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DISEASES OF POULTRY

RAYMOND PEARL- FRANK M. SURFACE
MAYNIE R.CURTIS

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DISEASES OF POULTRY i

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

NEW YORK - BOSTON - CHICAGO + DALLAS
ATLANTA + SAN FRANCISCO

MACMILLAN & CO., LimitEp

LONDON - BOMBAY - CALCUTTA
MELBOURNE

THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Lrtp.
TORONTO

Quis,

i =

DISEASES OF POULTRY.

THEIR ETIOLOGY, DIAGNOSIS, TREAT-
MENT, AND PREVENTION

BING

RAYMOND PEARL, FRANK M. SURFACE
AND
MAYNIE R. CURTIS

Biologists in the Maine Agricultural Experiment
Station

New Bork
' THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
1915

All rights reserved

Copyrient, 1915,

By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.

Set up and electrotyped. Published December, 1915.

Norwood 3press
J. 8. Cushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co.
Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.

PREFACE

It is probably safe to say that considerably more than
fifty per cent of the correspondence of those engaged in
poultry work in the agricultural colleges and experiment
stations in this country relates to poultry diseases. The
poultryman or farmer sees that some, or perhaps all, of
his birds are ill, and he straightway writes to the nearest
college or station to know what the disease is, and what
to do for it. The Maine Station has for many years been
the recipient of a great number of such inquiries. It is
an unfortunate, but in the nature of the case an unavoid-
able fact, that in many instances it is quite impossible to
make any really satisfactory reply to these inquiries. In
the vast majority of cases the person who writes the letter
is quite untrained in pathology and either describes no
symptoms at all or only those very general ones which
are common to nearly all the ills of poultry. To one
who has not handled this class of correspondence it would
seem almost incredible that there should be so many let-
ters of the following type: “I have lost about a third of
my chickens in the last few days. They seem a little
dumpish for a while and then die. What is the trouble
and what shall I do for it?” To diagnose and prescribe
on such a basis of information is impossible. Yet the
hard fact remains that the correspondent’s chickens were
ill and did die, and he needs help to get out of the trouble.

Only recently has any attempt been made by our agri-
cultural colleges to prepare its graduates in poultry hus-
bandry and general agriculture to meet intelligently these

Vi

—
vi Preface

problems of poultry disease. Indeed even the veterinary
schools have given but scant attention to avian pathology.
Yet there exists, scattered in the literature, a large amount
of definite information regarding poultry diseases. It
was the purpose of the first edition of the circular on
which the present book is based to give a clear and rea-
sonably complete compilation and digest of the information
then existing in the literature regarding the commoner
diseases of poultry, their diagnosis, etiology, treatment,
and prognosis.

The material was put together in the form which seemed
most likely to meet the needs of the practical poultryman.
It was soon found that in addition to this use, the book
was coming to be rather widely employed as a text-book
for courses in the diseases of poultry in agricultural col-
leges and high schools. In preparing the present edition
the authors have kept more definitely in mind this second
way in which the book may prove useful, and have added
on that account some material not likely to be of imme-
diate interest to the poultryman.

While none of the authors is engaged in researches in
pathology, it is a fact that they have all had extensive
experience in the appearance at autopsy of chickens dead
from some one or more of a very wide variety of causes.
There are but very few diseases mentioned in the book
with which the authors have not had first-hand experience.
It is hoped that the knowledge gained in this way will
prove to have been of some critical value in the compila-
tion of this book.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

PREFACE : F ‘ : : A 4 : : ‘ : Vv

List or ILLUSTRATIONS : : ; : F : é 5 abs

CHAPTER

I. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS REGARDING THE TREAT-

MENT OF PouULTRY DISEASES 5 ‘ ‘ : 1

II. Pouttry HyYGiene i . ; j ‘ , : 8

Ill. Tue Diagnosis or THE DisEASES OF POULTRY a0

IV. Pouttry Materia MeEpica : ; ‘ ‘ SBOP

V. DISEASES OF THE ALIMENTARY TRACT . 3 ams On

VI. Porsons . : ‘ ; : : : : . 5 till

VII. DiIskASES OF THE LivER . : : é A Serisit

VIII. Fown CHotera, Fown Tyrnoiw anp Fown Piacue 102

IX. TuBERCULOSIS : : ; ‘ ; ; ‘ 6 AS

X. INTERNAL PARASITES . ; : Fi ‘ : . 1338

XI. Diseases oF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM . ‘ are A

XII. DiskasEes OF THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM . . . 182

XIII. Diseases or THE NERVOUS SysTEM . : F . 194
XIV. Diseases or THE KipNEys, RHEUMATISM AND

LIMBERNECK . ‘ i ; ; 3 : = 199

XV. EXTERNAL PARASITES . , : : , ; . 2038

XVI. DiIsEASES OF THE SKIN ‘ : : ; : 4 BBP

XVII. Diseases OF THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS : 2 ead

XVIII. Wuitr DIARRHEA B : 3 q : z 5 38)

XIX. OTHER Diseases or CHICKENS . ‘ : é - o0l

XX. Tumors : ‘ d é ‘ A : A 3) ol?

XXI. Pouttry SurGERY : r P be . . 324

GLossARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS : : ‘ . ‘ . 3829

INDEX . ? ‘ F ene : : 5 “ : . 3835

vii

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

FIGURE

22.
23.

. Showing differences in constitutional vigor. (After H. R. Lewis)

Silver-laced Wyandottes showing great constitutional vigor.
(After D. S. Thompson) ; : :

Curtain-front poultry house, exterior. (Original)

Curtain-front poultry house, interior. (Original)

Crematory. (Original)

Skeleton of cock. (After Tiimigen)

Dissection of hen. (Original)

Life history of a coccidium. (After Cole anal Hadiey)

Showing condition of liver in blackhead. (After Moore)

Heart blood of pigeon infected with fowl cholera. (After Kolle
and Hetsch)

. Section of lung showing wiecale Paci ( After Himmelberger)
. Breastbone of fowl showing emaciation in tuberculosis. (After

Ward) .

. Liver of fowl affected with Eabercnitaie (After Ward)
. Spleen from tuberculous fowl. (After Koch and Rabinowitsch)

Tuberculosis of intestines and mesenteries. (After Van Es and
Schalk) ‘ :

Intestines and mesenteries e a fom aifected an preerenies,
(After Ward)

. Syringe used in tuberculin test. (After Van Es and Schalk)
. Head of chicken showing positive tuberculin reaction. (After

Van Es and Schalk)

. Drepanidotenia infundibuliformis, a fips worm of het uli

(After Stiles) z c
Intestine of fowl showing tape worms in negates teeniasis.
(After Pearson and Warren)

. Sketch showing method of introducing teenie directly into

crop. (After Gage and Opperman)
Worms protruding from intestine of fowl. (After Binishaw):. :
Heterakis perspicillum. (After Salmon)
ib

PAGE

5

xX

_

List of Illustrations

FIGURE

24,
25.
26.

OT

28.
29.
30.
bl.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.

42.
43.

44.

45.

46.

47.

48.

Trematode worm or fluke. (After Thompson)
Lungs of a domestic fowl. (Original) : : ; :
Diagrammatic drawing of the left lung of a fowl. (Original) .

27. Ventral surface of right lung of a fowl. ae Gadow, after

Stieda) : :

Cross section of seen air fae = a lane of a gbuee: (From
Oppel, after Schultz)

Fowl’s head showing infra-orbital biter sone = roup. (After
Roebuck) : :

Showing appearance of a ten a hace perore nea com roup.
(After Harrison and Streit)

Diphtheritic roup or canker. (After Reebacey

Aspergillus fumigatus. (After Mohler and Buckley)

Cytodites mudus, the air-sac mite. (After Theobald)

Bird suffering from spirochetosis. (After Kolle and Hetsch)

Fowl] spirochetosis. (From Kolle and Hetsch, after Barri)

The common hen louse, Menopon pallidum. (From Banks)

Lipeurus variabilis, a louse that infests rae (From Banks,
after Denny) 5 : :

Goniodes dissimilis, a louse that infest poultry. (From Banks,
after Denny) ‘

Feathers showing eggs or “nits”? of the common Hen (eae
(Original) :

The common ‘‘red mites? of oulEy: Dewineiasene alin:
(After Osborn)

Normal leg and leg of fen affected with ode ie (After
Mégnin) :

Leg of hen severely affected wich Seale foe Cures Haiduk)

Adult female of the mite Anemidocoptes Sabin ss mu-

tans. (After Haiduk) -

Six-legged larva of Knemidocoptes (Derinaianyenss mutans.
(After Haiduk)

Section of the skin of the leg of a fowl affected Pin cals ee
(After Haiduk)

Egg containing female of Sareophes ee var. Siliiiie: (After
Theobald) : : :

Symplectoptes cysticola, ecandctive tissue mite. (After Theo-
bald) : : :

‘“‘Harvest bug,”’ Rerranielus (Leptus) qununiales: Larval
form. (After Murray)

PAGE

145
147
148
149
150
157
158
166
176
181
191
192
206
207
207
208
214

217
219

220

221

223

225

227

227

Last of Illustrations

FIGURE

49,
50.

61.
52.

53.
54,
55.
56.
57.

58.
59.

60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.

69.

70.

Tale

72.

The poultry tick, Argas persicus, adult. (After Laurie) .

The poultry tick larva showing three pairs of legs. (After
Laurie) : : . : :

The chicken flea, parce galling or avium. Vee Kaupp)

Head and neck of fowl affected with generalized favus. (After
Pearson )

The fungus Achorion Selonieinits which causes ferent in paaley.

Sore-head on comb, eyelids, and skin. ae gras and
Beach) ;

Reproductive organs of a fee (After ee :

Showing a case of incomplete hermaphroditism. (Original)

Oviduct removed from a laying hen and cut open along the point
of “aie aah of the ventral ligament. eee

Triple-yolked egg. (Original) , :

Showing ee av abnormal eggs sometimes auda (From
von Durski, after Landois) . : ‘

The normal ovary of a laying hen. (After eee. Kirkpat-
rick, and Jones) . : ; 5 ;

Ovary from a hen infected with B. puliomen (After Rettger,
Kirkpatrick, and Jones)

Showing how bacillary white diar Fabs peesauantes itself i in he
breeding stock. (After Rettger and Stoneburn)

Ten-day-old White Leghorn chicks showing symptoms of pace
lary white diarrhea. (After Rettger and Stoneburn) .

Normal ten-day White Leghorn chicks. (After Rettger and
Stoneburn) . - : : : : 6 ‘ :

Trachea of a pheasant showing gape worms (Syngamus trache-
alis). (After Mégnin) : 5 : :

A pair of Syngamus trachealis anne! (After Mégnin)

A pair of Syngamus trachealis. (After Mégnin) : 4

Sarcoma chicken tumor No, 1. Second generation. aa
Rous) .

Chicken tumor Xv in tine yeaa of ie eneinal foe,
(After Rous and Lange)

Osteo-chrondrosarcoma produced by eehanve nae ‘eseedin of
4 ce. of the Berkfeld filtrate of an extract of chicken tumor
No. VII. (After Rous and Murphy) .

The growth shown in figure 70 after it had been sanréd’" open.
(After Rous and Murphy) .

Cysto-adenoma on the serosa of the cee. (After Pickens)

317

318

319
322

fu

7 ie Tp
fe Ty Sh eoiet
as

Pe tr

DISEASES OF POULTRY

CHAPTER I

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS REGARDING THE TREATMENT OF
Pouttry DISEASES

THERE is general agreement on the part of authorities on
poultry pathology and practical poultrymen of long expe-
rience that, in general, “doctoring”’ poultry is not advisable.
The reasons for this attitude are primarily the following:

1. The unit of production with poultry (7.e., the individual
bird) is of relatively small value, and if a man’s time is worth
anything, it is too valuable to spend treating sick chickens
individually unless they are show specimens of great indi-
vidual value.

2. The “cured”’ chicken is a menace to the owner, because
its identity is likely to be overlooked or forgotten, with the
result that it goes into the breeding pen and perpetuates
through its offspring the constitutional weakness which was
one fundamental factor in bringing about the result that it,
rather than some of its fellows, was ill.

This point of view has been well stated by Wright ! in the
following words :

“Tn a large proportion of cases of disease, the birds ought to
die or be killed. Even where there is no constitutional taint,
the fact that they have succumbed to circumstances which

1 Wright, L., ‘‘ The New Book of Poultry.’’ London (Cassell
& Company), 1905.

B 1

al

2 Diseases of Poultry

have not affected others, marks them out as the weakest,
which unaided Nature would assuredly weed out, and which
if we preserve and breed from, perpetuate some amount of
that weakness in the progeny. Rheumatism, for instance,
can be cured; of that there is no doubt. But the vast
majority who have had such success, agree that the effects
are either never recovered from, as regards strength and vigor,
or else that the original weakness continues; and the same
may be said of some severe contagious diseases, such as
diphtheritic roup, which may affect the strongest. On
the other hand, many diseases also apparently contagious,
and so attacking healthy birds under certain predisposing
conditions of exposure or other coincident strain upon the
system, do not appear to leave serious results behind them,
and are tolerably definite in symptoms and character. It is
these which may be most successfully treated, and in which
treatment is most worth while where fowls of value are con-
cerned. But it is significant that nearly all breeders who
rear really large numbers of poultry, gradually come to the
conclusion that, except in special cases, with valuable birds,
the most economical treatment of serious disease occurring
in a yard is—execution. Concerning this matter each
must judge for himself.”

In the case of the utility poultryman, keeping poultry solely
for the eggs and meat they produce, practically the only
diseased conditions which it will pay him to treat at all are
those in which the treatment can be applied to the flock as a
whole, without the necessity of handling individual birds.
Thus, for example, in cases where the flock “goes off its
feed,” or has simple indigestion or a mild cold, the birds
can be treated successfully as a flock. On the other hand,
in the case of the fancier, who has individual birds of con-
siderable value, there will be a much wider range of diseases
which he will feel that it is profitable for him to treat. There

General Considerations 3

are, of course, certain diseased conditions which demand
individual treatment, but in which the treatment is so simple
and the outcome is almost certain to be so good, as to justify
its employment even in the case of birds of ordinary value.
An example of such a condition is found in a crop-bound bird.

Prevention Rather Than Cure the Ideal

The aim of every poultry keeper, whether his interest is in
the fancy or the utility end of the business, should be to
breed and manage his birds so as to prevent entirely, or
reduce to a minimum, the occurrence of disease. In other
words, the attitude should be that the end to be sought is
to prevent the occurrence of disease, rather than to rely
on a rather dubious ability to cure it after it is there. Such
a standpoint is sound from every point of view; it is in line
with the whole development of modern medicine. The
poultry doctor should regard his function as the same as that
of the Chinese physician, who is primarily employed to keep
the patient from becoming ill, only secondarily to cure him.

Now there are fundamentally two factors involved in the
continued maintenance of good health in poultry (or, for the
matter of that, in any other animal). These are:

1. A sound and vigorous constitution, which if present, is
something innate and “bred in the bone,” and which, if
absent, must be bred into the stock.

2. A system of poultry management (including feeding,
housing, etc.) which is thoroughly and absolutely hygienic.

We shall consider each of these factors separately in some
detail.

Breeding for Health, Vigor and Sound Constitution

To have a high degree of constitutional vigor in the
foundation stock is one of the most certain assurances that

-
4 Diseases of Poultry

the poultryman will not be troubled with disease. This is
of primary importance. In order to breed constitutional
vigor into the flock, the poultryman must train himself to
recognize at a glance the condition of his birds. Are they
in good condition or not? Regarding the aspect of fowls in
health and disease Salmon! has the following to say:

“We say that a bird is in good health when it appears
lively, has a clear eye, a bright red comb, is quick and active
in its movements, has a good appetite and when the various
organs perform their functions in the manner in which they
are observed to act in all birds that are vigorous and thriving.
On the other hand, we say a bird is diseased when some
function or functions of its body are not performed as
they are in the great majority of individuals, or when some
organ presents an unusual form or appearance. Disease
has, therefore, been defined as a life the manifestations of
which deviate more or less from the normal. Practically,
we say a bird is diseased when we observe that one or more
of its functions are not carried on in a normal manner, or
when we find unusual growths, injuries, or parasites affect-
ing any of its organs.”’

Having acquired the ability to see the individual birds
as individuals, the next step is to learn to distinguish a good
bird from a poor one. Here it is ever to be kept in mind
that the primary and most essential characteristic of a good
bird must always be a sound constitution and plenty of
vitality and vigor. Without these qualities it is impossible
to have first class stock. Constitutional vigor and vitality
may be put as a fundamental requisite in the successful
practical breeding of poultry. In all kinds of breeding
operations whether for utility purposes, or for the fancier’s
show pen, or for the purpose of experimentation in the field

1Salmon, D. E., ‘‘The Diseases of Poultry.’’ Washington
(no date).

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6 Diseases of Poultry

of heredity, the first selection of birds for the breeding pen
should be made on the basis of their general constitutional
vigor. No bird which shows signs of weakness in this funda-
mental regard should ever be used as a breeder under any
circumstances. If such a bird is used the breeder will
eventually have to pay the penalty.

The external, visible evidences of a sound constitution
and a possession of abundant vitality and vigor are numerous.
In the first place the bird of sound constitution will be in
perfect health. Perhaps its most striking characteristic will
be an independence of disposition and demeanor. By this
is not necessarily meant aggressiveness. The bird, whether
male or female, which is forever picking quarrels with its
fellows is by no means always the bird of greatest vigor.
Strange as it may seem a bird may indeed be very far from
a mollycoddle and yet have a peaceable disposition. It
may be taken as an unfailing characteristic of birds of high
constitutional vigor, however, that they are able to take
care of themselves and may not be imposed upon, or bullied
by their fellows, with impunity. While they may not pick
a quarrel, they are abundantly able to make a forceful
presentation of the merits of their end of any debate which
another bird may choose to enter upon with them. In
other words they have, as has been said, an independence
of disposition; an ability, reaching to the limits of gallina-
ceous capacity, to meet all situations which may arise in
the day’s work of a fowl, whether food getting, fighting,
rearing young, or what not.

The bird of high constitutional vigor will have a thrifty
appearance, with a bright eye, and clean, well-kept plumage.
The head will be broad and relatively short, giving in its
appearance plain indication of strength. It will show
nothing of the long-drawn-out, sickly, crow-like appearance
of the head which is all too common amongst the inhabitants

General Considerations a

of the average poultry yard. The beak will be relatively
short and strong, thus correlating with the general confor-
mation of the head. Comb and wattles will be bright in
color and present a full-blooded, healthy, vigorous appear-
ance.

The body of the bird of high constitutional vigor will be
broad and deep and well meated, with a frame well knit to-
gether, strong in the bone but not coarse. In fowls of strong

Fig. 2. — Six Silver-laced Wyandottes, which have great constitutional
vigor and vitality. These birds averaged to lay 204 eggs each in a year.
Only birds in perfect health and high constitutional vigor can make
such records. (After D. S. Thompson.)

constitution and great vigor all the secondary sexual differ-
ences will usually be well marked. In other words the males
will be masculine to a degree in appearance and behavior,
and the females correspondingly feminine. It must be
noted, however, that this last is a general rule to which there
are occasional exceptions.

CHAPTER. II
Pouttry HyGIrenre

SECOND in importance only to high constitutional vigor
and health is attention to the basic rules of hygiene and sani-
tation in the management of poultry. In view of the prev-
alent misunderstanding or lack of understanding of these
principles it seems wise to devote one chapter to an outline
of the more important points which need to be looked after
in hygienic poultry keeping. Attention to the rules and
principles here set forth will go a great way towards pre-
venting the occurrence of disease. This does not mean that
if these rules are not followed disease and destruction will
forthwith result. Every one knows of plenty of instances
of more or less successful poultry keeping under the most
insanitary and unhygienic of conditions. So, similarly,
human beings are able, when forced to do so, to live under
unhygienic conditions. But every civilized country in the
world believes that the most economical insurance against
the steady loss of national wealth which the prevalence of
disease involves is the enforcement of sanitary regulations
throughout its domain. Again, many men who do not
carry fire insurance on their buildings go through life with-
out having any of them burn down. But this is no argument
against the fact that it is a sound economic policy to carry
fire insurance. In poultry keeping many may be successful
for a time in managing their birds in defiance of the laws of
sanitation and hygiene; a very few may be successful in

5

Poultry Hygiene 9

this practice for a long time, but in the long run the vast
majority will find that thorough, careful and _ intelligent
attention to these laws will be one of the best guaranties
of permanent success that they can find.

Poultry hygiene and sanitation will be considered here un-
der seven main heads, as follows: I. Housing. II. Feeding.
III. The Land. IV. Exercise. V. External Parasites.
VI. Disposal of the Dead. VII. Isolation of Sickness.
What is said under all of these heads is intended to apply
(unless a specific statement to the contrary is made) both
to adult birds and to chicks. No discussion of the hygiene
of incubation, or of the relative merits of artificially and
naturally hatched chickens will be undertaken here, because
these are special subjects falling outside the field of general
poultry hygiene.

I. Poultry House Hygiene and Sanitation

A. General Principles of Poultry Housing. —In the
management of adult fowls there are in the main two
things to be considered, housing and feeding. A vast
multitude of methods of doing these two things to poultry
have been tried during the history of the industry.

There have been published plans for poultry houses of all
conceivable shapes and sizes. Long houses, short houses,
tall houses, low houses; square, hexagonal, octagonal and
round houses; heated houses and cold houses; all these
and many more have had their advocates, and detailed plans
for their construction can be found. It would appear that
there must be realized here the primary condition of the
experimental method, namely the “trying of all things.”’
It only remains to discover that which is “good” in order
that we may “hold fast”’ to it.

This discovery had indeed been made in regard to a few

-

10 Diseases of Poultry

of the basic things in the housing of poultry. It would be
strange if something had not come out of all the indignities
to which innocent and inoffensive generations of fowls have
been submitted in the way of dwelling accommodations. It
is now clearly recognized, and generally admitted by all
competent poultrymen, that certain things are absolutely
essential in any poultry house which is to give good results.
These are (1) fresh air, (2) freedom from dampness, (3)
freedom from draughts, (4) sunlight and (5) cleanliness.

If these five things are realized in a poultry house the birds
will thrive and be productive in it, provided they are well
and regularly fed and watered. It makes no difference
particularly to the well-being of the birds how these neces-
sary specifications of their dwelling are attained. To the
poultryman, however, it is important that they be attained
at the smallest expense, having regard to (a) initial cost,
(b) repairs and up-keep and (c) labor necessary to operate
the house to get the specified results. The housing prob-
lem is to the poultryman, then, both a biological and an
economic one. The biological solution is definite. The
requisites named above must be met, and there is one addi-
tional factor to be taken into account ; namely, size of house.
Experiments made at various times and places indicate
clearly that in northern climates, where birds must be shut
up in the house during a part of the year in order to give
best results, there should be allowed in the house at least
three square feet of floor space per bird, and preferably a
little more. Four square feet floor space per bird is a liberal
allowance.

A factor which it was formerly thought necessary to con-
trol in the housing of poultry was the temperature. It was
long held that if fowls were to lay well in the winter it was
necessary that they should be in a heated house. Later
experience has shown conclusively that this was an utterly

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12 Diseases of Poultry

fallacious idea. As a matter of fact, even in the coldest cli-
mates, fowls will lay better during the winter months in a
properly constructed house wide open to the outside air in
the day time, so that they are living practically out of doors,
than in any heated house which has yet been devised. If a
laying house is dry the temperature factor may be neglected.
If a house has a tendency to dampness, it will give poor
results regardless of temperature.

From the economic standpoint there are two systems of
housing poultry to be considered. One of these is the
system of long, continuous houses for the laying birds. The
other is the so-called colony house system, in which the
birds are housed in small separate houses which may either
be set a considerable distance apart over a relatively wide
area, or may be placed relatively near one another. Each
system has its strenuous advocates. Experience covering a
fairly long period of years now has demonstrated that both
systems have good points. As to which shall be adopted
in a particular instance depends upon a variety of considera-
tions, each in some degree peculiar to the particular case in
hand.

In the extreme northern part of the country where the
climate is very cold in the winter and there is an abundance
of snow there can be no question that the long house is much
to be preferred to a colony system. ‘There are two reasons
for this. In the first place experience indicates that the
birds are somewhat more productive and keep in better
condition in a properly constructed and managed long house
than in colony houses. Furthermore the labor expense
involved in caring for a given number of fowls is much less,
under such climatic conditions, than with the colony house
system, where the birds are scattered over a wider area and
more paths must be broken out in the snow.

The great advantage of the colony house system is its

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14 Diseases of Poultry

flexibility. Furthermore it gets around the troubles in-
volved in the contamination of the ground by the long-
continued keeping of poultry on the same small area. In
general, local conditions and circumstances must decide in
each individual case which system of housing shall be
adopted.

B. Cleanliness. —'The thing of paramount importance
in the hygienic housing of poultry is cleanliness. By this
is meant not merely plain, ordinary cleaning up, in the house-
wife sense, but also bacteriological cleaning up; that is,
disinfection. All buildings or structures of whatever kind
in which poultry are housed during any part of their lives
should be subjected to a most thorough and searching clean-
ing and disinfection at least once every year. ‘This cleaning
up should naturally come for each different structure (7.e.,
laying, colony or brooder house, individual brooder, incuba-
tor, ete.) at a time which just precedes the putting of new
stock into this structure.

How to clean a poultry house. — Not every poultryman of
experience even, knows how really to clean a poultry house.
The first thing to do is to remove all the litter and loose dirt
which can be shoveled out. Then give the house — floor,
walls and ceiling —a thorough sweeping and shovel out
the accumulated débris. Then play a garden hose, with
the maximum water pressure which can be obtained, upon
floor, roosting boards, walls and ceiling, until ail the dirt
which washes down easily is disposed of. Then take a
heavy hoe or roost board scraper and proceed to scrape the
floor and roosting boards, clean of the trampled and caked
manure and dirt. Then shovel out what has been accumu-
lated and get the hose into action once more and wash the
whole place down again thoroughly and follow this with
another scraping. With a stiff bristled broom thoroughly
scrub walls, floors, nest boxes, roost boards, ete. Then

Poultry Hygiene iG

after another rinsing down and cleaning out of accumulated
dirt, let the house dry out for a day or two. Then make a
searching inspection to see if any dirt can be discovered. If
so, apply the appropriate treatment as outlined above. If,
however, everything appears to be clean, the time has come
to make it really clean by disinfection. To do this it is
necessary to spray or thoroughly wash with a scrub brush
wet in the solution used all parts of the house with a good
disinfectant at least twice, allowing time between for it to
dry. For this purpose 3 per cent cresol solution is recom-
mended. The chief thing is to use an effective disinfectant
and plenty of it, and apply it at least twice. A discussion
of disinfectants immediately follows this section. ‘To com-
plete the cleaning of the house, after the second spraying of
disinfectant is dry apply a liquid lice killer (made by putting
1 part crude carbolic acid or cresol with 3 parts kerosene)
liberally to nests and roosts and nearby walls. After all
this is done the house will be clean. In houses cleaned
annually in this way the first step is taken towards hygienic
poultry keeping.

The same principles which have been here brought out
should be applied in cleaning brooders, brooder houses, and
other things on the plant with which the birds come in con-
tact.

What has been said has reference primarily to the annual
or semiannual cleaning. It should not be understood by
this that no cleaning is to be done at any other time. On
the contrary the rule should be to keep the poultry house
clean at all times, never allowing filth of any kind to accumu-
late and using plenty of disinfectant.

Disinfection. —In the matter of disinfection there are
several options open to the poultryman. He may make his
own disinfectant, or he may purchase proprietary compounds
like Zenoleum, Carbolineum or a host of other “eums”’

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16 Diseases of Poultry

which confront him at every turn in his reading of poultry
periodicals, or he may buy a plain disinfectant like formalde-
hyde, or carbolic acid.

There is no more effective general disinfectant than
formaldehyde, and it also has the advantage of being cheap.
We have used it regularly for some years past with excellent
results. A 5 per cent solution of commercial formalin in
water is applied to walls, floors and roost boards by means
of a pressure spray pump. Various hand pumps of this
type are on the market. It will pay the poultryman to get
one of the well made higher priced sorts. If a spray pump
is not available the formaldehyde solution may be put on
with a brush. In any case a liberal amount should be used.
When applying it all doors and windows should be open
to diminish as much as possible the irritating effect of the
vapor on the worker. His hands should also be protected
by the use of well oiled leather gloves.

Some writers have advocated the formaldehyde gas method
for disinfecting poultry houses, using the permanganate
method of generating. This, however, is indicated only
for rooms which can easily be closed up air tight. It costs
too much in time and trouble to make any form of “fresh
air’? poultry house even moderately air tight. The for-
maldehyde gas method is well adapted to disinfecting and
fumigating feed rooms, incubator cellars, brooder houses
and all houses which can be readily made air tight. For the
benefit of those who wish to use the method for such purposes
the following directions are given. This will give a very
strong fumigation and disinfection but such is indicated
about poultry establishments.

Formaldehyde gas disinfection. — First make the room as
tight as possible by stopping cracks, key-holes, ete., with
pieces of cloth or similar substance. Open bins and doors
of closets, etc., to allow free access of the gas. Use a metal

Poultry Hygiene 17

or earthen dish for a generator, of sufficient size so that the
liquid will not spatter or boil over on the floor, since the
permanganate will stain. The temperature of the room
should not be below 50° F. and more effective disinfection
will be obtained if the temperature is 80° F. or above at the
beginning. Sprinkle boiling water on the floor or place a
kettle of boiling water in the room to create a moist atmos-
phere. Spread the permanganate evenly over the bottom
of the dish and quickly pour in the formaldehyde (40 per
cent strength as purchased). Leave and tightly close the
room at once and allow to remain closed for 4-6 hours or
longer, then air thoroughly. Use 23 ounces of permanganate
and 3 pints of formaldehyde to each 1000 cubic feet of space.

Cresol disinfectant.— For a disinfectant of the coal-tar or
carbolic acid type, we have found a cheap and satisfactory
sort to be compound cresol solution. This may be used
alone or as a second spray following formalin for spraying
and disinfecting the houses after they are cleaned, disinfect-
ing brooders, brooder houses, incubators, nests and every-
thing else about the plant which can be disinfected with a
liquid substance. It is particularly effective against mites
and other insect pests. It has been very satisfactory in
disinfecting incubators between hatches. Any person can
easily make this disinfectant. The following directions for
its manufacture are quoted from Bulletin 179 of the Maine
Agricultural Experiment Station.

The active base of cresol soap disinfecting solution is com-
mercial cresol. This is a thick, sirupy fluid, varying in color
in different lots from a nearly colorless fluid to a dark brown.
It does not mix readily with water, and, therefore, in order
to make satisfactory a dilute solution, it is necessary first
to incorporate the cresol with some substance like soap
which will mix with water and will carry the cresol over
into the mixture. The commercial cresol, as it is obtained,

Cc

18 pauses of Poultry

is a corrosive substance, being in this respect not unlike
carboliec acid. It should, of course, be handled with great
care and the pure cresol should not be allowed to come in
contact with the skin. If it does so accidentally the spot
should be immediately washed off with plenty of clean water.
The price of commercial cresol varies with the drug market.
It can be obtained through any druggist. In purchasing
this article one should order simply “commercial cresol.”’

Measure out 33 quarts of raw linseed oil in a 4 or 5
gallon stone crock; then weigh out in a dish 1 lb. 6 oz. of
commercial lye or “Babbit’s potash.” Dissolve this lye in
as little water as will completely dissolve it. Start with >
pint of water, and if this will not dissolve all the lye, add
more water slowly. Let this stand for at least 3 hours until
the lye is completely dissolved and the solution is cold;
then add the cold lye solution very slowly to the linseed oil,
stirring constantly. Not less than 5 minutes should be
taken for the adding of this solution of lve to the oil. After
the lye is added continue the stirring until the mixture is
in the condition and has the texture of a smooth homoge-
neous liquid soap. This ought not to take more than a half
hour. Then while the soap is in this liquid state, and
before it has a chance to harden add, with constant stirring,
8 quarts of commercial cresol. The cresol will blend
perfectly with the soap solution and made a clear, dark
brown fluid. The resulting solution will mix in any propor-
tion with water and yield a clear solution.

Cresol soap is an extremely powerful disinfectant. In the
Station poultry plant for general purposes of disinfecting the
houses, brooder houses, incubators, nests and other wood
work, it should be used in a 3 per cent solution with water.
Two or three tablespoons of the cresol soap to each gallon
of water will make a satisfactory solution. This solution
may be applied through any kind of spray pump or with a

Poultry Hygvené 19

brush. Being a clear, watery fluid it can be used in any
spray pump without difficulty. For disinfecting brooders
or incubators which there is reason to believe have been
particularly liable to infection with the germs of white
diarrhea or other diseases the cresol may be used in double
the strength given above and applied with a scrub brush in
addition to the spray.

C. Fresh Air and Light.—'Too great stress cannot be
laid on the importance of plenty of fresh air in the poultry
house if the birds are to keep in good condition. And it
must be remembered in this connection that “fresh”’ air,
and cold stagnant air are two very different things. ‘Too
many of the types of curtain front and so-called “fresh”’ air
houses now in use are without any provision other than an
obliging southerly wind, to insure the circulation or changing
of air within the house. Even with an open front house it
is wise to provide for a circulation of air in such way that
direct drafts cannot strike the birds. This applies not only
to the housing of adult birds in laying houses, but also to
the case of young stock in colony houses on the range.
Further a circulation of fresh air under the hover in artificial
rearing is greatly to be desired and will have a marked effect
on the health and vigor of the chicks.

Not only should the poultry house be such as to furnish
plenty of fresh air, but it should also be light. The prime
importance of sunlight in sanitation is universally recognized
by medical authorities. Disease germs cannot stand pro-
longed exposure to the direct rays of the sun. Sunlight is
Nature’s great disinfectant. Its importance is no less in
poultry than in human sanitation. The following statement
made some years ago (1904) by a writer signing himself
“M” in Farm Poultry (Vol. 15) brings home in a few words
the importance of having plenty of light in the poultry
house.

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20 Diseases of Poultry

“Light in the poultry house has been found by a writer
a great help in keeping the house clean and keeping the fowls
healthy. Probably there is no greater assistance to the dis-
eases of poultry than dark and damp houses, and dark houses
are frequently damp. In recent years I have had both kinds
of experience, those with the hens confined in a large, dry
and light house, and with hens confined in a dark house in
which a single window looking towards the setting sun fur-
nished the only light. Being forced to use the latter build-
ing for an entire winter I found it impossible to get it thor-
oughly dried out after a rain had rendered the walls damp.
By spring some of the fowls that had been confined there
began to die of a mysterious disease and a post-mortem ex-
amination showed it to be liver disease. Later the roup
broke out in the same house and this dread disease continued
with the flock for months exacting a heavy toll in laying
hens.”’

D. Avoid Dampness.— Of all unfavorable environmental
conditions into which poultry may, by bad management,
be brought, a damp house is probably the worst. Nothing
will diminish the productivity of a flock so quickly and
surely as will dampness in the house, and nothing is so
certain and speedy an excitant to roup and kindred ills.
The place where poultry are housed must be kept dry if the
flock is to be productive and free from disease.

EE. Provide Clean and Dry Litter. — Experience has demon-
strated that the best way in which to give fowls exercise
during the winter months in which, in northern climates
at least, they must be housed the greater part if not all of
the time, is by providing a deep litter in which the birds
scratch for their dry grain ration. For this litter the Maine
Agricultural Experiment Station uses pine planer shavings,
with a layer of straw on top. Whatever the litter it should
be changed as often as it gets damp or dirty.

Poultry Hygiene 21

II. Hygienic Feeding

Having housed our fowls they must be fed. Here the
same sort of history is to be found as in the case of housing.
Substantially all known edible substances must, at some time
or other, have been suggested or tried as component parts
of the rations of fowls. Not only have many and curious
substances been suggested as poultry food, but they have
been combined in formule as weird as a medieval apothe-
cary’s prescription. Actually practical poultry feeding is
much more of an art than a science, in the present state of
knowledge. While for pedagogical reasons it seems wise in
the teaching of poultry husbandry to spend a considerable
amount of time in calculating balanced rations and nutri-
tive ratios, it is very doubtful if all such activity has any
real or tangible relation to practical poultry feeding.

Such attempts at a science of poultry feeding would ap-
pear to suffer from a serious defect. The assumption is
made in calculating a nicely balanced ration that all hens
are going to partake of this ration in the same way. But
this is very far from the biological actuality. Some individ-
ual hens like no grain except corn, and if fed a mixture will
eat only corn. Others are very partial to beef scrap, and
so on. To any one who studies the behavior of fowls it is
clear that the ration on paper and the ration in the crop are
two very different things.

The successful feeding of poultry depends upon experi-
ence and acquaintance with fowls. The basic biological
factor is, once more, individuality. Each individual hen
is an independent living thing, possessing well marked likes
and dislikes of her own with respect to food. There can
be no question that the best results in the way of egg pro-
duction and meat production would be obtained if a skillful
feeder could feed each individual fowl by and for itself.

al

22 Diseases of Poultry

‘vidence that this is the case is found in the fact, which is
universal wherever poultry is kept, that on the average
fowls kept in small flocks, of, say, under 25 birds each, do
relatively much better than larger flocks. The production
and money returns per bird are greater. The fundamental
reason for this is that the birds in small flocks get better care
as individuals. When a man has only such a small number
to take care of he can recognize their individual peculiarities
more easily. Furthermore an individual bird stands a
better chance of having its pee taste gratified in a small
than in a large flock.

So while the biological ideal ad be to feed each bird
individually, this is obviously impossible in practice. With
poultry the individual unit of production (the hen) is so
small that it must be handled in flocks.. The correct prin-
ciple of management is to feed and handle a flock in such a
way as to afford the maximum opportunity for the expres-
sion and gratification of the individual preferences of the
component units, with a minimum labor cost. The larger
the flock and the plant as a whole, the more machine-like
the methods of feeding and handling must be. They must
of necessity be calculated to suit that mythical creature,
the average hen. Coincidently the total production or
profit per bird will diminish. Presently a point is reached
in size of plant where the outgo exceeds the income over a
period of years. Such a plant if it has a hustling business
man at the head takes a fancy name to itself, advertises a
great deal, invents a “system,” writes and sells a book
about it, manufactures incubators and supplies, in general
endeavors to make a loud noise about what a profitable
thing the poultry business is, and finally goes dismally,
completely and permanently “broke.”

In the practical feeding of flocks of poultry large enough
to be a commercial proposition, the methods which have

Poultry Hygvene 23

been worked out empirically by the successful poultryman
are essentially attempts to satisfy the individual tastes of
the birds to as great a degree as possible, at a minimum labor
cost. This result is obtained in practice by offering to the
flock a variety of food materials so that they may have some
opportunity of choice as to what they shall eat. If we feed
corn, wheat, and oats the fowl which likes corn has the op-
portunity to live on corn, whereas the fowl which likes
about three parts wheat and one part oats is able to satisfy
her taste in this regard.

As a result of this manifest need for a variety of food it
has come about that the practice now generally accepted
as best is to put regularly before fowls food substances
belonging to four different categories. These categories
are:

1. Dry whole (or coarsely broken) grains (e.g., corn,
wheat, oats, barley, ete.).

2. Ground grains (e.g., bran, middlings, corn meal,
linseed meal and other finely ground grains).

3. Animal products (e.g., beef scrap, blood meal, fish
scrap, green cut bone, etc.).

4. Succulent or green foods (e.g., mangolds, cabbages,
beets, sprouted oats, green corn fodder, etc.).

The proportions in which these different kinds of food
material are fed differ to a considerable extent among
different poultrymen. The exact proportions in which they
are given really matter very little, owing to the fact, al-
ready brought out, that the hen compounds her own ration
to her own taste if given the material. Furthermore it
makes little difference whether the ground grains are fed
dry or wet. It is cheaper to feed them dry (because of
labor saved), and therefore the “dry-mash system” of
feeding has become popular.

There are certain basic principles of hygienic feeding which

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24 Diseases of Poultry

must always be looked after if one is to avoid diseases.
There are:

A. Purity.—It should be a rule of every poultryman never
to feed any material which is not clean and wholesome.
Musty and moldy grain, tainted meat scraps or cut bone,
table scraps which have spoiled, and decayed fruits or vege-
tables should never be fed. If this consideration were al-
ways kept in mind many cases of undiagnosed sickness and
deaths, and low condition in the stock would be avoided.
Keep all utensils in which food is placed clean.

B. Avoid Overfeeding.— Intensive poultry keeping involves
of necessity heavy feeding, but one should constantly be on
the lookout to guard against overfeeding, which puts the
bird into a state of lowered vitality in which its natural
powers of resistance to all forms of infectious and other
diseases are reduced. The feeding of high protein concen-
trates like linseed or cotton seed meal needs to be particularly
carefully watched in this respect.

C. Provide Plenty of Green Food. Under natural condi-
tions poultry are free eaters of green grass and other plants.
Such green food supplies a definite need in metabolism, the
place of which can be taken by no other sort of food material.
It is not enough merely to supply suwcculence in the ration.
Fowls need a certain amount of succulent food, but they
also need fresh green food. Green sprouted oats, when
properly prepared, are an excellent source of winter green
food. Full directions for sprouting oats are given in Bulletin
179 of the Maine Station.

