei and spermatozoa were numerous—not appearing in small groups here and there in an odd section of a tubule, but everywhere. The appearance of the sections suggested a general and uniform proliferation of germ cells, and a production of spermatozoa all along the tubules. May. Two specimens. In one of these the spermatozoa were numerous, and the tubules, though small and distorted, seemed well filled with cells. In the other, part of the section was similar to the most active specimens, but the rest of the tubules were emptier. June. No specimens. July. Four specimens. One of these had a moderate number of spermatozoa, but there were few in the others, and none of the tubules contained a noticeably large quantity of cells. These testes seemed to have reverted to the more passive condition. August. Two specimens. Both with few spermatozoa and with rather empty tubules. September. Four specimens. One with a moderate number of spermatozoa and the rest with few. All had rather empty tubules. October. Three specimens. Few spermatozoa in any. In one most of the tubules were immature, in another they were small and distorted, and in the third they were loosely filled with cells. November. Five specimens. A moderate number of spermatozoa in one but very few in the rest. In the former the tubules were lightly filled with cells. One of the others was similar in this respect, but in the remaining three there were empty spaces in the tubules. December. Three specimens. All with very few spermatozoa and with empty spaces in the tubules. THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS 411 (b) Fin Whales January. Twenty-two specimens. One of these was too rotten to be studied. Of the remaining twenty-one, all except five had few spermatozoa. In two of these five the spermatozoa could be described as numerous, and the tubules were well filled, though not thickly packed with cells. In the third the spermatozoa were not numerous, but seemed uniformly distributed along the tubules. In the fourth and fifth a number of spermatozoa were present, but the tubules showed empty spaces or were loosely filled with cells. In the remaining sixteen the testes all had few spermatozoa and the tubules showed empty spaces or were loosely filled with cells. In spite of the one or two exceptions the testes for January do not suggest much activity in this month. February. Thirty-five specimens. In two of these spermatozoa were comparatively numerous, but the tubules, though well filled, were not thickly packed. There were one or two cases where a moderate number of spermatozoa were present, but in the great majority they were few and the tubules had empty spaces or were only loosely filled with cells. March. 'Three specimens. One of these (early in March) had few spermatozoa. The tubules, however, were distorted and it was difficult to interpret their condition. The second (No. 114) at the end of March had fairly numerous spermatozoa. ‘The tubules were large and rather empty. The third specimen was rotten. April. Five specimens. One of these was hardly mature. Of the others spermatozoa were very numerous only in one, but in all four the tubules were becoming thickly packed with cells. In general, the sections for this month suggest that the activity of the testes was well started. May. Three specimens. These three were all alike in the presence of very numerous spermatozoa and tubules thickly packed with nuclei. June. No specimens. July. One specimen. Here again the spermatozoa were numerous and the tubules thickly packed with nuclei. August. Four specimens. In these a moderate number of spermatozoa were present, but the tubules were only loosely filled with cells. September. Five specimens. One had numerous and the other four from rather few to moderate numbers with loosely packed tubules. October. Three specimens. There were rather few spermatozoa in all these. In two cases the tubules were loosely filled with cells, and in the third they were practically empty. November. Five specimens. In two of these (early in the month) there was a moderate number of spermatozoa and the tubules were loosely packed with cells. In the other three there were few spermatozoa and in two the tubules were rather empty. December. Three specimens. In one there was a moderate quantity of spermatozoa but there were few in the other two. There was a tendency towards empty spaces in the tubules of all three. 412 DISCOVERY REPORTS From the foregoing material one may conclude that through the greater part of the year the testis is in a comparatively quiescent condition. As will be shown later pairing may take place exceptionally at almost any time of year, and this may account for the slow but steady production of spermatozoa during the other months. It is true that there are one or two cases of whales in which the testis appeared to be producing spermatozoa comparatively rapidly at times when the majority are quiescent, e.g. Nos. 374 (January), 471 (January), and 552 (February), but the activity of the testis in April and May, in comparison with its condition in other months, is quite unmistakable. No material is available for June, but no doubt the conditions in this month are similar to those for May. The bearing of these observations on the question of the season at which pairing takes place will be considered in a later section. BREEDING AND GROWTH SOURCES OF INFORMATION ON BREEDING The study of the reproductive processes and breeding habits of whales constitutes probably the most important part of the work concerned with direct observations on whales. ‘The sources from which information may be obtained on this subject are included mainly among (1) the examination of the reproductive organs themselves, (2) the study of the occurrence of foetuses, and (3) the correlation of the seasonal move- ments and other habits of whales, with the reproductive processes. The difficulty of obtaining any direct evidence on the breeding of whales has already been pointed out, and it may be said that the investigation of evidence from one source alone, such as the lengths of foetuses at different times, does not provide quite adequate information. It is necessary to put together the evidence from all sources in an endeavour to build up, so to speak, as much as possible of the life history and reproductive cycle of the whales under consideration. In the first place, it must be explained that nearly all the conclusions which are to be drawn on the breeding habits of whales ultimately rest on the assumption that there is an annual migration of these whales towards the equator in winter into warmer waters for purposes of breeding, and southwards in summer into colder waters where food is more plentiful. It is not necessary to assume that this rule is rigidly adhered to by all the whalebone whales, but it is sufficient if it can be shown that there is at least a general tendency in the south for a northward breeding movement in winter and a southward feeding movement in summer. This annual migration has been fairly well established by other investigators, but as it is of considerable importance here it will be best at this point to give some attention to the evidence supporting it. To begin with, there is the evidence from the quantities of whales caught at whaling stations in different latitudes at different seasons. Briefly it may be said that at the southern stations, such as those in South Georgia, which is a relatively cold region, the BREEDING AND GROWTH 413 numbers of whales are altogether greater in summer than in winter, whereas at the northerly stations the reverse is the case. This fluctuation is described in detail by Risting (1928) and is in itself strong evidence for a northern migration in winter and a southern migration in summer. Harmer has gone into this question in even greater detail, and his analysis of the returns from whaling stations in the Dependencies and on the west and east African coasts puts the fact of the north and south migration of Blue, Fin and Humpback whales practically beyond all question. Of these three species the most rigidly defined migration appears to be that of the Humpback. Observations on whales of the North Atlantic have also led to the supposition of a north and south migration, and descriptions of the migrations of these species in that region have been given by Collett (1912), Risting (1928), Hinton (1925) and others. In fact it may be considered that this annual movement is a universal rule among the Balaenopteridae. The existing knowledge of the reproductive processes and breeding habits is rather meagre, but a brief account must be given here of the more important previous work which has been done on the subject. Work on the breeding of whales which had been published up to 1915 is mostly sum- marized by Hinton (1925). It may be mentioned that probably the most important early work on the subject is that of Guldberg (1886), to whom reference has already been made on p. 265. Hinton’s paper is based on the records of 294 whales examined by Barrett- Hamilton at South Georgia over a period of two months. The value of the material is, of course, restricted by the shortness of the period, for the composition of the local whale population is liable to vary so much from month to month and year to year that conclusions cannot be drawn from a quantitative analysis of the data. In the “ Preliminary Memorandum” a scheme of the rate of propagation is given, which summarizes some of the more important conclusions. In this, gestation (in Fin whales) is taken as lasting for 10 to 12 months and the length of the calf at birth as 20 to 25 ft. (i.e. approximately 6 or 7 metres); during the next year it is suckling and grows to 45 or 50 ft. (15 metres) and, after weaning, it grows in its second year to 61 ft. and is then ready to breed in the next sexual season. The estimation of the period of gestation and length of the calf at birth appear to be well founded, for there was a considerable number of foetal records and previous work (mostly from the North Atlantic) on which to base the former, and the latter can easily be fixed with sufficient precision from the lengths of the largest foetuses and smallest calves recorded. We have, however, been unable to find any mention of the evidence on which the supposed subsequent rate of growth is based, except a remark on p. 126 that the whalers believe that the calf grows very rapidly and accompanies the mother for a full year. According to Haldane (1905) also, the whalers consider that the young Fin whale cow is mature at two to three years. Of the Fin whale foetuses noted by Barrett-Hamilton, Hinton estimates the majority to have been conceived in July and August. The majority of pairings for the North Atlantic are estimated to fall between January and April. The Blue whale records for 414 DISCOVERY REPORTS South Georgia are not very useful as there are only seven, but for the North Atlantic the majority of pairings is estimated to fall in December, February and March, but they are spread over a longer period and are much less conclusive than in the case of Fin whales. The next paper to be mentioned is that of Andrews (1916) on the Pacific Grey whale, Rhachianectes glaucus. It has been possible to make some direct observations on the migrations and breeding of this whale, and these observations provide by analogy some useful evidence on the breeding of the other whalebone whales. 'The period of gestation in this species is clearly about one year, and it has been shown that subsequent growth is remarkably rapid. It has already been mentioned that a detailed examination of some of the whalers’ statistics has been made by Harmer, special attention having been paid to an analysis of the records of foetuses with a view to calculating the pairing dates and ascertaining the limits of the breeding season and the months in which the breeding activities reach a maximum. ‘he more important results are incorporated in an account of the southern whaling industry in the Report of the Interdepartmental Committee on Research and Development in the Dependencies of the Falkland Islands. The analyses of the foetal records suggest that the maximum time of pairing for Fin whales falls in about July, for Blue whales between June and October, and for Humpbacks about September. It is shown that though the existence of a definite pairing season is a clearly established fact, it is prolonged over several months at least. It is inferred that parturition takes place normally not later than July. These inferences, which are concerned with the breeding season of whales and drawn from the whalers’ records of foetuses, are subject to two weaknesses. In the first place, the accuracy of the material is not wholly to be relied on. However, such inaccuracy as exists does not seem to be sufficiently serious to affect the main conclusion that pairing mostly occurs between about June and September, for this agrees well with similar estimations from other sources, such as those of Hinton from the North Atlantic. The more serious difficulty in fixing the maximum pairing season is due to the uncertainty as to the rate of growth in the earlier stages of gestation, the uncertainty being due to the fact that the information is derived only from records of foetuses measuring from about 1 ft. upwards and is unchecked by observations on the ovaries and testes and the evidence of minute foetuses. An exhaustive paper has recently been published by Risting (1928) in which an analysis has been made of the statistics supplied by various whaling companies over a number of years and assembled by the Norwegian Whalers’ Association. This is carried out on very much the same lines as Harmer’s work described above. The paper serves in general to confirm the supposition that the period of gestation in Blue and Fin whales is in the neighbourhood of a year, that pairing takes place during the southern winter and that the pairing season is itself somewhat indefinite and prolonged. It is estimated that among Blue whales pairing takes place mostly in June, July and August, and among Fin whales in June, July, August and September. Risting’s results are, of course, liable to the same two weaknesses which are mentioned in connection BREEDING AND GROWTH 415 with Harmer’s work. Risting (1929) has further published a brief paper on the same subject in Den Norske Hvalfangst Tidende. Among the sources of information on breeding mentioned above are the repro- ductive organs and the occurrence of foetuses. The latter, which are perhaps the most important of all, are comparatively simple to deal with, for, by plotting out the foetuses found according to their length and the date on which they occurred, we have important evidence at once as to the rate of growth and the probable seasons of pairing and parturition. Owing to the fact that the pairing season is prolonged over a considerable period, the points so plotted are very much scattered, so that the best one can do is to construct a curve which seems to represent as accurately as possible the mean rate of growth throughout gestation. ‘his, however, is not a serious difficulty. The main weakness of this method (at least of fixing the pairing season) lies, as already mentioned, in the uncertainty of the rate of growth in the early stages of development. It is here that observations on the genitalia of whales are needed, to fix, for example, the exact season at which pairing takes place, and to investigate the details of the oestrous cycle, the sexual season ‘of the male, etc. In this connection the most important whales to examine are the adult females, and naturally the most important observations are to be made at the period when pairing and parturition mostly take place. One of the most serious obstacles to the work on whales at whaling stations has been the difficulty of finding adult females at this particular time of year. As will be explained later, the seasons of pairing and parturition fall in the southern winter or autumn, when whaling closes in the Dependencies and opens at South African stations. It is at the latter, there- fore, that the most important observations on the breeding processes are to be sought. It has already been mentioned that at Saldanha Bay the number of adult whales caught is unfortunately small and the conditions appear to be much the same at other African stations, though the percentage of mature whales appears to be somewhat higher at the Durban stations. At present it is impossible to say what becomes in winter of the numerous adult whales which frequent the neighbourhood of South Georgia in summer. This question, however, will be considered again later on. SEXUAL MATURITY In an investigation of the breeding of whales, the first fact to be sought, if possible, for every whale is whether or not it is sexually mature. Sexual maturity is to be distin- guished from full (physical) maturity. The latter may take place long after the former is attained, and it can sometimes, though with difficulty, be distinguished by the degree of ossification of the vertebral epiphyses. An accurate diagnosis of sexual maturity is of special importance for several reasons. In the first place, the proportion of immature whales among those which are killed is of fundamental importance in any consideration of the effect of whaling on the stock of 416 DISCOVERY REPORTS whales; and, in the second place, the determination of the proportion of mature and immature whales is a necessary preliminary to the estimation of various other ratios, such as the percentage of adult females pregnant or lactating. The amount of data collected during the work makes it possible to fix with con- siderable accuracy the mean length at which Blue and Fin whales become mature, and, among all the whales examined, there have been very few cases in which maturity or immaturity cannot be determined with confidence. The only doubtful cases are those of whales whose length, being near to that at which maturity takes place, gives no clue, and in which there are not sufficiently definite records of the condition of the genitalia. It is easy to determine whether a female is mature or not, but there is much more difficulty in the case of males. Among females, information can be obtained from the following points: 1. Presence of a foetus. This, of course, determines maturity, but it is of little value in itself for estimating the mean length at which members of a species become mature. 2. Presence of corpora lutea in the ovary. This is the most valuable means of ascertain- ing whether a female is mature or not. If corpora lutea (including the scars of very old ones) are present in the ovary, the whale must, of course, be mature, and it can be said that, with negligible exceptions, a whale without any sign of corpora lutea in the ovaries is immature. As was‘explained in the section on the reproductive organs, it appears that the old corpora lutea persist for several years, so that once ovulation has taken place there will always be corpora lutea, or traces of them, in the ovaries. Instances of whales which have just become mature without having yet ovulated are extremely rare, and it might indeed be argued that a female need not be regarded as mature until it has actually ovulated. In no case has a whale been examined which for other reasons was obviously mature, but which had no traces of corpora lutea in the ovaries. 3. Size of the uterus. There is, of course, an increase in the size of the uterus when maturity is reached but it is not sufficiently sudden to constitute an infallible distinction between the mature and immature. Among Fin whales an immature individual would very rarely have a uterus measuring more than 11-0 cm. across the cornu (i.e. the transverse diameter of the collapsed cornu), and the uterus of mature whales would rarely measure less. Among Blue whales the corresponding figure would be about 120 cm. (see Figs. 131 and 132). 4. Size of the ovaries. In a number of cases a figure has been used representing roughly the volume of the ovaries and obtained by multiplying together the length, breadth and depth expressed in centimetres. Among Fin whales a figure exceeding about 800 generally indicates a mature whale. Among Blue whales a corresponding figure would be about goo, but this is less certain. 5. Weight of the ovaries. This is more convenient than measuring the size of the ovaries. As stated in the section dealing with the reproductive organs, among Fin BREEDING AND GROWTH 417 whales a pair of ovaries weighing less than 2 lb. generally indicates immaturity, the corresponding figure for Blue whales being slightly higher (see Figs. 120 and 121). 6. Condition of the mammary glands. The appearance of the mammary gland after flensing, and to some extent its thickness, form a useful quick method of determining whether or not a whale is mature. There are only occasionally intermediate cases where the method cannot be applied and most of these can be settled by a histological examina- tion of the gland. 7. Condition of the ovarian follicles. ‘These are not of great importance except where they serve as an indication in immature whales of the approach of maturity. Among males there is very much less to go on, but information can be obtained from the following points: 1. Size of the penis. This is perhaps the readiest method of distinguishing mature from immature males, but it can be used only to distinguish definitely mature from definitely immature whales, for the growth of the penis at maturity is not conspicuously sudden. Among Fin whales a penis exceeding about 1-5 m. would usually indicate maturity, and about the same figure would apply to Blue whales. 2. Size of the testis. This is more convenient than taking the weight, as there is a great range in size. If the size, measured in the manner explained on p. 406, exceeds about 4 in the case of Fin whales, and say 5 in the case of Blue whales, the whale is generally mature (see Fig. 139). 3. Histology of the testis. This is the most reliable method of distinguishing maturity, but it is naturally laborious. The distinction between the mature and immature testis, as seen in sections, is fully explained in the section on the reproductive organs. According to calculations based on a large number of individuals distinguished as mature or immature by the above methods, the following figures may be taken as accurate estimations of the mean lengths at which Blue and Fin whales become sexually mature: Blue females Ss ‘es 23-7 m. or 77 ft. g in. Blue males e ae 226 m. or 74 ft. 2 in. Fin females sat er 20:0 m. or 65 ft. 7 in. Fin males ae - 19°5 m. or 63 ft. 8 in. The corresponding figures calculated by Hinton and based on the records left by Barrett-Hamilton are according to these results mostly a little too low. He gives 75-80 ft., 70 ft., 61 ft. and 60 ft. respectively. The value of establishing the mean length at which maturity is reached lies in the fact that it enables one to calculate the percentage of mature whales in lists of catches in which only the sex and length are given. The following notes will give some idea of the degree of accuracy with which maturity can be gauged by the length alone: Blue females. Of 402 female Blue whales there were three clearly mature measuring less than 23-7 m. and three clearly immature measuring more than 23-7 m. The smallest KIV 21 418 DISCOVERY REPORTS mature whale measured 23:2 m. and the largest immature whale measured 24:3 m. Five other whales measuring 23-0 m. to 23-4 m. were doubtful but probably immature (Nos. 209, 1267, 1408, 1436 and 1482) and three measuring 23-7 m. to 24-2 m. were doubtful but probably mature. Blue males. Of 383 male Blue whales two certainly mature and one probably mature measured less than 22:6 m., three certainly mature whales measured 22-6 m., and two certainly and one probably immature whale measured more than 22-6 m. The smallest certainly mature whale was 22-4 m. and the largest certainly immature whale measured 22-74m. There were, however, nine whales between 22:0 m. and 22-95 m. of which the records did not provide evidence as to maturity. Fin females. Of 351 female Fin whales, five clearly mature whales measured less than 20:0 m., four mature and one immature whale measured exactly 20-0m. and nine clearly immature whales measured more than 20-0 m. The smallest certainly mature whale measured 19:55 m. and the largest certainly immature whale measured 20°85 m. There were also five doubtful whales and two just verging on maturity between 19:5 m. and 21-2 m. Fin males. Of 441 male Fin whales, fourteen mature whales measured less than 19'4m., two mature whales measured exactly 19-4 m. and eleven immature whales measured more than 19:4 m. The smallest certainly mature whale measured 19:1 m. and the largest certainly immature whale measured 20-0 m. There were also twenty-nine doubtful cases between 19:0 m. and 20-1 m. The ratios of mature and immature whales which have been examined at different times and places may now be considered. In the following table the percentages of immature whales are shown separately for the whales examined at South Georgia and Saldanha Bay, and for the separate seasons and half-seasons at South Georgia. (The end of January is taken as the middle of the South Georgia season, which lasts from October to May.) Blue whales Fin whales Females Males Females Males v o vo o o o o oO e188) 2) See) 8) eles) 8 celle eae ee CECE Ae Ge EEN Geq eee sie (sa): og ° io) BeizG| Slegi|z8| &lee|z8| Eleze|2é| & South Georgia Feb. to May 1925... 58 34 | 58-6 50 34: | (68:00), 775) 26" | 3427, 56 | 23 | 41:0 Oct. 1925 to Jan. 1926 20 5 | 25:0 17 6 | 35°3 72 7 9°7 | 115 7] 6-1 Feb. to Mar. 1926... 51 S72 s 41 32 | 78:0 6774) 23103453 O5 |) 20 5 |e2zem Total for season 1925-6 | 71 42 | 59°2 58 38) || (6575) 139) | 40) || 21-65 2tonlezSullerae3 Nov. 1926 to Jan. 1927 | 102 23 | 22°76 | 114 17 | 14:9 25 2 8-0 18 AU ||| 2p) Feb. to Apr.1927 .... 44 17 | 38-6 41 PAA RG] 37, ||| 18) 48:65) 94 30 eeOnnsoss ‘Total for season 1926-7 | 146 40 | 27-4 | 155 39 | 25:2 62))|| 20m ta23 6x |) 24) | 30:4 Total for South Georgia | 275 | 116 | 42:2 | 263 | 111 | 42:2 | 276 | 76 | 27-5 | 327 | 75 | 223 South Africa Saldanha Bay 1926... | 127 | 102 | 80-3 | 120 99 | 82°5 75 | 69 | 92:0 | 114] 90 | 79:0 BREEDING AND GROWTH 419 The most striking result shown by this table is the generally high percentage of immature whales. ‘The figures for males and females correspond fairly closely in both species, but the percentage of immature Blue whales is usually higher than in the case of Fin whales. At South Georgia, perhaps the most important fact is that there is always a higher percentage of immature whales in the second half of the season than in the first. In- cluded above are three second-half seasons and two first-half seasons. Among Blue whales the percentage of immature whales in the first half of the season is about 20 per cent or 30 per cent, but in the second half of the season usually more than half, and in one case 78 per cent, of the whales are immature. The same phenomenon is to be seen in the case of Fin whales. Here the immature whales are mostly under ro per cent of the total in the earlier part of the season, but rise to 30 per cent or 40 per cent in the second half of the season. These figures are, of course, a reflection of certain features of the migrations and move- ments of the whales, and it appears that there is a general tendency for the large whales to visit the coasts of South Georgia first, and for the smaller whales to come on later, The significance of this will be discussed in a later section. One other feature may be pointed out in the figures for South Georgia and that is that there is a definitely lower percentage of immature Blue whales in the 1926-7 season than in the two preceding seasons. This is due to the exceptional nature of the catches of Blue whales, which were present in very large numbers throughout most of the season, and which were of a large average size. This again is dealt with more fully later on. Of the figures for Saldanha Bay there is little to be said beyond the fact that almost the entire catch (from 80 per cent to go per cent) consists of immature whales. The catches at Saldanha Bay are fairly uniform throughout the season and there seems little to be gained by a comparison here between the first and second halves of the season. The proportion of immature whales in the catches needs careful scrutiny from the economic point of view. As has been pointed out on various occasions, the killing of immature whales is economically undesirable, as it means that these whales have no chance of reproducing. To express in a different way what is perhaps the same thing, one may say that a high percentage of immature whales in the catches is a reflection of a general decrease in the average length of the whales. Now it is known that one of the first effects of the depletion of a community of animals is a general decrease in size, which results from the likelihood that an individual is killed before it has time to grow to its full size. ‘Thus, where an unnaturally high percentage of immature whales is found, excessive hunting may be suspected. At Saldanha Bay, however, the high proportion of immature whales is not due to this cause but to the segregation of young whales in that particular region. ‘The whole question will be examined, however, when the movements and distribution of the whales come to be considered. 420 DISCOVERY REPORTS THE BREEDING SEASON The term “‘ breeding season”’ is not very explicit and needs to be used with a certain amount of caution, for it does not clearly differentiate between the pairing season and the season at which the young are born. The term ‘‘ breeding season”’ will probably convey to most people the season at which pairing takes place, but in any case it so happens that the two fall very close together and certainly overlap to some extent. In many cases, however, it will be better to speak separately of the “ pairing season” and the “‘season of parturition’”’. The fact that whales actually have a breeding season has been clearly established by various previous authors. It is pointed out by Hinton that the first attempt to deduce the time of the breeding season from a study of the lengths of foetuses at different times was made by Guldberg (1886), who found from an examination of foetuses from the North Atlantic that there was at least such a thing as a definite pairing season. More data were subsequently collected by Cocks (1886-90) and Collett (1912) and the question was re-examined by Hinton in 1925. Similar work has been done, as already explained, by Harmer (unpublished) and Risting (1928), and the results of these investigators’ work are mainly in agreement. The position from which we now have to start is as follows. From a study of the recorded lengths of a considerable number of foetuses of Blue and Fin whales, several authors have arrived at the conclusion that (1) the pairing season is very protracted and lasts as such over two or three months, while pairing may exceptionally take place at almost any time of year, (2) the maximum amount of pairing takes place about July in the case of Blue and Fin whales. That pairing is spread over a considerable period is obvious from the diversity in the lengths of the foetuses which may be taken at any one time, but these authors do not claim to have proved that, say, July is the month in which the maximum numbers of Blue and Fin foetuses were conceived. It is merely stated that, as far as the available data goes, July appears to be the most likely month, the doubt lying mainly in the rate of linear growth during the earliest stages of development. Perhaps the only way in which it is possible to ascertain the length of this preliminary period, apart from guess- work, is to compare the mean curve of foetal growth with the dates at which the greatest numbers of whales show signs of active breeding, such as the occurrence of minute foetuses, heat and ovulation among females, and the increased activity of the testis among males. It will be convenient to start with the more direct evidence concerning the time of the breeding season and to go on later to the foetal growth curve. In the first place, some information on the female sexual season is to be had from the ovarian follicles. The fact that many follicles are to be seen in ripening ovaries is a sign that many ova may be shed, but the rule is that one ovum is shed at a time, for, in the first place, one follicle appears always to be definitely larger than any others in the ovaries, and, in the second place, twins and multiple births are not common occurrences. BREEDING AND GROWTH 421 It has already been shown that large follicles may be present at any season of the year in whales which are neither pregnant nor lactating, but there is definite evidence that in the majority of such whales the follicles are small during January, February and March, but increase in size in April and May, i.e. the growth of the follicles eases up in the summer but becomes active at the commencement of the southern winter (see Fig. 124, p. 387). Perhaps the most important sign of breeding activity is the occurrence of functional corpora lutea in the ovaries without the presence of a foetus. This, of course, indicates recent ovulation. It is observed so seldom at South Georgia that the occurrence of a recent corpus luteum in the ovaries almost invariably means a foetus in the uterus. At Saldanha Bay, however, such corpora lutea occurred comparatively frequently in pro- portion to the number of adult whales. Although these corpora lutea of ovulation have been discussed in the section on the reproductive organs it will be convenient to recapitulate here some of the details of their occurrence. Among Blue whales they were found on March 14 and 18 (1926 and 1927), May 4 (1925), and October 24 (1925) at South Georgia; while among the few mature whales at Saldanha Bay they occurred on June 17, 22 and 29 and on July 19. Among Fin whales they were found on February 16 and 28 (1925) at South Georgia, and June 22, July 13 and September 15 at South Africa. It must be emphasized again that the numbers of adult females taken at South African stations is very small and that the percentage of ovulations is therefore very high. Further light is thrown on the breeding season by the occurrence of several minute foetuses in an early stage of development. ‘wo of these were of Blue whales and occurred in July and August. ‘They measured 21 mm. and 30 mm. respectively. It is difficult to say how old such foetuses are but probably conception took place not less than several weeks previously. Among Fin whales there were three small embryos. One of these was found in August and the other two both occurred in January. Judging from the appearance of one of the latter when it was found (in whale No. 331) it seems possible that it was abortive, but the occurrence of the other one so late as January is surprising, though not very exceptional when compared with the irregular occurrence of many of the larger Fin whale foetuses (see Fig. 146, p. 425). Photographs of some of these foetuses appear on Plate XX XVIII, together with that of a Sei whale (No. 1074) which measured only 2 mm. and is probably the smallest foetus of a whalebone whale which has ever been found. These small foetuses are not described in detail in the present report but will doubtless form the subject of a separate paper in due course. It has already been explained that through the greater part of the year the testis is in a comparatively quiescent condition but that from about April to July it shows signs of increasing activity in the production of spermatozoa (see p. 408). Seen as it is in sections of the testis, this activity takes place perhaps rather earlier than one would expect, comparing it with, say, the time at which corpora lutea of ovulation occur most plentifully, but a proliferation of germ cells in the testis does not, after all, necessarily mean that the spermatozoa will be put to immediate use. 422 DISCOVERY REPORTS It is now seen that the time of ripening of the ovarian follicles, the occurrence of corpora lutea resulting from recent ovulations, the occurrence of minute foetuses, and the season at which the testis shows an increased activity, all point to the earlier part of the southern winter as the season at which the breeding processes become general. ‘The next step will be to examine the records of the lengths of the foetuses at different times of year and to construct curves to represent the growth of the foetus. The pairing season, as indicated by these curves, may then be compared with informa- tion provided by the reproductive organs. The total number of foetuses examined at South Georgia and Saldanha Bay is as follows: Males Females Sex BOE Total determined Blue: 19 28 3 50 Fin ane 41 35 5 81 Sei ont S| 5 I 13 Humpback 3 I 2 6 Sperm ... — it — I Total for all species Sak 151 In the above list twins (which have occurred twice) are counted as two foetuses. Cases in which foetuses were known to have been present (e.g. by traces of foetal membranes), but were not found, are not included. Those recorded under “‘ Sex not determined”’ were either too small or too much decomposed for their sex to be dis- tinguished. In Fig. 145 all the Blue whale foetuses which have been examined in the course of the work are plotted according to their lengths and the dates on which they were found. The average monthly lengths are also shown. The curve is an attempt to show what is the probable rate of growth of the foetus. So far as its actual shape is concerned, it should represent the growth of any Blue whale foetus, while its position in respect to the time of year should enable one to find the probable mean size of all the foetuses at a given time. The curve in this case is drawn “freehand” to represent as well as possible the general trend of the mass of plotted points, regard being paid also to the monthly average lengths. It is not, of course, intended as a final representation of the rate of growth, but simply what seems most probable from the given material. A similar curve for Fin whales is shown in Fig. 146. Here the plotted points have turned out to be considerably more scattered than in the case of Blue whales, though the monthly average lengths arrange themselves in a fairly good line. One foetus, measuring 5 m. in November, lay far outside all the others and is not shown in the figure. This one, however, was an abortive foetus found in whale No. 262. It was a case of abdominal pregnancy and when found the foetus was in a degenerate condition and appeared to be in the process of reabsorption by the parent. It may therefore be left out of any calculations concerned with the growth of the foetus. 423 BREEDING AND GROWTH ‘sazIs osvioar A[YyIUOT, O “sasnjaoj [eNPIAIpuy, @ “sasn}aoj TRY ong JO yIMOIS Jo aamno uvayl “SHI “SL “dad ‘Nvf ‘oad “AON Q ‘OnV Atal STULAW NISALIOI AO HLONAT 424 DISCOVERY REPORTS It will be seen that the mean curve of growth rises only very gently during the earliest part of gestation and is drawn, in the case of Blue whales, to begin in June. Although the greater part of the curve is derived from the plotted foetal lengths, this earlier part depends on the time fixed as the height of the pairing season and in order to determine this time, the evidence provided by the reproductive organs may be used. In order to get a clear idea as to what months are most likely to be occupied by the pairing season, it will be convenient to draw up a table as follows, in which the evidence from the testis, the ovaries, the minute foetuses, and the growth of the larger foetuses may be seen as a whole: Blue Fin I 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 na n 0 o o nD g aE 2 Ome aes “ 32, Peis E g o2 fos g Pi pe, Wags | as | oe | oe lees || eames 5 oo3 c=) a! ao 2 oo 264 poe 2§ 2-5 aeae) os we 2& a5 2 Se} one Sag ogas 57 Ou aS BEga5 Ban Ou —& oO ¢52m8 o 2 Oc &£509 Sen 20 eo Pao Rage 23 53] cyte anda WN Fa Zo AG Bos See | Sab Be ieee) See | eee a ee acer so on go 0 , ~ wont ie) vo ° Scag S 286 Ais 5 bb Sag SSE Be Zi mas Jan. — = — 2°5 5 — 2 2:0 Feb. — 6 — 3°6 6 5 = Des Ma 8 : ie — = : = = — : 4 4 B55 April 66 — = 6-1 75 — — “ 4°4 May 100 33 — Over 7 100 (100) — 5°5 June ? 33 — fo) ? (100) = O° July — 25 I 0°05 (100) -- = 0°05 Aug. —- — I o'12 = == I O13 Sept. a= = = O73 aaa 33 = 03 Oct. — 12 = 0°6 = = — 0°57 Nov. a — — I'l = = = O- Dec — - 18 ie : i: 1°45 Norte. Owing to the relatively small number of mature whales for each month, the percentages are not as reliable as one could wish. Percentages in brackets mean that there was only one mature whale in that month. Column 1 refers to testes showing definite signs of increased activity, and column 2 refers to whales in which the corpus luteum showed that ovulation must have taken place recently. In column 4 the height of the curve is measured for the middle of each month, as will be seen by reference to Figs. 145 and 146. No column has been kept to show the monthly sizes of the ovarian follicles as the data do not lend them- selves so well to treatment of this kind, but reference may be made to Fig. 124 on p. 387. It will be seen from the table that the testes in both species begin to show signs of activity in April and continue to proliferate spermatozoa during May and probably June, and that during most of the other months they are in a comparatively inactive condition. In regard to ovulations the results are inconclusive in the case of Fin whales owing to very limited material, but among Blue whales the majority fall in May, June and July, i.e. somewhat later than the activity of the testis. The two small Blue whale embryos occur, as might be expected, still later (in July and August). Of the small Fin whale embryos, one appears in August and the other two are aberrant. Finally, the 425 BREEDING AND GROWTH *sozIs asvioae ATYUOT O “sasnjooj [eNpIAIpuy @ “sasnjooj a[vYM UT JO YIMOIS Jo 9AM Uva, “OPI “SI ‘Nvf ‘oad “AON "LOO ‘ony ii SAULAIW NI SALAOA JO HLONAT iS] is I KIV 426 DISCOVERY REPORTS height of the mean curve of foetal growth shows that the period of gestation is, on the average, well started by the end of August. Taking the data as-a whole, it may be inferred that the height of the pairing season falls in both species towards the end of June. As already mentioned, the early activity of the testes does not necessarily mean that pairing takes place equally early, and the instances of ovulation point to the end rather than the beginning of June, for it must be remembered that, as whales appear to be polyoestrous, several ovulations may occur before impregnation, but none will occur afterwards. It will be seen that the curve for both species starts slowly but gradually increases throughout pregnancy. It cannot perhaps be regarded as certain that the rate of growth increases steadily during the latter part of gestation, but it is quite certain that growth 20 15 _ So NUMBER OF PAIRINGS APR. MAY JUNE JULY AUG, SEPT. Oct. NOV. DEC, Fig. 147. Curve of frequency of pairing. Blue whales. $----- Fin whales. is relatively slow in the earlier stages. It is a characteristic feature of the development of these whales that the form of the body is practically perfected at a stage when the foetus is still very small. A 0-5 m. foetus, for instance, differs very little in appearance and bodily proportions from the adult and so far as the internal structures are con- cerned the organs are probably all laid down by the time the foetus has reached 0-1 m. It is therefore natural to suppose that the actual linear rate of growth is extremely slow while the foetus grows from zero to about o-1 m. compared with its subsequent growth up to the end of gestation, for from between o-1 m. and o-5 m. up to birth at 6-7 m. development consists mainly in increase in size. It appears that the rate of growth in Fin whales is somewhat less than in Blue whales and it is probable that in Sei whales it is slower than in Fin whales. The dotted curves in Figs. 145 and 146 are reproductions of the mean curve of growth BREEDING AND GROWTH 427 shifted to lateral intervals of one month so as to include all the plotted points. It will be seen from these that, given that all foetuses of one species grow at an equal speed, all the foetuses measured were conceived within a period of less than five months in the case of Blue whales and less than seven months in the case of Fin whales. We are now in a position to draw curves showing the probable intensity of pairing during the season, indicated by the material in question. For this it is only necessary to count the numbers of plotted points between two parallel curves and one may plot the number obtained against the month in which they were conceived as indicated by the parallel curves, or better, one may divide the points between two curves into those lying nearer the one curve and those lying nearer the other, and count the number for each half-month. The results are shown for both species in the following table, and are plotted in Fig. 147. Date of pairing Blue Fin Date of pairing Blue Fin May, tst half — 7 September, rst half I 3 May, 2nd half 5 5 September, 2nd half — — June, 1st half 8 9 October, 1st half — June, 2nd half 9 19 October, 2nd half — July, 1st half 13 12 November, tst half — July, 2nd half 10 9 November, 2nd half — August, 1st half 3 6 December, tst half — 2 August, 2nd half I 6 December, 2nd half — — Thus in both species it appears that May, June, July and August are the months in which the majority of pairings take place, the maximum falling at about the end of June or beginning of July. In the case of Fin whales, the results indicate that pairing may take place over seven or eight months and the fact that the Blue whale season appears more restricted is probably merely because we have not so many foetal records for this species. There would be no justification, however, for arguing from this that, if the records were sufficiently increased, instances of pairing in every month of the year would appear. The results of this investigation of the breeding season differ slightly from those of Hinton and Harmer in that the period of maximum pairing is now set rather earlier in the winter. This difference is mainly the outcome of correlating the evidence of the reproductive organs with the curve of foetal growth. The question of the female sexual season, although intimately connected with the breeding season in general, need not be considered here, as it has already been dealt with in the section on the ovaries. It has been shown that whales are almost certainly polyoestrous, and in view of the protracted nature of the breeding season one may suppose that in many cases several dioestrous cycles may occur before pregnancy supervenes. It is difficult, however, to express any opinion as to the length of the interval between the successive dioestrous cycles. 