D. Provide Fresh and Clean Drinking Water. — 'The most
sure and rapid method by which infectious diseases of all
kinds are transmitted through a flock of birds is by means
of the water pail from which they all drink in common.
Furthermore the water itself may come from a contaminated
source and be the origin of infection to the flock. Finally

Poultry Hygiene 25

it is difficult to devise any satisfactory drinking fountain
in which the water is not liable to contamination from litter,
manure, ete. All these considerations indicate the advis-
ability of adding to all drinking water which is given to poul-
try some substance which shall act as a harmless antiseptic.
The best of all such substances yet discovered for use with
poultry is potassium permanganate. This isa dark, reddish-
purple crystalline substance which can be bought of any
druggist. A pound will last for a long time. It should be
used in the following way: In the bottom of a large mouthed
jar, bottle or can, put a layer of potassium permanganate
crystals an inch thick. Fill up the receptacle with water.
This water will dissolve all of the crystals that it is able to.
This will make a stock saturated solution. As this solution
is used add more water and more crystals as needed, always
_ aiming to keep a layer of undissolved crystals at the bottom.
Keep a dish of stock solution like this alongside the faucet
or pump where the water is drawn for the poultry. When-
ever any water is drawn for either chicks or adult fowls add
enough of the stock solution to give the water a rather deep wine
color. This means | to 2 teaspoons of the stock solution to
10 quarts of water. At the same time one should clean
and disinfect the drinking pails and fountains regularly,
just as he would if he were not using potassium permanga-
nate. At the Maine Station plant for some years past no
bird has ever had a drink of water from the time it was
hatched which did not contain potassium permanganate,
except such water as it got from mud puddles and the like.

Dr. G. B. Morse,! a well known authority on poultry dis-
eases, had the following to say regarding this point in a
recent address. After describing the potassium permanga-
nate method, as well as two others, directed to the same end,

1Morse, G. B., ‘‘The Gospel of Cleanliness of Poultrymen.”
Reliable Poult. Jour., Vol. 17, No. 8, pp. 756, 757, 775-777, 1910.

-
26 Diseases of Poultry

but in the opinion of the present writers not so desirable as
this, he went on to say: “Water-borne diseases are frequent
in the poultry yard. Clean and disinfect your drinking-
fountains (and you must) ever so well, if you are permitting,
consciously or unwittingly, to run at large one bird sick with
any of the contagious diseases of the head parts or with bowel
diseases, you may count on that water supply being con-
taminated in less than one hour’s time. In the case of a
large flock affected with flagellate diarrhea I have myself
found the flagellates in less than one hour’s time in the drink-
ing water which had been sterilized and placed in thoroughly
disinfected fountains. Do you not see where such a condi-
tion as this forces you? Right up against the principle of
the individual drinking cup. Ridiculous, do you say? Not
a bit. I did not say ‘the individual drinking cup,’ but the
‘principle of the individual drinking cup.’ Boards of health
are recognizing that by means of the common, public drinking
cup foul and terrible diseases are being spread among people.
It is just so with your poultry, and while you cannot adopt
the individual cup you can incorporate the principle of it
in your hygienic methods by adding... one of the
antiseptics named. It is true, in the proportions named,
these remedies do not disinfect the water, only act as antisep-
tics, that is, act to hinder the developement of bacteria
and other microbes. The water itself should be changed
frequently. This hindering of microbian growth occurs not
only in the fountain but is kept up in the intestinal tract.”

ITI. The Land

One of the most important considerations in poultry sani-
tation is to keep the ground on which the birds are to live,
both as chicks and as adults, from becoming foul and con-
taminated. This is not a very difficult thing to do if one

Poultry Hygiene 27

has enough land and practices a definite and systematic crop
rotation in which poultry form one element. On the open
range where chicks are raised a four year rotation is operated
at the Maine Agricultural Experiment Station and serves
its purpose well. This system of cropping for the shorter
period is as follows: First year, chickens; second year, a
hoed crop, such as beets, cabbage, mangolds or corn; third
year, seed down to timothy and clover, using oats or barley
as a nurse crop; fourth year, chickens again. When the
land can be spared it is left in grass the fourth year, and the.
chickens are not put on it until the fifth year. The reason
for the particular crops mentioned above being used is
that they are all things which can be very advantageously
used in furnishing green food for the poultry at different
seasons of the year.

To maintain the runs connected with a permanent poultry
house, where adult birds are kept, in a sweet and clean condi-
tion is a more difficult problem. About the best that one
can do here is to arrange alternate sets of runs so that one
set may be used one year and the other set the next, purify-
ing the soil so far as may be by plowing and harrowing
thoroughly annually, and planting exhaustive crops. Fail-
ing the possibility of alternating in this way, disinfection
and frequent plowing are the only resources left.

The following excellent advice on this subject is given by
the English poultry expert Mr. E. T. Brown': “Tainted
ground is responsible for many of the diseases from which
fowls suffer, and yet it is a question that rarely receives the
attention it deserves. The chief danger of tainted soil
arises when fowls are kept in confinement, but still we often
find that even with those at liberty the land over which they
are running is far from pure. So long as the grass can be
kept growing strongly and vigorously there is small fear of

1 Farm Poultry, Vol. 18.

a

28 Diseases of Poultry

foul ground, as the growth absorbs the manure; it is when
the grass becomes worn away that the chief danger arises.
The manure constantly falling upon the same small area,
and there being nothing to use it up, the land is bound in a
short space of time to become so permeated as to be thor-
oughly unfit for fowls. The question is very often asked in
connection with this subject as to how many fowls a certain
sized piece of land will accommodate the whole year through.
Occasionally one may see in some of the agricultural or poul-
try journals this question answered, but as a matter of fact
to give any stated number is most misleading. It depends
very largely upon the class of soil, as some can carry twice
as many birds as others; it depends upon the breed of
poultry, some being much more active than others, and thus
requiring more space; it depends, too, upon the time of
year, because during the spring and summer, when there is
an abundance of vegetable growth in the soil, a considerably
larger number of birds can be maintained than during the
autumn or winter. The number must be varied according
to these circumstances, and no hard and fast rule is appli-
cable.”

“The results of tainted ground are generally quickly
noticeable, as the fowls have a sickly appearance, the
feathers lose their brilliant luster, and the wings begin to
droop. Roup, gapes, and other ailments speedily show them-
selves, causing, if not death itself, considerable loss and un-
pleasantness. One of the greatest advantages to be derived
from portable houses is that they so greatly reduce the risk
of tainted ground, as they are being constantly moved from
one place to another, thus evenly distributing the manure.
When it is remembered that each adult fowl drops nearly a
hundredweight of manure in the course of a year, the im-
portance of this question will be immediately realized. It is
quite possible, however, provided that suitable precautions

Poultry Hygiene 29

are taken, to keep a comparatively small run pure for a
long time. If the grass is short it should be occasionally
swept, in this manner removing a good deal of the manure.
Another important point is to always have around the house
a space of gravel, upon which the birds should be fed, and
if swept once or twice a week this will have a wonderful
effect in preserving the purity of the grass portion. Any one
who has observed poultry will know how fond they are of
constantly being near the house, and thus the greater
portion of their droppings falls within its immediate vicinity.
The shape of the run also has a great bearing upon the length
of time it will remain untainted, a long narrow run being
much superior to a square one. I have proved by my own
experience how true this is, and probably a long and narrow
run, containing the same amount of space will remain pure
twice as long. It is unnecessary here to go into a full ex-
planation of why this is so, but I may state the fact, which
I am confident is quite correct. If the space at one’s dis-
posal is very limited it is a good plan to divide it into two
equal parts, placing the house in the middle. During one
year one-half would be available for the fowls, the other
being planted with some quickly growing vegetables, the
order being reversed the year following. The vegetable
growth has the effect of quickly using up the manure, and
in this manner quite a small plot of land can be heavily
stocked with poultry for an unlimited number of years. If
the soil becomes at all foul it is a good plan to water it
with a 1 per cent solution of sulphuric acid, or to apply a
light dressing of gas lime.”

IV. Exercise

If poultry are to be in good condition, and maintain their
normal resistance to disease they must exercise. As chicks

all

30 Diseases of Poultry

they will do this on the range. In the case of adults (in
cold climates) the most feasible way to bring this about is
to provide litter and make the birds scratch for their food.

V. External Parasites

In hygienic poultry keeping the birds must be kept reason-
ably free at all times of lice, mites, and all other forms of
external parasites. Directions for dealing with this matter
are given in detail farther on in this book in the chapter on
External Parasites. It is desired here merely to call atten-
tion to the matter as one of general principles of hygienic
poultry management.

VI. Disposal of Dead Birds

On every poultry plant and around every farm there are
bound to occur from time to time a greater or less number of
deaths of chickens and adult fowls from disease or other
natural causes. The disposal of these dead bodies offers a
problem to the poultryman, the correct solution of which
may in many cases become a very important matter. This
is especially true in the cases of death from contagious
diseases, which include a considerable proportion of the
deaths of poultry generally. The method usually practiced
by the farmer and poultryman for the disposition of dead
carcasses 1s unsanitary in the extreme. To throw the dead
bodies on the manure pile is to invite the spread of disease
on the plant. Burying is far from being a satisfactory way
of dealing with the matter for two reasons. Unless the grave
is dug deep, which costs a good deal of time and labor, there
is considerable likelihood that dogs or other marauding
animals will dig out the carcasses, and, after feeding on them,
scatter the remains around on the top of the ground.

Poultry Hygiene 31

Furthermore, burying cannot be resorted to at all during the
winter months when the ground is frozen.

The only really sanitary method of dealing with dead
bodies is to incinerate them. The difficulty of following
this plan in practice is that the farmer or poultryman usually
does not have any suitable source of heat ready at hand at
all times. To be sure, during certain seasons of the year,
those poultrymen who employ large brooder houses with a
hot water heating system have a furnace in operation, and
the dead chicks can be burned up in the furnace. This,
however, covers only a part of the year. At other times
resort must be had to burying or some other means of dis-
posal, as the poultryman is not likely to fire up a large fur-
nace for the sake of burning a few dead birds.

To meet this requirement there has recently been devised
at the Maine Agricultural Experiment Station the small
crematory here described. The construction was carried
out with the idea of keeping the first cost as low as possible,
in order that there should be nothing about it which any
poultryman or farmer could not easily afford to duplicate.
As a matter of fact, the cost of materials for the crematory
was less than ten dollars. The labor was done by the
poultryman and his assistant at odd times, when an hour
or two could be spared for this work. The result is, there-
fore, not beyond the reach of any poultryman or farmer.
At the same time the crematory is so satisfactory in opera-
tion that any one who builds one will wonder, after he has —
completed and used it for a time, why he did not long before
have so simple and sanitary an adjunct to his plant.

The crematory shown in Fig. 5 is very simple in con-
struction. It consists essentially of a cement base or fire
box, bearing on its top a series of grate bars which are in
turn covered by a cremating box or oven in which the ma-
terial to be incinerated is placed.

all

Diseases of Poultry

ww)
bo

The crematory is sufficiently large to take care of all the
needs of a plant carrying 1000 head of adult stock, raising
3000 to 4000 chickens annually, and in which a good deal of
anatomical and physiological research is going on, necessitat-
ing a much larger amount of waste animal material than the
ordinary commercial poultryman would have. Therefore,
it is doubtful if it would be necessary in any but the very
largest commercial plants to build a larger crematory than
the one here described.

In building this an excavation was first made for the base,
in which a lot of loose stones and gravel were placed, in
order to secure adequate drainage below the cement. On
top of this the cement base and fire box were made.

This base consists essentially of a rectangular box made of
cement, open at the top, and with a small opening in front
through which the fire is fed and which serves as a draft.
The walls are about 6 inches thick. The outside dimensions
of the fire box base are 3 feet 4 inches by 2 feet 6 inches.
The inside dimensions of the fire box are 2 feet 3 inches by
1 foot 95 inches by 1 foot 4 inches. Across the top of
the fire box there were laid, while the cement was still soft,
some old grate bars from a small steam boiler, which had
been discarded and thrown on the dump heap. These were
set close together and held firmly in place when the cement
hardened. They form the grate on which the material to be in-
cinerated is thrown. These old boiler grate bars, besides cost-
ing nothing, had another advantage; namely that of their
thickness and weight. When they become thoroughly heated
from the fire below they will hold the heat for a consider-
able time, charring and burning the animal material above.

The incinerating chamber proper was made from gal-
vanized iron by a local tinsmith. This consists of a rec-
tangular box having the following dimensions: Length 2
feet 2 inches; width 1 foot 10 inches; height 1 foot 6

ygrene

Poultry H

‘xoq Sureuteto JO 1aA0D ! do} UO xOq SUTYVUTOIO UOT pezueales
:xXOq OLY OJUT JUOIJ UT SuUTUSdO YFIM ‘oseq JUOUIID 0}0N

4x0} UT peqiiosep

A1oyeuIo1D JO Ydevisojyoyd —“G “Oly

D

34 Diseases of Poultry

inches. In the top of this is cut a round hole, 12 inches in
diameter which is protected by a hinged cover 15 inches by
143 inches. This galvanized box has no bottom. It is
placed on top of the grate bars, and held firmly in place by
cement worked up around its lower edges. At the back
end of this iron cremating box is an opening for a stove pipe,
which is necessary in order to give the proper draft. It
is found in practice that only a short piece of stove pipe is
necessary to get sufficient draft to make a very hot fire,
which entirely consumes the birds in a few hours. The
funnel may best be left removable so that when the crema-
tory is not in use it can be taken off and stored inside the
wooden box, which then sets over the galvanized iron por-
tion to protect it from the weather.

It is important in locating a crematory of this kind to
plan matters so that there will be good drainage from around
it. In particular pains should be taken to insure that water
does not run into the firebox and freeze during the winter.

In operation the apparatus works as follows: Dead birds
are thrown into the incinerating chamber through the open-
ing in the top and the lid closed, while a wood fire is burning
in the fire box below. The aim should be to use dry wood
and get a quick and very hot fire. This first roasts the
material and then chars it, and finally reduces it to fine ashes.

VII. Isolation of Sickness

Whether one expects to treat the bird or to kill it, every
individual that shows signs of sickness should be removed from
the general flock. When the bird has been isolated a decision
as to what will be done about the case can be reached at
leisure, and in the meantime the flock is not subjected to
the danger of infection. This is an important matter with
young chickens as well as with adult stock.

Poultry Hygiene 35

The Essentials of Poultry Hygvene

To summarize this discussion of poultry hygiene and
sanitation it may be said that the essentials in the hygienic
and sanitary management of poultry are

See e cen eee aes

Clean Houses.

Clean Air.

Clean Food.

Clean Water.

Clean Yards and Clean Range.
Clean Incubators and Brooders.
Clean Birds, Outside and Inside.

CHAPTER: Ili
THE DIAGNOSIS OF THE DISEASES OF POULTRY

Tue first thing that the poultry keeper whose birds are ill
wants to know is: “What ails my chickens?”’ Before he can
use this or any other book on poultry diseases effectively in
getting advice for the treatment of disease he must diagnose
the trouble. It is the purpose of this chapter to help him do
this, and in this way make this book more useful to the
practical poultryman. At the outstart it should be said
that the absolutely certain differential diagnosis of particular
diseases of poultry, by the farmer or poultryman, either on the
basis of external symptoms or post-mortem examination, is in
nearly every case impossible. The best that can be done prac-
tically is to determine into what general class of diseases a
particular trouble falls.

There are two general sources of information upon which to
base a diagnosis of disease. These are:

I. External symptoms.
II. Post-mortem examination.

EXTERNAL SYMPTOMS, WITH A TABLE TO AID IN THE IDENTIFI-
CATION OF THE CHIEF CLASSES OF POULTRY DISEASES

There are certain external symptoms which are charac-
teristic in a way of nearly all diseases. These symptoms
merely indicate that the bird is sick; they are of no value for
purposes of differential diagnosis.

36

The Diagnosis of the Diseases of Poultry ot

These general symptoms of illness may be described as
follows: A sick fowl is usually quiet, and does not move
about unless disturbed. It stands or sits with the neck
contracted so that the head is pulled well in to the body,
giving the bird a “humped up” appearance. The-eyes are
often closed, entirely or partly, giving the bird a sleepy
appearance. Often the feathers are roughened and _ stick
out all over the body. The comb and wattles may be dark
or, on the other hand, may be very pale.

When a bird shows these general symptoms of illness it
should be picked up and isolated and an effort made to
obtain a more precise diagnosis. In doing this the following
table of the chief external symptoms may be found of use.

This table aims to direct one to the discussion of general
classes of disease. The identification of special individual
diseases should be attempted only after reading over the
chapters covering the general class involved. In general
it should be kept in mind that this table is not intended to tell
the reader what the disease he finds is, but solely to tell him
what parts of this book to read in any given case in order to
make a diagnosis.

TABLE OF EXTERNAL SYMPTOMS WHICH MAY BE OF SOME VALUE
IN DirFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS

The numbers in parentheses denote the pages to be consulted.

Symprom DISEASES WHICH mi SiMrTOM AACN
Abdomen, swollen. Peritonitis (77), Dropsy (80),
White diarrhea (283).
Belching of gas. Inflammation of crop (61).
Breathing abnormal (i.e., too| Diseases of the respiratory sys-

rapid, too slow, wheezing, tem (147), Crop bound (58),

whistling, snoring or in any| Arsenic poisoning (82), Peri-

way different from normal). earditis (182), Gapes (304),
Air sae mite (180).

o

38 Diseases of Poultry

Seater DISEASES WEIGH peo eE TON NAMED
Choking. Arsenic poisoning (82).
Comb, pale. Tuberculosis (115), Dropsy (80),

Comb, first dark then pale.
Comb, first pale, but later dark.
Comb, very dark.

Comb, yellow.

Comb,
seurf.

Comb, with white spots.

Constipation.

with white, powdery

Convulsions.

Cough.

Crop, enlarged and hard.
Crop, enlarged and soft.

Diarrhea.

Droppings, blue.

Air-sae mite (180), Infectious
leukemia (185), White diar-
rhea (283).

Roup (155).

Enteritis (67).

Liver disease (87), Blackhead
(94), Ptomaine poisoning (85),
Congestion of lungs (177),
Pneumonia (178).

Liver diseases (87), Visceral gout
(200).

White comb (236).

Favus (233).

Simple constipation (69), Indi-
gestion (70), Gastritis (63),
Inflammation of Oviduct (262).

Arsenic poisoning (82), Copper,
lead or zine poisoning (83),
Epilepsy (196), “‘ Harvest-bug”’
(227).

Diseases of the respiratory sys-
tem (147).

Crop bound (58).

Inflammation of crop (61), En-
larged crop (62), Inflated crop
(63), Gastritis (63), Cholera
(102).

Diseases of the alimentary tract
(57), Arsenic poisoning (82),
Copper, lead or zine poisoning
(83), Diseases of the liver (87).
Blackhead (94), Tuberculosis
(115), Cholera (102), Roup
(155), White diarrhea (185),
Coccidiosis (71), Mereury poi-
soning (83).

Copper poisoning (83).

The Diagnosis of the Diseases of Poultry

39

SyMpPToM

DISEASES WHICH THE SYMPTOM NAMED

MAY INDICATE
s

Droppings, bloody.

Droppings, bright emerald green.

Droppings, brownish followed by
yellow diarrhea.

Droppings, hard and dry.

Droppings, mucus in.

Droppings, sticky.

Droppings, slimy and yellow.

Emaciation.

Eye, expansion of pupil.
Eye, sticky discharge from.
Face, swollen.

Fever, marked.

Head, warty nodules on.
Lameness.

Legs, roughened, with scales
raised.

Mouth, mucous discharge from.

Mouth, white cheesy patches in.
Neck, bent backward.

Neck, bent forward on breast.
Neck, limp.
Nostrils, discharge from.

Diarrhea (64), Mereury poison-
ing (83), Blackhead (94), En-
teritis (67), Arsenic poisoning
(82), Ptomaine poisoning, (85)
Diseases of the liver (87).

Cholera (102), Copper poisoning
(83).

Diseases of the liver (87).

Constipation (69).

Cholera (102), Diarrhea (64).
Simple diarrhea (64).

Nodular tzniasis (137).
Tubereulosis (115), Aspergillosis

(173), Visceral gout (200),
Mites (213), White diarrhea
(283).

Arsenic poisoning (82).
Catarrh (151), Roup (155).

Roup (155). :
Peritonitis (77), Aspergillosis
(173), Infectious leukemia

(185), Inflammation of oviduct,
(262).

Chicken pox (237).

Tuberculosis (115), Aspergillosis
(173), Rheumatism (199), Sealy
leg (216), Bumble foot (326).

Sealy leg (216).

Congestion of the lungs (177),
Pneumonia (178), Gapes (304).

Roup (155), Canker (164).

Stryechnine poisoning (84), Con-
gestion of the brain (195), Wry
neck (202), Pericarditis (182).

Ptomaine poisoning (85).

Limberneck (199).

Diseases of the respiration sys-
tem (147).

-

40 Diseases of Poultry

DISEASES WHICH THE SYMPTOM NAMED

SYMPTOM MAY INDICATE

Paralysis. Copper, lead or zine poisoning
(83), Stryehnine poisoning
(84), Apoplexy (194), Heat
prostration (195), Polyneuritis

(197).
Pulse, very rapid. Hypertrophy of heart (184).
Saliva, copious secretion. Arsenie poisoning (S82).
Skin, puffed out in blisters. Emphysema (304).
Skin, scaly and inerusted. Body mange (226), Favus (233).
Staggering. -Congestion of the brain (195),

Leg weakness (301), Ptomaine
poisoning (85).

Thirst, excessive. Hypertrophy of the liver (90),
Peritonitis (77), Salt poisoning
(81), Aspergillosis (173), Tape-
worms (134), Cholera (102).

Tongue, hard and dry. Pip (171), Diseases of the respira-
tory system (147).

Tumors, on head. Roup (155), Chicken pox (237).

Urates, yellow. Cholera (102).

Vent, mass of inflamed tissue pro- | Prolapse of oviduct (263).
jecting from.
Vent, skin inflamed. Vent gleet (280).
|

POST-MORTEM EXAMINATION

Whenever a bird dies from a cause not entirely clear to
the poultryman a post-mortem examination should be made
in order to learn, if possible, from the condition of the in-
ternal organs what it was that caused death. The poultry-
man should familiarize himself with the appearance of the
internal organs in a normal state of health, so that he may
at once recognize any departure from these normal condi-
tions.

The Diagnosis of the Diseases of Poultry 41

The Normal Anatomy of the Domestic Fowl

Before undertaking a discussion of post-mortem appear-
ance it is desirable to sketch in a brief way the most essen-
tial features of the normal skeletal and visceral anatomy
of the fowl. If one will study this chapter with some care,
and at the same time dissect a specimen, it will give him a
sufficiently good understanding of the normal relations of
the parts to enable him successfully to undertake for him-
self post-mortem examinations of his birds.

The Skeleton

The bones of birds (zodlogical class Aves) are in their
structure somewhat different from the bones of other ani-
mals. The most essential difference consists in the fact
that there are in the bones of birds, as a class, spaces which
are normally filled with air, forming a part of the general
air sac system connected with the lungs. The degree to
which the bones have the capability of being filled with air
varies considerably in the different orders of birds. In
the genus Gallus (the domestic fowl) this possibility is small
as compared with what obtains in flying birds, for example.

The skeleton of the cock is shown in Fig. 6. Its main
divisions are: the skull (1); the neck (5); the trunk and
the limbs (wings and legs).

Two parts are to be distinguished in the skull: first,
the brain case or cranium proper (1) and, second, the face,
including the beak (2, 3, and 4). As the skull bones grow
together early, one usually does not see in the skull of the
adult bird any division or sutures between the bones.

The trunk skeleton includes the backbone or vertebral
column, the ribs, the breastbone, and the limb bones.

The skeleton of the neck (5) is made up of 13 separate

_

42 Diseases of Poultry

vertebree of which the first, called the atlas, is the
smallest. The vertebrae of the back (6) number seven,
but they are usually nearly completely grown together
into one single mass
of bone. ‘To these
vertebra of the back
(ealled the thoracic
vertebree) are at-
tached the seven
pairs of rzbs (7).

The lumbar verte-
bre, of which only
one or two remain,
are in old _ birds
grown together with
the sacral vertebre
(17). Behind the
sacral vertebrae come
the caudal (18), which
support the struc-
ture known, rather
colloquially, as the
pope's 7 Doses,
There are six caudal
vertebre.

The pelvis consists
of three bones fused
together: the aliwm

Fie. 6.— Skeleton of cock (Gallus sp.). For (19), the ichium

explanation of figures see text. (After 9 ; °
Dirigen.) (20), and the pubis
(21).

The breastbone (8) bears a high and sharp bony plate,
the keel, to which the breast muscles are attached. The
wings are supported by the pectoral or shoulder girdle of

The Diagnosis of the Diseases of Poultry 43

bones. This girdle consists of the shoulder blade or scapula
(9), the coracoids (11), and the “wishbone” or furcula (10).
In young birds the furcula consists of separate paired bones,
the clavicles, and the small median ossification, the znter-
clavicle.

The wings include the upper arm, the forearm, the wrist,
the hand, and the fingers. ‘The wpper arm bone, or humerus
(12), is a single strong bone of the same length as the bones
of the forearm. The forearm (13) contains two bones, the
radius and the ulna. The wrist has only two bones not
distinguishable in the figure. The hand (14) is made up
from two bones which are united at both their upper and
lower ends, but separated in the middle. In front of the
larger of these two is the small one-jointed finger, the so-
called thumb (15). The second finger (16), which is the
longest and strongest, has two joints; the third finger is
one-jointed.

The bones of the leg are homologous with those of the
wing. The bone of the thigh, the femur (22), is a single
bone. The lower leg (24), which in the normal position of
the bird extends backwards and downwards from the knee
(23), consists like the forearm of two bones: a large tibia
and a very small splint-like bone, the fibula. At (25) is
the hock or ankle joint. Below this come the bones of the
foot. The first of these (26) is the tarso-metarsus. As an
outgrowth from this bone is the spur (31). Of the four toes
the inner or hind toe (30) has two joints; the second or inner
front toe (29) has three joints; the middle front toe (28) has
four; and the outer front toe (27) has five joints.

The Viscera

The main features of the normal visceral anatomy of the
fowl are shown in Fig. 7, which represents a dissection from

tt

:

-

Diseases of Poultry

(Original.)

For explanation see text.

Fic. 7. — Dissection of hen, showing the normal visceral anatomy.

the left side of a hen
carried out in such a way
as to show the principal
organs. Beginning at the
anterior end we see, when
the skin is removed from
the bird, two tubes lying
along the ventral aspect
of the neck. These are
the esophagus (1) and the
windpipe or trachea (2).
In the region where the
neck joins the trunk
there is a sac-like dilata-
tion of the esophagus,
the crop (3).

Proceeding backwards
from the crop the ali-
mentary tube passes
through the thoracic
cavity and as it enters
the abdominal cavity
widens out into the pro-
ventriculus (4), or glan-
dular stomach. This
opens directly into the
gizzard (5) in which the
mechanical breaking up
and grinding of the food
material is carried on.

After leaving the giz-
zard the food passes into
the intestine. The first
portion of the intestine,

- |)

The Diagnosis of the Diseases of Poultry 45

called the duodenum (6), forms a U-shaped loop. It consists
of a left or proximal and a right or distal limb. Between
these two limbs is situated an important digestive gland,
the pancreas (7). Without any line of demarcation the
duodenum is continued as the long, small intestine (8) back
to the point of origin of two out-pocketings of the ali-
mentary tract called the ceca (9). The point of origin of
these organs marks the separation between the small intes-
tine lying in front of them, and the large intestine or rectum
(10) lying behind them. The rectum opens into the cloaca
(11), a somewhat dilated chamber which opens externally
by the vent. Into the cloaca open besides the rectum the
ducts of the urinary and genital systems of organs.

On the ventral side of the abdominal cavity is seen the
large liver (12), consisting of a large right lobe and a smaller
left lobe. Attached by a fold of membrane to the proven-
triculus is seen the spleen (13), a small, ovoidal, red body.
Just in front of the liver lies the heart (14), inclosed in a thin
membranous sac, the pericardium. The lungs (15) are light
red spongy bodies which may be seen by turning aside the
heart, closely attached to the dorsal body wall in the tho-
racic region.

Just behind the lungs is seen on the left side of the body
in the female the ovary (16). Except in rare cases, the
ovary on the right side of the body in the domestic fowl
degenerates during embryonic life and only the left ovary
remains to produce eggs. It is made up of a number of
spherical bodies of various sizes called ovarian eggs or odcytes.

Behind the ovary is the oviduct (17), which in a laying
hen is a much coiled tube with thick glandular walls. In
this tube the albumen and other envelopes of the egg are
manufactured. At the anterior end of the oviduct is the
infundibulum (18) or funnel. (For further description of
the reproductive organs see p. 245.)

-
46 Diseases of Poultry

Above and behind the ovary and oviduct lies the left
kidney (19), a dark red body closely attached to the dorsal
body wall. It and its fellow on the opposite side, the right
kidney, consist of three well marked lobes, an anterior,
a middle and a posterior. These lobes are embedded in the
cavities which are made by the pelvis and sacrum. From
each kidney a tube, the wreter (2), leads back to the cloaca
and through this tube the waste products discharged by the
kidney are carried to the outside of the body.

The above account covers the chief visceral organs.
Any one wishing to go further into the study of the anatomy
of the domestic fowl will do well to consult the larger hand-
books of vertebrate comparative anatomy.

DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING A POST-MORTEM EXAMINATION

The poultryman about to undertake making autopsies
on his birds should provide himself at the outstart with
certain necessary articles. These should include as essen-
tial requisites, first, a good sharp knife with a pointed blade ;
second, a pair of bone forceps or else a pair of very heavy
shears with short blades; third, a pair of medium size dis-
secting scissors, and, finally, a wooden table or dissecting
board on which to work.

In making the post-mortem the dead bird should be
laid with the breast uppermost on the table or dissecting
board. The wings and legs should be spread out. A con-
venient way in which to hold the bird is to drive a small
shingle nail through the tip of each wing and each foot, thus
holding the body in the desired position. Then with a
sharp knife an incision should be made through the skin
in the general form of the letter U. The ends of the limbs
of the U should be just behind the shoulder joints. The
lower dip of the U should be just in front of the anus. It

The Diagnosis of the Diseases of Poultry 47

will not be necessary to remove the feathers in making this
incision. They may be parted with the knife, which should
be a heavy and sharp one. The incision should be carried
through skin and body wall. In the region of the breast,
where the muscles are thicker, the incision should be made
clear through to the bone. The bone may then be divided
in the same line by means either of the bone forceps or heavy
shears already mentioned. An incision made as described
will free the whole ventral body wall except at the anterior
end. To free it at the anterior end it is necessary to use
the bone forceps and cut straight across the anterior end of
the body in front of the shoulders. Then the whole ven-
tral body wall may be lifted off and the organs exposed in
their natural position. In doing this one should be care-
ful not to injure the heart or any other organs.

One may then proceed to the examination of the dif-
ferent organs for evidence of disease. Taking first the liver ;
one should note whether it has any spots or is discolored,
or whether it is of a soft, friable consistency, a condition
known as “punky” liver. The healthy liver should be a
rich chocolate brown color, free of spots and discolorations.
There may of course be post-mortem discolorations due
to escape of bile or other causes, but these may be easily
recognized as such. Spots on the liver may be of several
sorts, either small or large nodules of whitish substance
studded in the liver tissue, or simply areas of different color
from the rest of the liver. Again there may be all over the
surface of the liver a deposit of white material, which indi-
cates excess urates from defective kidney function. As to
consistency, the liver should be firm to the touch, and not
easily friable or “ punky.”

The heart should be free of excessive fat and without
tubercles. One of the most common diseased conditions
of the heart is hypertrophy, wherein the heart is larger than

all

48 Diseases of Poultry

normal. One should accustom himself to recognize the
normal size of the heart and then in a post-mortem exami-
nation he can tell at a glance whether the heart is unduly
enlarged.

The lungs should be examined for evidence of congestion,
old or recent, and aspergillosis. Tuberculosis of the lungs
is relatively rare in poultry. In the majority of attacks of
tuberculosis the lungs are usually among the last organs to
be affected.

Crop and gizzard are opened to determine whether any-
thing in the recently ingested food has been causing trouble.
It is also well to split open the trachea or windpipe to see
whether any foreign bodies are present, or whether there is
any accumulation of cheesy pus, indicating some form of
roup, particularly the diphtheritic. Also, of course, a look-
out should be kept for parasitic worms in opening any of the
abdominal organs.

In the abdominal region, after the liver has been removed
or turned forward out of the way, the spleen may then be
seen. This is a small dark organ which is usually one of
the first to be attacked in a case of tuberculosis. Where
this disease is suspected, careful examination of the spleen
should be made to see whether any small white nodules or
tubercles are present.

The intestines should be examined for evidences of con-
gestions, presence of parasites, or presence of tubercles.

After having been examined the intestines may be re-
moved and thrown away. Then there will be exposed the
urinary and reproductive organs. In many cases death in
hens is due to some impairment of the egg producing organs.
One should look first for tumors on the ovary, which may
generally be distinguished as dark colored bodies attached to
the ovary, looking very much like a yolk in process of for-
mation which has gone bad. The oviduct should be exam-

The Diagnosis of the Diseases of Poultry 49

ined for evidence of rupture of its walls, or the presence of
concrements.

The kidneys have normally a dark red mottled appear-
ance. In cases of disease the most marked change to be
seen is one of color. The kidneys may thus be either ex-
tremely congested and much deeper color than the normal,
or, on the other hand, they may be pale and take on a
yellowish hue. Again they may be covered with a heavy
white deposit of urates.

At this point one may make a thorough examination of
the peritoneum or lining membrane of the body cavity to
see whether or not this is diseased. In a condition of
health it is a glistening, thin, transparent membrane which
lines the whole of the body cavity and covers the viscera.
In cases of disease or abnormal conditions which cause
peritonitis, it becomes a thickened whitish or yellowish and
opaque membrane.

If anything like roup or any other disease of the air pas-
sages is suspected, examination should be made of the nasal
passages in the head. This can best be done by opening
the lower jaw and then with a sharp knife making a slit
straight back from the corners of the mouth so to fold the
lower jaw back on the throat and expose the larynx and upper
end of the trachea. At the same time by cutting away the
roof of the mouth one can examine the nasal passages proper.

THE DIAGNOSTIC VALUE OF CERTAIN POST-MORTEM
APPEARANCES

In the table which follows the attempt has been to do for
the post-mortem diagnostic signs the same sort of thing
as was done in an earlier section for the external signs of
disease. There are listed in the table the more striking
post-mortem appearances which the poultryman is likely

E

all

50 Diseases of Poultry

to meet, together with an indication of the disease which

may have been the cause of each appearance.

It is hoped

that this table may prove useful.

TABLE OF Post-MoRTEM APPEARANCES WHICH MAY BE OF

SomE VALUE IN DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS

The numbers in parentheses denote the pages to be consulted.

Post-MORTEM APPEARANCE

Blood, clotted in vessels.

Brain, blood clot on.

Bronchi, filled with mucus.

Ceca, inflamed.

Ceca, partially filled with grayish
soft material, not cheesy
(chicks).

Ceca, thickened and distended
with pasty or cheesy mass.

Gall bladder, distended.

Heart, exudate in pericardial
cavity.
Heart, lining membrane red-
dened.

Heart, punctiform hemorrhages
of.

Intestine, bearing nodules.

Intestines, congested.

Intestines, filled with mucus.

Intestines, inflamed.

Intestines, mucosa bleeding.

Kidneys, bearing cheesy nodules.

Kidneys, congested.

Kidneys, enlarged.

Kidneys, filled with whitish erys-
talline deposit.

Kidneys, inflamed.

Liver, chalky deposit on.

DISEASE WHICH THE APPEARANCE NAMED
MAY INDICATE

Thrombosis (185).

Apoplexy (194).

Pneumonia (178).

Coecidiosis (285), Blackhead (94).
Bacillary white diarrhea (287).

Coecidiosis (285), Blackhead (94).

Jaundice (94).

Fowl plague (112), Pericarditis
(182).

Endocarditis (183), Myocarditis
(183).

Cholera (102), Fowl plague (112).

Tuberculosis (115), Tumors (312).

Ptomaine poisoning (85).

Enteritis (67).

Enteritis (67), Mercury poison-
ing (83), Blackhead (94).

Cholera (102).

Tubereulosis (115).

Ptomaine poisoning (85).

Diseases of the kidneys (199).

Mereury poisoning (83), Dis-
eases of the kidneys (199).

Cholera (102).

Gout (199).

The Diagnosis of the Diseases of Poultry

51

Post-MORTEM APPEARANCE

DISEASES WHICH THE APPEARANCE NAMED
MAY INDICATE

Liver, congested.

Liver, enlarged.

Liver, greasy.

Liver, pale with streaks of red
(chicks).

Liver, shrunken.

Liver, spotted (or marbled).

Liver, with raised nodules.
Lungs, congested.

Lungs, dark color and solid.

Lungs, with cheesy nodules.

Lungs, yellow membranous
patches in.

Ovary, with discolored tumorlike
yolks.

Ovary, without yolks.

Oviduct, inflamed.

Peritoneum, covered with chalky
deposit.

Peritoneum, covered with opaque
exudate.

Spleen, enlarged.

Spleen, spotted.

Ureters, yellow and distended.

Windpipe, yellow dust in.

Windpipe, worms in,

Windpipe, yellow patches in.

Ptomaine poisoning (85), Dis-
eases of the liver (87), Cholera
(102), Infectious leukemia
(185).

Enteritis (67), Diseases of the
liver (87), Infectious leuke-
mia (185).

Hypertrophy of liver (90).

Bacillary white diarrhea (287).

Enteritis (67), Diseases of the
liver (87).

Coecidiosis (285), Diseases of the
liver (87), Blackhead (94), As-
pergillosis (173), Cholera (102),
Infectious leukemia (185).

Tuberculosis (115).

Pneumonia (178), Congestion of
lungs (177), Cholera (102).

Pneumonia (178).

Tuberculosis (115), Aspergillosis
(173).

Aspergillosis (173).

Baceillary white diarrhea (287).

Atrophy of ovary (251).

Diseases of the reproductive
organs (245).

Gout (199).

Peritonitis (77).

Enteritis (67).

Enteritis (67), Tuberculosis (115).
Cholera (102).

Air-sae mite (180).

Gapes (304).

Aspergillosis (173).

CHAPTER IV

Pouttry MatTeritaA MEpICcA

Ir isthe purpose of this chapter to give an account of the
drugs and remedies which the poultryman will find it well to
be supplied with; directions for making various solutions ;
tables of weights and measures and the like.

THE MEDICINE CHEST

The following drugs and medicines will be found useful
to have at hand.

Calomel (Sub-chloride of mercury). — This drug is chiefly
useful for its effect on the liver. The dosage is anything up
to 1 grain ata time. A dose of calomel should be followed
in the course of two hours or so with a dose of castor oil.

Cayenne Pepper. — This is an excellent digestive and liver
stimulant when given in the food in small quantities. It
is also useful in cases of colds. In this case the pepper
should be put in small gelatine capsules (size No. 4) which
may be obtained from any druggist and a filled capsule
then pushed far enough down the esophagus with the finger
so that the bird will swallow it.

Catechu. — Bradshaw ! says that this “in powder or tine-
ture form in combination with powdered chalk is a good
remedy for diarrhea. The average dose of powdered
catechu is from 2 to 5 grains and of the tincture 2 to 5 drops.”

1 Bradshaw, G., ‘Poultry Farming.’”’ Department of Agricul-
ture, N. S. Wales, Farmers’ Bul. No. 51, p. 28, 1911.

52

hod

Poultry Materia Medica 53

Castor Owl. — Castor oil is used as a remedy for diarrhea
and as an intestinal antiseptic. It may also be used in
cases of crop-bound fowls, although for this purpose cotton
seed oil will be found to be quite as satisfactory and very
much cheaper.

Epsom Salts (Magnesium sulphate).— This is on the
whole the most useful poultry yard drug. It is indicated in
practically all cases of digestive disturbance and colds,
bowel trouble, etc. The standard dose for an adult fowl
is from 4 to 1 teaspoonful.

The following table of doses of Epsom salts for young
birds has been worked out by Gage and Opperman !:

AGE oF Birp SMOUNE Sere BLED IN How ADMINISTERED
1 to 5 weeks eee tc 10 grains In feed
5tolOweeks ... 15 grains In feed
10to1l5 weeks .. . 20 grains In feed
15 weeks to 6 months 30 grains [ Two teaspoonfuls
6 months tol year. 35 grains of water to every
l year and over. .. 40-50 grains ) S10, 400) oie io)
| grains of salt.

There are several ways of administering Epsom salts.
It may be mixed with the drinking water, or a solution may
be made with warm water and put down the throat of the
bird. Probably, however, the best way to administer a
dose to a large flock is to give the birds no food whatever on
the day that they are to be given the Epsom salts until late
in the afternoon. Then having determined the amount of
salts to be used for the whole pen of birds at the rate of

from 4 to 1 teaspoonful per bird, dissolve this amount

1 Gage, G. E., and Opperman, C. L., ‘‘A Tapeworm Disease of
Fowls.”” Maryland Agr. Expt. Stat. Bulletin 139, pp. 73-85, 1909.

al
54. Diseases of Poultry

in water and use this solution to mix up a wet mash. Any
ordinary dry mash mixture of bran, meal and other ground
grain may be used for the purpose. The wet mash so pre-
pared should be divided into several lots and put in differ-
ent places in the pen so that all the birds will get a chance
at it. This method insures a more even dosage through the
flock than any other we have tried.

Cotton-seed Oil. — A bland oil like cotton-seed oil (salad
oil) is useful in many ways about the poultry yard. In
treating prolapse of the oviduct, crop-bound condition,
and in other cases, the oil may be used to good effect as
a simple lubricant. Bradshaw says that in the case of eye
trouble it may take the place of a simple lotion.

Bichloride of Mercury, 1 to 1000 Solution. —'To make this
the simplest way is to buy of the druggist bichloride of mer-
cury tablets, and ask him to label the box to show how much
water a tablet must be dissolved in to make a 1 to 1000 solu-
tion. If one desires to mix it up for himself ask the druggist
to make up some / gram (155 grain) powders of bichloride of
mercury. Dissolve | of these powders in a quart of water.
Put in enough laundry bluing so that the color will be deep
blue. Then the solution, which is highly poisonous, will
never be mistaken for water.

“1 to 1000 bichloride”’ is a germicide and disinfectant for
external use, cleansing wounds and the like.

Medicines in Tablet Form. — One of the most convenient
forms in which medicines may be administered is in tablets.
Wholesale and mail-order drug houses carry extensive lines
of these graded as to dosage. They may be administered
to poultry very easily and conveniently by holding the bird’s
mouth open with one hand and with the other thrusting the
tablet far enough back in the throat so it will be swallowed.