22-2 428 DISCOVERY REPORTS THE SEXUAL CYCLE AND GROWTH OF THE CALF The length of the period of gestation can be found from the curve of growth of the foetus, provided the length of the calf at birth is known, a point which can be ascertained with a fair degree of accuracy. One way of finding the average length at which the calf is born is to compare the largest foetuses with the smallest calves which have been recorded. In the course of our work two very large foetuses were found. One was that of a Blue whale (No. 154) and measured 6-3 m. (20-6 ft.), the other was of a Fin whale (No. 173) and measured 6-05 m. (19°85 ft.). In both cases, but especially in the latter, the condition of the mother suggested that parturition would have shortly taken place. Before No. 173 was flensed, it was noticed that the genital region was greatly swollen and that the genital groove was stretched open to a remarkable extent. A sample of the mammary gland was preserved and sectioned and it was found that the condition of the gland suggested that secretion would shortly commence. The external genitalia of No. 154 were in a similar condition but sections were not made of the mammary glands. These cases, so far as they go, suggest that in Blue whales the calf is born when rather more than 6-3 m. long and in Fin whales when a little over 6-0 m. Haldane (1905) records Blue whale calves of 6-7 m. (22 ft.) and 6-1 m. (20 ft.). Harmer mentions a Fin whale foetus of 6-4 m. (21 ft.) and a Blue whale foetus of 8-8 m. (29 ft.), but these are quoted from statistics supplied by the whalers and their precise accuracy cannot be regarded as very reliable. Records of the smallest calves are of course very hard to come by, for very small ones are rarely seen and hardly worth shooting. There is also a regulation in the Dependencies of the Falkland Islands prohibiting the whalers from attacking females accompanied by calves. However, Hinton (1925) mentions records of three Blue whale foetuses from 5-3 m. to 7-0 m., and the statistics supplied by Messrs Irvin and Johnson, whose whaling station is at Saldanha Bay, include a record of a Blue whale calf of 7-7 m. (25-3:ft:): On the whole it seems probable that Blue whales are born on the average at about 7°0 m. (23:0 ft.) and Fin whales at about 6-5 m. (21°3 ft.). It is at least certain that the length at birth is not far from this. No doubt some variation occurs. It has been sug- gested, for instance, that the length of the calf at birth bears a definite ratio to the size of the mother, but this is a statement which it would be extremely difficult if not impossible to test. In any case if birth may take place at lengths other than 7-0 m. and 6-5 m. in the two species the difference would not materially affect the estimation of the length of the period of gestation especially as the rate of growth is fastest at the end of gestation. By reference to Figs. 145 and 146 it is seen that the curve for Blue whales ends at 70 m., representing the close of the period of gestation. The point reached at the 7-0 m. level is opposite the beginning of May. In Fin whales the curve reaches 6-5 m. opposite the middle of June. This gives a period of gestation of slightly over ten months in the case of Blue whales, and of eleven and a half months in the case of Fin whales. BREEDING AND GROWTH 429 The time of the season of parturition may be worked out in the same way as the pairing season. If we continue on the assumption that all the foetuses of a species grow at the same rate the season of parturition will of course be identical in duration and intensity with the pairing season. All that needs to be done is to reproduce the pairing curves (Fig. 147) ten months later in the case of Blue whales and eleven and a half months later in the case of Fin whales. The result is shown in Fig. 148. The details of the shapes of these curves of course mean nothing, but they suggest in general that Blue whales are mostly born in April and May and Fin whales in June and July. 20 NUMBER OF BIRTHS MAR. APR. MAY JUNE JULY AUG. SEED. OCT. NOV. Fig. 148. Curve of frequency of births. Blue whales. ----- Fin whales. As explained above it is being assumed that the foetuses grow at the same speed during gestation. If, however, some foetuses grow faster than others the result would be that the season of parturition might be more protracted than the pairing season. On the other hand it is possible that a whale which was impregnated early might retain the foetus slightly longer than one which was impregnated later, since birth apparently takes place mostly when the parent migrates northwards to warmer waters, and the attainment of the proper environment might have the effect of stimulating slightly premature parturition in a whale in which the foetus was later than the average. There is still another assumption involved in the construction of the foetal growth curves, and that is that the earliness or lateness of a pregnant whale’s visit to the neighbourhood of South Georgia is not affected by the age of the foetus, i.e. the time at which impregnation took place. But it seems quite possible that a female which had not been impregnated before the later part of the pairing season might delay her southern migration until impregnation took place, while those which had been 430 DISCOVERY REPORTS impregnated earlier might also travel southwards earlier. Now as will be shown in a later section the whale population at South Georgia undergoes considerable changes during the season and it may be that the foetuses measured in the earlier part of the South Georgia season were conceived earlier than those measured in the later part of the season. The effect of this would be that the curve of mean foetal growth, constructed as it is from the progressive increase in the lengths of foetuses during the season, shows a slower rate of growth than that which actually takes place. In other words, if the time of the southern migration is influenced by the time of impregnation and if individual pregnant females stay in the vicinity of South Georgia only for a comparatively short time, then the length of the period of gestation is somewhat shorter than the period which has been estimated. However, there is no definite evidence to show that this actually happens and in any case the difference may not be very great. An important point to be considered at this stage is the length of the interval which elapses between successive pregnancies in an individual. For this also the percentage of pregnant females must be examined. If, for instance, pregnancy normally took place every year we should expect to find nearly every adult female pregnant at almost any time of year since the period of gestation lasts only a little less than a year, and it would follow that a female would normally be impregnated long before she weaned her calf. On the other hand, if pregnancy recurs every two years one would expect to find slightly less than 50 per cent of the adult females to be pregnant at a given time or if every three years something less than 33 per cent and so on. Calculations of this kind, how- ever, involve a dangerous assumption, namely, that the whales actually brought to the whaling station at South Georgia, or any other localities, constitute a representative sample of the general stock of whales. This is a subject to be dealt with ina later section, but it may be said at once that such an assumption is definitely not justified except so far as certain approximate estimations are concerned. It is quite certain that the whales caught off the south-west African coast are not representative of the whole stock, and at South Georgia the whale population is perpetually fluctuating both as regards con- stitution and numbers. However, as far as the latter locality is concerned some reason- ably certain inferences may be drawn if they are based on observations covering several seasons. ‘he percentages of adult females pregnant vary mostly between 20 per cent and 50 per cent in the case of Blue whales and 20 per cent and 70 per cent in the case of Fin whales. Of all the adult females examined at South Georgia and Saldanha Bay 31 per cent of the Blue whales and 46 per cent of the Fin whales were pregnant. From this alone it can be regarded as fairly certain that pregnancy does not normally recur every year and the fact that out of the large number of lactating whales examined not one was pregnant, clearly rules out the possibility of annual pregnancy so far as the great majority of whales are concerned. The uterus in lactating whales has not always been opened, but it has invariably been found in these whales that the ovaries have no functional corpus luteum, i.e. of the type referred to in the section on ovaries as corpus luteum a. There exist, however, one or two records of lactating females which were pregnant. It appears that Barrett-Hamilton found one or two pregnant Humpbacks BREEDING AND GROWTH 431 with milk in the glands and Hinton mentions one or two cases recorded in the north among Blue whales. Risting also refers to such cases among Humpbacks. We have not examined a sufficient number of Humpbacks to express an opinion on that species, but so far as Blue and Fin whales are concerned it must be supposed that such cases are extremely rare, but might arise if a female were impregnated near the end of a long period of lactation. The percentage of Fin whales pregnant (46 per cent) strongly suggests that pregnancy recurs every two years. The percentage of Blue whales pregnant is lower (31 per cent) but is still rather high for pregnancy every three years and one would not expect Blue and Fin whales to differ in this respect. Taking everything into consideration, including the uncertainty as to whether one is dealing with a representative sample of the general stock of whales, it may be said that although the possibility of pregnancy every three years is not finally ruled out, it may be regarded as almost certain that it recurs in the majority of cases every two years. It is probable that an interval of three years may occasionally elapse between pregnancies, but apart from considerations of the ratio of pregnant whales we have firstly the fact that gestation lasts for nearly a year, and secondly, as will be shown below, the nursing period lasts until after the next pairing is over. Thus it is naturally at the second pairing season after gestation that the next impregnation may be expected to take place. We now come to the nursing period. This does not necessarily correspond to the whole period during which the mother is accompanied by the calf or to the whole period during which the mammary glands of the parent are in functional activity, but for our immediate purpose it is required to find the length of the period from birth until weaning. To find the length of the period of gestation it was necessary to ascertain the size of the calf at birth and the rate of growth from conception until parturition. In the same way it is now required to find the length of the young whale at weaning and the rate of growth of the calf during the nursing period. The period of lactation is more difficult to determine than the period of gestation, but a few records are available which may be plotted out in much the same way as the foetuses. In the first place, the average length at which weaning takes place may be found (in the same way as the length at birth) from records of the largest sucking calves and the smallest young whales which are feeding independently. Among Blue whales examined by us there appear to be only two which were being fed by the mother. These were both caught at Saldanha Bay in September. The first, No. 1064, measured 13°35 m., and had very poorly developed baleen plates, of which the longest were only 18 cm. A curve showing the rate of growth of the baleen is given in Fig. 49 on p. 314. This curve shows a sudden increase in the rate of growth after the calf has reached a length of 16-0 m., and it has already been suggested that this increase is connected with a change from a diet of milk to one of krill, and comes considerably after the longest plate has reached a length of 18 cm. Whale No. 1064 was taken two days after a lactating whale (No. 1057) by the same boat and at the same spot, and was considered by the whalers to be the calf of that whale. ‘The stomach 432 DISCOVERY REPORTS contained no krill but a turbid, watery fluid was present, and this seems compatible with the suggestion that this was a calf which was being fed by the mother but had been starved for two days. In any case it is fairly certain that this 13-35 m. whale can be safely put down as an unweaned calf. Ten days after the capture of No. 1064 another Blue whale (No. 1085) was taken, which measured 13:95 m. Here the baleen was still short (22 cm.) and the stomach is noted as containing “‘a yellow fluid’’. The baleen seems hardly long enough for inde- pendent feeding and has not yet reached the length at which the increased rate of growth takes place. This may have been the calf of No. 1079, a lactating Blue whale caught the day before. These two (Nos. 1064 and 1085) are the two largest unweaned calves of which we have been able to find records. Messrs Hamilton and Matthews, on a visit to Durban in 1926, measured a young Blue whale of 11-85 m. of which the baleen measured 15 cm., but there was unfortunately no opportunity to examine the contents of its stomach. Unfortunately we met with only one whale measuring between 13-95 m. and 16-0 m. and in this whale (No. 823, 15°83 m.) the baleen and stomach were not examined. At 16:25 m. No. 248 had baleen 27 cm. long and a substance “like congealed blood” (which may well have been partially digested milk mixed with some blood) in the stomach. The probability is on the whole that this whale had not yet taken to independent feeding. Two other whales (No. 767, 16-8 m. and No. 1584, 16-95 m.) both had krill in the stomach. The baleen was not measured in these whales but in No. 1104 which measured 16-82 m. (and had only blood in the stomach) the baleen was 40 cm. long, suggesting that this whale had also been weaned. It is thus reasonably certain that weaning takes place when the calf has reached some length between about 14:0 m. and 16-5 m. In view of the fact that No. 248 measuring 16-25 m. was probably not weaned, and that the growth of the baleen plates appears to become speeded up between 16-0 m. and 17-0 m. it is probable that the required length is much nearer 16-5 m. than 14-0 m. Now, although No. 248 appeared not to be weaned it will probably be safest to put the mean length at which Blue whales are weaned at 16-0 m. for there is likely to be plenty of variation in the length of the calf at this stage and we have three whales from 16-8 m. to 16:95 m. which were all weaned. Fin whales are evidently weaned at a much shorter length than Blue whales. The smallest specimen we examined measured 12:3 m. (No. 891) and had krill in the stomach and baleen 41 cm. long. Krill was also present in No. 999 (13°35 m.) but the baleen was not measured. In No. gto (13:38 m.) the stomach was empty, but in No. 84 (13°55 m.) a milk-like substance was present in the stomach and the baleen measured 30cm. In No. 1187 (also 13:55 m.), on the other hand, the baleen measured 50 cm. and though the stomach contents were not examined the faeces were typical of whales feeding on krill. BREEDING AND GROWTH 433 It is a pity that no Fin whales of less than 12:0 m. were seen, but it may be gathered that weaning in this species takes place when the calf is in fact about 12-0 m. long. There are not quite adequate data for the construction of the curve of baleen growth (see p. 355) and the first half of it rather depends on analogy with the curve for Blue whales, but it is evident from the plotted points that no spurt in growth takes place after the calf has reached much more than 13-0 m. and one may expect that it occurs between 12:0 m. and 13-0 m. All the whales over 12-0 m. were weaned except perhaps one. This one (No. 84 mentioned above) was probably unweaned, and it merely serves to show that if a Fin whale can reach 13-55 m. before being weaned, the normal length at which Fin whales are weaned is not likely to be far below 12-0 m. It might in fact be above 12:0 m., for No. 891 (12:3 m.) might have been weaned earlier than usual. Hinton refers to two records of Fin whale calves of 4o ft. and 45 ft. (i.e. 12:2 m. and 13°7m.) from the North Atlantic which were suspected of being fed on milk owing to a yellowish substance found in the stomach. In any case, until further material has been collected, it may be assumed that Blue whales are weaned on the average at 16-0 m. and Fin whales at 12:0 m. The difference between these two lengths is very striking, especially as it actually exceeds the difference between the lengths at which the two species become sexually mature, but it seems impossible to avoid the conclusion that if the growth of the baleen of Fin whales re- sembles that of Blue whales, the increase in the rate of growth takes place when the Fin whale is 4-0 m. shorter than the Blue whale. In an estimation of the rate of growth of the calf during lactation and the length of the nursing period, an examination of the ratio of mature females which are nursing is not of much assistance, for their appearance is very irregular and there is a probability that a part of the nursing period is spent in some seclusion or segregation from the main herds, so that the proportion represented by those which do appear on the whaling grounds is uncertain. Furthermore, it must be remembered that the killing of females accompanied by a calf is prohibited in the Dependencies. From the accounts of the whalers it seems that young calves are very rarely seen in the Dependencies but are commoner off the South African coasts. This is to be expected since the calves appear to be born early in the southern winter when the mothers have travelled north into the warmer waters. Small calves are of course seldom killed by the South African whalers as they are scarcely worth pursuing, but, as is pointed out in the section on blubber, the lactating whales examined at Saldanha Bay were very fat compared with those at South Georgia, indicating a comparatively early stage in the nursing period. It happens occasionally at South African stations that sucking calves are killed and when this occurs valuable evidence is provided as to the rate of growth during the nursing period. At South Georgia Blue whales of less than 16-0 m. or Fin whales of less than 130m. are practically never captured. As scarcely any small calves have appeared in the course of our work it is necessary to turn elsewhere to find material on which to extend the curve of growth. Records of calves are extremely scarce, but among the statistics furnished to the British Museum 23 K IV 434 DISCOVERY REPORTS by the whaling companies the number of whales recorded is so great that it is possible to glean a moderate number of measurements of whales sufficiently small to be regarded as unweaned calves. hese have been plotted according to their size and date in Figs. 149 and 150, and are taken from the statistics of the whaling stations at South Georgia and of Messrs Irvin and Johnson’s station at Saldanha Bay, Cape Colony. Records from the South Shetlands and South Orkneys have been excluded as unreliable owing to the difficulty of measuring whales from a floating factory. For the estimation of the rate of growth during lactation Blue whales may be taken first, since for this species the material gives rather more definite results. It will be seen in Fig. 149 that the plotted points representing calves are much more scattered than those representing foetuses, but that the young calves are inclined to occur early in the southern winter while the large ones are massed in the late winter and early summer (i.e. about October, November and December). There is in fact an unmistakable path of points sloping upwards through the southern winter, and the mean curve of growth is drawn to represent as closely as possible the line of this path. Two dotted curves are drawn parallel to the mean curve of growth and set on either side of it at intervals of two months. Over the gestation period these curves are accurate reproductions of the mean curve and represent the growth of foetuses conceived two months before or two months after the height of the breeding season. They are similar during the nursing period, but are drawn to diverge slightly to allow for differential rates of growth. It will be seen that these two curves enclose not only practically every foetus but also the vast majority of the calves. In other words, although they appear rather scattered and irregular, it may be supposed that the majority of recorded calves were born within four months of one another. Various factors might explain the points which fall outside the dotted curves, among which are exceptional pairings outside the breeding season, exceptionally rapid or slow growth after birth, and faulty measurement or recording by those supplying the statistics from which the plotted calves are derived. To return to the mean growth curve it is seen that this reaches the 16 m. level opposite the earlier part of December. It may be estimated therefore that the nursing period lasts on the average from May to December, i.e. about seven months. Growth during this period thus appears to be very rapid and equal (in linear increase in size) to the rate at the end of gestation. One might expect that the occurrence of lactating females, especially at South Georgia, might help to throw some light on the normal time at which the nursing period closes, but little help is to be found in this direction owing to the irregularity of the appearance of these whales. In the 1925-6 season at South Georgia there was a comparatively large number early in the season and few in the second half, a state of affairs which appears to tally well with the foregoing conclusions as to the nursing period. On the other hand, in the 1926-7 season, the lactating Blue whales predominated towards the end. It must of course be remembered that December would be only the average of a large number of times at which weaning might take place and that the process of weaning BREEDING AND GROWTH 435 > FOETUSES .-" i) ~ LENGTH IN METRES to SEPT.’ oct. NOV.” DEC. yan. ! FEB. Tar.! apr. MAY Tune !yuty! aua. 'sepr. OCT. " NOV.” DEC." JAN.” FEB. MAR, JUNE! jury! auc. Ss Fig. 149. Blue whales. Mean curve of growth during gestation and nursing. 12 WEANING 11 4 ” y ; Ee FOETUSES.- w Pry = Z2 = Bil zi [he Il een yo eee JUNE' yuLy' auG.' sept.’ oct. ' Noy.' pec. * JAN.' FEB. ' MAR.’ APR." MAY" JUNE’ JULY" AUG.” SEPT." OCT." NOV. -" JAN." FEB. " MAR. 436 DISCOVERY REPORTS may itself take some little time and an even longer period may elapse before the con- dition of the mammary glands has finally reverted to the normal. Thus in any case we may expect to find lactating whales long after December, but even so the most important cause of the irregularity in the appearance of lactating females is that their distribution and movements are probably different from other “‘classes”” of Blue whales. It is not unlikely that they seek seclusion of some kind during a large part of the nursing period and it is probable that if the catches of the whaling stations constituted a representative sample of the whole stock, the lactating whales would regularly be found to be more numerous in the earlier part of the southern summer. We have seen then that the nursing period in Blue whales appears to occupy about seven months, on the average from about May to December, and that during this period the length of the calf becomes more than doubled. Fig. 150 has been constructed for Fin whales in just the same way as Fig. 149, but the records of calves are scarcer than in the case of Blue whales. This is no doubt due to the fact that the calves in this species, being weaned when much smaller than those of the Blue whale, are from the whaler’s point of view not worth taking. All that can be said is that there is a group of large calves occurring mostly about October which were presumably born in the previous autumn (i.e. between about April and July). The mean growth curve is therefore continued upwards so as to pass through the middle of this group. It is then found to reach the 12 m. level opposite the month of December. Thus for Fin whales about six months is estimated for the nursing period which, on the average, should last from June to December. It will be noted that the rate of growth during this period is appreciably slower than that of Blue whale calves. As to the occurrence of lactating whales much the same comments apply to Fin as to Blue whales, but lactating Fin whales appear to have been spread a little more evenly over the season than lactating Blue whales. In considering now the subsequent growth of the young whale, Blue whales must again be taken first. Up till now the rate of growth of the calf has been extremely rapid, but there is some evidence that after weaning the rate of growth slows down consider- ably. This fact together with the almost certain intervention of different individual rates of growth would obscure any evidence from the plotting of larger whales according to length and date, and in order to find the rate of growth over the next period of development, that is from weaning to sexual maturity, different methods have to be employed. By a kind of statistical analysis of the catches of whales it can be argued that in all probability the period which elapses between weaning and sexual maturity is rather less than two years, or rather more than two years from birth. The evidence from this cannot perhaps be regarded as conclusive, but receives support from evidence from certain other sources. It is necessary first to consider some aspects of the migrations of Blue and Fin whales. It has been shown that the period of lactation mostly covers the winter and early part of the southern summer. During the winter the whales are to the north in warmer BREEDING AND GROWTH 437 water, but in the spring the southward migration begins and from the fact that weaning appears to take place about December, it is to be supposed that the mother with her calf migrates southwards in the beginning of the summer in order to wean the calf on the feeding grounds of the Dependencies. Probably the migration of the mother is more leisurely than that of the main body of whales travelling to the south. This is in itself probable since the calf cannot be expected to swim as fast as the adult. The suggestion is also supported by other facts. For instance there is a phenomenon which appears to be quite regular from year to year at South Georgia. If reference is made to Plates XLIII and XLIV, it will be seen that in the second half of the South Georgia season there is a regular influx of smaller whales, and that many of these (unless growth has slowed down to an improbable extent) can hardly have been weaned more than a few months, and are thus the season’s new batch of whales. There is one point, however, which does not appear to agree very well with the theory that the mother and calf regularly migrate southwards towards the end of the nursing period and that is that there are numerous small whales off the South African coast in winter, many of which are obviously too small to have migrated south and back again to warmer waters since they were weaned. It is difficult to say what relation these small South African whales bear to the main stock. It is possible that in some cases the calf is weaned on the small and rather scarce krill in those waters and remains in the northerly regions for the first summer. Up to the present the story of the whale’s growth may be summarized as follows. Impregnation in both Blue and Fin whales may be expected to take place about June or July and the calf is born on the average about the beginning of the following May after the parent has made a southward migration to feed during gestation and returned to the warmer waters towards the north. The calf is born at 6:5 to 7m. and during a nursing period of some six or seven months it grows to about 16 m. in the case of Blue whales and 12 m. in the case of Fin whales. At this stage the summer is reached and the calf is weaned when it has migrated with the parent to the southern feeding grounds. It is now necessary to find the rate of growth from this point up to sexual maturity, and to throw light on this we must, as mentioned above, examine the catches from a statistical point of view. The following table shows the length frequencies of all the whales examined in the course of our work. ‘That is to say it shows, for various periods, the numbers of individuals which have occurred at different lengths, successive metres of length being taken as the most convenient length groups. Separate figures are given for separate seasons, but the second half of the 1924~—5 season (when work was started) and the 1925-6 season are amalgamated in one column as the constitution of the whale population of South Georgia was somewhat similar in these two seasons, whereas it was quite different in the 1926~7 season. The result of this analysis of the catches can be examined more satisfactorily in a graphic form. In Figs. 151, 152 and 153 the figures are plotted in charts which show 438 DISCOVERY REPORTS the number of whales in each length group, the different seasons and sexes being kept separate as in the table. Blue Whales Number of females Number of males Ens: ) Feb N 6 inM. | Feb. to ct. 1925 | Feb. 1925 | Nov. 1926) ciiganha| Feb. to Oct. 1925 | Feb. 1925 | Nov. 1926 Saldanha 5~| to Mar. | to Mar. | to Apr. 2 to Mar. | to Mar. | to Apr. May 1925 nae hats eee Bay 1926 | May 1925 r 636" peers See Bay 1926 13 _- 2 —~ — — = = 14 — 2s ‘ sa 15 I 16 — 4 4 — 7] I = I I 2 17 2 3 5 2 16 I Fi 8 7 21 18 4 12 16 5 28 6 9 15 6 33 19 6 i 13 9 24 7 8 15 8 23 20 9 7 16 4 12 2 7] 9 6 14 21 5 4 9 4 8 II 8 19 a I 22 4 5 9 7 4 6 3 9 15 Tl 23 6 2 8 14 2 4 5 9 33 7 24 5 7, 12 15 6 8 9 17 45 6 25 7 7 14 42 v/ 4 2 6 28 3 26 8 II 19 36 9 3 2 27 2 it g 6 I = = 28 -- I I 2 Fin Whales Number of females Number of males ae Oct Feb. 1925 |Nov. 1926 Oct. 1925 | Feb. 1925 | Nov. 1926 inm. | Feb. to |7°t.1925 | ¥ed. 1925) NOV.1929) caidanha| Feb. to | ~°1975 | T€0-1925 | NOV. 1920! Saldanha >. | to Mar. | to Mar. | to Apr. : to Mar. | to Mar. | to Apr. May 1925 ere aab a Bay 1926 | May 1925 1926 NGseR 1927 Bay 1926 12 I — —_ pod — I 13 I I — I — 5 14 — I I I I4 — 2 2 I 23 15 2 2 4 3 25 — 2 2 4 30 16 2 6 8 I I4 2 3 5 2 18 17 5 3 8 3 9 + 4 8 5 8 18 8 9 17 5 2 8 9 17 i 3 19 9 8 17 4 I 17 42 59 13 9 20 12 18 30 II 4 18 88 106 18 13 21 17 40 57 18 4 6 56 62 10 4 22, 5) 432) 55 5) —= a 4 4 a6 23 4 9 3} 3 a = md a r= a 24, i 3 4 = = ra Tar = —~ a If one were dealing only with fully grown whales one would expect a curve con- structed in this way to resolve itself into something like a normal frequency curve, the medium-sized whales being commonest and the larger and smaller whales progressively fewer. But as young whales in several stages of growth are included in the catches, the beginning or left-hand side of the curve (representing the smaller whales) may be expected to rise more gradually, and over a greater range of size, than the right-hand NUMBERS OF INDIVIDUALS 10 10 20 15 ta So ao —] BREEDING AND GROWTH 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 LENGTH GROUPS (METRES) Fig. 151. Blue whales. Length frequencies for different periods. Females. ----- Males. 439 440 DISCOVERY REPORTS part of the curve (representing the specially large whales). This, approximately, is the result obtained among Fin whales (Fig. 153). The difference between the two maxima represents roughly the normal difference in length between the sexes. When we turn to the Blue whales we find that some of the curves are of quite an unexpected shape. In the 1926-7 season, when the majority were fully grown, the curves are of the normal type found in Fin whales with one marked apex for each sex, but in the preceding seasons the curves tend to resolve themselves into several apices 20: S. GEORGIA 1926-7 bo a no oS 15 SALDANHA BAY 1926 NUMBERS OF INDIVIDUALS 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 «24. 25 26 «27 28 LENGTH GROUPS (METRES) Fig. 152. Blue whales (continued). Length frequencies for different periods. Females. §§ ----- Males. of comparatively uniform prominence. Perhaps the best example is furnished by the figures for males and females in the half-season February to May 1925. There are three maxima for each sex showing that males are commonest at 18-19 m., 21 m. and 24 m. and less numerous at 20m. and 22-23 m., and that females are more numerous at 20m., 23m. and 26m. and less numerous at 21-22 m. and 24m. In other words these whales tend to approximate to one of three different sizes which may be regarded as (1) small immature (18-19 m. in males, 20 m. in females), (2) large immature (21 m. BREEDING AND GROWTH 441 S. GEORGIA FEB.-MAY 1925 S. GEORGIA 1925-6 100 Ls 80 60 40 20 15 10 S. GEORGIA 1926-7 So s \) > no oS SALDANHA BAY 1926 NUMBERS OF INDIVIDUALS a i) i) 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 LENGTH GROUPS (METRES) Fig. 153. Fin whales. Length frequencies for different periods. Females. ----- Males. K IV 24 442 DISCOVERY REPORTS in males, 23 m. in females), and (3) mature (24 m. in males, 26 m. in females). Again the differences between the maxima are about equal to the ordinary differences in length between the sexes. The tendency towards three dominant length groups is also to be seen in the curves for the 1925-6 season, and in the graph showing the February—May 1925 figures combined with those of season 1925-6. Although the numbers of whales on which these curves are based is small it is difficult to believe that the appearance of these length groups is due to chance, and the explanation seems to be as follows. If breeding took place regularly all the year round one would expect the young whales to appear equally at all sizes at any given time, but as breeding takes place mostly at a particular season there will be batches of “WINTER: SUMMER —>-WINTER->:<— SUMMER —>; : (NORTH) : (souTH) : (NORTH) : (souTH) : (NoRTH) : 3 : : ; : : ent SFEMALES:/SEXUALSMATURIDY AT 28-7, Miz= == === - =2 === sia bk EE iN ee PAWTALES = SEXUAL MATURITY: AT) 22-6 (Me es pee Sea ..SECOND SEASON SOUTH: 21 M. (APPROX.) ¢ ----~--- PS SSS aos iss .-FIRST SEASON SOUTH: 18 M. (APPROX.) ¢ ~ ~~~ ZReWEANING UAT 16M jajss =e oo 1 © ~- BIRTH AT 7M. .-.- 22 — 1 ' t { 1 ‘ { { | I ' ( ' ! 1 t ‘ uF i: a | | : ' : ——_—_——> maturity : ' F LENGTH IN METRES a - <—_— GESTATION ——>|X—_NURSING—9 |<—_-AD OLESCENCE : ; ' ; 2 i t Lb OCT DEC MAY oct MAY JUL oct 1ST YEAR 2ND YEAR Fig. 154. Blue whales. Estimated mean curve of growth from conception to sexual maturity. JUN MAY young whales differing in length from one another by an amount equal to a year’s growth. It is therefore not unreasonable to suppose that the difference between our two immature groups represents a year’s growth. The most uniform results seem to be furnished by the male Blue whales. The facts may be stated as follows. In the summer. season at South Georgia male Blue whales are most common at 18-19m., 21m. and 24m. If the calf is weaned at 16m. it might quite reasonably be expected, judging by its rapid growth during nursing, to grow to 18 m, before the end of its first summer (see Fig. 154). ‘Then the inference from these BREEDING AND GROWTH 443 length groups is that the young whale migrates northwards in the next winter, grows a little more and returns to the south in the second summer where it reaches a length of 21m. At the end of this second summer it returns again to the north to grow up to 22 or 23 m. It is at this length (speaking still of male Blue whales) that sexual maturity is reached. Although there are very few whales among the winter catches at Saldanha Bay approximating to the length at which maturity is reached, it is still probable that this condition is attained before the commencement of the southward migration, for it appears that this locality is not the ordinary haunt of whales which leave the south in the winter. pwr w Io Oo fr) - oO tr rn mn ny nm & = 204+- -FEMALES: SEXUAL MATURITY AT 20:0M..-—- —~— —~— — — Be ae i UNE ESS SUNG RYO O NE TIE NENG eee Oe 124 -WEANING AT 120M... __ — — -— Soc TR AR GENe oo Sa LENGTH IN METRES mm oO bm mo Oo Io Oo o is os pre nphae Fig. 155. Fin whales. Estimated mean curve of growth from conception to sexual maturity. Thus if the whale is born at the beginning of May, then the indications are that sexual maturity is reached after a period of slightly more than two years. The general significance of this surprisingly rapid growth will be discussed later, and in the meantime we may complete the curve of growth for male Blue whales up to sexual maturity and slightly beyond that point, as it is to be supposed that the newly adult whale now grows up towards the third length group (24 m.) on its third visit to the south. ‘This is shown in Fig. 154 in which the curve in Fig. 149 is continued and that of the female Blue whales added. It is suggested that the differences in length between males and females at sexual maturity and at maximum growth first appears some time after weaning. The smallest whales of both sexes caught at South Georgia are of about the same length. 24-2 444 DISCOVERY REPORTS In Fin whales it has already been seen that the rate of foetal growth is slower and that the foetus is born at a shorter length than that of Blue whales. The difference in length between the two species is thus marked from the start (by the slower growth rather than by the birth at a smaller size). The breeding season among Fin whales appears to be less definite than that of Blue whales. As a consequence the length groups tend to coincide and this is presumably the explanation of the normal frequency curves shown in Fig. 153 instead of the trimodal curves of the Blue whales. As the growth rate of Fin whales is unlikely to be substantially different from that of Blue whales a provisional curve for the former can be constructed by analogy from weaning at 12 m. to sexual maturity at 20 m. for females and 19:4 m. for males (Fig. 155). It may appear that a good deal has been taken for granted in the construction of this curve for Fin whales, but it must be remembered that the curves of growth subsequent to weaning are intended in both species only to represent the most probable rate of growth, as indicated by such evidence as is available. The important point is to find out whether two or three years or, say, five or six years are passed before maturity 1s reached, and the details of the curve are relatively insignificant. At this point the steps by which the whole growth curve is built up from conception to the attainment of sexual maturity may be briefly recapitulated. The records of foetuses show that the greater part of foetal growth takes place during the southern summer, and this, coupled with the occurrence of very small embryos, evidence in the ovaries of ovulation and in the testis of a male sexual season, enables us to fix the middle of the breeding season about June or July. It is known that birth takes place in Blue whales at about 7 m. and in Fin whales at about 6-5 m., and by drawing a line to represent as nearly as possible the slope of the plotted foetuses we are able to complete the curve of growth during gestation, which gives us a period of about ten months. For the nursing period exactly the same method is used. The length of the calf at weaning is known to be in the neighbourhood of 16 m. in Blue whales and 12 m. in Fin whales. The gestation curve is extended over the nursing period, and, guided by points plotted to represent records of calves, reaches the length at which weaning takes place some six or seven months after birth. This brings us over the southern winter to the early part of the summer, the mother and calf having presumably migrated southwards during the spring. As to the rest of the curve of growth, the fact that adolescent Blue whales at South Georgia tend to approximate to one of two lengths is attributed to the production of annual batches of calves, and from this, the length at maturity being known, it is estimated that maturity is reached some two years after birth. Thus the whole curve is built up by ascertaining the lengths at which the important “‘landmarks”’, such as birth, weaning and sexual maturity, are reached, and by filling in the rate of growth between by whatever evidence is available. The earlier part of the curve is based on the soundest evidence and it becomes more speculative towards the end. Perhaps the most important point which emerges is the very short period which elapses between birth and the attainment of sexual maturity. BREEDING AND GROWTH 445 The reliability of the statistical method of calculating this period might be questioned, but a glance at Figs. 154 and 155 will show that it is during the periods of gestation and nursing that the surprisingly rapid growth takes place and that the section of the curve based on the statistical evidence shows a marked reduction in the rate of growth. Mention has already been made of a paper by Andrews (1914) on the Pacific Grey whale, Rhachianectes glaucus. Here there is more evidence of the rapid growth of whalebone whales, for, from some notes on the period of gestation and rate of growth, it appears that it more than doubles its length in its first year. An investigation of the rate of growth of this species is also made by Risting, who shows that by the end of this first year after birth this species is almost certainly adult. Direct evidence of the rapid growth of a young whale, probably a Fin whale, is also mentioned in the Report of the Interdepartmental Committee on Research and Develop- ment in the Dependencies of the Falkland Islands (p.'77). Reference is here made to a case in which a recently born whale was observed early in May. It was presumably not more than about 8 m. long and had a wound by means of which it was recognizable. It was noticed by the whalers all through the summer, and by the autumn it had grown to some 14 or 15 m. This indicates a rate of growth which corresponds fairly well with that shown in Fig. 155. The great size of Blue and Fin whales is apt to result, perhaps naturally, in the im- pression that they must require an exceptionally long time to grow to maturity and must live to a great age in comparison with other animals. It has been shown, however, that growth is surprisingly rapid during both gestation and adolescence, and that the whale becomes adult within an unexpectedly short time. It will therefore be interesting to make a comparison in this respect with some other mammals. The period of adolescence in most mammals varies from about two to five times the length of the period of gestation, and up to a point it may be said that the larger the animal the longer the periods of gestation and adolescence. In the rat, for instance, the period of gestation is about three weeks, and it starts breeding about two months after birth, while in cats and dogs the corresponding periods are about two and ten months. The horse resembles the Blue and Fin whale in this respect, for gestation lasts for some eleven months and breeding may take place two years after birth. The longest period of gestation appears to be that of the elephant, in which twenty months elapse between conception and birth. The age at which puberty is reached is probably considerable, since full maturity is not reached before about twenty-five years. Thus the periods of gestation and adolescence in whales are short in proportion to their size when compared with the land mammals. This is not only the case in Blue and Fin whales, but also, as we have seen, in Rhachianectes, in which both gestation and adolescence last only about one year. It is probable in fact that in marine mammals growth is in general relatively fast, for in the sea elephant also, which may be regarded as one of the definitely large mammals, the period of gestation is eleven months and breeding appears to begin about a year after birth. 446 DISCOVERY REPORTS A point of some interest arises when the development and growth of the whalebone whales is examined in connection with the enormous size attained by the adult. It has already been pointed out that during the early part of gestation growth is slow, but that the general form of the body is rapidly perfected, so that a foetus of 0-5 m. really differs very little from an adult whale. Now although the difference in size between the sexes probably does not appear until about the time when the young whale is weaned, reference to Figs. 154 and 155 will show that the difference in size between Blue and Fin whales is apparent quite early in the development of the foetus. This specific difference in size is attained simply by more rapid growth on the part of the larger species and not by growth spread over a longer period. Blue whales are apparently ready for birth at a greater length in, if anything, an actually shorter time than Fin whales. It is probable that in the early stages of the development of the foetus, when the organs are being formed and the limbs completed, the actual increase in length would be approximately the same for both species, and it may be suggested that development up to this point does not differ in any special way from the development of other mammals, and that the foundations for the whale’s great subsequent size have not yet been laid down. After this, however, instead of development being quietly finished off and birth taking place, the rest of gestation is devoted to a great burst of growth, the rapidity of which in the different species appears to be proportional to the size of the whale when fully adult. As it is practically certain that the great size of whales is, from the evolutionary point of view, a recently acquired character, it would naturally be expected to make its appearance in the later part of gestation. Thus the great size of a whale does not necessarily imply the need for a long period to attain that size. The capacity for rapid growth is to be re- garded rather as one of a number of characters distinguishing certain whales from other mammals. THE AGES OF WHALES It is important that something should be known of the ages of whales, but the problem is a very difficult one to approach. At present no direct method of judging the age of any individual has been found, but it is often possible to say whether one whale is older or younger than another, and in the case of the younger whales there are sometimes grounds for making some kind of guess at the actual age. The main object, however, of this section will be to give an idea of the kind of results which may be hoped for in this direction in the future. The size of a whale, the number of old scars, the condition of the vertebral epiphyses and the number of old corpora lutea may all throw some light on the age of a whale. It is obvious that size is up to a point a rough criterion of age, and we already have grounds for supposing that when a whale reaches the size at which it should become adult it is about two years old. After a whale becomes adult it may reasonably be sup- posed that it will continue to grow at least a little and that in some cases it adds several metres to its length, so that one is justified in saying that, for instance, any female Fin whale measuring about 20m. is unlikely to be more than two or three years THE AGES OF WHALES 447 old and that one measuring 23 or 24 m. is unlikely to be less than three or four years old. But one cannot go further than this. The old scars left on the whale’s skin by the wounds contracted in temperate or sub- tropical waters seem to be cumulative, for they are generally more numerous on large than on small whales, but they are of little value except that they may help to show whether a whale is comparatively old or comparatively young. It would be practically impossible to count the scars and such a figure would in any case convey very little information. The condition of the vertebral epiphyses and the numbers of corpora lutea are worth considering in more detail. The former gives an indication of full maturity (and not merely of sexual maturity) and the latter, although it does not take us far, and applies only to females, is in some ways the most important clue to the age of a whale which has so far appeared. The ankylosis of the epiphyses with the centra throughout the vertebral column can be taken as marking the attainment of full maturity in the animal and cessation of growth in length. Owen (1853), who found that the skeletons of such whales as were available for study possessed unfused epiphyses, suggested that no fusion ever took place and that the immature condition persisted to give greater flexibility to the body and tail, but Flower (1864) showed that when full maturity was reached fusion took place in whales as in other mammals. He further showed that the fusion first took place in the cervical and caudal regions and proceeded from each end to the middle of the column. The examination of the vertebrae at whaling stations would be much more profitable than it is were it not for the practical difficulties involved. At South Georgia the cutting up of the carcasses is accomplished with considerable speed, and as the operation of exposing the epiphyses is a comparatively laborious process it is impossible to carry it out systematically. At Saldanha Bay some opportunities for this work occurred and a number of observations were made upon whales whose length suggested that they might be approaching or past full physical maturity. ‘The method of examination con- sisted essentially in cutting away the periosteum between the vertebrae and exposing the edge of one of them. The state of fusion of the epiphysis with its centrum could then be noted. At the whaling station at Saldanha Bay the vertebral column was usually hauled on to the “bone platform” ventral side uppermost. This permitted the counting of the vertebrae from the first ventral chevron and facilitated the cutting away of the periosteum without assistance from station hands and machinery. As many vertebrae as time permitted were examined, but not more than three could be done at any time before the column was cut up. The observations made were as follows: 448 DISCOVERY REPORTS Blue Males Whale Length Vertebrae State of Not ; : es number (m.) examined epiphyses 1045 2352 3rd dorsal Not ankylosed Vertebra red, epiphysis white 8th dorsal Not ankylosed Vertebra red, epiphysis white 13th dorsal Not ankylosed Cartilaginous layer between epi- physis and centrum 110g 24°9 roth lumbar Ankylosed = 1100 25°9 roth dorsal Ankylosed Rounding off roth lumbar Ankylosed Rounding off 1029 26:3 roth dorsal Ankylosed No traces of join 4th lumbar Ankylosed No traces of join gth lumbar Ankylosed No traces of join ks Blue Females Whale Length Vertebrae State of Notes number (m.) examined epiphyses 1095 19°85 5th dorsal Not ankylosed — roth dorsal Not ankylosed — 98 20°1 2nd or 3rd Not ankylosed — dorsal 1124 25°7 3rd dorsal Not ankylosed ; 5 ‘ sh dot Notankylned | | Vertcra rd, epiphyte 1cth dorsal Not ankylosed 1079 25°95 7th dorsal Not ankylosed Vertebra red, epiphysis white goo 26°3 roth dorsal Not ankylosed Vertebral column broken on plat- form. Epiphysis parted from centrum Fin Males Whale Length Vertebrae State of Notes number (m.) examined epiphyses 940 15°43 7th dorsal Not ankylosed = 1030 19:0 8th dorsal Not ankylosed Vertebra red, epiphysis white 13th dorsal Not ankylosed = III 20°35 roth dorsal Not ankylosed Vertebra red, epiphysis white 15th dorsal Not ankylosed Vertebra and epiphysis white roth lumbar Not ankylosed = 1094 21°2 roth dorsal Ankylosed Rounding off roth lumbar Ankylosed Rounding off 15th lumbar Ankylosed Rounding off Fin Females Whale Length Vertebrae State of Notes number (m.) examined epiphyses 186 2H 6th dorsal Not ankylosed = 963 16-78 1st dorsal Not ankylosed — THE AGES OF WHALES 449 These observations, being made on the dorsal and lumbar vertebrae near the middle of the vertebral column, should, if Flower is correct, be sufficient in most cases to show whether or not fusion has spread through the whole column. Complete maturity appears to have been attained in three of the Blue males but in none of the Blue females, although the largest measured over 26 m. Only one vertebra was examined in No. 1109, so that one cannot be certain about the whole column, but there is little doubt that Nos. r100 and 1029 were fully mature. From this it appears that male Blue whales reach full physical maturity at somewhere about 25 m. and females at some length over 26 m., but the data are of course extremely meagre. The data for Fin whales suggest about 21 m. as the corresponding length in males and probably 22 or more metres in females. As was to be expected these observations give further evidence that females are normally of greater size than males. . It has been pointed out in the section on the reproductive organs that a clue to the age of a female whale is to be found in the remains of the corpora lutea of the ovaries. At the end of its existence as a functional body (i.e. very soon after parturition; or, if the ovum is not fertilized, after presumably a much shorter period) the corpus luteum shrinks to a small fibrous body. Old corpora lutea formed in this way may accumulate, owing to their longevity, in considerable numbers in whales which have been adult sufficiently long. Thus a whale with a large number of corpora lutea is almost certainly older than one with a small number, and if one large group of females on the average has more corpora lutea than another group, there is hardly any doubt that they are on the average older whales. We may make use of this in a general comparison of the ages of the whales caught in successive seasons and examined by us. The figures are as follows: Blue Whales Number of Average Average number Season adult females* length of corpora lutea South Georgia, Feb—May 1925 18 25°46 5°78 South Georgia, 1925-6 season | 21 25°56 6°67 South Georgia, 1926-7 season 47 25°54 10°96 Saldanha Bay, 1926 season Ite 25 25°54 7°10 * In which the total number of functional and old corpora lutea could be counted. It is seen from this that female Blue whales averaged about the same age during the second part of the 1924-5 season at South Georgia and during the 1925-6 season at South Georgia and the 1926 season at Saldanha Bay. But it is evident that their ages were, in general, distinctly greater in the 1926-7 season at South Georgia. In the case of Fin whales (see table overleaf) it appears that in all four seasons there was no marked difference in the average ages. It has been shown that the difficulty of estimating a whale’s actual age from the KIV 25 450 DISCOVERY REPORTS number of old corpora lutea lies in the uncertainty of the number which are formed each season. Several years at least, and possibly many years, must elapse before the last traces of a corpus luteum disappear, but as one cannot be sure that they do not last indefinitely, any estimations of actual age must be applied only to the younger whales. Fin Whales Ganson Number of Average Average number adult females* length of corpora lutea South Georgia, Feb —May 1925 | 33 21°56 918 South Georgia, 1925-6 season 75 21°78 10°05 South Georgia, 1926-7 season | 18 21-96 II-00 Saldanha Bay, 1926 | 6 21°12 9°50 * Tn which the total number of functional and old corpora lutea could be counted. In a polyoestrous animal the possible number of ovulations in any one season is restricted by the supervention of pregnancy or by the season itself. It is probable that the number will not be very great. Further, in a social and migratory animal like the whale, one might hope to find, at least for a season or two after the attainment of sexual maturity, a similarity in the experiences of the majority in respect of the number of ovulations which do occur. For instance, all whales in their first year of sexual maturity ovulate. After their first sexual season the minimum number of corpora lutea will be one (the whale having become pregnant at the first ovulation) and the maximum number will represent the number of dioestrous cycles, probably not much more than half a dozen. A majority of whales would perhaps have ovulated the same number of times, perhaps four or five corpora lutea being formed, and become pregnant. At the next season these whales will begin lactation and no corpora lutea will be formed, but further ovulations and a fresh batch of corpora lutea will occur at the third season. Assuming that the number of old corpora lutea is normally increased in this way in alternate years, it is interesting to examine the frequencies of the numbers in which they are found to occur in the ovaries. In Figs. 156 and 157 the frequencies of the numbers of corpora lutea are plotted for Blue and Fin whales. These show that four to five and ten are the numbers of corpora lutea which have been found most commonly in Blue whales’ ovaries, and about four to five, twelve, and possibly nineteen among Fin whales. The following explanation may be suggested for the prevalence of these numbers. Taking Blue whales first we may call those with from one to eight corpora lutea Group r. The whales in this group would be expected to consist mostly of those in their first year after sexual maturity which have not become pregnant, those pregnant for the first time, and those lactating or resting after lactation for the first time. Lactating whales will of course be in their second year from sexual maturity. First pregnancies may be recognized by the undeveloped state of the mammary glands. Any whales that are pregnant yet show signs of previous pregnancy appearing in this group are three seasons THE AGES OF WHALES 451 mature and really belong to Group 2. Group 2 may be taken as including whales with from nine to fifteen corpora lutea. Pregnant whales in this group will have been adult (= or _ So or Se NS NG 15 20 25 30 FREQUENCY OF NUMBERS OF CORPORA LUTEA 5 10 NUMBER OF CORPORA LUTEA Fig. 156. Blue whales. Frequency of numbers of corpora lutea. _ FREQUENCY OF NUMBERS OF CORPORA LUTEA 5 10 15 20 25 380 35 NUMBER OF CORPORA LUTEA Fig. 157. Fin whales. Frequency of numbers of corpora lutea. for three seasons, and lactating whales for four seasons. ‘The remaining whales—those with sixteen or more corpora lutea—are presumed to be more than five years old. Applying this grouping to the female Blue whales of South Georgia and South Africa we get the following analysis of the catches: 452 DISCOVERY REPORTS Group I Group 2 Group a Seasons 3rd year | 4th year | 5th year | 6th year | 7th year from from from from and birth birth birth birth over South Georgia, Feb.—May 1925 @* 14 I I I South Georgia, 1925—6 season I 9 5 4 I South Georgia, 1926-7 season 6 8 10 12 II Saldanha Bay, 1926 season fo} 12 7 5 I Total 8 43 23 22 14 * Maturity doubtful. The columns here are headed by the supposed actual ages of the whales (on the assumption that two years elapse between birth and sexual maturity). Thus a whale in, say, its second year after maturity is in its fourth year after birth. It will be realized that the exact distribution of the numbers of whales among the groups and sub-groups in the table is simply an expression of the probabilities so far as they can be understood at present, but the analysis at least strongly suggests that in the first two seasons at South Georgia a considerable proportion of the adult female Blue whales killed were not more than four or five years old, whereas in the 1926-7 season the majority had lived beyond this age. In the case of Fin whales, the grouping shown in the frequency curve is not perhaps very well defined, but Group 1 may be taken as including whales with from one to seven corpora lutea in the ovaries, Group 2 those with from eight to fifteen, and Group 3 the remainder. ‘The analysis is as follows: Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Seasons 3rd year | 4th year | 5th year | 6th year | 7th year from from from from and birth birth birth birth over South Georgia, Feb.—May 1925 4 14 2 6 7 South Georgia, 1925—6 season 4 19 27 II 15 South Georgia, 1926-7 season 2 3 7 I 5 Saldanha Bay, 1926 season fo) ° 4 I I Total 10 36 40 19 28 Here the presumed age distribution shows greater similarity in the different seasons than in the case of Blue whales. The tables suggest that in both species the majority of adult females killed are from about four to six years old. It must be emphasized that this is a very tentative con- clusion, but it is interesting to note not only that Blue and Fin whales grow to sexual maturity in a remarkably short time, but also that there is some evidence to suggest that the whales killed are on the average unexpectedly young. THE STOCK OF WHALES 453 The small proportion of the total stock which appears to exceed six years is significant, for it suggests that the maximum age which a whale attains is a good deal lower than might have been anticipated. tHE STOCK OF WHALES THE CONSTITUTION OF WHALE POPULATIONS In the preceding sections the external characters, nourishment, reproduction and growth of the southern Blue and Fin whales have been separately dealt with and it remains now to consider the whole subject from a more general point of view. To begin with, in order to understand the effect which hunting is likely to have on the stock of whales, one needs to know, among other things, the composition of the com- munities or populations of whales which have become the object of the whalers’ activities in different localities, and the fluctuations which take place in their occurrence and distribution. This involves an examination of the relative abundance of the species of whales; the proportions of males and females, of immature and adult whales, of pregnant, nursing and resting females; and a study of the fluctuations of these classes of whales and the degree to which they are mixed or segregated. It need hardly be pointed out that whales are not scattered evenly throughout the southern ocean but are more or less concentrated in certain areas, although at the same time theyare generally on the move. This implies that they tend to move in close aggrega- tions through some comparatively limited regions and ina more dispersed form through other less limited areas, or that they travel perhaps in herds which spend part of their time in recurring visits to the same regions and part in travelling over various routes in the open ocean. For example, there must be great numbers of whales which regularly visit the coastal waters of South Georgia and other parts of the Dependencies where supplies of food are concentrated, and spend much of the rest of their time in migrations which take them far from land. It would appear in fact that the limitation of the areas in which Euphausia superba lives in such abundance is mainly responsible for the concentration of the whales in those areas, and therefore renders the catching of whales in large quantities comparatively easy. The vast majority of whales caught, for instance, off South Georgia are found within about forty miles of the coast, and if they happen at any time to become scarce within this range the whalers do not usually expect to find more by going much further from land. The whaling industry does not, of course, need to rely on the great feeding grounds for its catches. Off the African coasts a moderate number of whales are caught, but here each station uses a comparatively large number of boats and the climatic conditions are much more favourable. The actual number of accessible whales is not to be compared with that at South Georgia or the South Shetlands. The best known and most extensively exploited feeding grounds and areas of concentration are South Georgia and the South Shetlands. There are, of course, other such places as, for instance, in the Ross Sea where whales are known to exist in great 454 DISCOVERY REPORTS numbers, but it is still uncertain to what extent the krill attracts large communities of whales round the less known fringes of the Antarctic Continent. The data upon which the present paper is based are, of course, restricted to the whales caught at South Georgia and Saldanha Bay, but it is convenient at this point to refer to the connection which exists between South Georgia and other parts of the Antarctic and sub-Antarctic. Our knowledge of the whole stock of whales, so far as it is derived from the examina- tion of whales at a whaling station, depends largely on the fact that there is very little discrimination in the killing of the whales in any particular area and that the nature and composition of the catches are therefore likely to be fairly representative of the nature and composition of the whale population of that area. Then, if that area is frequented by large numbers of whales of all ages and conditions, one can at least derive from it some idea of the probable nature of the whole stock. The danger of assuming too freely that the whales killed form a representative sample of the whole stock has already been pointed out (p. 430), and before a really thorough knowledge of the whole stock can be gained, it is desirable that observations should extend to a number of different localities so that comparisons can be made between the different whale populations, and the whole stock viewed from more than one angle. In this connection a comparison between the catches at South Georgia and South Africa is of considerable interest, for it shows a striking contrast and serves to illustrate the segregation of different classes of whales and their distribution in different localities. At Saldanha Bay Fin and Blue whales of two kinds are to be distinguished. There are (1) small immature whales which are relatively abundant, and (2) large and fully mature whales which are relatively scarce!. The former actually constitute 80 to go per cent of the whole catch. ‘The length-frequency curves (Figs. 152, 153, pp. 440 and 441) show that intermediate-sized whales are very rarely taken. This being so, the large and small whales must be regarded as quite distinct. It is probable that the small whales are for the time being staying in this locality, feeding on what krill they can find, or are at least not actively migrating, while the large whales are taken while travelling past that part of the coast. This suggestion is supported by the greater regularity in the appearance of the smaller whales and the much better condition of the large whales, which, as has already been pointed out, have comparatively thick blubber although they have little or no food in their stomachs. ‘There appears to be very little change in the composition of the local whale population during the season. At South Georgia the constitution of the whale population is entirely different, and is much too complex to be classified into two simple groups. It is more representative than in the vicinity of Saldanha Bay, but there are considerable fluctuations in the numbers of whales, and indications of influxes and effluxes of different classes of whales during the season. The size and nature of the catches also varies, sometimes to a great extent, from season to season. The most obvious points, however, in which the whales of South Georgia differ from those of South Africa are their greater abundance and the fact that the majority are adult. 1 This is commented on by Risting, 1928, p. 37. THE STOCK OF WHALES 455 In order to make a quantitative analysis of the constitution and variations of the catches it is necessary to separate the whales of both species into what we may call different “classes’’. These are as follows: Females Males 1. Immature 1. Immature 2. Mature 2. Mature (a) Resting (d) Pregnant (c) Lactating (d) Pregnant or recently ovulated ‘Pregnant or recently ovulated”’ refers to whales in which a functional corpus luteum but no foetus was found. Such whales may be classed together since if a foetus was missed it would probably be so small that for our purpose the whale could practically be regarded as having “recently ovulated”’. There is little object in separating males into more than the sexually mature and immature classes, but in the case of females some discrimination must be made between whales in the various stages in the sexual cycle. The tables which follow show the ratios of the numbers of whales of each class which were caught in successive months, in successive seasons at South Georgia, in the season at South Africa, and in the whole period during which the observations were carried out. In a number of whales it was of course impossible to examine the reproductive organs, generally on account of the decomposed condition of the carcass, and in some it was possible to examine, for instance, the mammary glands but not the internal genitalia. For this reason the exact number of whales in each class cannot be stated, but in order to give as accurate a comparison as possible between the numbers in each class, the number of whales, for example pregnant or lactating, are expressed as percentages of the number of whales in which the uterus or mammary glands re- spectively were examined. This applies only to the sub-classes of adult females. Columns 8, 9 and ro show the numbers of whales in which either some or all of the genitalia were examined. Thus in column 12, in January 1927 (1926~7 season), we see that 47 per cent of the thirty-two whales, quoted in column 8 as having had their uteri examined during that month, were pregnant. Percentages are calculated to the nearest unit. Reference should first be made to the total class ratios of all the Blue whales and all the Fin whales. In these figures we find a restatement of some of the results which have already been put forward. A relatively large number of immature whales, for instance, are caught, amounting in the case of Blue males and females to 55 per cent and 54 per cent respectively and Fin whales to 38 per cent and 41 per cent respectively. Even when the South African whales are left out of account, the figures for South Georgia show a high proportion of immature whales, at least in the case of Blue whales. About 31 per cent of the adult Blue whales and 46 per cent of the adult Fin whales are pregnant, and, as already explained, it may be argued from this that in all nn ne cet Itt IIIS SSIS DISCOVERY REPORTS 456 9 QI 1€ gsi | Sox $s SP £ge sasejuaoied [euy pur sje}0} puri + St ve 11 ott ch gs £ge || eIs10ay YINOG A0F sasevjUaoI10d pur s[ej0], gi oz oc Sz Sz og gI ocr — — (ooT) I Sg _ 6 oss oe **Iaq01O — f+ ge L SZ 7 Le DOD eins Jaquiaydag _ — gi 9 1g oz Sz ape cas “ qsnsny oz oz ot s Ig gz 1€ Soe “ce SATO oS Lt _ 9 64 — gi Be mos 2 ounh gz6r ‘Avg eyueples I ZL fb tg 06 Le SZ SSr — Lo ££ g os of g oF sy Se [TCL 77 8 Sz ch ca ZI +1 th gr oop up *'* YOIBIAT — II ce 6 oS gS gl zee go Areniqa.q —_ —_— Le of £€ Sz of oF ie oes “+ Arenue[ _ — 1b ce Sz gi +6 os ane a daquissaq — — os 8 Le z6 tz ae os Jaquiaaony | 4-9261 ‘eId1095 YyINOG 8 gz fz Sz Lz 6s Se gs II Il — 8 6 £9 fi Iz ees une " ) YOIRIAL — e€ £e £ € 98 ot oz oe “Se Azeniqa.q = —_— ee £ 14 oz og or ge oe * Arenue[ = —_— — — — — — I ae ess Jaquiss9q] —_— Sz os + + ge os z 0G ae IaquiaaoNy ti LS 6z £ UZ, ZI os + cee 28 ***39q019Q) | 9-SZ6I ‘vIdIOay YING 6 Se 6 cz fz 6s ze os ef Ge |} = € + — Lo € re eS ese TT e ae oS Zz Zz £9 gs ZI wee wee nee judy — gt — I €1 €1 or Iz bz OOP ig “* YOIRIAL Sz os Sz S Ss el gi II oo sige Azeniqa.y Sz61 ‘eId1095) YINOG St Fi £1 rae I or 6 L 9 & + £ z I p oO Bhd) 5 hd Loflac} bo ct o o cel ~ cs} He steal ae laalee | Be lke sl ae | Sl te lm lee! ll ie lm || se o8 heii] AEE i Gabe epee IS ee eet ca) SF s 9 a s a a) ry me, |p eo] se is} 50 Sylep ESS EM Bpizp pz io) ® = fo) is iy ener Pere Set We | MSS | os SINS) eS 3 = 2 3 2 2 3 oy jae] We a © J a] a2 i ee | io) o is ° Sy ey fc} Erm | 26/ & 8 SM aleB. | Svea ee | i) 8 8 6 lon < oO ph es oF. om 3 oO a oO oO ° a3 Hol CO o | 5 Stes ee Fy Bi 3 5 3 x es eh Fh ia ay e165 = 5 c I 3 © 2 B 5 2 eg ahel e ll ere | Sil cae jeg Cee Je dice, Well eBs oe alia spoLed ABO ao ees ell fe) om eae le mneee Eh ellie ee tie hee meee sojewWios INpy so[eula,y S2]PIAL sappy ang 457 STOCK OF WHALES THE £ £ oI gb ge gor 9st oLt goz It 6S 1S€ ge 40) 1th sadevjusoi0d [euy pur s[vjo} puvig £ I oI gr ge ZgI Ogr tor oz gz el glz fz LL 4zf || vid10ay yyNoG Jo; sasvjusoied pur sjvjo,], _ os — Li £¢ 9 9 9 9 76 8 SZ 6L Iz bri = = = oor | — {7 4 LS £ 288 229 *"*19q0}90, — £€ — — Lo £ E £ € og oz Si z9 gt gz gre coe daquiaydag — — — (oor)}| — I I I I 96 v gz 1g 61 cr ay Bos 4snsny — (oor)| — — — I I I I £6 4 Sr 88 ZI 41 sor aus oe Ayn{ — (001); — — — I I I I £6 L Si ooI —_— ce oe oP p85 eee gz6r ‘keg eyueples z — ZI +9 ce ze te fe eh ze 89 zg 6£ 19 19 : Ss — oz Sz os + s 4 s lad gs 6 gt cae) gt vst Be) judy — Sz SL — + + + 9 +s ot £1 19 6£ gl see a04 “* YOIRyAy — -- £1 cae) Sz 8 8 g 8 Lv £9 Si ge Lo 6 mae y Areniqa yy L — 6 tg oz or II It gt II 68 QI oF og or si vas “ Arenuef = = = (oco1)}| — (4 z z c = ool z — ool c Eee a0 Jaquias9q = — — SZ Sz v 4 a4 s _— ool Ss —- oor 9 ae ach qaquiaaon, | 4-9z61‘ vis109ay YyIN0G I — II zs gt z6 ool £6 601 ze gl 6£1 tr 98 o1z I = 6 Li €Z II Ir ZI £1 +s ob gz ch gs tz se “"* YorRyAl z — or tr tr Lz 62 Lz If 1Z 62 6£ Si Sg 14 oe eee Areniqay I — ZI 19 Sz gf ey gf gt ZI 88 zs 8 z6 Lor eels ode -* Arenuef —_ — Sz £9 ZI g 8 8 6 = ool 6 — Oo1 £ BOO Jaquis0aq] = — — L9 ££ 6 6 6 6 = oor 6 -— oor S Pog Boe IaqwioaAony — = — (o01)| — I I I I (oS) | (oS) C — oor 4 20 noe “*raqoi9Q | 9-Sz61 ‘eIsI0ay YING z Ss Il tz gs ge gt ge 6+ Se Sg SL Iv 6s gs — = = of os z z z z °9 ot s oF og s Bu * ARTAT I —- Lt fz 6s Ze tz ce tz fz LL 1f Ly es Li use : Po chy £ — II 6z LS L 6 L oI os os oz Ly €s 61 Be “* YOIRy] — 6z _ Lat Ls L II L €1 Ze 89 61 Le, £L cr ae ogg Areniqayy Sz61 ‘eid10ayg YING Si +1 £1 ZI II or 6 8 4 9 a 4 £ z I ay earl ey ler (ar|ezigeziez|/ ele) 2rleirilrle os g88 Bod Gunlimeta Seo erecta (Nisin Ry 3 a Fy 3 3 ¢ a) So0/!} 40 8 @ 50 ah |e e: Ee i io) @ i to] (o) iy Ep See See | Seal) cones 3 15 5) 28 5 5 3 4 3 3 5 SE. |3< 8) a8 | 35 8 | &2 |@54/ S84] © S S 8 8 3S ° faite 09 og 0g 0g oF |A5 | of : ag ag : og og ° & 40 o ic} o ent ae| o & 3 o o ° o o) fo) so} [aN =~ —_~ =~ a> 7me ie) . Fh mo Fh eo po 2) © ° 5 a) 5 a i) 5 re} Ee eee zy = ay || hie. q 3) Ze gE 5 S B 5 z. sporia AqieoorT emis} a8 8 8 Ci ||| Buen tel so a rs) € p. ) ¢ a Poraed ul tI Es Sam a = 5 23 3| e¢ 2 ® g Si o A 8 By) OPE CI gen [ih ol ee 8 c sayewoy yNpy sayeway SOUL ING SAGA ets | 26 KIV 458 DISCOVERY REPORTS probability the majority of these whales normally become pregnant in alternate years, practically never in successive years, but sometimes once in three years. The low per- centage of lactating whales (16 per cent in Blue whales and to per cent in Fin whales) is not sufficiently accounted for by the fact that the nursing period (about eight months) is shorter than the period of gestation (ten to eleven months) and one must suppose that the mother spends much of her time with the calf away from the areas of concen- tration where the hunting is mostly carried on. The totals for South Georgia and South Africa provide now a more precise basis for comparing the two localities. Taking first the ratio of immature whales we see that whereas at South Georgia well over 50 per cent of the whales are adult the percentage of immature whales at South Africa works out at about 80 per cent for Blue males and females and Fin males and over go per cent in the case of Fin females. In the sub- classes of female whales the most striking difference between the two localities appears in the number of whales which had recently ovulated. Among the South Georgia whales 4 per cent of the adult female Blue whales showed indications of having recently ovulated and 1 per cent of the adult female Fin whales, while at South Africa 16 per cent of the Blue and 50 per cent of the Fin females were in this condition. There is a slightly higher percentage of pregnant whales at South Georgia than at Saldanha Bay. This is to be expected since the period of gestation is mostly spent in the southward migration. The figures for lactating whales are inconclusive. It will of course be realized that some of the distinctions between the whales of the two localities are due to actual differences in distribution, such as appear in, for instance, the ratio of immature whales or the tendency towards fluctuation in the whale popula- tion, and some are due simply to the fact that different months are being compared (e.g. the different ratios of females ovulating or pregnant). The proportion of pregnant females at Saldanha Bay naturally shows a tendency to increase as the season advances (i.e. as the pairing season advances) and the percentage of immature Fin whales decreases fairly steadily. Apart from this, however, there seems to be little fluctuation in the local whale population. The observed changes in the composition of the catches at South Georgia, however, are of great importance. Reference should be made here both to the foregoing tables and to Plates XLIII and XLIV which give a “‘bird’s-eye”’ view of the catches in respect of the numbers, sexes and sizes of all the Blue and Fin whales examined. In the second half of the 1924—5 season (February—May 1925) Blue and Fin whales were caught in roughly equal numbers and there was little fluctuation during these months in respect of sex or size or of the proportions of pregnant, resting, lactating whales, etc. The percentage of mature whales does not show any significant change except in the case of Blue males, where it increases from very low figures in February and March to relatively high ones in April and May. There was not much variation in the numbers of whales caught, except that during the greater part of March comparatively few were brought in. Small fluctuations like this, however, are not of great significance and are often caused by bad weather or difficulty in locating the whales. Attention should be THE STOCK OF WHALES 450 drawn to the fact that during these months there was a high percentage of immature whales, especially among Blue whales where the adults were in a minority. In the case of Blue whales very few of the adults were pregnant but a comparatively large pro- portion were lactating. Rather more Fin whales were pregnant but relatively few lactating. In the 1925-6 season far more Fin than Blue whales were taken, and fluctuations in the catches were very marked. Mention has already been made of the peculiarities of this season. Whales were very scarce in October, November and December. A few individuals, mostly large ones, were taken at the beginning of the season but they be- came more and more scarce and the Blue whales almost disappeared altogether. The weather during this period was on the whole fine and food appeared to be plentiful. Among the whales caught a rather high proportion were pregnant and several Blue and one or two Fin whales were lactating. At the end of December a change occurred in the catches which is strikingly shown in Plate XLIV. Immense numbers of Fin whales appeared in the vicinity of the island. They were found at first about seventy miles from the coast and consisted of a great majority of males of a fairly uniform size. It is worth noting that a transport ship which had recently arrived at South Georgia, had previously reported seeing great numbers of whales some hundreds of miles to the north of the island. There was at first little or no food in the stomachs of the whales caught, but later they were to be found nearer to land and seemed to be finding food. The change in the type of krill has already been commented on. During January about twice as many males as females were caught, but the proportion of females rose in February and March. At the same time the average length of the whales of both sexes declined. This was evidently due to an influx of immature whales, for the latter rose from about tro per cent in January to about 50 per cent in March. Pregnant females declined from 61 per cent in January to 17 per cent in March, while the ratio of resting females showed a corresponding increase. Some lactating females were caught among these Fin whales, but the ratio fell very slightly during January, February and March. Few Blue whales were caught during this period, but there was a slight influx of small ones which became quite marked at the beginning of March. Pregnant and lactating Blue whales were on the whole relatively fewer than at the beginning of the season. ‘Taking the season as a whole the majority of Fin whales were adult and the majority of Blue whales immature. This 1925-6 season may be described as a “‘ Fin whale season”’. ‘The third season at South Georgia, 1926-7, was undoubtedly a “Blue whale season”. As may be seen from the chart Blue whales were in a great majority over Fin whales and were abundant during the greater part of the season. Fin whales were extremely scarce at the beginning of the season, but slightly more plentiful in January, at the end of February and beginning of March. It is true that since the whalers prefer Blue whales to Fin whales one may expect comparatively few of the latter to be caught when the former are plentiful, but this is not enough to explain the exceptionally small numbers of Fin whales taken in November and December. 26-2 460 DISCOVERY REPORTS An unusual feature of this season was that towards the end, when Blue and Fin whales seemed to become less plentiful a considerable number of Sei whales were taken. As in 1925-6 the great majority of whales of both species caught in the earlier part of the season (November to January) were adult, but the average length diminished considerably in the second half, through the appearance of large numbers of immature whales ; these came to form a majority in the catches of Blue whales and at least a fairly high proportion among the Fin whales from about February onwards. In contrast to the previous season the ratio of immature Blue whales for the whole season was reduced to 27 per cent. The proportion of pregnant females, 43 per cent, is a great increase over previous seasons. A greater proportion, 48 per cent were resting, but very few (7 per cent) were lactating. The latter were all taken in the later part of the season. There were relatively rather more immature Fin whales this season. A very high proportion of the adult females were pregnant but the percentage fell heavily in April. A moderate number were lactating in the later part of the season. The causes of the fluctuations in the catches which have been described above must now be considered. In spite of the small number of seasons over which the observa- tions have extended there are indications that certain features and fluctuations are more or less constant, while others are variable. aking the constant features first we see from a glance at Plates XLII and XLIV that nearly all the time the sexes are equally dis- tributed throughout the season. The only exception to this appears in the sudden influx of Fin whales in January 1926 when for a few weeks males were in a great majority. At Saldanha Bay the sexes were equally distributed through the whole season. From this it may be inferred that, in general, the sexes are evenly distributed in the whale ““communities”’ but that in some cases a certain amount of segregation may take place. Again, when the first and second halves of a season at South Georgia are compared it is found that in the first half the catch is composed of a majority of mature whales, while in the second half there is an influx of immature whales (and perhaps a withdrawal of adults) which causes a sharp reduction in the average lengths. It is quite probable that observations over further seasons will show that this is a regular phenomenon. It is evident in both Blue and Fin whales, though perhaps more marked in the former. Reference to the tables on pp. 456 and 457 suggests that there is a tendency in each season for pregnant whales to be more numerous in the first half of the season and lactating whales in the second half. It should be noted that the lactating whales in October and November 1926 form an exception to this. Apart from the fact that immature whales have occurred in relatively greater numbers in the latter part of the season, there is an indication that of the adult whales themselves, those taken early in the season are mostly older than those taken later. In the section on the ages of whales it was shown that adult females could be divided into three age groups mainly according to the numbers of corpora lutea in their ovaries. There are not sufficient data to enable us to compare the separate months of each season in this respect, but if the three seasons are amalgamated, the majority of adult females of both THE STOCK OF WHALES 461 species are found to belong to Group 2 in October, November and December, and to Group I in the succeeding months. This is shown in the following table in which the number of whales in each group is shown for each month of the South Georgia whaling season. ‘The group containing the majority of whales for each month is marked in heavy type. Blue Fin Group 1 | Group 2 | Group 3 | Group 1 | Group 2 | Group 3 October 2 2 fo) fe) 1 fo) November 2 5 ° 4 6 2 December 4 7 4 2 4 3 January 8 I 4 11 6 8 February 9 2 I 24 7 6 March 21 5 3 14 4 2 April 2 2 fo) 11 6 6 May I I I 2 fC) fo) The more important variable features of the catches seem to be the result of certain mass movements of the whales which differ from year to year. There is little doubt that these movements are largely affected by meteorological conditions and in particular by the position of the icebergs and pack-ice. The distribution of whales, the meteorological and hydrological conditions, and the abundance and distribution of food, must all, in fact, be closely connected with one another. It is not within the scope of the present memoir to explore these causes very far, but in this connection it is interesting to compare the 1925-6 and the 1926—7 seasons at South Georgia. In the 1925-6 season there was a small and diminishing quantity of large whales during the first two months or so. Then there appeared a mass of Fin whales with a male vanguard apparently in search of food which they succeeded in finding at South Georgia. This community of Fin whales settled down at South Georgia but dispersed gradually as the season wore on. During this season the ice appears to have remained far south and did not, at any rate, approach the vicinity of South Georgia in any great quantity. The 1926-7 season opened with the capture of big Blue whales similar to those found at the beginning of the previous season, but instead of dispersing they remained around South Georgia in large numbers. Fin whales were scarce until reinforced by the arrival of immature ones in the latter part of the season. It has already been pointed out (p. 452) that the adult Blue whales of this season were, on the average, older than those of the previous seasons when they were less plentiful. In contrast to the preceding season the ice had drifted exceptionally far north. There were numerous icebergs in the vicinity of South Georgia and the pack-ice itself had here and there penetrated as far as and even farther north than the latitude of the island. One cannot be certain, but the circumstances seem to show that the distribution of 462 DISCOVERY REPORTS the Blue whales in these two seasons was correlated with the position of the ice. The suggestion is that a big herd of Blue whales had travelled further south than South Georgia early in the 1925-6 season, a few stragglers being caught in the first month or two, and that a herd of the same kind visited the island in the 1926~7 season. On this occasion they perhaps found the conditions they sought further north than before and thus remained in the vicinity instead of travelling further south. It has already been shown that the average age of the adult Blue females in the 1926-7 season was distinctly greater than in the 1925-6 season. A rather more definite view can now be taken of the nature of the whale population which is exploited at South Georgia. It may be suggested as a working hypothesis that it is composed partly of sections of the main stock of whales and partly of whales whose movements are influenced less by the movements of the main stock than by some other factor. One would imagine that the movements of the main “herds” (recognized by their large numbers, high average age, high proportion of pregnant whales, etc.) would be controlled mainly by the distribution of food, and the meteoro- logical conditions, and as these conditions vary from season to season the appearance of these big herds at South Georgia is also liable to vary. On the other hand, we have the whales which appear at South Georgia independently of the main stock. Among these the lactating whales are probably to be counted, for it seems probable, apart from a certain regularity in their appearance near the end of the season, that they lead a comparatively secluded life while nursing the calf, which presumably would not be strong enough to keep up with the majority of adults during the southern migration. The immature whales are perhaps the most prominent among those which appear independently of the main stock. An explanation of their appearance at South Georgia later than the majority of adults might be that being smaller they also take longer over the southern migration. Finally, there are what seem to be schools of stragglers which include many resting and rather few pregnant whales and which may yet form a considerable proportion of the whole stock of whales. These are mostly rather young whales. This view of the make-up of the whale population round South Georgia is of course to be taken as a hypothesis which must depend for its substantiation on the results of some more seasons’ work at South Georgia and the analysis of statistics from past seasons. However, it is probably not far from the truth and it at least gives an adequate explanation of the catches in the three seasons during which the work has been carried on. Risting’s analysis of the catches cannot be used much for comparing previous seasons in this connection as he does not indicate the fluctuations in sizes, percentage pregnant etc. from month to month, though he shows the variations in the numbers of whales through several separate seasons. It is interesting to note that, according to the above account of the fluctuations in the catches, one must suppose that during the greater part of the season the tendency is either for whales to leave South Georgia to go further south, or to arrive at South Georgia from the direction of the equator. Similarly among the catches at Saldanha THE STOCK OF WHALES 463 Bay the fat adult whales which are presumed to have recently arrived from the southerly feeding grounds, are not taken only at the beginning but well on into the middle of the season. It is true that those taken there in the latter part of the season are not so fat as those which appear earlier and it may be that some of them have started again on the southern migration, but the fact remains that the condition of the majority of these mature whales suggests that they had been recently feeding, and not on the scanty krill of the South African coast. There are two possible explanations of this state of affairs. It may be that the “north-south” migration lags behind the season so that instead of a punctual southerly migration in spring and northerly migration in autumn there is a continuous move- ment to the south through most of the summer and towards the equator through most of the winter. Or it may be that a kind of “one-way” system operates, according to which some sort of procession passes through the South Georgia area. In this case the whales which appear early in the whaling season at South Georgia would be on their way back towards the equator by some other route during the second half of the season and so on. The point, however, cannot be regarded as settled at present. Possibly both factors operate to some extent. There is, however, some indication of a return of some of the whales at the end of the South Georgia season. There was, for instance, a slight increase in the number of adult male and pregnant female Fin whales in May 1925. The adults of both sexes also showed a relative increase again in April 1927 (see tables on pp. 456 and 457). Among Blue whales also there was an indication of a return of sexually mature whales at the end of the 1924—5 season. CONCLUSIONS REGARDING THE WHOLE STOCK The conclusions, which have a direct effect on our knowledge of the stock, may be summarized as follows: 1. Although it has not yet been possible to make a proper comparison between the whales of the northern and southern hemispheres, records of the external characters and bodily proportions have shown that a very complete resemblance exists between the Blue and Fin whales of South Georgia and South Africa and they have revealed no definite grounds for separating any of these whales as distinct sub-species or races. The general similarity of all the whales examined suggests that it is possible for interchange to take place between the whales of different localities and for a reduced number of whales in one locality to be replenished from the population of another. In a sense this is a negative result, but it is important. 2. Among Blue and Fin whales it is a general rule that the two sexes are everywhere mixed together in roughly equal numbers, though at times a certain amount of segrega- tion may take place. Presumably less harm is done to the stock by the killing of a male than of a female and it is therefore of some importance to know that of a given number of whales killed approximately only half will be females. 464 DISCOVERY REPORTS 3. It has been shown that the ratio of immature whales among the catches is very high, and this is a point of great importance. There are two reasons why the killing of immature whales is economically unsound, and more than one previous author has drawn attention to them. In the first place, since an immature whale has had no chance of reproducing itself, its death constitutes, so to speak, a permanent reduction of the stock. In a community of animals, members of which are killed for commercial pur- poses, it is above all essential that the breeding should be subjected to a minimum of interference, and the killing of immature individuals is perhaps the worst form of interference with the natural replenishment of the stock. In the second place the number of immature whales required to produce a given quantity of oil and other products, would enormously exceed the required number of adult whales. At South African stations such as Saldanha Bay, where more than 80 per cent of the Blue and Fin whales caught are immature, the hunting is for these reasons far more damaging to the stock in proportion to the value of the products obtained than in South Georgia and the South Shetlands. Even at South Georgia the ratio of immature whales in the catches is undoubtedly high, amounting as it did among Blue whales of both sexes to 42 per cent of the whales examined in the course of the work. Among the Fin whales it came to the more moderate quantity of 23 per cent in the case of males and 28 per cent in the case of females. 4. The conclusions regarding the breeding season confirm and slightly adjust those reached by previous authors. Perhaps the most important point is that the whales actually engaged in pairing and parturition are not much molested by the whalers. The examination of whales at whaling stations does not throw much light on the where- abouts of the actively breeding whales. The catches at Saldanha Bay indicate that some pairing and parturition takes place off the S.W. African coast, but although there is here an immense stretch of coastal water, so few of these whales are caught that one can hardly suppose it to be the normal destination of the whales which migrate north- wards from any large community of whales in the Antarctic. It seems more probable that the breeding processes normally take place further from land, or at any rate outside the ordinary range of the land stations. It may be that the whales are more scattered at this time, but if they are at all concentrated during the periods of pairing or parturition serious damage would be done to the stock if they were to be hunted at such a time. Without any definite evidence one would expect a certain tendency towards concen- tration at least during the pairing season. The protracted period of breeding is a feature which favours the maintenance of the stock, for it implies a certain elasticity of habit and an ability to take the opportunity of pairing when it arises. 5. ‘The frequency of the recurrence of pregnancy is of great importance in connection with the maintenance of the stock. An element of uncertainty remains here, but it is certain that except perhaps on very rare occasions an interval of not less than two years elapses between successive pregnancies and it is highly probable that the interval THE STOCK OF WHALES 465 sometimes extends to three years. The point to be emphasized here is that, since normally only one whale is born at a time, an adult female can at the most produce only one young every two years. The rate of reproduction is thus very slow. 7. The hypothesis that gestation in these whales occupies nearly a year is confirmed and it has been shown by evidence from more than one source that the young whale grows up to sexual maturity in about two years after birth, during rather less than half of which period it is nourished by the mother. Thus the slowness of the rate of pro- pagation is to some extent counterbalanced by the rate at which the young grow to sexual maturity. The most important point is perhaps that the immature whales which can least be spared to the stock are exposed to danger for a comparatively short period. In view of this it is curious that so high a proportion of immature whales appears among the catches. The phenomenon may be largely due to differences in the distribu- tion of the adult and immature whales. 8. Owing to segregation in a greater or lesser degree, different areas may harbour communities of whales which are differently constituted in respect of age, proportions of different classes, etc. Different whaling centres must thus be examined individually when any measures for the control of the industry are considered. Further, in an area such as that of South Georgia, where the whale population undergoes funda- mental changes in the course of the season, the effect on the stock as a whole of hunting at different times of year needs to be taken into account. So far as the three seasons, over which the observations have extended, are concerned, it is not easy to say whether the killing of whales in the earlier or later part of the season has had the greater effect. On the one hand a higher percentage of pregnant females is killed in the earlier part of the season and the majority of whales are less “fat” than later on, while on the other hand many more immature whales are killed in the second half of the season. At South Africa the whale population shows little or no sign of changing during the season, and it may be supposed that whereas at South Georgia a large number of whales are exposed to danger for a short time, at South Africa a smaller number are exposed to danger for a longer time. In connection with the effect of hunting on the stock of whales it is desirable tnat as much as possible should be known of the composition both of local communities and of the stock as a whole, in respect of the relative numbers of the two sexes and of whales in different stages of the reproductive cycle at any given time. The analysis of the whales examined during the work, which is shown in the tables on pp. 456 and 457, may be taken as representative of the catches as a whole at South Georgia during the period over which the observations extended. But the catches at South Georgia, as already explained, are not necessarily representative of the whole stock of southern Blue and Fin whales, and a distinction must therefore be drawn between what might be called the apparent and the real constitution of the stock as a whole. KIV a 466 DISCOVERY REPORTS The apparent constitution of the stock, i.e. the ratios of the different classes of Blue and Fin whales examined at South Georgia, is as follows: Classes Blue Fin Adult males... ade 208 28 % AZ, Immature males : ii 1 Oe Pregnant females ... 363 fe) 16 Lactating females ... 50b 4} 29 % 3+ 32% Resting or ovulating female 15 13 Immature females ... es 22% gy OE In contrast to the population in the S.W. African region, that at South Georgia seems to have a generalized character which suggests that it may not be very far from representing the stock as a whole. One point, however, in which it might be found to differ substantially from the real constitution of the stock is in the ratio of im- mature whales. It is difficult to believe that any community of mammals normally includes 30 per cent or 40 per cent of immature individuals. In the case of whales, among which the immature appear not to exceed two years of age, it would mean that the “expectation of life’? for a whale was extraordinarily short. It must not be for- gotten, however, that the effect of hunting is to shorten the expectation of life, and that such evidence which exists as to the ages of whales does suggest that the majority are unexpectedly young. There is not sufficient data on which to base an actual estimation of the real con- stitution of the stock of southern Blue and Fin whales, but it may be hoped that future investigations will provide sufficient information for this purpose. It will then be possible to estimate the birth rate and hence the fraction of the stock which might reasonably be killed annually for commercial purposes. Future work may be profitably directed among other things to the question of the numerical equilibrium of the whole community of whales, and any enquiry into the effect of hunting must take into consideration the natural factors which limit the size of the stock. Under natural conditions it is to be supposed that in the long run the number of deaths equals the number of births. If these deaths are simply the result of the number of whales exceeding the maximum for which there is, so to speak, room (e.g. if the number is limited by, say, the amount of food available), then a number equal to the number to be born each year may be killed annually. On the other hand, if the deaths were due to causes operating independently of the size of the stock (e.g. attacks by killer whales, deaths from old age, etc.), then any deaths from hunting will add to, and not replace, the deaths from natural causes, and will therefore tend to cause depletion. ‘The equilibrium of the stock is probably influenced by both types of factor. It will obviously be of no practical value to calculate the percentage of the whole stock which may safely be killed annually unless some kind of estimate can be made of the total number of whales in the whole community, Anything approaching an accurate SOUTHERN BLUE AND FIN WHALES: SUMMARY 467 census is naturally impossible, but there are grounds for anticipating that at least some very rough approximation, sufficient for this purpose, will be achieved in due course. Among the features of the habits and general biology of Blue and Fin whales dis- cussed in this section, it would appear that some favour the survival of the stock, while others must be considered serious weaknesses. For instance, the protracted polyoestrous breeding season, the comparative immunity during the breeding processes and nursing of the young, and the rapid growth of the young to sexual maturity, are all to be re- garded with satisfaction. On the other hand, since each female can at the most produce one young every two years the rate of propagation is extremely slow. It is difficult to say whether or not the “elasticity” of the breeding season and the natural protection of the whales during the essential stages of the sexual cycle, are sufficient to counterbalance the weakness of the slow rate of propagation, but the killing of a disproportionately large number of immature whales is a separate and very serious matter. It is not the object of this memoir to discuss or recommend any definite measures by which the whaling industry should be adjusted, but rather, as a beginning, to bring forward certain facts and inferences about the biology and habits of whales which have a bearing on the effect of hunting on the stock. One thing, however, is perfectly clear, and that is that in proportion to the value of the products obtained, far more damage is done to the stock in temperate and sub-tropical waters, such as at certain South African stations, than is done by the whaling stations and factory ships in the De- pendencies of the Falkland Islands. ‘That is to say, that at these stations where some 80 per cent or more of the catches consists of lean immature whales and much of the remaining 20 per cent (or so) includes actively breeding whales, the very maximum of damage is inflicted on the stock, with practically a minimum return in respect of produce. It is not suggested that the sub-Antarctic industry has actually less effect on the stock, but here at least a relatively good return is obtained from each whale, and the catches are drawn from a much larger proportion of the classes of whales which can be spared from the stock. SUMMARY The preceding pages deal with the results of direct investigations on whales carried out at the Marine Biological Station at South Georgia and at Saldanha Bay, South Africa, from 1925 to 1927. During this period a total of 1683 whales was examined, of which 1577 consisted in almost equal numbers of Blue and Fin whales. ‘The present memoir is concerned only with these two species. Similar work is being continued at South Georgia as there is much to be gained by the accumulation of further material. The work has been guided by three main objects: 1. The determination of the characters of southern Blue and Fin whales and the 27-2 468 DISCOVERY REPORTS detection or elimination of any possible sub-specific or racial distinctions such as might be associated with distribution or migrations. 2. An investigation of the reproductive processes, breeding habits and growth. 