The following list of tablets will be found useful to the
poultryman. They fairly well cover the medicines recom-

Poultry Materia Medica 55

mended in the body of this book. Any poultryman may
get these either from his local druggist, or if he cannot fur-
nish them, they can be purchased by mail at approximately

the prices named.
APPROXIMATE PRICE

PER 1000
Sodtummsalteviate: 3 er... ko... 1.2 seen oeO
(For use in rheumatisin.)
PNCOUICE FOOG, ft —lOvEn. 6 Js ok een DAO

(For use in fevers.)

Antiseptic tablets, Blue, Corrosive
sublimate, 7.3 gr.; Ammonium chlo-
Mer aL Pk: it 2.50

(For serine 1 iD 1000. bichlotide
solution. One tablet dissolved in 1
pint of water gives a solution of that
strength.)

bismuthysibnitrate, ler. oo sows wees ee
(For intestinal irritation.)

Calomel, 4 gr... ....«. Be eet | eae)

Iron, Quinine and Stry aime. SE Rea ee 80

(For use as a tonic, dose 3 per day.)

In administering tablets in the manner suggested care
should be taken to see that they are swallowed, and not
coughed up.

An Antiseptic Ointment for Use on Cuts and Wounds of
All Kinds

The following ointment may be made up by the poul-
tryman and will be found useful in the treatment of cuts,
sores and wounds of all kinds of poultry and stock in general.

@illononieanum. <6. 5. see ee Oz:
TEE aaa ge Re RP ca 0

al

56 Diseases of Poultry
Pine tar. ... 1.2: 02 eee. ok See LOZ.
LCSD Ss.) 0. 5.5. pe ee ee. OF.
Clean axle grease........ ee ties 5502;

Melt the axle grease and resin and stir in the other ingredi-
ents. Pour off in a tin box or can to cool. In making this,
clean axle grease from a freshly opened can should be used.

TABLES OF APOTHECARIES’ WEIGHTS AND MBASURES AND THEIR
Merric EQUIVALENTS

APOTHECARIES’ WEIGHTS

PouNnD Ouncss (TRoy) DRaAMsS ScRUPLES GRAINS GRAMS
1 = iP = Uy = 28S = S00) =s7aer
1 = 3S = 2A ae — eee)

yi 34 = 60 —* i395
a 20 — se leo0

APOTHECARIES’ MEASURE

GALLON Pints FLUIDOUNCES FLUIDRAMS MInims Cus. cm.
1 = 6 = 128 = 1024 = 61440 = 3785.00

LL = 16 = 128 OSs — ee eseial

1 = 8 = 0 — ea

1 = 60 = By (0)

COMMON MEASURE

A teacup is estimated to hold about 4 fluidounces, one gill.
A wineglass is estimated to hold about 2 fluidounces.

A tablespoon is estimated to hold about.4 fluidounce.

A teaspoon is estimated to hold about 1 fluidram.

CHAPTER V

DISEASES OF THE ALIMENTARY TRACT

THE arrangement of the digestive organs in birds differs
from that in other domestic animals in that the mastication
of the food does not take place in the mouth. The food of
birds, consisting mainly of grains and seeds, is swallowed
whole into the crop. It remains here until it is completely
softened by the juices secreted by this organ. The food then
passes into the stomach (proventriculus), where it is mixed
with still other juices, and then into the gizzard. The
muscular walls of the gizzard grind the softened food against
the small pebbles (grit) which the bird picks up, until it
becomes a paste. This paste is then passed into the intes-
tines and mixed with the secretions from the liver, pancreas
and the intestines themselves. The nutritive elements of
the food are transferred through the intestinal walls, by
means of the activity of the cells composing these walls,
into the blood and are carried to various parts of the animal
to be used in building up the tissues.

In the wild state birds are forced to hunt for their own food.
They go about gathering in a few seeds here and there but
probably at no time is the crop overloaded. Under condi-
tions of domestication birds are fed only once or twice a
day and thus the crop is often gorged with a day’s supply
of food. Further the lack of sufficient grit, lack of exercise
and the feeding of rich, soft mashes cause the birds to be

57

-

58 Diseases of Poultry

predisposed towards indigestion. Under these conditions
poultry are subject to a large number of disorders of the
digestive system.

DISEASES OF THE CROP
Impacted Crop (Crop Bound)

In general two immediate causes may be given for birds
becoming crop bound. (1) The thin muscular walls may
be paralyzed either through over-distention with dry grain
or through some disease, as cholera and diphtheria. (2)
The opening into the lower portion of the esophagus may
become clogged by long straws, feathers or other substances.
In either case the crop fails to empty itself while the bird
continues to eat until the crop is greatly distended and
packed solid.

Impacted crop is a common disease of poultry. A large
number of things have been assigned as a cause for this
trouble. It is probable that the real cause lies in low vitality
due to improper feeding and indigestion. Every poultry-
man knows that very often fowls will eat large quantities
of hay, straw, strings, feathers, etc., without showing the
least inconvenience. If the digestive organs are in the proper
health and tone they will usually take care of any overload-
ing of the crop. It is only when the tone of the digestive
system has been lowered by improper feeding, housing or
by some disease that the crop fails to perform its usual
function. Occasionally a case of impaction may properly
be attributed to overloading the crop with indigestible
matter. Such cases will occur only rarely and sporadically.
If many crop bound birds appear in a flock it may be taken
as certain that something more fundamental is the cause.

Symptoms. — The first symptom is a loss of appetite or
an effort of the bird to swallow without being able to do so.

Diseases of the Alimentary Tract 59

The crop is seen to be very large and much distended with
contents which are more or less firmly packed together. If
permitted to continue, the condition becomes aggravated,
the breathing difficult, and death may result.

Treatment. — If a large number of crop bound birds occur
in a flock, it should be taken as a sign that something is
wrong in the management. Measures should be taken to
correct errors in feeding and thus give the birds a more vigor-
ous digestion. In such epidemics other evidences of indiges-
tion are usually present and the particular treatinent of the
flock will depend largely on these other symptoms. In
general the birds should not be fed too much at any one time
and they should be encouraged to take as much exercise as
possible, and should have plenty of green food.

When a crop bound bird is found it must be treated indi-
vidually. Treatment in such individual cases is quite often
successful. The profitableness of such treatment must be
decided by every poultryman for himself. If the crop bound
condition is discovered and treated at the beginning of the
trouble the bird will usually recover quickly and may make
a profitable fowl. On the other hand if the condition has
become chronic the vitality of the bird is greatly lowered.
In this latter case it may recover but it will be a long time
before it will repay the owner for his trouble and feed.

If swelled grain is the cause of the impaction the bird may
often be successfully treated without an operation. In
this case first give the bird a tablespoonful of castor oil.
After allowing this a little time to work into the crop begin
to knead the hard mass. After this mass has been softened
hold the bird with head downward and attempt to work the
grain out through the mouth. If unsuccessful in this or if
the impaction is due to clogging with straw or other material
it will be necessary to open the crop.

The operation for impacted crop is comparatively simple.

—
60 Diseases of Poultry

It will be easier if some person can hold the bird while an-
other performs the operation. If assistance is not at hand
the bird may be tied, back down, to a board or table. The
operation should be done in a place as free as possible from
dust and dirt. First, pluck out a few feathers in the median
line of the crop. The feathers around the edge of the field
of operation may be dampened to keep dust from them out
of the wound. With a sharp, clean knife cut through the
skin over the middle of the crop. This cut should be about
1 inch long. Then make an incision about 2 of an inch
long through the wall of the crop. The distention of the
crop will cause the opening to gape, and the mass will be in
plain sight. With a buttonhook, blunt pointed scissors,
tweezers, or similar tools, take out the contents of the crop.
This done, run the finger into the crop and make sure that
there is nothing remaining to obstruct the outlet of the
organ. After this is done thoroughly wash out the empty
crop with clean warm (108° to 110° F.) water. The opening
in the wall of the crop should be closed with 3 or 4 stitches,
making each stitch by itself and tying a knot that will not
slip. Then do the same thing to the cut in the skin. For
stitches use white silk or (if nothing better can be obtained)
common cotton thread, number 60.

The above operation is not a difficult one and is usually
successful. Care should be exercised to have the hands and
instruments thoroughly clean. In sewing up the wound
care should be taken that dirt, ends of feathers, ete., are not
drawn into the wound. Chickens are quite resistant to
infection with ordinary bacteria, but the results will be
uniformly better if care is taken to exclude all chance for
infection. The edges of the skin should be well greased
with vaseline. For the first day or two it is well to feed
the bird only milk or raw eggs beaten together.

Diseases of the Alimentary Tract 61

Inflammation of the Crop

Inflammation or catarrh of the crop usually accompanies
more or less general disturbances of the digestive system.
As a result of the irritated condition of the mucous mem-
brane the functions of the crop are disturbed or arrested.
This trouble, when not due to a generally run-down condi-
tion and lack of tone, is usually caused by eating moldy or
putrid food and, especially, irritating mineral poisons.
Unslaked lime, paint skins, and common salt are some of
the more frequent causes. Worms in the crop may also
cause an inflammatory condition. It also occurs as a
complication with diphtheria, cholera, etc. Inflammation
of the crop is usually accompanied by more or less severe
inflammation of the other regions of the digestive tract.
The cause which irritates the crop also disturbs the mucous
linings of the other regions.

Diagnosis. —'The most prominent symptom is distention
of the crop, and on examination the swelling is found to be
soft and due to accumulated liquid or gas, mixed with more
or less food. The birds are dull, indisposed to move, and
there is belching of gas, loss of appetite and weakness.
Pressure upon the crop causes the expulsion through the
mouth of liquid and gas having an offensive odor, due to
fermentation.

Treatment. — The first step in the treatment of this dis-
ease is to empty the crop as completely as possible. This
can be done by holding the bird head downward and care-
fully pressing and kneading the crop. After most of the
contents have been expelled in this way give the bird several
spoonfuls of lukewarm water and then empty the crop as
before. Give a slight purgative such as a small teaspoonful
of castor oil. The bird should be kept without food for 12
to 20 hours and then fed sparingly on soft, easily digested

or

62 Diseases of Poultry

material. Two grains of subnitrate of bismuth and 4
grain of bicarbonate of soda in a teaspoonful of water will
relieve the irritation and correct the acidity. Salicylic
acid, 1 grain to an ounce of water, is also recommended.
The dose is 2 to 3 teaspoonfuls. The feeding of mucilagi-
nous fluids such as barley-water, thin solution of gum, ete., is
recommended. If the inflammation is due to eating poisons
antidotes as given farther on (Chapter VI) should be used.

If inflammation of the crop is at all general throughout
the flock an effort should be made to remove the cause. It
is well to change the feed and give the birds more exercise.
The addition of fine charcoal (small chick size) to the mash
will often be of service, as the birds eat more of it in this
way than when the charcoal is in a box by itself.

Enlarged Crop

One sometimes finds a bird with a very much enlarged,
pendulous crop. This loose baggy condition is usually
permanent, but in the majority of cases it does not cause the
bird any serious inconvenience.

The cause of this enlarged or slack crop is usually said
to be overfeeding at irregular intervals. It is probable
that overloading of the crop alone is not the only cause.
Overloading accompanied by indigestion or some general
disturbance of the digestive organs may result in a sort of
paralysis of the crop muscles. It is not improbable that
many birds showing enlarged crop have suffered with a
mild case of impaction and have finally recovered without
assistance.

An enlarged crop and an enlarged “baggy”’ abdomen are
frequently associated in the same bird. These are usually
said to be due to too heavy feeding without sufficient inter-
vals between meals and without sufficient exercise.

Diseases of the Alimentary Tract 63

Treatment. — As stated above, a “baggy” crop often
gives little or no apparent inconvenience to the fowl. In
the case of a very valuable bird it might be worth while to
operate. It is said that this defect can be remedied by
cutting out of the enlarged portion of the crop a diamond
or oval shaped piece of tissue about 2 inches long and 1
inch wide. The edges should be sewed together and treated
as directed for impacted crop (cf. p. €0). The general
surgical methods described in the chapter on Poultry Sur-
gery (Chapter X XI) should be followed.

Inflated Crop

Occasionally birds both old and young are found with
enormously inflated crops. This condition is due to the
pressure of gas forming bacteria. It is probably caused by
eating decayed food. The remedy for this trouble is first
to remove the cause and then give a mild intestinal antisep-
tic in the drinking water, such as 1 to 10,000 bichloride of
mercury or 1 to 500 carboliec acid.

DISEASES OF THE STOMACH (PROVENTRICULUS)

Inflammation of the Stomach — Gastritis

The stomach or proventriculus in fowls is a rather small
organ. It is a thick, glandular walled section of the alimen-
tary canal lying between the crop and the gizzard. Inflam-
mation of this organ is usually associated with a similar dis-
turbance of the crop. In a few cases there appears to be
inflammation of the stomach alone. Diagnosis in this case
is very difficult.

The cause of gastritis is usually regarded as the same as
that of inflammation of the crop (cf. p. 61).

-

64 Diseases of Poultry

Diagnosis. — In general the symptoms are very similar to
those in cases of inflammation of the crop (see p. 61). The
birds present the general appearance of being sick, viz.,
loss of appetite, indisposition to move and roughness of
plumage. Constipation quite often accompanies gastritis.
However, if the inflammation extends to the intestines there
may be diarrhea.

Treatment. — The most important thing in the treatment
of this kind of a disease is to ascertain and remove the cause.
Medical treatment without removal of the cause will do but
little good. The kind of food which the birds have access
to should be examined and any changes made which might
remove the cause of the trouble. The addition of fine
(chick size) charcoal to’the mash and the generous use of
good green food are recommended. For a time the birds
should be fed often, giving only a small quantity at a time.
A good cooked food is often more easily digested and will
aid in stopping the irritation. Give the birds barley water
or milk to drink, or add 20 grains of bicarbonate of soda
(baking soda) to a quart of drinking water. Rice water
to which ¢ grain of arsenite of copper to each quart has been
added is also recommended. In severe cases give 2 grains
of subnitrate of bismuth 3 times a day in a teaspoonful of
water. Counteract constipation with Epsom salts (20
grains) or castor oil (one teaspoonful) once a day as long
as may be necessary.

DISEASES OF THE INTESTINES

Simple Diarrhea

In many fowls a condition of mild diarrhea is chronic
throughout the lifetime of the bird. Again birds often
acquire a slight diarrhea which will last for a longer or

Diseases of the Alimentary Tract 65

shorter time, but never becoming severe. In either of these
cases the bird shows no symptoms of disease other than the
watery droppings. No doubt such attacks are in some de-
gree detrimental to the best health of the bird. In most
eases of this simple diarrhea the bird will recover without
any treatment. Nevertheless the careful poultryman will
watch his dropping boards for signs of “looseness.”” When
such are found in any quantity the methods of feeding and
housing should be carefully examined to see if the cause does
not lie in them.

The normal droppings of a fowl are almost dry and retain
the shape in which they are voided. They are easily re-
moved from the dropping board and leave little or no stain.
About 3 of the normal dropping cofisists of a whitish sub-
stance. This is the uric acid and urates excreted by the
kidneys and removed from the cloaca along with the feces.

One not infrequently finds droppings which are more
watery than the normal. These have a tendency to stain
the dropping boards and do not retain the shape in which
they are voided. This condition is best described as “ loose-
ness”? and is quite different from true diarrhea. Looseness
is not accompanied by offensive odors. Looseness of the
bowels may be caused by a large number of things, such as a
slight change of food, an additional amount or a new kind of
green food, ete. Some individual birds appear to void loose,
slightly watery droppings throughout life. Such individual
differences are not uncommon among other animals.

Looseness of the bowels is a condition which need cause
no alarm, but when droppings are found which are sticky
or liquid in consistency and have a yellow brown or greenish
color accompanied by an offensive odor it is time to look
after the cause. The evacuations described above indicate
some form of true diarrhea. Very often the watery evacua-
tions contain mucus and in the more severe cases small clots

F

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66 Diseases of Poultry

of blood. A true diarrhea is nearly always shown by the
soiling of the bird’s feathers.

Diarrhea may result simply from an upsetting of the
digestive organs due to improper feeding or it may be a
symptom of some more serious disease. Simple diarrhea
may arise from the presence of indigestible matter in the
alimentary canal, it may be due to exposure to heavy rains
or to drafts in the roosting house. In the latter cases a
cold develops which affects the bowels rather than the head
and lungs. Diarrhea from colds occurs much more fre-
quently than is generally supposed. This form of diarrhea
can often be recognized by the greater amount of frothy
mucus in the excrement. Young stock are much more sus-
ceptible to diarrhea from colds than are adult birds.

Among other common causes of simple diarrhea may be
mentioned soured or decomposing food, too much green
food at irregular times, too free use of animal food, allowing
the birds access to water which has become soiled with ex-
crement and allowed to stand in the hot sun until about
putrid. .Whatever may be the inducing factor the imme-
diate cause is excessive bacterial fermentation in the alimen-
tary canal.

Treatment. — Simple diarrhea will usually require no
treatment other than removing the original cause. This
latter is by far the more important thing to be done. If
neglected, the condition may become chronic and may result
in more serious disturbances of the alimentary system. It
is often beneficial to replace part of the bran in the mash
with middlings or low grade flour. Where in addition medi-
cal treatment seems desirable the first thing to do is to
remove the fermenting material from the intestinal canal.
This can be done with Epsom salts, using a small half tea-
spoonful to each bird. This should be dissolved in water
and used to mix the mash. If more convenient, a teaspoon-

Diseases of the Alimentary Tract 67

ful of castor oil may be given each bird. If the diarrhea
is persistent, 3 to 6 drops of chlorodyne is said to be an
unfailing cure.

Enteritis — Dysentery

For practical purposes we may associate most of the severer
forms of diarrhea with the above names. Simple diarrhea
was defined as either a temporary or chronic affection of the
intestines from which the bird appeared to suffer but little.
Practically its only symptom is the watery or discolored
discharge. Under the names of enteritis, dysentery or
severe diarrhea there are listed several of the more serious
infections of the intestines. From the medical standpoint
enteritis is the name given to affections of the small intes-
tines, while dysentery is applied to the disease in the large
intestine. The latter is usually accompanied by mucous
and bloody discharges. In the diseases of poultry, how-
ever, it is hardly necessary for any one other than a patholo-
gist to distinguish between these different forms.

Etiology. — A variety of causes are responsible for these
more acute forms of intestinal trouble. It may be a bacterial
infection coming from filthy conditions. Foul drinking
water, putrid meat or decaying food of any sort may be pre-
disposing causes. ‘Toxic enteritis or poisoning is caused by
the birds eating such things as paint skins, lye, unslaked
lime, salt, ergot of rye, arsenic and copper (in spraying
mixtures) (cf. p. 81). Further simple diarrhea may develop
into the more acute form. This latter is due to improper
food, water or housing, and is probably closely associated
with bacterial enteritis. Various intestinal parasites may
cause severe diarrhea.

Diagnosis. —It is often very difficult to distinguish
between the different infections of the intestines in the living
birds. In all these cases the birds are inactive and appear

_

68 Diseases of Poultry

sleepy. The comb is often pale and bleached in the earlier
stages but becomes dark purplish red later. Usually the
birds will not eat, but occasionally they show an abnormal
appetite. There is always a marked diarrhea which may
rary in color from whitish to greenish brown or red. In
the more severe cases blood clots are found. These differ-
ences in the appearance of the discharges indicate to some
extent which portions of the alimentary tract are involved
in the disease. In the majority of cases the birds will be
sick for many days or weeks before death takes place.
Post-mortem examination shows usually an enlarged liver
and spleen. If the bird has been sick for a long time the
liver may appear shrunken. ‘The intestines are full of mucus
and inflamed.

Treatment. — If possible the cause of the trouble should
be ascertained and removed. This is by all means the first
and most important step to take. It is useless to spend
valuable time in doctoring sick birds while the conditions
which gave rise to the trouble are still present. In bacterial
enteritis sick birds should be removed from the flock as soon
as noticed. Houses and runs should be cleaned up and
disinfected. Drinking vessels and food troughs should be
scalded daily. Potassium permanganate should be used in
the drinking water (cf. p. 25). Mix powdered charcoal with
the mash. Feed less bran and more middlings in the mash.
Do not feed too heavily.

After attending to the above hygienic measures the birds
should be given a good physic. A teaspoonful of Epsom
salts to each fowl, dissolved in water and mixed in the mash,
is the most convenient way of treating a large number of
birds.

For medical treatment the following may be recommended :
Subnitrate of bismuth, 3 grains; powdered cinnamon or
cloves, 1 grain; powdered willow charcoal, 3 grains. Give

Diseases of the Alimentary Tract 69

twice a day mixed with food or made into pills with flour
and water.

Subnitrate of bismuth, 3 grains; bicarbonate of soda, 1
grain; powdered cinchona bark, 2 grains; mix and give 3
times a day in a paste made with wheat flour. When di-
arrhea is arrested, bismuth and soda are no longer needed.

It is often worth while to give a good tonic or condition
powder to aid the birds in getting their digestive organs in
order again. The following tonic is recommended by
Salmon: Powdered fennel, anise, coriander, and cinchona —
each 30 grains; powdered gentian and ginger each 1 dram,
powdered sulphate of iron, 15 grains. Mix and give in the
feed so that each fowl will get 2 to 14 grains twice a day.
(For another tonic see p. 71.)

Constipation

Constipation occurs in adult fowls far less often than
diarrhea. It frequently passes unnoticed unless very
severe. This trouble is much more common in young stock
than in grown birds. In adult fowls it often occurs in con-
nection with indigestion, gastritis, or peritonitis. Among
the specific causes of constipation lack of exercise and lack
of green food are probably the most important. Occasion-
ally intestinal worms will accumulate until they block the
intestine. Sometimes following a diarrhea the vent will
become obstructed with dried evacuation. This is partic-
ularly apt to occur in young birds which do not roost. It
is one of the symptoms of white diarrhea.

The symptoms of constipation are painful and ineffective
efforts to evacuate the bowels. In the worst cases the vent
becomes completely plugged with dry, hard feces. The
birds appear dull, listless and without appetite.

Treatment. — When the vent is plugged with dried feces

all

70 Diseases of Poultry

the first thing to be done is to remove this. This can usually
be done by soaking the mass with warm soapsuds. As soon
as this is loosened a little the feathers can be clipped and the
entire mass removed. If the case is of long standing the
cloaca may also be filled with hard excrement. This can
sometimes be softened by injecting warm soapsuds or a
little olive or sweet oil. In all cases a purgative should be
given such as castor oil, Epsom salts or calomel.

Indigestion

Birds frequently suffer from disorders of the digestive
system which are not easily classified under any of the
diseases so far treated. Simple indigestion or dyspepsia
most frequently results from overfeeding, and the feeding of
ground grains and meat without sufficient green food are
some of the causes usually given.

Symptoms. —'The birds are dull and listless. They are
inclined to sit on the roosts, and usually have but little
appetite. Occasionally birds suffering from indigestion have
an abnormal appetite and will eat ravenously quantities
-of foods which furnish but little nourishment, ¢.g., grit.
Indigestion is often accompanied by either constipation or
diarrhea. In the latter case the symptoms are similar to
those described under simple diarrhea (p. 64).

Treatment. —In treating indigestion it is important to
observe the general rules of hygiene (cf. Chapter II). The
house should be clean and as free from dust as possible.
Sunshine should be able to reach every corner of the pens.
The water dishes should be kept thoroughly clean and the
supply of water should be kept pure and fresh. Use potas-
sium permanganate in the drinking water as directed on
p. 25. Use well balanced rations and feed at regular
hours. Put fine (chick size) charcoal into the mash in

ee BA ae

Diseases of the Alimentary Tract 71

considerable quantity. Enough should be used to make
the mash decidedly black. This is a very important meas-
ure for the treatment of indigestion. Give the birds plenty
of exercise. A small amount of a good stock tonic may
help to bring the birds back into proper vigor. The follow-
ing formula has frequently been used with good success.

Pulverized Gential.... .. 4.2.2 <n es Lib:
Pall verimed Ginger se, |... iy kan eee zillst
Pulverizedoaltpeter... .)... <c.. > eae + lb.
Pulverized Tron Sulphate: ........... 4.5% ay ilo

These substances can be procured from any drug store and
mixed by the poultryman. Use 2 to 3 tablespoonfuls of the
tonic to 10 quarts of dry mash.

Recovery from indigestion may also be hastened by the
following treatment. For the first week after the trouble
has been discovered add one teaspoonful of Epsom salts
to each quart of drinking water. Follow this for two weeks
with } grain of ‘strychnine to each quart of drinking water.

Coccidiosis

This disease is produced by small protozoan parasites
which attack various regions of the intestinal tract. There
are a large number of different species of “coccidia’’ which
frequently attack birds and the smaller mammals, such as
rabbits, rats, and mice. They are very destructive to young
birds and are said by some investigators to be the cause of
one form of white diarrhea in young chickens (see Chapter
XVIII).

Many different species of birds are attacked by coccidiosis.
Pigeons are particularly liable to the disease, and are fre-
quently responsible for the outbreaks in the poultry yards.
The transmission of the contagion from diseased to healthy

all

72 Diseases of Poultry

birds occurs by contamination of the food, water, gravel,
and other substances taken into the digestive organs. The
coceidia multiply with great rapidity in the intestines of
diseased birds, and enormous numbers are discharged with
the droppings and are carried on the birds’ feet to the feed
troughs and drinking fountains unless these are well pro-
tected and of such form that they cannot be reached by the
feet. Under any circumstances they are spread over the
floor of the houses and the surface of the runs, and many will
be picked up with gravel, grain, and other substances. The
germs are found in the part of the small intestine nearest
to the gizzard, where they cause inflammation, with redness
and thickening of the intestinal wall. They are also found
in the ceca, which are frequently thickened and distended
with a whitish, yellowish, or greenish yellow, pasty mass.
After two or three weeks the disease may extend to the liver
and lungs, where it is recognized by whitish or yellowish
spots or by large cheesy nodules. Geese are attacked by
another species, which causes nodules in the kidneys.

The life history of a coccidium is very complicated, yet
in order to combat this parasite most successfully it is neces-
sary to know something of its life history. Figure 8 repre-
sents the different stages in the life history of one of these
parasites. If one should examine with a microscope the
contents of one of the ceca of a bird which died with a form
of coccidiosis he would find forms somewhat like No. 1
in the figure.

These are the odcysts or permanent cysts of the coccid-
ium. The membrane around the outside of this cyst is
very tough and will withstand almost all methods of disin-
fection. It will live and even grow in sulphuric acid. It
‘an be killed, however, by drying. The size of one of these
cysts is between gsigo9 and gy/oq inch. If this cyst is placed
under the right conditions for development the first step is

Diseases of the Alimentary Tract 73

for the protoplasm to divide into four spherical bodies which
are called sporoblasts (Fig. 8, 2). Each of these sporoblasts

Fig. 8. — Diagrammatic representation of the life history of a coccidium. (After Cole
and Hadley.)

then divides into two sickle-shaped sporozoids (cf. Fig. 8, 3
and 4). These sporozoids are then set free in the intestinal

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74 Diseases of Poultry

tract (4a) and each one penetrates with its pointed end an
epithelial cell of the intestine as at 5. In the figure 5a,
5b, 5c, 6 and 6a, represent the succeeding stages of growth
of the organism within the intestinal cell. As shown in
6a and 7, the parasite grows so large that it completely fills
the cell. Finally these cells are broken down and torn off
the intestinal wall. The stage of the parasite shown at 6a
and 7 is known as the schizont. The next step is for the
schizont to break up into a larger number of sharp pointed
bodies as shown at 7a. These escape and enter other epi-
thelial cells just as the somewhat similar bodies did at 5.
At this point the organism may do one of two things. The
small sporozoids from 7a may develop exactly as_ the
sporozoids did from 5 to 7. This part of the life cycle, as
shown by the shorter arrow from 7a to 5, may be repeated
any number of times.

If, however, the conditions are not very good, 7.e., the
bird is about to die, the sporozoids undergo an entirely dif-
ferent development, as shown at numbers 7 to 15 (Fig. 8).
Here the sporozoids enter the epithelial cells and some de-
velop into very large (egg) cells (female element), as shown in
Sa. Others, 9a and 10a, form a very large number of minute
motile zooids or sperms (male element) which unite with
one or more of the large egg cells as shown at 11. After
this sexual union there is developed the odcyst like No. 1,
with which we started. At all stages of this disease many
of these cysts are carried to the outside with the feces
and upon being picked up serve to infect other birds.
Death is caused by the parasite attacking so many of
the intestinal cells that the bird is no longer able to digest
its food.

Other species of coccidia have different life cycles. Some
are simpler and some more complex than the example
given above.

Diseases of the Alimentary Tract 75

Cole and Hadley ' have advanced the claim that Black-
head (Hnterohepatitis) is caused by a species of coccidium.
This view is not admitted by others. (For discussion see
pp. 94-99). Coccidia are, however, responsible for several
serious diseases of poultry.

The question of the identity of species of coccidia attack-
ing fowls, wild birds, and other animals has received con-
siderable attention. Fantham” has shown that the coccid-
ium of the grouse which causes the dwindling of the broods
in the early summer is equally injurious to young fowls and
pigeons. Some authors have claimed that the coccidium
of the rabbit (Eimeria (Coccidium) cuniculi) is identical
with that in birds. Fantham gives the results of experi-
ments which show that the organism from rabbits is entirely
distinct from that found in birds (Eimeria avium) and that
the former will not cause disease in birds. A similar con-
clusion is reached by Jewett * except that he believes that
under certain conditions the coccidium from rabbits can
also produce disease in young chicks.

Diagnosis. — There are no special external symptoms of
this disease until in an advanced stage. Adult fowls have
considerable powers of resistance to this parasite, and the
disease with them is more frequently seen in diarrhea,
a chronic form. The symptoms are dullness, weakness,
sleepiness, diarrhea, and loss of weight, although the birds
retain their appetites for a considerable time. In many
cases the only symptoms are diarrhea, with loss of weight,

1 Cole, L. J., and Hadley, P. B., ‘‘ Blackhead in Turkeys.’ Rhode
Island Expt. Stat. Bul. No. 141, pp. 138-272, 1910.

2Fantham, H. B., ‘‘Coccidiosis in British Game Birds and
Poultry.’ Jour. Economic Biology, Vol. 6, pp. 75-96, 1911.

—— ‘Experimental Studies of Avian Coecidiosis.’’ Proc. Zodl.
Soc., London, Vol. 3, pp. 708-722, 1910.

3 Jewett, ‘‘Coccidiosis of the Fowl and Calf.” Jour. Comp.
Path. and Therap., Vol. 24, pp. 207-225, 1911.

76 Diseases of Poultry

and after a time apparent recovery, though the germs con-
tinue to multiply in the intestine and to be spread with the
droppings for several months afterwards. Fowls affected
in this manner may die suddenly without previously showing
any serious symptoms. Post-mortem examination often
shows the liver enlarged and disfigured with whitish or
yellowish spots. The ceca are inflamed and often clogged
with pus and fecal matter.

Pigeons are affected with a more acute type of this disease
in which the symptoms appear only a short time before
death. Generally, however, they are dull and sleepy for a
day or two, and sometimes they have a chronic form, char-
acterized by diarrhea and loss of weight.

Geese with coccidiosis of the kidneys lose flesh rapidly,
without apparent cause, and become very weak and almost
unable to walk. They remain quiet most of the time, with
belly resting upon the ground. Some of them are con-
spicuous by lying on their backs with their feet widely
separated, and if placed upon their feet they take a few
steps, fall, and resume their former position. In all such
cases the birds lose their appetites and continue to get
weaker until they die.

Treatment. — Medical treatment of coccidiosis is of very
little avail in the present state of our knowledge. Isolation,
cleanliness and disinfection are probably the most depend-
able treatment. Meyer and Crocker! claim that in an
outbreak of coccidiosis in which nearly 1800 chickens died
in from 3 to 6 weeks they had no success with any of the
medical treatments used. They state that the epidemic
was finally eradicated by isolation, disinfection and clean-
liness.

1 Meyer, K. F., and Crocker, W. J., ‘‘Some Experiments on

Medical Treatment of Coccidiosis in Chickens.’”’ Amer. Vet. Re-
view, Vol. 43, pp. 497-507, 1913.

Diseases of the Alimentary Tract 77

Cole and Hadley ! recommend for treatment of this dis-
ease in connection with blackhead in turkeys the following :
“(1) Isolate the sick bird from the flock and place it in a
dry, well lighted location free from cold and drafts. (2)
Feed sparingly on soft, light, easily assimilable food, with
little grain, especially corn.” The chief preventive
measures are to keep the birds on fresh ground; to isolate
any birds showing the least sign of disease, to destroy all
dead birds and to protect the birds from contamination car-
ried either by new stock or by other poultry or by wild birds
as sparrows, crows, etc.

According to Salmon? the most successful treatment has
been to put 3 grains of copperas (sulphate of iron) to a
quart, or 15 grains of catechu to a gallon of the water given
the birds to drink. They should also be given an occasional
dose of calomel (2 to 1 grain) or of castor oil (2 to 3 teaspoon-
fuls). They may also be given castor oil containing 5 to
10 drops of oil of turpentine with each dose.

Peritonitis

The thin serous membrane which lines the abdominal
cavity and covers the internal organs is called the peritoneum.
Inflammation of this membrane may occur in connection with
the inflammation of certain internal organs such as the intes-
tines, liver, kidneys, etc. In these cases the inflammation
extends from the diseased organs on to the wall of the body
cavity. Peritonitis may also be caused by the entrance of
foreign bodies into the abdominal cavity. It may further
be caused by severe bruises or injuries of the abdominal
wall.

1 Loc. cit.
2Salmon, D. E., ‘‘Important Poultry Disease.”’ U. S. Dept.
of Agric. Farmers’ Bull. No. 530, pp. 1-36, 1913.

o

78 Diseases of Poultry

Peritonitis probably always follows the entrance of fecal
matter into the body cavity through perforation of the
intestines. Perforations may be caused by severe inflamma-
tion of the intestinal walls, or by the puncturing of the wall
by parasitic round worms or other parasites, or by sharp
pointed foreign bodies pushing through. Birds have a
pernicious habit of picking up bright pieces of metal, glass,
ete. Cases of peritonitis have occurred in the Maine Agri-
cultural Experiment Station flock which were caused by
the entrance of partly digested food from the gizzard through
a perforation caused by a small nail, a watch spring or a pin.

By far the largest number of cases of peritonitis which
have occurred in the Maine Station flock, however, have
been associated with the failure of yolks to enter the oviduct
or with the backing of partly formed eggs into the body cavity.
Somewhat extensive studies! have shown that even when
it is impossible for yolks to enter the oviduct the reproduc-
tive organs pass through their normal active cycles. The
yolks are ovulated into the body cavity. Further if yolks
can enter the oviduct, but if their passage is prevented at
some level of the duct, either the partly formed egg remains
in the duct forming immense masses (concrements) or they
are carried back into the body cavity by antiperistalsis.
These studies have shown that in about three-fourths of the
experimental cases the birds are able to absorb these yolks

1 Pearl, R., and Curtis, M. R., ‘‘Studies on the Physiology of
Reproduction in the Domestic Fowl,’”’ VIII. On some Physiolog-
ical Effects of Ligation, Section or Removal of the Oviduct. Jour.
Expt. Zoél., Vol. 17, pp. 395-424, 1914.

—— ‘Studies on the Physiology of Reproduction in the Domes-
tie Fowl,’ X. Further Data on Somatic and Genetic Sterility.
Jour. Exp. Zodl., 1915.

Curtis, M. R., ‘‘Studies on the Physiology of Reproduction in the
Domestic Fowl.’”’ XII. On an Abnormality of the Oviduect and
its Effect upon Reproduction. Biol. Bul., Vol. XXVIII, pp. 154—
163, 1915.

Diseases of the Alimentary Tract 79

or eggs without any serious disturbance in their metabolic
processes. Several cases have also occurred where sup-
posedly normal birds were absorbing large numbers of yolks
or eggs. These birds were in apparently perfect physical
condition. The lumen of the duct was interrupted by fusion
of the funnel lips; development of a tumor within the duct,
rupture of the duct, or failure of a portion of the duct to
develop.

Nevertheless in about one-fourth of the experimental
cases, and in many natural cases of obstruction to the duct,
death results from peritonitis, which is apparently caused
by the failure of the peritoneum to resorb the yolks or eggs.

Diagnosis. — The sick birds appear restless and lose their
appetite. There is a high fever. The abdomen is swollen,
hot and tender. Pressure on the abdomen produces evi-
dence of sharp pain. Usually, but not always, a severe thirst
accompanies peritonitis. As the disease progresses the bird
becomes weaker, is unable to stand and the legs are drawn
up close to the bedy often with convulsive movements.

Post-mortem examination shows the peritoneum con-
gested and covered with an opaque whitish or yellowish
exudate. This gives it the appearance of being thicker
than usual. In some cases quite large quantities of yellowish
cheesy matter (pus) are formed. This may be in free lumps
or masses or may adhere in a thin layer to the surface of
the peritoneum. The abdomen sometimes contains a yellow-
ish turbid serous liquid which may have an offensive odor.

Treatment and Prognosis. — Only very seldom is treat-
ment for peritonitis successful. The disease is not usually
recognized until in an advanced stage. Ziirn! recommends
wrapping parts of the bird in wet cloths and to give inter-
nally tincture of aconite, 2 drops (at the most) with a tea-

1Zirn, F.A., ““Die Krankheiten des Hausgefliigel.’’ Weimar,
pp. 237, 1882.

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80 Diseases of Poultry

spoonful of water 2 or 3 times a day. Sanborn recommends
1 grain opium pills twice a day to relieve pain, and warm
liquid foods such as meat juice and milk in equal parts.

Abdominal Dropsy or Ascites

Etiology. — This disease is sometimes called chronic
peritonitis. It is characterized by the accumulation of a
large quantity of liquid in the abdominal cavity. In some
cases the abdomen becomes so distended that it nearly or
quite touches the ground when the bird is standing. Salmon
says: “Ifexamined by slight pressure of the hand the swell-
ing is found to be soft and fluctuating; it will yield in one
place and cause greater distention at another. That is,
it gives the sensation of sac filled with liquid.”

Abdominal dropsy may begin with a mild case of peri-
tonitis which has continued for a long time without becoming
serious. In young chicks it is said to be due to an anemic
condition produced by bad feeding and insanitary conditions.
In older birds it may also result from this same cause or may
be due to some obstruction of the venous circulation either by
a tumor or by some structural disease of the abdominal organs.

Diagnosis. — The most marked symptom, of course, is
the enlarged, flabby abdomen. Salmon says: “Fowls
affected in this way are dull, disinclined to move, generally
feeble with pale comb and diminished appetite.”

Treatment. — “Treatment of this condition is not profit-
able, but in special cases, stimulating diet with considerable
animal food, tonics and diuretics may be tried. Iodide
of potassium or iodide of iron in doses of 1 grain is particu-
larly indicated.” (Salmon.) Tapping with a hollow needle
or trocar through the skin and muscles of the abdomen
and allowing the fluid to escape is also recommended. It
will usually be found more profitable to kill the bird.

h

/

CHAPTER VI
POISONS

Pouttry on free range about farms and especially on small
city lots often obtain poisonous substances. Most of the
poisons obtained by fowls are the so-called mineral poisons.
The chief symptom of poisoning by these substances is
acute inflammation of the digestive tract. The narcotic
or vegetable poisons on the other hand cause severe conges-
tion of the blood vessels in the spinal cord and brain.

Among the principal poisons likely to affect poultry may
be mentioned the following :

Common Salt, Nitrate of Soda, Concentrated Lyes

Common salt is most frequently obtained in excessive
amounts from eating salt meat or fish. Suffrarh! reports
a case in which fowls were poisoned by being fed a mash
made of potatoes to which salt had been added. Milk and
other liquids, prescribed after 13 had succumbed, resulted
in the recovery of the 2 remaining. Chemical analysis of the
food in the crops showed that each bird had taken from 10
to 14 grams of salt. From experiments instituted to deter-
mine the minimum toxic dose of salt it is concluded that a dose
of 4 grams per kilogram (about 7's 0z. per pound) of body

1 Suffram, F., Rev. Gen. Médecin Veterinaire, I. 13, pp. 698-705,
1909.

G 81

n /
/

82 Diseases of Poultry

weight is sufficient to produce death. The fact that in
these experiments one fowl resisted such a dose is thought
to have been due to a certain toleration established by pre-
vious repeated injections of smaller doses. Ziirn! gives a
somewhat larger amount as fatal. He says that 15 to 30
grams (3 to 1 oz.) of common salt will kill a healthy hen in
from 8 to 12 hours.

The writers had, some years ago, a rather serious experi-
ence with salt poisoning. In this case the salt was mixed
with wheat, probably as a result of the latter following the
former as a cargo in the hold of a vessel. A number of
birds died, and the whole flock was made rather seriously
ill before the cause was discovered.

Nitrate of soda is used as a fertilizer and is eaten by hens
along with worms, etec., which they scratch up. Lye is
obtained only when carelessly left about the grounds. The
treatment for such poisons according to Salmon is to give
“abundant mucilaginous drinks such as infusion of flaxseed,
together with stimulants, strong coffee and brandy being
particularly useful.”

Arsenic may be obtained either from rat poison or from
various arsenical sprays used to kill insects. Copper is
used in such spraying mixtures as Bordeaux. Where spray-
ing has been done properly there should be no danger of the
birds getting enough of the poison to injure them. Some-
times, however, the vessels containing the mixtures are
emptied within range of the fowls or the substances are
handled carelessly in other ways.

The symptoms of arsenic poisoning are given by Beeck?
as follows: “Secretion of large quantities of saliva, choking,
hiccoughing, great anxiety and nervousness, little or no

1 Ziirn, F. A., ‘‘Die Krankheiten des Hausgefliigel.”’
2“ Die Federviehzucht,’’ 1908, p. 828.

Powsons 82

appetite, thin, often bloody feces, slow and difficult breath-
ing, unsteady walk, trembling and convulsions, expansion of
the pupils. Death ordinarily occurs in a very short time.”
Treatment should be with sulphate of iron, calcined magnesia,
or large quantities of milk. Salmon also recommends white
of egg and flaxseed mucilage.