3. The examination of the interrelations of breeding, nourishment, distribution and local fluctuations of the whales. The results of this work may be summarized as follows: By a series of measurements carried out on a large number of whales, the normal bodily proportions of southern Blue and Fin whales, and the extent to which they vary, have been defined; and the same has been done for various external features by means of detailed descriptions of the colour, baleen, ventral grooves and hair. It has been shown in both species that no distinction can be drawn between the whales of South Georgia and South West Africa, and that there are no indications that more than one race exists together in either locality. The series of measurements, as well as the notes on external characters, provides a standard from which it will be easy to ascertain if Blue and Fin whales examined in the northern hemisphere or from any other part of the world fall within the limits of variation observed in South Georgia and on the south-west coast of Africa. Attention is drawn to certain marked changes which take place in the bodily pro- portions as the whale grows, and which, at one point, may be associated with the attain- ment of physical maturity. Leading up to the problems om breeding and growth, an account is given of the reproductive organs, of which the most important are the ovaries. It is a peculiarity of the ovaries of these whales that the corpus luteum formed at each ovulation persists in a recognizable form for a very long time, probably for years, with the result that accumulations of old corpora lutea give some indication as to the number of ovulations which may have taken place. Other conclusions to be drawn from the reproductive organs relate to the determination of sexual maturity and the progress of the sexual cycle throughout the year. It may be regarded as reasonably certain that Blue and Fin whales are polyoestrous. From an estimation of the ratios of immature whales in the catches the important fact emerges that a very high proportion of immature whales is killed. Sexual maturity is reached on the average at the following lengths: Male Blue whales ae 22°6 m. Male Fin whales ido 19g'4m. Female Blue whales 56 23°7 m. Female Fin whales ci 20:0 m. By application of these figures to the whales examined during the work the per- centages of immature whales are found to be as follows: Blue whales Fin whales South Georgia 42°2 42°2 South Africa 82°5 80°3 SOUTHERN BLUE AND FIN WHALES: SUMMARY 469 The condition of the reproductive organs together with the gradation in the sizes of foetuses, and the mean curve of growth which can be derived therefrom, confirm the hypothesis that pairing takes place for the most part during certain months in the southern winter, reaching a pronounced maximum in June and July, and that gestation lasts for a little less than a year. It is further shown that not less than two years elapse between successive pregnancies in a whale, but that two years is probably the normal interval. An examination of the sizes of young whales at different times of year strongly suggests that the nursing period lasts for six or seven months, during which the growth of the calf is very rapid, and that sexual maturity is reached about two years after birth. This rapidity of growth is corroborated by evidence from other sources. A discussion on the ages of whales follows the question of the rate of growth. For whales less than two years old, the age can be determined from the total length by means of the curves of growth for young whales. After the attainment of sexual maturity a clue to the ages of females is to be found in the accumulations of old corpora lutea in the ovaries, and though calculations on this basis are somewhat speculative, it appears that a remarkably small proportion of the females included in the catches are more than about six years old. The study of the relations of breeding, nourishment, distribution, etc. consists partly in an investigation of the food and thickness of the whale’s blubber and partly in a more general consideration of the stock of whales. At South Georgia the food, which consists entirely of Euphausia superba, is very plentiful, but off the African coast food is very scarce. The thickness of the blubber reflects fairly well the condition of nourishment of a whale except where it is affected by pregnancy and lactation. An analysis of the different species and “‘classes”’ of whales included in the catches reveals (a) a marked distinction between the local whale populations of South Georgia and South West Africa, and (6) a tendency for the population at South Georgia to undergo important changes both in the course of the season and from year to year. Some of these changes appear to recur annually, while others are variable and are probably to be attributed to changes in the environment and ultimately perhaps to meteorological conditions. In the last section of the memoir the practical aspects of the results are considered, and attention is drawn mainly to the following points: 1. The general similarity of all the whales examined suggests that it is possible for a reduced number of whales in one locality to be replenished from the population of another. 2. The ratio of immature whales killed is unduly high, especially at South African stations. 3. The protracted breeding season, the freedom from molestation by man during this period, and the rapid growth to maturity all favour the maintenance of the stock. On the other hand, the very slow rate of propagation is to be set off against these points. The economic extravagance of whaling in South African waters is specially emphas ized, and it is pointed out that although the industry here is on a small scale, a maximum of damage is inflicted on the stock relative to the profit obtained. 470 DISCOVERY REPORTS LIsT OF LITERATURE Anprews, R. C., 1914. Monographs of the Pacific Cetacea. 1. The California Grey Whale (Rhachianectes glaucus Cope). Mem. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., new ser., vol. 1, part 5, pp. 229-87, pls. 19-28, text-figs. I-22. BarreTT-HamitTon, G. E. H. See Hinton, M. A. C. BEnneTT, A. G., 1920. The Occurrence of Diatoms on the Skin of Whales. (With an Appendix by E. W. Nelson.) Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond., Ser. B., vol. xci, pp. 352-57. BurFiE.pD, S. T., 1912. Report of the Committee appointed to investigate the Biological Problems incidental to the Belmullet Whaling Station. 82nd Rep. Brit. Ass., pp. 145-86, text-figs. 1-5. Cocks, A. H., 1886. The Finwhale Fishery of 1885 on the North European Coast. Zoologist, 3rd ser., vol. x, pp- 121-36. —— 1887. The Finwhale Fishery of 1886 on the Lapland Coast. Zoologist, 3rd ser., vol. X1, pp. 207-22. —— 1888. The Finwhale Fishery off the Lapland Coast. Zoologist, 3rd ser., vol. x11, pp. 201-8. —— 1889. The Finwhale Fishery off the Lapland Coast in 1888. Zoologist, 3rd ser., vol. XIII, pp. 281-90. —— 1890. The Finwhale Fishery off the Lapland Coast in 1889. Zoologist, 3rd ser., vol. XIV, pp. 321-5. Cottett, R., 1886. On the External Characters of Rudolphi’s Rorqual (Balaenoptera borealis). Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1886, pp. 243-65, pls. xxv-XxxvI, text-figs. A-G. 1gi1-12. Cetacea. Norges Hvirveldyr. 1. Norges Pattedyr. Kristiania, 1911-12, pp. 543-722, illus. Fiower, W. H., 1864. Notes on the Skeletons of Whales in the principal Museums of Holland and Belgium, with descriptions of two species apparently new to science. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1864, pp. 384-420, text-figs. I-17. GoopaLL, T. B., 1913. With the Whalers at Durban, and a few notes on the Anatomy of the Humpback Whale (Megaptera boops). Zoologist, 4th ser., vol. xvi, pp. 201-11, pl. 1. GuLpserG, G., 1886. Zur Biologie der Nordatlantischen Finwalarten. Zool. Jahrb., Bd. 2, pp. 127-74. 1886. Bidrag til Cetacernes Biologi. Om forplantningen og draegtigheden hos de nordatlantiske barde- hvaler. Forh. Vidensk. Selsk. Krist., 1886, pp. 1-56. Ha.pane, R. C., 1904. Whaling in Shetland. Ann. Scot. Nat. Hist., pp. 74~7. — 1905. Notes on Whaling in Shetland, 1904. Ann, Scot. Nat. Hist., pp. 65-72, pl. 3, one text-fig. — 1907. Whaling in Scotland. Ann. Scot. Nat. Hist., pp. 10-15, pl. 1. — 1908. Whaling in Scotland for 1907. Ann. Scot. Nat. Hist., pp. 65-72. — 1909. Whaling in Scotland for 1908. Ann. Scot. Nat. Hist., pp. 65-9. — 1910. Whaling in Scotland for 1909. Ann. Scot. Nat. Hist., pp. 1, 2. HamiTon, J. E., 1914. Report of the Committee appointed to investigate the Biological Problems incidental to the Belmullet Whaling Station. 84th Rep. Brit. Ass., pp. 125-61, pls. 3, 4, text-figs. 1, 2. 1915. Report of the Committee appointed to investigate the Biological Problems incidental to the Belmullet Whaling Station. 85th Rep. Brit. Ass., pp. 124-46, text-figs. 1-4. Harmer, S. F., 1923. On the Cervical Vertebrae of a Gigantic Blue Whale from Panama. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1923, pp. 1085-9, text-fig. 1. 1928. The History of Whaling. Proc. Linn. Soc. Lond., 1928, pp. 51-95. Hinton, M. A. C., 1925. Report on the papers left by the late Major Barrett-Hamilton, relating to the whales of South Georgia. Crown Agents for the Colonies. London, 1925, pp. 57-209. Japua, A., 1911. Die Haare der Waltiere. Zool. Jahrb., Abt. f. Anat., Xxx11, pp. I-42, text-figs. A-D, pls.1-3. Litue, D. G., 1910. Observations on the Anatomy and General Biology of some members of the larger Cetacea. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1910, pp. 769-92, pl. LXxIVv, text-figs. 69-78. 1915. Cetacea. British Antarctic (‘‘ Terra Nova”’) Expedition, 1910. Zoology, vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 85-124, pls. 1-8, text-figs. 1-14. Lone, J. A. and Evans, H. M., 1922. The Oestrous Cycle in the Rat and its associated phenomena. Mem. Univ. Calif., 6, pp. 1-148, 11 pls., 7 text-figs. LIST OF LITERATURE 471 MarsuHaLlL, F. H. A., 1922. The Physiology of Reproduction. Lohdon. Merk, A., 1918. The Reproductive Organs of Cetacea. J. Anat. Lond., vol. Lu, pp. 186-210, text-figs. 1-15. NEtson, E. W., 1920. See BENNETT, A. G. OLsEN, @., 1913. On the External Characters and Biology of Bryde’s Whale (Balaenoptera brydei), a new Rorqual from the Coast of South Africa. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1913, pp. 1073-90, pls. CIX-CXIII. —— 1914-15. Hvaler og hvalfangst i Sydafrika. Bergens Mus. Aarb., Nr. 5, pp. 1-56, pl. 1, text-figs. 1-21. — 1926. Brydes hval. Norsk. Hvalfangsttid., No. 6, 1926, pp. 82-90, illus. Owen, R., 1853. Descrip. Cat. Osteol. Series. Mus. Roy. Coll. Surgeons, London, vol. 11, p. 440. Report of the Interdepartmental Committee on Research and Development in the Dependencies of the Falkland Islands. Cmd. 657, H.M. Stationery Office, London, 1920, pp. 1-164. Report of the Committee appointed by the Fishery Board for Scotland to enquire into the Scottish Whaling Industry. H.M. Stationery Office, Edinburgh, 1920, pp. 1-16, 2 plans. RisTInG, S., 1912. Knolhvalen. Norsk. Fisk. Tid., 1912, vol. xxx1, pp. 437-49, text-figs. 1-5. — 1928. Whales and whale foetuses. Statistics of catch and measurement collected from the Norwegian Whalers’ Association, 1922-5. Rapp. Cons. Explor. Mer., vol. L, pp. 1-122, text-figs. I-30. Sars, G. O., 1865. Beskrivelse af en ved Lofoten indbjerget Rorhval (Balaenoptera musculus Companyo). Forh. Vidensk. Selsk. Krist., 1865, pp. 266-95, pls. 1-3. —— 1878. Bidrag til en noiere Characteristik af vore Bardehvaler. Forh. Vidensk. Selsk. Krist., 1878, pp. I-19, pls. 1-3. — 1880. Fortsatte Bidrag til Kundskaben om vore Bardehvaler. Forh. Vidensk. Selsk. Krist., 1880, pp. 1-20, pls. 1-3. ScoresBy, W., 1820. An Account of the Arctic Regions. Edinburgh. Tuompson, D’Arcy W., 1918. On Whales landed at the Scottish Whaling Stations, especially during the years 1908-1914. Parts II and III. The Sperm Whale and the Blue Whale. Scot. Nat., 1918, pp. 221-37, figs. 2-6. 1919. On Whales landed at the Scottish Whaling Stations, especially during the years 1908-1914. Parts IV to VI. The Bottlenose, Humpback, and Finner Whales. Scot. Nat., 1919, pp. 1-16, figs. 7-13. — 1928. On Whales landed at the Scottish Whaling Stations during the years 1908-1914 and 1920-1927. Fisheries, Scotland, Sci. Invest., 1928, 111, 40 pp., 16 figs. True, F. W., 1904. The Whalebone Whales of the Western North Atlantic compared with those occurring in European waters, with some observations on the species of the North Pacific. Smithson. Contr. Knowl., vol. xxxI1l, pp. 1-332, pls. 1-50, text-figs. 1-97. TuLiBerc, T., 1883. Bau und Entwicklung der Barten bei Balaenoptera sibbaldii. Nova Acta Soc. Sci. Upsal., ser. 111, vol. x1, fasc. 2, pp. 1-36, pls. 1-7. Turner, W., 1870-1. On the Gravid Uterus and arrangement of the Foetal Membranes in the Cetacea. Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb., vol. xxv1, pp. 467-504, pls. Xvi, xvuiI, text illus. 472 DISCOVERY REPORTS APPENDIX. 1 A NOTE ON THE COMPOSITION OF WHALE MILK By A. J. CLOWES, A.R.C.S., M.Sc. DurRING my stay at South Georgia it was found possible to take three samples of cetacean milk and analyse these for fat, total solids, solids not fat, specific gravity and ash. The difficulties of correct sampling of whale milk are great, and if the milk is obtained by dissection of the mammary glands, blubber oil and blood are apt to contaminate the sample of milk. When, however, lactating whales are hauled upon the flensing “‘ plan” ‘of the whaling station, the increased strain upon the milk reservoirs usually causes the milk to spout from the nipples and in this manner clean samples of milk can be secured. No blood or blubber-fat is included in the milk samples taken from the whale in this way, which was adopted in sampling the three milks examined by me, and I venture to suggest that these samples were taken under better conditions than those of the other known analyses of whale milk which will be referred to later. ‘The whales from which the samples at South Georgia were taken were all freshly killed, and indeed in the case of one of the samples, Fin whale No. 563, the whole analytical weighings and the results, with the exception of the ash content, were completed within a period of four to five hours of the death of the whale. In sampling the milk of any mammal the sample should represent the average contents of the milk reservoir, if it is to be regarded as representative of the milk of that mammal. It has to be borne in mind, however, that the milk is sometimes not of uniform composition, and that the cream rises in the milk reservoir in the same way as it does in milk after removal from the animal. In the case of milk drawn from the cow, for instance, the “‘ fore-milk”’ first drawn from the lower part of the udder may contain only 1-7 per cent of fat, while the “strippings’’, last drawn from the udder, at the same milking may contain 4-10 per cent of fat. A representative sample of such a milking could only be obtained by thorough mixing of the “strippings” with the whole of the remainder of the milking. It is probable that the milk of whales, being thick and creamy, will not vary in composition in different parts of the mammary gland to the same extent as cows’ milk. It is possible, however, that the milk extruded from the nipples during handling of the whale may be different from that remaining in the mammary glands, and that neither the extruded milk nor the milk dissected from the mammary gland, especially if this is only a small portion of its contents, can be re- garded strictly as representative of whale milk. The variations in the results obtained by the analysis of whale milk are probably largely due to the difficulty of obtaining a representative average sample. Variations also probably occur due to seasonal effects or to the period of lactation. It is to be noted that these samples taken at South Georgia were not analysed after preservation with formalin, as was the case with other known analyses. Formalin has a disadvantage in that it combines with the protein matter in milk and makes it much —* THE COMPOSITION OF WHALE MILK 473 more difficult for the hydrochloric acid, which is added in the fat analysis, to break up the protein masses which occlude the fat globules, and in this way the result for the fat content is liable to be too low in a formalin-preserved sample. The usual routine analyses for milk were employed, the Werner-Schmid process being used for the fat content analysis. A summarized account of the methods is given later. The following results were obtained at South Georgia: South Georgian whales (results expressed as percentages) Whale No. ... 563 244 642 Species as Fin Blue Blue Water... aoe 54°19 50°52 41°62 Bat ::: a0 30°20 34°62 36°59 Albuminoids... — - — Milk sugar ... -— — _— ANS Gee wet 1°43 1-43 — Total solids ... 45°81 49°48 58-38 Specific gravity 1'0254 I-0160 I:0090 Solids not fat 15°61 14°86 21°79 Comparison of the above three analyses may be made with the following results, which represent all the cetacean milk analyses I have been able to find in the literature: Results taken from other observers’ papers (results are percentages p g I 2 3 4 Delphinus | Globicephalus Blue Whalebone phocaena melas whale whale Water... aes AI‘Il 48-67 60°47 69°80 INGE. Soo doc 45°80 43°7 20°00 19°40 Albuminoids... II‘I9 } is 12°42 9°43 Milk sugar ... 12331((7)) 7°37 5°63 0-38 ENS coe a6e 0°57 0°46 1-48 0°99 Total solids ... 58-89 Gig 39°53 30°20 Specific gravity — — — — Solids not fat 13°09 7°57 19°53 10°80 . Porpoise, Delphinus phocaena, T. Purdie, Chem. News, vol. 52, p. 170, 1885. . Bottle-Nose whale, Globicephalus melas, Frankland and Hambly, Chem. News, vol. 61, p. 63, 1890. I 2 3. Blue whale, Balaenoptera sibbaldi, Backhaus, Molkerei Zeit., Berlin, vol. 14, p. 481, 1904. 4. Bartenwal (Whalebone whale), Schreibe, Miinchener Mediz. Wochenschrift, vol. 55, p. 795, 1908. High percentages for the fat and the solids not fat are immediately noticed in both sets of figures. Cetaceans have a large amount of blubber tissue to keep up the blood heat and form a reserve of combustible material for times when intensive feeding has ceased and foodstuffs are absent; and presumably the richness of cetacean milk in fat and solids not fat is entirely due to the needs of the young calf for food with a high fat and sugar content. It will be observed that in the results from South Georgia the K Iv 28 474 DISCOVERY REPORTS percentage of fat is much higher than in the Blue whale and Bartenwal results given by Backhaus and Schreibe respectively. ‘This may point to a fundamental difference in the composition of the milk of northern rorquals from southern ones, or be due to physiological differences of the individual whales from which the samples were taken, or again to errors incidental to sampling or analysis. It has been previously pointed out in this note that the addition of formalin inhibits the breaking up of the protein masses which occlude the fat globules and so tends to produce a low milk-fat result for a formalin-preserved sample. Also Backhaus and Schreibe state that their samples were (i) of a reddish tinge, (11) slightly red colour, which points to a dilution of the milk sample by blood. However, it is obviously impossible to comment at length on such a small number of analyses. One very striking difference occurs in the milk-sugar figures of the Blue whale of Backhaus and the Bartenwal of Schreibe. In the former the percentage of milk-sugar is 5°63, whilst in the latter it is 0-38, which latter figure points to the supposition that the sample was not taken from a freshly killed whale, as stated by Schreibe, and decom- position of the milk-sugar has occurred, giving a low figure for this estimation and consequently too high a figure for the water content. The milk-fat is described by Backhaus as non-solid at ordinary temperatures and water-clear in colour. Schreibe describes it as yellowish, whilst I should describe it as decidedly solid at ordinary temperatures and whitish in colour with a very faint yellow tinge. At South Georgia, some whale milk was shaken up and the resulting “‘ butter”’ resembled soft lard in appearance and colour. The following is a brief résumé of the methods used at South Georgia in the analysis of whale milk. Specific gravity. By specific gravity bottle at 15-5° C. Total solids. 5 c.c. of the well-mixed sample were weighed out into a porcelain dish and 1 c.c. of acetone added. The milk was evaporated to dryness on a steam bath and was then dried to constant weight in a steam oven. Ash. The residue from the total solids estimation was gently ignited and the ash cooled and weighed. Fat content. Werner-Schmid process. About 10 c.c. of well-mixed milk were weighed out into a flat-bottomed graduated tube fitted with a cork. to c.c. of con- centrated hydrochloric acid were added and the tube and its contents were heated in a water bath at about 60° C. for ten minutes, with constant shaking. The tube was then rapidly cooled by immersion under running cold water. 30 c.c. of alcohol-free ether were then added. The cork was then inserted and the tube shaken vigorously for two minutes. When separation into two layers had occurred the ether layer was blown over into a weighed flask. The ether extraction was repeated three times, with 20 c.c. of ether each time. ‘The ether was then distilled off on a hot-water bath and the flask containing the milk-fat was dried in a steam oven until constant in weight. The fat was then re- THE COMPOSITION OF WHALE MILK 475 dissolved with ether and the flask again dried and weighed. The difference in weight gave the amount of fat present. Water. Estimated by difference. The percentage of total solids is subtracted from too and the difference is the percentage of water. Solids not fat. Obtained by subtracting the fat percentage from the total solids percentage. 476 DISCOVERY REPORTS APPENDEXS I! A NOTE ON THE OIL CONTENT OF BLUUBBER By A. J. CLOWES, A.R.C.S., M.Sc. THIs investigation was made in order to see if there was any variation in the fat content of whale blubber throughout the season, which variation, if present, might be taken as some indication of the condition of the whale. It is well known that the blubber on a whale varies in thickness in different parts of the whale, being thickest behind the dorsal fin and thinnest on the back behind the head, but whether the actual oil content (ex- pressed as percentage by weight) varies in different positions is not known. In all the experiments made the blubber was always cut from the same position on the whale as described below. A piece of blubber, roughly measuring a six-inch cube, was cut from the flank opposite the tip of the dorsal fin. This place was used in “thickness”? measurements. ‘Two parallel strips, about 5 cm. long and 1 square cm. in cross-section, were cut from this cube of blubber with the aid of a razor and then weighed and placed in a weighed soxhlet extraction thimble. The sections were always taken from the skin inwards, the skin being trimmed off before the strip of blubber was weighed. All handling of blubber was done with forceps and no attempt was made to wipe off free oil. The method used was one of continuous extraction of the blubber by carbon tetra- chloride in a soxhlet apparatus. Carbon tetrachloride was chosen because in addition to the primary object of dissolving fat, it was more easy to recover than petroleum- ether, or other solvents. Carbon tetrachloride extract may be regarded as synonymous with fat content, although a small amount of substances other than true fats are extracted with the fat. It was considered that as the investigation was to be made on a number of whales, this would not matter for the comparative result which was desired. The strips of blubber, after being cut and weighed in the soxhlet thimble, were placed on a glass dish and cut into thin sections by means of a razor and forceps. This was done in order to accelerate the penetration of the cells of the blubber by the solvent. Any oil liberated during this process was washed into the soxhlet flask with carbon tetrachloride. The same procedure was adopted in all experiments made and by this means the experi- mental error was cut down to a constant minimum. The following figures from a preliminary test give some indication of the amount of oil extracted each two hours over a period of ten hours’ constant extraction. Weight of sample of blubber = 5-7920 grm. Oil extracted: In 1st two hours 3-9024 grm. In 3rd two hours 0-1718 grm. In 2nd two hours 0:3955 grm. In 4th two hours 0-0572 grm. In 5th two hours 0-0146 grm. THE OIL CONTENT OF BLUBBER 477 It can be seen that the bulk of the oil is extracted in the first two hours, but even so, at the end of ten hours there is still some oil left in the blubber. For this reason a standard time of six hours was adopted in all experiments. Extraction was allowed to proceed for six hours on a water bath, the soxhlet syphon operating about once every four minutes. At the end of the first three hours the flask of the soxhlet apparatus was changed for another weighed one containing a fresh quantity of carbon tetrachloride. After six hours’ extraction the soxhlet flask was removed immediately after the syphon had operated. The carbon tetrachloride was then distilled off and the flasks were dried in an air oven at go—1oo° C. for three hours and then weighed. Duplicate experiments on strips of blubber cut side by side were made in some cases, but in no case did the two results agree to within 2 per cent, results being expressed as the percentage of the weight of oil extracted in six hours to the total weight of the sample. With regard to the disparity in the results obtained in the duplicate experiments it must be assumed that either the error of sampling is great or else the blubber varies in composition from one place to another 1 cm. away. It is admitted that the error of sampling may be high, but as the same procedure was adopted in all cases it is unlikely that the discrepancy is due solely to this cause. The following results were obtained : Whale ences cee Oil extracted in six hours number Die a ~ weight of sample 249 Blue Male PM ORO 256 Blue Male 73°69 % 257 Fin Female 76:93 % 264* Fin Female o ee = 72:76 % average 2637 Fin Female 88-09 % : I) 37°15 } 269f Fin Male 3 ea = 38-63 % average 259 Blue Female ate of 27 ae (1 pe = (pO ar 2'70 Blue Female ®) Gass = 62:25 % average l ” * Reported by Zoologists as “very lean whale’’. + Reported by Zoologists as ‘‘very fat whale”’. { Reported by Zoologists as ‘‘very fibrous whale”’. Sections of the blubber of all the whales in these experiments were made by Mr Wheeler, and these were stained with resorcin fuchsin. Very little correlation could be established between the microscopical examination of these sections and the corresponding oil content figures. Messrs Mackintosh and Wheeler report from an examination of a large number of whales at South Georgia the presence of numerous white flecks or marks on the skin of the whale. These white marks are discussed on p. 373, where it is shown that they are scars resulting from injuries received by the whale. 478 DISCOVERY REPORTS A hand-cut section of blubber was made through one of the scars and stained with Sudan III. The section was photographed and is shown in Plate XX XVII, fig. 3. This photograph demonstrates very clearly the presence of a large number of fibres which radiate downwards and sideways from the white mark on the skin. In some whales it would be impossible to sample the blubber without including some of these fibres, and consequently it can be seen that the whole method of sampling is liable to grave errors, as the presence or absence of these fibres undoubtedly has a very large influence on the oil content of blubber. It seems, therefore, that the results obtained by chemical investigation depend largely on the presence of fibre in the blubber and cannot be taken as an index of blubber condition. APPENDIX III MEASUREMENTS OF BODILY PROPORTIONS All measurements are in metres 480 DISCOVERY REPORTS WuaLe NUMBER Total length, tip of snout to notch of Lower jaw, projec- tion beyond tip of Tip of snout to Tip of snout to angle of gape Tip of snout to centre of eye Tip of snout to tip of flipper Eye to ear, centres Notch of flukes to posterior emargina- tion of dorsal fin Flukes, width at insertion Notch of flukes to blow-hole Male Male Male Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Male Female Male Male Female Male Female Female Female Male } 5 0 Go Hv nukOooo MMO AS ui DE cont NwBOdORF mononododonoao Ow AEPUWWWW NW WD DIHWONHEY ound on wh ye wri | vs oo NO oOouHn PRONAYAY NY OrexWAINOODNO © moaooonooornd BRO Guouuc | || ~maoood QRORRGEAOR EAUNNEHHH NY AU DAN DEUNWN Nn omooo9do na nn 2 Ut SIOW DOW HO oo00o0om+rt ON HH HHH OH HAH | Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Female Male Female Male Male Male Female Female Female Male Male Male Male ow | ur & oo au net af WOK unoor ono olor) UWUNKNUG ADI ON WhO WOW ODOW H oomo Shchced SEAS | oo QAR UO EE moonomnounod HH eee OR MO fo} UbnwWMN OM H ooo Ror OO Nv wn un mn nN woof ooo oumon ° | [oee) HxMNNNNNNNNN SOW HOWN ON Pah in SoS tele e ane Gopi hids De ANN ooono HH MRR RRR fe} Male Female Male Female Female Female Male Female Male Male COD WH Ron +o ONARAHROnN omoonoonod HOR HHH HHH Ro Female Male Male Male Male Female Female Female Male Male HHH HHH OHHH MEASUREMENTS OF BLUE WHALES 481 4 w - a nN w Anus to reproduc- Flipper, tip to axilla Flipper, tip to head of humerus tive aperture, centres Skull length, con- dyle to tip of Dorsal fin, length of premaxilla Dorsal fin, vertical base Notch of flukes to end of system of ventral grooves height Skull, greatest Tail, depth at Flipper, greatest dorsal fin umbilicus Flipper, tip to anterior end of lower border Flipper, length along curve of lower border width Severed head, condyle to tip nN ° ° N N H ° fe) un ue~Nt mown DAV AA ROR Wr HO #OO0OO0°0 482 DISCOVERY REPORTS WHALE NUMBER Total length, tip of snout to notch of Lower jaw, projec- tion beyond tip of snout Tip of snout to angle of gape Tip of snout to centre of eye Tip of snout to tip Eye to ear, centres Notch of flukes to posterior emargina- tion of dorsal fin Flukes, width at insertion 1925 28 March Female Male Female Female Female Female Female Female Male Male Male Female Male Female Female Female Female Female Male Male Male Female Male Male Female Male Female Female Male Male Laionl ae] nun Ln on BL oe oe oe oe BHON nuno N HW oon AH HW O HHH RRR RR OnNNN moO COO NNR 3 4 6 6 Female Female Female Male Male Female Female Female Male Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Female Female Male NNNNNDN & RUG Rohe S OnNH ONONI C0 OMBweuNOonNm N Crs pHRHOOONM NN Female N ve) ta Ss ou a oo MEASUREMENTS OF BLUE WHALES 483 Bs iS) wo Skull length, con- dyle to tip of Flipper, tip to axilla premaxilla Dorsal fin, length of Anus to reproduc- base tive aperture, centres Dorsal fin, vertical Notch of flukes to umbilicus Notch of flukes to .end of system of ventral grooves height anterior end of lower border Flipper, length along curve of lower border Severed head, condyle to tip Skull, greatest of humerus dorsal fin Flipper, tip to | Flipper, tip to head 20 Ke} O° : Cre) | | Joos un co Wawa hy OR aRE onoo N | COCAONEN Bu oN Dowh fh aM Anu | 0 DWOI DH mond ow os nS 0 60 484 DISCOVERY REPORTS I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 ‘S 1 Q n 6 % Be 2 © 2 5 2.5 el 3 3 Peg, G80 FI 2 2 2 g Bo eee 2 esa lees || eee (ie elle ee & |383| 3% Date SEX i Se ° os oo e yw | ROR! os Z, I Pals || ED || Blew eu S |wus| Fe “oo = no Do no nav o loc} s bs ta oe ie) we ui Oo eo wa ° ans a8 2 B33 [S22] Of | Oo | Of oe =) PseiSccalh eats a = 6o3|2s8| 26 | am |] ae | of ea Openness 3 = Bae joss] eS | es | es | ee | a ies es 8 1925 31 Oct. 259 Female 26:20 — 5°20 5°30 5°70 11°55 1°40 6°30 2 Nov. 261 Female 26°70 = 4°65 —_ 5°85 11°90 1°45 580 (SS 265 Female 21°85 — 3°95 4°55 4°70 9°65 1°20 5°40 6s 267 Male 21°50 = 3°70 | 4:30 | 4:40 9°40 118 5°30 Ons: 270 Female 26°30 = 4°35 5°00 5°13 11-00 1°30 6°40 9 » 271 Female | 26-20 = 4°55 5°45 5°48 11°30 1:40 | 6:66 Om 272 Female 26°42 — 4°73 _— 5°52 11°80 1°43 6°65 LOM; 274 Male 23°80 = 4°25 4°70 4°90 10°1O 1°27 5°95 WP 275 Female 22°30 — 3°90 4°30 4°50 9°65 rose 5°80 9 Dec. 282 Female 18:90 — 3°20 3°60 3°76 7°90 1°02 4°53 TiS 291 Male 18-60 = 2°95 3°25 3°35 760 | 0:94 | 4:88 1926 8 Jan. 302 Female 24°40 — 4°45 — 4°90 10°40 1°30 6°05 Tue. 346 Male 24°10 — 4°80 — 5°30 10°70 1°25 = TO 360 Female 25°95 — 5°05 —_— 5°50 II'20 1'47 5°87 20) ass 378 Female 23°90 = 4°20 — 4°83 10°00 1°34 = 2015, 379 Male 22°70 — 3°90 4:27 4°40 9°35 1°25 5°66 20: 4, 383 Male 24°40 — 5°13 — 5:60 I1-00 1°19 5°40 Ail 399 Female | 26°75 — 4°95 -- 5°85 11°70 — 6°62 22h. 401 Male 25°2 — 4°53 — 5°10 10°90 1°44 6:20 22ae 402 Male 20°20 — 3°30 | 3°68 3°71 8-10 1°00 = 22) 35 403 Female 20°60 _- Bass 3°90 4°10 8°75 I-14 512 23°;, 418 Male 24°20 — 4°75 — 5°25 II‘Io 1°50 6:30 3° 2A ens 424 Male 24°80 — 4°45 — 5°17 10°80 1°34 5°98 1 25 440 Male 17°25 — 275 — 3°26 7:10 — — 1 25am 442 Male 24°10 —_ 4°36 —- 4°85 10°74 1°33 6:05 I" 27 _»» 444 | Male 24°65 — 4°50 | 4:80 | 5:02 11°00 1°35 —_ 1 2 Feb. 494 | Female | 25-00 - 4:88 _— 5°35 10760) ||) 38) 1/6750) |e Sy 510 Male 18-30 -—— 2°78 3:23 3°30 7:67 0°95 = Te Oy & 517 Female 20°80 — 3°67 — 4:18 8:76 1'23 5°00 Ts hts 525 Female 18-80 —- 3°05 3°38 3°60 7°90 0'95 4°35 oO: os 532 Male 17°80 — 280 3°00 B27 7°25 0°95 4°35 °: ows 534 Male 20°50 — 3°62 — 4:13 8:80 088 5°08 oO 2s: 554 Male 17°30 — 2°75 —_— 3°25 7:00 0-790 | 4°59 oy Ses; 557 Female 26°85 — 4°86 — 5°45 11°40 1°50 = r A) 567 Male 17°50 = 2°70 3°10 3719 7°20 1°16 — Oo 14 5 568 | Male 18°80 | — 2°95 | 3°30 | 3°45 725 | 097 | 448 | o 14>; 569 Male 23°00 — 4°45 _— 4°90 10°55 1°36 5:37 ue WL oy 570 Female 20°80 _ 3°90 4:27 4°25 900 I-12 = ue BAS 571 Male 22°70 _— 4°34 — 4°88 10°35 1°20 5°25 TAC Ass 572 Male 23°10 = 4°35 4°75 4°95 10°40 1°30 5°75 oc 15s 578 | Male 19°30 — 3°40 | 3-75 | 3°82 8:15 | o-99 | 4:65 | o B54» 580 Male 22°60 == 3°75 415 4°32 9°50 1-25 5-80 re DSPs. 581 Female 16-65 _ 2°90 — 3°25 6:80 | 0°85 = o TS) t55 582 Female 18°35 — 3°20 3°35 3°40 — 0:95 4°65 1: LSI ss 583 Female 19°1o —_ 3:00 — 3-55 7°65 0-98 4°65 Te LS 55 584 Female 18:23 — 3°00 3°30 3°35 7°40 Tens 4°50 Ti 16) 5: 591 Male 20°85 _ 3°63 4:10 | 4:20 8:95 1:08 —_ Te LOM 592 | Male 19°35 — 3:20 | 3:50 | 3°65 7°88 too | 5°30 | 1° Gees; 593 Male 23°40 —_— 4°40 = 4°80 I0'20 — 5°95 I- TOM 594 | Male 18:80 = 3e00) 81/3744) a) e3e5%7 8:06 100 | 4°81 1: iy 595 Female 20°20 _- 3°48 3°82 3°92 8-45 110 | 5°18 I 16. 55 596 Male 21°70 oo 3°90 4°13 4°23 9°20 — 5°50 16) 5; 597 Female 17:50 — 2°60 | 3:00 | 3:07 7:00 | 0°83 = TON ees 598 Male 21°90 _- 4:00 — 4°40 9°45 1°10 5°15 TOs. 599 Female 24°70 —_— 4°38 _- 4°90 10'50 1°52 6-30 TU). op 605 Female 18:80 — 3510 ||| 3742 3°53 7:45 | 0°95 = TOs ss 608 Female 19°30 —_— 3°26 3°44 3°55 7°85 1°07 5°10 MO) 5s 612 Female Ig'Io — 3°08 3°30 3°50 8-06 0°95 4:80 LOW: 613 Male 25°50 —_— 4°70 — 5°15 11-00 1°48 6:20 20 614 Female 21°10 —_ 4:00 4°40 | 4°50 g'10 I-I2 = MEASUREMENTS OF BLUE WHALES 48 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 ° ° : i) 8 = ies g Soe g 5 < q 2 n nOn Eo} pa) Oo Ss aa 77) (e) a Seeeeeies. ire | o Selreio a lee or) (beam || eroeSe)|| ee ellos lle 3 3e0 Qe z. ca o. GWOi| ago o ot 2 s° an = eats | se g d a |-se|2ee| b ae] § bas | oP | So Seer ere. |= |e |eseives| o. | ge | &, [Boul ge | Se G2 | SSR |oe2| ge | = & |Sfy|eae5| as | 8S | ae late] 88 | oF 95 Seren || Sys 2 Gp an) a aoe) age? ae og Si slays ae we Seeloes eee) os | oa | & See ees] se | 56 | 2S | eee) ao | sic Zs |4o> |460|/ Qc | Aa & |RedSleaso| Re | ns | ne |\mval] Ho | bs 11°45 II‘00 o'75 0°32 1°65 2°65 11°55 10°60 0°63 0°35 Ils 2:80 2°60 10°25 9°50 0°50 0°37 1°00 2°14 3°07 3°20 0-85 5°60 2°66 — — 2°20 9°85 9:00 1°60 o-21 0°65 2°10 — —_ —- — — —- _— 1°95 11°80 11°38 0-75 o-2 1°00 2°60 3°50 S275 0:98 = = — — 2°50 I1‘70 10°80 0°67 0°34 1°00 2°60 3°24 3°36 0:98 6-60 3°09 = = 2°20 11°95 10°95 0790 | O41 I'IO 2°70 2°35 10°50 10°30 1°82 | 0-08 1°44 2°20 | 3°00 3:14 | 0774 — — —_ 2°25 10°20 — 0750 ors 1°65 2°20 2°90 B13 0°88 5°50 2°63 — — — 8°85 8-55 | 047 | 0:26 100 | 1°90 | 2°50 | 2°59 — = = = = 1°62 9°00 8-10 I'l5 0°25 1-00 1°98 2°55 2°75 0°73 1°65 10°80 10°60 | 0°65 0:28 0°70 2°30 3°17 3°28 085 = = = = 2°70 10°88 | ro-19 1°65 = = 2°35 | 3:35 | 3°45 | 0-75 | 6-40 | 2:80 = = 2°60 II‘25 10:90 | 0°63 — 1°25 1°90 epeyh. || ie) 0:90 | 6:90 | 3°21 — — 2°55 10°90 —_ 0°56 = — 2205 2°85 3°04 0:83 — 2°77 = — = 10°75 10°90 = 0:27 "90 2°05 2°58 2°64 080 5°52 2°60 — — 1'90 10°60 10°00 1°65 = 080 2°20 3°23 3°38 088 6°95 3°14 = = 2°35 12°12 — o'75 0°33 1:20 | 2°84 | 3°75 | 4:00 1°00 2°85 IMls 10°35 1°63 — Ils 2°15 as — — 6-30 = — —_— 2°35 9°44 = 0°80 = = 1°85 | 2:60 | 2:67 | 070 | 4:60 10°00 9°50 0°62 0°27 0-90 1°90 2°57 2°63 0-70 4°95 2°34 = — 1°80 10°75 9:60 1°60 0°38 0°95 2°50 3°30 3°45 0°93 6°34 2°72 = = 2°20 10°78 10°1O 1°55 0°39 1°50 2°30 3°16 3°28 0°90 6°23 2°98 — —_— 2°45 8°34 — 0°70 ~- — 1°68 | 2:30 —- — = = = = = 10°85 10°30 1°75 0°32 0:80 2°60 3°23 3°46 088 6-02 = = = 2°45 10°35 = 1°20 = = 2°57 3°38 3°47 o'84 11-65 | 10:75 | o-53 | 0:38 | 1-40 | 2:63 | 3:25 | 3°45 | o-g0 | 6°60 | 2°75 _ — 2°60 9°05 = 085 —_— — 2'10 2°75 2°82 0°65 4°05 I'95 = = — 9°30 grl4 0749 0°34 I'Io 1°88 2°58 2°75 o-75 5°20 2°48 — = = 9°97 — 0°55 0-16 0740 1°82 2°60 2°82 o-71 4°42 2°21 = = —_ = 8-00 I'40 o-2I 0-60 1°70 145 9°35 8°65 1°40 | o-21 0790 | 2:00 | 2:78 2°92 | O71 5:08 2°48 — i 2°10 8-05 7:00 I°IO 0-20 1:08 1°64 2°17 2°30 060 4°00 1-90 i = 1°50 12°00 = 0-70 = = 2°44 | 3:29 | 3°45 | 0-98 | 6-75 | 3:18 = = = 8-50 = 0-79 0°23 058 1°50 2°41 2°45 0°65 3°94 2°10 = = == Ome. 8:50 | 1-25 | 0:24 | O52 | 1°55 | 2:32 | 2°43 | 0°65 | 4°24 | 2°15 = ae 1°77 10°50 boo Co) 1°60 — 0-76 2°30 = — 0°92 — — — — 2°18 9°60 _ 0°47 | 0:23 | 0-70 | 2:10 | 2:82 | 2:95 | 0°78 | 5°05 | 2°54 ag = ras 10°05 9°50 1°50 | 0°30 | 0°85 2°26 3:07 | 3:32 | ogo | 6:07 | 2°81 = = 2°10 10:30 | 10-10 | 1-75 | 0-30 | 0-85 | 2:40 | 3:15 | 3:30 | 0°73 | 5°95 | 2°63 = = 2°15 g°10 8-10 1°35 0:22 0-90 1°95 2°43 2°51 0°65 4°60 2°16 =F wa 1°75 10°65 980 1°95 — 080 2°05 _ — — = = = — 2°00 8-02 — 0-47 — = 1°60 — — — 4°00 1°85 = = = 8-50 7°85 | 062 | o-19 | 0°65 — 240 | 2:55 | 0:66 | 415 | 2°00 = = 1°55 8-80 g:00 | 0°67 O13 0°57 1°60 2°40 | 2°55 070 = — = = = 8-60 8-10 | 0-60 | 0:24 | 0-60 1°70 — — —_— 1°50 9°25 — 1°02 — — 1:96 2'80 2°95 o'70 5°15 2°15 — a — O17 8-70 1°30 | 0:27 0°90 1°85 = = = 10°85 9790 | 1°65 | 0°25 rro | 2:40 | 3:15 | 3:31 | 0°87 | Go4 | 2°81 = = 2°50 8°77 8-15 | 1-40 | 0-16 | 0:96 | 2:02 | 2:67 | 2°80 | 0-76 | 4°40 | 2:10 -- — 1°70 9°60 8-90 0:40 0°25 0-80 2°00 2°65 2°80 0'74 4°80 2°42 = = 1:80 10°30 9°40 1°40 0°32 1°47 2°10 — = = 5°30 2°40 an ae 2°15 OM iioe ee, || O40) l= S665) | 230/245) || 0:60) E3755 278 | oa sa os TO°15 OY || mse) || Oe || Gey |) BG || eee) |) eee |) 7) Sei || || ee == || 2:20 11°20 10°60 | 0-60 = 1:28 2°27 3°23 3°38 0°85 6:07 2°90 = = ze 9°05 = 0-45 0:22 0-72 I'50 2°40 2°59 0-62 4:15 2°08 = = = 9°20 8-70 0°55 0°23 0-90 I'90 2°52 2°65 0:67 4°30 2°31 = a are 8-95 a 058 — 089 | 1:95 | 2°65 | 2:80 | 0-74 | 4°45 = 4°33 | 3°00 | 1°83 TE 25 95 |LOzTO) |e u-S5)s oz |\lteTO!||/9 2:26 2°55 9°65 — 0750 — “= 1°80 | 2:78 | 2:94 | 0°83 5°35 2°55 — = = 486 DISCOVERY REPORTS flukes posterior emargina- | WHALE NUMBER Total length, tip of snout to notch of Lower jaw, projec- tion beyond tip of snout Tip of snout to Tip of snout to angle of gape Tip of snout to centre of eye Tip of snout to tip Eye to ear, centres Notch of flukes to tion of dorsal fin Flukes, width at insertion Notch of flukes to blow-hole Male Female Female Female Female E Female | Male Female Female Female nN NN Oned un NIW un uo HYok Ae aE GS |S -#~AINO Ow CO DH ANI NU COW NUwW~ TOM CONW OO OOO Female Female Female Male Male Female Male Male Female Male QUAN NUARVORAAY CON H OW OoOuUrRMNN NNNNNAHHR RAH > un cel N uw Wn OOK HH HHH HH Female Female Male Male Female Female Male Female Male Female Hee eH O Female Female Male Female Female Female Female Female Male Male 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 Male Male Male Female Female Male Male Female Male Male Male Female Female Female Female Male Female Female MEASUREMENTS OF BLUE WHALES 487 II 12 13 14 15 16 17, 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 a a 3 3 ° ° iS) Ss To! = 1 s + Pu 3 2 a 4% ray ro] vo a nOwn |o oa oo a be; D So a g Eo) ee 5 er oo | eee les Scich|| eam lice | ee 3 eS EOE eee = a a eee) || SOL | Sie & s° an Smee ee | acc cI q 3) |e oie [ieSicae |) bo AQ || & boas | a3 | 3 638 [se lok | Se | & Se) seoleces | 2) | mal) Ge sea ao. | oe sa | sse|.e2| ge | = B | Bey] awoy| ao | RE] ong [B88] 2S | es $4 | gue |eee| | 88] & |ses| eee) os | 8S] SS leek) Se | se Peuiaee \2e8/08 |as | & |maslmee| Ge | 88) ae |\Aos) Bs | BS 10°20 9°70 | 1°50 =e E2259) 2537) |||) 3520) | 93533) 0:95) || (6404 12:95) ||6:29 = 2°35 10°37 = o-7I | 049 | 1:00 = 3°25 | 3°36 | 0-92 | 5:88 | 2-60 = = 2°15 10°85 10°20 0°50 0°38 I°l5 2°17 2°87 3°07 o-74 5°50 2°53 — = 2°25 9°91 9°80 o-71 O24 0°65 2°24 3°06 3°25 080 5°20 Zi — —- 1°72 9°42 = 0°48 0°30 o-79 1790 9°05 8-53 060 0:28 0-70 2°00 2°70 2°83 0°68 4°40 2°05 — — 1°55 = = 0:87 = = 215 | 2°85 | 2°94 | 0°74 | 5:25 = = = = 12°35 11°45 080 —= 1°50 2°33 = = = 6°66 3°15 — — 2°35 10°75 10°10 0°60 0°37 1°40 2775 3°48 3°65 0:92 6°30 2°97 — -- 2°50 9°25 = 0°63 | O14 | 0-52 | 1°85 | 2°59 | 2°68 | 0°73 | 4:64 | 2:31 = = | = 11°35 I1‘1o 0°62 0°36 1°20 2°30 2°99 3°30 0-99 6-20 2°86 — _ 2°45 9°20 9:00 752 0-24 0°85 2:10 2°00 10°80 10°50 0°57 0°37 1:00 3°60 3°70 0°90 6-18 2°80 6-05 — 2°00 II‘00 10°40 1°75 — 1°25 = = 2°40 9:00 7-90 1°30 O-24 1-06 1°85 2°37 2°48 o-'77 1°90 10°80 — 0°52 = — 2°50 3°24 3°32 0-96 6-30 3°08 — —_ — 8°55 — O75 o-2 0:60 1°62 = = —- 10:20 10°00 1°65 0°24 0:80 — 2°75 — o'79 5700 2°24 _ —_ 2°00 8-30 —_— 0°35 = — 1°70 2°50 2°65 0-68 4:18 1-07 —_ = — 8-65 8-20 1°50 0°29 0°50 1-78 — —— 0°66 4:15 2°13 _ —- 1°70 7°62 7°40 Osi 0°24 0-62 1-75 1°45 8-64 7°80 0-47 0°23 0-70 Ts 2°62 2°70 0-70 10°31 9°62 1°53 0°27 o-81 2°10 2°85 2°90 0-72 5°20 2°39 = — = 8°85 — 0°95 o:21 0°60 2°00 2°76 2°88 0:80 4°75 2°30 — + — 9°30 9:00 0°49 0"49 "90 1°78 2°40 2°56 0°66 4°46 2°16 — — 1°70 9°95 9°95 0-60 0°30 0-80 2°10 = = = 5°50 2°65 — —_ 210 8°75 = 0-75 = = = 2°34 | 2°53 | 0°68 | 4:37 | 2-40 = = = 8-40 -— 0°35 = = — 2°32 2°43 0-62 3°88 1°86 — — — 9°50 = OH || == || oO |) eee) ge || Gis | Gag |) as || — 12°00 11°30 0-80 0°30 080 2°65 3°30 3°55 oor 6-05 2°82 — — 2°35 10°00 9°65 0-60 | 0:22 0°65 2°00 = II‘lo — 0-60 0-20 0"70 _— 3°20 3°43 088 8-95 —_— 0°85 — — — 3°06 3°25 0:80 4°15 2°17 —- -— —_ 9°05 8-70 060 0°25 0°88 — 2°40 247 0°64 1°98 10°80 10°40 0-60 0°26 0-80 — = = = = = = — 2°20 9°25 — 0-60 — — 215 2°29 2" o-75 11°70 II700 | 0°53 —_— 0-90 2°45 —— = — — -- — — —_ —_— 7:00 10°30 — 1:00 — — 2°50 2°80 2°93 o-81 5°48 2°40 — — 7 g10 8°75 1°30 0:22 0-70 1°87 = = 1°90 9°70 8-60 1°50 0-20 0°60 1°90 a= = = 1°90 9°75 = 085 | 023 | 0-64 | 1-98 | 2°65 | 2°75 | 0-75 | 4:95 | 2°34 = = = 8-60 9:00 0°85 0°22 0°70 1°90 = 8-60 8°35 0°55 0:22 0:80 — = = = 1°70 9:00 — 0°55 —_— — 1°70 2°27 2°43 0°67 4°00 218 —_ -— — 9:00 — O-75 0°20 0-80 1°80 29 2°36 0°59 4°40 2°13 — — — 8°45 —_— 0°65 0°22 0:60 1°80 —_ — = 4:15 215 — — — 8-40 7°95 0°55 = 0-60 1°73 2°22 2°38 o-61 4°75 2°01 — = 1°65 8-90 8-30 1°20 0:26 O-75 2°04 2°70 2°80 O75 4°50 2°20 — —_ 2°08 9°20 — 0:90 — _— 1°88 2°50 2°72 0-69 4°50 2°08 —_— —— — 8-30 8-20 1°40 0°26 0-60 1°66 2°29 2°46 0°65 1°60 12°20 11-25 0°70 0°44 I‘Io 2°30 “55 3°80 0°94 6:60 3°01 — —_— 2°35 8-90 8-65 0°45 O17 0:80 1°60 = = a= 4°10 2°08 —_ — o 8°80 — 0°50 — — 2°00 = == = 4°85 2°42 — — — 8-90 8-20 O75 0°26 0-60 1°85 = = = = — = = 1°80 9:60 = 0-70 0°26 0"70 1°75 2°50 2°75 O75 5°05 2°40 —_— — — 9°50 _— 0°56 0°22 0°65 2°10 2°85 3°00 o-'75 4°90 223 — — — 8°65 8-10 0°45 O14 | 0°55 1°80 2°37 2°55 0°65 4°32 2°01 = — 1°55 488 DISCOVERY REPORTS P Eye to ear, centres Notch of flukes to posterior emargina- tion of dorsal fin Flukes, width at Notch of flukes to Tip of snout to ti insertion tion beyond tip of of flipper WHALE NUMBER Total length, tip of snout to notch of Lower jaw, projec- snout Tip of snout to Tip of snout to angle of gape Tip of snout to centre of eye flukes Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Female Female Female Onodo OM ON HHOHHH Male Female Female Male Male Female Female Male Female Male OHHH OOOOHH Male Female Male Female Female Male Female Female Male Female BALES ANE OOM WINHOERHoOUE UANKROD NGHOS CN CONANT N COUW MU omarItodgannd HOHOOOH OHH t 22 23 23 24. 24 25 26 26 Female Male Female Female Male Female Male Female Male Female MHWWWHW DD WWWWWWWWUW WRWHRWWHW NRW WWWMWEWWWW ume NUN O mwr~Iwoond OOH OHHHHONH Female Female Male Female Female Male Male Female Female Female No io} sees | moaoon moo HHOOOHHOHH O0 CON 0D km N AO 0O Male Male Male Male Male Male Female Male WwWWNNNNN AAW YAY wukp aU N BRN OORHMNO RWWHWWRWW MW Quin WNIO DN COON MEASUREMENTS OF BLUE WHALES II 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 23 ; at ze) = ae s fu 1g S = | es ¢ Bi g g23\2 a eulloselas 8 8 a i ZG || Ss 2 5 Se [Cae ea leeO ay | oa | 8 at 8 8 a, |aesi/5 | > | = a | 223) e3| $ So | a eiee| Secs Se lee ee | cg & 6 |SSE/AEE| & “2 | 5 wot) ae | so oe) CR ORO Ne foes ae 4 5a ata we oi) =) o's we Ou ea |ase|.8)a2/a,/ 2 |£2e| bes! Be | 8S | as [S22] 28 | se O'S B) n a | aE | Qwoh as ee = =~ sé as Li| SE Bele | HOE ee) ee & | Se] aes | Oo > Bo | seg] oe | Be Pooiase fens les | Qs | & |eselae8l me | as | me lage)! as | Evo 8-78 8-30 0750 0-20 0-90 1:87 2°38 | 2°52 0-68 4°17 8-00 7:60 1°30 ols 0°65 1°70 2°26 2°37 0°65 4°00 8-54 8-04 0°45 _- —_— 1°60 2°15 2°26 069 415 9°30 g°10 1°35 0-28 0-80 2°10 2°67 PAG Fe 0-73 9°90 9°20 0°55 0°23 1°00 2°00 2°70 2°85 0-78 5°20 "75 8:20 I°I5 O13 0750 1°70 2°20 2°42 0°68 10°80 _— 0-80 — — 2°40 3°30 3°44 0°95 6:60 8-70 — 0°45 — — 1°66 2:28 2°42 0°68 9°65 9:00 0-60 023 0750 1°95 2°65 2°80 o-75 4°43 8-58 8-18 0°43 o'19 0°87 1°75 2°23 2°36 0°65 4°25 8-90 8:57 1°20 0°30 0:80 — 10°30 — O55 0°25 0-80 8-40 = 0750 O17 0750 O15 8-60 1°60 Orls 0°50 2°05 1°72 8-80 8-50 1°30 0:20 0°65 1°55 2°22 2:32 0°57 1-78 1°50 8-30 7-90 | 0°46 | 0:24 | 0:80 2 10°30 9°70 o5r 0:27 0-80 2°00 2°65 2°85 o-75 5°20 9°16 8°43 1°20 o'14 | 0-60 1°95 10°93 10°00 0-70 O31 Ivl2 2°30 3°07 3°20 085 8-60 8-30 1°25 0°23 0-70 2°00 2°64 2°69 0-72 8:60 8-20 1°50 o-21 0°55 1°70 2°42 2°58 066 | 4:40 12°00 II"50 080 0°35 1:07 2°80 = | = 0-99 725 g'10 8-80 1°40 0:27 I'00 9°45 8-57 0°55 0:28 I°Io 1-94 2°45 2°61 0-72 4°30 8-05 7°80 0750 —_ 0°50 1°70 oa — 8-90 8:65 1:60 | 0:20 | 0:50 1°83 2°60 | 2°82 | o-71 4°45 8-00 7°70 0°50 O17 0°65 1°79 9:00 8-50 | 058 016 I-15 1-90 | 8-60 8-10 1°30 0°33 1:00 1°94 2°39 2°47 o-71 — 8-90 8-50 O55 0°26 0-60 1°65 25377 2°44 0°68 4°30 11°30 10°60 0-60 0°35 I‘I2 2°85 3°64 3°81 0-98 7°40 9:00 8-50 1°40 o-16 085 1°95 2°55 2°69 0-62 4°40 8-70 8-20 0-45 0°29 I'05 1°70 2°22 | 2°42 —_ —_— 90°45 8-80 0750 0°25 1:00 | 8-85 — 0-60 o18 0°56 1°80 ZAG) ||) 2:02) 0°68 4°40 11°55 II‘1o 0-70 O31 085 2°75 3°56 3°70 °0"99 6:80 = = = 2°24 2°30 —_— 3°65 II's 10°35 0750 o-4! 1°65 2°55 3°10 3:18 0-94 6°75 8:00 7:18 1:27 o-21 I°I4 1°65 2°23 2°36 | 0°64 3°95 8-40 7-90 0°45 o-16 I'00 1°60 2°30 2°40 9°90 9°30 058 0:28 1°10 2°25 2°94 Sys 0°82 5°78 9°73 g'50 | O50 0°30 1°20 2°10 — —_— — 8-40 = I°I5 = CS |) UG || 2 I) e2zkey || Aye) | eho 9°80 9°20 0-60 0°24 1-00 2°30 2°70 2°76 0-78 9°77 8-70 | 060 | 0°34 | 0°95 = 2-71 | 2°94 | 0°74 7:25 6°85 1°20 0:60 0°20 —_ — _— —_— —_ 8-00 0°80 — —_ 1°87 2°35 2°43 0°64 4°67 8-30 7-70 0-40 0:22 I‘00 1°75 7°85 — 0°40 — — | 9°50 8-80 0°45 o-21 0°90 I-75 — — ool _- -— -- 2°20 2°32 —_— 4°25 g10 8:80 1°45 O31 Ilo 1°93 2°70 2°86 0'70 4°40 10°60 10°00 1°70 0°34 0-90 2°40 3°13 3°25 0-90 5°65 8-65 8-30 1°35 0°25 0-90 1°72 2°45 2°67 0°67 —_— 8-70 8-00 1°20 0:22 1:00 1°70 _— — = 9°00 8:60 1°22 0°29 0°83 1°85 2°41 2°55 o-71 4°30 9:00 8-50 0°45 o-21 0:70 1°84 2°10 2°48 0-70 4°45 10°10 9°50 1'60 0°34 1'05 2°20 2°85 3°00 —_ 5°43 490 DISCOVERY REPORTS Lower jaw, projec- tion beyond tip of snout angle of gape centre of eye Eye to ear, centres Notch of flukes to posterior emargina- tion of dorsal fin Flukes, width at insertion Notch of flukes to of flipper blow-hole Tip of snout to tip WHALE NUMBER Total length, tip of snout to notch of Tip of snout to Tip of snout to Tip of snout to Female Male Female Male Female Female Male Female Female Female 00 CO CO Coiba fw O = oN me Ne um Ont 9) EP ob UA) Dont Gr HW cous ORUNENONAO HHOHOHH Female Male Female Female Male Female Female Male Female Male WWwWw || Jweagu | ooo0o°o OOWNdDN HRrOOOOOO MDM NNfHHHHHH OW NBL OUND mr COO HHH OHHOHHH el “In Oo aon N foe} Female Male Female Male Male Female Male Male Male Male NN Oc | #8 o+ w ° i) nN Nv CO 12 12 HS) SIH HIF wnUounn HHHHOOHHOH OH CO ADOHO OU DOO W | Male Male Female Male Female Female Female Female Male Female mMnoorhouw ann HOHHHHOHHH Male Female Female Female Female Female Male Female Female Female w tee | Onno ew BUINKHGARDGYS © GANT HUEE OS CoOnwndoona03d0d HHH HH EHOW Female Male Female Female Female Female Male Male Female Female ab pO WADI 0 COwW~INN | aN at NO NuouMMmnaInIO ON HHH OHOOHHO catoce loca CoCo Cine) HO APR KH com MEASUREMENTS OF BLUE WHALES 491 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 = ° = og i} S } ro) < | 1 cs Gelcceia |e |= | 2 los len |e gs |2 2 “ES |/os | g So) Se a1 eral oa | 8 oe a a 8 5 390 au be mal 2. a3) goo o ao m fot RS) ae, Relea Pee (ee ¢ ¢ fe) Set Gaz) || ee 2g | 5s boas) 5 | 3 Peers ieee S/o | ¢ lestlyeel se |ye| & |S2y| os | Ba ga |/s8e|/,.e2| 2] 5 Bae leeceee: | enege |) ec) |e econ lice ieee rls Giles 2 |fce|eee| Be] se | & | esi eee) Bo | SZ) Ss | Sek] Se | ge ma lage (458/08 | as | & |easlhee| Es | 88 | He ASE as | BS 8:20 7:80 0-40 O21 1:00 1°62 FING] 2°26 0759 4°05 1°82 = — 1°45 9°50 = 0-80 = — 2:00 2°60 2°68 0°69 4°53 2°20 — — — TI°95 | 11°45 | 0°75 | O15 | T00 | 2:30 | 3:21 | 3°33 | 0°94 | 6:26 | 3:00 = = 2°65 11°65 10°S0 1‘60 — Ilo 2°44 3°19 3°37 0-90 6-12 2°86 — — 2°25 8-90 8-50 | 0°43 0°24 0°90 1°93 ~~ — — 1:80 9°40 8-90 0°50 og 0-70 1°90 2°63 2°75 0"70 4°90 2:06 — — 1°30 10°20 9:20 1°60 0°36 1°20 £233 2:98 3°20 0°82 5°40 2°50 — — 2:00 7°70 = "40 o-19 0°65 — — — — 3°96 1°74 — _ 118 8-90 — 0-48 0-24 0-70 2°15 2°78 2°92 0-72 —_— = — — _ 9°65 9°30 0°55 0:27 080 2°00 2°70 2°85 0-73 ° 8-70 8-00 0°50 0°20 0-70 1°78 2°38 2°52 0-72 4°45 2°16 = — 1°54 9°60 = 0°57 0°34 0°85 2°05 2°66 2°89 0-78 4°80 9°55 = 0°38 me = 167 | 2°39 | 2°53 | 0°62 | 4°55 = = = — 8°55 7°90 0742 024 0°95 1°65 2°33 2°42 0:60 1°58 9°50 8-70 1°35 o-21 0-90 1°95 2°53 2°63 0°68 4°34 2°20 — — 1°53 11°30 11700 | 0°70 | 0°14 | 0-80 2°20 = = — 6°65 3°15 -= _- 2°58 a — 0-48 == = 2:02 2°55 = 0:60 4°20 II‘I5 10°60 160 = 1°25 2°10 2°94 3°15 0°95 6:20 2°84 — ~- 2:20 8-68 os 0°38 — — 1°63 218 2°30 o-61 4°14 1°83 4:07 -~ — 10°45 9°46 1°45 0:26 I‘Io 2°50 3°05 3°25 088 —_— — — — 2°25 8-70 8-20 0°66 o-21 0°65 1°69 2°30 2°47 0°64 4:10 1°90 — -= — 8°55 8:10 | 1:45 | 0-24 | O'75 | 1°78 | 2:35 | 2°46 | 0-65 | 4:03 | 1°80 == = 1°37 9°58 —_— O51 0:22 0-60 1°83 2°53 = o-75 4°95 2°30 — — —_ 10°45 10°20 1°50 0°23 0°65 2°39 2°98 3°12 0°89 5°73 2°53 oe — 1°98 8-95 a I‘00 0°24 1-00 195 2°44 2°56 0-74. 4°63 2°11 — — — 8-75 8-40 0°54 0°26 0°70 2°00 2°75 3°02 0-76 4°40 2°12 — — 1°55 10°20 9°60 1-60 0-29 1:00 2°25 2°97 3°10 0:78 — — — — I-gI 9:20 8-85 1°25 0°24. 0°07 1°85 2°55 2°68 0:77 4°80 2°08 4°71 — 1-90 11°60 10°90 1°90 — 1°35 — — — a= 2°05 10°35 — 1°54 — 1°20 2°50 3°30 3°55 0-95 6°36 2:60 — -- 2°37 11°20 10°95 1°20 — 0-90 2°55 3°06 3°20 082 6-50 2°80 — — — Ils 10°60 1°55 0°26 0°95 2°32 — —_ —_ — — — -= 2°15 12°65 12°00 O-75 0°25 Iel5 3°00 3°78 — 0°93 6°80 2°90 — — 2°10 8-20 8-00 1:28 0°26 0-77 1°65 — — — — — — oe 1°40 12°10 11-20 080 0°32 1:00 2°60 3°24 3°50 0-95 6:82 3°00 — — 2°51 9°55 8-95 O55 0°23 0°68 2:00 2°70 2°81 0°70 5°00 2°22 — — 1°73 9°20 — — — — 1°80 2°44 2°60 o'71I —- 12°00 II‘l3 O-75 0:23 1:00 2°68 3°60 3°98 — 7:00 3°08 = — 2°30 8-15 — 1°20 oO-21 085 1°70 — 1-60 10°50 10°20 0°54. 