The special symptom of copper poisoning is diarrhea, the
copper giving a blue or green color to the feces. Evidence
of violent pain may follow with collapse, convulsions or

paralysis. The circulation and respiration are weak.
Usually fatal in a few hours. Large quantities of milk,
white of egg, mucilage, and sugar water are recommended.

Lead and zine poisoning occur chiefly from eating paint
skins. The symptoms so far as they have been observed in
poultry do not differ greatly from those seen in copper
poisoning. The treatment recommended by Salmon is the
same as for copper. With lead poisoning the sulphates of
soda, potash or magnesia are recommended with the object
of forming insoluble sulphate of lead.

Mercury Poisoning. — Mercury poisoning occurs chiefly
through drinking bichloride (perchloride or corrosive sub-
limate) solution or eating mercurial ointment. The bi-
chloride solution is a common antiseptic and is sometimes
carelessly left where the birds have access to it. Ammoni-
ated mercurial ointment is used to free the birds from lice
(cf. p. 205). It is sometimes left where birds can get at the
supply. More frequently poisoning results from the too
free application of the ointment. If it is left in lumps on
the feathers the birds will eat it. In man mercury poison-
ing is known to occur from too frequent or too long con-
tinued use of bichloride as a disinfectant, especially for
large wounds. In the fowl it is not probable that such
extensive treatment ever occurs. It is possible, though very
unlikely, that poisoning due to ammoniated mercurial oint-

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84 Diseases of Poultry

ment may sometimes occur through the absorption from the
skin. An excessive amount would have to be applied to
cause such a result. As the mercury in this ointment is in
an insoluble form it is much less likely to such absorption
than is the bichloride.

The symptoms of mercurial poisoning are loss of appetite
and frequent and sometimes bloody dysentery discharges
from the bowels. At autopsy the mucosa of the whole
intestinal tract is seen to be inflamed. The renal tubules
of the kidneys are filled with a whitish crystalline deposit
and the kidneys thus appear somewhat hypertrophied.
Give large quantities of white of egg, milk, mucilage or flour
and water.

Phosphorus may be obtained from rat poisons or from heads
of matches. If large quantities of phosphorus are eaten by
the bird severe inflammation of the stomach and intestine
occurs and death results in from 1 to 2 hours. If only a
small quantity is eaten the symptoms, according to Beeck,
are weakness, languor, ruffled feathers, lack of appetite.

Strychnine is usually obtained by poultry from rat poisons.
The distinctive symptoms here, according to Beeck, are the
twisting of the spinal column and paralysis. The neck is
twisted backward so that the head is often held over the
rump. The treatment recommended by Beeck is to give
inhalations of chloroform or internally 1 to 3 grains of
chloral hydrate dissolved in 2 tablespoonfuls of water. The
amount to be given depends on the size of the bird.

Ergot of Rye is one of the vegetable poisons which some-
times causes serious trouble among poultry. Thisis especially
true in European countries. In this country so little rye
is raised and fed to poultry that there is little chance for
poisoning. The cause of the poisoning is a fungus which
attacks the rye plants. The symptoms of ergot poisoning are
trembling, intoxication, great weakness and gangrene of the

Poisons 85

comb, beak and tongue. The treatment is to give strong
stimulants such as “brandy, coffee, camphor or quinine.”

Fowls are occasionally injured by eating the leaves of
poisonous plants. ‘The sense of taste, however, protects the
birds in most cases. Mr. H. B. Green! says in this con-
nection: “ Woodlands and fields abound in poisonous plants,
and yet it is seldom, except in the case of birds that have
been starved of green food and have become ravenous for
it, that fowls ever succumb to vegetable poisons as thus
obtained. Protection apparently lies in the fact that un-
desirable plants have repulsive flavors. Especially in sub-
urban poultry keeping, danger arises when flower borders
are weeded, seedlings thinned out, and plant rubbish swept
up, if the resulting collection is thoughtlessly given to fowls
in confined runs. Such birds are generally always ready for
green food in any form and in their eagerness to satiate the
craving the bad is often taken in with the good.”

Ptomaine Poisoning

Fowls are subject to ptomaine poisoning. The cause of
this is, of course, feeding spoiled or decayed food. Cases of
this trouble are more frequent in small flocks where table
waste is fed to a comparatively few birds.

Diagnosis. — The more common symptoms of ptomaine
poisoning in fowls are: at first an unsteady gait showing
lack of control (partial paralysis) of the muscles. If the
birds are badly poisoned, prostration comes quickly. The
birds lie in a relaxed condition with head and neck curled
towards the breast. The comb turns black. In some cases
there is a diarrheal discharge, occasionally bloody. Death
usually occurs in a short time. In some respects the symp-

1 Tllus. Poultry Record, Vol. I, p. 689.

_

S6 Diseases of Poultry

toms are similar to those of “limber neck” (see page
202).

Post-mortem examination shows a congestion of the liver,
intestines and kidneys.

Treatment. —If the trouble is recognized in time the
birds should be given a teaspoonful of castor oil. Follow
this with sulphate of strychnine in doses of one-fifth grain
every five hours.

Treatment for Poisons in General

In the great majority of cases a poisoned bird is not dis-
covered until too late for treatment. Even if found it is
usually not worth the poultryman’s time to treat individual
birds. The symptoms of the different poisons have been
given in some detail with the hope that they may enable
the poultryman to distinguish the kind of poisoning which
they may encounter and may thus be able to remove the
source of the trouble before other birds are affected. In the
case of valuable birds the remedies indicated for the different
poisons may aid in saving some of them.

CHAPTER VII

DISEASES OF THE LIVER

A LARGE number of diseases of the liver are described by
writers on this subject. In the great majority of these
diseases there are no external symptoms by which one can
be told from another. The most common diseases which
affect the liver may, for the moment, be divided into two
rough classes which it is highly important for the poultry-
man to distinguish. These again can only be distinguished
in dead birds, but the occurrence of cases of either kind in
any number gives the poultryman a clew as to what the
trouble may be and a chance to correct it. In the first of
these two classes a post-mortem examination shows the
liver covered with nodules of a cheesy-like appearance when
opened. These nodules occur not only in the liver, but also
in the spleen, intestine and other organs and sometimes in
these latter regions without affecting the liver at all. With
such symptoms we may be fairly certain that the trouble is
tuberculosis and for a further discussion of this the reader
is referred to Chapter IX.

In the second class of these diseases the liver is usually
greatly enlarged, although in some cases it is shrunken and
smaller than normal. With some of these diseases the liver
may be spotted or marbled, but the condition is quite dif-
ferent from the cheesy nodules found in tuberculosis.

It is to this second class of diseases that the name “liver
disease”’ properly belongs. “Liver disease”? as popularly

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88 Diseases of Poultry

interpreted includes a number of different diseases distin-
guished by the pathologist. ‘The more common are: Con-
gestion of the Liver, Inflammation of the Liver, Atrophy of
the Liver, Hypertrophy or Enlargement of the Liver, Fatty
Degeneration of the Liver, and Jaundice.

The diagnosis of these different diseases is based entirely
on the post-mortem appearances. In no one of them are
there any outward symptoms which distinguish it from the
others. Vale says it is impossible for the most scientific
observer to diagnose either inflammation or congestion of
the liver with positive certainty.

Further not only the symptoms, but also the causes and
the treatments of these several diseases are essentially the
same. The names of the diseases themselves indicate in a
general way the post-mortem appearances.

For these reasons it seems best to give a brief discussion
of the general causes of “liver disease”’ and the usual treat-
ment. This will be followed by a brief account of each
disease and its special symptoms and treatment, if any.

Cause of Liver Disease. — Lack of exercise and over-feed-
ing, especially with rich albuminous foods, are the most
common causes of diseases of the liver. In addition to
these may be mentioned the obstruction of the circulation
of the blood by disease of the heart and lungs. Congestion
of the liver may be caused by any disease of the crop, giz-
zard or bowels that obstructs the circulation of the blood.

Undoubtedly the larger proportion of liver troubles
results from improper feeding and housing. It is a common
experience that complaints are more frequent in the latter
part of the winter. The birds have been housed for some
time without sufficient exercise and fed rich nitrogenous
food. These causes operate slowly and since there are no
outward symptoms of liver disease the poultryman is usually
unaware of any trouble until his birds begin dying in the

Diseases of the Liver 89

early spring. The conditions have then continued so long
that it is often difficult to counteract them. This point
emphasizes the necessity of keeping the flock under sanitary
and healthful conditions.

Diagnosis of Liver Disease. —'There are no special external
symptoms. Some of the symptoms which often accom-
pany these disturbances are: rough plumage, watery
diarrhea, first brownish, then yellow; lack of appetite
and indisposition to move. The comb may be purplish at
first, becoming dark and then quite black. These, however,
are all merely symptoms of disease in general that might
apply to any one of a dozen or more ailments. The only
certain method of recognizing the disease is by post-mor-
tem examination. Every poultryman should be familiar
enough with the normal appearance of the more important
internal organs of a fowl to recognize abnormal appearances
(see pp. 43-46). In general, when post-mortem examina-
tion shows the liver larger or smaller than normal, or con-
gested with blood, or marbled, or spotted, we may assume
that the bird probably had some form of liver disease. Of
course, a diseased condition of the liver is often associated
with other diseases, especially of the alimentary canal.
Other organs should be examined in all cases to see if they
are normal. Special care should be taken to distinguish
tuberculosis from other diseased conditions of the liver and
intestines.

Treatment. — Since it is not possible to recognize diseases
of the liver by external symptoms, the treatment of indi-
vidual birds is out of the question. If, however, post-mor-
tem examinations show that a number of the birds are
dying with liver trouble it is necessary to take some remedial
measures regarding the entire flock.

The first thing that should be done is to change the diet.
Less meat scrap and other nitrogenous food should be fed.

ie
90 Diseases of Poultry

Less corn should be given and more green food added to the
ration. The birds should be compelled to exercise more.
If it is at all possible they should be gotten out of doors part
of each day. They should have plenty of fresh air day and
night.

These general remedial measures are only those which
should be practiced at all times as a matter of general
hygiene. When a flock has once become badly affected with
some form of liver disease it cannot be expected that the
changed conditions will remedy all of the trouble at once.
The causes which have led to the diseased condition have
been acting for a long time and it is only reasonable to expect
that it will take some time to get the birds back into normal
health again. Some birds will continue to become sick and
die, even several weeks after the corrective measures have
been put into operation. Robinson! advises disposing of
the entire flock when they have been through a serious
attack of liver disease and replacing them with healthy stock.
This seems to be a more drastic measure than necessary
unless the attack has been very bad indeed. Many other
things, such as the value of the particular strain, the possi-
bility of replacing the flock with as well bred birds, ete.,
should be considered.

With regard to the special diseases already mentioned the
one most commonly met with, on intensive plants at least, is

Hypertrophy or Enlargement of the Liver

The cause of this trouble is chiefly concerned with food.
In our climate it occurs most frequently towards the end of
the winter. The birds have been confined to their houses
most or all of the winter months. Very often they are over-

1 Robinson, J. H., ‘‘The Common Sense Poultry Doctor.”
Boston, 1910.

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Diseases of the Liver 91

crowded. The rich winter ration is continued after the
weather begins to get warm and less heating food is needed.
This combined with too little exercise and not enough
green food favor indigestion and the accompanying sluggish
action of gizzard and intestines. These are the immediate
causes of trouble with the liver. It is said that feeding too
much corn and barley is also responsible for much liver
trouble.

Symptoms. — Mr. H. B. Green,! gives the following symp-
toms of hypertrophy of the liver. He believes this to
be only a stage in the fatty degeneration of this organ.
“The first sign that a fowl is tending towards fatty disease
of the liver is increase in weight. The comb, wattles and
face remain a bright red or take on a dull bluish tinge
from congestion. This sign of sluggish circulation tells of
full blood vessels, and explains how it is that apoplexy so
frequently supervenes at this period. The excrement is an
important symptom to note. It is generally at first semi-
liquid, of a dark yellow color, and evacuations are frequent.
Thirst is noticeable and a large quantity of water is drunk,
especially after feeding. The appetite remains good, al-
though the bird is capricious in what it eats. A_post-
mortem examination of a fowl in this phase of the disease
will show a liver considerably enlarged, of a deep red color,
engorged with blood, shining and greasy as though it had
been soaked in oil, but fairly firm under the knife. The
intestines are laden with masses of fat, so also are the
mesentery, —or as it is termed by butchers, ‘the leaf,’ — the
ovary and oviduct.”

In the next stage “Diarrhea increases, the excrement
perhaps bloodstained or blackened by congealed clots; the
face, comb and wattles become a darker hue or if jaundice

1 Tllustrated Poultry Record, 1909, p. 691.

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92 Diseases of Poultry

supervenes they may be pale or tinged with yellow bile;
more fat is laid on internally and the liver will prove to be
greatly enlarged. So large may this become by the deposit
of fat globules between and in the substance of its cells that
on one occasion I have removed from an Orpington cock a
liver that turned the scale at a pound and a half. This
stage is seldom passed and death usually takes place from
syncope, or an accidental rupture of the softened liver.”

Treatment. — Green says further: “Part of the treatment
consists of a plentiful allowance of green food. Nothing in
this way is better than freshly gathered dandelion leaves
when procurable, for the taraxacum they contain is a valu-
able liver stimulant. It is not generally known that the
sliced roots of the plants can be steeped in boiling water to
make an infusion equally effective when the leaves are no
longer obtainable. The roots should be gathered and
stored in dry boxes. The infusion is conveniently mixed
with the morning soft food and is always beneficial to birds
in confinement as an occasional liver tonic.”

Fatty Degeneration

As noted in the above paragraphs, Green regards this
disease as a later stage in the hypertrophy of the liver.
Salmon, on the other hand, believes it to be a quite different
disease. The latter author says: ‘On post-mortem exam-
ination the liver is found shrunken, hardened and marbled
or spotted with areas of grayish or yellowish tissue. A
microscopic examination shows the liver cells to contain
droplets of fat and the liver tissue degenerated and largely
replaced by yellow fat globules.

As the disease is not recognized during life, treatment is
out of the question. If a number of cases occur in the same
flock, give greater variety of food and a run on the grass. In

Diseases of the Liver 93

addition, bicarbonate of soda may be given in the drinking ©
water to the amount of | or 2 grains a day for each bird.”

Atrophy or Wasting of the Liver

This is very similar in many respects to the disease: de-
scribed by Salmon as fatty degeneration and probably arises
from the same cause, t.e., lack of variety in the food, espe-
cially lack of green food.

The post-mortem appearance and the treatment are the
same as those given for fatty degeneration above. With
‘both of the diseases a weekly dose of some laxative such as
Epsom salts dissolved in water and mixed with the mash (a
level teaspoonful to each bird) is to be recommended.

Congestion and Inflammation of the Liver

These are probably different stages of the same disease.
The poultryman will find difficulty in distinguishing between
this disease and that known as hypertrophy of the liver
(cf. p. 90). The chief post-mortem difference is that in
the latter disease the liver is more solid, not so easily torn
or ruptured.

Diagnosis. — There are no external symptoms other than
those of dullness and the general symptoms of disease.
Salmon says: “It is difficult to make a diagnosis during the
life of the bird. Post-mortem examination reveals a greatly
enlarged liver engorged with blood, tender and easily torn
or crushed.”

Treatment. — Treatment of these diseases in individual
birds is very rarely successful. The general treatment of
the flock as recommended on page 89 should be attended to.
The chief medicinal treatment should probably be frequent
doses of Epsom salts.

O4 Diseases of Poultry

{psom salts together with bicarbonate of soda, 10 grains
of each, given for 4 or 5 daily doses may be recommended
also. This should be followed by the addition of a good
tonic to the mash. (For stock tonic formula see p. 71.)

Jaundice

Jaundice or biliary repletion is said by Megnin to be due
to long continued but moderate congestion of the liver.
This leads to increased activity of this organ and is followed
by the accumulation of a large quantity of bile in the gall
bladder and ducts of the bird. This bile is absorbed by the
blood vessels and causes poisoning which may lead to the
death of the bird.

Diagnosis. — There are no specific external symptoms
other than that the wattles and comb may be yellowish.
This also occurs in other liver diseases. Post-mortem
examination shows the gall bladder greatly distended with
bile.

Treatment. — Give greater variety of food, especially more
green food. Give Epsom salts frequently. Megnin recom-
mends 4 to 1 grain of aloes.

This completes the list of the liver diseases most commonly
treated as such by poultry veterinarians. ‘There are a num-
ber of other diseases which especially affect the liver or are
caused by deranged function of this organ. These may most
conveniently be mentioned at this place.

Blackhead (Infectious Enterohepatitis)

Blackhead is a contagious disease affecting the liver and
intestines, especially the blind pouches or ceca of the latter.
The disease is very quickly fatal among turkeys. The
turkey is apparently more susceptible than any other bird

Diseases of the Liver 95

to this disease. In certain portions of this country where
once turkey raising was a promising industry it has practi-
cally vanished because of this disease. The disease is not
usually as fatal to adult chickens but may cause very serious
losses at times. It is believed by several prominent investi-
gators of this disease that white diarrhea, so destructive to
young chicks, is caused by the same organism as blackhead.
(For further discussion of this see Chapter XVIII.)

The cause of blackhead disease according to Theobald
Smith ' is a minute par-
asitic protozo6n known as
Ameba meleagridis.
These appear as minute
round bodies not more
than 10 microns (zs'o5
inch) in diameter em-
bedded in the submucous
and intramuscular tissue
of the wall of the ceca
and may extend even be-
yond these to the mesen-
teries. In the liver there
pfobeivculat, spots <(Pig., 784.2, ruerae catgey ot ire
9) representing partial
necrosis of the liver tissue and in these spots the same or-
ganisms are also present in great numbers. The analogy
between this organism and that concerned in human amce-

biasis is very close.
More recently Cole and Hadley” at the Rhode Island

1Smith, Theobald., ‘“‘An Infectious Disease among Turkeys
Caused by Protozoa (Infectious enterohepatitis).’”’ U. S. Dept.
of Agr., Bur. Anim. Ind., Bul. 8, pp. 7-38, 1895.

2 Cole, L. J., and Hadley, P. B., ‘‘ Blackhead in Turkeys.’ Rhode
Island Expt. Stat. Bul. No. 141, pp. 188-272, 1910.

_
96 Diseases of Poultry

Experiment Station have claimed that the causative or-
ganism belongs to another group of protozoa known as
Coccidia. ‘The point to the discussion as to the cause of this
disease lies in the fact that the Coccidium has a very different
life history (cf. p. 73) from the Ameba, consequently it
has different methods of dispersal and different means must
be used in combating it.

Cole and Hadley claim that the amceba described by
Smith is one of the stages in the life history of the coccidium.
Smith, however, in a more recent paper | reaffirms his posi-
tion with regard to the amoebic cause of the disease. He
claims that the Rhode Island authors have confused the
fact that coccidia are frequently present in birds as an
entirely separate infection. He states that there is “ample
evidence to show that enterohepatitis may run its course in a
flock without the presence of a single coccidium cyst to sug-
gest coccidiosis. It is evident that coccidiosis among birds
has been frequently seen during the past 30 years but with-
out involvement of the liver.”

These criticisms by Smith were partially answered by
Cole and Hadley” but the chain of evidence presented by
them is far from complete. Not until the complete life
history of the coecidium has been worked out will there be
conclusive evidence as to whether or not it is concerned in
this disease. In the meantime it appears that the conten-
tion of Smith is well founded, viz., that the amoeba and the
cocecidium are separate entities and that the latter when
present is only a secondary infection.

The method of infection by the ameeba is as follows, the
account being based upon that given by Salmon (loc. cit.) :

1Smith, Theobald, ‘‘Amosba meleagridis.’”’ Science, N. S.,
Vol. 32, pp. 509-512, 1910.

2 Cole, L. J., and Hadley, P. B., ‘‘Amoeba meleagridis.”’ Science,
N. S., Vol. 32, pp. 918-919, 1910.

Diseases of the Liver 97

The amoeba leaves the bodies of the sick birds with the
excrement and infects other birds by entering the digestive
organs with the food and drink. It passes along the ali-
mentary canal until it arrives at the two blind pouches or
lateral extensions called the ceca (Fig. 7), where it begins its
growth and produces the first signs of disease. Here it
penetrates the lining membrane, increases rapidly in num-
bers, and sets up an inflammatory process which leads to
a great thickening of the intestinal wall and to the filling
up and obstruction of the tube with an accumulation of
yellowish white or grayish cheesy material that is deposited
in concentric layers.

The changes which are almost constantly found in the
liver are explained by assuming that the microbes are
carried by the blood from the diseased ceca to the liver,
and are there deposited at different points, where they
multiply and spread in all directions. In this way are
formed the numerous centers of disease which appear on the
surface of the liver as yellowish spots, but which when cut
across are seen to be irregularly spherical in shape. The
amoebee are liberated in large numbers both in the ceca and
in the liver, are mixed with the intestinal contents, and are
distributed with the droppings.

There is some difference of opinion as to whether the
amoeba is ever present within the egg of diseased turkeys,
but the indications are that the infection is not carried in
this way. It no doubt often exists on the outside of the
shell, from contamination when the egg passes through the
cloaca, and for this reason the eggs should be carefully
cleaned before they are put under the sitting hen or into
an incubator.

An important recent conclusion is that common fowls
harbor this parasite, although they rarely suffer sufficiently
‘from its attacks to show marked symptoms of disease. They

H

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98 Diseases of Poultry

scatter the contagion constantly, however, and young tur-
keys,. being more susceptible, contract a fatal form of the
disease and are nearly all destroyed by it. For this reason
it is very difficult to raise turkeys on or near grounds where
there are common fowls.

Diagnosis. —'The symptoms of blackhead are most fre-
quently seen in young turkeys, commonly called “ poults,”’
which are from 2 weeks to 3 or 4 months old. When young
poults are infected experimentally by feeding them diseased
livers they usually die in about two or three weeks, but when
infected naturally they generally take in a smaller quantity
of contagion and live a longer time.

The affected birds at first appear less lively than usual,
are not so active in searching for food, and when fed show a
diminished appetite. Diarrhea is a nearly constant symp-
tom, being due to the inflammation of the ceca. As the
disease progresses there is more dullness and weakness, the
wings and tail droop, and there is often the peculiar dis-
coloration of the head which led to the disease being called
“blackhead.”’ There is increasing prostration and loss of
weight; the affected birds, instead of following their com-
panions, stand about in a listless manner, indisposed to
move and paying little attention to what occurs about them.

The greater part of the affected poults die within three
or four months after hatching; but with some the disease
takes a more chronic form and does not cause death for a
year or more. Nearly all die sooner or later from the effects
of the disease, but in a small proportion of the cases there
is healing and recovery.

The finding after death, in young turkeys, of the diseased
and thickened ceca, plugged with cheesy contents, together
with the yellowish or yellowish-green spots in the more or
less enlarged liver are sufficient indications to warrant a
diagnosis of blackhead.

Diseases of the Liver 99

Treatment. — The treatment of diseased birds has not
given satisfactory results. The remedies most often used
are sulphur 5 grains, sulphate of iron 1 grain; or benzo-
naphthol 1 grain, salicylate of bismuth 1 grain; or sulphate
of iron 1 grain, salicylate of soda 1 grain. ‘These remedies
should be preceded and followed by a dose of Epsom salts
(10 to 35 grains), or of castor oil (§ to 3 teaspoonfuls).
Fifteen grains of catechu to the gallon of drinking water
may also have a beneficial effect. It seems clear, however,
that it does not pay to doctor the sick poults and that the
only hope of success at present is in preventing their infection.

The measures of prevention which have been suggested
are (1) obtaining eggs from birds believed to be healthy ;
(2) wiping the eggs with a cloth wet with alcohol (80 to 90
per cent) before they are placed in the incubator or under the
hen for hatching, to remove any contagion that might be
on the shell; (3) hatching in an incubator, or at least remov-
ing the eggs from under the hen a day or two before hatching
would occur, wiping with alcohol, and finishing in an incu-
bator, in order to avoid exposing the poults to the hen; (4)
placing the young poults on the ground at a distance from
all other domesticated fowls and which has not recently
been occupied by other fowls; (5) excluding so far as pos-
sible pigeons, other wild birds, and rats and mice from the
houses and runs occupied by the turkeys; (6) the frequent
disinfection of the houses, feed troughs, drinking fountains,
etc.; (7) the immediate killing of diseased birds and the
destruction of their bodies by fire.

These radical measures are necessary, and in sections
of the country which are not too intensely infected they will
make it possible to carry on the turkey industry success-
fully. However, it must be admitted that up to the present
blackhead has proved to be one of the most difficult of all
diseases to prevent or eradicate.

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100 Diseases of Poultry

The destruction of the contagion, after it has been intro-
duced into a poultry yard, has also been found difficult
or impossible. Some have proposed to dip up and burn the
surface soil to a depth of several inches, which might be done
with small yards but is impossible with large ones. In most
cases the poultryman must be contented with the appli-
cation of a layer of freshly burned lime that has been care-
fully slaked to a fine, dry powder. After a few weeks this
ground should be plowed and another layer of lime applied.
The manure which has accumulated should be burned or
mixed with lime and plowed into the ground of some distant
fields. The wall and floors of the buildings should be cov-
ered with a good limewash containing 6 ounces of carbolic
acid to the gallon. The fences should receive a coat of
limewash. ‘The feeding troughs and drinking vessels should
be put into a kettle of boiling water for half an hour.
Troughs too large for this should be burned and replaced
by new ones. After these measures are adopted, the longer
the premises are left vacant the more likely is the contagion
to be completely destroyed. The freezing and thawing of
a winter and spring will be found of great assistance. In
beginning with a new flock the precautions already men-
tioned must be adopted to prevent the infection of the
premises.

Cercomoniasis

This is frequently called “spotted liver.” It, like many
other liver diseases, is associated with intestinal trouble,
especially severe diarrhea, that attacks poultry during the
summer months. The disease is caused by a flagellate
micro-organism known as Monocercomonas gallinarum. ‘The
post-mortem appearance of the liver in this disease shows
usually slightly depressed yellowish necrotic areas or spots.

Diseases of the Liver 101

This fact usually distinguishes this disease from tuber-
culosis where there are prominent rounded cheesy nodules.
In pigeons, however, this cercomonad is said to cause rounded
prominent nodules about the size of a pea.

This same organism (Monocercomonas gallinarum) is also
said to be responsible for other diseases. | The most impor-
tant of these is one form of roup. Canker in squabs and
intestinal diarrhea in poultry are other diseases attributed
to this parasite.

This disease can be held in check, it is said, by keeping
the poultry plant well cleaned and disinfected and by giving
the birds an occasional purgative, e.g., Epsom salts.

In aspergillosis, the liver often presents the appearance of
being “studded all over with minute, whitish or yellowish
spots.’ This disease is discussed in Chapter XI.

Gout

In cases of visceral gout the liver and adjoining organs are
covered with a fine chalky sediment. This substance con-
sists of crystals of urate of soda. (See Chapter XIV for
detailed description. )

Sarcomatosis and Carcinomatosis

In some cases the liver is affected with tumors or cancers.
These are usually found in connection with similar develop-
ments on the ovaries (see Chapter XX).

CHAPTER. Vili
Fow.t CHo.tera, Fowit TypHom anp Fow.i PLAGUE
Cholera

Fowt cholera is a virulent, usually fatal and highly in-
fectious disease. It is entirely distinct from the ordinary
forms of enteritis with which it is often confused by poultry-
men. Fowl typhoid and infectious leukemia are also often
mistaken for cholera. Genuine fowl cholera is rather rare in
this country but is much more common in Europe. <Ac-
cording to some investigators it is now on the increase in this
country. This disease was first reported in this country
about 1880 by Salmon (Rept. U.S. Comm. of Agric.). Owing
to the lack of proper bacteriological methods at that time
Salmon was not able with certainty to identify this disease
with the European cholera. From certain experimental
work he concluded that some of the symptoms exhibited by
the disease in this country were different from those de-
scribed by European writers. About 1894 Moore ' obtained
material from several outbreaks of supposed cholera but
found this disease to differ in some important respects from
the European trouble. Later Curtice ? described a disease
similar to that of Moore’s under the name of fowl typhoid.

1 Moore, V. A., ‘‘A Study of a Bacillus Obtained from Three
Outbreaks of Fowl Cholera.’”” U.S. Dept. of Agric. Bur. Anim.
Ind., Bul. No. 8.

2 Curtice, R., ‘‘Fowl Typhoid.’’ Rhode Island Agr. Expt. Stat.
Bul. No. 87.

102

Fowl Cholera, Fowl Typhoid and Fowl Plague 103

What appears to be the genuine European fowl cholera has
been reported several times within the last few years.
Etiology. — Fowl cholera is caused by a minute bacterium

Fic. 10. — Stained preparation of the heart blood of a pigeon infected with
fowl cholera. The small objects between the blood corpuscles, each
showing two dots of color, are the cholera bacteria. (After Kolle and
Hetsch.)

known as Bacillus avisepticus (B. bipolaris septicus). ‘This
is a small oval organism which when stained and placed under
the microscope shows a dot of color at each end while the
middle part remains entirely unstained (Fig. 10).

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104 Diseases of Poultry

The organism was first recognized about 1878. In 1880
Pasteur ' used it in his epoch making work on the production
of immunity with attenuated or non-virulent cultures. This
organism belongs in the same group as the hog-cholera
bacillus (B. suisepticus), rabbit septicemia and many other
destructive bacteria.

In the diseased bird the organism can be found in the blood
and in nearly all the organs. When inoculated into the
breast of a pigeon or fowl it causes a characteristic hemor-
rhagic swelling.

This organism is pathogenic for all kinds of poultry and
domestic birds and for nearly all kinds of wild birds. It is
also very pathogenic for rabbits and many other animals.
For larger animals, such as cattle, horses, sheep, and swine, it
will cause severe or even fatal disease if injected intrave-
nously. When fed to these animals it does not produce a
diseased condition. Dogs and cats can eat great quantities of
meat from birds dead from this desease without experiencing
any inconvenience. For man this organism appeared to be
pathogenic to some extent. In any case birds infected with
cholera should not be used for food.

This organism is easily destroyed by drying, by the or-
dinary disinfectants, by a temperature of 132° F. for fifteen
minutes, and by direct sunlight.

Diagnosis. — The earliest indication of the disease is a
yellow coloration of the urates, or that part of the excrement
which is excreted by the kidneys. This in health is a pure
white, though it is frequently tinted with yellow as a result
of other disorders than cholera. While therefore this yel-
lowish coloration of the urates is not an absolutely certain
proof of cholera, it is a valuable indication when the disease
has appeared in a flock and an effort should be made to check

1 Pasteur, L., ‘‘Sur le cholera des poules et l’attenuation du
virus du cholera des poules.’’ Comptes Rendus, 1880.

Fowl Cholera, Fowl Typhoid and Fowl Plague 105

its course by isolating the sick birds as soon as possible. In
regard to the yellow or green excreta Hadley * says: “This
isa very characteristic symptom. ‘The excrement of normal
fowls is not yellow; and when it is green it is a dark green,
approaching black. In cholera both yellow and green are
bright ; the green is often an emerald green. These different
colors may occur either together or separately and both are
usually accompanied by diarrhea and thick mucus. In case
it is known that cholera is in the neighborhood, it is well for
a poultryman to examine, from day to day, the character of
the droppings on the dropping board.”

In other cases the first symptom is diarrhea in which the
excrement 1s passed in large quantities, and consists almost
entirely of urates mixed with colorless mucus. Generally
the diarrhea is a prominent symptom. ‘The excrement is
voided frequently, and consists largely of urates suspended in
a thin, transparent, sometimes frothy mucus. The urates
have a deep yellow color, which in the later stages of the
disease may change to a greenish cast.

Soon after these first symptoms appear the bird separates
itself from the flock, the feathers are roughened or stand on
end, the wings droop, the head is drawn down towards the
body and the general outline of the bird becomes spherical
or ball shaped. At this period there is great weakness, the
affected bird becomes drowsy and may sink into a deep sleep
which lasts during the last day or two of its life and from
which it is almost impossible to arouse it. The crop is
nearly always distended with food and apparently paralyzed.
There is in most cases intense thirst. If the birds are aroused
and caused to walk there is at first an abundant discharge of
excrement followed at short intervals by scanty evacuations.

The disease may be acute, in which case the bird dies in

1 Hadley, P. B., ‘‘Fowl Cholera and Methods of Combating It.”
Rhode Island Agr. Expt. Stat. Bul. 144, pp. 309-337, 1910,

oe

106 Diseases of Poultry

from a few hours to a day or two. Or it may be subacute, in
which case the bird lingers for several days. Likewise
within the flock the birds may die rapidly until the majority
of the flock are gone within a few days or they may die a few
at a time throughout a period of several weeks. The period -
of incubation, 7.e., from the time of exposure until the first
symptoms, varies from | to 2 days in geese and from 4 to
9 days in chickens.'! Salmon states that the incubation
period may be as much as 20 days.

Examination of the dead birds shows inflammation of
the digestive organs, kidneys, and mesenteries in nearly all
cases. According to Ward?“ punctiform hemorrhages are
found upon the heart with almost absolute uniformity.
The liver is very frequently marked with punctiform
whitish areas.” Sections show that the areas of necrotic
tissue are present throughtout the liver tissue. The blood
vessels of the liver are congested. According to Ward the
next most striking lesions are found in the reddened and
bleeding mucosa of the first and second folds of the small in-
testine (next to the gizzard). These reddened areas can even
be seen from the outside of the intestine. The intestinal con-
tents are either a cream colored pasty mass or may be brown-
ish or even green in color. “Lesions are very rarely observed
in other portions of the intestine. The ureters are noticeable
in practically all cases by reason of the yellow-colored urates
that they contain. The nasal cavity, pharynx and oral
cavity frequently contain a viscous mucous fluid, probably
regurgitated from the crop.”

Mode of Transmission. — The manner in which this disease
gains admission to an apparently healthy flock is often a puz-

1 Ostertag, R., und Ackermann, P., ‘‘Zeitschr. Infektkr. u. Hyg.
Haustr.”’ Bd. 1, pp. 431-441, 1906.

2 Ward, A. R., ‘‘Fowl Cholera.”’ Cal. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bul. 156,
pp. 3-20, 1904.

Fowl Cholera, Fowl Typhoid and Fowl Plague 107

zling question. Thus while many epidemics owe their origin
to the importation of infected birds, birds returning from
poultry shows, or to the presence of infected wild birds, some
epidemics appear to arise spontaneously. Recently it has
been found that the causative organism is occasionally
present in the intestines of an apparently healthy bird.
These spontaneous epidemics are probably to be explained as
due to the increase in virulence of such organisms. After
passage through two or three hens this virulence is still
further increased so that an epidemic is started. Later on
this same strain may decrease in virulence but may remain
in the flock only to break out again a year or two later.

Within the flock the infection is generally transferred
through the food or drinking water contaminated with the
excrement of sick birds. It is also possible for birds to be
infected through wounds of the skin or by inhalation of the
germs in the form of dust suspended in the air. In other
cases the dissemination of the disease is undoubtedly due to
the fowls eating the dead bodies of infected birds.

Treatment. — At the present time there is no certain cure
known for fowl cholera after the bird has been infected.
While some birds may recover of their own accord it is prob-
able that such birds are a source of danger to the flock for
some time afterwards. Miiller+ states that infected fowls
continue giving off the bacteria in the urates three weeks
after infection, and that the organs contained virulent mate-
rial after a period of six months.

Under ordinary circumstances, if it is known that fowl
cholera is on the premises, every bird showing marked symp-
toms of this disease should be killed at once. The birds
should be killed in such a manner that their blood will not
be spilled near the houses or runs. Every drop of blood from

1 Miiller, J., ‘Monatsh. Prakt. Tierheilk.” Bd. 21, pp. 385-413,
1910,

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LOS Diseases of Poultry

an infected fowl contains thousands of these bacteria and
may serve to infect other birds. The bodies of the birds
should be burned, or if this is not possible they should be
buried deeply so that dogs and other animals will not dig
them up.

A pest house should be established as soon as it is known
that the disease is present. This should be located at some
distance from the regular houses. Every bird showing the
slightest symptoms of the disease should be removed to this
house at once. All the litter and droppings from the regular
houses and runs should be scraped up and burned and every-
thing about the place thoroughly disinfected. Spray the
houses with a good-disinfectant. Do not use any litter in
the houses unless a light coat of sawdust and this should be
replaced by fresh every day. The runs and yards should be
thoroughly disinfected and should be plowed often.

If these measures are carried out with conscientious at-
tention to details it is a relatively simple matter to eradicate
this disease. However, the disinfection must be kept up for
some months after the birds have ceased to die. Otherwise
the infection may return.

In connection with his work on an outbreak of fowl cholera
in California, Ward points out the following important con-
clusion: “Cholera and other infectious diseases may exist
in a fowl ina sort of inactive chronic condition and there is no
doubt concerning the agency of such a case in spreading the
disease. Thus, fowls not suspected of being diseased may
have the disease smoldering among them. The fact that
occasionally a single fowl dies of cholera means that a severe
loss may occur at any time.”

The practical recommendation for an outbreak of fowl
cholera then is to kill and destroy all sick birds, confine all
well birds to small runs. Disinfect these runs and the houses
daily. After the outbreak is over and the birds have ceased

Fowl Cholera, Fowl Typhoid and Fowl Plague 109

dying it is best to market all flocks in which the cholera
appeared. This latter precaution will often prevent a second
outbreak some months later.

Methods of prevention are always the most satisfactory.
The careful poultryman will guard his flock against all in-
fectious diseases by methods of quarantine, disinfection and
general cleanliness. At the same time the birds should be
fed to keep them in the best of health. On these points read
Chapter II.

A large amount of work has been done upon remedies and
preventives for this disease. Recently Hadley? has rec-
ommended the subcutaneous injections of 5 per cent car-
bolic acid as a treatment for individual birds. This author
says: “At the Rhode Island Station attempts have been
made to prevent the development in fowls of cholera artifi-
cially produced by inoculation with the fowl cholera or-
ganism. The protective inoculations have involved sub-
cutaneous inoculations with a 5 per cent solution of carbolic
acid in amounts of from 2 to 4 c.e. daily.

“The results thus far secured show that the inoculations
as given protected artificially infected birds, and did no harm
to birds that were in normal health. ‘They therefore suggest
that subcutaneous inoculations with carbolic acid have a
protective and perhaps a therapeutic value in fowl chol-
era.”

Much work has also been done, especially in Europe, upon
methods of protective inoculation against this disease. The
best success has been obtained by the use of immune sera.
Such a serum is prepared by immunizing a large animal,
horse or cow, by repeated injections of this organism. The
serum from this animal is then collected and used to inoculate
healthy birds. Such an immune serum gives a passive im-

1 Hadley, P. B., ‘‘ Fowl Cholera and Methods for Combating It.”
Rhode Island Agr. Expt. Stat. Bul. 144, pp. 309-337, 1910.

110 Diseases of Poultry

munity to the bird which will last about 18 days! after each
injection. The fact that such immunity is not permanent
renders it of little value in treating an infected flock.
Lisoff 2 reports the use of such a serum in a large number of
epizodtics (3876 birds) and states that the disease can
easily be held in check. As a curative agent he says the
figures show a reduction in mortality from 90 to 22 per cent
where the serum was used.

Such protective serum is largely used in Denmark and
other countries for treating geese and other birds which are
being shipped into the country.

Other methods of producing immunity against this disease
have also been tried. These involve the injection of dead
cultures or of living avirulent cultures or of the sterilized
exudate obtained by injecting cultures into the pleural cavi-
ties of other animals. In the main these methods have not
proven very successful in a practical way. For instance the
majority of avirulent cultures will not produce immunity
against all virulent strains. This whole question is now
being studied by the Rhode Island Experiment Station.*

1 Kitt, T., ‘Monatsh. Prakt. Tierheilk.’’ Bd. 16, pp. 1-19, 1904.

2 Lisoff, P. W., [‘‘Anti-fowl-cholera Serum and Its Practical
Significance’’]. (Russian) Vet. Nauk (St. Petersburg), Bd. 40,
pp. 804-818, 1910.

3’ For example see:

Hadley, P. B., and Amison, E. E., ‘‘A Histological Study of
Eleven Pathogenic Organisms from Cholera-like Diseases in Domes-
tic Fowls.’”’ Rhode Island Agr. Expt. Stat. Bul. 146, pp. 48-102,
1911.

Hadley, P. B., ‘‘The Rédle of Homologous Cultures of Slight
Virulence in the Production of Active Immunity in Rabbits.”
Rhode Island Expt. Stat. Bul. 150, pp. 81-161, 1912.

‘‘The Reciprocal Relations of Virulent and Avirulent’ Cul-
tures in Active Immunization.’’ Rhode Island Expt. Stat. Bul.
159, pp. 383-403, 1914-

Fowl Cholera, Fowl Typhoid and Fowl Plague 111

Fowl Typhoid

In 1895 Moore ! described a disease of fowls caused by an
organism which he named Bacterium sanguinarium. He
called the disease infectious leukemia owing to the fact
that it is accompanied by a marked increase in the number
of white blood corpuscles. This disease is discussed in detail
in Chapter XII.

At the time of his original description of this disease Moore
pointed out that it was frequently mistaken for fowl cholera,
but he called attention to a number of specific differences
(see p. 188). He also says that the organism causing this
disease closely resembles in its physiological properties Bacil-
lus typhosis, the cause of human typhoid. In more recent
literature this disease has frequently been called fowl ty-
phoid. Smith and Ten Broeck ? have pointed out that this
organism has many diagnostic features in common with the
human typhoid bacillus. Even in its agglutination reactions
it closely resembles the typhoid organism. The fowl or-
ganism differs from the human, however, in being non-motile.