0:28 0"70 2°05 2°80 2°97 0°87 — —_— — — —_— 9°70 087 O°31 1°00 1°95 2°55 2°70 o-77 _ — — = 1:80 9°35 8-90 O55 0°26 1°00 — — — — 5°30 2°48 — — 1°95 8-00 7°40 0-49 0°22 —_ 1°65 — = = 12°30 12°10 0°80 0°37 1°25 2°50 3°10 3°28 0°93 6°85 3°02 — = 2°20 II‘go II‘IO 068 0°47 I'10 — —_ —_ 1-00 2°15 9:05 8°55 0°55 0°22 "90 1°95 2°55 2°68 0-72 == = — —_— 1°64 9°80 — 1°35 0°35 1:00 2°13 2°75 2°90 0-80 5°05 2°35 — — 2°05 10°95 = = = = || 226 || 325 || S55 || ee || E= — — = = 11°60 II‘00 0'70 O31 I‘IO — — — 2°65 8°55 — 0750 0°25 0-78 1°80 2°40 2°50 0-70 4°30 = oo —_ —_— = — 0°50 O17 O'55 1°88 2°40 2°58 0°63 4°27 2:06 —_ — — — 1°05 O31 0°90 2°45 3°20 3°38 0-90 _ — — + — 10°95 10'S 0°65 —_ — 2:06 2°90 3°26 0°85 6-30 2°60 — — 2°15 8-60 8-20 0-42 0°23 0-75 I'gl 2°47 2°60 0-70 — — —_ = 1°55 8-77 —_ 0°53 og 0°60 1°82 2°45 2°59 0"70 4°20 2°02 —_ — = 1O'IS 9°50 0°60 0°25 0:80 2°12 277, 2-90 0-78 5°05 2°50 — —_ 1°95 9:00 — — —_ — 1'80 2°40 2°50 o-71 4°25 1:90 — — — 10°50 —_— 1°55 0°24 0°70 2°00 2°80 3°05 o-75 - 1°95 8-80 8-20 O55 0°22 0°95 1°95 2°50 2:60 0-65 — — — — 1°54 9°30 — — — — 2°03 2°60 2°78 0-72 — = = = = 492 DISCOVERY REPORTS WHALE NUMBER Total length, tip of snout to notch of Lower jaw, projec- tion beyond tip of Tip of snout to tip of flipper Eye to ear, centres Notch of flukes to posterior emargina- tion of dorsal fin Notch of flukes to Flukes, width at centre of eye insertion Tip of snout to Tip of snout to angle of gape Tip of snout to blow-hole Female Female Male Male Male Female Female Male Male Male WWWUWWWUwWwW MOWRUN DI OP OnNodnrw DDONO Female Female Male Male Female Male Female Male Male Female wp w Sia || il CW Nh OU SIO Male Female Male Male Cw oo Male Female Male Male Female Female WwwpwW Ow NNsI NNW NWWNNWW WINE DONSS Hou WWWwWw NOfMOWUMNON CO NW OW OC COON uw oun Nv n Ww our Male Male Female Male Male Female Male Male Male Male WRWRWWUWWW NNODOKHO ON ION ONO H10 0 WWW WwW | oo DUO Nv wO0 OWN WRWUWWUW pW SIM KUM ou oN OH HHOHHOHH ww uw ox~Int Female Female Male Male Female Male Male Female Female Male MBWUNMNWWWWWE RH ONNNNE HH 0 OM AWWA ONT WBWUWNWW WWW fp COS UW HHH HHO NN ESS unl nO N+ OnINI Male Male Female Female Male Male Male Female Male Female BWORAA HOw EU ORB O ON on OoOMUoUNNn | | NTS DADO PRWWNNHHH MEASUREMENTS OF BLUE WHALES 493 2 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 a) s os S i : 3 ir \ S eee ee fe | 2 le lee ls ie Sele | Se |S § CS cmos | teen | en seen oles ve oH sr ro ave! aoe o se 2 cC) Pt a |@eeles | ¢ FI So |See Sec) & | Se) § |mas| ss |e ‘Se || SRE aks a5 ee = cu S| BS : se 5 gee <3 oe = wa | Pag] ae | g sh) Se ees oo | 2 Iiok| se | oe Sm Sos aay Sect = a, arth A, op # AG ret ica ue] Ses a3 amt Beulede |ees| se | 62) S | Bee lege] so | Fe | Be ses] se | ge Zi |25$|/¢458/ As | AS | & |MeSleal| RE | AS | HE [Heal Ss | os 0°22 1°05 1°85 2°40 2°50 0°66 1°55 0°20 0-80 1°79 2°45 2°56 0°68 4°70 = 1-65 2°65 3°16 3°30 0-98 - 2°07 0°23 | 0°75 1°84 — _— 0°67 | 1°65 — — 1°68 2°35 2°45 0°62 rics) || = = = o18 0°50 1°92 2°50 2°69 o-75 28 2°12 — — 1°59 0:28 0'70 2°40 3°16 3°23 0-90 1°95 0°26 Ils T°90 | 2°45 2°57 0-69 | 4°25 2°05 —- —_— 1'60 0°35 1:25 1°86 2°55 2°74. | 0°73 4°48 2°17 = = 180 o'2 I-20 = = = or 1°60 0-16 0°45 1°90 —_ — 0°66 — — —— —_— 1°47 = = = 2°40 2°60 o'7I 4°20 1°97 — — _ 0:22 1:00 1°45 0°30 1°00 2305) 2°76 2°93 o-75 4°90 2°41 — — 1°73 0:22 0°70 1°94 _ _— 1:80 = —_ 2°15 2°74 2°88 0°73 4°80 — — — o-21 085 I-70 2°30 2°38 0°66 4°45 1°85 — — 1°55 0°27 0-90 2°00 2:80 3°00 o-74 1°75 0-2 0-90 — —_— — 0-76 4°70 2°10 — = = — 0°90 1°82 2°35 2°45 0-70 4°25 2°00 = = 1°58 0724 0:80 197 2:60 2°74 o-77 4°62 2°30 —_— = 1'73 -= — 2718 2°80 2°95 o-75 5°20 2°50 = = = 0:22 0-85 1°65 2°31 2°44 0°64 4°00 1°82 —_ — 1°45 o-2. 060 1°83 — _ _ — — -- — Ils 0°28 I'00 2°12 2°68 — 0-70 5°00 2°25 — = 1-75 0°26 I°lo 1°95 2°55 2°68 068 1°63 oO-21 0-90 1°85 — —_ — 4°20 1:80 = = 1°45 o-16 I'20 2°20 280 2°96 0-77 — — — — 1°73 0-24 — 1°75 2°45 2°50 0°68 1°65 O17 0-60 1°55 2°15 2°21 0°59 1°48 0°23 088 077 — — 0-72 _ — — — 1°59 0°37 1:00 2°03 2°67 — 0-79 5°15 2°50 — —_— bazere) 0°20 0°50 1°75 2°20 2°40 — — a _ — 1°42 O45 |T-308 12707119 3:35) 3:47 || etcoy zeros ||i=z;008 | = || aey o18 0'70 2:05 2°55 2°64 0°68 4°30 2:10 _ —_— 1°60 0:27 0:80 1°67 2°28 2°41 0°68 4°20 1°98 — -—— T1577 0°35 0°80 2°70 3°08 2°07 0-90 1°85 0:26 I'Io 1°68 2°34 2°46 0°62 4°38 2:02 = 2°67 1°65 0:28 o'S0 2°33 3°00 B03 0°87 2°03 —_ 0-60 parole) 2°58 2°69 0°73 4°67 2°30 = = 1°74 o-21 0°60 2:10 2°85 2°95 0:80 1°74 O'21 0°60 — 2°41 2°56 0°64. 4:15 1°86 — — = 0°32 0-70 1°88 2°53 2°67 0-70 4°32 18 _ = 1°70 0°26 0:80 1°90 T77 0:38 | o85 | 1:87 | 2:43 | 2:55 | 973 | 4°65 | 2°25 = = 180 0:28 1'00 2°04 — — —- — — —- — 1°54 — 1°50 2°36 3°05 3°24 | 0°87 6°45 2°70 = = = O37 iet.COn 2:43) 3-245 a 455 | o:855 | = = = || Bes 0-29 I-00 1°95 2°46 2°60 0°67 4:10 2°00 — = 1°68 = 0-90 2°40 3°13 3°30 0°87 6°30 2°86 — — 1°80 o18 0°50 — 1°40 o-21 1°00 1°85 2°60 2°69 0°64 1°65 O31 0°85 1°36 1°85 2°00 060 1°43 = — 1°88 2°79 2°94 "70 0°32 0°80 1°70 232} 2°44. 0°64 4°33 2°03 —=— | = 1°75 0:28 0:85 1°87 2°54 2°62 o'74 5°00 2°30 —_ — 1°67 0°25 0°65 2°14 = 1°65 = — 1°84 2°30 2°47 0-69 = 0°95 2°30 3°20 3°40 0°88 — —_ —_— — 1°90 0°29 1:20 2°47 3°2 3°48 0-90 6-60 2°70 —_— — 2°00 494. DISCOVERY REPORTS WHALE NUMBER Total length, tip of snout to notch of Lower jaw, projec- tion beyond tip of Tip of snout to angle of gape Tip of snout to centre of eye Tip of snout to tip of flipper Eye to ear, centres Notch of flukes to posterior emargina- tion of dorsal fin Flukes, width at insertion Male Male Male Male Male Female Female Male Female Male OOH HHHOOHH Female Male Female Male Female Male Male Female Female Male Male Female Male Male Female Male Female Male Female Male OR eR HH OR HOH un CNM DAMIAN MN AND WUMnwauwnruw1 o RFOORrR OOF FO NIEG ASHU WO mnoonooodd ON ONUHWN © 0 GNI mM Oo Male Female Female Female Male Female Female Male Female Male Male Female Male Male Female Male Female Female Female Male WWWWW WWWUWwWwW BEuNTH OnNNnno WubPRWWWWW HDWWUWW 2 ~ OM OWwWrHNO Lillies UU ASK AU Hon OCOMNRNO GT UMN WWWWWWWwW WN DP HOW N Female Male Male Male Male Female Female Female Male Female SIUM bRR RWW WNND MEASUREMENTS OF BLUE WHALES 495 i a Anus to reproduc- Dorsal fin, length of tive aperture, centres Flipper, tip to head Notch of flukes to end of system of ventral grooves Flipper, tip to axilla Skull length, con- dyle to tip of of humerus along curve of premaxilla anterior end of lower border Flipper, length lower border Severed head, condyle to tip Skull, greatest Tail, depth at Flipper, tip to dorsal fin umbilicus ike fo} 496 DISCOVERY REPORTS WHALE NUMBER Total length, tip of snout to notch of Lower jaw, projec- tion beyond tip of snout Eye to ear, centres Notch of flukes to posterior emargina- tion of dorsal fin Notch of flukes to Tip of snout to Tip of snout to angle of gape Tip of snout to centre of eye Flukes, width at insertion blow-hole Female Female Male Female Female Male Female Female Male WWWWWW | HUM NRO OnNNodon w N ° | Female Female Male Male Male Male Male Female Male Female Cis a mois Cae A CAG OWUNTIADMOCHDOON O00RHTOSCOO Male Male Male Male Male Male Female Male Male Female ~ Un ~ ° Male Female Female Male Female Male Male Male Male Male fo) NNNNNFRNN SSOSTIHOH GN oo00OunNd SRO MRR ou NNNNNNNNN oo fe) WWNHNNNNN NHN NOOO DI DWN NNNNNNNNNN oon SNS DOPE NNN Male Female Female Male Male Female Female Male Male Female WwwWwnn OO NNNH Male Female Female Female Male Male Male Female Female Male UM BWW WW ND * Tail missing, measurement to stump. MEASUREMENTS OF BLUE WHALES 497 4 aS a) un N wa Dorsal fin, length of dorsal fin base Flipper, tip to head Flipper, tip to axilla Skull length, con- dyle to tip of of humerus Dorsal fin, vertical premaxilla Anus to reproduc- height tive aperture, Notch of flukes to centres Notch of flukes to umbilicus end of system of ventral grooves Flipper, tip to anterior end of lower border Flipper, length along curve of lower border Severed head, condyle to tip Skull, greatest width Tail, depth at al be) ro} nN ll is soe wien | (oles) oo ie“) wm ce - fe} 498 DISCOVERY REPORTS WHALE NUMBER Total length, tip of snout to notch of Lower jaw, projec- tion beyond tip of Tip of snout to tip Eye to ear, centres Notch of flukes to posterior emargina- tion of dorsal fin flukes Flukes, width at Tip of snout to insertion blow-hole Tip of snout to angle of gape Tip of snout to centre of eye NN De ES On b eo} un Nv UW ol “I PI an Tan Pe Female Male Female Female Male Female Male Male Female Female Male SLE WARS TT Ticats es Tete onus ah RO -UkUO ° | | MEASUREMENTS OF BLUE WHALES 499 i] w 4 wn Nv w Anus to reproduc- Dorsal fin, length of tive aperture, centres Flipper, tip to head Flipper, tip to axilla Skull length, con- of humerus dyle to tip of Notch of flukes to premaxilla end of system of ventral grooves Flipper, tip to anterior end of lower border Flipper, length along curve of lower border Severed head, condyle to tip Skull, greatest width Tail, depth at dorsal fin ° way 0 oN w re) w lo fo) WN mu HI | Nn WwW | ol 6 un fo} | | io aS a aRUUE O ON wmmno NWWWW WHWWWW RHNITN NOWOO 500 DISCOVERY REPORTS I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ion oe {er A ° & ° 20 2 x 5B Yaa] # eB a 3 oo ° ° ° 9 ra teh || oS g a - aes + = +. a o 26— c “4 2 cia [ie 3 | 38] 38] 3 Cee les Yee DaTE ~ SEX be SE 3 os o0 ) wy |Hok| & Sal A ao Eo r=] g oo Ses au a Bay ||) I oe oO = D> n0 Do “Oo av o o6oU ~& ° | een us ws wo HH » ue ° ra a3 re] a als vo 5 ° es a) Ox o.8 + oO oO was lig = ees Za6 a5 2. Qe ac ) saa| 33 23 Ee eee || ke Wee les | es ie oo) =a | ws S Raa |RSS] ha | BS | RS] BS mH |4ac| oS a 1926 24 Dec. 1319 Male 24°14 — 4°40 4°95 10°50 1°32 — Ils 7°00 24 55 1320 Female 26°90 _— 5°25 — 5°60 —_ _ —_ 1°45 7°50 24 1321 Male 24°20 = 4°65 —- 5°00 10°00 1°32 = 1°20 — oats 1322 Male 24°75 = 4°60 _ 5°20 —_ 1°40 5°90 1°20 6:90 28) ©; 1323 Female 26°05 —_— 5°20 — 5°40 10°80 —_— — 1°32 7°60 285; 1324 Male 24°55 = 4°30 — 4°75 10°00 1°30 6-20 1°36 7°60 AS 5 1325 Male 24°80 —_— 4°75 — 5°30 10°60 1°35 5°98 1'20 | 6:80 743 op 1326 Male 23°60 —_ 4°45 4°80 | 4:90 10°40 1°45 —_— 1°30 | 6:90 2Onee 1327 Female 26°70 — 4°80 —_ 5°40 11°80 1°45 6:30 1°37 745 29 » 1328 Male 23°90 — 410 | 4°70 | 4°83 10°40 1°29 —_— 1°25 7:00 FB) op 1329 | Male 24°75 = Ceres || See) || Seis || iaeey |) nee | SOG || uae || Zao BOmes 1330 Male 25°00 = = —_ 5°25 _— _ —_ 1°47 6°47 BOM: 1331 Female 22°75 => 4:05 4°30 4°45 9°60 men7) 5°55 1:08 6°65 BOM 1332 Male 23°55 —_— 4°60 — 5°10 11°30 135 _— 1:25 6°50 1) ay 1333 Male 26:00 — 5°30 — 5°70 — 1°50 | 5:90 1°25 715 1927 3 Jan. 1334 Female 24°90 — 4°45 _ 5°25 II'lo 1°30 — 1°25 7°20 3» 1335 Female 25°75 — 4°50 —_ 5°55 11°20 1°00 5°95 1°40 | 7:00 3 + 1336 Female 25°90 — 5°15 _ 5°70 10°90 — 5°90 140 | 7°30 4 » 1337 Female 25°60 _— 4°50 — 5°05 II‘00 1°32 — 1°32 7°30 4 5 1339 | Male 22°65 = 415 | 443 | 4°54 9°45 = 5°70 | 1:08 | 6-70 Aves 1340 Male 25°80 —_ 5°25 5°46 5°58 11°35 _ 6°35 1°40 | 7°40 SY ep 1341 Male 25°40 — — — 5°35 — 1°37 — 1°25 = B93 1342 Female 23°90 — 4°20 4°60 4°80 10°35 1:28 = = = Biers. 1343 Female 26°40 —_ 4°75 —_— 5°40 —_— 1°40 6-40 1°30 7°60 Bs 1344 Male 24°85 —_ 4°50 —_ 5°15 10°75 _ _— 1:20 | 7:20 Bo ep 1345 | Male 22°75 = = = = = 1°38 | 5°45 | 115 | 6:30 @ 5 1346 Female 26°15 — 4°75 —_— 5°40 10°70 405275 1-30, ||| 7:35 6,5; 1347 Female 21°70 — 3°60 — 4°10 8-90 1°20 5°60 1'05 6:25 Ors; 1348 Female 26°10 — 5°00 —_ 5°60 11°20 — 6-00 1°35 7°40 Gh en 1349 Female 22°90 — 4°50 — 5°00 —_— 1°24 — 1°20 6:60 7 1350 Male 23°05 —_ 4°50 — 4°80 _ 1°30 5°40 1°20 6:40 Pp 1351 Male 24°90 = 5°00 —_ 5°35 —_ 1°44 6°05 I'50 710 Ves 1352 Female 22°40 _ 4°20 —_ 4°05 9°70 12 5°35 1°10 6:60 Si 1353 Female 25°20 _— 4°50 _— 5°00 1I'25 1°25 —_ 1°30 7°40 9 » 1355 Female 23°40 oe 410 = 4°75 10°35 =, 5°90 IIs 7:00 Om 1356 Male 24°90 — 4°30 —_— 5°00 II‘Io 1°35 = 1°13 6°80 @! pp 1359 Female 25°35 = 4°75 —_ 5°20 10°90 1°40 6:00 1°20 715 Ome 1360 Female 24°50 — 4°70 — 5°24 10°70 1°30 5°63 1°20 6:80 9 » 1361 Female 26°05 = 5°00 — 560 11°75 1°45 6:05 1°25 7°10 LO sy 1362 Male 1910 —- 4:00 | 4°37 4°40 7°95 1:07 — 090 5°70 Tite 1363 Female 25°85 —_ 4°60 —_ 5°30 11‘20 Te35 6°50 I'Io 7°30 TOW ss 1364 Male 23°50 _ 4°25 _— 4°70 10°30 1°35 — 1°30 6:90 TOMS, 1366 Female 24°40 — 4°25 4°80 4°95 10°30 1°30 61 1°33 7°00 EO} 55 1367 Female 26°20 — 5°10 —_— 5°75 I1I'20 1°35 6°35 1°30 7:25 LOS, 1368 Female 26:20 — 4°65 _ 5°25 10°90 1°25 6-15 1°30 | 7°35 T2505 1373 Female 26°15 — 5°40 = 5°90 II'lo 1°45 — 1'22 7°40 2a 1374 Male 25°50 _ 4°20 —_ 4°95 10°60 1°35 6:00 1:00 7:00 TZ 1375 Female 20°90 —_— 3°50 4:00 4°20 g:I0 1:07 _ I'Io 6°30 T2iee 1376 Male 18-90 _— 2°80 = 3°37 7°60 1°02 4°85 I-00 5°75 Sane 1378 Female 26-00 _ 4°75 — 5°40 II‘20 1°33 5°85 1°30 7°05 15 53 1379 | Male 17°55 = 2°85 | 3°10 | 3°35 7°30 | 0°96 | 4°50 | 088 | 5:40 15) 35 1380 Female 26:60 — 5°20 5°35 5°50 12°00 1°40 — 1°37 7°30 WR op 1382 Male 20°30 — 3°10 3°50 3°65 7°95 1:05 5°40 0°95 6:05 Ss 1383 | Female | 25-65 = — = 5°50 = 1°35 oa 1-27 | 7°35 EE 1384 Male 20°80 — 3°70 4°05 4°14 g'I0 II2 — 1-00 6:20 See 1385 Female 26°30 — 5"10 — 5°50 — — 6:10 1°23 7°44. Wh os 1386 Male 24°70 _ 4°20 — 5°05 10°80 1°35 —_— I'20 6:°S9 17 5 1387 Male 22°30 — 3°85 _— 4°50 9°25 1°25 5°40 1°10 6°45 Ov 7es 1388 Male 25°20 —_ 4°50 — 5°15 10:20 1°32 5°80 1°33 7°10 MEASUREMENTS OF BLUE WHALES 501 4 BS H an is) wo Anus to reproduc- Dorsal fin, length of Flipper, tip to axilla Flipper, tip to head of humerus tive aperture, centres Skull length, con- dyle to tip of Dorsal fin, vertical premaxilla Notch of flukes to end of system of ventral grooves Flipper, tip to anterior end of lower border Flipper, length along curve of lower border Severed head, condyle to tip Skull, greatest Tail, depth at dorsal fin umbilicus w w [oo [3 a ' 0 Ww | dos w w un w Ww N Ww Pes no oonoonmo NWW WHWWWWNW SINE BANWUNATD UU w Pe 502 DISCOVERY REPORTS WHALE NUMBER Total length, tip of snout to notch of Lower jaw, projec- tion beyond tip of snout Tip of snout to Tip of snout to angle of gape Tip of snout to centre of eye Eye to ear, centres Notch of flukes to posterior emargina- tion of dorsal fin Flukes, width at insertion Notch of flukes to blow-hole un n 3 | fo) un HHH RH HHH ieee Un As ein CCS AER oc ACEC Cane 3c HIS UIEE NGI UAOndoonnnoad un > | fo} HHH HHH UBM WBRAT OOf OnNnnn An nnnn - WwW op anoo ° HHH HHH ORR QUAN Roun NNIWTUA AD a0 Anowm~TI.dCdoONO uum o Oudd aos eo000OND He HH RRR RRO TOLL Un Un Un Gd Orn ww» OO ony OOO COMOMH MOM! INI MEASUREMENTS OF BLUE WHALES 503 4 aS N w Dorsal fin, length of Flipper, tip to axilla Flipper, greatest Skull, greatest Skull length, con- dyle to tip of premaxilla Flipper, tip to head of humerus Dorsal fin, vertical ome) oS | width Anus to reproduc- height tive aperture, Notch of flukes to centres end of system of ventral grooves Flipper, tip to anterior end of lower border Flipper, length along curve of lower border Severed head, condyle to tip Tail, depth at dorsal fin umbilicus i | YN ww alan ning fe} SI fe} 504 DISCOVERY REPORTS WHALE NUMBER Total length, tip of snout to notch of Lower jaw, projec- tion beyond tip of Tip of snout to tip of flipper Eye to ear, centres Notch of flukes to posterior emargina- tion of dorsal fin flukes Flukes, width at Tip of snout to Tip of snout to angle of gape Tip of snout to centre of eye insertion blow-hole Male Female Male Female Male Male Male Female Female Male Ses) EA) Won Ono N wn un fo} sll ile Female Female Male Male Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Female Male Male Female Female Male Female Male Female RR ee eee Of Male Female Male Female Female Male Female Male Male Male HHH Re Female Male Male Male Male Female Male Male Male Male Female Female Male Female Male Female Female Female Male Female up cour | | oo ah none wouwowd anoowmn * Flukes broken off, 1 m. added to all. f) Rozzto. L742: { Measurement taken to the axilla. § Subsequent to this (No. 1564) this measurement was always taken to the axilla. MEASUREMENTS OF BLUE WHALES 505 , length of Severed head, condyle to tip Skull, greatest Skull length, con- dyle to tip of premaxilla Flipper, tip to head of humerus Flipper, tip to axilla dorsal fin Dorsal fin, vertical Anus to reproduc- height tive aperture, Notch of flukes to centres Notch of flukes to umbilicus end of system of ventral grooves Dorsal fin Flipper, tip to anterior end of lower border Flipper, length along curve of lower border base N nN wo | a Oo 7 506 DISCOVERY REPORTS Tip of snout to tip Eye to ear, centres Notch of flukes to posterior emargina- tion of dorsal fin tion beyond tip of of flipper WuaLe NuMBER Total length, tip of snout to notch of Lower jaw, projec- snout Flukes, width at Tip of snout to insertion blow-hole Tip of snout to angle of gape Tip of snout to centre of eye Male Female Female Male Female Male Female Male Male Male OXON mw no WO NNN Aut ow aH UIUAORON Female Female 507 MEASUREMENTS OF BLUE WHALES uy ]es1op 7 ydep “Te 1, snisuiny jo peoy 0} dy ‘reddy eyIxewoid JO diz 0} afAp -uod ‘Yy{SuI] ][NYS Yypim ysaqeaIs ‘TINYS diy 0} ajApuoo ‘pray parsaag tipi ysaqeais ‘roddipp Japiog I9Moy jO 9AInd Suoye yasuay ‘saddip.y Jap1oq I9Moy jo pua s0r10}uR 0} dy ‘reddy eye 0} dy ‘reddipy aseq jo yyBug] ‘uy yesiog yySTOY Jeon419A ‘uy [es1od sai}ua9 ‘ainqiede 9an -onpoidai 0} snuy SIAOOIS [PIJUDA jo ulajsAs Jo pua 0} sayxNy JO yoION snoryrquin 0} sayNy Jo YION WHALE NUMBER Female Female Male Female Male Female Male Male Male Male Male Male Female Male Female Male Female Female Female Female Male Male Female Female Male Female Male Male Female Female Female Female Female Female Male Male Female Female Female Male Male Female Female Female Female Female Female Male Male Female Female Male Male Male Male Female Female Female Male Male DISCOVERY REPORTS Eye to ear, centres Flukes, width at Notch of flukes to Total length, tip of insertion snout to notch of Tip of snout to tip Notch of flukes to posterior emargina- tion of dorsal fin tion beyond tip of of flipper Lower jaw, projec- snout Tip of snout to blow-hole Tip of snout to angle of gape Tip of snout to centre of eye a5 Pa Pe UU) CO es ce) | | 8 as | N ONMNO HO WO cummownd Co ie nceee Cicaenas SEAN ONAN CUE mnoognn ow HS AG AS HAI MON on POO Nw Nuup hhAA ROhREOUE 00 @%O0 | ° Sickie tachche fe} STU DON ooonooumn KOS HSH cos Goo Oonooonon nb Ww ° | a fo) | | ros) ° NAHNEO OOSTH umnooondwo QRAQUAAAGA AHLAAAAAUOA A UOHOARARA RORRAAURA CWOU HF HN HWY mModoumunnonond MEASUREMENTS OF FIN WHALES 509 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 ° fo) 1 To zo = Z P Puy 9 3) a o Ar 4 o e | ee3(|3 ae Say licomellcqead lied ae eee eS = “ SEP ios | 8 § Si Se Sieea | go | 2 “x «| OS | 390 /ae8 ts = o. avoleaged| o at 2 0° ones pee lec eal ers é g B | SSE Sez) & #o/| 8 bos) se | 2. is |moae | oie |e Ss |) GES | EE so | B's] «8 | oe ae | see |ae2| gz | 3 f [e25|ae5| fe | bo | es [oes] 28 | Ss gra Sa2/3o2)| Ba Zo a aoYlage| ax os Sh laeoesilmarc me o€ Ores SE) og og Sele esti ea [riic) Baller Py tst | ejay] Hee |), Sas a5 43 ZAo> 258 As Aa fy BaeflaalQ| aes no NE |MNoal Ho | bs 9°30 730) |O;00) "0750: | — = = — || Sh) Bee | — = a = 8-20 8-2 0°70 0°50 — 1°45 1°85 1‘90 0-48 4°58 9°50 — 1°50 0°50 1°40 —_— — — _ — 8:80 —_ 0°50 0°50 I'Io 1°65 2°25 _ 0°56 5°35 3°15 — — — 8°35 8-00 1°55 0°50 1°20 — — — — 5°30 ‘20 — = = 7°70 7°40 0°50 0-40 0°95 = 160 —_ 0°50 — = — = = 8-30 — 0:90 | 0°38 0-90 1°50 2°10 2°11 0°53 = = 145 — _— —_ 8-70 8-45 1°55 0°50 1:00 1°65 210 2°20 0°55 = = = = = 8-75 8-50 1°50 O55 1°25 — — = 8-65 8-00 1°50 0°52 1°40 1°50 1°80 0°45 4°95 2°05 —_ = = 8°55 8:20 1:20 0-60 1:00 1°40 2:00 2°20 0°52 = = = = = 9°65 = 0°65 0°47 1°00 2°25 2°16 218 O55 5°21 2°43 = = = 9°50 9°40 1°30 — 1°20 1-75 —_— _ = 9°50 = 0°65 — — 1°90 = = = 5°45 | 2°27 = = = 9°35 9°30 | 0°77 | 0-48 | 1-30 | 1°65 = = —= = = = = = coat 725 O59 | 0°45 I-40 1°50 — = = = 9°50 9°60 085 0750 1°50 1°85 2°58 2°67 0-64 5°65 2°47 — = = 8°45 8-45 0°50 0°35 080 1°55 1°90 2°00 0°43 4°55 1°85 _ = = 7°20 — = = 0-90 1°25 1°60 1°77 0°43 3°45 1'80 —— — == _ = — = 4°65 210 == = = 9°40 9:00 170) ||) 10:35 3°80 1°70 — — = = 10°00 — 0'50 0°50 1:60 2°00 3°00 3°50 | 0°65 5:90 | 2:40 — = = — = 0-60 = = 2°00 = — — 6-40 g:10 g'10 1°52 0°52 1°20 1°70 —— -- —_ 5°00 2°20 —_— = = 10°25 9:90 | 0-70 | 0-48 1-20 218 — — — — — = 0:80 0742 0°95 —_— _ — —_ 5°50 2°45 = = = 9°50 —_ Ito | 0-42 1°30 1°92 2°40 2°42 0:60 5°75 2°25 — = = 9:00 8-52 0°55 0°53 1:08 1°75 2°20 2°28 0°56 4°92 2°16 = = = Q°I4 8-72 0°47 0°55 0°97 1°20 2°35 2°40 0°53 5°20 2°20 — = = — 8-70 O55 0-48 I'00 — — = 9°65 9730 0-60 0-60 Ils 1°80 — — = 5°70 2°30 os = 2°40 9°30 8:90 | o60 | o50 1°25 1-75 2°35 9°30 —_ 0°55 —_ _ 1°65 2°20 2°35 O55 5°23 2°16 —_— = = 8°85 = 0°95 = = 1°40 2°27 2°33 0°55 = = ane = 8-95 8-60 1°50 0°62 1°30 1°40 2°20 2°25 0°53 5°30 216 = = = 8-90 8-40 | 0°35 | 0°53 | 0795 | I-40 | 2:15 | 2:17 | 0°52 | 4:90 | 2°00 = = 187 9°95 9°20 0-60 — 1°20 1°50 — — 0-60 — = = = 3°00 5°80 2°40 — = = 9:60 = 1°05 = = 1°70 —_— — — 5°50 2°65 = = — — —_ —_— 0°50 1°05 1°50 2°30 3°60 061 2°25 9:00 — 0°50 — —_ I‘50 — —_— —- 4:60 1°85 — = = 9°60 —_— 0°50 — — 1°80 2°60 2°70 0°68 6:00 2°30 — = = 10:00 9°50 0-60 0°49 0-92 1°90 2°28 3°05 0-62 5°85 2°30 = = 1°75 9°65 9°20 0°65 0°55 1°20 1°80 — — _ — = = = 175 8-90 — 0°35 _ — 1°40 2°00 —_— 0°60 5°40 2°16 — — = 8-85 8-70 0-40 0°68 I'Io 1°50 2:00 2°05 0°53 5°20 20s = = 1°80 8°55 8-00 | 0°67 0°50 1-00 1°70 _— — —_ 5°00 2°30 — = 1°90 9°35 9:00 1°40 | oO-50 [els 1°80 215 2:20 | 0:57 5°50 2°30 — = 2°30 980 — 0750 | o'50 I°lo I'60 2°40 2°42 0°50 5°20 2°20 = = 2°15 9°20 8-75 0°50 0°55 I'lo 1°85 2°25 2°30 O55 5°50 2°05 —_ = 2°05 6:95 FF 085 a = = 1°40 1°50 0°45 3°00 1°22 = = = g'I0 9:00 1°30 | 0°55 1°10 2°15 2°10 2°18 | o-51 5°60 2°00 = a 2°00 8-65 — 1°20 — 1:00 1°60 2°25 2°29 O's 5°25 2°05 = — = 9:00 — 1700 | 0°55 1:08 1°45 2°10 2°15 —_— 4°92 2°30 = = = g'10 8-90 070 0-46 1°00 2°10 2°60 2°70 0°67 6715 2°60 — == 1°80 8-85 8-40 0°60 0°46 0°80 1°70 — —_ — = = = a 1°70 9°90 9°30 0°50 0°53 1°20 1°70 2°50 2°56 068 5°90 2°60 — = 2°20 9:10 a Cog |) = Iso | — = = = || 545 || Ces | = = = 8:50 _ "90 —_ —_ 1°50 2°05 2°07 o-51 4°68 210 = = = 510 DISCOVERY REPORTS WHALE NUMBER Total length, tip of snout to notch of Lower jaw, projec- tion beyond tip of centre of eye Tip of snout to tip of flipper Eye to ear, centres Notch of flukes to posterior emargina- tion of dorsal fin Flukes, width at insertion Tip of snout to blow-hole Tip of snout to Tip of snout to angle of gape Male Female Male Female Male Male Female Female Female Female I | | nw lee} on wu = || Xo) oo ROW ROW e Suse OF DO CO hARAL NUL COR O oo0o0oom UnNdOONnNN ON WwWwhw DAG wdwW | mn Mw ur | | Male Male Male Female Female Female Female Male Female Female OnD00RD Cre icran oh) NO6usI NO 606000 ° NHPHWWWWWW SIDANO ODO OF ono che own OonIN Male Female Female Male Female Female Female Male Male Female Female Male Female Female Female Female Female Male Male Female Female Female Male Female Male Male Female Female Female Female Male Male Female Male Male Female Female Male Female Female MEASUREMENTS OF FIN WHALES 511 4 - lon) Dorsal fin, length of base Flipper, tip to head Anus to reproduc- Flipper, tip to axilla of humerus tive aperture, centres Skull length, con- Notch of flukes to umbilicus Notch of flukes to end of system of ventral grooves Dorsal fin, vertical height Flipper, tip to anterior end of lower border Flipper, length along curve of lower border Severed head, condyle to tip dyle to tip of premaxilla Tail, depth at dorsal fin 4 fe) n N - NI 2 fo) Un Rahn NEB OWN mo MIwWU Ke) NNN III IT) lg se N bt Un AA AUS INI “I “I N AH Sian | | 512 DISCOVERY REPORTS Se 1 acs 3% = Bre Fil 2 a Be ater | g g g eB eee 3 % = eo Mines ilies se | ee] 8 |¥8s| 3 4 DaTE =) SEx mh Se 3 a8 ac 3 oe | iloncelees a Ai [=] me) =e i 50 Gu Gu cS Ge ye is Oa; 5 ee) fal ee) aie DO ae o 069 ~8 5) z age |s43] Of | Se | SB] Sa 2 |shs| Se] g. im 683/888] 96 | om | oe | of 2) | Se 8) ae cee = Bae (Ase) BS | ee | BS] BS mM |42ea5| BS | ag 1925 30 April 223 Male 19°80 —_— 3°63 3°90 | 4:07 7°95 0°93 00 098 5°85 1 May 225 Male 18°15 — 3°68 ~- 4°03 8:04 | 0-90 -- 0°86 | 5:15 I» 227 | Female | 19-73 = 3°53 | 415 | 415 8:25 = 5704 | 0798 | 5°65 Te 05 228 Male 19°20 — 3°90 —_ 4°22 8-20 0:98 4°50 | 0795 5°40 To es; 22 Female 15°40 — 2°65 2°95 2°95 6-10 = — 082 5°00 4 » 230 Female 20:20 — 3°65 4:06 4:08 7:80 0:96 1'03 6:00 AY G5 231 Male 21°25 — 4°36 _- 4°37 8-79 1:03 5°25 1‘00 6:00 4 5 233 | Male 18°55 = 3°30 | 3°50 | 3°40 747 | 0°85 = 0:96 | 5°76 Sas 236 Female | 21:70 — —_ 4°74 | 4:80 — 1°02 — 1:20 | 6:10 Ss 237 Male 20°00 — 3°95 — 4°40 8-20 IIo | 4:90 1700 | 5°67 ih 55 238 Female 21°70 = 4°10 —_— 4°63 8-90 = 5°70 Ils 6°50 21 Oct. 246 | Male 19°25 — 3°95 | 4:00 | 4:35 8-15 | 0°94 | 4°70 | o:90 | 5:10 Zim a 247 Female 19°30 — — — 4°20 — — — 1°00 5°60 A) fp 251 Male 20°90 —_— 4°00 4:27 4°50 60 1°03 5°30 1°05 5°65 217] iy» 252 Male 19°60 — 3°50 — 4:08 8-00 1°05 4°87 0°95 5°44 27 5 255 Male 21°77 = 3°80 4:13 4°30 8-90 1°00 5°57 I'1o 6°17 ZONs5 257 Female 22°57 == 4°67 4°96 5°12 9°60 1:08 5°37 TKO) ||) 16:25 2 Nov. 260 Female 21°30 _ 4°15 —_— 4°60 8°75 I'00 5°33 I‘IO 6:00 aa 262 Female | 22-40 — 480 | 4:97 5°20 9°90 1°08 | 5:40 I'1o | 6:20 2 sp 263 Female | 24-00 —_— 4:80 | 5:28 | 5:40 | 10°37 1't7 | 5:48 | 1:08 | 6:90 B99 264 Female 21°05 — 3°90 — 4°50 8-70 Ilo 5"10 1°05 5°85 O. 266 Male 20°55 — 4°00 | 4:30 | 4:40 8-80 1°05 4°65 1°07 5°85 We os 268 | Male 20°00 — 3°70 | 3:95 | 4:20 8-60 | 0-95 | 5:05 IIo | 5:60 7p 269 Male 20°30 — 4:00 | 4:10 4°40 — 1°02 4°55 1:00 5°45 Taree 273 Female | 22-10 — 4°30 | 4:65 | 4:90 8-65 _ 5:20 | 1:15 | 6:00 178 os 276 | Female | 22-45 — 4°30 | 4:70 | 4°80 9°25 | T05 | 5°55 | 1705 | 6:30 TOU. 277 Male 20°20 -— 4:08 4°36 4°50 8-70 0798 4°72 0:86 5°35 LOM 278 Female | 21-85 = 3°85 — 4°50 8:80 1°00 — I-13 615 2A; 279 Male 20°60 — 4°00 4:30 | 4°48 8-90 102 | 4:80 1‘00 5°70 26 ;; 280 | Female | 22-15 — = — 4°65 =— = — I'to | 6:30 27 5 281 Female 21°75 — 4°05 4°30 | 4:40 8-80 1:06 4:15 1°05 6:20 10 Dec. 283 | Male 20°90 — 3°90 | 4:33 | 4:45 8-90 | 0-098 _: 1°10 | 6:00 TAA; 285 Female 22°90 — 4°60 4:85 515 10°17 118 5°40 1:08 6-10 L4G; 286 Female | 22-20 — 4°45 — 4:85 9°40 1°14 | 5:10 1°17 | 6:20 T4ees 287 | Female | 20-30 — 4°25 — 4:60 8-70 | o-95 | 4:95 1700 | 5:60 Tae 288 Female 21°40 — 4°00 — 4°68 9°05 I*l2 —_ 1°14 6:10 TS) 55 289 | Female | 22-15 — 4:25 | 445 | 4:70 9:25 | 1°03 = I'Io | 6°20 np 290 | Female | 23-95 — 4°80 | 5:00 | 5:27 10°25 noe || Gey —_— 6°50 LON iss 292 Female 20°90 = 410 | 4°50 | 4:65 8-25 0°90 5°15 1:06 5°80 17 55 293 Female 22°65 — 4°62 4°90 | 4:95 9°65 I°I3 5°80 I'1o 6°35 177s 294 Male 20°65 — 4°00 4°40 4°52 9°00 1°03 4°88 1-08 5°65 17 5 295 Male 20°60 —_ 4°25 4°30 4°48 8-80 1'00 4°70 1°04 5°60 17 é 296 | Female | 2r1-so -- 4:30 | 4:60 | 4:70 g:z0 || 1:03 | 5:40 | x-r2 |) 6:00 192 8 Jan. 297 | Male 21°10 — 4:20 — 4°55 9°20 — —_ 1°00 | 6°15 3), 298 | Male 1877504) all 35200 ||e3c550ll| aae70 7°50 | 0°93 | 4:50 | 1:00 | 5:50 Sins; 299 | Male 21°30 a= 3°80 — 4°37 8-70 Ilo | 5:10 1°07 | 6:00 a a 300 Female 21°60 — 4°20 _- 4°7 9°56 I'00 4°86 1°20 5°95 8, zor | Male LOQiZON 1370501103 :66) 10 3:05 7°65 | 0°94 | 4°65 | I-00 | 5:50 8) 335 303 Male 20°85 — 4°00 —_— 4°40 8-80 —_ 5°04 1:05 6:00 Saas 304 Female 22°80 — 4°75 4°72 5700 9°70 II2 5°48 I°1o 6-40 Sie. 305 Male 20:00 — 3°88 — 4:18 8-35 —_ 4°60 0°93 5°25 8,5 306 Male 20°70 — 4:10 | 4:20 | 4:48 9°25 I*00 5°15 I-I2 5°90 Gh ay 307 | Male 19:20 | — 3°40 | 3°65 | 3°90 7°67 | 0:92 | 4:70 | 0-95 | 5:50 Sas; 308 | Male 21°70 — 4°30 | 4:35 | 4:60 g"00 1°14 | 5°62 1:07 | 6-10 ‘On 309 Female 21°70 _— 4°34 — 4°80 8-94 1°08 _ I'l5 6°10 Ol; 310 Male 20°50 — 4:10 — 4°50 8-90 1:07 5°35 1:00 5°60 On5; 311 Male 20°40 — 4°20 4:20 4°60 8-85 1:08 5°90 1-02 5°66 Cy ES 312 Male 19°00 —_— 3°70 4°13 4°20 8-10 — — 0°05 5°55 MEASUREMENTS OF FIN WHALES 513 - H on Anus to reproduc- Dorsal fin, length of tive aperture, centres Flipper, tip to head Dorsal fin, vertical Flipper, tip to axilla of humerus height Skull length, con- dyle to tip of Notch of flukes to premaxilla end of system of ventral grooves Flipper, tip to anterior end of lower border Flipper, length along curve of lower border Flipper, greatest Severed head, condyle to tip Skull, greatest Tail, depth at dorsal fin umbilicus |< A ° un oo m= COCO DCO u I | fe} n Cao Gin lle fo} ONO. aes) OWwW aN We) be 4 as a KIV 33 514 DISCOVERY REPORTS WHALE NUMBER Total length, tip of snout to notch of Lower jaw, projec- tion beyond tip of snout Tip of snout to Tip of snout to angle of gape Tip of snout to centre of eye Tip of snout to tip Eye to ear, centres Notch of flukes to posterior emargina- tion of dorsal fin Flukes, width at insertion blow-hole uw une wn Lala face NN spel tel teats Nv 0 Ow HHH HHOHHHH | AADPRAAA NROMRNOMN Onuumn ODmO w OH HHH HHH Un a UE SIOWO OH N OD OoOMNIN- ONO HHH HON RHR AsitaUE NGS con HHH He HORM mnmnooonmnnonoad 0 OW ht Seiareneea i bests3, 0 Pear ote HASNSSSENH Cee Gee NO @ORA0H# 56 On 0mmN Shin a DAdau GS TOoOorO FRRAAARAAL HtHEE SIE SG HKU GAH ONNOUNKH ONDA un 4 fe} MEASUREMENTS OF FIN WHALES 515 BS iS) w , length of Flipper, tip to head of humerus Tail, depth at Skull length, con- dyle to tip of dorsal fin Flipper, tip to axilla premaxilla Anus to reproduc- tive aperture, centres Flipper, greatest Dorsal fin, vertical N } fo) 2° Ci owl lals | width Notch of flukes to umbilicus Notch of flukes to end of system of ventral grooves height anterior end of lower border Flipper, length along curve of lower border Severed head, condyle to tip Skull, greatest Dorsal fin Flipper, tip to base N aS ~sI un ls (e) ome) A | lua DO NNN | ded | | Dna 200 © Adu ui | oof a 516 DISCOVERY REPORTS Lower jaw, projec- tion beyond tip of snout Tip of snout to Tip of snout to angle of gape Tip of snout to centre of eye Tip of snout to tip Eye to ear, centres Notch of flukes to posterior emargina- tion of dorsal fin Flukes, width at insertion WHALE NUMBER Total length, tip of snout to notch of blow-hole Male Female Female Male Male Male Female Female Male Female ° Female Male Male Female Female Female Female Female Male Female SWI ON DOKHHUN onn ooo He Re Female Male Male Male Male Female Female Female Female Female Piaeanesn | tobi Sic Rn Soe hata ashen unt ean COORD NADONY yw NWATSI I oO oO: 1 5 x 1 I" 1° I rT: Female Male Male Male Male Female Female Female Female Male HHH | Male Male Male Male Female Male Male Male Female Male hR RAD of CONT WWATI AW N | aaa hs Ce Cee Ors OWIB OMS MUzEOOWO00000 span tat Uc a Cae WWNHNONTHO NON OUND oo moan Male Male Female Male Male Female Male Male Male Male omoun Ca loosen RACE SI | os Oo > Oo nO OMNwWITI DOI 4 OoOunNnNon hater cana ee Coas no [o} oOoMmN Ubu N CONT ND MEASUREMENTS OF FIN WHALES 517 4 aS = un 4 a iS) w Dorsal fin, length of Flipper, tip to axilla Skull length, con- dyle to tip of Flipper, tip to head of humerus Dorsal fin, vertical premaxilla Anus to reproduc- ° = height tive aperture, Notch of flukes to centres Notch of flukes to umbilicus end of system of ventral grooves Flipper, tip to anterior end of lower border Flipper, length along curve of lower border Flipper, greatest Severed head, condyle to tip Skull, greatest dorsal fin uw Jur w 2©2099000 AE RUE NN DOW S Hw fo} OanNDONOD Ome ee ene he, eo megs ° NHI DOW OWN OWNHN OMNT On OW OMnT nn fo} nan wm 56 S| co o 518 DISCOVERY REPORTS WHALE NUMBER Total length, tip of snout to notch of flukes Lower jaw, projec- tion beyond tip of snout Tip of snout to blow-hole Tip of snout to angle of gape Tip of snout to centre of eye Eye to ear, centres Notch of flukes to posterior emargina- tion of dorsal fin Flukes, width at insertion Notch of flukes to Male Male Female Male Female Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Female Male Male oS loo) Nw NN On ao 60 aS loa) wo NN Ors “Oo oo nN UW ~ NE DOWWNUWN wn + ‘cok CORN H OMWAIAN fo} FRAAAAA AHRRHERGES CONI UU ANT oA COC ea Cea acntient: BOHHKUN O OsI COOH OO OH OO NU OMmoumnm w ol | mw oo Male Male Female Female Male Male Male Male Female Male mMHNTWO DO NW Ownnoononn I I I 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Male Male Female Female Male Male Male Female Female Female Male Male Male Female Male Male Male Male Female Male ono ono o OoOmnfzOMN nnd ae Ca En SCC CO! aiceae NN OH STSGUE Doo ° #umo0000~ COON Hw fe} Bas ebei Pag i ePeicte iP cPaleheiche Pe) Coicieren | PON Paces pctecrelstessee ictal | aoPaihe on ee Rede De NO OUnIs] oomoo oun Male Male Male Female Female Female Male Male Male Male SISISISINSINS NADA DADOUAHAH HR PWWWWWNNNN NNNN MEASUREMENTS OF FIN WHALES 519 - ) ur a a Nv wo Dorsal fin, length of base Flipper, tip to head Anus to reproduc- Flipper, tip to axilla of humerus tive aperture, centres Skull length, con- dyle to tip of Dorsal fin, vertical premaxilla Notch of flukes to umbilicus Notch of flukes to end of system of ventral grooves height Flipper, tip to anterior end of lower border Flipper, length along curve of lower border Severed head, condyle to tip Skull, greatest width dorsal fin BODO) “SINWN Nooo HH ui our ite) on ome) Peale ole Oo 10 Un Juuas ooo ut NO “IO mo un OHD onto MUaAnuwn duu | | wooodnm “I N a ISG 6 Uw unk OM OW Nvuw 520 DISCOVERY REPORTS Tip of snout to tip Eye to ear, centres Notch of flukes to posterior emargina- tion of dorsal fin Notch of flukes to tion beyond tip of of flipper Lower jaw, projec- snout WHALE NUMBER Total length, tip of snout to notch of Flukes, width at Tip of snout to Tip of snout to angle of gape Tip of snout to centre of eye insertion blow-hole Female Female Female Male Female Male Male Male Female Male \o aS Ta AnKSUR OM QU CONDIDAVCONN HULU ST oO OHHH HH HHH OL . Oonro+ | | 4 ONAN ° Female Male Male Female Male Male Female Female Female Male Noke) wuKnvnononno Co OuNMUN fae Sees Pete ube |siu [olme‘s} AQVh YRADAAAEAAE he moouw of “IO ONIN © ahh a WO omoo DPM HUN HO TU ONL OUR AR OTOV ORO: OOH HH OOOH H w Ke) Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Female Male Male nae mn me) i) w 00 OHwW ONT uM 10 oo PROSURE AeA GSneasanGe lahpcopanas anche! GenaaacReRoasneA Aan ° BS OS ANTANY oo Hee HOH HHO CMOnRHO mw onn HOHOOHH HHO Female Male Female Female Male Male Female Male Male Male uw hunni nu mau so low | WO ' O° mH SE oan Gana nc ot OXTIR HG OWUN 00000000 Ow oo# Ow Female Male Female Female Male Male Male Male Male Female wae RA Wc ac aU Cann ease CONWNANMNDO AN TOONS OM NAT DS HAI RuarnNnAod Female Male Male Male Female Male Female Male Female Male MEASUREMENTS OF FIN WHALES 521 4 aS 4 nr n iS) wo Anus to reproduc- Dorsal fin, length of tive aperture, centres Flipper, tip to axilla Flipper, tip to head Skull length, con- of humerus dyle to tip of Dorsal fin, vertical premaxilla Notch of flukes to umbilicus Notch of flukes to end of system of ventral grooves Flipper, tip to anterior end of lower border Flipper, length along curve of lower border Severed head, condyle to tip Skull, greatest Tail, depth at dorsal fin CN) Do no ©0010 cullbeesiles oo (e) 5: 5: 5: 5 5 5 Been 3 fo) NONNAD 522 DISCOVERY REPORTS Tip of snout to tip Eye to ear, centres Notch of flukes to posterior emargina- tion of dorsal fin Notch of flukes to tion beyond tip of of flipper WHALE NUMBER Total length, tip of snout to notch of Lower jaw, projec- snout Flukes, width at Tip of snout to insertion blow-hole Tip of snout to angle of gape Tip of snout to centre of eye Male Female Male Male Male Male Female Male Female Male DANDAAND WWNNNN HOON OF a w nN Female Female Male Female Female Female Male Male Male Male DDADAAAN ADDN Sn sININININIW Www OO MIME ND UNLPW ion) Co nN Male Female Female Male Female Female Female Female Male Male Female Female Female Male Male Male Male Female Male Female Female Female Female Male Female Male Female Male Male Female Male Female Male Male Male Female Female Female Male Female MEASUREMENTS OF FIN WHALES 523 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 rc) s See: a | 4% ie 2 non |g =) oe 2 8 = 3 | SER ley § Si echoes eee see roel ee etc Ie 2 S, | See | o3 > Sees! cos le gs is [ee ol ae Ia ay} |] ce, hs | etee q sey Wesigien | Sarre | iho fae) || By was} se | So O68 pam Olan, iS Pa et eared eprstaeya| ny bo) 5p Flere ua Oe os SSE fo = s a oe o ra ac aes — es g& Se S) Oo 2 B G Dn a fovea Q, 0 jon oo — x a3 ae! Se | Sue |zee| BS] §o | & |B8s)/ae2| Bs | FS | BS | Bek] se | ge Zeaesiseel ag | As | & |RSS laeSl ae | as | we lea ae | es “00 0-48 I'00 1°82 2°20 2:27 — 4°85 2°10 — = — 0°53 1°25 1°80 2°34. 2°40 0:60 615 2°34 — = 1°95 0°56 1°40 1°90 = = = 1°90 Os5 4 TsrON ers770 2:23) || 2:32) |o:s4a0 ll 15-44) |o-13 -- — 1°74 0-48 1:08 1°70 — — — 5°17 2:26 — — 1°80 0°46 IIo 1°82 2:20 2°27 0-61 5*10 2°13 = 1°85 0°56 1°20 1°66 Zi 2°20 0°56 50 —_ 4°95 = 1°65 0°35 1°00 1°42 — — = — — nee = 1°50 0°56 Ils 1°98 —_ —_— 0-60 — == — — 0°56 I'05 1°90 2°52 2°61 o-61 5°60 2°38 — = = = _ == _ oe 5°50 = = = == 0°50 0-90 1°60 218 2°24 — 5°20 215 = = 1°90 0744 I'50 — —_— — —_— _ — = — 2°05 "40 1°00 —_— 1°70 _ 0"50 3°85 1°90 = = — — = 1°34 1°80 1°83 0°45 4°00 1°76 — — = 0°33 I‘10 1°20 1°67 1°68 0-44 3°65 180 — = 1°30 1°40 1°55 — — — — = — = — 0°53 1°00 1°73 —_ = — 4°70 1°92 — = 1°90 0°44 I'I3 1°53 = = — = — — — 1°60 0°43 I'lo DS, — — — 4°85 2:26 = = —_ 0°55 1°20 = 2°22 2°27 0°55 5°00 2°11 — = —_— 0-42 0-90 — _ — — 0°37 I-00 1°40 1:67 | 2°00 | 0-42 | 3°80 1°70 — — 1°48 0°36 I°Io = 1°70 1°76 | 0-40 | 4:07 1°90 — — 1°45 0-40 | 0°75 1°35 1°88 1°96 0°48 4°25 2°10 — = 1°70 0°35 0:80 Te07, 1°70 1°76 0-40 — — = = 1°40 = — = = = 0 553581 62:35) |e _- = 0°39 | 1°50 | 1°80 | 2:45 | 2°49 = By |) 225 = — 2°00 0°36 I'00 1°45 — = = 1‘60 0°52 1°05 1°85 2°37 2°42 0°55 5°20 2°24 — — 2°20 _ 1°27 1°50 —_— = = 5°70 2°55 — = 2s — = wr icy || ayy || Cele | eeepe |) AECL |) wey | — = 0°45 I‘1o 1°65 2°35 2°10 0°58 5°05 2°40 — — 1°85 0°38 o-75 1°20 1°68 1°70 0°44 3°58 1°54 oo — 1°30 0°48 1:20 1°65 2°24 2°30 0°57 5°25 2°16 — — 2°00 0°57 1°05 1°52 —_ = = 1°90 _ —_ 1°65 2°25 2°2 0-60 5°20 2°35 a _ = O55, || mero | 1°75 || 2°34 || 2:42 | 0:58 | 545 | 2:35 | — _ 190 0-60 080 1°20 1°62 1°73 0°45 1°40 —_— —_ Ilo 1°66 I'7I o'4I 3°90 1°83 _ — = 0°50 1-00 1°40 —_— — — 4°90 2303 — — bazere) 0-60 IIo 1°75 _— = = 1°90 0°45 0:80 I'1O 1°58 1°59 0°44 _ —_— — — —_— — 1°00 1°74 2°20 2°25 0°54 4°90 2°00 — — 1°75 o-41 0-90 1°53 —_ — — _ —— = = 1°40 0°46 T'05 1°70 2°30 2°34 058 5°35 2:23) — — = 0°44 1-02 1°47 1°85 bazere) 0°47 4°10 I-71 — — 1740 O'5I 1°36 1:80 1°80 1°83 0°50 5°35 2°31 — = 2°10 0°55 1°05 175 2°35 2°44 0°62 5°90 2°31 = — 1°82 0°52 I'll 1°57 2°20 2°29 0°56 5°30 2°10 — — 1-90 O42 1°12 1'60 2°25 2°30 0-61 5°65 2°46 — — 2°00 0750 1°10 1°70 2°20 2°25 0°56 5°05 2°21 — — = — I‘IO 1°85 2°45 —_— 0-62 — _- — — 2°10 060 1°30 1°65 2°15 2°22 o'55 5°25 2°00 — — 1°90 0750 1°20 1°85 1°80 — 1708 2°00 2°65 2°70 0°63 6-30 2°61 — — 2°40 0-40 1°00 1°55 2°08 2°15 0°56 4°70 2°04 — — — O45 I-05 1°37 1°86 1°90 0°46 — —_— — — 1°50 0-45 0°85 1°40 1°85 1-92 0°48 4°65 2°01 - — 1°60 524 DISCOVERY REPORTS WuaLe NUMBER Total length, tip of snout to notch of Lower jaw, projec- tion beyond tip of snout Tip of snout to Tip of snout to angle of gape Tip of snout to centre of eye Tip of snout to tip of flipper Eye to ear, centres Notch of flukes to posterior emargina- tion of dorsal fin Flukes, width at insertion Notch of flukes to 1926 29 March Female 29» Saldanha 2 a ue uu Male Female Female Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Female Female Female Male Male Female Female Male Male Male Female QU SE ou Ho ONH NOW AY Male Female Male Male Male Female Male Male Female Female KFOOONGNUORG An HRW OS000 CONITW COW NI COOH CON ODOONOS ONO Male Male Female Female Male Female Male Male Female Male PUT HAS HATH SI OMMaDONOWNODO fo) Female Female Female Female Female Male Male Male Male Male Male Female Male Female Female Female ° MH OWwWwW CO OWwUuN ALAAAEAAAA AAUAAAAUAH HEREUERUES fo} Ho oH bv NOOO FAWUNUADWE AU sO WwWwWhN MEASUREMENTS OF FIN WHALES 525 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 ° ° 5 ra © 2 ‘E: £ £ 2) 8 a Fe 1 esceis 2 | S| Sloe lay Is Ee “4 “ES | oes 3 5 8 | SO. NS a, || om | a es 2 8 5 Soo aw > il .. ave!) gov o se s 2° antl fe cra he 2. a 8 i a se) lice eee bree || 250 ag |) 3 wos | oe | So o5 om Qs, Cs] cB “ eS wes ae ao 5p ay SSere| mo ou a= | ase /588| gz | 3 Seite Gay | oe |) Gee Neng (ce eas eee $6 |fue|/zee| =| Fe] & less) see] ss | 22 | Se | Bek) Be | ge Zi |Z282\/458)/ 02/08 | & |RSe|Hee] RE | AS | HE HSS) os | os "70 0°37 085 1°65 2°20 2°25 0°59 5710 2°36 — — 1°80 1°40 0°67 1°35 1°65 2°25 2°33 0-60 06 a = 2°15 0°50 o-4I 1°00 1°42 I‘gl 1°95 — 4°30 1°66 — -— 1°38 0°47 0°39 1-00 1°30 1°70 7 fo) "45 4:18 1°73 — — 1°35 102 0°33 0-85 1°28 1°72 1°76 o-41 3718 1°41 = _- 1°30 1°30 0°45 0-78 1°30 1°88 — 0°43 = 1°63 — — Ils 1°09 0°26 0:87 Ils —— — oa — — — — I'20 1°00 0-28 — I°I5 1:80 1°87 0-47 — — — — 1'40 1°30 0°36 0-90 1°45 —_— — — 4°60 1°76 —_— — 1°50 1°20 0°39 1°00 — = — —— = = = = 1°35 0°65 = = 1°24 = = = 4°25 1°74 = —_ _— 0°45 0°49 113 1°35 1'90 1°92 0°48 — — — — 1°30 0°45 0°38 0-90 1°40 1°90 1°99 0°47 4°35 1°86 — — 1°50 0°60 0°39 090 1°70 2°30 2°42 0°54 5°00 2°20 — — 1:80 o-75 = — T3232) 1°84 1°90 0°44 3°95 1°60 —_ — — 1°25 0°32 0-90 1°40 1°82 I-90 0°43 3°90 1:60 — — 1°23 0°70 0°50 1°00 1°75 2°46 2°49 _— 5°50 —_ — — 1°85 0740 — — 1°57 2°10 2°14 _ 4°45 2°00 —— — _- I'O1 O-4I 1'20 1°37; 2°00 2°05 050 4°23 1°65 — _— I'50 0°64 — = 1°30 1°78 1°84 0°45 3°90 1°20 0°39 0-80 1°43 — — _— 4°13 -- —_— —_— 1°35 0°35 o-7“1 I'10 1°48 = 1°52 I‘Io 0:28 O55 I'I4 1°58 1°67 0°40 3°72 1-48 — —_ 1°04 0°33 — —_ 1°42 1°83 1°89 0°46 — — — — —_— 068 — = 1°35 1°87 1°93 O-47 4710 1:80 — —_ — 0°99 0-46 1°20 1°40 1°95 1:98 0°50 4°05 —_— _ — 1°47 1°08 — 080 1°32 = = SS == —_— = — 1°30 0°35 — — 1°67 = —_ — 5°12 2°15 — -— — 085 — —_ 1°25 1°79 1°83 0°46 3°62 1°66 — - — 18 0°37 0-80 125 1-81 1°86 0°44 3°74 1°52 = — 1°25 0°39 0-42 0°86 eo, 1°62 1°65 0°38 372 1°60 — — 1°32 0°40 0°36 0°93 1°34 1°68 I-71 o-41 _— — — —_— 1°30 1'23 0°43 I‘00 1°35 1°89 1°94 0°46 3°95 1°70 —_ —_— 1°46 I*12 0°40 1°03 D342) — = —_— = — —_ — 1°40 0749 o'50 0:80 1°50 2°10 2°16 — 5°42 0-48 0-40 0"70 118 1°53 1°60 0°37 3°75 1°60 — — I°2 1°20 0°37 1°20 1°40 _ — —_ 3°84 1°53 — —_— 1°35 0°30 0°39 1:00 1°20 = — —_ 3°60 1°40 — oa 118 1°20 o-41 0:80 1°30 1°72 1°75 0°34 3°85 1°60 — —- 1:24 1°45 0-62 0-90 1°66 2°17 2°22 O57 4°88 2°06 — — 1°68 0°46 0°34 0-70 1°35 1°77 1°81 0°43 3u72 1°50 — = 1°25 1°30 0°35 0-80 1°35 1°95 2°08 0°47 3°70 1°50 a — I'I3 0°45 O°31 0-80 Tels 1°59 1°63 o-41 3°40 1°48 —_— —_— I'Ig @:30) ||| 0:37 || tor95) || tsr3) || 1555 | x-58! |) (0:39) ||) 3:30 ||| ts0" || = 124 0°45 0°36 0:80 1°20 I-70 172) 0-42 = _ — _ I‘ll 0°35 — — 1°13 I'5t 1°56 0°40 3°70 1°50 _— —_— — 0°49 0-46 I'00 1°20 I-75 1°78 o'741 — — — — 1°35 1°25 0°48 0-90 1°38 2°02 2°10 0°48 — —_— _— — 1°40 1°30 0°32 0:90 1°22 1°70 1°70 0°43 1-20 I-40 0°46 1°25 1°75 2°35 2°50 —_ 5°04 1°94 —_ — 1°80 I-10 0°43 1°20 1°20 == = — — —_ — — 1°35 1°35 O'5I Ilo 1°70 = — _ 5°12 2°30 — — 1°80 1°20 Osi 0°05 1°32 1°90 1°94 0°49 4:2 1°72 — -_- 1°40 0°65 0°57 125 1°56 2°05 2°10 0°53 — 2°05 — — 1°88 0°45 — —_ 1°25 1°84 1°89 0°46 3°90 1°62 — — = 0-70 056 1°30 1-75 2°34 2'40 | 058 5°35 2°25 — — 2°15 058 0°36 1‘00 1°30 1°72 1°76 0°43 3°90 1°60 —_ —_ I°l3 0-40 0°43 1:20 1°23 1°86 1°89 o-45 3°85 1°63 — —- 1°35 526 DISCOVERY REPORTS Tip of snout to tip Eye to ear, centres Notch of flukes to posterior emargina- tion of dorsal fin Notch of flukes to tion beyond tip of of flipper WHALE NUMBER Total length, tip of snout to notch of Lower jaw, projec- snout Flukes, width at angle of gape insertion Tip of snout to Tip of snout to Tip of snout to centre of eye blow-hole Male Female Female Female Male Male Male Male Male Male Female Male Female Male Female Female Male Female Female Female Male Female Male Male Male Female Female Female Female Male Female Male Male Male Female Male Female Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Male Female Female Male Female Male Male Male Female Female Male Male Male Male Male Male | HORE REOY BAX NWWHOO OoOunmont OOO MEASUREMENTS OF FIN WHALES 527 4 > Anus to reproduc- Dorsal fin, length of tive aperture, centres Flipper, tip to axilla Flipper, tip to head Skull length, con- of humerus dyle to tip of Dorsal fin, vertical premaxilla Notch of flukes to end of system of ventral grooves anterior end of lower border Flipper, length along curve of lower border Flipper, greatest Severed head, condyle to tip Skull, greatest Tail, depth at Flipper, tip to dorsal fin umbilicus ei es ano wo On no fo} [ome} HHH RRR RRO He He woe hee Aan Meta Tee Coe) nDaon NTN 528 DISCOVERY REPORTS P Eye to ear, centres Notch of flukes to posterior emargina- tion of dorsal fin Notch of flukes to anus Flukes, width at Tip of snout to ti insertion Tip of snout to angle of gape Tip of snout to centre of eye of flipper tion beyond tip of blow-hole Lower jaw, projec- snout WHALE NUMBER Total length, tip of snout to notch of Tip of snout to Male Male Female Male Female Male Male Male Female Male Male Male Male Male Female Female Female Male Male Female ooo Nu oo fo} co - a OW co Nn- Ww Www os 6 | au | su oust oo fo} (oe) N | 9 Ne} ros wanooro ole) CO HOW On 200900 MINIO COO wu AAO 0 ° HRW NWWWwWRWW NOW QnudHW Ori mUSoOM DOW ODOM OWUMO MooMBnwunn poate) Comte) wWwroO Female Male Female Female Male Male Male Male Male Male easier | ponies as | ag now oun Dh BR OCU AIW O oonNaoOgOOmMwWOO aN =i | un Female Male Male Male Female Female Female Male Male Female > fo) mn LEARN UNEARNED UNDER E HOMeEE SSSI 6 au NO wCONNO wRU oro On Male Female Male Female Male Male Female Female Male Female Nv PRN NNH RH HHO NNNNNNNNN Female Male Male Male Male Female Male Male Female Male NNNNN DADO MEASUREMENTS OF FIN WHALES 529 4 Lal 4 N 4 w 4 as 4 un H a Sa 3 1 = ° = ao} £ fe 1g § < | é 3 g gg |g = & 3 « lo 3 8 ae 4 |MEP las | 2 § s) Wee ache | a8 yleccmea ler “= | z 5 5Soo enn = ay ot o| geod oS op 2 a=ie) ve lon] (els ) os a op aes Kenlisiire} o> u oO = pas a8 ae Su etencalncee lec & S |SSE/SeE| ® | #2 | § | RES) #e | Se 98 Opes Q%,y a wh wea Ww oma) 1) o's pots og on wa YP ag ae ira ov oo o o os =O¢ o res Sm Sos lasd as) o Vow! awe! as Se eo) |S etl) ee -a 9'5 oY $s te} g Diva) oO o c= ou sh mt (si =m SE Sue |zee| 3-2 6 2 Ey || SERS || eS ay) Ss 3 Bs | soc] 2S | Bs = = pals) BIAS} ac) Oy) [s Fas WZsi ee |areo || Acc | Aa & |@Sll\eak| HE | AS | HE |noa| BS | as g'I0 1°30 1°58 _ _— — — — — — 2°00 = = 1°37 | 1°95 | 1°98 | 0-48 | 4:45 | 1°84 = cE oe 1°00 : 4:18 2°80 - = 1°45 3°40 | 1°30 = as = 4°37 | 1°65 — = = 3°92 | 1°50 = = 1°35 3°50 | 1°45 = = x 5°00 2°27 = = 1°59 3°74 | 1°64 = — 1°25 3°79 | 1°63 = == = 4:85) |" 1:98) | = 077 3°88 1°83 = = 1°25 5°50 | 214 ae wz 167 3°98 1°65 = =z 1°34 3°80 1°61 — = = 4°48 1°86 = = 1°52 HHH HR RRO 7°25 7°25 0°40 0°39 0°95 1°18 1-61 1°70 o-4i = Ils 1°60 DISCOVERY REPORTS 539° DaTE SEx Total length, tip of snout to notch of flukes Tip of snout to tip Eye to ear, centres Notch of flukes to posterior emargina- tion of dorsal fin Notch of flukes to anus tion beyond tip of of flipper snout Flukes, width at WHALE NUMBER Lower jaw, projec- Tip of snout to Tip of snout to angle of gape Tip of snout to centre of eye insertion blow-hole Male 16°80 — 3714 3°35 3°43 6:80 0°83 4°25 0°85 4:90 2 Ome. 1149 Male 15°95 —_ 2°80 3°15 3°28 — 0:76 4°00 o-77 4:70 3 Oct. 1163 Female 15°40 — 2°75 2°83 2°92 6°05 0'74 4°10 o81 4°75 Cyr 1165 Female 18:80 = 3°45 3°85 3°90 7°80 0°93 4°66 0°94 5°40 aes 1175 | Male 19°60 = 419 — 4°40 = 0:97 | 4°65 | 9°90 | 5°50 Se 1180 Male 14°90 — 2°40 2:60 2°68 5°55 o'70 _ o-81 4°40 Cs 1184 Female 16°70 = 2°90 3°20 3°26 6:60 0-82 — 0-90 5°00 Ol ss 1187 Female 13°55 — 2°20 2°48 2°57 5°39 0°66 3°48 0°68 4°05 Oj. & 1188 ee 15°00 = 2°75 3°00 3°10 615 O74 3°75 O'75 = I Male : 3 ; Male . 2 4°30 : 5°00 090 Tass 1192 Male 20°70 — 4°10 _ 4°48 8-90 1°05 4°70 1°00 5°70 Male : Male 20°25 — 3°90 4°20 — 1°03 — 1°04 6:10 op 1197 | Male 21°30 = 3°89 | 4:34 | 4°52 9°24 | 1:04 | 4°75 | 1:03 | 5°89 roi; 1198 Male Pie 4) — 4°65 5°45 4°85 9°67 — — 1:08 5°73 TOV. 1199 Male 19°60 — 3°75 4:05 4:21 8-33 0°04 —_ 0-90 5°02 17, es 1203 Female 20°70 — 4°26 oo 4°50 9°31 — — 1°03 5°95 Tey os 1210 Female 21°80 — 4°44 4°82 4°88 — _— — 098 6:00 Toes 1211 Male 20°30 = 3°90 — 4°37 8-30 1°03 5°00 1°00 560 22, 1221 Female 22°40 _ 4°25 _ 4°65 os 1°05 — 0°05 6°40 220 ess 1224 Female 22°35 — 4°40 4°85 9°65 — —_ 1'00 6:00 26 ,, 1231 Male 20°96 = 4°12 4:28 4°37 8-76 1°05 4°86 I'Io 6:20 29855 1235 Female 22°48 — 4°05 —_ 5°13 9°50 I'IO — ra 6°47 10 Dec. 1270 Male 22°50 —_— 3°85 4°11 4°25 8-3 oop 511 0:96 5°81 Tees 1286 Male 20°24 — 3°88 = 4°27 =_— 1-02 4°87 1:00 5°69 TOMS 1292 Female 22°03 — 4:21 4°71 4°71 9°25 1°10 — 0°95 5°91 ZOnan* 1297 Female 22°75 _ 4°00 4°60 4°70 8-80 1°03 — 1°02 5:60 1927 4 Jan. 1338 Female 21°80 = 4°55 4°62 4°77 9°25 1°05 5°07 1°09 6:00 9 » 1354 | Female | 21°85 — 4:30 | 4:60 | 4:65 _ 1°05 _— Ito | 6:40 Oui 1357 Female 21°70 _— 4°40 — 4°90 9°20 108 — I'00 5°65 Oe, 1358 | Male 20°20 _— 4:05 _ 4°57 8-61 — 1:05 | 5°62 LO); 1365 Female 21°40 — 4°20 — 4:80 9°25 1'02 5°30 1'00 6:00 LOs ess 1369 Female 21-00 _ 4:10 — 4°55 8-45 I'00 — 1°05 5°80 It 5; 1370 Female 22°45 = 4°70 —_— 5°20 10°00 1:08 _ I‘ls 6:10 Tt a 1371 Male 23°60 = 4°60 —_— 5°05 I0°1O 1:06 _- 1°05 615 DD As; 1372 Male 18-90 = 3°55 3°88 4°00 7°95 089 — o'85 5°15 LS nay 1377 Male 20°20 — —_ — = Female 1G) en 1391 Male 21°05 = = = — a 2 Te bss 1392 Male 19°60 — — = = =a LSE, 1393 Male 20°05 = = = = Ta Toe 1394 Female 20°60 = = = = = = —; = am uO) os 1398 Male 19°30 = = = =— = = = = a TOM 5 1399 Female 21°10 == =a LON 1400 Female 21°80 — =e = Oy ay 1401 Female 22°00 == Female % Female 20°40 220 1414 Female 21°10 — —_— = = 22a, 1415 Male 17°40 = = — — = — — = = 22a 1416 Female 22°05 — — — = 26> 5 1433 Female 17°30 = — _— — —_— — — = = 27 ee 1435 Male 19°60 = —— — — 20) 5 1451 Male 18:30 — — _— = 320) 1452 Female 21°80 — — — a = 7 Feb. 1456 Female 19°50 —_ — a — — _ — — = Male MEASUREMENTS OF FIN WHALES 531 Leal us Flipper, tip to head Skull length, con- of humerus dyle to tip of Flipper, tip to axilla premaxilla Anus to reproduc- Dorsal fin, length of tive aperture, centres Dorsal fin, vertical Notch of flukes to umbilicus Notch of flukes to end of system of ventral grooves anterior end of lower border Flipper, length along curve of lower border Severed head, condyle to tip Skull, greatest Tail, depth at dorsal fin Flipper, tip to (s a on HHH Kia | E o00n!'0 HHH AH | lade mnonum Ree q un Lal | 4 wn | ol 8 co | mown S13 cont | Sn ou Rega al un mn i | HH ont Wwur 2°05 1°67 532 DISCOVERY REPORTS WHALE NUMBER Total length, tip of snout to notch of Lower jaw, projec- tion beyond tip of Tip of snout to blow-hole Tip of snout to angle of gape Tip of snout to centre of eye Tip of snout to tip of flipper Eye to ear, centres Notch of flukes to posterior emargina- tion of dorsal fin Flukes, width at insertion Notch of flukes to HRA RO UES BSN ANSNYSUH FE QUUNHNSE OW AnAnNOWUNOf ON NONOUMNTN TO VEWRQRHEEG WO PWWROANA COMMU DO U1 COW COW O’Wmnumndodwumnd + lls | WAI DOGNUNOH ONnDODOOWOND REESE COnuUMNrt eM Nn oo0o0oononoond DAM DW N umn ond RORRA HORQHVOREAA i luuare Mmouuwmn NOWN Oo MmoM RORY * Measurements to the axilla. MEASUREMENTS OF FIN WHALES 533 Ht - Anus to reproduc- Dorsal fin, length of Flipper, tip to axilla Flipper, tip to head of humerus tive aperture, centres Skull length, con- dyle to tip of Dorsal fin, vertical premaxilla Notch of flukes to umbilicus Notch of flukes to end of system of ventral grooves height Flipper, tip to anterior end of lower border Flipper, length along curve of lower border Flipper, greatest Severed head, condyle to tip Skull, greatest Tail, depth at dorsal fin ere inn Auiwur Dn - nooo0o0on oR si oo MOW ADH nNnonumnoao ou OWN wWnn 534 DISCOVERY REPORTS WHALE NUMBER Total length, tip of snout to notch of Lower jaw, projec- tion beyond tip of Tip of snout to Tip of snout to angle of gape Tip of snout to centre of eye Tip of snout to tip of flipper Eye to ear, centres Notch of flukes to posterior emargina- tion of dorsal fin Flukes, width at insertion blow-hole 192 12 Boul Male 12 Female Female Male Male Female Male Male Male Male HO foeec} uu VAR ARE ROH Ono NUNS D oommmooo won Male Female Female Male Male Male Female Male NNNNNNNN WNNNODIAODA Unk RAUN wont tHON * Measurements to the axilla. 