In spite of the marked resemblance the two organisms are
apparently distinct. Mitchell and Bloomer ? state that the
chicken is highly resistant to the human typhoid organism.
In the experiments reported the chickens failed either to
contract the disease or to act as a carrier. The experiments
involved both feeding the organism and injecting it intrave-

1Moore V. A., ‘Infectious Leukemia in Fowls—a Bacterial
Disease Frequently Mistaken for Fowl Cholera.” U. S. Dept.
of Agr. Bur. of An. Ind. Repts., 1895 and 1896, pp. 185-205.

2 Smith, T., and Ten Broeck, C., ‘‘Agglutination Affinities of a
Pathogenic Bacillus from Fowls (fowl typhoid) Bacterium sanguina-
rium Moore) with the Typhoid Bacillus of Man.” Jour. of Medi-
cal Research, Vol. 31, pp. 503-521, 1915.

3 Mitchell, O. W. H., and Bloomer, G. T., ‘‘Experimental Study
of the Chicken as a Possible Typhoid Carrier.’”” Jour. of Medical
Research, Vol. 31, pp. 247-250, 1914.

112 Diseases of Poultry

nously. These experiments are not extensive enough to prove
absolutely that chickens cannot become typhoid carriers.

Pfeiler and Rehse ! have shown that while the fowl typhoid
organism (which they renamed B. typhi gallinarum alcali-
faciens) is extremely virulent for chickens, it does not attack
ducks, geese or pigeons.

In another recent paper Smith and Ten Broeck? have
shown that the fowl cholera organism produces a toxin that
is very poisonous to rabbits. They suggest that possibly
this same organism may play a part in the food or so-called
ptomaine poisoning in man.

In still another paper Smith and Ten Broeck * have shown
that the fowl typhoid organism shows many points of re-
semblance to Bacillus pullorum, the cause of white diarrhea
in young chicks (cf. p. 295). It is only by certain fermenta-
tion tests that the two can be distinguished.

A further discussion of this disease together with recom-
mendations for prevention are given under infectious leu-
keemia on pages 186-189.

Fowl Plague :

This disease is to be sharply separated from fowl cholera
with which it is often confused. So far as the writers are
aware this disease has never appeared in the United States.
It is by no means uncommon in Europe. In spite of the fact

1 Pfeiler, W., and Rehse, A., ‘‘ Bacillus typhi gallinarum aleali-
faciens.’’ Mitt. Kaiser Wilhelms Inst. f. Landwirtschaft, Brom-
berg, Bd. 5, pp. 306-321, 1913.

2 Smith, T.,and Ten Broeck, C., ‘‘The Pathogenic Action of the
Fowl Typhoid Bacillus with Special Reference to Certain Toxins.”’
Jour. of Medical Research, Vol. 31, pp. 523-546, 1915.

3 Smith, T.,and Ten Broeck, C.,‘*‘ A Note on the Relation between
B. pullorum (Rettger) and the Fowl Typhoid Bacillus (Moore).”
Jour. of Medical Research, Vol. 31, pp. 547-555, 1915.

Fowl Cholera, Fowl Typhoid and Fowl Plague 113

that considerable work has been done upon fowl plague, com-
paratively little is known about it. The following notes are
gathered from such literature as is at hand.

Etiology. — No definite organism has ever been isolated in
connection with this disease. Depperich ! stated (1907) that
all the then available evidence indicated that it is caused by
an ultra-microscopic, filterable virus. Russ? states that the
blood from cases of this disease is extremely virulent, being
fatal when given in such extreme dilutionas | to 1,000,000,000.
The virus of this disease appears to be in some way attached
to or included in the red blood corpuscles. By centrifuging
out these corpuscles it is possible to remove a large portion
of the virus from the blood. Landsterner* performed cer-
tain experiments which indicated that the causative organism
may be a protozo6n associated with the blood corpuscles.
In this respect the causative factor in the disease appears to
show some resemblance to the filterable virus of hog-cholera,
according to recent work.*

Diagnosis. — Fow] plague is known to affect chickens, tur-
keys, guinea-fowl, geese, pheasants, and many wild birds.
The lesions of the disease resemble those produced by phos-
phorous poisoning.” The surface of the heart may be covered
with small blood clots (ecchymoses). It can be distinguished
from fowl cholera by the presence of hemorrhages under the
epicardium and an exudate in the pericardial cavity.

1Depperich, C. H., Fortsch. Vet. Hyg. Bd. 4, pp. 217-250,
1907.

2 Russ, V. K., Arch. Hyg. Bd. 59, pp. 286-312, 1906.

3 Landsterner, K., Centralb. f. Bakt., ete., Abt. 1, Bd. 38, pp.
540-542, 1906.

4 For example:

King, W. E., and Hoffman, G. L., ‘‘Studies on Hog Cholera —
Spirocheta suis, Its Significance as a Pathogenic Organism.”’
Jour. Infec. Dis., Vol. 13, pp. 463-498, 1913.

5 Freese, Deut. Tierarztl. Wcehnschr. Bd. 16, pp. 173-177, 1908.

I

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114 Diseases of Poultry

Marchoux! claims to have shown that the virus is not
transmitted through the feces but that it is probably trans-
mitted by some mite or tick. Experiments by others have
failed to prove definitely that it is transmitted by such
parasites.

Several investigators have called attention to an apparent
relationship between this disease and rabies. | Rosenthal
states that subdural inoculation of fowls with the virus of
this disease produces death with violent symptoms resem-
bling rabies. Schiffmann? states that in the cerebrum of
artificially inoculated geese certain corpuscles are found
which in some respects resemble the Negri bodies of rabies.
The two, however, are not identical.

Control. — The methods for the control of this disease must
be similar to those of cholera. Sick birds must be isolated or
killed and great care taken that the blood of infected birds is
not spilled in the houses or yards.

1 Marchoux, E., Compt. Rendus Soc. Biol. T. 68, pp. 346-347,
1910.

2 Schiffmann, J., Centbl. f. Bakt., ete. Abt. 1, Bd. 45, pp. 393-
403, 1907.

CHAPTER IX

TUBERCULOSIS

TUBERCULOSIS in fowls has long been a serious pest in
Euorpe. Ziirn in his “Krankheiten des Hausgefliigels,”’
. published in 1882, devotes several pages to the description
of this disease as it occurred in Germany. Its appearance in
this country, however, seems to have been much more recent.

Salmon, whose book was published about 1888, says that
the disease “is by no means rare in the United States if the
statements of our professional men are to be accepted.”
However, at that time very little had been done in the way of
bacteriological diagnosis and no doubt many of the early
reports were unreliable.

The disease was first reported on the basis of bacterio-
logical examination in 1900 by Pernot.! In 1903 Moore
and Ward? reported investigations on avian tuberculosis in
California. They found “a number of flocks in which the
mortality from the disease was very high.” Fowl tuber-
culosis was reported from western and central Canada in
1904 by Dr. C. H. Higgins.? In 1906 it was reported from
New York and in 1907 from southern Michigan. The

1 Pernot, ‘‘Investigation of Disease of Poultry.’’ Oregon Agr.
Expt. Stat. Bul. 64, 1900.
2 Moore, V. A., and Ward, A., ‘‘Avian Tuberculosis.’’ Proc.
Am. Vet. Med. Assoc., St. Paul, 1903.
3’ Higgins, C. H., ‘‘Report of Veterinary Director General for
1905.”’ Dept. of Agr., Canada, Ottawa, 1906.
115

_
116 Diseases of Poultry

disease has been reported in many other places within the
last few years. It thus seems certain that the disease is
widespread throughout the United States and Canada and
in the future must be reckoned with by American poultry-
men.

Tuberculosis may exist extensively among fowls, especially
in large flocks, and yet not kill enough birds to attract
attention to it. Reports show that farmers often lose one or
two birds a year from what appears to be tuberculosis. In
many places the loss seems to be gradually increasing. The
existence of the disease in the flock fails to attract the atten-
tion of the owner because the losses are so evenly distributed
throughout the year. In other cases the disease appears to
be more virulent and to cause very serious losses. Moore
and Ward report a flock of 1400 birds from which 250 had
died during the first year. Another man lost 300 birds out
of a flock of 1460. Microscopic examination proved that
these were dying of tuberculosis.

Tuberculosis is confined chiefly to adult or nearly adult
fowls. Only very rarely, if ever, is it found in growing chicks.
Further it is much more common in fowls than in other kinds
of poultry. Two cases in wild geese were reported at the
Ontario Agricultural College. Avian tuberculosis is said
to be found in turkeys, pheasants, and especially in pigeons.
Cage birds are particularly susceptible to this disease.

Etiology. — Tuberculosis is caused by a minute germ,
the Bacillus tuberculosis of birds. These bacteria gain
entrance to certain portions of the body and there multiply
in vast numbers, causing the formation of small nodules or
tubercles. The disease is highly contagious and is spread
through the flock by the contact of healthy birds with the
diseased ones, or with their discharges.

The relation of avian tuberculosis to that of man and other
animals has attracted a great deal of attention. It is a

Tuberculosis Lae

subject of very great importance to the poultryman, not
only on account of his flock but also on account of its relation
to the health of himself and his family. The bacillus asso-
ciated with avian tuberculosis presents certain morphological

Fic. 11. — Section of the lung of a hen showing tubercle bacilli. (After
Himmelberger.)

and physiological characteristics which are different from the
organism associated with this disease in man. Likewise the
bacillus of human tuberculosis is differentiated in certain
marked features from that found in cattle. On the whole

all

118 Diseases of Poultry

the difference between the avian and the other two types is
much greater than that between the human and the bovine.

It has frequently been held that the avian bacillus is a
distinct species. The chief reason for this is that it often
fails to produce disease when inoculated into mammals
and because the mammalian type will not always infect birds.
At the present time the view is rather generally accepted
that the avian, human and bovine types simply represent
three varieties or strains of the same species. A large amount
of work has been done upon this subject, and while under
ordinary conditions the avian bacillus does not infect mam-
mals, under certain conditions it will do so.

Bang,' who has done a great amount of work upon this
subject, found that mammalian bacilli by passage through
fowls can be so changed as to behave like the avian type, and
further that bovine bacilli after having lost their virulence
for guinea pigs through repeated passage through fowls are
able to regain the original virulence by passage through
mammals. Of eighteen different strains of mammalian
tubercle bacilli used Bang found that twelve could be made
virulent for fowls. He states, however, that in his experi-
ence mammalian bacilli were never found in spontaneous
avian tuberculosis.

The avian tubercle bacilli are very virulent to most birds
and especially to domesticated species. Artificial infection
succeeds best by direct inoculation into a vein, while in-
traperitoneal and subcutaneous injections are apt to yield
less certain results. By feeding either cultures or fresh
material from tuberculous birds the disease is readily trans-

1 Bang, Oluf, ‘‘Die Tubereulose der Gefliigels in ihren Bezie-
hungen zur Tuberculose der Siugethieren.”’ Trans. LX Jntern., Vet.
Cong., Vol. 1, 1909.

“* Gefliigeltuberculose und Saugetiertuberculose.”’ Centralb.
f. Bakt. Paras. u. Infekt., Bd. XLVI, 1908.

Tuberculosis 119

mitted. The fresh material has usually proven to be the
most virulent. Van Es and Schalk ' report that of 12 Eng-
lish sparrows each fed one meal of chopped tuberculous
chicken liver all died in from 73 to 202 days with generalized
tuberculosis. It is quite probable that the English sparrow
often serves to infect domestic fowls.

Koch and Rabinowitsch ” state that while fowls are easily
infected with avian tuberculosis by feeding, it is very difficult
to infect them with the mammalian strains in the same way.
On the other hand, some birds, especially cage birds, are
very readily infected in various ways. Parrots, in particular,
are susceptible not only to avian tuberculosis, but also to
mammalian and human tuberculosis. Also canary birds,
sparrows, and various birds of prey were proven to be sus-
ceptible to both avianand mammalian tuberculosis. In these
respects such birds differ materially from the domestic fowls.

On the other hand their later researches have made it
apparent that a large number of mammals are susceptible to
avian tuberculosis. These include not only the small
laboratory animals as rabbits, mice and guinea pigs, but also
cattle, hogs, horses, goats, and donkeys. Also avian tubercle
bacilli have been found in cases of human tuberculosis.

Himmelberger * reports experiments in which it was
possible to infect a calf by feeding it the macerated organs of
a tuberculous hen. This result is of considerable interest in
view of the question of the relation of the avian tubercle
bacillus to the causative factor in Johne’s disease of cattle.
Johne’s disease presents many of the symptoms of tuber-

1Van Hs, L., and Schalk, A. F., ‘‘ Avian Tuberculosis.”’ North
Dakota Agr. Expt. Stat. Bul. 108, pp. 1-94, 1914.

2 Koch, R., and Rabinowitsch, L., ‘‘ Die Tubereculose der Vogel
und ihre Beziehungen an Sdugetiertuberculose.’”’ Arbeiten a. d.
Kaiserl. Gesundheitsamte, 1904.

3 Himmelberger, L. R., Centralb. f. Bakt. ete. Abt. 1, Bd. 73,
pp. 1-11, 1914.

120 Diseases of Poultry

culosis in cattle, yet usually such cattle do not react to the
ordinary tuberculin test. However, it has been found that in
a considerable number of cases of this disease the animals
will react if tested with a tuberculin made from the avian
bacillus. The majority of experimenters have reported
negative results in their attempts to infect cattle with the
avian organism. The question is one which must await
further evidence before definite conclusions can be drawn.

On the basis of such experiments and observation it
appears that the difference between avian and mammalian
tuberculosis has developed because the bacilli have grown
for a long time under different conditions. They are not so
different, however, but that each may grow in the environ-
ment best suited to the other.

It thus appears that while fowls are not very likely to contract
tuberculosis from domestic animals or from man, yet fowls that
have the diseases are a serious menace to the other animals on
the farm as well as to the poultryman and his family. (Cf.
further on this point p. 128 below.)

Diagnosis. — Tuberculosis in mankind is so serious a
disease chiefly because it is so difficult to recognize it in its
earliest stages. The same is true with the disease in fowls.
There are positively no external symptoms by which the
disease can be recognized in fowls before the advanced stages.
Some of the outward symptoms that may serve to arouse
suspicion are: steadily advancing emaciation; anemia,
shown by pallor of comb, wattles and the skin about the
head; general weakness; lameness; ruffling of the feathers,
and in many cases diarrhea. These combined with a bright
eye and a ravenous appetite are some of the symptoms most
frequently found. None of them is specific, however, and
final diagnosis must be based on other findings. Emaciation
is one of the best symptoms and in the last stages of the dis-
ease becomes very marked. Pernot cites the case of a Plym-

outh Rock hen weigh-
ing 4 pounds that was
reduced to 22 ounces.
The emaciation is very
marked in the muscles
covering the breast-
bone.

Lameness is another
symptom often shown
in the later stages of
the disease. This is
caused by tuberculosis
of the joints, as has
been proven in many
cases. Such cases are
often called “rheuma-
tism”’ by poultrymen.
Tuberculosis may also
form tumors or ulcers
or various outgrowths
on the head and limbs
of birds. Such forms
of the disease are com-
paratively rare in poul-
try, however. Parrots
are particularly af-
fected with these ex-
ternal tubercles.

None of these symp-
toms, however, is more
than an indication of
the possible presence
of the disease.

Post-mortem _ find-

Tuberculosis iPAl

(After Wrad.)

Fie. 12. — Breastbone of a fowl showing excess.ve emaciation in tuberculosis.

122 Diseases of Poultry

ings give much more certain evidence of the existence of this
disease. The tubercle is the unit of all tuberculous lesions.

Fic. 13. — Liver of fowl affected with tuberculosis. (After Ward.)

The tubercles in avian tuberculosis are not essentially differ-
ent from those found in mammalian forms of the disease.

These tubercles appear as small
raised nodules filled with a
cheesy substance.

In birds the organs most af-
fected are the liver, spleen and
intestinal tract. In some in-
stances nearly every organ,
including kidneys, ovaries,
lungs, bones, muscles and skin,
is affected. Statistics collected
show that in from 90 to 99

Fia. 14. —Spleen from tubercu-
lous fowl cut through the mid-
dle. (After Koch and Rabino-
witsch.)

per cent of cases the liver shows tubercular lesions (Fig.
13). In from 85 to 90 per cent the spleen is affected

(¥yeyo, pue sy uBA IojyW) “TMO] B

-

124 Diseases of Poultry

Fic. 16. — Intestine and mesenteries of a fowl affected with tuberculosis.
(After Ward.)

(Fig. 14) and in from 50 to 60 per cent of the cases tubercles
are found in the intestines and mesenteries (Figs. 15 and 16).
Thus the liver is affected in nearly every case. However,

Tuberculosis 125

as has been pointed out many times in these pages, a spotted
condition of the liver is no sure sign of tuberculosis. Most of
the other liver diseases of fowls cause a simple blotching of
the tissue in which the center of each spot is usually depressed
or at least only slightly raised (cf. Fig. 9, p. 95). In
tuberculosis the liver is covered with numerous raised nodules
varying greatly in number and size as shown in Fig. 13.
A section of the liver shows these nodules or tubercles dis-
tributed throughout the tissue.

Still more conclusive evidence is found if the spleen is
covered with these same kind of nodules. The spleen in
health is a small rounded purplish organ about $ inch in
diameter. It lies just above the liver in the region of the
gall bladder. (Cf. Fig. 7). In cases of tuberculosis it is
very frequently greatly enlarged and is studded throughout
with the yellowish-white tubercles as shown in Fig. 14.

The lungs are rarely affected and then usually by the infec-
tion spreading from the liver on to the adjoining lung tissue.
All this agrees with the fact previously stated that fowls are
most easily infected through the digestive tract.

If the post-mortem findings agree in essentials with those
given in the preceding paragraphs we may be practically
certain that we are dealing with tuberculosis. It should not
be forgotten, however, that the pathologist would not be
willing to pronounce the disease tuberculosis until he had
taken a small particle of the cheesy material and after stain-
ing this in a particular way had demonstrated by microscop-
ical examination that the tubercule bacilli were present.

Some recent experiments hold out the hope that means
will be found for the accurate diagnosis of this disease by
means of some of the biological and serological tests. Van
Es ' and Van Es and Schalk ” have carried out careful experi-

1Van Ks, L., Zettschr. f. Infektionskrank. u. Hyg. Haust. Bd.
14, pp. 271-296, 1913. INES Gitic

126

Diseases of Poultry

ments with tuberculin prepared from the avian bacilli.
These authors injected this tuberculin within the layers of

Fia. 17. — Syringe
used in the tu-
berculin test for
chickens. (Af-
ter Van Es and
Schalk.)

the skin (intracutaneous) in the comb and
wattles. The results indicate that this
method is reasonably satisfactory. Sum-
marizing the results of their tests on 601
birds, these authors found that 98 per cent
of the birds showing tuberculous lesions
reacted to the test. Only 8 per cent of the
non-reacting birds showed lesions. Numer-
ous previous investigators had obtained
negative results with the subcutaneous,
ophthalmic and cutaneous method of ap-
plication. It appears that for birds the
intracutaneous method is the only one to
be considered of value.

Technique of making the injection is very
important according to Van Es and Schalk.
Care must be taken that the injection is
neither too deep nor too superficial. A small
caliber syringe with a very fine needle (No.
26 or 27) is used.

Owing to the denseness of the tissues,
especially the comb, it is often difficult to
inject even a small quantity, and consider-
able pressure is required to force the tu-
berculin into the tissues. The amount
injected into each bird was not carefully
measured but varied between 3/5 and 3/5 of a
cubic centimeter of a 50 per cent avian tuber-
culin. This tuberculin was prepared in the
usual way.

Owing to its looser texture the wattle proved to be the
best place for the injection. The results of the tests were

Tuberculosis 127

recorded 24, 48 and 72 hours after the injection. A positive
reaction is indicated in a typical case by a large swelling

Fic. 18. — Head of chicken showing positive tuberculin reaction of comb
and right wattle. (After Van Es and Schalk.)

about the point of injection. In the wattle this organ often

becomes two to three times its original thickness.
Agglutination and complement fixation tests have also

been used to diagnose this disease.’ The tests so far re-

1 Himmelberger, L. G., loc. cit.

_

128 Diseases of Poultry

ported, while encouraging, are too few to allow of definite
conclusions.

Methods of Contagion. — The spread of tuberculosis from
fowl to fowl takes place only when the living bacteria are
transferred from the diseased to the healthy birds. From
the fact that tuberculosis lesions are most commonly found in
the internal organs of the digestive system we may conclude
that the bacteria usually enter the body along with the food.
Examination of the tubercles situated along the intestine
shows that in many cases these communicate directly with
the interior of the digestive tract. These are constantly
emptying enormous numbers of bacteria which are carried to
the outside by the feces of the bird. Without doubt the
droppings of tuberculous fowls are the most important factor
in the spread of this disease. This is especially true when in
addition the birds are fed upon ground which is partly
covered with these droppings. Besides, the infectious
material may very easily be carried by the feet and thus
mixed with the food.

Ward states that there is no evidence to indicate that
tuberculosis is spread through the egg. He cites in support
of this first the fact that badly diseased birds do not lay, and
second the absence of tuberculosis among young. stock.
Other authors, however, have collected statistics which
indicate that even birds badly diseased with tuberculosis
may continue to lay quite steadily.

Koch and Rabinowitsch also make the following statement
(p. 431): “The possibility of the congenital origin of tuber-
culosis of fowls through the infection of the fertilized egg with
bird tuberculosis is shown by our results. It is also demon-
strated by our inoculation experiments on eggs.” Further
they have given experimental proof of the transfer of the
bacteria of mammalian tuberculosis from the inoculated egg
to the chick.

Tuberculosis 129

Lowenstein ! states that avian tuberculosis occurs more
frequently in man than is usually supposed and that it may
be due to eating eggs from tuberculosis hens. Artificially
infected eggs still contain living organisms after having been
soft boiled.

In this connection it is of interest to mention a case of the
apparent transfer of fowl tuberculosis to man. In the
Medical Record (Vol. 31, 1887) there is recorded a case of
human tuberculosis in France which apparently came from
eating tuberculous fowls which “were cooked very little
before being eaten.”’ The case occurred “in a little hamlet
of 10 cottages isolated in the midst of a large forest.” No
other source of infection could be discovered.

Treatment. — Fowl tuberculosis when it reaches the stage
at which it can be diagnosed cannot be cured under our pres-
ent knowledge. Treatment of individual cases should not be
attempted. Salmon? says: “ When the disease is discovered
the effort should be to eradicate it at once by killing off the
whole flock and thoroughly disinfecting all the houses and runs.

“As the great majority of the birds will probably be more
or less affected, the chances are that any which are saved will
have diseased livers and intestines, from which the bacilli
will escape and keep up the infection of the flock and the
runs. The danger of this is so great that no attempt should
be made to keep any of the fowls that have been exposed to
the contagion, no matter how valuable they may be. The
bodies of the birds which have died or are killed, as well as
all the accumulated manure, sweepings, and scrapings of the
poultry houses, should be completely destroyed by fire.”

1 Lowenstein, E., ‘‘Ueber das Vorkommen von Gefliigeltuber-
culosis beim Menschen.” Wiener Klin. Wochenschrift, Bd. 26, pp.
785-787, 1913.

2 Salmon, D. E., ‘‘Important Poultry Diseases.”’ U.S. Dept. of
Agr. Farmers’ Bul. 530, 1913.

K

-
130 : Diseases of Poultry

The above recommendations, while drastic, will probably
prove the wisest in the long run. There are, however, some-
times mitigating circumstances under which it would not be
advisable to do this. If it is known that the disease has
recently been introduced or that it is not very widely spread
through the flock all of the old stock should be removed and
killed for table purposes, providing their condition permits.
Van Es and Schalk have shown that it is the older birds that
furnish the higher percentage of actual disease. Their
autopsy records show the following :

AGE or Brrp Per Cent oF INFECTED BIRDS
1 Loe
2 24.35
2) 86.44
4 85.71

Van Es and Schalk recommend that “After the elimina-
tion of the older birds the remainder of the flock may be
tuberculin tested and all fowls reacting typically or doubt-
fully should share the same fate as the older birds.”

After the diseased birds have been disposed of the houses,
runs, eating and drinking utensils should be thoroughly
cleaned and disinfected. Everything loose should be burned.
The disinfecting so far as possible should be done by boiling
and by sunlight. Most of the common disinfectants cannot
be relied upon to kill the tubercle bacilli. Heat and sun-
light are very effective wherever they can be applied directly.
The runs should be cultivated and the houses should be
open to the sunshine and fresh air at all times.

Van Es and Schalk report a flock which at the beginning of
1913 had 249 chickens. Of these 43.37 per cent were found to
be tuberculous by the tuberculin test and autopsy. All react-

Tuberculosis 131

ing and undesirable birds were eliminated, leaving 56 non-
reacting fowls to which 47 were added by purchase. One
year later a similar test of this flock, which had again in-
creased to 249 birds, showed only 2.41 per cent tuberculous.
It would seem that the measures reported might hold out
hope that in slightly infected flocks the disease may be
eliminated.

In the majority of cases, however, the cost of administering
the tuberculin, which would have to be done by an experi-
enced veterinarian, would be more than the birds were
worth. In such cases it will probably be best to kill off the
old stock and after thoroughly cleaning and MMSE Be
start new with stock known to be healthy.

If it is particularly desired to maintain the same strain of
birds it might be done by adopting a method similar to that
proposed by Bang for new herd building in the case of tuber-
culous cattle. Directions for doing this are given by Morse!
as follows:

“Secure new or thoroughly disinfected ground, keeping
it absolutely free from contact with the ground used by the
infected flock. Erect new houses on this ground. Collect
the eggs from the infected birds and wash them in 95 per cent
alcohol or in a 4 per cent solution of some good coal tar
disinfectant. Incubate these disinfected eggs in new incuba-
tors. When hatched, remove the chicks to new brooder
houses on the new ground. These growing chicks should be
cared for by new men, that is to say, either different men
from those that care for the old flock, or if you are compelled
to use the same men they should disinfect their hands and
shoes and put on fresh overalls before handling the new
stock. Have different feed bins and different pails for
distributing it. As soon as you have built up a clean flock

1 Reliable Poultry Journal, 1910.

ae
132 Diseases of Poultry

destroy the old and disinfect the ground occupied by them
by the method outlined above.”

This method is, no doubt, excellent in theory and if carried
out with complete and never-failing attention to details
might work. It is doubtful, however, whether in actual
practice a poultryman would ever be able to carry it through
successfully or profitably.

CHAPTER X

INTERNAL PARASITES

Fow.s are often seriously infested with internal parasites.
The most important of these are various worms living in the
alimentary canal. In popular usage these are spoken of
simply as “worms.” Various other internal parasites, as
the gape worm, the air-sac mite, etc., are described in other
sections of this book. In the main the present discussion
will be confined to intestinal worms.

Few flocks of poultry or indeed few birds could be found
which are free from intestinal worms. Worms of one kind
or another are found in the intestinal tracts of practically
all fowls. Under ordinary conditions these parasites do no
very serious harm. Undoubtedly the bird would be better
off without them but they are not serious enough to be worth
troubling about. Under certain conditions, however, these
parasites may multiply to such an extent that they become
a serious menace to the flock. There are several cases on
record in recent years where epidemics of worms have put
whole poultry plants out of business.

Worms are spread from bird to bird usually through the
excrement. The worms or their eggs are expelled by one
bird and are picked up along with food and grit by another.
Some forms are taken in with the drinking water, especially
where fowls are allowed to drink from stagnant pools.
Still other forms, like the tape worms, require an intermediate
host such as an angleworm, snail, or insect.

133

134 D ae of Poultry

Diagnosis of Worms in General. — Accurate diagnosis of
worms in the intestines can be made only by finding the
worms in the droppings of the fowls. Fowls affected with
worms to any great extent frequently show the general
symptoms of dullness and depression. Birds that are sus-
pected of being affected with worms should be shut up in a
coop and given a dose of some vermifuge or a purgative dose
of Epsom salts. If careful observation of the droppings is
made at frequent intervals the worms, if present, can usually
be detected in this way. This is not, however, an infallible
veSt.

If there is any reason to suspect that worms are present
in the flock one or two birds showing the most advanced
symptoms should be killed and examined. The entire
digestive tract should be opened and the contents carefully
examined. The intestines should be washed out in a gentle
stream of water and their walls examined after immersing in
a pan of water. If tape worms or other parasites which are
attached to wall are present these can be seen readily under
water. In case there is any doubt a competent veterinarian
should be consulted, or a bird may be sent to the Zodlogical
Division of the Bureau of Animal Industry of the United
States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. In
this way the worms will be identified and any specific remedies
will be recommended.

The principal parasitic worms which affect the digestive
tract of fowls may be grouped into three classes as follows:
Tape worms, round worms and flukes.

Tape Worms

Tape worms have long been known to infest domestic
poultry. Occasionally serious outbreaks of the tape worm
disease occur in various parts of the country. These out-

—
~*

Internal Parasites 135

breaks are usually confined to comparatively small areas and
are perhaps more common in the southern states.
Etiology. — The tape worms of poultry, like those which

infest man and the domestic
animals, are long, flat, segmented
worms (Fig. 19). The anterior
end of the animal possesses a
number of hooks or suckers by
which it attaches itself to the walls
of the intestine. Back of this
head the entire animal consists
of a long series of segments or
proglottids. The segments near-
est the head are the smallest and
it is at this region that new
segments are constantly being
formed. The farther from the
head they get the larger the seg-
ments become. Towards the pos-
terior end of the worm the seg-
ments develop sexual organs and
later become filled with eggs.
As soon as the eggs are fertilized
and mature the segment contain-
ing them drops off and_ passes
to the exterior with the feces of
the host. Each segment of this
kind contains thousands of eggs.

If these eggs are to develop
farther they must be swallowed
by some intermediate host (as a
worm, snail or insect). The

‘cand Bae
a
Beni

=
CCP rE
a i Ie

ee ee
Bi Ea a,
52
SS Se

att et ee
14

(ety

“fae PE at
BES

lz =
bs |
i a \ ea] :
| ie ( t4 f
is =

E , fl ; = ae:
| / ca ;

3 en fo |
a =e Ff

ee \ eS

Fic. 19. — Drepanidotenia in-
fundibuliformis, a tape worm
of the fowl. (After Stiles.)

egg then hatches into a 6-hooked embryo which bores its
way from the intestine into the body cavity of the inter-

oe

136 Diseases of Poultry

mediate host. It here develops into a larval form known as
a cysticercoid. When the intermediate host (worm, snail,
etc.) is eaten by a chicken this larva continues its develop-
ment and forms an adult tape worm. Thus there are two
stages in the life cycle of a tape worm: that in the adult
host and that in the intermediate host. Each species of
tape worm, of which there are a great many, has its par-
ticular host, both intermediate and final.

According to Stiles! there were up to 1896, 33 species of
tape worms recorded for poultry. Of these 11 are recorded
as occurring in chickens (Gallus). The complete life history
is known for only a few of these. Since that time several
other species have been described.”

Regarding the tape worms of chickens, Stiles (loc. cit.)
says, p. 13: “(They) are known to become infected with
one tape worm through eating slugs (Limax). They are
supposed to become infected with a second through eating
snails (Helix); by a third through eating flies and by a
fourth through eating earth worms.”

There seems but little need to give a description of the
different species of tape worms found in chickens. The
characters by which they are distinguished from each other
are too minute and involved to be of use to the poultryman
or farmer. If any one is having trouble with tape worms in
poultry the best thing to do is to send a portion of the intes-
tine containing the worms to Washington as directed above.
The correct identification of the species and the correspond-
ing knowledge of its life history will often suggest a specific
means of control.

1 Stiles, C. W., ‘‘The Tapeworms of Poultry.’’ U.S. Dept. of
Agr., Bur. of Anim. Ind., Bul. 12, pp. 1-80, 1896.

2See Ransom, B. H., ‘‘The Tapeworms of American Chickens
and Turkeys.” U.S. Dept. of Agr., Bur. of Anim. Indus., Ann.
Rept., 1904, pp. 268-285.

Internal Parasites Ter

Nodular Teniasis

Stiles says, p. 15: “At least one species of tape worm
(Davainea tetragona) causes a serious nodular disease of the
intestine of chickens which upon superficial examination may
be easily mistaken for tuberculosis.”” Moore ! says:

“Tuberculosis is the only known disease for which this
affection is liable to be mistaken, and it is of much importance
that the two diseases should not be confounded. The
diagnosis has not in my experience been difficult, as in every
case the attached tape worms were readily detected upon a
close examination of the intestinal contents, or of the mu-
cousmembrane of the infected portion of the intestine. How-
ever, the worms are quite small and could easily be over-
looked in a hurried or cursory examination. In case of
doubt, if the affected intestine is opened and the mucous
surface washed carefully in a gentle stream of water, the
small worms will be observed hanging to the mucous mem-
brane. This discovery, in the absence of lesions in the liver
or other organs, would warrant the diagnosis of the tape
worm disease.”

Diagnosis. —'The symptoms of tape worm disease are not
specific. The general symptoms are similar to those of other
worms (cf. p. 134). Regarding the symptoms of tape worms
Ziirn ” says:

“Tf numerous tape worms are present in the intestine of
young or old fowls a more or less extensive intestinal catarrh
develops, corresponding to the greater or less number of
parasites present.

“The intestinal catarrh shows itself, especially in chickens

1 Moore, V. A., ‘‘A Nodular Teniasis in Fowls.”” U.S. Dept. of
Agric., Bur. Anim. Ind., Cire. No. 3, p. 4, 1895.

*Ziirn, F. A., ‘‘Die Krankheiten des Hausgefliigels.” Weimar,
1882.

_

Diseases of Poultry

and geese, as follows: The sick animals become emaciated,
although the appetite is not especially disturbed. At

Fic. 20. — Intestine of
a fowl turned wrong
side out to show
tape worms in nod-
ular teeniasis. (After
Pearson and Warren.)

times the appetite is even increased.
The droppings are thin, contain con-
siderable yellow slime, and are passed
in small quantities but at short inter-
vals. The poultry raiser must direct
his attention to these thin, slimy, and
often bloody droppings, for if any
treatment against the tape worm is to
be undertaken, this must be done as
early as possible. In observing the
droppings it should be noticed whether
tape worm segments or eggs are present.
The eggs can be seen, of course, only
with the microscope.

“After a time other symptoms de-
velop. The sick animals become dull
and listless, remain apart from the
rest of the flock—the feathers are
ruffled and the wings droop, the appe-
tite is lost and the birds allow them-
selves to be easily caught. Although
it was stated that in the beginning of
the trouble the appetite is not dis-
turbed, the sick animals develop an
intense thirst for cold water. When
it rains they run under the eaves in
order to catch water, and in winter
are eager for ice water.”

Since the examination of the feces for tape worm segments
is rather unsatisfactory for the farmer or poultryman,
Stiles says that “The best method for the farmer to follow is
to kill one of the sick chickens when he suspects tape worms

Internal Parasites 139

and to cut out the intestine. He should then open the intes-
tinal tract from gizzard to anus in a bowl of warm water,
and look for the parasites” (cf. Fig. 20). Finding the
worms in the alimentary canal is the only certain diagnosis
of the disease.

Treatment. —'The chief drugs used for tape worms in
fowls are: Extract of male fern, turpentine, areca nut,
powdered kamala, pumpkin seed, pomegranate root bark
and Epsom salts. The following extract from Salmon gives
the principal methods of treatment and the doses: ‘One
of the best methods of treating tape worms in fowls is to
mix in the feed a teaspoonful of powdered pomegranate root
bark for every 50 head of birds. In treating a few birds at
a time it is well to follow this medicine with a purgative
dose of castor oil (2 or 3 teaspoonsful). According to Ziirn,
powdered areca nut is the best tape worm remedy for fowls,
but he states that turkeys are unfavorably affected by it.
It may be given in doses of 30 to 45 grains mixed with butter
and made into pills. Male fern is also a very effectual
remedy and may be used in the form of powder (dose 30
grains to 1 dram) or of liquid extract (dose 15 to 30 drops).
It should be given in the morning and evening, before feeding.
Oil of turpentine is an excellent remedy for all worms which
inhabit the digestive canal. It may be given in the dose of
1 to 3 teaspoonsful, and is best administered by forcing
it through a small flexible catheter that has been oiled and
passed through the mouth and esophagus to the crop. This
medicine is less severe in its effects if diluted with an equal
bulk of olive oil, but, if it fails to destroy the parasites when
so diluted, it may be given pure.”’

A method of administering medicine such as turpentine
by depositing it directly in the crop has been proposed by
Gage and Opperman.! This method can be advantageously

1 Gage, G. E., and Opperman, C. L., ‘‘A Tapeworm Disease of
Fowls.”’ Maryland Agr. Expt. Stat. Bul. 139, pp. 73-85, 1909.

-
140 Diseases of Poultry

used with many other liquid remedies, and should be adopted
in all cases where it is important to have the full dose in the
stomach in a short time. It does away with the uncertainty
attending the giving of medicine in the feed or drinking water,
and with a little practice is more expeditious than making

Fig. 21. — Sketch showing method of introducing turpentine directly into
crop. (After Gage and Opperman.)

and giving pills. The open end of the catheter may be in-
serted into a rubber bulb having one opening. Just sufficient
air should be expelled from the bulb, so that the dose of
medicine will be sucked up without being followed by much
air. The bird’s head is then brought in a line with the neck,
which is extended, the catheter is passed carefully to the

Internal Parasites 141

crop (Fig. 21), when a slight pressure on the bulb forces out
the medicine, and the instrument is withdrawn. The
operator should be sure that he avoids the trachea.

Gage and Opperman have found Epsom salts and tur-
pentine a very effective remedy for Nodular Teeniasis. After
careful consideration of the data they conclude that “40 to 50
grains of Epsom salts is sufficient for an adult fowl in order
to clean out the intestinal tract so that the birds may take
food. Then the turpentine should be introduced ”’ as directed
above. For younger birds the dose of salts should be pro-
portionately less. In fowls from 6 months to 2 years old the
salts are best given by dissolving in water and giving each
fowl this liquid. For younger chicks the salts may be dis-
solved in warm water and used to moisten the mash or feed.

Prevention. — One of the most important measures against
all parasitic infestations of the digestive tract is to move the
fowls upon fresh ground every two or three years. This
should be done in all cases where such parasites are fre-
quently observed in the intestines of the birds. Another
practical measure, which may be adopted at the same time,
is to remove the excrement daily from the houses and destroy
any parasites or their eggs which may be in it, by mixing it
with quick lime or saturating it with a 10 per cent solution
of sulphuric acid. The acid is cheap, but requires that
great care be taken in diluting it, owing to danger of its
splashing upon the clothing and flesh and causing severe
burns. It should always be poured slowly into the water
used for dilution, but on no account should water be poured
into the acid as it will cause explosions and splashing.

When treating diseased birds these should always be
isolated and confined, and their droppings should either be
burned or treated with lime or sulphuric acid as just recom-
mended. Without these hygienic measures, medical treat-
ment can only be partially successful.

er
142 Diseases of Poultry

Stiles says: “An extermination of slugs will insure im-
munity against Davainea proglottina, but no precise directions
can be given to prevent chickens from becoming infected
with other tape worms until the life history of these parasites
is better understood. It will be well, however, to keep the
chickens housed in the morning until the sun is well up and
the ground is dry, for they will thus be less likely to meet
with the supposable intermediate hosts of other worms.”

Round Worms

Round worms can be found in the intestine and especially
the ceca of almost any fowl. They are much more common
than the tape worms. Normally the round worms cause

Fic. 22. Worms protruding from a section of the intestine of afowl. (After
Bradshaw.)

no serious trouble to fowls. Under certain conditions, how-
ever, they may become so numerous as to be a serious menace
to the flock. At such times they have a decided effect on
the digestion; the irritation often causes diarrhea. When

Internal Parasites 143

in large numbers, they sometimes become rolled and matted
into a ball which may cause complete stoppage of the in-
testine.

The round worms are white in color and vary in length
from % inch to 5 inches. The head end is sharp pointed,
while the tail end is more blunt. Round worms are seldom
passed in the feces unless present in very large numbers.
When a worm is passed it soon dies in the droppings or is
eaten by another fowl.

Dispharagus spiralis, a small worm about 4 inch in
length, is often found in the esophagus and occasionally in
the crop or intestine.

Dispharagus nasutus, about { inch long, occurs in the walls
of the gizzard of fowls. It sometimes becomes so numerous
as to cause serious loss.

Another nematode, Cheilosperura hamulosa, parasite in
the gizzard of the chicken has recently been recorded in this
country by Ransom.’ Specimens have been found from the
District of Columbia as far west as Kansas.

Two other nematodes, Trichosoma strunosum and Gingy-
lonema ingluricola, have been found in the pharynx and
esophagus of chickens.”

Heterakis perspicillum, from 15 to 3 inches long, is very
common in the intestines of fowls. They sometimes become
very numerous and may become rolled into rather large
balls which obstruct the passage of the food.

Scott ? has found that this nematode may be transmitted
to young chicks through an earthworm (probably Helodrilas

1 Ransom, B. H., ‘‘The Occurrence of Cheilosperura hamulosa
in the United States.”’ Science, N. S., Vol. 35, p. 555, 1912.

2 Crurea, J., Zeitschr. Infekt. u. Hyg. d. Haust. Bd. 15, pp. 49-60,
1914.

3 Scott, J. W., ‘A New Means of Transmitting the Fowl Nema-
tode, Heterakis perspicillum.” Science, N.S., Vol. 38, pp. 672-673,
1913.

-
144 Diseases of Poultry

parvus) found in horse manure. Whether the worm is an
intermediate host or whether the nematode eggs simply
cling to the surface of the worm has not been determined.
Several other species of the genus
Heterakis also infest fowls and other
poultry.

At least one species of ascaris (Ascaris
infleca) is found in the fowl. This is
a round worm white or yellowish-white
in color and from one to two inches
in length. If they occur in sufficient
numbers they produce considerable
irritation in the digestive tract. In-
fested birds appear unthrifty, lack
appetite and become emaciated.

Occasionally this or other round
worms may pass from the cloaca into
the oviduct or egg tube. In this way
they may be incorporated in the albu-
men of an egg as it is formed in the ovi-
duct.