535 MEASUREMENTS OF FIN WHALES uy [esiop ye adap [eT snigumy jo pray o3 dy ‘1addry.q eyprxeurasd jo dn 03 ajAp -u09 ‘YsUZT [INAS UPS ysaqvois ‘NYS dij 0} ayApuos ‘pray patoaag rps ysaqveis ‘1oddip.7 Japioq IaMoy jo 9AINO Suoye yysugy ‘r9ddiyy Japiog I9Mo] jo pud Jorajue 0} dy ‘raddip.y eyrxe 0} dy ‘rsddryq aseq jo yisug] ‘uy [es10q yysIoY [eons9a ‘uy [esiog saiquao ‘ginqiode oat} -onpoidai 0} snuy SOAOOIS [BI]UDA jo w1a3sAs Jo pua 0} sayny jo yOION, snoryrquin 0} sayNy jo yDION, the INDEX Abdominal pregnancy, 422 Callorhynchus, 379 Abortive foetus, 422 Catches of whales, analysis of, 456, 457 Acanthocephala, 373 fluctuations of, 456-63 Adolescence, 442, 443 Clitoris, 380, 381 period of, compared with other mammals, 445 Cocconets, 373 Ages of whales, 394, 446-53, 460, 461 Coition, 382, 390 Analysis of catches of whales, 456, 457 Colour, 266 of milk, see Appendix I Blue whales, 311-13 Annual migrations, evidence for, 379, 412, 413 Fin whales, 342, 353-5 Conchoderma auritum, 373 Bacteria in scars on blubber, 375, 377 virgatum, 373 Balaena australis, 272 Copulation, see Coition Balaenoptera, species of, 271, 272 Corona (scar of rupture of follicle), 387 Baleen, 266 Coronula, 373, 377 Blue whales, 313-16 Corpus luteum, 268, 387 et seq. Fin whales, 355-8 and age of whales, 394, 396, 446, 447, 449-52 growth of, 315, 355, 431-3 formation of, 387 Barnacles, see Parasites frequency of numbers of, 450, 451 Birth, length at, 428 of ovulation, 389-90, 421, 449-51 Birth-rate, 466 of pregnancy, 387-9 Births, frequency of, 429 persistence of, 390-6 Blubber, 267, 364-72 retrogression of, 391 fat content, 364 subsequent to parturition, 390-6 oil content of, see Appendix II, p. 476 Curve of growth, see Growth pits in, 374-9 Cyamus, 373 scars on, 373-9, 446, 447 Blubber thickness, and length of whale, 365-7 Delphinus phocaena, 473 monthly average, 368-72 Diatoms, film of, 267, 365, 372, 373 in pregnancy and lactation, 372 Dioestrous cycle, 396, 427, 450 seasonal changes in, 368-72 Distribution of whales, 453, 458 Blue whale season, 459 Blue whale unit, 364 Ectoparasites, 373 Blue whales, 271, 272-321 Ecuador, whaling at, 260, 375, 379 baleen, 313-16 Embryos of whales, 421, 424 colour, 311-13 Epiphyses, vertebral, 268, 446-8 external characters, 272-321 Euphausia superba, 361-363, 453 external proportions, 275-311 recurva, 361 hair, 319-21 lucens, 361 measurements, mean values of, 276-95 Euthemisto, 361 oil, yield of, 272 Expectation of life, 466 sex-ratio, 274 External characters, 271-360 sexes, relative sizes of, 275 External genitalia, 267, 379, 380, 428 Size, 273 External parasites, 267, 373-9 variations of bodily proportions, 295-311 External proportions, Blue whales, 275-311 ventral grooves, 317-19 Fin whales, 322-42 Bottlenose whale, 272, 473 Breeding (and growth), 412-53 Factory ship, see Floating factory previous work on, 413-15 Faeces, 432 season, 420~7, 442, 464 Fat content of blubber, 364 sources of information on, 412-15 of milk, 473, 474 Bryde’s whale, 272, 375, 378 Fin whale season, 459 Fin whales, 271, 321-60 Ca’aing whale, 272 baleen, 355-8 Calf, growth of, 431-6 colour, 342, 353-5 length at birth, 428 external characters, 321-60 length at weaning, 431-3 external proportions, 322-42 KIV 36 538 Fin whales (cont.) hair, 359-60 measurements, mean values of, 323-39 oil, yield of, 321 SeX-ratio, 321, 322 sexes, relative sizes of, 322 size, 321 variations of bodily proportions, 340-52 ventral grooves, 358-60 Fish, as food of whales, 361 Flensing platform, 261, 262 Flensing, process of, 262, 263 Floating factories, 261, 262 Foetus, abortive, 422 average monthly lengths of, 422 early development of, 426, 446 growth of, 422 ef seq. Foetuses, number examined, 422 Follicles, Graafian, 385-9, 421 Food, 360-4 distribution of, 462 Future work, 466 Genitalia, external, 267, 379, 380, 428 internal, 267, 382-412 Gestation, compared with other mammals, 445 growth of foetus during, 422 et seq. period of, 413, 414, 428, 430, 465 Globicephala melaena, 272 Graafian follicles, see Follicles Grampus, 272 Greenland shark, 378 Grey whale, Pacific, 414, 445 Growth after sexual maturity, 394, 449 Growth, differential rates of, 434 during adolescence, 436-44 during gestation, 422 et seq. during lactation, 433-6 mean curve of, 422-6, 434-6, 442-5 Growth of baleen, 315, 355, 431-3 of the calf, 428, 431-6 of the foetus, 422 ef seq. Hair, 266 Blue whales, 319-21 Fin whales, 359, 360 Heat in whales, 380 Humpback whale, 271, 272, 361, 401, 414, 430, 431 Hyperoédon, 272 Ice, influence of, 461, 462 Immature whales, ratio of, 418, 419, 464, 466 Internal genitalia, 267, 382-412 Intestines, examination of, 268, 362 Killer-whale, 272, 466 Krill, 361-3, 431, 432, 454 Lactating females, occurrence of, 434, 436, 456, 457, 462 INDEX Lactating females (cont.) pregnancy among, 430, 431 segregation of, 433, 436, 462 Lactation, 402~5 growth during, 433-6 period of, 431, 433, 436 Laemargus, 378 Length frequencies of whales, 437-42, 444 Lesser Rorqual, 272 Log books, 268 Mammary glands, 267, 401-5 anatomy, 401, 402 histology, 402-5 Marine Biological Station, 259, 261 Material and data, 269-71 Maturity, full (physical), 295, 415, 447, 449 Maturity, sexual, 415-19, 455 age of whales at, 443 determination of, 415-18 size of whales at, 417 Measurement of the blubber, 267 of the corpora lutea, 268 of the penis, 267 of the testis, 267 Measurement series, 265, 266 Measurement tables, Blue whales, 276, 278-85, 296, 297. Fin whales, 323, 324-31, 340, 341 Measurements, mean values of, 276-95, 323-39 Megaptera nodosa, 271 Methods of work, 263-9 Migrations, 412, 413, 436, 437, 463 evidence for, 412, 413 Milk, 267, 401, 431, 432 composition of, see Appendix I, p. 472 sampling of, 472 Myxinoid fishes, 378 Nursing period, 433-7; see also Lactation Nictiphanes africanus, 36% Observations, routine of, 265-8 Oestrus, 390 Oil, whale, 263 extraction from blubber, see Appendix II, p. 476 Oil, yield of, from Blue whales, 272 from Fin whales, 321 Orcinus, 272, 379 Osteological specimens, 259 Ovaries, 382-96 examination of, 267, 268 growth of, 383-5 weight of, 383-5 Ovulation, 389, 390, 396 Ovum, growth of, 385, 386 Pacific Grey whale, 414, 445 Pairing, frequency of, 426, 427 Pairing season, 420 et seq. INDEX Palate, 315 and tongue, 267 Parasites, external, 267, 373-9 internal, 268, 373 Parturition, frequency of, 429 season of, 420, 429 Penis, 267, 380 Pennella, 373, 377, 378 Period of gestation, 413, 414, 428, 430, 465 Period of lactation, 431, 433, 436 Pesca, Compania Argentina de, 261 Pfliiger’s tubes, 385 Physeter catodon, 272 Pits and scars in blubber, 373-9 Polyoestrous cycle, 396, 450, 467 Populations, whale, constitution of, 453-63, 464 Pregnancies, interval between successive, 430, 431, 464 Pregnancy, abdominal, 422 recurrence of, 430, 431, 464 among lactating females, 430, 431 Pregnant, percentage of adult females, 431, 456-60, 465 Propagation, rate of, 465, 467 Proportions, external, Blue whales, 275-311 Fin whales, 322-42 Protozoan parasites, 377 Races of whales, 308, 463; see also Sub-species Rhachianectes glaucus, 414, 445 Representative sample (of the stock of whales), 430, 436, 454, 465 Reproduction, rate of, 465 Reproductive organs, 379-412 Resting whales, 455-60 Right whale, Southern, 272 Rorquals, 271 Routine of observations, 265-8 Saldanha Bay, whaling station at, 261 Samples, see Representative sample Scars and pits in blubber, 373-9 Scars on blubber, 267, 446, 447 Scar tissue, 375 Season of parturition, 420, 429 Season, pairing, 420 et seq. whaling, 260, 261 Segregation of classes of whales, 433, 454, 460, 465 Sei whale, 271, 426 Sexes, relative sizes of, 275, 322, 446 Sex-ratio, 463 Blue whales, 274 Fin whales, 321, 322 539 Sexual cycle, 428 et seqg., 467 Sexual maturity, see Maturity Sexual season, female, 420, 427 male, 410, 412 Sizes of whales, 273, 321, 445, 446 Southern Right whale, 272 Sperm whale, 272 Spermatozoa, 407-12 Station, Marine Biological, 259, 261 Stations, whaling, 261-3 Statistics collected by British Museum, 270, 274, 321, 433 Stock of whales, 453-67 conclusions as to, 463-7 constitution of, 466 Stomach, examination of, 268 Sub-species of whales, 260; see also Races Superfoetation, instances of, 386 Tapeworms, 373 Testis, 267, 405-12 activity of, 421, 424 histology of, 407-12 size of, 406, 407 Tongue, 267 Twins, 386, 422 Urethra, 381 Uterus, 267, 397-401 histology, 399, 400 measurement of, 397 size, 397-9 Vagina, 267, 380, 381 Vaginal band, 381, 382 Vaginal smears, 400 Ventral grooves, 267 Blue whales, 317-19 Fin whales, 358-60 Vertebral epiphyses, 268, 446-8 Weaning, 431-3, 437 length of young whale at, 431-3 Whale populations, constitution of, 453-63, 465 Whaling Investigations, objects of, 259-61 Whaling season, 260, 261 stations, 261-3 Xenobalanus globicipitis, 373 Young whale, growth of, 431 et seq. length at birth, 428 length at weaning, 431-3 PLATES XXV—XLIV PLATE XXV Fig. 1. Blue whale, 2, 25 m. From a coloured drawing by J. F. G. Wheeler based on measurements, notes and sketches made at South Georgia. Fig. 2. Fin whale, 9, 21 m. From a coloured drawing by J. F. G. Wheeler based on measurements, notes and sketches made at South Georgia. sky vaaqouanpvg ‘ey Uy *e “BLY ‘snynasnu vaajqouanpog ‘aeyM eng ‘1 Shy PLATE XXV er EE Kagem 28 oa 4 e) - dp) i= a4 ie) Ay ea} m4 wm 4 = > 2) 1S) id p) H Dn PLATE XXVI Fig. 1. Flensing platform of whaling station at Grytviken, South Georgia, showing large Blue whale (No. 250). Fig. 2. Flensing platform at Saldanha Bay, Cape Colony, with partially dismembered carcass of a whale. DISCOVERY REPORTS, VOL. I PLATE XXVI j N. A. M. phot. N. A. M. phot. Fig. 2 SOUTHERN BLUE AND FIN WHALES PLATE XXVII Fig. 1. Blue whale, 9, No. 862. Dorsal view. Showing pale spots on back and flanks. Fig. 2. Blue whale, 2, No. 275. Dorsal view. Showing pale spots on back and flanks. Ae | DISCOVERY REPORTS, VOL. I PLATE XXVII N. A. M. phot. N. A. M. phot. Fig. 2 SOUTHERN BLUE AND FIN WHALES Ld } PLATE XXVIII : Fig. 1. Blue whale, 2, No. 250. Showing pigmentation of head and shoulder. ; Fig. 2. Blue whale, 2, No. 265. Showing pigmentation of shoulder and : flank. ; : H | DISCOVERY REPORTS, VOL. I PLATE XXVIII NN. A. VL. pnot. N. A. M. phot. SOUTHERN BLUE AND FIN WHALES ae stor f in to ad prain Terre > ¥ ‘' eT LEAS ef 2 vat PLATE XXIX Fig. 1. Blue whale, 2, No. 248. Ventral view. Note absence of white flecks on the ventral grooves. Fig. 2. Blue whale, 9, No. 261. Ventral view. Note small number of white flecks. Fig. 3. Blue whale, 3, No. 256. Ventral view. Note white flecks grouped well forward. DISCOVERY REPORTS, VOL. I PLATE XXIX N. A. M. phot. % ta N. A. M. phot. Fig. 3 SOUTHERN BLUE AND FIN WHALES : ognarta lesiqyE .worr tias'7 ‘Ye moibaos a: PLATE XXX Fig. 1. Blue whale, 2, No. 244. Ventral view. Typical arrangement of white flecks on the ventral grooves. Note the swollen condition of the mammary glands. Cf. Plate XXXV, fig. 3. Fig. 2. Blue whale, 3, No. go7. Ventral view. Note numerous white flecks. Fig. 3. Blue whale, 9, No. 253. Ventral view. Note very numerous white flecks and white splash over the umbilicus. 7 ee DISCOVERY REPORTS, VOL. I omen N. A. M. phot. Fig. 3 SOUTHERN BLUE AND FIN WHALES N. A. M. phot. “ sist is. ae N. A. M. phot. she aniwode list io w PLATE XXXI Fig. 1. Blue whale, 2, No. 1299. Ventral view. Showing transverse white patches just behind the umbilicus in the centre of the photograph. Fig. 2. Blue whale, g, No. 1345. Under surface of flipper, showing heavy pigment. Fig. 3. Blue whale, 3, 1350. Ventral view of tail showing striations on the under surface of the flukes. Fig. 4. Blue whale, 3, No. 157. Ventral view showing genital aperture and ventral grooves. PLATE XXXI DISCOVERY REPORTS, VOL. I ‘04d “WV (N v SHIVHM NIX GNV ANTE NYAHLNOS ‘30d WY 'N 104d WYN, 7. +f o oad sft s 303 peat an PLATE XXXII Fig. 1. Fin whale, 2, No. 865. Right side of head. Note the sharp distinction between the dark and light baleen plates, the unpigmented lower jaw and the unpigmented part of the upper jaw opposite the white baleen plates. Fig. 2. The same whale. Left side of head. Here the baleen plates are all dark and the upper and lower jaws are both pigmented. Note the thin pale streak running back from the very small aperture of the ear. DISCOVERY REPORTS, VOL. Fig. 1 Fig. 2 SOUTHERN BLUE AND FIN WHALE N. A. M. phot. a PAY REPORTS, VOT wy eww PLATE XXXIII Fig. 1. Fin whale, 3, No. 320 (?). Ventral view. Showing heavy pig- mentation in the tail region. Fig. 2. Fin whale, 2, No. 263. Ventral view. Showing tongues of pig- ment behind anus. Fig. 3. Fin whale, 2, No. 260. Ventral view. Also showing tongues of pigment behind anus. DISCOVERY REPORTS, VOL. I PLATE XXXIII N. A. M. phot. N. A. M. phot. Fig. 3 SOUTHERN BLUE AND FIN WHALES vo leqinsy PLATE XXXIV Fig. 1. Fin whale, 9, No. 1357. Ventral view. Showing pigmentation of the ventral grooves. Fig. 2. Fin whale, 2, No. ?. Ventral view. Showing asymmetry of anterior pigmentation. Fig. 3. Fin whale, 3, 607. View of right side of head and shoulder. Note dark streak running back from the eye. The whale is lying almost on its back. | DISCOVERY REPORTS, VOL. I SOUTHERN BLUE AND FI WHALES PLATE XXXIV Sew SS F. E. Hamilton phot. — + N. A. M. phot. daamoie 22; ‘ Fs A> ute Go 38 Sti 10 Fie URS oF RO tn ¥ ®f HOST BAIHOW: Be Ae mi Q7e POWs ig2 BRITS 1b elit Maio ae BRED BAT TO Oreo Ne y: YoreTOMp Res salhGw es wilee Maar 7 yishs: eheats yas PLATE XXXV Fig. 1. Fin whale, 3, No. 255. Stomach, containing a large quantity of Euphausia superba. Only a part of the stomach is visible. Fig. 2. Blue whale, 2, No. 254. Ventral view. Showing projecting nipples on either side of the genital aperture. The nipples are in an unnaturally swollen condition owing to decomposition of the carcass. Fig. 3. Blue whale, 2, No. 244. Ventral view. Mammary glands after removal of the blubber. DISCOVERY REPORTS, VOL. I PLATE XXXV N. A. M. phot. Fig. 3 SOUTHERN BLUE AND FIN WHALES PLATE XXXVI Figs. 1-10. Successive stages in the formation and healing of pits in the skin and blubber. ; DISCOVERY REPORTS, VOL. I PLATE XXXVI er oe eee a % Fig. ro ¥. F. G. W. phot. SOUTHERN BLUE AND FIN WHALES <7 PLATE XXXVII Fig. 1. Fresh scar left on the skin by Coronula sp. Fig. 2. Old impression left on the skin by Coronula sp. Fig. 3. Section of blubber through scar, stained with Sudan III, and showing radiating fibres. Fig. 4. Close view of pale marks on skin of Blue whale. About } natural size. PLATE XXXVII DISCOVERY REPORTS, VOL. I youd ‘WKN SHIVHM NId GNV 4N1d NYAHLNOS youd MD Ak o al oa tO, RAG AS DS PLATE XXXVIII Fig. 1. Embryo and foetal membranes of Fin whale, No. 949. Natural size. Fig. 2. Embryo and foetal membranes of Sei whale, No, 1074. Natural size. Fig. 3. Embryo and foetal membranes of Blue whale, No. goo. Natural size. DISCOVERY REPORTS, VOL. I PLATE XXXVIII N. A. M. phot. Fig. 1 J. F. G. W. phot. a S$. F. G. W. phot. Fig. 2 Pige3 SOUTHERN BLUE AND FIN WHALES er Su yess Ieee DNS PLATE XXXIX Fig. 1. Genital aperture of young female Fin whale showing the vaginal band. (After flensing.) Fig. 2. Similar photograph taken before flensing. In both these photographs the clitoris is the lobed structure with the vaginal band lying in line with and below it. Fig. 3. Genital aperture, uterus, and one ovary of 2-76 m. foetus of Fin whale No. 173. Vaginal band present. Fig. 4. Ovaries of 6-3 m. foetus of Blue whale, No. 154. DESCOVERY REPORTS, VOL. I PLATE XXXIX 5. F. G. W. phot. J. F. G. W. phot. Fig. 1 Fig. 2 ¥. F. G. W. phot. 4. F. G. W. phot. Fig. 3 Fig. 4 SOUTHERN BLUE AND FIN WHALES ed ou Pot A Sr EN } oy eugIOd Lt SO aes oa PLATE XL (Photographs about 4 natural size.) Fig. 1. Ovaries of immature Blue whale, No. 48. Fig. 2. Ovaries of adult Fin whale, No. 111. Many old corpora lutea are present and a large follicle is seen bulging from the lower left-hand side of the left ovary. Fig. 3. Ovaries of pregnant Fin whale, No. 173. The huge swelling on the left-hand ovary is the corpus luteum of pregnancy. Both ovaries have many old corpora lutea. Fig. 4. Ovaries of pregnant Fin whale, No. 175. The functional corpus luteum here has a very pronounced neck. DISCOVERY REPORTS, VOL. I PLATE XL F. F. G. W. phot. J. F. G. W. phot. Fig. 1 Fig. 2 JF. F. G. W. phot. i F. F. G. W. phot. Fig. 3 Eig SOUTHERN BLUE AND FIN WHALES I ar A stl sxoqioe bio to zor » io PLATE XLI Fig. 1. Ovaries of a lactating Fin whale, No. 168. The body on the side of the right-hand ovary is the recent corpus luteum of pregnancy. Fig. 2. Ovaries of Blue whale, No. 106, with only four old corpora lutea which have not undergone much retrogression. Fig. 3. Series of old corpora lutea from one pair of Fin whale ovaries, seen in section. DISCOVERY REPORTS, VOL. I PLATE XLI J. F. G. W. phot. ¥. F. G. W. phot. S$. F. G. W. phot. Fig. 3 SOUTHERN BLUE AND FIN WHALES cove WIe BTA aa 4 ANE TS, 6 Fateh ya te “Oe AG, cee be : . ya e ve". +5 ; £ ‘ Bs; } : (Epes. eu'et, Pa Sp ere ge . Sisdy surtsmini Yo szosum sanstJ_.1 oft ma _ghitstos! ton tasageg rods oli 31 on] ee i 8 Be e's 7 a ras Pe ae eee 2 ‘pono lis? @hiub seoouen onia3U. € gi a . — at} : 7% @ y eee, asiet ylinecex bed oiislyvo daidw ai Sindw 10 seoonim Pinas 2 gt mgt sD aod sonlg Bere ba “ g ag neg . SOUTHERN BLUE ANID TIN WHALES " ad PLATE XLII Fig. 1. Uterine mucosa of immature whale. Fig. 2. Uterine mucosa of adult whale neither pregnant nor lactating. Fig. 3. Uterine mucosa during early pregnancy. Fig. 4. Uterine mucosa during early lactation. Fig. 5. Uterine mucosa of whale in which ovulation had recently taken place. DISCOVERY REPORTS, VOL. I SOUTHERN BLUE AND FIN WHALES PLATE XLII jf. F. G. W. del. “W1Ix @TAIS ts \ aol auvel - -xe asladw ond Ne is ec io eisb bas asagansl ait re ted pe ae 8 i= “ey : ; $ = ie — : q =o a st » 7 4 fopihdey gh E viccwernonss anti 74 > Ets PLATE XLIII Blue Whales Chart showing the lengths and date of capture of all Blue whales ex- amined. Males in red, females in black. PLATE XLIII DISCOVERY REPORTS, VOL. I SOUTHERN BLUE AND FIN WHALES nia 4 ho, 5 Pa " pats ES : are a y ths i 7 a > 7 bi % i ; j 14 H & OL. 7 Sno, OLE in ang pein ie dee co ae sa “ re! 2 ile jad . snnwo ssid ni 2oleme?t bor nt gol = = to seb bus Argaol silt a PLATE XLIV Fin Whales Chart showing the lengths and date of capture of all Fin whales ex- amined. Males in red, females in black. DISCOVERY REPORTS, VOL. I PLATE X N NN Nw E IN METRES N 20 ee pees 4 SOUTHERN BLUE AND FIN WHALES 6S ee oe a * Pear rea Ba Ee ee hee DISCOVERY REPORTS Vol. I, pp. 541-560 Issued by the Discovery Committee, Colonial Office, London on behalf of the Government of the Dependencies of the Falkland Islands PARASITIC NEMATODA & ACANTHOCEPHALA COLEEC TED IN 1925-1927 by H. A. Baylis, M.A., D.Sc. os at Heer; hae ti, Ct Na Ye f thes. pay ; “SS ONAL MUSES CAMBRIDGE AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS 1929 Price two shillings net 2 te 5 Fees Peete 8 V2 [Discovery Reports. Vol. I, pp. 541-560, December 1929.] PARAS EET © NEMATODA AND ACANTHOCEPHALA COLEECTED IN 1925—1927 By H. A. BAYLIS, M.A., D.Sc. CONTENTS NEMATODA INSGASGETS, agty 1o§ col Ge kg Meath cy qoute souk poy i ic) tok one TYG? OAR} leterakidacne gine Gh. At ss ehece i wee lo eye eee cea CO “TPrainommmontagGE® 5 4 6 4, 0 6 © 6) @ 5 6 © @4e o GO inlom~eiGee 6 § & 46 o 6 6 56 6 o © o 8s 5 5 op o SES Spiraridae wus, ener et eee Gi Cee, 0 Me ne CE SO (Gneilences 5 6 «© eo 6 o 6 o 6 oo 6 @ &@ 5 6 o GOS ACANTHOCEPHALA Echinochynehidae 0% 2. = Se = oe eS Rhadinorhyncbidae.) v.00 6) gen eee ee 7) Paka bi iC NEMATODA AND ACANTDHO- CEPMALA COLLECEED IN 1925-1927 By H. A. Baylis, M.A., D.Sc. Department of Zoology, British Museum (Natural History)? Figures 1-16 HE present report deals with the earliest consignments of material belonging to fiers two groups obtained during the Discovery investigations, which were kindly submitted to the writer by Dr S. W. Kemp for determination. It is hoped that it may be followed by other reports from time to time, as further material is accumulated. The period now covered is approximately the same as that covered by the Station List for 1925-1927 (Discovery Reports, 1, pp. 1-140), in which the localities indicated only by letters and numbers will be found. The collection is of considerable interest, including as it does at least five species of Nematoda and three of Acanthocephala which appear to be new to science, and throwing new light also on the distribution of many other forms in Antarctic and Sub- antarctic regions. Almost all the material was admirably preserved, and the members of the expedition are to be congratulated upon their success in dealing, often under very trying conditions, with these difficult groups. NEMATODA Order ASCAROIDEA Family ASCARIDAE Sub-family ANISAKINAE Anisakis similis (Baird, 1853) This species occurred in large numbers in the stomach of a sea-elephant (Mirounga leonina) at North Bay, Ice Fjord, South Georgia, March 1926. Anisakis typica (Diesing, 1860) Two females and several larvae from the stomach of a dolphin (Lagenorhynchus obscurus), taken off South-west Africa, north of Saldanha Bay, are referred to this species. Anisakis physeteris (Baylis, 1823) This species was collected on three occasions from the stomachs of sperm whales (Physeter catodon). Localities: Durban, July 3s 30, 1926; Saldanha Bay, South Africa, August 10, 1926; South Georgia. 1 Published by permission of the Trustees of the British Museum. 544 DISCOVERY REPORTS Anisakis catodontis, sp. n. (Fig. 1) Among specimens of A. physeteris in the stomach of a sperm whale (No. 932) at Saldanha Bay, South Africa (August 10, 1926), there were a single mature male and several immature forms of a different species. The male is about 80 mm. in length and 1-3 mm. in thickness. The cuticular striations are coarse in the oesophageal region, where the interval between them is about 0:05 mm. In the middle region of the body, however, they are much finer, the interval being about 0:0075 mm. Each lip has a broad base and a narrow anterior lobe, deeply indented in the middle and provided with a prominent dentigerous ridge composed of coarse and irregular teeth. The oesophagus (measured from the extremity of the lips and excluding the ventriculus) is 4-5 mm. long. Its greatest thickness (near the posterior O-1 MM. end) is 0:39 mm. ‘The ventriculus is straight, Fig. 1. Anisakis catodontis. Dorsal lip of and measures about 1-7 mm. in length and male, external aspect. 0-4 mm. in greatest width (at its posterior end). The nerve-ring is situated at 0-6 mm., and the cervical papillae at 0-75 mm., from the anterior end. The tail is bluntly conical and measures 0-25 mm. in length. It has only been possible to examine it in lateral view, and only a single pair of postanal papillae was observed. This was situated near the posterior end. There are numerous preanal papillae, arranged irregularly and extending forward for a considerable distance. The spicules are tubular and without alae. The left spicule measures 2:25 mm., the right 1-45 mm. in length. Their dorso-ventral diameter is about 0-03 mm. The immature specimens measure up to about 47 mm. in length and o-g mm. in maximum thickness, and show the same oesophageal structure as the adult male. Anisakis sp. Several immature specimens of a species of Anisakis occurred in [the stomach of ?] a humpback (Megaptera nodosa) at Durban, July 29, 1926. Porrocaecum falklandicum, sp. n. (Fig. 2) A pair of specimens, maie and female, collected from a dotterel (Eudromias (Zonibyx) modestus) at Port Stanley, Falklands, March 28, 1927. This species is very closely related to P. ensicaudatum (Zeder, 1800) and P. semiteres (Zeder, 1800) from European birds. The male is 13-7 mm. long and 0-7 mm. thick, the female 23-5 mm. and 1-2 mm. respectively. ‘The cuticular striations (in the female) are at intervals of about 0-017 mm. NEMATODA 545 The pulp of each lip has a pair of outwardly and posteriorly directed processes at its anterior corners, as in the other species mentioned. There are well-developed interlabia. The length of the oesophagus (in- cluding the ventriculus) is about 1-9 mm. in the male and 2-75 mm. in the female. The sub-globular ventriculus is about o-2 mm. long in the male and o-3 mm. in the female, while the intestinal caecum measures about 0-6 and 1 mm. respectively. ‘The nerve-ring is situated at o-42 mm. from the anterior end in the male, and at about 0-65 mm. in the female. Well-developed cervical alae are —~OIMM. present, the species resembling in Fig.2. Porrocaecum falklandicum. Anterior end of female, dorsal this respect P. semiteres rather than view. d., dorsal lip; 7., interlabium; v., ventro-lateral lip. P. ensicaudatum. The tail is conical in both sexes. In the male it is about 0-3 mm. long. There are apparently five pairs of very small postanal papillae (of which the most posterior but one is laterally situated) and some thirteen pairs of preanal papillae. The spicules are about 0-45 mm. long, and are apparently broadly alate, but they are retracted, and therefore difficult to see clearly. Their tips are blunt. The tail of the female is 0-55 mm. long. The vulva is situated at 10-5 mm. from the anterior extremity. The eggs are ovoid and measure 0-I-o-II mm. x 0:0675—0:07 mm. Porrocaecum decipiens (Krabbe, 1878) (?) A large number of larval forms of some species of Porrocaecum, probably P. decipiens (‘Ascaris capsularia”’), were collected on different occasions off South Georgia, the Falklands and the South Shetlands, from the peritoneum and mesenteries of various species of fish. The list of hosts is as follows: Chaenocephalus aceratus 10 collections; Stations 39, 45, 123, 149, 154, MS 68, etc Champsocephalus esox Station WS 71 Merluccius sp. 3 collections; Stations WS 73, 77 Notothenia rossit (?) Station 174 Notothenia wiltoni Station WS 86 Notothenia ramsayi Station WS 94 Parachaenichthys georgianus Grytviken, S. Georgia “Large fish” Station 142 These larvae were frequently accompanied by those of Contracaecum sp. in the same host. This occurred in Champsocephalus esox, Merluccius sp., Notothenia wiltoni and N. ramsayi. In such cases it is noticeable that the Porrocaecum larvae are much longer 546 DISCOVERY REPORTS and whiter than the Contracaecum larvae, and are usually coiled up like watch-springs in disc-shaped or lenticular capsules (see Fig. 3 A), whereas the Contracaecum larvae, A Le eee tp wages a i or 6 8 Q ek 4 i bree yas Rae B 7, Fig. 3. A, part of a mass of Porrocaecum or Anisakis larvae from Macruronus magellanicus; B, part of a mass of Con- tracaecum larvae from Notothenia wiltont. though enclosed in sheaths consisting partly of old cuticles and partly of pigmented peritoneal tissue from the host, are not usually coiled. Porrocaecum or Anisakis sp. Larval forms having a ventriculus like that of the adults of these two genera, but without an intestinal caecum, occurred in similar situations in the following fishes: Gadus sp. Station WS gg, off the Falklands, together with Contracaecum larvae Cottoperca gobio Station WS 95, off the Falklands, together with Contracaecum larvae Coryphaena sp. Atlantic Ocean, 24° 05’ N., 15° 46’ W. Macruronus magellanicus _A \arge mass of specimens, with which a few Contracaecum larvae were mixed. Station WS 92, off the Falklands Thyrsites atun Station 4, off Tristan da Cunha Two similar larvae, possibly of two species, were found in the stomach of a slender- beaked dolphin (Steno rostratus), taken in the Atlantic Ocean, off the West African coast not far from Cape Verde, October 27, 1925. ee ee ee NEMATODA 547 Contracaecum spiculigerum (Rud., 1809) A large number of specimens of this extremely common and cosmopolitan species were collected from the stomach of a cormorant (Phalacrocorax magellanicus) at St Martin’s Cove, Hermite Island, Cape Horn (Station 222). Contracaecum clavatum (Rud., 1809) Adult or immature specimens which are referred to this species were collected on about six occasions from the stomach or intestine of Merluccius sp. at various places off the Falkland Islands (Stations WS 73, 90, 96, 99). These worms are rather small, as compared with specimens of C. clavatum from hake and cod in northern latitudes, and the males have shorter spicules, but a specific distinction does not seem justifiable. A single small male, apparently of the same species, occurred in the intestine of Stromateus sp.at Station WS 78, and an immature specimen in the stomach of Gadus sp. at Station WS gg (both off the Falklands). Contracaecum rectangulum (vy. Linstow, 1907) A number of specimens of this species, of various ages, occurred among the stomach contents (chiefly Cephalopod remains) of a sea-leopard (Hydrurga leptonyx) in the South Sandwich region, January 22, 1928. Immature forms, probably also of this species, were collected from the intestine of another sea-leopard at Station 184, March 15, 1927, and from the stomach of a crab- eater seal (Lobodon carcinophagus) at Station 187, March 18, 1927. Both these stations were in the Palmer Archipelago. Contracaecum zenis, sp. n. (Fig. 4) Four adult females from Zeus capensis off South-west Africa, July 8, 1927. The worms are stated to have been found in the body-cavity, but had probably escaped from the alimentary canal. The length of the specimens varies between 55 and 7omm., and the maximum thickness reaches 1-5 mm. The cuticular striations are fine (about 0-005 mm. apart). The dorsal lip has wide cuticular expansions laterally, and the anterior lobes of the pulp have inwardly-directed processes. There are deep in- cisions at the bases of the lips. The cervical alae are well developed. The oesophagus is 7 mm. long. The ventriculus measures, in the largest specimen, about 0:25 mm. in length and o-3 mm. in width. In this specimen, the intestinal caecum extends forward to a O1MM point about 2:5 mm. from the anterior extremity, and Fis: 4- Comtracaecum zenis. Dorsal aa lip of female, external aspect. the oesophageal appendix is about 2:3 mm. long. The cervical papillae are situated at 1-1 mm., and the nerve-ring at 0-9 mm., from the anterior 548 DISCOVERY REPORTS end. The tail is 0-55 mm. long, conical and sharply pointed, and terminates in a small spike. The body is considerably thickened in the posterior half, to which the genital organs are confined. The vulva is situated at about the middle of the body, and the coils of the uterine branchesand ovaries extend from this level to within about 2mm. of theanus. This species differs markedly from C. fabri (Rud., 1819), which occurs in Zeus faber, in the length of the intestinal caecum (see Baylis (1923 a), p. 5). Contracaecum sp. Some immature specimens of a species of Contracaecum occurred in the stomach of a fin whale (Balaenoptera physalus), at South Georgia, March 24, 1927. Contracaecum spp. Larval forms of undetermined species of Contracaecum were found very abundantly in various fishes, in the peritoneal lining and mesenteries, and more particularly on the surface of the liver. The list of hosts in which such larvae occurred is as follows: Merluccius sp. Champsocephalus esox Chaenocephalus aceratus Gadus sp. Notothenia ramsayi Notothenia wiltoni Cottoperca gobio Parachaenichthys georgianus “Crocodile _ fish””—probably Parachaenichthys georgianus Macruronus magellanicus Several collections, off the Falkland Islands; Stations WS 73, 79, 77, 80, 94 Off the Falklands; Station WS 71 Grytviken, S. Georgia Off the Falklands; Station WS 99 Off the Falklands; Station WS 94 Several collections, off the Falklands; Stations WS 76, 77, 86 2 collections, off the Falklands; Stations WS 94 and 95 Stromness, 5S. Georgia 2 collections, off South Georgia Off the Falklands; Station WS 92 The general differences in appearance between these Contracaecum larvae and the Porrocaecum larvae with which they are often associated have already been noticed. ‘The larvae of Contracaecum frequently occur in large, tangled masses (see Fig. 3 B), in which many of the individual worms, though enclosed in sheaths, do not appear to have been definitely confined in capsules to one spot, but may have had a certain power of movement. The specimens from Merluccius, Champsocephalus and Chaenocephalus appear pro- bably to belong to one and the same species. Those from Notothenia wiltoni and N. ramsayi probably include more than one species. Acanthocheilus quadridentatus (Molin, 1858) (Figs. 5 and 6) A single specimen (an immature female) taken from the stomach of Mustelus vulgaris at Simonstown, South Africa, October 18, 1926, is referred somewhat doubtfully to this species. Molin’s (1858, 1861) description of A. quadridentatus is very brief, and his NEMATODA 549 figures are evidently very diagrammatic. He records the species from the small intestine of Mustelus plebejus (= M. vulgaris). Orley (1885 a) gives a somewhat fuller description of material from MW. vulgaris and M. laevis, but this is unfortunately in Hungarian, and his German summary (1885 5) contains only the statements that the spicules of the male are short and slender, and that there are 16 pairs of caudal papillae. The length of the present specimen is 24:5 mm., and its maximum thickness about 0:65 mm. The cuticular striations are too fine and faint to measure. ‘The oesophagus is just over 2mm. long, including a spherical, posterior, non-muscular ventriculus measuring 0-23 mm. in diameter. ‘The muscular oesophagus proper is club-shaped. It oe 0-1 MM. Fig. 5. Acanthocheilus quadri- Fig. 6. Acanthocheilus quadriden- dentatus. Anterior end of tatus. Anterior end of female, female, dorsal view. c.p., dorsal view. cervical papilla; 7., intes- tine; 7.7., nerve-ring; 0és., oesophagus ;v., ventriculus. is surrounded by the nerve-ring at 0-55 mm. from the anterior extremity. There is no intestinal caecum running forward by the side of the oesophagus, nor is such a structure mentioned by Molin or by Orley, though in another species, A. nidifex Linton, 1900, such a caecum is said to be present. At a point 0-67 mm. from the anterior end there is a pair of small, button-like cervical papillae. The excretory pore is probably close to the base of the ventro-lateral lips. Molin describes each of the three lips as having a single median papilla, while Orley also appears to refer only to three cephalic papillae. In the present specimen the dorsal lip bears a pair of lozenge-shaped papillae, while on each ventro-lateral lip one such large papilla is present towards the ventral border. It is uncertain whether or not there is a smaller papilla near the lateral border. Each lip bears on its inner surface the KV 2 550 DISCOVERY REPORTS four sharp, forwardly-directed teeth mentioned in the earlier descriptions. These are not, however, arranged in two widely separated pairs, as in Molin’s figures, nor is there a blunt, median projection between the two pairs of teeth, as indicated by Orley. The tail is rapidly tapering and conical, with a minute terminal button. It is about 0:3 mm. long, and has a pair of small, sessile papillae at about its middle. The anus is conspicuous, but its lips are not very prominent. The vulva is situated at about 1o mm. from the anterior end. The vagina is stout and muscular, and runs posteriorly from the vulva. There are two uterine branches, which run parallel in a posterior direction. One of the ovarian tubes ends posteriorly, the other turning forward to end in the anterior region. No eggs are present in this specimen. Family HETERAKIDAE Sub-family HETERAKINAE Heterakis dispar (Schrank, 1790) A few specimens of this species were collected from the rectum of an upland goose (Chloéphaga magellanica) at Teal Inlet, Falklands, March 5, 1927. Order STRONGYLOIDEA Family TRICHOSTRONGYLIDAE Sub-family TRICHOSTRONGYLINAE Nematodirus spathiger (Railliet, 1896) Numerous specimens of this species occurred in the small intestine of a sheep at Port Stanley, Falklands, March 9, 1927. Order FILARIOIDEA Family PHILOMETRIDAE Philometra globiceps (Rud., 1819) A single female worm, about 170 mm. long, found in the gonad of a Percoid fish at Station 274, off St Paul de Loanda, Angola, W. Africa, August 4, 1927, is doubtfully referred to this species. The characteristic swelling of the anterior end of the oesophagus is present, though not very pronounced. The oesophagus is almost exactly 1 mm. long. The colour of the worm, when fresh, was ‘‘red, with black centre’’. Family SPIRURIDAE Sub-family ACUARIINAE (?) Crassicauda crassicauda (Creplin, 1829) A number of specimens of this species were collected from the penis of fin whale No. 796 (Balaenoptera physalus) at Saldanha Bay, South Africa, June 26, 1926. NEMATODA 551 Sub-family THELAZIINAE Spinitectus guntheri, sp. n. (Figs. 7-9) One male, three mature and two immature females of this form were found among a haul of fishes from a depth of 1000 metres at Station 86, off South-west Africa, June 24, WW 10 Fig. 7. Spinitectus guntheri. Anterior end of female: A, lateral view; B, dorsal view. 1926. It is probable that, as often happens with fishes brought to the surface from considerable depths, some of them had been so badly damaged as to allow the parasites to escape. It is unfortunately impossible to state from what species of fish they came. The length of the male is 17-75 mm., that of the mature females varying between 19:8 and 23-3 mm. The body is slender in the oeso- phageal region, and much stouter & in the posterior region, which con- tains the genital organs. The maxi- mum thickness in the male (near the posterior end of the body) is 0-29 mm., in the female o-45-0:5 mm. The oesophagus has an anterior, muscular portion which is usually much contracted and sinuous, and measures about 1-1-5 mm. in length, and a long, granular, posterior n < Fig. 8. Spinitectus guntheri. Posterior end of male, lateral view. /., left spicule; 7., right spicule. portion. The total length of the oesophagus is 6-8-1 mm. The cuticular striations are 2-2 552 DISCOVERY REPORTS relatively coarse in the oesophageal region, where they have prominent posterior edges, giving the outlines of the body a saw-like appearance in optical section. ‘The interval between the striations in this region is about 0-01 mm. in the male and 0-015 mm. in the female. More posteriorly the striations are much finer and less prominent. ‘The cuticular spines which are so conspicuous a feature in other species of the genus, forming complete circles on the posterior edges of the cuticular rings, are here repre- sented by very small spines confined to the ventral surface of part of the oesophageal (SSS SS 0-2 MM. _— Fig. 9. Spinitectus guntheri. Part of the female genital organs, in lateral view. (The arrow points towards the anterior end.) wu, u?, the two uterine branches; v., vulva; vag., vagina. region. They do not extend forward much beyond the level of the junction of the two portions of the oesophagus, or backward as far as its posterior end. The paired lateral lips are conical, and each appears to be provided with three papillae, one near the apex and two at the base. The lateral walls of the buccal capsule are formed by a continuation of the thickened cuticle of the lips, while its dorsal and ventral walls begin at the level of their bases. There is a pair of prominent cervical papillae, situated, in the female, at about 0-17 mm. from the anterior extremity. ‘The nerve-ring is situated ‘at about o-2—-0-21 mm., and the excretory pore at about 0-:25— 0:29 mm., from the anterior end. The posterior end of the male is spirally coiled. The tail is about 0-23 mm. long, and is conical. There are slight lateral alae, into which project ten pairs of preanal and five pairs of postanal papillae. The cuticle of the ventral surface, for some distance from the posterior end, is raised into numerous longitudinal series of rectangular plates or tuber- cles. These doubtless correspond to the more restricted number of rows of “‘plates”’, ““tubercles”’ or “ridges” described in other species (four rows in S. cristatus Railliet and Henry, 1915 (= Filaria serrata Linton, 1901) and S. ranae Morishita, 1926; four to eight rows in S. gracilis Ward and Magath, 1916). The left spicule is long and filiform, measuring about 2-5 mm. in length. The right spicule is very stout and measures only about 0-25 mm. in length. There is no accessory piece. In the female, the tail, which is rapidly tapering and pointed, is 0:23-0:27 mm. long. The vulva is situated at 6-2-6-7 mm. from the posterior end. The vagina runs forward at first from the vulva, but soon doubles back again, and at about the level of the vulva expands into a small oval swelling, which gives off at right angles to itself the two uterine NEMATODA 553 branches. One of these has a tendency to turn forward at first, but ultimately turns posteriorly parallel to the other. Both turn forward again at a short distance from the anus, and the ovaries lie in the prevulvar region. ‘The eggs are small (0-04—0-045 mm. X 0:025-0:03 mm.) and oblong-oval. They have thick shells, apparently without the polar filaments described for the genotype. Owing to the absence of a full description of the genotype of Spinitectus, the sys- tematic position of this genus is somewhat doubtful. If the present species is correctly assigned to Spinitectus, the detailed examination of it which it has been possible to make leaves little doubt that the genus belongs to the sub-family Thelaziinae, in an appendix to which it was placed by Baylis and Daubney (1926). Family CUCULLANIDAE Cucullanus fraseri, sp. n. (Figs. 10 and 11) This species occurred in the rectum of Chaenocephalus aceratus (four collections, including types) off South Georgia (Stations 45, 154, MS 68 and Gryt- viken), and of Trematomus hansoni (one collection, off South Georgia, Station 154). The male (of which there is only a single specimen) is 5 mm. in length ando-2gmm. inmaximum thickness. Mature females are 6-7 mm. long and about o-4 mm. thick. The cuti- cular striations are at intervals of about 00025 mm. ‘The opening of the mouth is slightly tilted dorsally. The cuticle of the cervical region is relatively very thick. There is a pair of prominent cervical papillae at 0°33 mm. in the male, and about 0-4 mm. in the female, from the anterior end. The expanded anterior portion of the oesophagus contains paired, latero-ventral thickenings ‘WW 7:0 =! UT a UIUC within its muscular walls. At about Fig. 10. Cucullanus frasert. Anterior end of female: A, the level of the cervical papillae the dorsal view; B, lateral view. c., intestinal caecum; oesophagus becomes very narrow, c.p., cervical papilla; e., excretory pore; n.,nerve-ring. and at a point a little behind them (0-4-0-45 mm. from the anterior extremity) is surrounded by the nerve-ring. Behind this point the oesophagus increases again in 554 DISCOVERY REPORTS diameter, its posterior portion being club-shaped. Its length is 0-9-1 mm. There is a large intestinal caecum, which runs forward ventrally to the oesophagus almost as far as the nerve-ring. The excretory pore is situated at 0-35-0°37 mm. from the anterior extremity of the worm. The caudal end of the male is curved ventrally. The tail is conical and sharply pointed, and measures 0:21 mm. in length. The usual preanal sucker-like organ is present. There are ten pairs of caudal papillae, of which five are preanal. Their arrangement is indicated in Fig. 11. The spicules are about 0-85 mm. long, and the accessory piece about o-I mm. The tail of the female is straight and conical, measures 0:2—0:22 mm. in length and is usually tilted dorsally at an obtuse angle. The vulva, which has very prominent lips, is situated at 2:3 mm. from the posterior end in a specimen 6-3 mm. long. The vagina and the common trunk of the uterus run anteriorly from it. At a point slightly in front of the middle of the body the common trunk divides into two branches. One of these runs straight forward, and the coils of its Fig. 11. Cucullanus fraseri. Posterior end ovary extend as far as the junction of the oeso- of male, lateral view. a.p., accessory phagus and intestine. The other branch almost Pieces SP» left spicule; su. sucker- 5 : : : like organ. immediately turns posteriorly, and the coils of its ovary extend nearly as far as the anus. ‘The eggs measure about 0-09 mm. x 0-05 mm. This species would fall into the genus Dichelyne Jagerskidld, 1902, as recently re-defined by Gendre (1927, p. 261). This genus was suppressed by the writer (1923 b, P- 233) as a synonym of Cucullanus. The only real character which can be adduced to separate it from the latter being the presence of an intestinal caecum, the revival of the genus Dichelyne does not appear necessary unless a further study of the contained species should reveal other important distinguishing characters. Cucullanus fraseri, var. nototheniae, nov. Examples of a form scarcely specifically distinct from that just described, but larger, occurred in the intestine of Notothenia gibberifrons off South Georgia (Station 123), December 15, 1926. ‘The male measures nearly 7 mm., the females up to 9-6 mm., in length. ‘The cervical papillae, instead of being in front of the nerve-ring, are some distance behind it (0-6 mm. from the anterior end in the male, 0o-65—-0-7 mm. in the female). ACANTHOCEPHALA 555 ACANTHOCEPHALA Family ECHINORHYNCHIDAE Sub-family CENTRORHYNCHINAE Corynosoma bullosum (v. Linstow, 1902) One small, immature specimen of this species occurred in the intestine of a crab- eater seal (Lobodon carcinophagus) at Station 187 (Palmer Archipelago, between Anvers Island and Graham Land), March 18, 1927. Larval forms, found encysted in the peritoneum of Chaenocephalus ? aceratus oft South Georgia (Station MS 68), March 2, 1926, and in the mesentery of a “‘ crocodile fish” (probably Parachaenichthys georgianus), also off South Georgia, April 30, 1925, are referred to this species. They differ from the larvae assigned to C. hamanni in the same characters as the adults of the two species—viz. in having a much longer and more slender posterior portion, and in the fact that the body-spines do not extend along the whole of the ventral surface. Corynosoma hamanni (v. Linstow, 1892) Numerous larval forms which are referred to this species occurred encysted on the outside of the intestine of Notothenia rossi off Deception Island, South Shetlands (Station 174), February and March 1927. Similar larvae also occurred, mixed with those of C. bullosum, in a “crocodile fish” (probably Parachaenichthys georgianus) off South Georgia, April 30, 1925. Bolbosoma brevicolle (Malm, 1867) This species was collected on at least six occasions from the intestines of blue whales (Balaenoptera musculus) at Durban and Saldanha Bay, South Africa, and at South Georgia. On one occasion (at Saldanha Bay, July 9, 1926) it was found in a fin whale (B. physalus), and the collector’s label states that when fresh the worms in the small intestine were red, while those in the large intestine were white. The presence of an orange-red colour in Acanthocephala is not uncommon. ‘The present observation suggests that it may be not an inherent property of the worms themselves, but an accident in some way connected with the food of the host. Bolbosoma turbinella (Dies., 1851) This species occurred on six occasions, at Durban, Saldanha Bay and South Georgia, in sei whales (Balaenoptera borealis), and it is noteworthy that it was not found in any other host. The fact that it did not occur in Balaenoptera musculus or B. physalus, whereas Bolbosoma brevicolle occurred in these two species and not in B. borealis, would seem to indicate the existence of some important difference between the habits of the sei whale and those of the other species. 556 DISCOVERY REPORTS Bolbosoma capitatum (v. Linstow, 1880) A single immature specimen, probably referable to this species, occurred in the stomach of a slender-beaked dolphin (Steno rostratus) taken off the West African coast, not far from Cape Verde. Bolbosoma hamiltoni, sp. n. (Figs. 12-14) A single male and several females of this form occurred in a fin whale (Balaenoptera physalus) at South Georgia, February 18, 1926. A single specimen was also found, together with B. brevicolle, in a blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus) at South Georgia. The species is very closely related to B. capitatum (v. Linstow, 1880), but the spines on the ‘‘ bulb”’ are smaller and much more numerous than in that species. The proboscis-hooks are also more numerous, and their roots are less broad and flat than in B. capitatum. The length of the male is about 60 mm., the females attaining about 64 mm. The maximum thickness of the male is 2-05 mm., that of the female 2-7 mm. The diameter of the “bulb” is 3-78 mm. in the male and 3-51 mm. in the female. ‘The length of the proboscis (in the female) is about 0-9 mm., and its maximum diameter (near the base) about o-6mm. It bears apparently 26 longitudinal rows of hooks, each containing seven or eight. (In B. capitatum there are only 18(—20?) Fig. 12. Bolbosoma rows of hooks.) The more anterior hooks are slender and sharply — hamiltoni. Male pointed, and their tips show a slight tendency to curve outwards, while (A) and female the blade is as long as the root. The length of the largest hooks (i.e. the aS second and third in each row from the anterior end), measured in a straight line from the tip to the point of insertion, is about o-og mm. in a female specimen. The roots of these anterior hooks have a very slight “‘heel’’, or suggestion of an anterior root. More posteriorly the hooks become gradually shorter, stouter and blunter, and the blades become shorter than the roots. The most posterior hooks are very small and thorn-like, with scarcely any root. The spines on the bulb are very numerous, and the largest of them (those in the posterior rows) are less than o-1 mm. in length, whereas in B. capitatum the posterior spines are about 0-24 mm. long. The posterior testis of the male is just in front of the middle of the body. The eggs are spindle-shaped, and measure 0-112-0:137 mm. x 0:027-0:03 mm. ACANTHOCEPHALA S87 Sub-family ECHINORHYNCHINAE (?) Echinorhynchus s.1. An immature specimen of ‘“ Echinorhynchus” occurred in the intestine of Para- chaenichthys georgianus at Stromness, South Georgia, January 7, 1927. Fig. 13. Bolbosoma hamiltoni. Anterior end Fig. 14. Bolbosoma hamilton. Proboscis of female. of female. 6., ‘‘bulb”’; p., proboscis. Family RHADINORHYNCHIDAE Rhadinorhynchus wheeleri, sp. n. (Fig. 15) This species! occurred in the intestine (especially the rectum) of the following fish s: Notothenia rossi Stromness and Grytviken, S. Georgia, December 1926 and January 1927 Parachaenichthys georgianus Stromness, January 1927 Trematomus ? hansoni Cumberland Bay, South Georgia The collector’s label in one tube (from Notothenia rossii, Stromness) says “ Approxi- mately 300 in one fish—many in rectum and extending right up the intestine. When fresh a yellow colour”’. The worms measure 3-8 mm. in length and 1-4-2 mm. in maximum thickness. ‘The 1 Since this report was sent to press, an account has been published by Van Cleave (Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (10) tv, p. 229, August, 1929) of a form from ‘“‘ Trematomus or Notothenia” from the South Shetlands, which he names Aspersentis austrinus, gen. et sp.n. This form seems to approach very closely to Rhadino- rhynchus wheeleri, though in certain details the two descriptions are not in complete agreement. 