Diagnosis. — The symptoms of round
worms are similar to those of all worms
(cf. p. 134). There is evidence of indi-
Fic. 23. — Heterakis gestion. The comb becomes pale and

perspicillum. a, male. there may be diarrhea.

cor aatuon to sna Treatment. — The remedies men-

tioned on p. 139 for tape worms are
also useful for round worms. The remedy most commonly
advised is to give 2 grains santonine for each bird. Dis-
solve this in water and use to mix the mash. As recom-
mended on p. 141, all droppings should be collected and
examined, also put out of reach of the birds.

Vale recommends the following: “Beat a new laid egg

Internal Parasites 145

with 1 tablespoonful of oil of turpentine and mix thoroughly
by shaking. Give a teaspoonful of the mixture night and
morning for a few days; or divide } of an ounce of areca nut
- In powder, into 4 parts, and
give 1 part each morning,
fasting, with a dessertspoon-
ful of sweet oil 2 hours after
each powder.”

Flukes

Flukes or trematode worms
are small, flat and usually
oval-shaped. Figure 24 gives
a fair idea of the appearance
of these parasites.

Regarding these parasites
in poultry, Theobald’ says:

“The Trematode worms or
Flukes found in the fowl are
3 in number. One is found
in the egg (Distoma ovatum)
the others in the esophagus
and intestines.

“The Fluke found in the
esophagus of the fowl is Fie. 24. — Trematode worm or fluke
known as Cephalogonimus eee cor Soa} Crom
pellucidus, as transparent
reddish fluke about 9 mm. long. These were found by
Von Linstor and Railliet. In the intestines Neumann
enumerates 7 species, namely, Notocotyle triserialis, Distoma
oxycephalum Rud., D. dilatatum Miriam, D. lineare Zeder,
D. ovatum, D. armatum Molin, and Mesogonimus commutatus

1 Theobald, F. V., ‘‘ Parasitic Diseases of Poultry.’’ London.
ii

146 Discus of Poultry

Son. These, however, are not all distinct: dilatatwm is
undoubtedly the same as oxycephalum; armatum is also
probably the same.”

None of these trematode worms are of any pathological
importance, although, as is well known, they often cause
serious maladies in other animals. All the flukes that have
two hosts undergo a complicated metamorphosis, the early
stages always taking place in some water-mollusk. Those
found in the fowl have not had their life-histories worked
out.

Numerous flagellate and other microscopic parasites have
been described from the intestine, ceca and cloaca of
fowls. Martin and Robertson! mention particularly the
flagellates, Chilomastizx gallinarum, Trichomonas gallinarum,
Trypanosoma ebertht and Trichomastix gallinarum.

Berké ? describes a microfilaria occurring very abundantly
in the liver of domestic fowls.

None of these parasites causes serious injury so far as
known.

1 Martin, C. H., and Robertson, Muriel, ‘‘ Further Observations
on the Ceeal Parasites of Fowls with some Reference to the Rectal
Fauna of Other Vertebrates.”’ Quart. Jour. Micros. Sci. (London),
N.S., Vol. 57, pp. 53-81, 1911.

2 Berké, Centralb. f. Bakt., ete., Abt. 1, Bd. 58, pp. 326-330, 1911.

CHAPTER XI

DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

TuE respiratory organs of birds are the nasal passages, the

pharynx, larynx,
trachea, lungs and
air sacs. The form
and general appear-
ance of the lungs
and trachea are
‘ shown in Fig. 25.
The respiratory
apparatus differs
somewhat in struc-
ture and function
from that of mam-
mals. As in mam-
mals the trachea
(windpipe) divides
into the primary
bronchi, one pass-
ing to each lung.
In birds these
bronchi do not di-
vide and subdivide
as in mammals, but
each passes to the

Fig. 25. — Photograph of the lungs of a do-
mestic fowl. The air passages are injected
with gelatine. (Original.)

147

148 Diseases of Poultry

posterior end of its lung where it opens into the abdominal
air sac. This relation is shown in Fig. 26.

The primary bronchus gives off secondary bronchi which
radiate toward the surface of the lungs. The secondary
bronchi give off smaller radiating branches, the tertiary
bronchi. Both primary and secondary bronchi remain of
practically uniform
diameter through-
out their entire
length. For the
most part these
tubes end_ blindly,
but some of them
communicate with
the air sacs. This
tubular system
makes up the air-
containing portion
of the lungs. It is
embedded in a net-
work of almost

naked blood vessels
Fia. 26. — Diagrammatic drawing of the left which make up the
lung of adomestic fowl. a, primary bronchus ; R
b, secondary bronchus; 6%, openings of other Spongy tissue of the
secondary bronchi ; c, opening of tertiary lungs. The aéra-
bronchus; d, openings into air sacs. (Origi- 2ES
nal.) tion of the blood

takes place through
the walls of these vessels. The intimate relations of the
tubular and vascular systems of the lungs are shown in
Fig. 28.

The air sacs are very large, thin-walled sacs which open
into the bronchial tubes as described. When expanded
with air these sacs fill all the available space in the thoracic-
abdominal cavity and axilla. A small sac also lies along the

ft

Diseases of the Respiratory System 149

ventral side of the neck, while diverticula from the large sacs
are embedded among the muscles and even penetrate some
of the bones. These sacs function chiefly as reservoirs of
air. Some aération of blood takes place in the sacs and they
also help to reduce the relative weight of the body. The air
sacs are the elastic or
bellows-like portion of
the respiratory appara-
tus. The lungs, on ac-
count of their structure
and position in the body,
are permanently dis-
tended. During inspira-
tion the air passes
through the trachea and
lungs into the sacs.
Fresh outside air is thus
brought into the portion
of the lungs where the
blood is aérated. During
expiration air from the
sacs ns) forced back
through the lungs. The —
current sucks out the air Fic. 27. — Ventral surface of the right
from the blind ending lung of a fowl, injected with wax.
tubes and to some extent ‘f7°™ Gadow, after Stieda.)
supplies comparatively fresh air in expiration. Thus the
respiratory apparatus in birds is more efficient than in
mammals, where fresh air is never available for the aéra-
tion of the blood, the entire process being carried on by
residual air.

In addition to aération of the blood, the respiratory ap-
paratus eliminates most of the waste moisture of the body and
is, therefore, the temperature regulator. In mammals this

oa
150 Diseases of Poultry

function is performed by the sweat glands and the secretion
of the kidneys. Birds have no sweat glands and the secre-
tion of the kidneys contains relatively little moisture.

The air passages are lined with mucous membrane and this
membrane is the seat of several diseases. Diseases are easily

Fic. 28. —.Cross section of two of the small air tubes of the lung of a goose.
On the right the air passages are filled with black injection mass. On
the left the arteries are similarly injected. (From Oppel, after Schulze.)

transferred from one part of the respiratory system to another,
since the passages and also the lining membranes are contin-
uous from the nostrils to the air sacs. There are also diseases
of the vascular part of the lungs. Some of these diseases are
caused by unfavorable conditions as exposure to cold,
drafts of air, or moist air or to improper food. Others
are due to specific organisms. Most of the latter are con-
tagious. Exposure to unfavorable conditions also reduces
the ability of the birds to resist infectious diseases.

Diseases of the Respiratory System 151

Catarrh (Simple Catarrh; Non-contagious Catarrh; Cold)

One of the most common diseases of the air passages
is catarrh (cold). It is often hard to distinguish this disease
from early stages of roup and diphtheria. The characteristic
symptoms of the latter disease should be carefully looked for,
lest the flock become infected with a dangerous contagious
disease. In cases where there is a suspicion of either of
these diseases it is better to isolate the sick birds. Catarrh
is non-contagious. It usually affects only a few individuals
in the flock, but in cases of exposure of the flock to the un-
favorable conditions which cause the disease it may occur
in quite a number of birds at the same time.

Diagnosis. — Affected birds sneeze frequently, appear dull
and lose their appetites. In early stages of the disease a
thin mucous secretion is discharged from the nostrils. Often
the eyes are watery and the eyelids inflamed and swollen.
Later, in severe cases, the mucous secretions become gelati-
nous. The head passages may become entirely filled with
this thick secretion. Breathing is then entirely through the
mouth and is accompanied by a wheezing sound. A watery
liquid drools from the mouth. Death occurs, apparently
from exhaustion, in very severe cases.

Etiology. —'The cause of catarrh is exposure to cold, to
drafts of air, to damp atmosphere due to improper housing
conditions, or to wet weather. Weak stock or improperly
nourished birds are more likely to be affected by these con-
ditions than strong, vigorous and well fed individuals.

Treatment. — With strong, healthy stock it is usually only
necessary to remove the cause. Affected birds should be
kept in warm, dry, well ventilated rooms. Daily individual
treatment is effective and may profitably be applied if the
attack is severe and the bird valuable.

This treatment when most effective involves three steps :

152 Diseases of Poultry

(1) Removal of secretions. The mouth and nostrils and
the eyes, if affected, should be washed with warm water con-
taining | teaspoonful of common salt to the quart. A small
wad of absorbent cotton may be used to apply this cleansing
solution. The sides of the head under the eyes and around
the nostrils should be massaged gently to loosen the secretion.

(2) Disinfecting the air passages and eyes. The air pas-
sages and eyes should now be disinfected with one of the fol-
lowing solutions, given here in order of preference :

a. Potassium permanganate, 2 per cent solution.

b. Boracic acid, 3 per cent solution.

c. Creolin, 1 per cent solution.

d. Hydrogen dioxide and water, equal parts.

e. Carbolic acid, 2 per cent solution.

These solutions may be injected into the nostrils with a
small syringe or a medicine dropper, but on account of the
small aperture of the nostrils they are more effectively ap-
plied through the internal opening of the air passages. This
is a long, widely open slit in the roof of the mouth. It is
easily exposed in a position to receive the treatment by hold-
ing the bird head down, grasping the head, comb down, in the
hand and opening the mouth with the thumb. The solution
may then be injected into the slit or poured in with a teaspoon.
The head should be held firmly in this position for several
seconds after the treatment to allow the solution to pene-
trate to all parts of the head passages. Gently massaging
the sides of the head also helps distribute the disinfectant.
The eyes may be washed with the same disinfecting solution
used for the nostrils.

(3) Applying oil to the head passages. A quarter of a
teaspoonful of oil of thyme, oil of eucalyptus, or even sweet
oil should now be administered in the same way as the disin-
fecting solution. If the eyes are affected introduce 2 drops
of 15 per cent argyrol solution.

Diseases of the Respiratory System 153

When the head passages are not filled with mucus the ap-
plication of the oil to the nostrils and argyrol to the eyes
without the previous steps is very beneficial.

Prognosis. — A great majority of the birds recover in a few
days if the cause is immediately removed. If the cause con-
tinues to act they may become worse and die, or the disease
may become chronic and persist for a long time.

Bronchitis, Croup

This disease may follow catarrh as a direct extension
of the inflammatory processes in the membrane of the
nasal cavities and throat to the mucous membrane of bron-
chial tubes.

Diagnosis. —The symptoms of bronchitis are the symptoms
of a hard cold (severe catarrh) with rapid breathing and
cough. It may be distinguished from a cold by the peculiar
sounds made in breathing. In the early stages of the disease
this is a whistling sound made by the passage of the air
over the dry, thickened membrane. As the disease advances
mucus collects in the tubes and the breathing is accompanied
by a rattling or bubbling sound. Under favorable conditions
the symptoms do not usually pass beyond this stage but soon
disappear. In very severe cases the birds become very sleepy
and refuse to eat. The wings droop. The feathers are
roughened and breathing becomes more and more difficult,
until finally the bird dies. The less severe forms of the dis-
ease may become chronic, while the symptoms of rattling
breath and coughing up mucus may persist for a long time.
In this form of the disease the birds appear well except for the
above symptoms.

Etiology. — When it follows a hard cold, bronchitis may be
caused by an extension of the inflammation of the mucosa of
the throat to the mucosa of the bronchial tubes. It may also

a
154 Diseases of Poultry

be caused directly by exposure to cold, drafts, and damp-
ness; or it may result from irritation of the mucous
membrane caused by inhaling irritating vapors, dust or
foreign particles.

Treatment. — Place the patient in a warm, dry, well venti-
lated but not drafty room. Feed bread or middlings
moistened with milk, and add to this food 2 grains of black
antimony twice a day. A demulcent drink is often beneficial.
A very good one is made by steeping a little flax seed in water.
Other demulcent drinks are made by dissolving honey or gum
arabic in water. ‘This treatment is sufficient for mild cases.
Salmon recommends the following treatment for severe at-
tacks: “If the attack promises to be severe, it may sometimes
be checked in the early stages by giving 10 drops of spirits
of turpentine in a teaspoonful of castor oil and repeating this
dose after 5 or 6 hours. It should not be continued after there
are signs of purging, for fear of exhausting the strength of
the patient. In the very acute cases, where the whistling
or snoring sounds with the respiration indicate a croupous
form of inflammation, and where the gasping shows great
obstruction of the air passage, relief may be obtained by
giving from 3 to 6 drops of either the sirup or the wine of
Ipecac.

“Medicines should be administered very carefully in dis-
eases affecting the trachea and bronchi, as otherwise they
may enter the air passages and increase the irritation.”

Prognosis. — In the ordinary and chronic forms the birds
usually recover. In the more severe forms a large per cent
of the affected birds die.

Influenza (Epizoétic, Grippe, Distemper)

The symptoms are the same as those of a severe cold ac-
companied by fever and usually also by diarrhea. It ap-

Diseases of the Respiratory System 155

pears to be a contagious germ disease as it often affects a
large number of birds kept together.

Quite possibly this is not a separate disease but is either
a severe form of cold occurring in many individuals of a
flock which has been exposed to unfavorable, unsanitary
conditions, or is a mild form of roup. Affected birds should
be isolated. If diarrhea is present give one-half to one tea-
spoonful of Epsom salts dissolved in water. Treatment the
same as for colds.

Prognosis. — Most cases recover in a week or ten days.
Severe cases die in a day or two or sometimes within a few
hours after the appearance of the first symptoms.

Roup

Veterinarians have distinguished two diseases belonging
to this general class of troubles as follows: (a) roup or
contagious catarrh when only catarrhal symptoms are
present, and (b) diphtheria, diphtheritic roup and canker when
diphtherial patches and false membranes are formed. The
bacteriologists Harrison and Streit,’ consider these different
stages of the same disease. This view has been quite
generally accepted. Cary” and several other workers * not
only consider these as one disease but also believe that sore-
head, chicken pox or epithelioma contagiosum is also a form
of this disease. Evidence for the identity of “avian
diphtheria” or “diphtheritic roup”’ and chicken pox is

1 Harrison, F. C., and Streit, H., “ Roup.’’ Ontario Agr. Col.
and Expt. Farm Bull. 125. 1902. Jbid., Bul. 182. 1904.

2 Cary, C. A., “ Chicken Pox or Sore Head in Poultry.”’ Ala-
bama Col. Sta. Bul. 186. 1906.

3For example, Kingsley, A. F., “Epithelioma Contagiosum.”
Amer. Vet. Rev., 30. 1907. Hadley, F. B., and Beach, B. A.,
“ Controlling Chicken Pox, Sore Head or Contagious Epithelioma
by Vaccination.’”’ Proc. Amer. Vet. Med. Assoc., Vol. 50, pp. 704-
712. 1913.

a
156 Diseases of Poultry

cited by several European investigators.' On the other
hand Haring and Kofoid? and Sweet * and Fally?* believe
that there is convincing evidence that sore-head is dis-
tinct from the roup diseases. These questions cannot be
settled with the present knowledge of the causes of these
diseases. The probability is that there are at least three
diseases although each of them may under certain conditions
produce lesions similar to those of either of the other two.
In fact the disagreement in the results of different investi-
gators suggests that there may be several contagious diseases
which produce nearly identical lesions. In the present work
nasal roup, diphtheritic roup, and chicken pox will be dis-
cussed as separate diseases.

Nasal Roup or Contagious Catarrh

The disease called “roup” by poultrymen is a contagious
eatarrh. It attacks principally the membranes lining the eye,
the sacs below the eye (infra-orbital sinuses), the nostrils, the
larynx, and the trachea.

Diagnosis. — The general characteristics of the disease
have been very well described by Salmon. ‘The symptoms
first seen are very similar to those of an ordinary cold, but

1 Carnwath, T., Arb. K. Gsndhsamt. Orig. 27, pp. 388-402. 1907.
Schmid, G., Centbl. Bakt., etc., Orig. 52, pp. 200-234. 1909. Ratz, L.,
Allotorvosi Lapok, Vol. 33, pp. 184-186. 1910. Sigwart, H., Centbl.
Bakt., etc., Orig. 56, pp. 428-464. 1910. Uhlenhuth and Manteufel.
Arb. K. Gsndhsamt., Vol. 38, pp. 288-304. 1910. von Betegh, L.,
Centbl. Bakt., etc., Orig. 67, pp. 438-50. 1912. von Katz, 8., Monatsch.
Prakt. Tierheilk., Vol. 25, pp. 41-46. 1913.

2 Haring, C. M., and Kofoid, C. A., “Observations concerning
the Pathology of Roup and Chicken Pox.’’ Amer. Vet. Rev., Vol.
40, pp. 717-728. 1912.

3 Sweet, C. D., “A Study of Epithelioma Contagiosum of the
Common Fowl.” Univ. of Col. Pubs. Zool., Vol. 11, pp. 29-51.
1913.

4Fally, V. Ann. Med. Vet., Vol. 57, pp. 68-75. 1908.

Diseases of the Respiratory System 157

there is more fever, dullness and prostration. Harrison and
Streit say that although the head is often very hot the body
temperature is normal or only very slightly higher than nor-
mal. The discharge from the nasal opening is at first thin
and watery, but in two or three days becomes thick and ob-
structs the breathing. The inflammation, which begins in

Eye displaced and closed by
Tumor. swollen membranes.

Nostril
sealed
by cheesy
growth.

Mouth
filled.
with
fibrinous
exudate.
Fic. 29. — Photograph of a fowl’s head showing infra-orbital tumor caused

by roup. (After Roebuck.)

the nasal passages, soon extends to the eyes and to the spaces
which exist immediately below the eyeballs. The eyelids
are swollen, and are closed much of the time. They may be
glued together by the accumulated secretion. The birds
sneeze and shake their heads in their efforts to free the air
passages from the thick mucus. The appetite is diminished
and the birds sit with their heads drawn in, wings drooping,
with the general appearance of depression and illness.

158 Diseases of Poultry

When the inflammation reaches the spaces or sacs beneath
the eyes it causes the formation of a secretion very similar
to that of the nose, and as this becomes thick it collects, dis-
tends the walls of these spaces, and produces a warm and
painful swelling, which is seen just below the eyes and may
reach the size of a hickory nut. This swelling presses with
much force on the eyeball, which is displaced and more or

7
'
j om
i
ea De RE oe es SOAR RN LS Sioa tale STINE aS fase US ES
Fic. 30. — Showing appearance of a hen a day before death from roup.

(After Harrison and Streit.)

less deformed; and in extreme cases even the bones of the
head may give way before it.

The closure of the eyes prevents the badly affected birds
from finding food ; the accumulation of mucus in the nostrils
completely obstructs these passages, so that the beak must
be kept open in order to breathe; the obstruction of the
windpipe and the smaller air tubes causes loud breathing
sounds and difficult respiration.

In the severe and advanced cases the birds sit in a som-
nolent or semiconscious condition, unable to see or to eat;
their strength is rapidly exhausted, and many of them die
within a week or ten days. A part of the affected indi-

Diseases of the Respiratory System 159

viduals recover, but others continue weak and have a chronic
form of the disease for months; during which time they con-
tinue to disseminate the contagion.

This disease is distinguished from diphtheria by the ab-
sence of the thick, tough, and very adherent newly formed
membranes (false membranes) in the nostrils, mouth, and
throat which are characteristic of the latter.

The Course of the Disease. —'The course of roup is usually
of long duration. A simple, putrid discharge from the nose
may stop in three or four weeks. But generally the symp-
toms last for months. When the eyelids become swollen
and tumors appear, the case is usually chronic. Affected
birds may be better for a few days or weeks, and then be-
come very weak again. Damp, cold weather usually inten-
sifies the disease.

It is well known that fowls may be more or less sick from
roup for one or even several years and these birds should
have the greatest care and attention, or else be killed at once,
for they are generally the cause of new outbreaks. Once
introduced, roup may remain in a flock for many years. The
first cold and moist nights of the fall and early winter
cause all kinds of catarrhs, which in many instances are
followed by roup. Roup spreads rapidly in the winter
time and may attack from 10 to 90 per cent of the fowls in
a flock. Towards spring, the disease gradually disappears ;
during the summer months, a few birds remain chronically
affected ; and then the first cold nights give the disease a
fresh start.

There is a great deal of difference in the susceptibility of
fowls to the disease. Young fowls and finely bred fowls are
especially liable to contract it. Some birds are apparently
naturally immune and never take the disease. Others ap-
parently have it in a mild form and completely recover,
having thereby acquired an immunity.

a
160 Diseases of Poultry

Etiology. — Several organisms have been isolated from the
lesions of birds suffering from roup.’ Four of these have some
claim to be considered the cause of the disease. These include
three species of bacteria and one protozoén. ‘There is also
some evidence that the cause of the disease is an invisible
virus. While the specific organism or organisms which cause
the disease are not certainly known its infectious nature is
well established. It is probably carried from one individual
to another in a flock, by the particles of dried secretion in the
air or possibly by the food and drink contaminated by the
diseased birds. It may be introduced into a flock by the
bringing in of birds from an infected flock, or by birds that
have contracted the disease at shows. Possibly it issometimes
carried on the shoes or clothing of persons coming from in-
fected yards or houses, and possibly also by wild birds or
pigeons which fly from one poultry yard to another. While
a source of infection is necessary for the production of the
disease it does not appear to attack birds when the mucous
membrane is in a healthy condition. It is most apt to attack
birds that are suffering with catarrh. When a flock once
becomes infected the birds which develop a mild chronic form
of the disease serve as sources of infection whenever ex-
posure to cold and dampness causes catarrh in the unaffected

1 Much confusion in regard to etiology of the diseases belonging
to general class commonly referred to as roup arises from the fact
that several investigators believe them to be stages in a single dis-
ease. A partial list of the literature on the etiology of roup and
diphtheria follows. Harrison, F. C., and Streit, H., loc. cit. Uhlen-
huth and Manteufel, loc. cit. von Betegh, L., loc. cit. von Katz,
S., loc. cit. Guerin, C., Ann. Inst. Pasteur, T. 15, pp. 941-952.
1901. Borrel. Compt. Rend. Soc. Biol. (Paris), T. 57, pp. 642-643.
1904. Galli-Valerio. Centbl. Bakt. Orig., Bd. 36, pp. 465-471. 1904.
Streit, H., Zisch. Hyg. u. Infectionskrank. 46, pp. 407-462. 1904.
Muller, R., Centbl. Bakt., etc., Orig. 41, pp. 428-426; 515-523; 621-
628. 1906. Bordet, J., et Fally, V., Ann. Inst. Pasteur, T. 24,
pp. 563-568. 1910.

Diseases of the Respiratory System 161

birds. Thus in infected flocks an outbreak of roup usually
follows catarrh caused by exposure and this fact has led some
poultrymen to think that the disease may be caused directly
by exposure. In some flocks it appears annually with the
cold damp weather of late autumn and breaks out again at
every radical change of temperature and moisture conditions
throughout the winter. Vigorous and properly nourished
birds are better able to resist catarrh and consequently roup
than those that are delicate and improperly fed.

Treatment. — The best treatment is prevention. The dis-
ease can be prevented by stopping all sources of infection.
Some things to keep in mind are:

1. In introducing new birds always procure them from
uninfected flocks.

2. Isolate all new birds and all birds that have been ex-
hibited at shows for two or three weeks to make sure that
they do not develop the disease.

3. Exclude from uninfected house and yards poultry and
all other animals, including men, coming from those that are
infected.

4. Do not use implements as hoes, shovels, etc., that have
been used on infected premises.

5. Keep the birds in a good hygienic condition, well nour-
ished and in dry well ventilated houses and roomy yards.

When the disease has been introduced into the flock careful
precaution may prevent its spread.

1. Immediately separate from the flock any bird that shows
symptoms of the disease.

2. Disinfect the yards and houses with a 5 per cent solu-
tion of carbolic acid or better the cresol solution described
in chapter II. Remove the litter from the houses and dis-
infect freely. This disinfecting solution may also be fol-
lowed by whitewash.

3. Use potassium permanganate in all drinking water.
M

162 DMases of Poultry

4. Keep watch of the flock so that any new cases may be
isolated at once.

5. Burn or bury deep all birds that die.

The disease is amenable to treatment but this treatment
must be individual and requires a great deal of time. It
must be continued once or twice a day for quite a long time.
It is, therefore, very expensive and consequently imprac-
ticable for ordinary stock. Moreover birds apparently cured
are likely to become the source of infection for later outbreaks.

In the case of valuable show birds treatment may perhaps
be advisable.

The treatment recommended for catarrh or cold may be
used effectively in early stages of roup.

Harrison and Streit ' give the following methods of treating
roup:

“The germs of roup are not very resistant; they can
easily be destroyed when present in cultures, or somewhere
outside the animal; but in the animal tissue, they are very
difficult to kill, because they penetrate into the tissue; and
unless this too is killed, the germs continue living for a
long time.”

“Roup may be cured by remedies, if the treatment is careful
and judicious. . . . If the eyes and nose are attacked, they
have to be carefully washed, at least twice a day, with an
antiseptic solution, such as 2 per cent boracic acid in a
decoction of chamomile flowers, or 4 per cent solution of
corrosive sublimate. Thus the micro-organisms are killed
or at least, the diseased products which are discharged are
removed, and the irritation caused by them; also the trans-
formation into large cheesy masses is prevented.

“We had chickens badly affected with roup of the eyes,
which were cured with boracic acid and chamomile. On

1 Harrison, F. C., and Streit, H., Roup. Ont. Agr. Coll. & Exp.
Farm. Bul. 125, Dec. 1902, pp. 1-16.

Diseases of the Respiratory System 163

account of the smallness of the nostrils and nasal canals, it is
very difficult to get the antiseptic solutions into the nose and
nasal cavities; but it can be done with a small syringe. If
this treatment is too troublesome, then the nostrils, at least,
should be washed and opened several times a day, to allow the
secretions to pass away. We have treated chickens for 14
days by daily washing with a 23 per cent solution of creolin
and glycerine. After the washings, small plugs of cotton
wool, filled with mixture, were placed in the nostrils and
lachrymal ducts. This remedy did not cure the roup, al-
though the same mixture readily kills the roup bacillus in
cultures in from 2 to3 minutes. The greatest hindrance to a
sure cure by remedies which have been used locally, is the
ability of the germ to penetrate into the tissue and the many
secondary cavities of the nostrils which cannot be reached
by the antiseptic.

“Another method of treatment which gives excellent
results, especially in the early stages of roup, is the use of 1 to.
2 per cent of permanganate of potash. Fowls are treated in
the following manner: The nostrils are pressed together
between thumb and forefinger in the direction of the beak two
or three times. Pressure should also be applied between
nostrils and eyes in an upward direction. This massage helps
to loosen the discharge in the nostrils and eyes. The bird’s
head is then plunged into the solution of permanganate of
potash for 20 or 30 seconds, in fact the head may be kept
under the solution as long as the bird can tolerate it. The
solution is thus distributed through the nostrils and other
canals and has an astringent and slight disinfecting action.
This treatment should be given twice a day and continued
until all symptoms have disappeared.

“Tf there are solid tumors in the eyelids, they should be
opened so that the skin may bleed freely. The cheesy matter
should be removed and the surrounding membrane touched

164 Diseases of Poultry

with a 5 per cent carbolic acid or silver nitrate solution, and
then a cotton plug put in again to prevent the cavity from
healing too quickly. We have cured chickens in this way in
about a fortnight.

“As all these methods of treatment demand a good deal
of time and care, they cannot well be used for whole flocks,
but the more valuable fowls may be treated in this manner.
Farmers and poultrymen should first try the permanganate
of potash method of treatment as it is the easiest to employ.

“Food remedies influence roup only by strengthening the
fowls and assisting nature to throw off or conquer the
disease.”

The birds which are being treated should be kept in a dry,
warm, well ventilated room with good nourishing food. The
drinking water should be frequently changed.

Prognosis. — In infected flocks this disease caused a direct
annual loss of 10 to 15 per cent of the flock. Also many birds
contract a chronic form of the disease which affects them for
months or years. Careful individual treatment will save the
lives of many birds, but such treatment is economically in-
advisable except in case of very valuable birds.

Diphtheritic Rowp (Avian ‘Diphtheria or Canker)

As previously stated this disease is considered by several
investigators as a stage or a form of the same disease as nasal
roup. There is, however, some good evidence! that they are

1For instance, in the Maine Station flock occasional cases of
nasal roup appeared annually with unfavorable weather conditions,
but there were never any false membranes formed. About five
years ago some new stock was introduced. A few months later
eases of typical avian diphtheria appeared in these birds and a
little later in other birds in the same pens. This disease was some-
times associated with the lesions common to nasal roup, but often
the two diseases were quite separate.

Diseases of the Respiratory System 165

separate diseases although in early stages they cannot be
distinguished. There has also been a considerable discussion
of the possible identity of avian and human diphtheria, but
the evidence that these are distinct seems conclusive. Diph-
theritic roup is distinguished from nasal roup by the forma-
tion of false membranes on the mucous surface of the nostrils,
eyes, mouth, throat, trachea or bronchi. These membranes
are a tough, grayish or yellowish growth and adhere very
firmly to the underlying tissue.

The first symptoms appear in from three to five days after
exposure to contagion. The duration of the disease varies
from a few days to several months. Many birds in the
flock appear to be naturally immune or sufficiently vigorous
to overcome the disease without the formation of the charac-
teristic lesions. On account of mild, undetectable cases
diphtheritic roup is very hard to eradicate without sacrificing
the whole flock, disinfecting the premises, and starting anew
with incubator chicks or clean purchased stock.

Diagnosis. — Following the excellent account given by
Salmon it may be said that diphtheria begins as a local ir-
ritation or inflammation at some point on the internal sur-
face of the mouth, throat, nostril or eyes. At this time the
general health is not yet affected, and there is nothing but
the diphtheritic deposit to indicate that the bird has been
attacked. This deposit is at first thin, yellowish or whitish
in color, and gradually becomes thicker, firmer, and more
adherent, so that considerable force is required to remove it.
The mucous membrane beneath the deposit is found, when
the latter is removed, to be inflamed, ulcerated, and bleed-
ing, but it is soon covered by a new deposit. This deposit
is called a false membrane, and when it is situated where the
air passes over it in breathing it dries, becomes uneven and
fissured, and its color changes to a dark brown.

While the false membranes over the parts first affected are

i
166 Diseases of Poultry

becoming thicker, the inflammation extends to the adjoining
surfaces, and new diphtheritic centers develop, uniting with
each other until the cheeks, the tongue, the palate, the throat,
and the inside of the nostrils are covered. Very often the

Tumor with hard cheesy center.

Nostril
nearly
closed.

Eye
watery
and
beginning
to close.

Fibrinous masses over mouth and tongue and protruding.

Fic. 31. — Diphtheritic roup or canker. (After Roebuck.)

inflammation extends from the nostrils to the eyes and the
sacs beneath the eyes, and sometimes it penetrates the air
tubes to the lungs or the gullet to the crop.

This extension of the disease leads to the appearance of
other symptoms. The inflammation in the nostrils causes

Diseases of the Respiratory System 167

sneezing and the eseape of a thin, watery secretion from the
nasal openings; the thick false membranes fill up the nasal
passages and the throat and obstruct the breathing ; a thick,
viscid secretion collects on the eyelids and glues them to-
gether; the sacs under the eyes fill up, and swellings are
caused which disfigure the head; the poison which is pro-
duced by the growth of the microbe beneath the false mem-
branes is absorbed and affects the nervous system, causing
dullness, depression, and sleepiness. The affected bird
stands with the neck extended and the beak open to facilitate
the entrance of air into the lungs, and from the corners of the
mouth there hang strings of thick, tenacious, grayish mucus.
A characteristic disagreeable odor appears when the mem-
branes begin to form, and as they increase in mass it becomes
much stronger and by the time the birds are in the condition
described above it is very objectionable.

At this time, which may be three to five days from the ap-
pearance of the first symptoms, the condition is very serious.
Swallowing is difficult or impossible; the breathing is so
obstructed that hardly sufficient air can be inhaled to sup-
port life; the head is swollen; the eyes are nearly or entirely
closed; the feathers of the head, neck, and breast are foul
with decomposing secretions from the nostrils and mouth;
there is considerable fever; an exhausting diarrhea sets in;
there is rapid loss of weight; the comb and wattles become
pale and cold; the temperature of the body finally sinks
below the normal; and death soon follows.

When false membranes form in the gullet, crop, and
intestines, there is a rapid aggravation of the symptoms,
an intense diarrhea, and the escape of blood with the
droppings. This type of the disease is more frequent
with water fowl than other birds. Some fowls in a flock
are resistant, and after a few days of illness make a rapid
recovery. Others remain dull, weak, and thin in flesh, and

168 Diseases of Poultry

may have more or less catarrh and difficulty of breathing
for a long time.

Etiology. —'The cause of this disease like that of nasal
roup is still a disputed question.! All of the organisms re-
ported as causing the former disease have also been credited
by one or another investigator with producing diphtheritic
roup also. Whatever the nature of the causal organism the
disease is certainly strictly contagious. It never appears
except as a result of infection from a previous case.

Methods of Infection. — Birds may be infected by polluted
food, drinking water or litter and probably also by dust con-
taining particles of the dried secretions. The disease may
be introduced into a flock by introducing infected stock.
Occasionally the infection may be carried on implements or
on the shoes of persons coming from infected yards. The
first symptoms appear in from three to five days after ex-
posure to contagion.

Treatment. — The best treatment is of course prevention.
The same safe-guards suggested under nasal roup are also
effective against diphtheria.

Two general lines of treatment for diphtheritic roup have
been used with more or less success. (1) Local treatment of
the diseased parts with disinfectants, and (2) vaccine and
serum treatments. The cost of application of either of these
makes them at present economically inadvisable for ordinary
stock.

(1) Disinfectant Method. —In early stages of the disease
the painting of the diphtheritic patches with tincture of
iodine is sometimes sufficient. If the false membranes per-
sistently reappear, as they are very likely to do, they may be
burned away with 50 to 75 per cent hydrochloric acid or with
silver nitrate. Great care should be taken not to touch un-

1 Cf. references cited supra, p. 160.

Diseases of the Respiratory System 169

affected parts of the mucous membrane as such wounds are
likely to be infected and thus become the seat of fresh patches.
After thick false membranes are formed it is necessary to re-
move them gently before applying the disinfectants. After
the drastic disinfectants have been applied to the lesions the
throat, mouth and head passages may be disinfected with
one of the reagents recommended for catarrh or nasal roup.
The potassium permanganate treatment outlined on page 163
is the easiest to apply.

Some workers have used a spray of oil of thyme, oil of
eucalyptus or kerosene oil and have reported favorably.
Reidenbach ' tested a large number of antiseptics against
fowl diphtheria, among which were 50 essential oils. He
found that ajowan oil possesses the strongest antiseptic
action. This oil is obtained from the fruit of Ptychotis coptica,
an annual plant which resembles caraway and has for its
habitat Egypt, Persia and the East Indies. This oil is on
the market in this country but is not ordinarily carried by
druggists.

All of these local treatment methods are unsatisfactory in
most cases because the germs causing the disease are em-
bedded deep down in the tissue underlying the false mem-
branes. It is therefore very difficult thoroughly to disinfect
the lesions. The tissues injured by strong disinfectants
seem especially adapted for the propagation of the surviving
pathogenic organism.

(2) Vaccine and Serum Treatments. — An attack of avian
diphtheria confers an immunity, the duration of which de-
pends in part at least upon the severity of the attack.” The
fact of this acquired immunity suggests the possibility of
establishing an immunity with vaccine and of treating the
_ disease with vaccine or serum. Within the last fifteen years

1 Reidenbach, J., Gefliigel Zig. (Leipzig), Bd. 26, p. 116, 1910.
*Sigwart, H., loc. cit.

ad
170 Diseases of Poultry

a number of experiments inthis line have been conducted both
in this country and Europe. Some workers have tried as a
curative agent the antitoxin prepared for human diphtheria.
Others have used serum prepared from small mammals and
fowls which have recovered from the disease. Still others
have attempted to establish an immunity in healthy fowls
and also to cure diseased birds with vaccines prepared from
cultures of the organisms isolated from the lesions. Dif-
ferent investigators disagree as to the effectiveness of each of
these methods of treatment. The disagreement of their
results may be due to the variation in virulence of the cul-
tures with which they worked.

Hopeful results have been lately obtained in this country
at Ohio State University and at Purdue. The following
brief account of the preparation of the vaccine and the method
of treatment used successfully at Purdue and on nearby farms
is given by Philips.’

“Cures and methods of cure for roup are so varied and
uniformly unsatisfactory that it was thought advisable to
experiment with roup vaccine. This vaccine was first made
at Ohio State University and proved reasonably satisfactory
to them.

“The method of making vaccine is very simple. The
first process is to take cultures from under the ulcers and
grow them from 24 to 36 hours on neutral agar at a tempera-
ture of 37.5 degrees C. Then wash off the organisms in a
sterile normal salt solution and attenuate them for an hour
and a half in a water bath at 64 degrees C._ If the vaccine is
to be left standing it is advisable to make it one-half per cent
acid with carbolic acid, as this acts as a preservative.

“The method of standardization is the most difficult part

1 Philips, A. G., ‘‘A Preliminary Investigation with Roup.”’ Jour.
of the Amer. Assoc. of Inst. and Invest. in Poultry Husbandry, Vol. 1,
No. 4, pp. 28-31, 1915.

Diseases of the Respiratory System 17)

and requires accuracy and careful manipulation, but after
one becomes accustomed to it he can standardize by the tur-
bidity of the vaccine with enough accuracy to be correct as
is needed to be used on chickens. The turbidity may be
compared to that of two drops of milk in ten cubic centi-
meters of distilled water.

“The average dose is one cubic centimeter given sub-
cutaneously with a hypodermic syringe. The most con-
venient place to inject the vaccine is under the skin over the
region of the breast. This need not be repeated in immuniz-
ing healthy birds, but in treating sick birds a second or third
injection may be necessary every five days.”

This method of treatment is not yet on a secure scientific
basis and it cannot be used in practice by the poultryman or
farmer until all doubt of its efficiency is removed and a
reliable vaccine prepared and put on the market. If this is
ever accomplished, treatment with vaccine will be much
cheaper to administer and much more efficient than the local
disinfection of lesions.

Prognosis. — In very acute cases death may occur in two
or three days. More often even in fatal cases the disease
runs for two or three weeks. Recovery may be complete in
two or three weeks or an individual may develop a chronic
form of the disease which continues for several months. If
untreated about half of the birds which contract the disease
die.

Pip (Inflammation of the Mouth)

The term “pip” as used by poultrymen evidently does not
represent a separate disease but is the result of mouth breath-
ing due to closure of the nostrils by cold or catarrh. The
mucous membrane of the mouth and tongue become hard and
dry. This is especially true at the end of the tongue. Mucous
discharge from the mouth often collects and dries on to this

172 Diseases of Poultry

hardened skin at the tip of the tongue. Thus scab may crack
partly away from the tongue exposing a raw surface.

Etiology. — It would appear to be the case that the symp-
toms above described originated from different causes in dif-
ferent cases. The trouble may be due to specific infection,
though a particular organism has not yet been definitely iso-
lated as the cause. In some cases the symptom is apparently
purely physiological, arising from a failure of the mucus-
secreting glands to function properly, owing to a lowered
physiological condition.

Treatment. — The essential points in the treatment of this
diseased condition is first to treat the primary cause (cold,
catarrh, etc.). In removing the scale or “ pip” gentle meas-
ures are to be followed, otherwise a raw surface likely to
ulcerate, will be left. It is better to keep the scab wet with
an equal mixture of glycerine and water. If the scab comes
off leaving a raw surface this should be treated with disin-
fecting solutions (see p. 168) and then with glycerine.

Prognosis. — Pip is associated with diseases of the respira-
tory organs which are often serious and sometimes fatal. It
is this association which is responsible for the general belief
that it is a dangerous malady. In itself it is not serious
unless the mucous membrane is torn away with the scab and
the wound becomes infected.

Canker

Membranes formed in diphtheritic roup are sometimes
called canker, but there are frequently found cheesy patches
on the mucous membrane of the mouth or tongue which are
not associated with roup. These growths are frequently, at
least, the result of a traumatic injury to the membrane.
Male birds frequently have canker where they have been
picked in the mouth by other males when fighting. The

Diseases of the Respiratory System 173

growths are made up almost entirely of pus germs. These
growths should probably be considered as suppurating
wounds. An unhealthy condition of the mucous membrane
of the mouth due to digestive disorders is sometimes accom-
panied by spots of canker.

A good treatment for canker is undiluted creolin applied
with a cotton swab. The swab should be held against
each sore for a short time. The whole surface of each patch
should be treated. Another good treatment is to wash the
sores with hydrogen peroxide | part and water 1 part.

Thrush

This term is also sometines incorrectly applied to the false
membranes of diphtheria, but there are at least two cases of
true thrush on record. That is, in two cases microscopic
examination has shown that the patches, which in both these
cases were in the lower part of the esophagus and crop, were
made up of spores and filaments of the fungus Saccharomyces
albicans. 'This fungus causes thrush in children and calves.
This disease may also occasionally affect the mouth. It is
impossible to distinguish it from other diseases causing simi-
lar formations except by microscopic examination. The
treatment is the same as for canker.

Aspergillosis (Mycosis of the Air Passages)

This is a very common disease of poultry, often mistaken
for tuberculosis. In adult fowls it is a frequent cause of the
condition known as “going light,’ while in young chickens
it probably ranks next to white diarrhea as a lethal agent.

The discussion of this disease here relates primarily to
adult fowls. Aspergillosis in young chicks is treated in
Chapter XIX.

174. D Bf of Poultry

Diagnosis. — In early stages of the disease the bird appears
normal. Later there is a loss of appetite and an abnormal
thirst. The bird becomes inactive, standing with head
down, eyes closed, wings dropped and plumage roughened.
There is an increase in the rate of respiration and a rise in
body temperature. The breathing becomes labored and is
accompanied by a rattling sound caused by the vibration of
the mucus which collects in the trachea and bronchi. Diar-
rhea sets in. The bird becomes emaciated. Death from
toxemia, exhaustion or sometimes from asphyxiation may
occur in from | to 8 weeks.

Two types of lesions are found at autopsy. The first type
is whitish or greenish yellow membranous patches on the
mucous lining of the air passages. They are most often found
in the trachea, bronchi, small passages of the lungs and large
air sacs. Occasionally they also occur on the walls of the
air sacs in the interior of the bones. Lameness with swollen
and inflamed joints results from this condition. They are
also sometimes found upon the mucous membranes of the
alimentary canal. The mucous membrane underneath these
patches is thickened and inflamed. The patch itself is a
thick, fibrous, membrane-like mass which contains fungal -
filaments. These filaments bear spores at the surface of the
false membranes. In fact these patches represent the free
growth of the mold on the surface of the mucous membrane,
having very much the appearance which it presents when
growing outside of the body on dead organic matter. The
greenish color of the diseased area is due to the greenish fila-
ments of the mold or fungus growing upon its surface. The
filaments are not all on the surface, however, but they pene-
trate deeply into the tissues, causing inflammation and swell-
ing, which obstructs the respiration, and at the same time
they apparently produce a poison, which causes the general
depression and fever.

ima

Diseases of the Respiratory System 175

Lesions of the second type are whitish or yellowish tuber-
cles resembling the tubercles of tuberculosis. They vary in
size from the head of a pin toa large pea. ‘The tubercles are
embedded in the tissues of the walls of the air passages, in
the lungs and sometimes also in the liver, spleen and kid-
neys. Each tubercle contains a growth of mold at the cen-
ter which is inclosed by a wall of animal cells.

A certain diagnosis of aspergillosis requires the identifica-
tion of fungus filaments and spores within the lesions.
This is of course impossible during the life of the bird.

Etiology. — The disease is caused by molds of the genus
Aspergillus which grow on the mucous membrane of the air
passage. The four parasitic species in order of their impor-
tance are Aspergillus fumigatus, Aspergillus nigrescens, Asper-
gillus glaucus, Aspergillus candidus. The appearance of one
of these molds, when greatly magnified, is shown in Fig. 32.

These molds and their spores occur on dead organic ma-
terial like straw, grain, etc. They are inhaled in breathing or
swallowed with the food. This being the case the importance
of avoiding musty litter, and moldy or musty grain of all
kinds is apparent. As with most other diseases the resistance
of the individual against infection is here an important mat-
ter. Some fowls will be able to stand musty litter and grain
without any harm, while others will promptly develop asper-
gillosis. When once present in a flock aspergillosis is prob-
ably transmitted from generation to generation through the
eggs.

Treatment. —'The disease is prevented by having clean,
dry, well ventilated houses and avoiding the use of moldy
litter or grain. Vigorous birds under sanitary conditions are
fairly resistant.

Since the disease probably sometimes spreads from bird to
bird, affected individuals should be killed or isolated and the
bodies of dead birds burned. Salmon says that “sometimes

o

176 Diseases of Poultry

affected birds may be saved by applying flowers of sulphur
or tincture of iodine to the diseased patches seen in the mouth

Buckley.)

and throat, and causing the birds to inhale the vapor of tar
water or turpentine. Tar water is obtained by stirring
2 tablespoonfuls of wood tar in a quart of warm water and
letting the mixture stand for a few hours. Then the birds

Diseases of the Respiratory System 177

are taken into a closed room, where the tar water is poured,
a small quantity at a time, on a hot brick or stone until the
atmosphere of the room is well charged with the vapor.”

This treatment is of value only when the lesions are of the
open type first described and when these are located in parts
of the air passages accessible to the fungicides.

Prognosis. — The disease in adult fowls is ordinarily not
recognized as such until an affected bird comes to autopsy,
at which time the prognosis is certainly extremely unfavor-
able. So far as concerns ridding a poultry plant of the dis-
ease, however, the outlook is favorable if energetic sanitary
measures along the lines indicated above are applied.

Congestion of the Lungs

Congestion of the lungs is a distention of the blood vessels
which make up the vascular portion of those organs. The
pressure of these distended vessels may close the smaller air
passages, or a vessel may burst, filling the bronchi. In either
case the patient soon suffocates.

Diagnosis. — The symptoms of this disease are difficult
rapid breathing, sleepiness and an indisposition to move. A
bloody mucus sometimes flows from the mouth. The comb is
dark red or bluish from lack of oxygen in the blood. Symp-
toms appear suddenly and death occurs within a few hours.

Etiology. — This disease is caused by chilling the surface of
the body. This contracts the surface vessels and a large
volume of blood is sent to the internal organs. ‘The pressure
on the small elastic vessels of the lungs is too great and they
either close the air passages by pressing against them or the
vessel walls are ruptured by the internal pressure and the air
passages become filled with blood. This disease most often
occurs in denuded birds (hens during molting or young birds
which have failed to feather out) or small chicks which have

N

178 Diseases of Poultry

been exposed to cold or allowed to run out in cold, wet
weather.

Treatment. — The rapid course of the disease makes treat-
ment impracticable. Prevention is the only cure. Birds
should be well nourished with plenty of green food and should
be especially protected from cold and wet when molting.
Also chicks which are in a stage between down (chick) and
juvenal feathers need special protection. This disease often
attacks brooder chicks and indicates something wrong with
the brooding. The cause should be immediately sought out
and removed, or considerable loss will follow from continued
exposure of the flock.

Prognosis.— 'This disease is usually fatal in a few minutes
or hours after its symptoms are noted. According to Salmon
the patient sometimes develops pneumonia.

Pneumonia

This disease is a step beyond congestion of the lungs. The
vessel are not only distended but liquid escapes through their
walls and coagulates in the air spaces. The lung of a chick
dead of pneumonia is dark colored and firm and heavier than
water. A normal lung floats but a lung filled with this coagu-
lated serum sinks.

Diagnosis. — The symptoms resemble those of congestion
of the lungs. The bird stands with its head drawn back, its
wings down, and its plumage ruffled. The comb is usually
very dark. Respiration is rapid, labored and apparently
painful. There is a loss of appetite, and abnormal thirst
and constipation. A thick, adhesive, and often bloody
mucus is sometimes discharged from the nostrils and mouth.
In such cases there is usually coughing.

Post-mortem exainination shows that either the bronchi
are nearly filled with thick mucus or the smaller air passages

Diseases of the Respiratory System 179

of the lungs are filled with clotted serum. The first form of
the disease is called broncho-pneumonia. In these cases
death from suffocation has taken place while the vascular
area of the lungs is little affected. This is the form of the
disease which usually follows bronchitis. There is usually
also some clotted serum in the smaller passages. The second
form is known as croupous pneumonia. This form usually
follows congestion of the lungs and often develops very soon
after severe chilling. The lungs are dark in color and solid.
The blood vessels are filled with blood and the air spaces are
filled with clotted serum. A piece of such a lung will sink
when dropped into water.

Etiology. — The cause of pneumonia in birds is not known.
The similarity of this disease to human pneumonia, both in
the circumstances of its occurrence and in its lesions, has led
to the inference that the cause is also similar. The disease is
probably caused by a bacterium which is very often present
in the normal air passages but which is harmless except when
there is congestion.

Treatment. — Ordinarily it will not be advisable to treat
this disease. A cure is wnusual and involves such an amount
of care and nursing as to make it a most unprofitable proposition.
The disease can be guarded against by keeping the flock in
good condition and preventing exposure. Some cases will
recover if removed to a warm well ventilated room and fed
milk or raw eggs supplemented later, if the bird improves,
with cod liver oil and chopped beef.

Various medicines, especially stimulants, have been recom-
mended. One drop of tincture of aconite every two hours
given in egg or milk is said to relieve the hard breathing. As
a stimulant 2 drops of spirits of camphor and 10 drops of
brandy in a teaspoonful of warm milk may be given 3 or 4
times a day. If the comb becomes dark and the bird is
evidently failing rapidly add one drop of tincture of digitalis
to the above medicine.

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180 Diseases of Poultry

To reduce the congested condition of the lungs a counter
irritation may be applied to the skin of the back over the
region of the lungs. This may be done by raising up the
feathers and painting the skin with tincture of iodine.

Prognosis. —'This disease is more easily prevented than
cured. A number of cases recover if placed in a warm dry
room. ‘Treatment is of little value. A large percentage of
the birds die.

Tuberculosis

This disease is discussed in Chapter IX. It is primarily
a disease of the abdominal viscera. Lesions occur also in the
lungs in about one case in five. The infection of the lungs is
usually of secondary origin.

The Air-Sac Mite

A species of mite (Cytodites nudus) infects the air-sacs and
bronchi of poultry.

Diagnosis. — When the birds are not badly infested there
are no external symptoms. If badly infested the bird may
become anemic and listless and finally die of exhaustion. Or,
if the air passages are seriously obstructed by the collection
of parasites and mucus, there will be a rattling in the throat
and coughing, and death may result from suffocation. The
presence of the parasites is often found only on examination
of dead birds. They appear as a yellow or white dust, each
particle of which is a mite. If closely watched the particles
may be seen to move.

Etiology. —'The mite probably enters the air-sacs by
crawling in the nostrils and finding its way down the trachea
and bronchi to the sacs. The parasites are able to live only
a short time outside the bird’s body. The mouth parts of
these mites are modified into sucking tubes. They attack the

Diseases of the Respiratory System 181

mucous membrane of the air-sacs and bronchi. When the
number of parasites is small they cause no serious inconven-
ience to the bird. When there are a large number present
they may cause inflammation of the membrane and secretion
of mucus or they may seriously obstruct the air passages.

Treatment. — Treatment of infested birds is probably use-
less. Feeding sulphur with the food or compelling the birds
to inhale the fumes of burning sulphur or burning tar or the
steam of boiling tar water has
been recommended.

If a flock is infested with
this parasite it is best when
possible to start a new flock
with incubator chicks raised
on a new range and carefully
protected from infection from
the old flock. Or stock may
be purchased from an _ un-
infested flock. Birds with
this parasite should not be
bought or sold for breeding
or laying purposes, as the Fic. 33.— Cytodites nudus. The
flock into which they are in- ae ae tects tae pal eed
troduced will become infested
from them. Since this parasite cannot live long outside
the bird’s body, the houses, runs, ete., do not remain in-
fested long after all the diseased birds have been removed.

Prognosis. — A bird once infected is probably never free
from the parasite but may live a long time little harmed by
its presence.

CHAPTER XII
DISEASES OF THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

THERE are two classes of diseases treated in this chapter:
(1) diseases of the organs of circulation (the heart and blood
vessels), and (2) diseases of the blood.

DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF CIRCULATION

Pericarditis (Inflammation of the Pericardium, Dropsy of the
Heart Sac)

This disease is often found associated with other diseases
of the circulatory system and with diseases of the lungs and
air-sacs and also with soreness of the joints.

Diagnosis. — A differential diagnosis of this disease during
life is not usually possible. Salmon gives the following
symptoms: ‘There is great weakness, difficult breathing,
the head being thrown backwards, and the breath drawn
through the mouth in order to obtain sufficient air. If
forced to run the bird soon falls. In a case observed by
Hill there was tumultuous action of the heart and occasional
spasms.” Examination of a bird dead from this disease
shows the heart sac full of serous liquid and sometimes the
cavity is divided by false membranes which may attach to
the heart as well as to the pericardium.

Etiology. — The causes of this inflammation are not known.
It may result from exposure to cold or dampness.

Treatment. — Treatment is impossible since the disease

182

Diseases of the Circulatory System 183

cannot be diagnosed until after death. Successive cases
in the same flock indicate exposure of the flock to cold or
wet weather or to confining the birds in insanitary houses.
These conditions should be remedied. Salmon also recom-
mends in such cases “2 to 4 grains of bicarbonate of soda to
each bird daily in the drinking water.”

Endocarditis (Inflammation of the Internal Membranes of the
Heart)

In the examination of dead birds it is sometimes found
that the membrane lining the heart is reddened and coagu-
lated lymph may adhere to it. Little is known of this dis-
ease in fowls. It cannot be distinguished from pericarditis
except by an examination of the heart. The cause and treat-
ment suggested for that disease probably apply equally in
these cases.

Myocarditis diphtheritica

According to Ziirn, Bollinger has described a bacterial
disease of the heart and blood vessels of fowls and pigeons.
The disease is caused by a bacterium which resembles the
bacterium of roup. The disease attacks the lining mem-
brane of the heart and blood vessels, causing inflammation
and the breaking down of the tissue. It especially affects
the valves of the heart and aorta, where round or oval
colonies of the bacteria are found on the membrane. In
these patches fibrin and red and white corpuscles are mingled
with the organisms. The walls of the small vessels of the
lungs, liver, spleen, kidneys and intestines are also affected.
The liver, spleen, and kidneys are enlarged. The bacteria
are numerous in these organs as well as in the blood.

Little is known of the frequence of the occurrence of this
disease and nothing of methods of treatment.

ed
184 Diseases of Poultry

Enlargement of the Heart (ypertrophy)

The heart of a fowl is sometimes enlarged. According to
Cadeac this enlargement most frequently affects the right
side of the heart. The muscle may be fatty and degenerate.

Diagnosis. —'The distinctive symptom of this disease is
a very rapid beating of the heart.

Etiology. —'The cause of this hypertrophy of the heart
muscle is not known, but it is probably due to some derange-
ment in the nutrition of the muscle. The palpitations are
increased by excitement or fright.

Treatment. — The disease is not usually recognized while
the bird is alive. Treatment is therefore not possible.

Prognosis. — A hypertrophied heart may function for a
long time. The violent. beating may cause rupture of a
blood vessel; sometimes several vessels are ruptured at
the same time.

Rupture of the Heart and Large Blood Vessels

Internal hemorrhage due to the rupture of the heart or
large blood vessels often occurs in full blooded fowls.

Diagnosis. —'The bird becomes weak and drowsy, passes
into a comatose condition and dies with the characteristic
appearance associated with bleeding to death.

Etiology. — In full blooded fowls any excitement or over-
exertion which causes an increase in the rate of heart beat
and an increased blood pressure may result in a rupture of
the heart or one of the large vessels.

Treatment. — The accident cannot be predicted and treat-
ment is impossible.

Prognosis. — 'The bird dies in a short time.

Diseases of the Circulatory System 185

Thrombosis

This disease is characterized by the clotting of the blood
in the great blood vessels and sometimes also in the heart.
Sometimes the corpuscles settle out of the serum so that a
part of the clot is clear.

Diagnosis. — This condition is not capable of diagnosis
except at autopsy. Birds which show this condition, how-
ever, are often those which have been sick several weeks.
They are usually in poor flesh and a gradual loss of appetite
is often noted for some weeks before death occurs.

Etiology. — 'The cause of this disease is unknown.

Treatment. — As the disease is only recognized at autopsy
no treatment is possible.

Leukemia

Various cases of an alteration in the number of white
corpuscles in the blood of fowls have been described. Ac-
cording to Warthin! in normal hen’s blood the proportion
of red blood corpuscles to white is 105-225:1, and only 14
per cent of the white cells are large lymphocytes, while in
leukemia of fowls the proportion of red to white cells may
be less than 2 to 1 and a differential count of the white cells
shows that there may be 84.5 per cent large lymphocytes.
The tissue changes consist in tumorous nodules and infiltra-
tion of lymphoid cells in the liver, spleen, bone marrow and
other organs.

From the literature it appears that investigators have
found several different blood diseases which show the blood
picture described above. Hirschfeld and Jacoby? and

1 Warthin, A. S., ‘‘ Leukemia of the Common Fowl.” Jour.
Infect. Diseases, Vol. 4, No. 3, pp. 369-381, 1907.

2 Hirschfeld, H., and Jacoby, M., Berlin. Klin. Wehnschr.
Bd. 46, pp. 159, 160, 1909.

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186 Diseases of Poultry

Burckhardt ' have found such a condition associated with
the presence of tubercle bacilli in the blood. This was found
both in spontaneous and experimental cases of tuberculosis.

Ellerman and Bang? found this condition in cases which
were transmissible to other fowls by a filterable virus in-
jected intravenously. This disease ran a chronic course.
The typical leukemic condition was reached about three
months after the inoculation.

The only disease of this group which seems to be of any
economic importance is infectious leukemia or fowl typhoid,
first described by Moore.’ The relation of this disease to
human typhoid is discussed on page 111.

Infectious Leukemia or Fowl Typhoid

This is a bacterial disease often mistaken for fowl cholera
but caused by a different species of bacteria and the lesions
produced are somewhat different.

Diagnosis. —'The following symptomatology is quoted
from Moore: “From the statement of the owners of the
fowls in the different outbreaks and from the appearance of
those in which the disease was artificially produced, little
can be positively recorded concerning the distinctive or
characteristic symptoms. The only fowl examined ante-
mortem from the natural outbreaks was first seen only a
few hours before death, when it was unable to stand. If
held in an upright position, the head hung down. There
was a marked anemic condition of the mucosa of the head.

’Burekhardt, J. L., Zischr. Immunitdtsf. u. Expt. Ther. Bd.
14, pp. 544-604, 1912.

2 Klerman, V., and Bang, O., Ztschr. Hyg. u. Infektionskrank.
Bd. 63, pp. 231-272, 1909. 5

3 Moore, V. A., ‘‘Infeectious Leukcemia in Fowls — a Bacterial
Disease Frequently Mistaken for Cholera.’? Ann. Rept. Bur. An.
Ind., 1895-1896, pp. 185-205.

Diseases of the Circulatory System 187

It had an elevation of nearly 3 degrees of temperature. An
examination of the blood showed a marked diminution in
the number of red corpuscles and an increase in the number
of white ones. In the disease produced artificially by feed-
ing cultures of the specific organism there was in most cases
a marked drowsiness and general debility manifested from
1 to 4 days before death occurred. The period during which
the prostration was complete varied from a few hours to
two days. The mucous membranes and skin about the
head became pale. There was an elevation of from 1 to 4
degrees of temperature. The fever was of a continuous type.

“Although the course of the disease in the different fowls
was usually constant, there were many variations. In a
few individuals the time required for fatal results was from
2 to 3 weeks, but ordinarily death occurred in about 8 days
after feeding the virus, the rise in temperature being detected
about the third day and external symptoms about the fifth
or sixth, occasionally not until a few hours before death.
The symptoms observed in the cases produced by feeding
correspond with those described by the owners of affected
flocks.”

Moore found the only constant lesions to be in the blood
and liver. The change in the blood as noted above was a
decrease in the number of red and an increase in the num-
ber of white cells. The change in the liver is described by
Moore as follows :

“The liver was somewhat enlarged and dark colored,
excepting in a few cases in which the disease was produced
by intravenous injections. A close inspection showed the
surface to be sprinkled with minute grayish areas. The
miscroscopic examination showed the blood spaces to be
distended. The hepatic cells were frequently changed, so
that they stained very feebly, and not infrequently the cells
were observed in which the liver cells appeared to be dead

oo
188 Diseases of Poultry

and the intervening spaces infiltrated with round cells. The
changes in the hepatic tissue are presumably secondary to
the engorgement of the organ with blood.”

Dawson’s diagnosis of the disease (An. Rep. Bur. An.
Ind., 1898, p. 350) differs somewhat from the one given by
Moore.

It is very difficult to distinguish this disease from fowl
cholera except by identifying the bacteria which produce
the diseases. Moore contrasts the characteristic lesions in
the appended columns:

Fowl cholera Infectious leukemia

1. Duration of the disease 1. Duration of the disease
from a few hours to from a few hours to
several days. several days.

2. Elevation of temperature. 2. Elevation of temperature.

3. Diarrhea. 3. Diarrhea very rare.

4. Intestines deeply reddened. 4. Intestines pale. ;

5. Intestinal contents liquid, 5. Intestinal contents normal
muco-purulent, or blood in consistency.
stained.

6. Heart dotted with ecchy- 6. Heart usually pale and
moses. dotted with grayish

points, due to cell in-
filtration.

7. Lungs affected, hyperzmic 7. Lungs normal, excepting in
or pneumonic. modified cases.

8. Specific organisms appear 8. Specific organisms compara-
in large numbers in the tively few in the blood
blood and organs. and organs.

9. Blood pale (cause not deter- 9. Blood pale, marked
mined). diminution in the num-

ber of red corpuscles.
10. Condition of leucocytes not 10. Increase in the number of
determined. leucocytes.

Attention should be called to the fact that as yet there
seems not to have been a careful study of the condition of
the blood in fowl cholera. Salmon observed many changes

Diseases of the Circulatory System 189

in this fluid which may have been similar to or identical
with those herein recorded.

On page 201 of Moore’s paper he gives the method of differ-
entiating the two bacteria. This is, of course, dependent on
microscopic examination and cultural tests. A full descrip-
tion of Bacterium sanguinarium is given by Moore on pages
188-191 of the paper cited above.

Etiology. — The disease is caused by a non-motile, rod-
shaped bacterium (Bacterium sanguinarium). This bacte-
rium causes the disease when injected into the blood or
when fed. In a few cases fowls are known to have con-
tracted the disease by picking up the droppings of infected
fowls.

Moore says: “This disease of fowls has not been found in
flocks where a good sanitary régime has been enforced. It
is highly probable that it is a filth disease, being dependent
upon unfavorable environments quite as much as the specific
organism for the ability to run a rapidly fatal course and of
spreading to the entire flock.”

Treatment. — Prevention is the only known treatment.
A maintenance of generally sanitary conditions and the
avoidance of the introduction of diseased birds are effectual.
If the disease appears in the flock separate the diseased birds,
disinfect the premises, and place the flock under sanitary
conditions. The disease will probably disappear, as it is
dificult experimentally to maintain an infection when the
birds are kept under sanitary conditions.

Prognosis. — Diseased birds usually die in from a few
hours to two weeks, but they may recover.

The Sleepy Disease (Apoplectiform septicemia)

This parasitic blood disease is apparently rare.
Diagnosis. —The most striking symptom is sleepiness.

190 D F of Poultry

According to Dammann and Manegold ! the affected fowls
show a roughness of plumage, swollen eyes, paleness of the
comb and lameness. At autopsy symptoms of hemor-
rhagic septicemia are found. The musculature is permeated
with bloody effusions and red spots are observed in the
mucous membrane of the intestines. The spleen is con-
siderably enlarged and hemorrhagic patches were observed
in other parts of the body.

Etiology. — According to Dammann and Manegold this
disease is caused by a capsule bearing streptococcus (Strepto-
coccus capsulatus gallinarum). The organism is present both
in the blood and the infected organs. The disease may be
readily transmitted by inoculation of virulent blood to
other chickens. The incubation period varies from 6 to
14 days and the course of the disease from | to 3 weeks. It
is not known how the disease is naturally transferred from
one bird to another.

Treatment. — No treatment is known except the main-
tenance of general sanitary conditions.

Spirochetosis

This disease has not yet been reported in this country.
It is known in South America, Europe, Africa and Australia.
It may exist in this country undistinguished from fowl
cholera.

Diagnosis. — There is a dullness, loss of appetite and thirst.
The birds stand with head and tail down and eyes closed
as in Fig. 34.

There is a rise of temperature. Diarrhea is present.
There is a pronounced anemia. Post-mortem examination

1Dammann, C., and Manegold, O., Deut. Tierarztl. Wchnschr.
Vol. 138, pp. 577-579, 1905. And Archiv Wiss. u. Prakt. Tier-
heilk. Bd. 33, 41-70, 1907.

Diseases of the Cireulatory System 191

shows enlargement of liver and spleen. The crisis of the
disease occurs on the fourth or fifth day. In fatal cases the
fever disappears and the temperature sinks to below normal
shortly before death.

Etiology. — This disease is caused by a spirocheete (Spiro-
cheta gallinarum) found in the blood and in the liver and
spleen. According to Balfour! the parasitic organisms

Fic. 34. — Bird suffering from spirochetosis. (From Kolle and Hetsch.)

enter the blood corpuscles. Both the organisms and the
corpuscles then degenerate. According to Lounoy and
Bruhl? the number of erythrocytes may be reduced one-
half in five days. A favorable turn at the crisis of the dis-
ease is due, according to Levaditi and Manouclian,’ to the

1 Balfour, A. S., ‘‘Spirochztosis of Sudanese Fowls — an After
Phase.”” Jour. Trop. Med. and Hyg., Vol. 11, p. 37, 1908.

2 Lounoy, L., and Bruhl, M. L., Ann. Inst. Pasteur, T. 28, pp.
517-539, 1914.

’ Levaditi and Manouclian, Ann. Inst. Pasteur. T. 20, pp.
593-600, 1906.

192 Diseases of Poultry

destruction of the parasites by the large leucocytes of the
spleen and liver. The organisms are carried from one fowl
to another by the tick Argas (see p. 228). According to
von Prowazek! the tick is a true intermediary host, the
organisms appearing in the salivary glands about 14 days

Fic. 35. — Fowl spirochetosis. (From Kolle and Ketch, after Burri.)

after infection. The organisms may live in the body of
the tick for seven or eight months. That the tick is not a
necessary host is shown by the fact that injection of the

1 Von Prowazek, S., Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz. T. I, pp. 79-
80, 1911.

Diseases of the Circulatory System 193

blood of an affected fowl can produce the disease in a healthy
one.

Treatment. —'The disease has been successfully treated
with atoxyl,! and with salvarsan (606).2 The best treat-
ment is prevention by keeping the fowls free from ticks.

Prognosis. — About one-third of the affected fowls re-
cover if untreated.

1 Levaditi et McIntosh, ‘‘ L’influence de l’atoxyl sur la spirillose
provoquée par le Spirillum gallinarum.”” Comptes Rendus Soc. Biol.,
T. 62, 1907.

Uhlenhuth u. Gross, ‘‘Untersuchungen iiber die Wirkung des
Atoxyls auf die Spirillose der Hiihner.’”’ Arb. K. Gsndhtsamt., 15d,
27, pp. 231-255, 1907.

2 Hauer, A., Centbl. Bakt. Bd. 62, pp. 477-496, 1912.

CHAPTER XIII
DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Apoplexy (Hemorrhage of the Brain)

In this disease the bird usually drops dead or paralyzed
without showing any previous sign of illness. The only
abnormality found on examination of the dead bird is clotted
blood on the brain.

Etiology. —'The cause of this disease is the rupture of a
blood vessel in the brain and the pressure on the brain due
to the blood which escapes. The cause of this rupture may
be an unhealthy condition (usually a fatty degeneration) of
the walls of the brain blood vessels. The immediate cause
of the rupture is increased blood pressure due to fright, over-
exertion, or strain in laying (hens often die on the nest).
This disease is more apt to attack very fat birds and the
degeneration of the vessels is supposed to be due to too rich
food or to overfeeding.

Treatment. — Treatment of the affected birds is useless.

‘So-called “apoplexy cures,” of which there are some on the
market, should be left strictly alone by the poultryman.
Only very rarely can apoplexy be recognized till after the
bird is dead, and then all the pills or potions ever invented for
the purpose of swindling a gullible public will be of no avail.
If several successive deaths from apoplexy occur, modify the
ration, giving more green food and less meat and corn.
See that the birds have plenty of range.

Prognosis. — The bird is usually found dead or dies in a
little while.

194

Diseases of the Nervous System 195

Heat Prostrations

In very warm weather heat prostrations may occur,
especially among heavy fowls. This is sometimes considered
to be the same thing as apoplexy. The birds suddenly drop
insensible or paralyzed.

Etvology. — The cause is pressure on the brain, due to heat,
but the blood vessels are not ruptured as in apoplexy.

Treatment. — Mild cases may be treated by applying cold
water to the head and keeping the bird in a cool, quiet place.

Prognosis. — Mild cases may recover. Others usually
result fatally in a short time. As a preventive avoid over-
crowding in hot weather. If the range is not provided with
natural shade, supply artificially shaded places in which the
birds may find protection from the hot sun during the middle
of the day.

Congestion of the Brain (Vertigo, Cerebral Hyperemia)

A number of abnormal physiological conditions may lead to
a congestion of blood in the brain. This is usually associated
with a diseased condition of other organs, and hence often
occurs as a complication with other diseases. It is some-
times due to injury of the head.

Diagnosis. — Pearson and Warren! give the following
diagnosis of this disease: “It is characterized by stagger-
ing, stupor, unusual movements such as walking backward
or walking in a circle, unusual and irregular movements with
the wings and feet and twisting the head backward or to the
side. Sometimes the bird will fall on its side and make
peculiar movements with its feet and wings as though
attempting to run or fly.”

1 Pearson and Warren, ‘‘ Diseases and Enemies of Poultry.’’ 1897.

196 Diseases of Poultry

Etiology. — The congestion of the brain is sometimes due to
blows on the head or to fright or other intense excitement.
Often it is associated with acute indigestion or with the pres-
ence of parasitic intestinal worms.

Treatment. — Apply cold water to the head. Administer
a laxative (2 teaspoonfuls of castor oil, or 30 grains of Epsom
salts given in water or 1} grains of calomel). Keep the
fowl in a cool, quiet place. If this treatment is not efficient
Salmon recommends | to 5 grains of bromide of potassium
dissolved in 1 tablespoonful of water 3 times a day. If
intestinal worms are found in the droppings after the laxative,
treat for the removal of these parasites (p. 139).

Prognosis. — The bird may recover if the cause is removed.

Epilepsy

This somewhat rare disease is characterized by occasional
fits. Between these the birds appear normal.

Diagnosis. — Pearson ' describes the behavior of the bird
during the fit as follows: “The fowl will make beating move-
ments with its wings, its legs will draw up and it will fall
down, sometimes turn over on its back, or it may stand
upright with its legs apart, head turned backward and mouth
and eyes opening and closing spasmodically.”

This spasm passes away after a time and leaves the bird in
a normal condition.

Etiology. — It is often impossible to discover any cause of
the disease. It is said to be sometimes caused by tumors
on the brain and sometimes by intestinal worms.

Treatment. — The only cases that can be treated are those
caused by the presence of intestinal worms. An affected
bird should be put up and given a laxative and if intestinal

1 Loc. cit.

a Diseases of the Nervous System 197

worms are passed treat the patient for the removal of these
parasites (p. 139).

The birds may live some time with occasional fits and may
recover. Cases caused by intestinal worms are definitely
cured by removing the parasites.

Polyneuritis, or Beri-bert

A nervous disease of fowls resembling human beri-beri is
known in India, the Philippine Islands and Europe.

Diagnosis. — The chief symptom is a progressive paralysis
of the legs. The nerves supplying the affected parts are
greatly changed, often showing an almost complete disappear-
ance of nerve fibers.

Etiology. — It has been known for several years that this
disease occurs when the diet of chicks or fowls is completely
or nearly completely confined to rice or other cereals from
which the outer coat has been removed. If the whole grain
is fed the disease does not occur. It has been shown that
this is a true deficiency disease caused by a diet which lacks
some substance which is essential for the normal metabolism
of nervous tissue. The addition of milk, meat, legumes, rice
polishings, or potatoes to a deficient diet prevents the disease.
During the last two years Funk! and others have studied the
nature of the substance or substances which must be added to
the deficient food. They have isolated from rice polishings
a crystalline alkaloid designated as Funk’s base or vitamine.
According to Vedder and Williams ? this “probably exists in
the food as a pyrimidin base combined as a constituent of

1 Funk, C., ‘‘ Die Vitamine.’’ Wiesbaden, 1914.

2 Vedder, E. B., and Williams, R. R., ‘‘Concerning the Beri-beri
Preventing Substances or Vitamins Contained in Rice Polishings.
A Sixth Contribution to the Etiology of Beri-beri.”” Philippine
Jour. Sci., Sect. B., Vol. 8, pp. 175-195.

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198 Diseases of Poultry

nucleic acid but that it is not present in the nucleins of nucleic
acids that have been isolated by processes involving the use
of alkalies or heat.”

Treatment. — Prevention is the best treatment. This dis-
ease can be easily prevented by feeding a rational diet. The
disease may be cured by feeding rice polishings or an extract
made from them. It can also be cured by a dose of 30 mg. of
Funk’s base. This is, of course, not available for therapeutic
purposes.

Prognosis. — If the cause is not removed the birds die.
If the food is changed so that it has a sufficient supply of the
deficient material they recover.

CHAPTER XIV

DISEASES OF KIDNEYS, RHEUMATISM AND LIMBERNECK

In routine autopsy work where all dead birds are examined
probably no organ except the liver is more frequently found
in a diseased condition than the kidneys. They are often
enlarged. Sometimes they contain dark points caused by
the rupture of small blood vessels, and in other cases they may
contain abscesses. Micro-organisms have been obtained
from some cases. of diseased kidneys. Nothing is yet known
of the causes of these specific diseased conditions in poultry.
Some of the cases of under-development, especially of pullets,
are apparently due to enlarged kidneys. In such cases the
birds usually lose their appetite, become emaciated and their
feathers are roughened. No dependable diagnosis of dis-
eased kidneys can be made on the living fowl. When several
cases occur care should be taken to see that the flock receives
a balanced ration with plenty of green food, as diseased kid-
neys may occur from too much protein in the food.

One of the diseased conditions of the kidneys results in an
inability to eliminate the urates. The uric acid content of the
blood is greatly increased and the urates are deposited on the
surface of the visceral organs, in the tissues of the urinary
apparatus and around the joints in the form of crystals or
urate of soda.

Gout

This diseased condition is called gout. In fowls as in
man it has two forms, the visceral and the articular, depend-
ing upon the location of the deposits of urates.

199

oe
200 Diseases of Poultry

Visceral Gout

In visceral gout the only symptoms shown by an affected
bird are a loss in weight or “ going light” and a slight yellow-
ish tinge to the skin, comb and wattles. The bird has a good
and often abnormal appetite. Death occurs suddenly. An
examination of the abdominal cavity shows that all the organs
and serous membranes are covered with a chalky or talcum-
like powder. This powder has a mother-of-pearl luster and
on microscopic examination is seen to be composed of small
needle-like crystals. These are crystals of urate of soda.
These crystals are also found in the urinary organs. The
ureter and collecting tubules are often filled with a mass of
these crystals. Hebrant and Antoine give the following test
for the urate of soda.

Dissolve the crystals in nitric acid and evaporate in a
watch glass. This gives a red onion peel mass which turns
purplish blue on the addition of a solution of caustic potash.

Articular Gout

In this form of the disease the crystals or urate of soda are
in nodules around the joints, especially of the feet and toes.
These nodules sometimes appear like strings of beads on the
under side of the toes. They contain a white or creamy thick
liquid composed mostly of the crystals. They are at first
soft but later become very firm. The presence of the nodules
causes stiffness and soreness of the joints and the birds become
indisposed to stand or walk. Sometimes the nodules ulcerate,
discharging a stringy pus and exposing the cavities of the
joints to the air. The development of fistulas causes the
death of the bones. The disease is slow in its development
and advanced stages are seen only in old birds. The birds
lose weight and in advanced stages diarrhea sets in and death
from exhaustion follows,

Diseases of the Kidneys, Rheumatism and Limberneck 201

Early stages of this disease are often mistaken for rheuma-
tism on account of the stiffness and soreness of the joints.

Etiology. — The cause of this disease is a disturbance of the
normal physiology of excretion so that the uric acid which
should be excreted by the kidneys is first retained in the
blood and then deposited within the body as crystals of
urate of soda. The disturbance is probably due to a diet
which is too rich in proteids. It has been experimentally
produced by feeding meat.! Beef liver produces the condi-
tion more quickly than horse meat.

Treatment. — In case of articular gout Salmon recommends
rubbing the affected joints with camphorated or carbolic oint-
ment. In well developed cases it is more profitable to kill the
birds than to treat them. Visceral gout is not usually recog-
nized while the bird is alive. Prevention is the only reliable
treatment for either form of gout. Birds should be kept
under sanitary conditions and given plenty of green food.
When several birds develop the disease it is well to give the
whole flock Epsom salts ($ to 1 teaspoonful per bird) and to
reduce the amount of meat scrap and increase the quantity
of green food.

Prognosis. — The disease, especially the articular form, is
chronic and advanced cases are only found in old birds.
Badly diseased birds may live a long time. Mild cases may
recover on corrected diet.

Rheumatism

A lameness or stiffness is usually considered rheumatism.
Many such cases are due to tuberculosis of the joints (p. 121),
and others to articular gout, but there are muscular and joint
inflammations caused by exposure which are properly con-

1 di Gristiana, G., Internat. Beitr. Path. u. Ther. Erndéhrungsstér.
Stoffw., Verdauungskrank. Bd. 1, pp. 29-47,

- .
202 Diseases of Poultry

sidered rheumatism. This disease is an inflammation of the
connective tissues of the muscles and joints.

Etiology. — It is caused by exposure to cold or dampness.
The occurrence of several cases in the flock indicates some-
thing wrong in the housing conditions.

Treatment. — The disease is prevented by keeping the fowls
in dry, warm, well ventilated houses with well drained runs.

Prognosis. — Fowls protected from further exposure and
given a good ration with plenty of green food usually recover.

Limberneck

This is not properly a disease but a symptom which accom-
panies several diseased conditions. A fowl is said to have
limberneck when partial or entire nervous control of the neck
muscles is lost. Theneck may hang limp so that the head falls

‘on the ground between the feet. Sometimes the bird is able
to raise the head from the ground by making a great effort.

A bird is sometimes said to have limberneck when the
dorsal or lateral neck muscles are tense, the head drawn con-
vulsively backward, but this is more often called “ wry-neck.”’

Both limberneck and wry-neck are due to nervous disorders
which arise from several different causes. ‘“ Wry-neck”’ is
usually associated with direct brain or nerve irritation and
occurs in epileptic spasms, but also sometimes is associated
with rheumatism. Limberneck is usually associated with
colic, acute indigestion, intestinal parasites, or ptomaine
poisoning.

No treatment for limberneck as such can be advised.
Effort should be made to ascertain and cure the diseased con-
dition which is responsible for this symptom.

Cases due to rheumatism, colic, indigestion, intestinal
parasites, and some of those due to poisoning may recover,
if the real cause can be ascertained and treated soon enough.

“dw as

CHAPTER XV
EXTERNAL PARASITES

VIGILANT and continuous attention is necessary to keep
fowls free from external parasites. At least 32 species of
arachnids and insects are known to be parasitic on fowls.
Some of these like the red mites visit their host only to take
food and spend the rest of the time on the under side of the
roosts, in cracks and crevices and various other places of
seclusion. Others like the lice normally stay on the birds,
although occasionally some individuals crawl off, especially
into the nest. Some of these parasites live upon the sur-
face of the skin and upon the feathers, deriving their nourish-
ment either by sucking the blood like the red mite, or by
chewing the skin and feathers like the lice and some of the
mites. Some of the mites, however, bore under the skin,
causing skin diseases known as scabies or psoric diseases.
The most common of these diseases are scabby or scaly leg
and depluming scabies.

The economic importance of these external parasites is
very great. Fowls infested with one or several of these
species of parasites are not profitable. They make a smaller
growth in the same time with the same food and their egg
production is not equal to similar birds not so infested.
Not only are they constantly robbed of some of their tissue
and blood but their rest is disturbed. Sleep is as important
to the normal physiology of a bird as it is to that of a man.

Keeping a Poultry Plant Free from External Parasites. —
It is not necessary for a poultryman to be able to dis-

203

204: Diseases of Poultry

tinguish the 32 species of parasites or to know their life
histories in order to keep his plant free from them. It is
only necessary to know that some of them stay on the birds
and can only be exterminated by treating the birds, while
others spend most of their time on the under sides of the
roosts in cracks and can best be exterminated by contact
sprays containing cresol or kerosene. <A single application
is not efficient in either case but treatment must be repeated
2 or 3 times at intervals of a few days to destroy those that
hatch after the treatment or are concealed beyond its reach.
A routine procedure by which a poultry plant can be kept free
from parasites is very useful. The following method has
proven very successful at the Maine Experiment Station.

All hatching and rearing of chickens is done in incubators
and brooders. The growing chickens are never allowed to
come into any contact whatever with old hens. Therefore,
when the pullets are ready to go into the laying houses in
the fall they are free from lice. Sometime in the later
summer, usually in August or early in September, the lay-
ing houses are given a thorough cleaning. They are first
scraped, scoured and washed out with water thrown on the
walls and floor with as much pressure as possible from a hose.
They are then given two thorough sprayings, with an inter-
val of several days intervening, with a solution of cresol
such as is described in Chapter II. Then the roosting boards,
nests, floors and walls to a height of about 5 feet are thor-
oughly sprayed with the lice paint (kerosene oil and crude
carbolic acid described on page 15).

For ridding the birds of lice the Maine Station formerly
recommended dusting two or three times at intervals of
several days to a week with the lice powder described on
page 211. All birds which were to be kept over for the next
year’s work were treated in this manner before they were
put into the cleaned houses,

External Parasites 205

During the past few years this Station has adopted another
method of freeing the birds of lice, namely the use of mer-
curial ointment. An ointment has certain very distinct
advantages over any powder. It is much easier to apply,
and requires less of the poultryman’s time, which is an im-
portant factor on a large plant. Further a mercurial oint-
ment is more efficient and lasting in its effect as a parasiticide
than any powder.

The form of ointment which we have used is the ammoni-
ated mercurial ointment U.S.P., with the exception that
we have the druggist make it with a lard base, instead of
the lanolin base called for by the Pharmacopeeia. Others
use the blue ointment of the U.S.P. for the same purpose.
It is probably more effective, part for part, but it is also
more expensive.

The proper method of applying the ointment is to rub
well on to the skin three pieces of the ointment, each as
big as a small pea. One of these pieces should be rubbed
on just under the vent, the other two under the wings.
The ointment should never be simply daubed on and left
as a lump. If it is so done, the bird is very liable to get
some of it in the mouth and a case of mercurial poisoning
will result.