558 DISCOVERY REPORTS proboscis is about 0-7-0-9 mm. long and 0-3 mm. in diameter. It bears 14 longitudinal rows of 8-10 hooks each. As is characteristic of the genus, the hooks in the ventral rows O:2 MM. O-2 MM. Fig. 15. Rhadinorhynchus wheeleri. Anterior end of female, lateral view. Fig. 16. Rhadinorhynchus johni. d., dorsal proboscis-hook; s., body-spine; v., ventral proboscis-hook. Anterior end of female, lateral view. d., dorsal pro- boscis-hook; s., body-spine; v., ventral proboscis-hook. are much larger than those in the dorsal rows. The former (measured in a straight line from tip to insertion) reach a length of about 0-15 mm., while the latter are only about 0-06 mm. long. The spines on the anterior portion of the body are small (0-025- 0-03 mm. long), and are arranged in fairly regular transverse ventral rows, extending well round on to the lateral surfaces. The proboscis-sac is about 1-1-3 mm. long. The lemnisci are apparently short, oval sacs. ‘The eggs measure about 0-09 mm. x 0-025 mm. Of the species of Rhadinorhynchus already known, R. pristis (Rud., 1802), R. horridus (Liihe, 1912) and R. tenuicornis Van Cleave, 1918, are said to possess 14 longitudinal rows of hooks on the proboscis. ‘The two first-mentioned species are much larger than the present form, while in all three the number of hooks per row is much larger (26 in pristis, about 26 in tenuicornis, 31 in horridus). Indeed, in no species of Rhadinorhynchus hitherto described, so far as the writer is aware, is the number of hooks in each row less than about 20. Rhadinorhynchus johni, sp. n. (Fig. 16) This second species of Rhadinorhynchus occurred in the rectum of a hake (Merluccius sp.) off the Falklands (Station WS 73), March 7, 1927. ACANTHOCEPHALA 559 The worms are about 2°5—3-5 mm. in length and 0-4-0-7 mm. in maximum thickness. The proboscis is 0-6 mm. long in the male, and 0-7 mm. in the female. Its maximum diameter, in the male, is 0-18 mm., in the female 0-22 mm. It bears 14 longitudinal rows of hooks, each containing 12-14. The largest of the hooks on the ventral side are 0-0875 mm. in length (in a straight line from tip to insertion), while those on the dorsal side measure not more than 0-065 mm. The spines on the anterior region of the body are arranged in irregular transverse rows, which extend right round on to the dorsal surface, though here the spines become very minute. The largest of the body-spines, on the ventral surface, are about 0-03 mm. in length. In fully-extended specimens the spines extend back ventrally beyond the level of the middle of the proboscis-sac. This organ is about o-7 mm. long in the male and o-g mm. in the female. ‘The lemnisci are as long as, or a little longer than, the proboscis-sac. ‘The eggs measure about 0-05 mm. x 0-015 mm. This species is clearly very closely related to the last described, and differs in the same respects from previously-known forms. Rhadinorhynchus sp. Two immature specimens of a species of Rhadinorhynchus occurred in the intestine of Naucrates ductor off the Canary Islands, October 16, 1925. In both the proboscis is retracted. REFERENCES Bays, H. A., 1923 a. Report on a Collection of Parasitic Nematodes, mainly from Egypt. Part I. Ascaridae and Heterakidae. Parasitol. Xv, I-13. —— 19236. Some Nematodes of the Genus Cucullanus from Fishes of the Nile. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9), XII, 233-6. Bay.is, H. A. and Dausney, R., 1926. A Synopsis of the Families and Genera of Nematoda. London, British Museum (Nat. Hist.). Genpre, E., 1927. Nématodes parasites des Poissons de la Céte de Mauritanie. Bull. Comité d’Etudes Hist. et Sci. de l’Afrique Occid. frangaise, x, 2, 258-72. Mo wm, R., 1858. Prospectus helminthum, quae in prodromo...continentur. Sitz. k. Akad. Wiss. Wien, XXX, 127-58. — 1861. Prodromus Faunae helminthologicae Venetae, etc. Denkschr. k. Akad. Wiss. Wien, xIx, 189-338, Pls. I-XV. Ortey, L., 1885 a. A Czdpdknak és Rdjdknak Belférgei. 'Termés. Fiiz., Budapest, 1x, 97-126, Pls. IX, X. 1885 6. Die Entozoen der Haien und Rochen. Ibid. 216-20. is vt se i en 7 4 ae ee hin tiehis tote een 0.1" | >1S | DISCOVERY, REPORTS Vol. I, pp. 561-592, plates XLV-LVI Issued by the Discovery Committee, Colonial Office, London on behalf of the Government of the Dependencies of the Falkland Islands 2 _ THE BIRDS OF SOUTH GEORGIA by L. Harrison Matthews, M.A. F . fe \\ dy ‘ de \ iif = oe X\ By P ae i 4 sou te ay. Ree CAMBRIDGE AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS 1929 Price twelve shillings net “ae L> ¢ [Discovery Reports. Vol. I, pp. 561-592, Plates XLV-LVI, December 1929.] tie bibs On SOU Ce OR GIs By L. HARRISON MATTHEWS, M.A. CONTENTS Diomedea exulans. Wandering Albatross . . . . . . . . . page 563 Diomedea melanophrys. Black-Browed Albatross. . . . . . . . . 568 Thalassogeron culminatus. Grey-Headed Albatross . . . 50 te SGD) Phoebetria palpebrata antarctica. Sooty Albatross. . ig Sey ee . 570 Wiacronectes iganicussGiantyeetrelliay eu on enc ce en 77 Majaqueustaequinoctialiss (Capewden 5 ee 578 Procellaiglactaloidess silver, Grey Petrella eS 74 Pasadromarmived.s SuOwaLetiel esas) 2s lee enn 715 Daption capensis. Cape Pigeon . . . erp rowrnlu e575 Uhalassoccatantarciicass Antarctic betrel ee) se ee eS 77) OnanaTes Ceaigion, Walgontslesimal 5 5 95 5° 6 6 6 6 0 @ o 0 Sy Fregatta melanogaster. Black-Bellied Storm Petrel . . 2. . . . . . 577 Garrodia nereis. Grey-Backed Storm Petrel . . . . . . ses ma She) (Gansaven, Willa links c= 5 Gro mw oa 6 6 o oc o o « Gye Prion vittatus. Broad-Billed Whale Bird . . . . we Ct 6. ro) sous) Pitan Wad, beolice Winn iii 5 Go o 6 o o@ 6 © » 0 o o Wy) [erga CERONTDS 5 at No Oa oes SE cove ee so ee a oo SI bilan gaan, Wieltaal 55 6 5 6 6 6 5» 6 o 5 2 2 Gf) IIR GTS saa ry, Wyeth | eS Go 6 6 6 « 6 6 « 6 SY Catharacta lénnbergi clarkei. Antarctic Skua. . . . . . . . . . 580 Garusidominticanuss Dominican) Gull) ee ee o ‘Sterna vittata georpiaes WWxeathed erm. “2 92 =) ee 2 Nettion georgicum. South Georgia Teal . . . . . . . «. . . . 583 Chloephaga leucoptera. Upland Goose . . . ... . . . . . 584 Phalacrocorax georgianus. South Georgia Shag . . . . . . . . . 584 Ghionsyalba Sheath bills ea ee e-em ES Anthus antarcticus. Antarctic Pipit . . . .. .. . a ee 585 ingests, (GENO, 5 5 6 5 5 5 5 4 6 6 © 3 Bld ‘Pycoscehsvantarctica-s Ringed) hen gins sla cn een) enn S oo Pyposcelisvadeliae. Adelie Penguin) 2-2 ee 588 Eudyptes chrysolophus. Macaroni Penguin. . . . . . . . . . 588 Aptenodytes patagonica. King Penguin. . sf sa 1590 Bibliography of Literature relating to the Birds of South Georgia 5 6 & SOR DRG DWI SG OC lla Toy THE BIRDS OF SOUTH GEORGEA By L. Harrison Matthews, M.a. (Plates XLV-LVI) HE following notes comprise a complete list of the birds of South Georgia, including ee observations made in 1925-7 while the ‘Discovery’ investigations were in progress, and the records of previous expeditions. As all the species are known ones, with few exceptions no descriptions of the plumages are given, but notes of the soft parts, which shrivel up and change colour in the preparation of specimens, are included. Most of the species are oceanic, one or two are land birds, and a few are peculiar to the island. The presence of several whaling stations on the island attracts great numbers of birds, which come to feed on the refuse from the working-up of the whales. This easy supply of food leads to overpopulation of the island during the summer, so that there are more birds of some species than the island could naturally support. In winter, when whaling ceases, large numbers die of starvation. The appropriately named Bird Island, and the Willis Islands off the north-west coast afford breeding grounds to immense numbers of birds. Diomedea exulans, Linn. Wandering Albatross (Plate XLVIIT; Plate XLIX; Plate L, fig. 1.) The Wandering Albatross is common at sea all round the island during the whole year. Ashore it is found nesting at suitable places on the northern parts of the island from the Bay of Isles, on the north-east coast, to Ice Fjord, on the south-west coast. Shackleton also found young albatross, presumably of this species, when he landed in King Haakon Bay after his boat journey from the South Orkney Islands in 1916. On their breeding grounds the albatross are very numerous, for instance the writer was out with one of the whale-boats in January, 1926, when in three days over 2000 eggs of this species were collected for eating. At sea the birds are not gregarious, but many are often seen near each other resting on the water or soaring over it. On land they are very ungainly and walk with a waddling gait, the head being held low down, stretched out in front, and moved from side to side with each step. As soon as they stop walking the head is held up again. If they are hurried the wings are spread, but their balance is precarious and they easily trip up and fall forward on to the breast over the smallest obstructions. The wing spread is so wide that they cannot rise from level ground unless a strong wind is blowing. On the nests they are quite tame and fearless, merely snapping the bill when approached and they can be stroked if they are handled gently, but a sudden movement makes them bite severely. 564 DISCOVERY REPORTS There has been a great deal of confusion as to the different species of the larger albatrosses. Three species are separated by Godman, the Wandering, Snowy and Royal Albatrosses. The observations of the writer in South Georgia show that the Wandering and Snowy Albatrosses are the different ages and sexes of the same species. The Royal Albatross is recorded from the sub-antarctic waters of New Zealand and the writer has had no opportunity of examining specimens of it, but he is strongly of the opinion that when a thorough examination of the species comes to be made it will prove to be the same as the other two. When they are old, the birds are pure white all over, with black tips to the primaries and the outer secondaries, and have a little dark pencilling on the upper wing coverts. Those seen ashore nesting usually have a patch of salmon-pink colour over the ears, sometimes on one side only. This appears to be a stain of some sort and is not a true pigmentation of the feathers; it is not constant, sometimes being absent, or on one side only, as stated above. The writer is able to offer no explanation as to its cause. In these old birds during the winter the bill is bright salmon-pink, with the tip of the mandible white, and the feet and legs are pink; but in the nesting season the pink colour is very much less pronounced, the bill being yellowish buff and the feet light grey. These are the examples that fall into the category of species Diomedea chionoptera (Plate XLVIII, fig. 1). The younger breeding birds have more black markings on them, being white with dark pencilling all over them, not confined to the upper wing coverts, as in the older birds. The only parts of the plumage which are white are the sides of the head and the neck. The bill changes from pink at the base to buffish white at the tip, the mandible being yellowish with a slight pink flush at the base. The feet are very light bluish grey: darker examples occur with darker feet and yellower bills. In all the iris is very dark brown and the eyelid is white with a greenish tinge. These are the examples that fall into the category of species Diomedea exulans (Plate XLVIII, fig. 2). That the two species, Diomedea chionoptera and exulans, are identical is proved by the fact that the writer has frequently seen birds of each type pairing together. In Plate XLIX, figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, an exulans female with dark head, back, tail and wings is shown going through the courtship ceremonies with a chionoptera male with white head, back and tail. The all-white chionoptera type is the fully adult form, and the darker type covered in greater or lesser degree with black pencillings is the younger bird (Fig. 1). The females reach the light phase of plumage at a later age than do the males, and this is shown by the fact that, though two light birds and two dark birds have been seen mated together, the usual rule is to see a light and a dark bird mated, the light one being the male (Plate L, fig. 1). The albatross come to land for nesting in November. Though they all nest in proximity on certain areas of ground the nests are not placed close enough together to call the breeding colonies rookeries. The spots selected for nest building are the tussac covered islands, hills and headlands near the sea. They do not nest on the precipitous 1 Godman, A Monograph of the Petrels, 1908. THE BIRDS OF SOUTH GEORGIA 565 cliffs, but on the sloping and level ground above them. Always, however, they nest near a steep slope or cliff so that they can have a good “take-off” for getting on the wing, as they are unable to rise into the air off the level. H l The nest is a bulky structure built of mud, tussac, and peaty moss up to a height of half a metre, and is about a metre across. The sides are sloping and there is a shallow depression on the top in which the egg is laid. The nest is built by the materials being laid down in a heap and trodden down by the large webbed feet of the birds, no interweaving of the materials taking place. As the young one grows the nest gets trodden down more and more so that it gets much flattened out, and new materials are added to it from time to time during the occupation of the young. For instance, in Coal Harbour in September, 1925, nests were found with blades of tussac newly laid on top of them, though the snow was level with the top of the nests and in many cases was above them. ‘The young had occupied these nests for about eight months. In the breeding season, before and after pairing takes place, the albatross go through an elaborate courtship. In all cases the courtship ceremonies are the same, but before pairing takes place several males and one female take part, whereas after pairing it is confined to the one male and female. After the egg is laid and incubation has started the courting is discontinued, though the birds of each pair still show a great affection for one another. In courting before pairing several males gather Fig. th (Dimon elles Deum around one female and bow to her, bringing the head _ghowing plumages intermediate between close down to the ground, As they do this they utter a the chionoptera and exulans stages. harsh groaning sound, and the female bows and groans 5ketched from living birds on the nests. back at them. After several bows the males open the wings to about half their extent and side-step around her. ‘They then edge into a position so that they are directly facing her and open the wings to their widest extent so that the tips of the primaries are raised above the level of the head and are curved forwards towards the female. At the same time the males raise the head so that the bill points straight up into the sky, and give vent to a loud braying cry. They then close the wings and start all over again. Several males do this at the same time around the one female, but they do not all act in unison so that unless they are watched carefully one gets the impression of half a dozen male birds dancing round the female and going through a series of haphazard actions, but one finds that they all adhere to the same course of action if attention is directed to each in turn. 566 DISCOVERY REPORTS After pairing has taken place and before incubation has started the courtship ceremonies are even more elaborate than before (Plate XLIX). The nests are built on the bases of those of the last season, which are now trodden down to about half their full size. The female sits on the half-built nest and the male walks around among the surrounding tussac picking up bits of peaty moss and mud. He brings these to the female and deposits them on the edge of the nest and bows to her, at the same time making a groaning sound. She returns the bow and groan to him and then takes up the load of material which he has brought and arranges it on the nest, shufHing around on half-bended legs to stamp it down with her large webbed feet. The male then sits down on the ground close alongside the nest and makes a vibrating bubbling noise in the throat several times, at the end of each call stretching the head up and braying with the bill open. The female answers him, and then they start nibbling the feathers of each other’s throats, heads and necks. This is followed by a further round of bubbling and braying and then the male gets up and goes to fetch another load of nest-building materials. After every four or five loads that the male brings to the nest both sexes go through a more passionate demonstration of affection. The male brings his load and deposits it, and after bubbling and braying, and nibbling each other’s heads and throats they both stand up, and the female steps down off the nest. Facing each other they both stretch up their heads and give a harsh bray with the bill widely open. Immediately after the bray the bill is brought so that it points vertically downwards and is thrust among the plumage of the breast (Plate XLIX, fig. 3). The bray is expiratory, and a lower, inspiratory note is made while the bill is touching the breast. They then lean forward together and touch the tips of each other’s bills. After this they both keep the neck bent forwards, and bend the head upwards slightly and vibrate the mandibles very rapidly causing a peculiar rattling sound. The syrinx is not used in producing this sound, which has a slight musical ring, rising from a low note to a high one during its performance. ‘This is owing to the increasing quickness of the vibrations and to the filling of the lungs with air during the process so that the thorax acts as a sound-box. After these antics are repeated several times the male starts to walk sideways round the female, working his head from side to side at each step, and the female steps around without moving from her position so that she is facing him all the time. The male spreads his wings widely, and pointing his head upwards repeats the vibration of the mandibles (Plate XLIX, fig. 4). He next bends forward, doing it again, and the female answers him (Plate XLIX, fig. 2), at the same time spreading her wings too. They continue in this attitude stretching out and touching bills, then vibrating (Plate XLIX, fig. 1) and touching their own breasts with the tip of the bill twenty times or more, after which pairing takes place and they return to the nest,the female sitting down on it, and the male carrying on his work of collecting materials for it. The eggs are laid between the twentieth of December and the last day of the year, Boxing Day being the regular day on which they are collected by the whalers for eating. Each egg holds three-quarters of a pint of liquid; they are very good eating, THE BIRDS OF SOUTH GEORGIA 567 the yolks being yellow and the albumen setting white when cooked. Each hen albatross lays one egg only, though if the eggs are taken a second laying takes place, preceded by a second courtship. The eggs are white, with red spots and frecklings, always more at the large end and sometimes forming there a definite ring or zone. In January, 1926, one was seen on Albatross Island, in the Bay of Isles, that was entirely covered with the red markings so that the ground colour was completely obscured. Data regarding the period of incubation were not collected. Some newly hatched young and others judged to be at least a fortnight old were seen at Undine Harbour late in March, 1926, but as practically all the eggs were collected from this place in the preceding December and January these young probably represented a second laying, so that no inference as to the period of incubation can be drawn from them. Both sexes incubate. Ona sunny day in December, 1925, a number of large black lice (Mallophaga) were observed crawling about on the surface of the feathers of several incubating birds. The newly hatched young are covered with white down and have the bill and feet yellowish white and the eye dark brown. The tip of the bill, both of mandible and maxilla, is bent downwards and it is not until the young are three to four months old that it assumes its typical shape. During the first six weeks of their existence the young are sheltered by one of the parents sitting on the nest, but by the time they are two months old they are too big to be brooded and the nest is left unprotected by both parents, who go fishing at sea. When newly hatched the young has a soft chirping sound which it makes when hungry. In feeding the young the old birds regurgitate partly digested food into the bill, from which it is taken by the nestling. The young remain in the nest for ten full months and by the end of August they are as big as their parents. They are then covered with a thick coat of buffish white woolly down, attached to the ends of the feathers which grow underneath it. On the head and neck the down is lighter, being nearly white. The feet are grey-white and the bill is buffish and as the birds get older it develops a pinkish tinge at the base. The eye is dark brown (Plate XLVIII, fig. 3). When they are approached at this age they sit back in the nest and stretch up the neck, all the while facing the visitor. They then snap the bill several times in rapid succession and make a gobbling noise very much like that made by a turkey. If they are further worried they vomit up the contents of their stomachs. The parents stay away at sea most of the time, returning only about once a day to their young. When they arrive with food they sit down on the snow beside the young one, which nibbles the throat of the parent and makes its gobbling cry in asking for food. The parent then regurgitates the food into the throat from which the young one takes it. The parent leaves again as soon as the young one has been fed, remaining with it only a few minutes. In November and December the down covering falls off the ends of the feathers, exposing the first adult plumage. This is a dark brown black all over, with the exception of the facial area which is white. The feet are dark grey with a pink tinge and the bill is buffish (Plate XLVIII, fig. 4). When the down is shed the parents desert the young, which do not at once leave the land, but haunt the old neighbourhood for some days 568 DISCOVERY REPORTS during the beginning of the nesting season, and a few of them do not leave it until January, soon after the new season’s eggs are laid. The adult albatross do not breed every year, as they do not finish feeding their young until after the new season’s eggs are laid (by other birds) and incubation has started. Consequently there must be an interval of at least one season between the consecutive matings of any one bird. In the moult of the first year after leaving the nest the brown-black plumage of the young adult gives place to white feathers with black cross pencillings, except on the face, which is white. The wings and tip of the tail remain black. This is the typical exulans plumage, and in succeeding moults white feathers replace the barred ones more and more until the chionoptera plumage is attained. This is white, including the tail, with black ends to the primaries and outer secondaries, and with a trace of pen- cilling on the scapulars (Fig. 1). The food of the albatross consists of fish and cephalopods. The stomachs of a number of young ones examined at Coal Harbour in September, 1925, contained remains of Nototheniid fish up to eighteen inches in length and numerous cephalopod beaks and spermatophores. They also contained roots of tussac and burnet, and the birds were seen to reach out of the nests and pick these up from the sides and bases of them. At sea the adult birds, with other species, quickly gather round the whalers when they have killed a whale, and eat the blood clots and “‘krill”’ vomited up by the dying whale. When each whale is killed a circular hole is cut in the tail so that a rope can be passed through it. The albatross are the only birds big enough to eat the circular piece of blubber which comes out of this and great is the competition amongst them to secure it. Diomedea melanophrys, Temm. Black-Browed Albatross (Plate XLV, figs. 1, 2; Plate L, figs. 2-4) Black-Browed Albatross or Mollymauks—called ‘‘ White Mollyhawks” by the whalers —abound at sea off South Georgia all the year round and sometimes are seen in extensive flocks. ‘They rarely come into the bays, but are occasionally to be seen near the whaling stations. During the season 1926-7 a flock of about a dozen took up their quarters at Husvik Whaling Station, paddling around the bay picking up scraps, becoming so tame that if a little food was thrown to them they swam up to be fed, like domestic ducks. In the nesting season they come ashore early in October in enormous numbers, breeding in rookeries on the cliffs, especially at the north-west end of the island. There are also rookeries at the south-east end near Cape Disappointment. The rookeries are on the steep slopes at the summits of the cliffs, and each contains several thousand nests. The nests are built of mud and peaty moss on ledges amongst the tussac. They are cylindrical, from one to one and a half feet in height, with vertical sides and a depression on the top (Plate L, figs. 2, 3, 4). The materials for the nests are collected from the ledges in the immediate vicinity. When the nest is being built the female stands on it and the male collects the mud and brings it to his mate (Plate L, fig. 2). THE BIRDS OF SOUTH GEORGIA 569 He places this on the nest and then bows the head down to the ground and spreads the tail and makes a loud braying cry. The female bows and brays too, and then arranges the mud on the nest and treads it down. The birds then nibble each other’s beaks and bow and bray again, after which the male fetches another load of mud. In between spells of nest-building, and after it is complete, they go through a further ceremony. Standing on or near the nest, facing each other, they touch the tips and sides of the bill, as though fencing with them. They then bow to each other, and each turns the head round so that it faces backwards, and touches the back between the shoulders with the tip of the bill. They stop in this attitude for a moment and make a low grunt and then face forward again and start braying with the beaks wide open, moving the head from side to side while the tail is spread. They then nibble the feathers of each other’s heads before going through the same process again. The displays are not usually followed by pairing. When they bray the feathers of the side of the face are parted so that a furrow is formed running back from the gape: this exposes a ridge of pink skin. The ridge is kept exposed for a few moments after the call and then the feathers are allowed to fall into place. When they arrive in the rookery after being away fishing at sea they bray loudly as soon as they have got on to their feet: they land very awkwardly and usually capsize on to the breast. The single egg is laid by the beginning of the third week in October. It is white with a varying amount of red spots and freckles, often concentrated into a zone at the larger end. The period of incubation is said to be about five to six weeks; newly hatched young were seen in January, 1926, but they were probably from a second laying of eggs, as the rookery had been disturbed and the eggs gathered earlier in the season. Both sexes incubate. The young nestlings are clothed in short grey-white down and have the feet light grey, bill black, with white egg tooth, and iris dark brown (Plate XLV, fig. 1). They make a soft piping cry in the nest and are fed by the parents regurgitating the food into the throat, from which they take it. When half grown (Plate XLV, fig. 2) they are clothed in grey-white woolly down, which is short on the face. The feet and legs are light grey with a pink tinge, the bill is black and the iris dark brown, the inside of the mouth is bright pink. The cry is loud and shrill, and after they are half grown they attempt to imitate the braying call of the adults. They start right but the voice then breaks and they finish on a falsetto note. When approached they sit back in the nest and stretch up the neck, all the while shuffling round so as to face the visitor (Plate L, figs. 3, 4). They snap the bill at him, at each snap making a gulping sound. If closely approached the snapping becomes rapid and a quantity of dark orange-red oil is brought up into the throat and ejected. The oil is quite clear with a strong odour and sets solid on cooling. The soft parts of the adult are as follows: bill yellow with orange tip and a black line at the base. The feet and toes greyish white, claws white and webs greyish. When the webs are seen by transmitted light, as the bird spreads them to alight, they appear bright pink. The iris is dark brown. K VI 570 DISCOVERY REPORTS Cephalopods are the food of this species, the stomachs of those examined being packed with beaks and spermatophores, some of which, judging by their size, must have come from animals over a metre in length. Thalassogeron culminatus, Gould Grey-Headed Albatross (Plate XLV, fig. 3; Plate LI, figs. 1, 2) This species is so similar to Diomedea melanophrys in habits that no separate de- scription will be given, all the remarks on the nesting and courtship of that species applying equally to both. This species is known to the South Georgia whalers as the “Blue Mollyhawk”’. It occurs in large numbers at sea in the neighbourhood of the island all the year round and comes ashore for nesting in October. Its rookeries are at the north-east end of the island; they are extensive and in similar places to those of D. melanophrys, and often close to them (Plate LI, fig. 1). The two species are not mixed in the rookeries but keep apart, though occasional pairs of each nest in the rookeries of the other. The single egg (Plate LI, fig. 2), laid about half way through October, is indis- tinguishable from that of D. melanophrys. Both sexes incubate. The eggs of both species are taken by the whalers in large numbers for eating. So tame are the birds that the eggs can be taken from under them without pushing them off the nest; they merely rattle and snap the bill in protest at the disturbance. If the egg is taken a second one is laid. Though large quantities are taken annually there are so many inaccessible rookeries that there is no danger of diminishing either of the species. The writer has not seen the young of Th. culminatus, but is informed that it is similar to that of the D. melanophrys. The soft parts of the adult are: bill black with a yellow dorsal stripe, tip orange; the lower border of the mandible yellow. Iris dark brown (Plate XLV, fig. 3). Feet and legs greyish white, claws white. The ridge of skin at the gape, exposed by parting the feathers when the bird brays, is orange-yellow. Cephalopod beaks and spermatophores only were found in the stomachs examined. Phoebetria palpebrata antarctica, Mathews Sooty Albatross (Plate LI, figs. 3, 4) The Sooty Albatross is common at sea off South Georgia all the year. It may sometimes be seen in small flocks of about a dozen sitting on the water at the entrances of the fjords. Ashore it occurs all round the coasts at the breeding season. It is not gregarious, each pair as a rule nesting away from its neighbours. However, three pairs were found nesting within a few feet of each other on the same ledge of a cliff at North Bay in Ice Fjord in October, 1925. Usually the nests are on ledges of inaccessible cliffs, but several that could be reached were found. They are built of mud and are THE BIRDS OF SOUTH GEORGIA 571 cylindrical, about a foot high and eighteen inches across (Plate LI, fig. 4). One egg only is laid, in the last week of October or first of November, and it is indistinguishable from those of D. melanophrys and Th. culminatus. No elaborate courtship like that of the other albatrosses was seen in this species. At the nesting season a loud shrill cry is produced. One pair was found at the nest before the egg was laid. The female sat on the nest while the male stood on the ledge near by, frequently uttering this cry. It consists of two notes, first a loud shrill one made with the beak open and the head thrown back, so that the bird is looking straight up into the sky (Plate LI, fig. 3). This is an expiratory note and is immediately followed by a much lower and quieter inspiratory note, made with the bill closed and held pointing down to the ground so that the under surface of the mandible rests against the breast. Every two or three times that the male did this the female stood up on the nest and answered in the same way and then sat down again. The young in January is covered with grey down, lighter round the face. The beak is black, as are the feet and legs, the webs being lighter. The feet and legs of the adult are grey, the bill black with a blue mandibular sulcus. The iris is dark brown. The birds seen in South Georgia all belong to the light plumaged race with blue sulcus on the mandible. The food consists of cephalopods. Macronectes giganteus, Gmel. Giant Petrel, or Stinker (Plate XLV, fig. 4; Plate LII, figs. 1-3) This bird is always very numerous at sea and inshore all round the island. It rarely comes on land outside the breeding season, and when it does so it is only to gather carrion off the beach. The Giant Petrels come ashore to nest early in October (Plate LII, fig. 1). ‘They nest in small colonies on the grassy bluffs and headlands, though the nests are not built close to each other. They always choose high ground for their colonies so that they will have a ‘“‘take-off”’ to get on to the wing, as they cannot rise from level ground. The nests are conical piles of tussac, lichen, moss and mud, about two feet in diameter at the base, and about eighteen inches at the top (Plate LII, fig. 2). They are from eighteen inches to two feet in height and have a depression on the top in which the egg is laid. In the South Orkney Islands, where there is no tussac and little moss, all the nests seen by the writer were built of small stones and were not so high. The first eggs are laid half-way through October, and some are not laid until three weeks later ; they are white, without markings, and the shell is of coarse texture. There is only one egg in each nest. The period of incubation is said to last six weeks. Young not more than a week old were found in January, 1926 and 1927 (Plate LII, fig. 3). They are covered with white or grey-white down, which is very short round the eye and base of the bill. This is soon replaced by light grey down. The eye is dark brown, the feet 2-2 572 DISCOVERY REPORTS and legs grey and the claws darker grey. The bill is light buff yellow with a few darker spots at the base (Plate XLV, fig. 4). When being brooded by the parent they make a feeble chirping cry. When disturbed they shuffle round in the nest so as to keep facing the visitor, and, uttering a shrill straining cry, spit at him the contents of the stomach, an oily mass of half-digested food. They are able to throw this a distance of four or five feet. When hungry the young one puts its beak up to that of its parent and makes a scraping sound with the bill closed: this sounds as though it is made right inside the bird’s body and not in the syrinx. The old one then brings up some of the stomach contents into the throat. If the young one is small it puts its head into the parent’s mouth, but when it is bigger the parent brings the food into the bill, which it holds open while the young one takes the food from the mandible. The young leave the nest in March. There are three main phases of plumage in the Giant Petrel—dark, light and inter- mediate. The intermediate one is the most common in South Georgia, the next in numbers being the dark one, while the light one is represented by a very small per- centage. The colour phases mingle indiscriminately in nesting. The few white examples found nesting in South Georgia were all paired with dark or intermediate ones. In the South Orkney Islands, where the white phase is much more numerous, some white ones were seen paired together, but this was evidently haphazard and only due to the higher proportion of them, as others were seen paired with intermediate birds. The dark phase is a very dark chocolate brown and this is connected through all shades of grey brown and grey to the light one, which is pure white with a few inter- spersed dark feathers. The intermediate forms most commonly have the head and neck very light grey, the back and wings grey brown and the belly grey. The beak of all forms is greenish yellow; the feet of the dark and intermediate forms dark grey, those of the light form being very light grey. In all the iris is light greenish buff. On land this species walks with difficulty, the tarsus being kept inclined at an angle with the perpendicular, unless the bird is hurried, when the tarsus approaches the vertical. When sitting the tarsus is horizontal on the ground. When the bird is walking the wings are kept half opened to assist in keeping the balance, while the tail is bent up at right angles to the back. Giant Petrels cannot rise on to the wing off the level; if they are on the sea they run along the surface, flapping their wings and paddling with the feet for a hundred yards, until they gain sufficient momentum to rise. If they are feeding on the beach they have to return to the water to take a run before they can fly. They sit on the water to preen the feathers and wash themselves. They bathe by half spreading the wings and then tipping forward and ducking the head under. They then bob up and a quantity of water is thrown on to the back along which it runs to the tail between the half open wings. These petrels are very greedy and will gorge themselves with carrion until they are so heavy that they cannot fly. They then sit on the water until they have digested sufficient of their meal to lighten themselves, but if they are approached before this has happened they paddle away with half open wings, and if closely pursued vomit THE BIRDS OF SOUTH GEORGIA 573 up the stomach contents and then fly away. If they are approached on the land and cornered when they are feeding or on their nests, they defend themselves by shooting the contents of the stomach at the intruder. This is accompanied by a high-pitched straining sound, and the head is shaken from side to side at each shot. The young birds in the nest are more skilful at hitting the cause of their annoyance than are the old ones. If seized these birds bite severely. The species has a strong musky odour which scents the eggs and nests. In addition the vomited stomach contents have a most disgusting smell, so that it well deserves its common name of “Stinker”’, The ordinary voice is a low hoarse croak, but as stated above the note goes up to a falsetto when the bird is annoyed. If a bird passes close to an observer when it is flying it can often be heard to be making a low creaking noise at each stroke of the wings. This is uttered without opening the bill. The natural food of this species at South Georgia is largely augmented by the scraps from the whaling stations round which it congregates in immense numbers. The birds also attack the dead whales that are waiting to be cut up, climbing out on to their backs as they lie in the water and digging into the blubber with their powerful bills. During the winter, when whaling is suspended, large numbers die of starvation. A large number were seen at Undine Harbour in November, 1925, feeding on a carcass of a seal. In the hide there was only a small hole through which one bird at a time could just force its head. They were doing this in turn, pushing in as far as possible until stopped by the shoulders, and all had the head and neck stained bright red by the blood. At the nesting season they also feed on young penguins. Nestlings have been examined whose stomachs were crammed with the “krill”? on which the penguins had been feeding. With this were mixed pieces of the intestines of the penguins. ‘The stomach of an adult examined during the winter contained a little brown fluid and a few blades of tussac. Majaqueus aequinoctialis, Linn. Cape Hen (Plate XLV, figs. 5, 6) The Cape Hen, called “Shoemaker” by the whalers, is common at sea off South Georgia all the year round, and may sometimes be seen in large flocks. Ashore it breeds in large numbers, but is rarely seen on land as it nests in burrows and is nocturnal. In early October this species commences nesting, the burrows of previous seasons being used, as well as fresh ones which are dug as soon as the ground thaws. Many burrows are dug close to each other, forming a rookery like a rabbit warren. ‘They are always on raised ground, usually at the top of a cliff or steep bank. Before the eggs are laid the birds sit about in pairs among the tussac at the entrances of the burrows, uttering a shrill chattering cry. This cry is also made in the day-time when they are below ground, especially if one walks about over the burrows. The burrows are made among the tussac, the entrance usually being under a clump of the grass, which partly 574 DISCOVERY REPORTS overhangs the mouth. They are four to six feet deep, and are wider at the entrance than a foot or so in, where they are about six inches in diameter. At the end there is a circular chamber about a foot in diameter containing the nest. This is made of mud and tussac roots, with a few blades of the grass. It is circular and only raised an inch or so above the general level, but is higher at the circumference, between which and the sides of the chamber there is a narrow gutter. When first occupied in the season the ground is frozen and the floor of the burrow consists of ice. As the season advances the ground thaws and the floor of the burrow and the nest become extremely wet and muddy, making the birds and the egg very dirty. At the beginning of November, 1925, a Cape Hen was observed digging its burrow in the ground above the cliffs at North Bay in Ice Fjord. It was using the beak as a pick for digging out the soil and it then scratched the loose earth out of the burrow by scraping it back between the legs with the feet. The digging was done in short spells; in the intervals the bird sat down on the tussac outside the burrow and preened the feathers, frequently uttering its chattering note. It also made a lower harsher note, holding the beak pointing upwards and vibrating it rapidly. This note was not heard on any other occasion. The single white egg is laid about half way through November; the writer has not seen the young in down: a burrow dug out in February, 1926, held two old birds only. If the birds are dug out of their burrows they are quite tame and make no effort to get away, but if handled they make good use of the beak and claws, inflicting severe scratches. Unless they are chased, when they take to the wing, they waddle about among the tussac and soon go back to the burrow. In the writer’s opinion these birds have a courting ceremony somewhat similar to that of their relatives, the albatrosses. If a burrow is dug out so far that the sitting bird can be reached by thrusting the arm down, the bird does not at first bite. The outstretched hand is felt to be gently touched by the bird’s bill, in a way similar to the “‘ fencing” of the Black-Browed and Grey-Headed Albatrosses. This is followed by a gentle nibbling, and it is not until one seizes the bird and it realizes that it is not its mate that is entering the burrow, that it starts biting and scratching. The colouring of the soft parts is as follows: bill yellowish grey; a small area in front of the openings of the nostrils, and the tip, dark grey. Feet and legs black, with yellowish centres to the webs. Iris very dark brown (Plate XLV, figs. 5 and 6). The stomachs of those examined contained cephalopod beaks only. Priocella glacialoides, Smith Silver Grey Petrel (Plate XLY, figs. 7, 8) This bird is not common in South Georgian waters, though single specimens are seen fairly often. It does not breed on the island, but the writer thinks it likely that it THE BIRDS OF SOUTH GEORGIA 575 does so in the South Orkney Islands, judging by the number seen in that neighbourhood in January, 1926. The Swedish South Polar Expedition found it nesting in Louis Phillipe Land. Occasionally examples are seen in the fjords of South Georgia among the flocks of Cape Pigeons round the whaling stations, They have also been noticed, with Cape Pigeons, pecking at sea elephant blubber as it was lying in the water alongside a sealing vessel in King Haakon Bay. The bill is pink, with the base blue and tip brown-black. The feet are pinkish grey with some black scales on the toes and the claws brown-black, the outer side of the middle one being white. The iris is dark brown (Plate XLV, figs. 7 and 8), Pagadroma nivea, Gmel. Snow Petrel (Plate XLV, figs. 9, 10) The Snow Petrel is frequently seen off South Georgia, especially in the winter, when it occasionally comes into the fjords. The German Expedition of 1882-3 (Pagen- stecher, 1885, p. 21) records it as breeding on the island in inaccessible rock crevices in the mountains near the sea. The writer has found no sign of it breeding in South Georgia, though a sharp look-out has been maintained. Places similar to those it uses for nesting in at the South Orkneys are to be found at the south-east end, and on the south coast of the island, but they are difficult of access. The bill is black; feet grey with darker toes and claws. The iris is very dark brown (Plate XLV, figs. 9, 10). The stomach of one shot at Grytviken in July, 1925, contained a reddish yellow oil that solidified to a waxy consistency when cool. Daption capensis, Linn. Cape Pigeon (Plate LII, fig. 4; Plate LIII, fig. 1) The Cape Pigeon is always common at South Georgia, flocking in hundreds of thousands to the whaling stations to feed on the refuse (Plate LII, fig. 4, and Plate LIII, fig. 1). It has never been found breeding on the island, though it may do so in some suitable spots on the south coast that resemble its breeding places in the South Orkneys. At sea it feeds on small planktonic animals and carrion, and soon collects in numbers to feed on the blood when a whale is killed. At the whaling stations it pecks at the whales and pieces of meat that fall into the water, and can dive to a depth of three or four feet to regain a morsel that is sinking. The wings are used in diving. At the whaling stations it also eats the small globules of oil and particles of fat floating on the water, and when doing so the method which it uses in feeding on planktonic animals can be 576 DISCOVERY REPORTS observed. If the bill of a fresh specimen is examined it will be found to have a series of fine serrations on the inner side of each margin of the maxilla, which overlaps the mandible of each side when the bill is closed. The skin between the rami of the mandibles is naked and thrown into folds and can be depressed to form a small pouch. The whole apparatus is very similar to the beak of the Whale Birds (Prion),! though not so_ highly developed (Figs. 2, 3). In feeding, the minute particles are hooked up by the tip of the maxilla, with a few drops of water, in rapid succession into the mouth, and the pouch is quickly expanded and contracted so that the water is strained off at the sides of the bill and the food particles are retained on the serrations. When feeding in this manner the bird keeps vigorously paddling to each side with the feet, so that it only moves forward slowly and a current of water is drawn in towards it from the front. The Cape Pigeons are very noisy and quarrel- Fig. 2. Daption capensis. Head showing throat some birds when feeding, keeping up an incessant pouelt expanded and contacted: chattering with their harsh shrill cries night and day at the whaling stations. When swimming they float high on the water and paddle about with the tail cocked up. They are very rarely seen on the land, though they may often be seen sitting in numbers on ice floes or steep snow banks over the sea. When sitting the tarsus is kept on the ground and in walking it is only raised a little from the horizontal, while a few awkward steps are taken with the wings partly spread. The birds are unable to rise from calm water without running some way on the surface first, but at sea with a breeze they can spring into the Sty Dire eat, Wace cal vadls: air from the crest of a wave. Inthe harbours they sides of head, the latter showing the pouch are often seen in flocks, all washing themselves at between the rami of the mandibles. the same time. ‘The head is dipped under while the wings are partly spread, so that the water runs up on to the front part of the back and is thrown back over the tail when the head bobs up again. The bill, feet and legs are black, and there are light patches on the inner sides of the inner and middle toes. The iris is dark brown. 1 See Wilson, E. A., Report of the National Antarctic Expedition, 1901-4, Vol. 11. Zoology, Pt 11. Aves, p- 105. THE BIRDS OF SOUTH GEORGIA 577 Thalassoeca antarctica, Gmel. Antarctic Petrel This species was not observed at South Georgia, neither was it seen by the German Expedition of 1882-3, nor by the Swedish South Polar Expedition in 1g02. Several were seen and one was shot, six miles off the north-east coast, by Mr Erik Sérling, a collector from the Natural History Museum of Stockholm, on August Ist, 1905 (Lénnberg, 1906, p. 82). Oceanites oceanicus, Kuhl Wilson’s Petrel This little petrel is a summer visitor and breeds in very large numbers on South Georgia. It is to be seen in flocks at sea off the island from November to May, and in small numbers near the whaling stations from November to February. In February and March it comes into the whaling stations in incredible numbers, so that the water is sometimes black with them, and stays till May. At sea it feeds on plankton and at the whaling stations on floating oil globules and fat particles, hovering over the water and continually dipping the feet in as it picks up its food. It is almost always on the wing, and is but rarely seen to settle for a few moments on the water. It lays its egg in crevices of the cliffs and amongst the stones of screes. No nest is made but the same burrow is returned to year after year, so that a quantity of debris— feathers, dead young and so on—is accumulated on which the egg is laid. The eggs are difficult to obtain, as those in the cliffs are usually inaccessible, and among the screes they are so far in that it is often impossible to remove enough stones without causing a land slide. The sitting bird makes a low whistling cry which is very difficult to locate. At dusk the birds flit about near the entrance to the nesting hole and produce a harsh grating noise. The eggs are laid in early December and both sexes take part in incubation. When captured the birds squirt from the mouth and nostrils a dark red oil with an evil odour. They are unable to stand with the tarsi erect and shuffle in and out of the burrows with the whole length of them on the ground. The bill, feet and legs are black, and there is a bright yellow patch in the webs. The iris is dark brown. Fregatta melanogaster, Gould Black-Bellied Storm Petrel This species was not seen at South Georgia, though a sharp look-out was kept for it, as it is easily confused with Wilson’s Petrel when on the wing. The German Expedi- tion of 1882-3 (Von der Steinen, 1890, p. 208) found it breeding at Royal Bay, and collected an egg and a skin. Since then it has not been recorded from the island. K VI 3 578 DISCOVERY REPORTS Garrodia nereis, Gould Grey-Backed Storm Petrel This petrel was found on South Georgia by the German Expedition of 1882-3 (Pagenstecher, 1885, p. 18) and by Mr Erik Sérling (Lénnberg, 1906, p. 84) in 1904, but it was not seen during the course of the Discovery investigations. The German Expedition found that it nested at Royal Bay in burrows on bare screes, and recorded that it left the island with the young at the end of April. Mr Sorling shot an example as it flew from a tussac hill in Moraine Fjord, Cumberland Bay, on November 27th, 1904. He was unable to find the nest, which was evidently there, as the bird, a male, had bare brood spots on the belly. He also found the dried up remains of a half fledged young one of the previous season at Grytviken in the same month. Genus Prion Whale Birds Whale Birds are extremely common at sea off the island, flying over the waves in large flocks. ‘They breed abundantly ashore but are never seen on land during daylight, as they are there nocturnal. Three species are recorded from the island, and the following notes apply equally to all. They feed on small planktonic animals, swimming on the surface with outstretched wings, occasionally diving below it, and scooping up their food into the pouch-like mouth and straining off the water through the lamellae of the bill as described by Wilson.’ ‘The flocks at sea fly and turn together like those of some of the northern sandpipers; as they wheel round all the white breasts flash at once and then simul- taneously disappear as the darker back is shown. Ashore they are found nesting in burrows dug amongst the tussac, all round the island, on low ground as well as on hills and headlands. The burrow is not more than three feet deep in the peaty earth and is about three inches in diameter, ending in a small chamber. No nest is made, the single white egg being laid in a hollow of the earth in the terminal chamber. Most of the eggs are laid at the end of November, but some not until well into the following month. Before the egg is laid both birds are usually in the burrow in the daytime, but afterwards the writer has found only one bird, though other observers have found as many as three. When in the burrow the birds make a low grunting noise. If they are pulled out of it they bite and scratch vigorously. Whale Birds are killed in large numbers by the Antarctic Skuas, and for this reason they are nocturnal when ashore. Prion vittatus, Gmel. Broad-Billed Whale Bird This species is recorded as breeding on the island by Mr A. G. Bennett, the Govern- ment Naturalist of the Falkland Islands. 1 Wilson, E. A., Report of the National Antarctic Expedition, 1901-4, Vol. u. Zoology, Pt 1. Aves, p. 105, fig. 45. THE BIRDS OF SOUTH GEORGIA 579 Prion banksi, Gould Banks’ Whale Bird (Plate LIU, fig. 2) All the specimens of the genus Prion from South Georgia examined by the writer belong to this species (Plate LIT, fig. 2). The bill is blue, the dorsal part black and the tip buff; the mandible is black. The iris is dark brown. The feet are blue, the webs buff with grey outer markings. Prion desolatus, Gmel. The German Expedition of 1882-3 (Pagenstecher, 1885, p. 23) found this species breeding at Royal Bay “in burrows like a rabbit warren”. Eggs and many advanced embryos were collected in January and it was found that the young did not leave the burrow until the beginning of May. The Swedish South Polar Expedition also collected a specimen of this species in Cumberland Bay in April, 1902. Halobaena caerulea, Gmel. Blue Petrel This species has not been recorded as breeding at South Georgia. Several were seen on the wing two miles off the entrance to Cumberland Bay on November 30th, 1926. They may have been H. murphyi, a species described from a specimen taken at Strom- ness Bay, South Georgia, in 1913; but it is impossible to distinguish it from H. caerulea on the wing (Brooks, 1917, p. 146). When flying they can easily be distinguished from Prions by the square-shaped tail with terminal white band. Pelecanoides georgicus, Murphy & Harper Diving Petrel (Plate XLVII, figs. 1, 2; Plate LIII, fig. 3) The Diving Petrel is common in South Georgian waters all the year round and breeds plentifully on the island. ‘This species, like the Whale Birds, is eaten in large quantities by the Antaretic Skuas, so that when nesting it has to adopt nocturnal habits, and the nest burrows are dug at night. At sea it is usually only seen on the wing when disturbed by the passage of the ship. In diving they use the wings to swim under water and can fly into and out of it as though the two mediums were one. The food consists of small planktonic animals. This species comes ashore to nest in the second half of November. It nests in burrows dug in places where there is little or no vegetation, but where there is a fair 3-2 580 DISCOVERY REPORTS amount of earth and gravel with larger stones, such as in accumulations of moraine material high up on the hillsides and as much as a mile from the sea (Plate LIII, fig. 3). The burrow is up to four feet in length and usually twists and bends. No nest is made in the chamber at the end, but the single, white, nearly spherical egg is laid on the bare earth so that it gets discoloured by contact with the ground. Before the egg is laid both birds are to be found in the burrows, but afterwards only one. The eggs are laid at the beginning of December and one, still unhatched, containing a chick on the point of breaking through, was found on February 12th, 1926. On the same date nestlings in down were found in other burrows. Both sexes take part in incubation. The nestlings are clothed in long ashy grey down and have a bare patch on the throat and sides of the head and neck, but the head is kept drawn down so that in life these patches are invisible. The eyes are not open when the young are hatched. The bill is black and the feet are grey with buff webs (Plate XLVII, fig. 1). They make a very feeble chirping cry when the burrow is opened, but the adults were not heard to utter any sound. The adult has the bill black and iris dark brown, the legs and toes blue, webs dark grey, and claws black (Plate XLVII, fig. 2). Catharacta lonnbergi clarkei, Mathews Antarctic Skua (Plate XLVII, figs. 3, 4; Plate LIII, fig. 4; Plate LIV, fig. 1) This bird is very common in South Georgia from September to May. It is absent in the winter. Like all gulls it does not go far to sea but haunts the coasts and shores, feeding on carrion and the eggs and young of other birds. Nesting commences in November, the nests being placed on the ground amongst tussac at the top of a small hill or slope. The nest is built of tussac and moss, with a few feathers and bits of dried kelp. After the middle of November the eggs are laid, usually two, sometimes three, olive brown with blotches and spots of brown and grey. A set was found on December 30th, 1925, with embryos nearly ready for hatching. The day previous new hatched chicks were found in another nest and also several chicks which had already left the nest. The Skuas are very rapacious, and are always on the look-out for some unprotected nest from which they can steal eggs or young. They haunt the penguin rookeries and any exposed egg is quickly pounced upon, and they kill and devour large numbers of the young when they are hatched. They are a scourge to the Whale Birds and Diving Petrels, any unwary example of which that leaves its burrow or returns to it, when it is not quite dark, is relentlessly pursued and devoured in the air. In pursuing a bird the Skua shows great skill in following every twist and turn as the victim tries to escape. Round one Skua’s nest on Bird Island fifty pairs of Whale Birds’ wings were counted and there were many more, besides those of some Diving Petrels. Skuas were also seen to chase, but not to kill, the Cape Hens. THE BIRDS OF SOUTH GEORGIA 581 If anyone approaches the neighbourhood of the nest the old birds attack and attempt to drive away the intruder. Before he has approached closely the birds stand on some rock or mound near the nest and, raising the wings, scream with the head pointed downwards. At a closer approach they rise into the air and circle round, making a shrili croaking noise and then suddenly swoop down at their enemy. They look extremely fierce as they swoop head-on straight for one’s face, but always rise above the head when about a yard away, to repeat the attack from behind, when they will frequently deal a heavy blow with one of the wings. If the intruder refuses to leave the neighbour- hood they get tired of attacking and settle on the ground and start screaming again. The newly hatched nestling is clothed in light brown down. The bill is very dark grey and the egg-tooth white (Plate XLVIL, fig. 3). The iris is dark brown; the feet blue- grey with lighter webs and dark grey claws. They have a feeble, piping cry. Although the Skuas usually hatch two young (Plate LIII, fig. 4), one of them always disappears after a day or two, and is probably eaten by the parents. They leave the nest and run about amongst the tussac when they are a few days old. The older nestling is covered with brown down and when the feathers are sprouting the blue skin round the eye and beak shows through the down. The ear coverts are black and the sprouting quills blue (Plate XLVII, fig. 4, and Plate LIV, fig. 1). If alarmed it utters a succession of shrill screams. The plumage of the adult varies in colour, some being dark brown with a few lighter feathers, while others have a great many light feathers, especially on the back, giving them the appearance of dark ones with bleached plumage. The bill, feet and legs are black, and the iris is brown. Larus dominicanus, Licht. Dominican Gull (Plate XLVI, figs. 1-9) This gull is very common at South Georgia all the year round, frequenting the coast and bays and not venturing far to sea. The birds gather in large numbers round the whaling stations to feed on the refuse, and become very tame in winter. They can dive well, rising first a little way into the air and plunging in with half-open wings so that they are completely submerged. When a number are feeding together they quarrel continuously, trying to drive each other away, and making a loud laughing cry, like that of the European Black-Backed Gull. The natural food consists largely of limpets which they pick off the rocks at low tide. The vicinity of the nest is often strewn with hundreds of the empty shells. They nest in colonies of several dozen pairs close together. The nest is built in October, of tussac, moss, dried kelp, bits of whale bone and a few feathers. It is placed on the ground among tussac or in quite bare places, usually on rising ground, or on top of a boulder. The eggs, two or more often three, in number, brown with darker brown and olive spots and splashes, are mostly laid early in 582 DISCOVERY REPORTS November, some not until the beginning of December. The Scotia Expedition found the period of incubation to be about twenty-five days. The young are covered with black-speckled buff down, and have the bill and feet black and the egg-tooth white. They leave the nest a few days after hatching and run about actively. They have a piping cry. When they are about half grown and the quills are sprouting the tip of the bill becomes white (Plate XLVI, fig. 9). At this age they can run fast and swim well, readily taking to the water if pursued. When the colony is disturbed all the old birds rise in the air and hover over the intruder, making harsh cries all the while. The Dominican Gull is three seasons in reaching maturity. In the first winter the plumage is grey-brown with buff specklings; the bill is black with white tip ; legs brown; feet grey, darker towards the edge of the web; claws black. The iris is dark brown and the eyelids grey (Plate XLVI, figs. 1 and 2). The second winter the grey-brown plumage is heavily spotted with buff and white and the mantle is brown. The base and tip of the bill are yellow and the centre is black. The iris is light brown and the eyelids are dull red. The feet and legs are green-grey, the webs grey at their margins and the claws are black (Plate XLVI, figs. 3 and 4). The third winter the mantle and wings are black, and the rest of the plumage is white, except for some scattered dark feathers in the head, neck, breast and tail. The bill is yellow, the mandible with an orange-red spot and a few small black streaks above the angle of the gonys. The eyelid is red and the iris light yellow. The feet and legs are yellowish green, claws black (Plate XLVI, figs. 5, 6). In the fourth year, when the bird breeds, the wings and mantle are black, the rest of the plumage being white. The bill is yellow, and the mandible red from the angle of the gonys to the tip. The eyelid is bright red and the iris yellow, ‘The feet are yellow with a tinge of green, and the claws are black (Plate XLVI, figs. 7, 8). Sterna vittata georgiae, Reichenof Wreathed ‘Tern (Plate LIV, fig. 2) The Wreathed Tern is a common resident round the shores of South Georgia. The food chiefly consists of small fish and the birds have also been observed catching euphausians swimming near the surface. Large flocks are often to be seen settled on the beach or moraines near the sea. This species nests in colonies of from half a dozen to twenty or thirty pairs, often some way from the sea. Inland the colonies are on moraines or screes, but one was found on the beach at Albatross Island in the Bay of Isles in December, 1925. No nest is built, but a hollow is scraped in the ground and a few small stones are placed round it. The single egg is usually laid in the second half of November, but some fresh eggs were found at the end of December, 1925 (Plate LIV, fig. 2). They were probably a second laying after the first ones had been stolen by the Skuas. The egg is grey-brown with darker brown and olive spots. It is very difficult to see as it lies in the nest. When THE BIRDS OF SOUTH GEORGIA 583 nesting the birds behave in the usual tern manner if disturbed, rising on the wing with harsh screams, hovering above, and even swooping at and pecking the head of the visitor. ‘They always thus betray the whereabouts of the colony, but if only they sat still it would probably be passed unnoticed, for the birds are very hard to see as they sit on the nest among the grey stones. If a Skua comes near the colony the birds fly up and attack it fiercely. The eggs are hatched in December and early January, the nestling being clothed in grey down with dark specklings, lighter below. The young soon leave the nest and crouch among the stones near by. When the down is shed the head is speckled with black and buff, and the upper parts are barred with the same colours. The throat and breast are mottled with light brown and the belly is grey-white. The bill is black and the iris brown. The feet and claws are black and the legs brown-black with a tinge of red. The adults have the bill red with black tip, iris very dark brown, the feet dull red, the toes darker and the legs lighter. Nettion georgicum, Gmel. South Georgia Teal This species, peculiar to South Georgia, is common on the island but not abundant. The German Expedition of 1882-3 (Pagenstecher, 1885, p. 13) found it in large flocks as did Mr Erik S6rling in 1904-5 (L6nnberg, 1906, p. 66), but at the present time it does not occur in such numbers. This is probably due to the fact that it is very good for the table and has been continually shot for the pot since the island has been resorted to by the whalers. In summer it frequents the tussac-covered plains, streams and fresh water pools in the valleys, but in winter it is confined to the beach where it is to be found in small flocks of about half-a-dozen birds. It feeds on small mollusca and crustacea. It is very hard to see the bird on the beach or amongst tussac, as the dull brown plumage harmonizes very well with the background, but a slight movement of the head and light yellow bill often draws one’s attention to it. The flight is quick and strong; on the wing they look much like European Teal. ‘They produce a shrill whistling cry. The nest is built among the tussac and lined with greyish down. It is placed so that the hanging blades of the tussac at the edge of the clump conceal it. The yellowish grey eggs are four or five in number, and are laid in the second half of November. They are hatched in December and the young are covered with light brown down, lighter below. They leave the nest at once and run about among the tussac, being very agile in eluding capture. The bill of the adult has a central black stripe; the front third is blue and the rest yellow. The iris is light brown. The legs and toes are dark olive-green, the webs and joints being darker, almost black. 584 DISCOVERY REPORTS Chloephaga leucoptera, Gmel. Upland Goose This bird is not a native of the island but has been introduced from the Falkland Islands. A few pairs live in the valleys of West and East Cumberland Bays, chiefly in the former. They must necessarily be confined to the beach during the winter. A goose and seven goslings were seen swimming on a fresh water pool at West Cumberland Bay in January and February, 1926. Phalacrocorax georgianus, Loénnberg South Georgia Shag (Plate XLVII, figs. 5-7) This Shag, subspecifically different from Ph. atriceps, is a common resident at South Georgia. It feeds on fish, which it catches by diving, round the coast and in the fjords. It breeds in small colonies of ten to twenty pairs, building the nests on tussac- covered ledges of the cliffs over the sea. The birds are often to be seen sitting about on the rocks and boulders near the sea, drying the wings in typical cormorant fashion. They have a peculiar habit when approached by the whale ships at sea: they fly up towards the vessel and, keeping the same speed as it, fly alongside the crow’s-nest at the foremast head. This is often the cause of their destruction, as they can then easily be knocked down so that they fall on deck, and they are much sought after as a table delicacy in South Georgia. The nests are built of mud, tussac and dried kelp. The eggs, usually three in number, are pale blue-green with a coating of chalky substance. They are laid early in December and hatch in the first half of January. The young when hatched are quite naked, but soon get a covering of dark grey down with a few tufts of white interspersed among it. The down is shed in February, and in the next month they leave the nest. The colouring of the first plumage is similar to that of the adults, but there is a dull brown tinge in the dorsal and wing feathers, which have a metallic blue and green sheen respectively in the adult. The bill is light greyish brown, darker dorsally and lighter at the tip. The caruncles are not developed but are represented by a dark purplish brown area covered with small papillae. The same colour extends round the eye but is lighter below it. The iris is light brown (Plate XLVII, fig. 5). The feet and legs (Plate XLVII, fig. 6) are pink, with the edges of the webs and the ends and joints of the toes grey, the claws black. The adult (Plate XLVII, fig. 7) has the bill dark brown, the nasal caruncles orange yellow, the bare area of the face purplish brown, the eyelids ultra- marine and the feet pink. Chionis alba, Gmel. Sheathbill (Plate XLVI, figs. 8, 9) The Sheathbill, known to the whalers as “‘ Rype”’, is a fairly common resident species in South Georgia, being found in flocks of six to thirty or more, except in the nesting THE BIRDS OF SOUTH GEORGIA 585 season. It is a shore bird, frequenting the beaches and penguin rookeries. It is ex- tremely tame and has so little fear of man that, with a little care, the birds can be caught in the hand. The Sheathbill is omnivorous; a green alga that grows on the rocks that are uncovered each tide forms a large item in its diet, especially in winter. Small mollusca and crustacea are also taken, as is carrion of any sort. The birds frequent the elephant seal rookeries when the pups are born and feed on the placentas. They also sit about in the penguin rookeries and eat any eggs that are left uncovered so that they can steal them. They have also been seen to steal the eggs of the Giant Petrel. The nest is built in November in holes in the rocks and under boulders, two or three feet in, and is made of tussac, moss and feathers. The eggs are laid in the following month; they are buff with black pencillings all over them and are two or three in number. The young are hatched in January. They are clothed in a brown and black mottled down; the bill is dark brown and the legs are greyish brown. The iris is dark brown and there is a bare area on the face below the eye, but the wattles are not de- veloped. ‘The nestlings live in the nest hole until they are nearly fully fledged and can run about actively. When not feeding, the Sheathbills are often to be seen sitting motionless on the rocks. They stand on one foot and hold the body very erect, keeping quite still for many minutes on end. They then run forward for a short distance with quick steps and sit motionless again. When feeding on the beach they walk about with a bobbing motion of the head, and look much like pigeons. The flight is like that of a pigeon and the shape of the wings, when flying, is reminiscent of a gallinaceous bird. If they are winged Sheathbills will take to the water and swim well. They have a harsh call note. The adult has the bill black at the tip, shading through ochre and green to blue-grey at the base. The wattles, which are larger in the male, are pinkish or yellowish white, and the iris is brown (Plate XLVII, figs. 8 and 9). The legs are grey and the toes and claws are black. Anthus antarcticus, Cab. Antarctic Pipit The Antarctic Pipit, confined to South Georgia, is common on the low ground near the coast all round the island and does not migrate. It lives much on the seashore, and round the streams and freshwater pools further inland: in winter it is confined to the beach. It feeds on small insects, crustacea and mollusca. The nest is built of dry tussac stems in November, among the tussac or in crevices of the rocks. The egg is described as dull grey-green thickly speckled with dirty red- brown streaks and flecks. Neither the eggs nor nestlings were seen by the writer, the only nesting places found being in inaccessible crevices of the cliffs. The young leave the nest at the end of December when they are fledged, but still have some few tufts of down adhering to the head, and have short stumpy tails. They can then fend for themselves and hop about on the beach feeding with their parents. K VI + 586 DISCOVERY REPORTS This Pipit has a twittering song which is uttered while sitting on the top of some boulder or tussac clump. In late October and early November, when they are mating, the male sits singing on some such elevated post and keeps rising into the air a little way with fluttering flight, making a short trill, and then returns to the ground. ‘The general appearance in flight and the habits are very similar to those of the European Rock Pipit. The German Expedition of 1882-3 (Pagenstecher, 1885, p. 9) found examples of this bird sitting on floating kelp as far as thirty kilometres from the coast. The bill is dark brown, the feet and legs yellowish brown, and the iris is dark brown. Pygoscelis papua, Forst. Gentoo Penguin (Plate XLVII, figs. 10-12; Plate LIV, figs. 3, 4; Plate LV, fig. 1) The Gentoo Penguin is very common all the year round and nests in thousands on the island. It feeds on the euphausians and cephalopods which swarm in the sur- rounding waters, and is often seen at sea fifty or sixty miles from the land. In September and October, before they start nesting, every evening the penguins come out on to the beaches in thousands to sleep on the snow banks behind, returning to the sea in the morning. In November they gather in rookeries, often of large size, to nest. The rookeries are on low tussac-covered ground by the sea, or on the hills behind, up to a height of several hundred feet. The nests are placed close together, those of the last season being rebuilt for present use. When they have paired the two birds sit on or near the nest and bow to each other, at the same time making a low hiss. This is repeated several times and then the head is thrown up and they both trumpet loudly. In doing this the bill is wide open and two notes are produced, a loud expiratory one and a quieter inspiratory one in a lower pitch. In making the expiratory note the skin over the base of the front of the neck is bulged out. The nest is made of tussac, moss, kelp, mud and stones, sometimes of the latter alone. In building it the female of the pair stands on it while the male collects the materials and brings them to her. They are deposited on the nest and the birds bow to each other ; the female then arranges them on the nest, while the male stands by and trumpets before going for more. The birds are continually stealing materials from the nests of their neighbours and this leads to a lot of fighting and noise. The rightful owner pecks and strikes out with the flippers at the other, who at once does the same, both trumpeting loudly the while. The rookery soon gets very foul with mud produced by the constant passing to and fro of the birds, and with the red remains of the euphausians eaten by them. If the rookery is not close to the beach a well-worn path is soon made to it. The two nearly spherical eggs are laid at the beginning of November, and hatched early in December. The yolk of the egg is deep red in colour, differing from those of the King and Macaroni penguins which are yellow. Incubation starts as soon as the first one is laid, so that THE BIRDS OF SOUTH GEORGIA 587 there is a difference of several days in the ages of the young: this causes a marked difference in size, as they grow very rapidly. If the eggs are taken, a second set is laid, and in some of the rookeries that are much visited by the whalers to collect eggs for eating, as many as four or five layings are produced. The later layings consist of only one egg instead of two, and it is smaller in size than the first ones. Egg collecting may delay the hatching until February. While incubating the birds sit on the breast with the flippers held along the sides of the body. Both sexes incubate (Plate LIV, fig. 3). When the young (Plate LIV, fig. 4) are hatched they are covered in short grey down, darker on the back of the head and lighter on the under parts. They are very weak and helpless. The front half of the bill is blue-grey, the rest pink, and the egg-tooth is buff (Plate XLVII, fig. 10). The feet are pinkish grey and the iris dark brown. The cry of the new-hatched young is a very feeble and shrill piping. When the young are a few days old the second down coat starts to grow and the first down adheres to the ends of the down feathers until worn off. The second coat (Plate LV, fig. 1) is grey dorsally and white ventrally, and by the time the bird is half grown the bill is pink with the upper part black, the tip of the mandible being buff with a black mark just behind it. The iris is brown (Plate XLVI, fig. 11). The egg-tooth is not shed until the young is nearly full grown. At first the parents brood the young, which like to nestle underneath, until they are so big that they can only get their heads under. The young ask for food by putting up the head and piping, and nibbling the parent’s throat and neck. The parent regurgitates the food into the throat and opens the bill and the young puts its head in as far as it can. When the young are about three-quarters grown they leave the nests, which get trodden down nearly level with the ground, and herd together under the charge of a few adult nurses. As soon as an old one returns from the sea they all start pestering it for the food, which it is at first usually reluctant to part with. Finally it feeds one or two and then leaves again. On sunny days the young appear to feel the heat considerably and stand about panting, almost gasping, for breath. This is probably due as well to the strong ammoniacal vapours which rise from the ground of the rookery when it is heated. The fumes are very concentrated near the ground, as one finds if one sits down in the rookery. Early in February the young start shedding the down, which comes off in patches, leaving exposed the adult plumage which has grown underneath. They are still fed by the parents for a short time after all the down has been shed, and take to the water in March. Their feet and bills after the moult are similar to those of the old ones, but considerably paler. When swimming about the penguins only bring the head and tail out of the water when they come up to breathe, but when making a passage they leap out of the water at intervals, jumping out like porpoises. During the leap the flippers are held out from the sides. In landing on the beach they shoot out of the water, landing on their feet, and shake themselves, look round, and waddle away. If there is much surf running they cannot jump out in this way and sometimes have considerable difficulty in scrambling out of the breakers. In entering the sea they walk down the beach with the flippers held out behind and the neck bent forward until they are in the water, when 4-2 588 DISCOVERY REPORTS they duck the head under and flash away. They then usually come up, and lying first on one side and then on the other they wash themselves with the uppermost flipper and foot. On land they walk with the flippers held out behind and the head pushed forward. If hurried they fall forward on to the breast and push themselves along with the feet, aided by the flippers which give quick strokes on the ground at each side. When preening themselves they stand upright, using the stiff tail feathers to help them keep their balance. When resting they usually recline on their fronts with the feet tucked up underneath and the head drawn in on to the shoulders. They usually sleep in this position, but also do so standing up, with the head put round behind one of the flippers, in the position of a bird sleeping with its head under its wing. This species has more fear of man than others: if the rookery is visited most of the birds leave their nests when the intruder comes near to them, but some of the birds will refuse to go and peck and strike with the flippers. The adults moult after nesting, shedding the feathers in March. At the same time the feet become a light orange colour which changes to pink later on. The bill of the adult is red, black dorsally. There is a buff tip on the mandible, and behind it lies a black patch (Plate XLVII, fig. 12). The iris is brown and the pupil polygonal, and the feet are pink. Pygoscelis antarctica, Forst. Ringed Penguin This penguin occurs in small numbers at South Georgia, odd ones being seen from time to time. Several were observed at Grytviken during the course of the Discovery investigations; one was seen in 1926 among the Macaroni Penguins in their rookery near Fortuna Bay, and several were seen elsewhere. The German Expedition of 1882-3 (Pagenstecher, 1885, p. 14) found a few pairs nesting in Royal Bay. The headquarters of this species is in the South Orkney and South Shetland Islands. Pygoscelis adeliae, Homb. Adélie Penguin This penguin, abundant in the South Orkney Islands, has only occurred as an occasional straggler at South Georgia. Eudyptes chrysolophus, Brandt Macaroni Penguin (Plate LV, figs. 2, 3) The Macaroni Penguin, called locally ‘‘Rocky Penguin”’, is extremely abundant at South Georgia and in the waters round the island, though it rarely comes on land except at its rookeries. The rookeries as a rule are large, containing thousands of birds: they are situated on the tussac-covered slopes above the cliffs in exposed parts of the coast outside the bays. There are large rookeries on Willis and Bird Islands to the north, and on Cooper Island to the south, and at many places between on the mainland (Plate LV, THE BIRDS OF SOUTH GEORGIA 589 fig. 2). Seen from the sea the rookeries present a characteristic appearance; the crowd of white breasts of the birds surrounded by a dark green ring where the tussac grows luxuriantly, and beyond the pale yellow-green of the ordinary tussac. The birds come ashore to the rookeries in November and leave them by the beginning of May. The following notes were made during a visit to a rookery between Cape Saunders and Fortuna Bay on November 30th, 1925, to gather eggs which were then new laid. The rookery was situated on some steep sloping land at the top of the cliffs, with cliffs rising again behind to a height of about a thousand feet. The penguins jump out of the sea on to the rocks and hop up the cliff to the rookery. There are many thousands of birds in the rookery and they are packed tight wherever there is standing room. The noise they make is deafening, especially when they are disturbed by anyone walking through the rookery, and the smell of it is beyond description. Individually the birds have a strong goaty smell. Their nests are made of small stones, or of mud and tussac, but many of the eggs are laid on the loose stones of the rookery without any nest. The main part of the rookery where the birds are most thickly congregated is quite bare, but I saw odd birds among the tussac on the mountain cliff as high up as about eight hundred feet above the sea. As we walked through the rookery most of the birds moved aside to let us pass, making all the while a tremendous braying, but a few of them would not leave their eggs, which they defended stoutly with their bills and flippers. Though they were thickly packed it was apparent that they were all in pairs. Their voice is very loud, something like the trumpeting of the Gentoo Penguin, but much harsher and deeper. The two birds of each pair were frequently to be seen braying to each other. When they did this they held their flippers widely open, pointing upwards and backwards at an angle of about 45 degrees from the shoulder. They then stretched the head up and threw it back so that the beak was pointing up into the sky behind them, and started calling. All the time that they were braying the head was moved from side to side with a wriggling motion, so that the tip of the bill nearly touched the tip of each upraised flipper alternately. This bout of braying was usually preceded by both birds of the pair bowing to each other so that the bill touched the ground, and when their heads were close together like this they gave a low grunt. Frequently they repeated this after braying. There is only one egg to each pair and it varies greatly in size and shape, from short and round to long and pointed. When the birds are walking about the rookery or hopping up and down the cliffs they hold their flippers in front of them, but as soon as they stop moving they hold them elevated behind them (Plate LV, fig. 3). In climbing up the cliff they hop from point to point, making quite long jumps, and when scrambling up a difficult bit they use the bill to help them. Even when hurried they were not seen to toboggan as the other penguins do. They are very quarrelsome, pecking each other and walloping each other with the flippers unmercifully; any bird walking through the rookery comes in for a shower of pecks and blows from all his neighbours as he passes. Many of the birds get very dirty with the mud in the rookery, which is very wet, as several small streams descend the cliff behind. There were many Skuas flying round 590 DISCOVERY REPORTS the rookery and settling on the neighbouring rocks, but as soon as one tried to alight in the rookery, no doubt to steal eggs, it was attacked by the penguins and driven away. There were also some Sheathbills in the rookery but these were left unmolested although they too are egg stealers. This rookery was again visited on February 14th, 1926, when the following notes were made: We found most of the young hatched and half grown: they were covered with down, black on the back and white in front, and had black bills, pink feet and dark brown iris (Plate LV, fig. 3). A few of the old ones were still sitting on eggs, probably addled ones. We did not see any small young ones in their first down coat. About half of the old ones were moulting. Their yellow head plumes were nearly all shed and the old feathers were coming off in patches, leaving the new ones showing underneath. They also shed the casing of the beak; in most of them it had not yet peeled off, but was scaly, and dull in colour. The scales on the feet too were being shed and the irides of the moulting birds were light brown. When they enter the water they, like the Gentoos, wash themselves and then swim away. The adults have the bill rich red brown and the bare skin at the gape pink. The iris is red. The feet are pink, the webs varying from grey at the base to black at the margin. The bases of the claws are white and have black edges and tips. The soles of the feet are black. In the stomachs of the birds examined cephalopod beaks and euphausians were found. Aptenodytes patagonica, Mill King Penguin (Plate LV, fig. 4; Plate LVI, figs. 1-4) The King Penguin is common but not very numerous in South Georgia. It breeds in rookeries, some of which number several hundred birds, but away from them only odd examples are sometimes seen on the beaches. The largest rookeries seen were in the Bay of Isles, Right Whale Bay, Gold Harbour, St Andrew’s and Fortuna Bays. In other bays there are small rookeries consisting of some dozen birds or so. Though the rookeries are often near those of the Gentoo Penguins the Kings never mix with their neighbours. The rookeries are usually on flat ground or moraines (Plate LV, fig. 4) up to nearly a mile from the sea, and the one at Right Whale Bay is on the hill about a hundred and fifty feet above sea level. The eggs are laid from the beginning of December onwards, but there is great individual variation in the time of laying, as there also is in the time of the moult. No nest is built, but the single egg is carried on top of the feet and is protected by a transverse fold of skin which hangs down in front and covers it (Plate LVI, fig. 1). The period of incubation and appearance of the new hatched young were not observed. The eggshell, like that of other penguins, is thick. Before the egg is laid the birds wander about in pairs and caress each other by crossing the necks, after which the male presses the back of the female’s neck until her head THE BIRDS OF SOUTH GEORGIA 591 touches the ground. They frequently trumpet to each other. They do this by stretching up to their full height and, pointing the bill straight up, make a loud, almost musical trumpeting sound. Immediately after they have done this they hold the head stiffly at right angles to the neck, whilst the latter is still stretched up, and look straight forward for a moment. They then resume the normal attitude with the head drawn down on to the shoulders. When incubating the King Penguins sit close together and are very quarrelsome, stabbing at each other with their sharp bills and dealing each other resounding blows with the flippers (Plate LVI, fig. 2). They can only shufHle about slowly when they are carrying the egg on their feet and often help themselves along with the bill and flippers. There is always a number of non-breeding and moulting birds, as well as large young ones, standing about the rookeries. In walking these birds do not use their flippers as balancers, as do the other species of penguins, but carry them hanging at the sides. When a group is walking together they go in single file. If they are hurried they fall forward on the chest and toboggan along, pushing off with the feet and using the flippers to help them. They are not disturbed by the presence of man, merely walking disdainfully away if approached, and do not run and toboggan unless chased. The time of the moult is very irregular. Some birds were observed moulting in November and others as late as March. The old feathers come off in patches, leaving the new ones exposed, and the covering of the bill and feet is also shed. ‘The young ones are as big as their parents by November. They are covered in long woolly down, which adheres to the ends of the adult plumage feathers underneath, so that they look much bigger than the adults (Plate LVI, fig. 3). This coat is very necessary as they spend the winter in the rookery, but in the spring and summer, before it is shed, the birds appear to suffer from the heat if the sun happens to shine, and sit panting with open bills. The bill is black, the feet greenish brown and the iris brown. Some of them commence to shed the down as early as November, but most of them lose it in December and January. It goes first on the flippers, then on the belly and back, and last on the head and neck. The first adult plumage is similar to that of the old ones, but the orange on the neck and breast is represented by yellow, and the black of the head has a brownish tinge. The young have a shrill whistling cry, and they wander about the rookery begging for food from the old ones (Plate LVI, fig. 4). They walk up to an old one and start whistling and chirping, all the time nibbling its beak. ‘The old one looks extremely bored, but if the young one worries it long enough it brings up into the throat some food which the young one takes by putting its bill into that of the other. The food consists of cephalopods. The bill of the adult is black with a strip of yellowish red on the side of the basal half of the mandible. The iris is light brown and the pupil is polygonal. The feet are black. A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LITERATURE RELATING TO THE BIRDS OF SOUTH GEORGIA ALLEN, H. T., 1920. Fauna of the Dependencies of the Falkland Islands. Report of the Interdepartmental Committee on Research and Development in the Dependencies of the Falkland Islands, Cmd. 657. Appendix xviit, pp. 126-30. ANDERSSON, K. A., 1905. Das hohere Tierleben im antarktischen Gebiete: Vogel. Wiss. Ergebn. schwed. Siidpolarexped. 1901-3, Bd. v, Lief. 2, pp. 19-57, pls. 4-10. Bennett, A. G., 1926. A list of the Birds of the Falkland Islands and Dependencies. Ibis, pp. 306-333. Brooks, W. S., 1917. Notes on some Falkland Island Birds. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harv. Lx1, pp. 135-60, pls. 1-3. DasBENE, R., 1923. El Albatros de Cabeza griz nidifica en la Georgia del Sur. El Hornero, 111, pp. 198-9, 1 pl. LONNBERG, E., 1906. Contributions to the Fauna of South Georgia: Vertebrates. Svenska Akad. Handl. XL, no. 5, pp. 1-104, pls. 1, 2, 12. Murpny, R. C., 1913. A Desolate Island of the Antarctic: South Georgia. Amer. Mus. J. x11, pp. 243-59, 6 pls. —— 1914. A Report on the South Georgia Expedition. Mus. Brooklyn Inst. Arts Sci. 11, pp. 43-59. —— 1914. Cruising in the South Atlantic. Brooklyn Mus. Quart. 1, pp. 83-110, 4 pls. —— 1915. The Penguins of South Georgia. Mus. Brooklyn Inst. Arts Sci. 11, pp. 103-33, pls. 19-43. —— 1916. Notes on American Subantarctic Cormorants. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. xxxv, pp. 31-48, pl. 12. 1916. At Home with the Blue Eyed Shags. Brooklyn Mus. Quart. 11, pp. 21-8, 8 pls. —— 1916. The Anatidae of South Georgia. Auk xxxt1l, pp. 270-7, pl. 14. — 1918. A Study of the Atlantic Oceanites. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. xxxviit, pp. 117-46. —— 1918. Bird Life at South Georgia. Amer. Mus. J. xvi, pp. 463-72, 17 pls. — 1923. Notes sur Anthus antarcticus. El Hornero, 11, pp. 56-9, 1 pl. Morpny & Harper, 1916. Two new Diving Petrels. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. xxxv, pp. 65-7. 1921. A Review of the Diving Petrels. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. xiv, pp. 495-554, pls. 22, 23. Nicuots & Murpny, 1914. A Revision of Genus Phoebetria. Auk xxx1, pp. 526-34, pl. 41. PAGENSTECHER, D., 1885. Die Végel Siid-Georgiens. Jahrb. der hamburg.-wissensch. Anst., Bd. 11, pp. 1-27, 1 pl. ROTHSCHILD, Lorp, 1920. Memorandum of Interview with the Right Honourable Lord Rothschild. Report of the Interdepartmental Committee on Research and Development in the Dependencies of the Falkland Islands, Cmd. 657. Appendix 1x, pp. 83-5. VON DER STEINEN, K., 1890. Végel auf Siid-Georgien. Deutsche Exped. und ihre Ergebnisse (International Polarforschung, 1882-3), Bd. 11, pp. 194-279, pls. 2, 7-10. Wixins, G. H., 1922. Account of the Voyage of the ‘Ouest’. Bull. Brit. Orn. Club, xm, pp. 2-5. —— 1923. Report on Birds collected during the voyage of the ‘ Quest’ to Southern Atlantic. Ibis, pp. 474-511. 592 PLATES XLV—LVI From colour sketches and photographs by the author PLATE XLV Fig. 1. Diomedea melanophrys. Newly hatched young. Fig. 2. D. melanophrys. Half grown young. Fig. 3. Thalassogeron culminatus. Adult male. Fig. 4. Macronectes giganteus. Young about 21 days old. Figs. 5, 6. Majaqueus aequinoctialis. Adult female. Figs. 7, 8. Priocella glacialoides. Adult female. Figs. 9, 10. Pagadroma nivea. Adult male. DISCOVERY REPORTS, VOL. I PLATE XLV BIRDS OF SOUTH GEORGIA PLATE XLVI Larus dominicanus. Figs. 1,2. Female. First winter. Figs. 3, 4. Female. Second winter. Figs. 5,6. Male. Third winter. Figs. 7, 8. Female. Fourth winter. Fig. 9. Young about half grown. DISCOVERY REPORTS, VOL. I PLATE XLVI BIRDS OF SOUTH GEORGIA 19tntw seni cslacnoT sannaryrosg xnsorovanlosd 2 2 gi Slee HubA .esenrytosy Sp tT lemst HobA .adle denon .8 gi olan ubA .wdle OD .9 .gff -awob jer ai gau0y gy aeudng aleozoay wor gi mi grsoY sonqng 4.2 solsmst ilubA .oxgng A sx oe ae aT EORGIA PLATE XLVII Fig. 1. Pelecanoides georgicus. Newly hatched young, with unopened eyes. Fig. 2. P. georgicus. Adult male. Fig. 3. Catharacta lonnbergi clarkei. Newly hatched young. Fig. 4. C. lonnbergi clarkei. Young, about 21 days old. Figs. 5, 6. Phalacrocorax georgianus. Female. First winter. Fig. 7. P. georgianus. Adult male. Fig, 8. Chionis alba, Adult female. Fig. 9. C. alba. Adult male. Fig. 10. Pygoscelis papua. Newly hatched young in first down. Fig. 11. P. papua. Young in second down. Fig. 12. P. papua. Adult female. DISCOVERY REPORTS, VOL. I. PLATE XLVII 12 BIRDS OF SOUTH GEORGIA rT 27 r1% mis V STS Tene ISO: BS {SRIF set) ae Jeon no .eriot anole washers fe pwob sdT sedrisssC nt $2on ad? of gauoy blo w9Y .uslwes wieened exsdisst zieb gniwode a a q ‘| at : Es =e ose PLATE XLVIII Fig. 1. Diomedea exulans. Chionoptera form, on nest. Fig. 2. D. exulans, Exulans form, on nest. Fig. 3. D. exulans. Year old young in the nest in December. The down shed in patches, showing dark feathers beneath. Fig. 4. D. exulans. Young after leaving the nest, the down nearly all shed: a few tufts remain below the wing. PLATE XLVIII DISCOVERY REPORTS, VOL. I. VIOUOAD HLAOS AO SAUIA SE ERC Sees gare tod artibeotge a10isd say| ofp sisal igeporedtidiodsgourcds cod .yswe ba PLATE XLIX Diomedea exulans. Courtship. Fig. 1. Both birds with upstretched heads vibrating the bill while the wings are held open. Fig. 2. The female vibrating the bill in answer to the male just before spreading her wings. Fig. 3. The female, with head turned away, has thrust the bill amongst the plumage of her breast. Fig. i. The male vibrating the bill. PLATE XLIX 25 WOUER Me S DISCOVERY REPORT me VIOUOAD HLNOS AO SCUIA b GEORGI: ee ae c ole ba AA oe oF c red aculdousant PLATE L Fig. 1. Diomedea exulans. A pair at the nest. The sitting bird is of the light chionoptera stage, the one standing is intermediate, with dark back and a small amount of dark pencilling on the head. Fig. 2. Diomedea melanophrys. Male and female at the nest, the female standing. Fig. 3. D.melanophrys. 'The parent standing beside the nest. The young one in the normal resting attitude. Fig. 4. D. melanophrys. Young one sitting up in the nest when disturbed. PLATE L DISCOVERY REPORTS, VOL. I. VIDUOUD HLAOS AO Saul Poe ark IRE S zalno dd eee bag + Misde oda gaideen ,olemsi sft 02 goiyi olsli .ostivwine ninrioglog ordsdookl .¢ .g osprey} & ao Ga & : PLATE LI Fig. 1. Thalassogeron culminatus. Rookery near Cape Pariadin. Fig. 2. Th. culminatus. Nest and egg. Fig. 3. Phoebetria palpebrata antarctica. Male crying to the female, making the shrill expiratory note. Fig. 4. P. palpebrata antarctica. Nest and egg on a tussac-covered cliff ledge. PLATE LI DISCOVERY REPORTS, VOL. I. VIOXYOASD HLNOS AO Sauid iets rede HEPC TS, DOR ‘he ban oseet lo wid eo Tashan sf ofl? mi blo Asow 6 juods sivoY Vaetnnus Wf og > oniledw odt ean dooft s Io rsT crenagns notigqaG 4 grt PLATE LII Fig. 1. Macronectes giganteus. Intermediate plumage phase on nest. Fig. 2. M. giganteus. Nest, built of tussac, and egg. Fig. 3. M. giganteus. Young about a week old, in the nest. Fig. 4. Daption capensis. Part of a flock near the whaling station at Grytviken. VIOUXYOAD HLNOS AO Saal PLATE LII DISCOVERY REPORTS, VOL. I. 1 Igrosle) .awargmas vemionnaeie’) Io sosig galisovl eyvrorud ont to sonata edt ois cord aX; ie Rb Cees arnt PLATE LIII Fig. 1. Daption capensis. Fig. 2. Prion banksi. Adult and egg dug out of nesting burrow. Fig. 3. Nesting place of Pelecanoides georgicus. Glacial moraine under the stones of which are the entrances of the burrows. Fig. 4. Catharacta linnbergi clarkei. Two newly hatched young in the nest. T 7 ey; DES COMERY REPORTS: VOL. i PLATE LIII a as to) [a4 fe) Q tc) ar _ =) ° id 9) fy fe) ip) la [a4 ~ z, 0 0 ee fy rid ae ar. =e SS -Sa— desn ont no bud sntedu r .avrob tert ni gosoy b es AE wl PLATE LIV Fig. 1. Catharacta lénnbergi clarkei. Young about 21 days old. Fig. 2. Sterna vittata georgiae. Nest and egg. Fig. 3. Pygoscelis papua. An incubating bird on the nest. Fig. 4. P. papua. Newly hatched young in first down. PLATE LIV Din COVERY RERORTS;, VOL: I: VIOUOAD HLNOS AO Saul Pes ane 14 Oe UN Deeds, OVA ATA aewob bisa ai yao | seni elise y7a007 YO TED. Sanh Mibdn etiinh eds no bid sae Pe uLO Wight Srld cud bas gréqqod et skeh gh Jos nvrob baosess aily al sho sauey BAS OOL cla UIP RATAN elt hota ir ee OG PLATE LV Fig. 1. Pygoscelis papua. Young in second down, Fig. 2. Eudyptes chrysolophus. Part of rookery. Fig. 3. E.chrysolophus. The bird on the right is standing with the flippers elevated behind it: the one on the left is hopping and has the flippers held in front. In the centre a young one in the second down coat. Fig. 4. Aptenodytes patagonica. Young birds in a rookery on a moraine at the Bay of Isles, about half a mile from the sea. DISCOVERY REPORTS, VOL. I. PLATE LV BIRDS OF SOUTH GEORGIA ro (I i marta @y RA he ERS bik 1391 . “tuseld 7993 PLATE LVI Aptenodytes patagonica. Fig. x. A sitting bird holding the egg on the feet and covering it with a flap of the skin of the belly. Fig. 2. Brooding birds fighting. Fig. 3. Before the moult the thickness of the down makes the young appear bigger than the adults. Fig. 4. Young asking the adult for food. PLATE LVI DISCOVERY REPORTS, VOL. I. 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