As a result of these methods the Station’s poultry plant
is at all times of the year practically free of lice.

This method keeps the flock free from lice and the mites
which live upon the surface of the skin, but would not de-
stroy those mites which penetrate the skin and cause scabies.
These and other more rare parasites should be destroyed
when present by special methods. The description of, and
treatment for, each class of external parasite is given below.

a
206 Diseases of Poultry

A. LICE (MALLOPHAGA)

Lice are probably the most widely distributed parasite of
poultry. ‘They are so common that flocks of fowls that have
not been treated to remove lice for a long time are almost
sure to have one or more species present. At least 8 species
of hen lice have been found and 5 of these are common.

Bird lice are quite different from
ware those which affect man and mammals.

The popular notion that lice may
be transmitted from poultry to other
animals is quite erroneous. Theobald
says: “So particular are bird-lice
that it is quite the exception to find’
one species upon two distinct kinds

i sq@\\ of birds. Fowl-lice will not even at-
= “\\ tack the duck nor duck-lice the fowl.
gk TTT Nearly‘every bird has its own partic-
age TUTTE) ular Mallophagan parasite or para-
9), SeER i: \ “ sites. They may possibly pass to
Nemeth some strange host for a short time,

| ie but they will not live and_ breed.

Fic. 36.— The common Moreover, . . . particular species at-
lidum). Groatlverladea, tack restricted areas on the same

(From Banks.) host and are seldom found in other

positions.”” Some of these lice are
sluggish, nearly stationary, and confined to a restricted area
of the body, while others are active and crawl over the en-
tire body. Theobald describes eight species of lice found
on poultry.

The most common and widely distributed hen louse
found in this country is Menopon pallidum. This louse is
shown in Fig. 36.

Another species of this genus (Menopon biseriatum), which

External Parasites 207

closely resembles M. pallidum, is also sometimes found.
These are active lice living on all parts of the body. They
often crawl on to the hands when handling
or plucking birds, and may sometimes be
found in the nests.

There are several other lice which some-
times infest poultry. Each of these species
is confined to a special region of the host.
Although capable of crawling about, the lice
of these species for the most part remain
nearly stationary, often with their heads
buried in the skin and their bodies erect.
Two species, Lipeurus variabilis and Lipeu- Hoe
rus heterographus, live among the barbs of — rus variabilis.
the wing and tail feathers. Goniodes dis- A louse that

BN tbat ‘ infests poul-
similis is found under the wings and on the try. Much en-
rump. The appearance of two of the species ae aoe
mentioned, viz., Lipeu- —_ Denny.)
rus variabilis and Goni-
odes dissimilis, is shown in Figs. 37
and 38 respectively.

All true bird lice (Mallophaga) have
biting, not piercing mouth parts. They
live upon fragments of feathers, scales
of the skin and other such débris. It
is evident from the action of infested
birds that these parasites cause con-
a Eddi Sie siderable pain and itching. This must

similis, a louse that be particularly true when they are
infestspoultry. Much present in large numbers.
enlarged. (From ; : ‘ .
Banks, after Denny.) Iife-history of Lice. — All the lice
breed fairly rapidly. The eggs or nits
are laid upon the down feathers, as a rule; they are often
beautifully sculptured objects, oval in form. In about 6

or
208 Diseases of Poultry

10 days they hatch into small, pale, active lice, which
at once commence to irritate the birds. The adults are
occasionally found in the nests. Some species are found
copulating in the nests, others always on the birds. They
live a considerable time. Menopon pallidum (Fig. 36)
has been kept alive for months upon fresh feathers, the
quill epidermis being especially eaten. Before reaching the

Fic. 39. — Feathers showing eggs or ‘‘nits’’ of the common hen louse.
Enlarged. (Original.)

full-grown state as many as 10 or 12 molts apparently take
place, there being little difference in each stage, esay: the
gradual darkening of the markings.

The eggs or nits of hen lice are shown in Fig. 39.

Methods of Introduction and Infestation. — It is generally
agreed that lice and other parasites flourish best in insanitary
surroundings. There must, however, be a source of infesta-
tion. Lice are brought to a new place by introducing in-
fested birds. They spread from bird to bird (a) directly
during copulation (an infested cock often infests the whole

External Parasites 209

flock), or (b) when two hens occupy a nest together, or (c)
from mother to chick. ‘They also pass indirectly from bird
to bird by crawling off one bird first on to the nesting material
and later on to another bird which uses the same nest. Sharp
has also observed several lice clinging to the body of a
fly parasitic upon chickens. Lice are so much more common
than the parasitic fly that it is probable that this insect
is of little real importance in the distribution of the lice.

All the lice breed very rapidly. In 8 weeks the third
generation is mature and in this generation the estimated
number of the offspring of a single pair is 125,000 individuals.
It seems important to eradicate an infestation if possible
as soon as discovered. However, if kept under sanitary
conditions and furnished with plenty of attractive dust,
vigorous birds will hold external parasites in check. With
some attention to sick birds, setting hens and young chicks,
the parasites will give little trouble on a plant conducted
with due regard to the principles of hygiene and sanitation
(cf. Chapter IT).

Salmon (“Diseases of Poultry’’) says: “It should be re-
membered at all times that the external animal parasites
are the most common and frequent cause of trouble in
the poultry-yard and pigeon-cote. If the birds are not
thriving and conducting themselves satisfactorily, look
for these pests, take measures to repress them, and in
most cases the results will be surprising and gratifying.
When anything is the matter with a horse the maxim is
examine his feet, and when anything is found wrong with
poultry or other domesticated birds, the maxim should be
look for lice.”

Diagnosis. — Adult hens may harbor quite a number of
these parasites without showing any symptoms which indi-
cate their presence. If they are unthrifty and broody hens
leave their nests they should be examined for lice. The

1k

ca
210 Diseases of Poultry

biting and digging of the claws of the lice may cause sores
and the nervous irritation and loss of sleep may cause general
debility and bowel trouble. Little chickens are very sus-
ceptible and often die. Lice are frequently found in large
numbers on birds suffering from roup, gapes, ete. In some
cases their presence has rendered the birds more susceptible
to other disease, while in others it is probable that the birds
lack sufficient energy to dust themselves.

The sure test for the presence of lice is, of course, finding
the lice. Part the feathers under the wing, on the back
and around the vent and examine the exposed skin. Exam-
ine the head and neck feathers and look between the large
feathers of the wing. When present the parasites are easily
found by any one who is familiar with them. It seems in-
credible that serious infestations can escape the eye of any
poultryman.

Treatment. — Sanitary surroundings and liberal range
help the birds in their attempts to keep themselves free from
lice. The dust bath is very efficient in holding the pests
in check. It is doubtful, however, whether the dust boxes
which used to be almost universally kept in the poultry
house are of any real value. It is a noticeable fact that
dust boxes are much less used now than formerly. As com-
monly made these boxes are too small, and too shallow, and
are not filled with the proper kind of material. Hens will
use them, in most cases, only as a last resort if at all.

When possible, birds should be given access to dry, sandy
ground, and they will provide their own dust bath. Some
authors advise adding insect powder to the earth in dust
boxes for bad infestations. It is doubtful whether under the
best of circumstances this does anything but waste the
insect powder. It is better to apply the powder directly
to the bird and furnish clean earth for the dust bath.

When hens are used for incubating and brooding it is

External Parasites Din

necessary to give some individual treatment to brooding
hens and young chicks. It is also necessary to treat sick
hens which are not able to use the dust bath. While it is
theoretically possible to exterminate the pests and keep the
flock free from them by avoiding the introduction of infected
birds, this ideal condition prevails in very few poultry plants.
In almost all flocks there are enough lice present to cause
trouble if conditions favor their development.

How to Make an Effective and Very Cheap Lice Powder.—
When the treatment of individual birds for lice becomes
necessary some kind of powder dusted into the feathers
thoroughly has been one of the most effective and advisable
remedies. The powder used must be of such nature, however,
that it will be effective. There are so-called “lice powders”’
on the market which are no more effective than an equal
quantity of any inert powdered substance would be. It is
not only a waste of money but of time as well to use such
powders. At the Maine Station no lice powder has been
found that is so satisfactory as that originally invented by
Mr. R. C. Lawry, formerly of the poultry department of
Cornell University. The following matter regarding this
powder (which can be made at a very low cost) is quoted
from a circular issued by the Maine Station :

“In using any kind of lice powder on poultry, whether
the one described in this circular or some other, it should
always be remembered that a single application of powder
is not sufficient. When there are lice present on a bird
there are always unhatched eggs of lice (‘nits’) present too.
The proper procedure is to follow up a first application of
powder with a second at an interval of 4 days to a week. If
the birds are badly infested at the beginning it may be neces-
sary to make still a third application.

“The lice powder which the Station uses is made at
a cost of only a few cents a pound in the following way:

al

212 Diseases of Poultry

“ Take 3 parts of gasoline,

1 part of crude carbolic acid ;

“To get the proper results only the 90-95 per cent car-
bolic acid should be used for making lice powder. Weaker acids
are ineffective.

“Owing to the difficulty in getting the strong crude car-
bolic acid locally in this State at reasonable prices, the Sta-
tion has experimented to see whether some other more readily
obtainable substance could not be substituted for it. It has
been found that cresol gives as good results as the highest
grade crude carbolic.

“The directions for making the powder are now, therefore,
modified as follows :

“Take 3 parts of gasoline, and

1 part of crude carbolic acid, 90-95 per cent strength,
or, uf the 90-95 per cent strength crude carbolic acid cannot be
obtained take

83 parts of gasoline and

1 part of cresol.

“Mix these together and add gradually with stirring, enough
plaster of paris to take up all the moisture. As a general
rule it will take about 4 quarts of plaster of paris to 1 quart
of the liquid. The exact amount, however, must be deter-
mined by the condition of the powder in each case. The
liquid and dry plaster should be thoroughly mixed and
stirred so that the liquid will be uniformly distributed through
the mass of plaster. When enough plaster has been added
the resulting mixture should be a dry, pinkish brown pow-
der having a fairly strong carbolic odor and a rather less
pronounced gasoline odor.

“Do not use more plaster in mixing than is necessary to
blot up the liquid. This powder is to be worked into the
feathers of the birds affected with vermin. The bulk of the
application should be in the fluff around the vent and on

9

External Parasites 213

the ventral side of the body and in the fluff under the wings.
Its efficiency, which is greater than that of any other lice
powder known to the writer, can be very easily demonstrated
by any one to his own satisfaction. Take a bird that is
covered with lice and apply the powder in the manner just
described. After a lapse of about a minute, shake the bird,
loosening its feathers with the fingers at the same time, over
a clean piece of paper. Dead and dying lice will drop on
the paper in great numbers. Any one who will try this
experiment will have no further doubt of the wonderful
efficiency and value of this powder.”

Next to the Lawry powder probably pure pyrethrum or
Persian insect powder is as cheap and effective as anything
to be had.

A time-honored and effective treatment for lice, especially
for young chicks, is greasing. The grease most often used is
lard or sometimes lard and sulphur. The latter should not
be used for young chicks. The lard is applied with the
finger to the head, neck, under the wings and around the
vent. Greasing is a somewhat tedious but very effective
treatment for lice, especially on young chicks, since lice
usually attack them on the head and neck.

B. MITES — ACARINA

Eighteen species of mites are parasitic upon fowls. Only
4 of these are sufficiently injurious and widely distributed to
be of great economic importance. Occasionally one or
another of the other species becomes sufficiently abundant
to be of local importance. The mites are small 8-legged
animals related to the spiders. Some of the mites parasitic
on the fowl visit their host only to feed, as the common red
mite; others remain on the surface of the skin or on the
feathers, as in the case of depluming scabies. Others live

214 Diseases of Poultry

under the skin, causing deep-seated skin diseases like scaly
leg; still others find their way into the internal regions of
the body, living either on mucous membrances like the air-sac
mite (p. 180) or upon the connective tissue like the connec-
tive tissue mite.

The most common and most injurious mite parasitic on
fowls is the common fowl mite or red mite, Dermanyssus
galline. ‘These mites are present in almost every poultry
house that is not kept very clean. When they are present

‘ ”

of poultry, Dermanyssus galline. a,

‘red mite
adult. dande, young. (After Osborn.)

Fic. 40. — The common

in large numbers they are a serious pest. This mite is a
little more than 4} millimeter long.. The female is a little
larger than the male. When empty they are gray with
dark spots, but usually they appear some shade from yellow
to dark red according to the amount of fowl’s blood they
contain. They visit the fowls only to feed and spend the
rest of the time on the under sides of the roosts, in cracks
and crevices, under collections of droppings or other filth
and in the nesting material, especially if such material is

dirty straw. The mites breed in these places. They repro-

External Parasites 215

duce very rapidly, especially in spring and summer. The
eggs are laid in concealed places, usually in cracks containing
filth or in dirty nesting material. The young mites are
white and have only 6 legs. Their first food is probably
filth or decayed wood. ‘They molt several times and their
cast skins are often seen as a white powder on the perches.
After the first molt the larvee have 8 legs. The mites are
able to live and reproduce for months at least without ani-
mal food, but when they are associated with fowls the older
larve and adults depend upon the blood of the fowls for
food. They usually attack the birds at night but sometimes
are found feeding on laying or brooding hens during the
day. They pierce the skin with their needle-like jaws and
suck the blood. The irritation due to the biting of a number
of these creatures disturbs the rest of the bird and the loss of
blood may be considerable. The mites thrive best in dark,
damp, dirty houses and may be found in such houses for
months after all fowls have been removed. They will bite
man or other mammals, causing severe irritation, but do
not remain on strange hosts for any length of time. Fowls
should not be allowed to roost in sheds with other animals,
as the sheds may become infested with the mites which
will disturb the other animals as well as the fowls.

Diagnosis. — If the birds are not doing well, especially if
they appear emaciated and dejected, they should be exam-
ined at night for mites. In the daytime the ends and
under sides of the roosts and the cracks in them should be
examined. Numbers of the mites are often found by pry-
ing up a loose cleat or splitting off a wide loose sliver. They
may often be found in old straw nests.

Treatment. — Clean, dry, well ventilated houses which get
plenty of sunlight are seldom badly infested. The first
step in eradicating or controlling the pest is thoroughly to
clean the houses. Remove the droppings and all the old

«+
216 Diseases of Poultry

nesting material. Clean and when possible scrub or wash
with a stream from the hose all the perches, nests, floors and
walls. Spray or paint the perches, nests, walls and floors with
a 5 per cent solution of cresol (see Chapter II for directions
for making this). Professor H. C. Pierce has tested various
remedies for mites and finds none so effective as this. Use
plenty of solution and make the spraying thorough. Every
crack and crevice should be flooded.

Another spray successfully used is: 38 parts kerosene
and 1 part crude carbolic acid. Still a third, kerosene emul-
sion is recommended by the United States Department of
Agriculture. Their method of making this spray as given
in Circular No. 92 is as follows: “To make this, shave 4
pound of hard soap into 1 gallon of soft water and boil the
mixture until the soap is dissolved. Then remove it to a
safe distance from the fire and stir into it at once, while still
hot, 2 gallons of kerosene or coal oil. The result is a thick,
creamy emulsion. Dilute this stock mixture with 10 parts
of soft water, and apply as a spray or with a brush, being
careful to work it into all cracks, crevices, and joints of the
building.”

With any of these sprays it is necessary to make two or
more applications at intervals of a few days to destroy the
mites which hatch after the first application. The liquid
may be put on with a hand spray pump or with a brush.
Cleanliness, fresh air and sunlight are cheap and effective
preventives.

Scaly Leg

A minute mite, Knemidocoptes (Dermatoryctes) (Sarcoptes)
mutans, is the cause of a contagious disease affecting the
legs of fowls, turkeys, pheasants, partridges and cage birds.
According to some authorities it sometimes affects the comb
and beak also. The mites excavate places under the skin

External Parasites 2h

Say

i
Fie. 41.— A. Normal lez of hen.
leg. (After Megnin.)

B. Leg of hen affected with scaly

BR Ahk:
218 Diseases of Poultry

where they live and breed. The most thorough study yet
made of this parasite and its effect on birds is that of Haiduk.'

Diagnosis. — This very common disease is easily recognized
by the enlarged roughened appearance it gives the foot and
shank. This appearance is shown in Fig. 41, with a normal
leg for comparison.

The disease is present in most flocks unless especial care
has been taken to exclude it. It is slightly contagious, but
usually only a few birds in a flock appear to be infected. The
scales on the foot and leg of an affected bird are raised by a
crusty substance deposited beneath them. The lesions
usually appear first near the joints between the toes and
foot. The parts affected first appear to be enlarged and
then the scales are raised, giving the roughened appearance
shown in B, Fig. 41. In early stages the disease does not
appear to disturb the general health of the fowl. As it
progresses the birds become lame and sometimes the foot
becomes so badly diseased that joints or even whole toes
drop off. The photograph of a badly affected leg is shown in
Fig. 42. The two legs are usually affected equally.

Etiology. —'The disease is caused by the minute parasitic
mite Knemidocoptes mutans (Figs. 43 and 44).

The mites bore under the scales of the foot and leg and
burrow deeper and deeper into the tissue. They set up an
irritation which leads to multiplication of cells and the
exudation of serum. This accumulation forms crusty
deposits beneath the scales. These crusts contain many
depressions in which are embedded female mites containing
eggs. The larve and the males are usually found beneath
the crusts. The relations just described are shown in Fig.
45 which is a picture of a section of the skin of a “scaly”
leg.

1 Haiduk, T., ‘‘Die Fussriituder des Gefliigels.” Inaug. Diss.
Giessen, 1909, pp. 1-58, Taf. I-VI.

External Parasites 219

|
4
;

Fig. 42. — Photograph of the leg of a hen very severely affected with
scaly leg. (After Haiduk.)

220 Sas of Poultry

As the disease progresses the mites which are becoming
constantly more numerous penetrate very deep into the

—

Fic. 43. — Photograph of the adult female of the mite Knemidocoptes
(Dermatoryctes) mutans. (After Haiduk.)

=

eee ee ee ee eee

tissues, causing lameness and sometimes the loss of some of
the toes.

The infection from bird to bird probably takes place on
the roosts or from mother to chick. Robinson believes that

External Parasites 221

the birds most likely to be infected are those with a deficient
supply of oil in the skin. The conditions which favor its

mn bo é

~

tes ;
i ANTHEe
> STE

Fic. 44. — Photograph of the six-legged larva of Knemidocoptes (Derma-
toryctes) mutans. (After Haiduk.)

spread in a flock are dry, barren runs, especially on alkaline
soils or in yards filled with ashes or cinders. Foul roosting
places also favor the spread of the disease. The disease is

222 Diseases of Poultry

easily cured and it is worth the trouble of any poultryman
to cure all the affected birds and to examine any birds pur-
chased that infected ones may be treated before they are
introduced into the flock.

Treatment. — Individual treatment is necessary to cure
the disease. This treatment consists in the application
of some penetrating oil to the diseased parts. A large
number of oils and ointments have been used successfully.
If the case is not far advanced and if there is no special
hurry about bringing about the cure the application of the
oils or ointments at intervals of 2 or 3 days will soon do the
work. If the birds must be cured quickly for show or sale
purposes the cure is hastened by removing the scales and
crusts before applying the medicine. This may be done by
brushing with a stiff toothbrush before each treatment.
Or the feet may be soaked for a few moments in warm soapy
water and then brushed. When the disease is far advanced
it is best to begin the treatment by the removal of the scales.

Haiduk’s experiments show that one of the very best
cures for scaly leg is oil of caraway. This is best applied in an
oimtment made of 1 part of oil of caraway to 5 parts of white
vaseline. Oil of caraway is very penetrating and is not
nearly as irritating as some of the treatments more usually
advised. This ointment should be rubbed into the leg and
foot every few days until signs of the disease disappear.

Hill recommends daily application of an ointment made
of equal parts of vaseline and zinc ointment, or in severe
cases of one made of 1 ounce of sulphur, $ ounce of oxide of
zine, | dram of oil of tar and 2 ounces of whale oil mixed
together.

There are two common remedies used successfully by
poultrymen. These are irritating and should be used with
some caution. They have the advantage of being quickly
applied. The best of these is probably a mixture of 1 part

a.
b.

External Parasites 223

i segs
Fic. 45. — Section of the skin of the leg of a fowl affected with scaly leg.

Papilla with pigment cells.

Lymphatic tissue in the papilla.

Epidermis: stratum profundum.

Epidermis: stratum corneum.

Section through a mite.

Section through a mite showing head and 2 pairs of legs.
Young mite.

Cavity excavated by mites.

Excrement of mite.

Horny layer between the mite excavations.

(From Haiduk, after Olt.)

224 Diseases of Poultry

of coal oil or kerosene and 2 parts of raw linseed oil. If a
quick cure is imperative a half-and-half mixture may be
used. Robinson in Farm Poultry, May, 1907, recommends a
quick and easy method of applying this. It is to take a
tall quart measure of the liquid to the hen house at night
and dip both legs of each infected bird into the measure of
oil, holding them there for a moment and then allowing
them to drip for a moment more and then replacing the hen
on the roost. With any treatment which involves the use
of kerosene care must be taken not to wet the feathers of
the leg, as this causes irritation and sometimes burns the
skin much as the human skin is burned when it is rubbed
with kerosene and covered with flannel.

A second method of applying kerosene is to put a teaspoon-
ful of the oil in a quart measure of water and treat the birds
by the method given above. The same care should be taken
not to wet the feathers.

The advantage of these treatments is their easy and rapid
application to a number of birds.

Depluming Scabies

The mite Sarcoptes levis var. galline (Fig. 46) is the cause
of a kind of scabies in fowls which causes the feathers to
break off at the surface of the skin.

Symptoms. — This disease usually appears in spring and
summer and is characterized by the dropping off of patches
of feathers on different parts of the body. It usually begins
at the rump and spreads to the head and neck, back, thighs
and breast. The large wing and tail feathers are not usually
lost. The exposed skin is normal in appearance. Around
the stumps of the lost feathers and at the end of the quills
of feathers near the bare spots are masses of epidermal
scales. On microscopic examination these scales are found

External Parasites 225

to be composed of numerous mites and their débris. The
irritation of the mites often causes the birds to pull their
own feathers. Birds affected often pull each others’ feathers.
Some of the so-called feather eating is due to the presence
of this parasite, but fowls sometimes pull each others’
feathers when the parasite is not present. Salmon says this
disease does not affect the general health of the bird and does
not appear to
disturb gain in
flesh or egg pro-
duction, but
Theobald says
that the disease
checks egg lay-
ing in hens and
affected cocks
become —emaci-
ated and some-
times die.

Etvology—The
mite Sarcoptes
levis which
causes this dis-
ease is smaller than the one which causes scaly leg. They
live at the base of the feathers in the epidermal débris
referred to above. A flock becomes infested by the intro-
duction of one or more birds carrying the mites. The mites
are spread from bird to bird by the male in copulation. ‘The
distribution is often very rapid so that the whole flock is
soon affected.

Treatment. — The disease should be prevented by taking
care not to introduce infested birds. If it appears, all affected
birds should at once be isolated. The mites yield easily to
treatment. The infested areas may be rubbed with some

Q

Fic. 46. — Egg containing female Sarcoptes levis
var. galline. (After Theobald.)

226 DM hises of Poultry

of the less irritating ointments recommended for scaly legs
(see p. 222).

The following list gives some ointments in the order of

their desirability for use on the body.
Oil of caraway ointment (1 to 5).
Balsam of Peru.
Creolin treatment (1 to 10).
Helmerich’s ointment.

Salmon gives a modification of the latter ointment which

he considers an improvement for use in depluming scabies.
Flowers of sulphur, 1 dram,
Carbonate of potash, 20 grains,
Lard or vaseline, $ ounce.

Seabies may also be cured by liquid applications. The
two following preparations are recommended by Salmon: A
solution of balsam of Peru in alcohol (1 part of balsam to
3 of alcohol) or 1 dram of creolin, 2 ounces of glycerine, 3
ounce of alcohol and.5 ounce of water. Either of these
liquids are applied by rubbing into the skin. The applica-
tion should be repeated every 4 or 5 days until the disease is
cured.

Other Mites Affecting Poultry

Another form of Body Mange or scabies is found asso-
clated with the mites Hpidermoptes bilobatus and Epider-
moptes bifurcatus, but it has not been certainly demonstrated
that they are the cause of the disease. Present evidence
indicates that they are.

. “ee
The disease closely resembles favus (p. 223), but usually =

does not affect the head. The regions commonly attacked
are the neck, breast, the wings and the body under the wings.
It sometimes affects the entire body, including the head.
The skin becomes irritated and shows an accumulation of
scales or crusts especially at the base of the feathers.

External Parasites

227

The mites live on the skin at the base of the feathers.
Since the mites are sometimes found on birds which show

no signs of scabies and since the disease so
closely resembles favus, which is known to
be caused by a fungus, it is sometimes
supposed that this mange is also due to a
fungus and that the mites are inoffensive.

Five species of mites have been recorded
which live upon the feathers of fowls.
These are fairly abundant but do no harm.

Two mites live within the body of fowls.
One of these, the air-sac mite, is described
elsewhere (p. 180). The other, the connec-
tive tissue mite, Symplectoptes cysticola, is
found in the connective tissue of the fowls.
They produce local irritations giving rise
to tubercles, but apparently do not affect
the health of the bird.

The larve of the so-called “ harvest-bug”
(which isnot a bugat all),
Tetranychus (T hrom-

Fic. 47. — Symplec-
toptes cysticola.
Connective tissue
mite. (After
Theobald.)

Fie. 48. — ‘Harvest
bug,’ Tetranychus
(Leptus) autumnalis,
larval form. (After
Murray.)

bidium) (Leptus) autumnalis, sometimes
attacks poultry. The appearance of this
mite is shown in Fig. 48.

This small brick red mite, barely visi-
ble to the naked eye, is bred upon berry
and currant bushes, vegetables and grain,
but when opportunity offers it bites al-
most any animal, often attacking man.
It sometimes causes considerable mor-
tality among late hatched chickens which

frequent its breeding places. The parasites fasten themselves
so firmly by their claws and palpi that they can only be

detached by force.

They produce intense irritation, which

228 Diss of Poultry

often leads to epileptiform symptoms and death follows in a
few days.

Theobald suggests dusting flowers of sulphur among the
feathers when the parasites are present. Probably the
Lawry lice powder (p. 211) would be more effective. When

Fie. 49. — The poultry tick, Argas persicus. Adult ventral view, showing
the four pairs of legs, mouth parts, ete. (After Laurie.)

these parasites are abundant chickens should be kept away
from the places where the mites breed.

Ticks. — A poultry tick, Argas persicus, occurs in South
Africa, Australia, and many other parts of the world. It
occurs to some extent in the southern part of the United
States. Where present it is an exceedingly destructive

External Parasites 229

pest. The followmg notes are taken from a paper by
Laurie.!

These parasites belong to the group of mites Acari. In
the adult stage they have four pairs of legs but in the larval
stages only three pairs (Figs. 49 and 50).

These ticks are nocturnal in habit. During the day they
secrete themselves in cracks and crevices and are rarely
seen. At night they come out on to the roosts and fasten

Fig. 50. — The poultry tick. Larva, showing the three pairs of legs. (After
Laurie.)

themselves upon the birds. After gorging themselves with
blood they return to the cracks to digest their meal. An
adult tick feeds only about once a month, as it requires that
time to digest fully one meal. During the growing periods
they undergo a molt after digesting each meal. These
ticks breed very prolifically, so that a poultry house once
infested soon becomes overrun by them.

Laurie, D. F. The Poultry Tick. Dept. of Agric. of South
Australia, Bul. No. 74, pp. 1-32, 1912.

230 D Wei of Poultry

A considerable portion of the injury done by these para-
sites is due to the irritating annoyance of the feeding ticks.
It has been found, however, that this is not the most seri-
ous injury. In those countries infested with these ticks
there is a disease known as the tick fever. It has been shown
that this disease is caused by a protozoén blood parasite,
Spirocheta marchouxi, and that this protozoén lives in the
poultry tick as an intermediate host.

Treatment.— Thorough cleanliness and disinfection are the
remedies to use against this tick. Five to ten per cent
kerosene emulsion applied to the clean roosts and walls will
rid the place of these pests.

Other External Parasites

The dove cot bug or “bed-bug”’ of poultrymen, found in
pigeon lofts, sometimes invades neighboring hen roosts.
It probably sometimes attacks fowls. It resembles closely
the bed bug found in dwelling houses, and like this pest is
hard to exterminate as it can live almost indefinitely on
dead organic matter. This tick hides in cracks during the
day and attacks its host only at night. Persistent repetition
of the sprays recommended for hen roosts infected with red
mites (p. 216) will destroy these parasites.

Leaflet No. 57 of the English Board of Agriculture gives
the following brief account of the hen flea, Pulex galline (or
avium) : .

“The fleas, which are true insects, belong to the order of
flies (Diptera). They feed upon the blood. One species
only lives upon the fowl, namely the bird flea (Pulex galline
or avium) which attacks also most other birds. The hen
flea, as it is generally called, is abundant in dirty fowl runs,
and especially in the nests where straw is used. The adult
flea is dark in color, and, as in all fleas, is devoid of wings.

External Parasites 2a

The fleas are provided with very sharp piercing mouths.
They are what are termed ‘partial parasites’ —parasites
that only go to their hosts to feed. The fleas are not noticed
on the birds because they generally attack them at night;
then, however, they do much harm, causing constant irri-
tation and loss of blood, and depriving them of rest.

“ Life-history of Hen Flea. —'The female flea lays her eggs
(nits) chiefly in the nests amongst dust and dirt and in the
crevices of the walls
and floor. These nits
give rise to pearly
white maggots, with
brown horny heads,
which can often be
found in the bottom
of the nests amongst
the dust. These
larvee are mature in—
2 or 3 weeks, then

they reach about ¢ of

fe : Fic. 51. — The chicken flea, Pulex galline
an inch in length. In or avium. The mark above the head in-
warm weather they dicates the actual size. (After Kaupp.)

may be full fed in
even 10 days. They then spin a pale cocoon amongst the
dirt, in which they pupate. The pupa is at first pale
brown, then dark chestnut brown. In this condition the
flea remains 10 to 21 days, when the pupa hatches into the
adult. They breed all the year round, but chiefly in warm
weather. It is well to remember that, whenever there are
dark and dirty hen roosts, there are sure to be a number of
Pulex galline.”

Treatment. — These parasites do not usually occur under
sanitary housing conditions. When they occur the houses
should be cleaned and sprayed as for red mites (p. 215).

232 Diseases of Poultry

Theobald recommends the use of excelsior or shavings in-
stead of straw for nesting material, as the fleas do not breed
as readily in this material.

Manson's Eye Worm

This parasite (Oxyspirura mansoni) was first . reported
from America in 1904.‘ It appears to occur very infre-
quently in this country at the present time. It is abundant
in some of the tropical and subtropical countries. Wilcox
and McClelland ? state that it is very common in Honolulu
where infested birds are found in nearly every flock.

According to these writers the eggs are laid in the eye and
are washed down the lacrymal duct and thence to the intes-
tines. The eggs hatch and the larve live until half grown on
damp soil. At this time they enter the eye of the chicken
directly.

Treatment. — Anesthetize the eye with 5 per cent solu-
tion of cocaine. Lift the nictitating membrane and drop
a 5 per cent solution of creolin directly into the inner corner
of the eye under the membrane.

Liming the soil in the yards or keeping the birds on dry,
frequently disinfected floors until the infestation disappears
are recommended.

1 Ransom, B. H., ‘‘Manson’s Eye Worm of Chickens,”’ ete.
U.S. Dept. of Agr., Bur. of Anim. Ind., Bul. 60, pp. 72, 1904.

2 Wilcox, E. V., and McClelland, C. K., ‘‘The Eye Worm of
Chickens.’”’ Hawaii Exper. Sta. Press Bul. 43, p. 14.

CHAPTER XVI

DISEASES OF THE SKIN

Favus (Baldness or White Comb)

Tuts disease of the skin attacks poultry as well as man and
the domestic mammals. In mammals it is called tinea favosa
or favus.

Diagnosis. —'The disease usually appears first as small
gray white spots on the comb,
wattles, eyelids and around
the ears, that is, on the un-
feathered parts of the head.
The spots enlarge and run to-
gether forming a scaly crust
which becomes thicker until in
three or four weeks it may be
as much as 8 millimeters (4
inch) thick. The scales which
make up the crust are often
formed in concentric rings, the
margins raised and the centers
depressed, so that the scale is
somewhat cup shaped. When
the crust is removed the skin <j
appears irritated and in places fowl affected with generalized

° favus. (After Pearson.)
the surface is somewhat raw.
The disease spreads to the feathered parts of the head, the
neck and the region around the vent. The base of the
230

ie
234 Diseases of Poultry

feathers becomes surrounded by concentric rings of the scaly
material. The feathers become dry, erect, and brittle and
finally break off or fall out leaving a disk-shaped scale with a
depression at the bottom where the base of the feather was
located. The bird’s head and neck and patches around
the vent become bare of feathers. The exposed skin
is covered with the cup-shaped scales. Sometimes the
disease spreads over the whole body until the bird becomes
nearly naked. The diseased bird has a peculiar disagree-
able odor, sometimes likened to the odor of a musty
grain or to moldy cheese and sometimes to cat’s urine or to
macerating animal material. In early stages the general
health does not appear to be affected, but as the disease
advances the bird loses its appetite, becomes poor and
exhausted, and finally dies.

Etiology. — The disease is caused by the fungus Achorion
schonleinai.

This fungus is found in the cup-like seales on the skin and in
the quills of the feathers of the diseased parts. If the favie
cups or scales are moistened with weak acetic acid and exam-
ined under the microscope, it will be seen that they are
formed of branching, thread-like mycelial tubes of the fungus
closely interwoven with one another, spores of the fungus,
and epithelial scales from the skin of the host embedded in a
viscid substance secreted by the fungus. Some of the tubes
of the mycelium contain spores. Many of the spores are
found free among the filaments. They are usually found in
groups of 3, 4, or 8.

Both the mycelium and spores of the fungus are found in
the quills of the feathers of the diseased parts. The fungus
sometimes penetrates even the barbs of the feathers.

Favus is a contagious disease and gets into a flock by the
introduction of an affected bird. It is less likely to attack
strong, vigorous birds than those in poor condition. It

Diseases of the Skin 235

usually starts at a point where the skin is broken. Young
birds are more susceptible than old ones. The large Asiatic
breeds are specially liable to take the disease. No breed is
entirely immune.

Méenin! and some other authors consider: this disease
distinct from the favus of man and other animals, but numer-
ous recorded observations
indicate that it is the same
disease, and may be com-
municated to man. In
handling affected birds,
therefore, care should be
exercised to prevent infec-
tion of cuts or scratches.

Treatment. — Diseased
birds should not be intro-
duced into a flock. If the
disease has been acciden-
tally introduced the af-
fected birds should be
isolated as soon as possi-

ble. The flocks should be

Fig. 53. — The fungus Achorion schon-

watched in order to dis- leinit which causes favus in poultry.
eover and isolate any new tv. Empty tubes of mycelium. tp.

| Tubes of the mycelium containing
cases that appear. protoplasm and spores.

In early stages the dis-
ease yields readily to treatment. Ziirn considers treatment
economically advisable only before the feathered parts of
the body are attacked. The disease may sometimes be
cured at a later stage. The value of the affected bird must
determine whether or not it is worth treating.

As much of the crust as possible should be removed. This

1 Mégnin, P., ‘“‘ Médecine des oiseaux.’”’ Vincennes, 1906.

236 Diseases of Poultry

is best done by first softening the scabs with warm water or
with oil or glycerine. Robinson recommends scraping with
the back of a knife or a spoon handle. The parts should then
be painted with tincture of iodine or should be bathed with
corrosive sublimate solution, 1 part of the sublimate to 1000
parts of water, and then rubbing with the ointment described
onpagedd. In using the corrosive sublimate solution it should
be borne in mind that this solution, which unless colored with
some dye looks exactly like water, is extremely poisonous
to men and animals when taken internally. Dishes or bottles
of corrosive sublimate should never be left where they can be
accidentally mistaken for water.

Lard and sulphur are often used successfully in the treat-
ment of favus. Use nearly as much sulphur as lard and work
them into a smooth salve. In early stages the disease
usually yields to application of lard or oil alone.

Prognosis. — In early stages the favus may be cured at the
expense of a small amount of attention. After the feathered
parts become affected a cure requires considerable labor as the
fungus is better protected from the applications.

White Comb

This name is often used for favus, but some authorities
(e.g., Vale) use it to designate a condition of the comb charac-
terized by a white powdery scurf of the surface. The comb
is light colored and the white scales or flakes are particles
detached from the epidermis. This condition is thought to
be due to anemia. Wright says that it “appears generally
due to dirt, or overcrowding in small space, or want of green
food.” The only treatment advised is to place the birds
under sanitary conditions and give them a good balanced
ration.

Diseases of the Skin 2a,

Chicken Pox (Sore-head or Epithelioma Contagiosum)

This contagious disease of poultry, although widely dis-
tributed in the northern states, is less common and serious
here than in the Gulf states and Hawaiian Islands. It is
impossible at present to decide whether this is a distinct
disease or a form of roup which affects the skin of the head.
This can only be determined when further investigations
have revealed the real cause of these diseases. Experiments
have shown that both pox and diphtheria are easily inoculated
from fowl to fowl and from pigeon to fowl, but the inocula-
tion of pox from fowl to pigeon has proved very difficult and
that of diphtheria impossible. The contagion is believed to
exist in the blood as well as in the nodules which appear upon
the skin.

The disease is generally introduced by new birds which are
put into the flock or by exhibition birds which return infected.
Probably it is often brought by pigeons, sparrows, and other
birds which fly from one yard to another. The inoculation
of the comb and wattles appears to occur by rubbing these
parts with the infected feet or by being injured with the
infected beaks of other birds.

The virus is quite resistant and requires thorough dis-
infection for its eradication.

Diagnosis. — The disease usually appears as warty nodules
on the unfeathered parts of the head. They look like the
tumors in the nasal passages and eye sockets of birds affected
with roup.

Freidberger and Frohner ! give a good description of these
nodules on the skin of the head, as follows:

“Their favorite seats are those parts of the head that are
not covered with feathers ; root of the beak, neighborhood of

1Freidberger and Frohner, ‘‘ Veterinary Pathology.’’ (Vol. I.
Hayes transl.) Quoted from Cary.

238 DiMises of Poultry

the nostrils, angles of the mouth, lobes of the ear, parts
adjacent to the auditory meatus, wattles, surface of the face,
edges of the eyelids, intermaxillary space, and especially the
comb. They sometimes spread over the feathered parts of
the head, throat and neck, and may occur on the outer
surface of the thighs, abdomen, under the wings and in the
vicinity of the cloaca. At first these epitheliomata appear
in the skin, as flat nodules, which soon become prominent,
and which vary in size from a poppy seed to a millet seed.
Later on, they usually attain the size of a hemp seed. They
are of a reddish-gray or yellowish-gray color, often show
distinctly in their earlier stages of development a peculiar
greasy, nacreous luster; and are rather firm to the touch.
Their surface soon becomes covered with a dirty-gray,
yellowish-brown or red-brown crust. They are discrete
and disseminated in considerable numbers on the erectile
tissues, etc. They vary in size according to their age; and
frequently lie rather close to one another, so that the affected
parts look as if coarsely granulated; or they are crowded
together in such a manner as to give the appearance of large
warts with divisions through them, or mulberry-like hyper-
trophies. Even single nodules, to say nothing of the groups,
may attain the size of a lentil, pea, cherry-stone, broad bean
or larger object. The older they become, the rougher and
more covered with knobs will be their incrusted surface.

“Tf the edges of the eye-lids be affected by these tumors,
the lids will become nodular, swollen and closed. The con-
junctiva in this case also suffers; it projects outwards be-
cause catarrhally inflamed ; assumes a yellowish color at the
seat of eruption; and its surface becomes covered with crusts.
Purulent conjunctivitis may appear and the inflammation
may spread to the sclerotic and cornea, with keratitis and
panophthalmia as the result. If, as sometimes happens with
pigeons, the eruption of nodules extends over the whole of

Diseases of the Skin 239

the skin of the eye-lids and its neighborhood, the entire eye
will become covered with mulberry-like proliferations of
various sizes.”

The presence of these nodules on the epithelium of the
head is often (but apparently not always) accompanied with

Fic. 54. Sore-head on comb, eyelids and skin. (After Hadley and Beach.)

characteristic roup lesions of the nasal cavities, mouth and
throat. As long as the disease is confined to the skin of the
head the general health of the bird does not seem to be af-
fected. Recovery may take place without treatment in
from 10 to 20 days. The nodules in such cases dry up and
fall off. Usually, however, the disease is not self-limited,
but advances. The eyes may become closed so that the

240 DiMises of Poultry

birds cannot see to eat. They get poor and die from exhaus-
tion. When the mucous membrane of the mouth develops
diphtheritic membranes, death occurs earlier than in other
forms.

Etiology. — The lesions of this disease resemble the lesions
of roup and many of the same micro-organisms are found in
the two cases. The organisms isolated from the lesions of
sore-head include several bacteria, a coccidium, a yeast and
several molds. The coccidium, one of the molds, and one
of the bacteria have each been considered the cause of the
disease by different workers. The real cause of the disease
and its relation to roup must be determined by further
investigations.

Many recent investigations have indicated that the disease
is caused by a filterable virus.!. In regard to the etiology
and mode of transmission Cary ? says:

“Tt is evidently infectious; because the disease in all its
forms, spreads rather rapidly from one chicken or pigeon to
another. Ward, Harrison and others have transmitted, in
some cases quite readily by carrying a small amount of dis-
eased material (exudate and blood), from a sore-head chicken
to healthy chickens. It is also quite certain that chicken pox
and pigeon pox are identical or one and the same disease.

“Mosquitoes, gnat flies, chicken mites (ticks), chicken lice,
chicken foot mites (Sarcoptes mutans) and possibly cock-
roaches may sometimes be carriers of the real virus. It seems
quite certain that mosquitoes can transmit the virus from

1 Kor example see:

Bruet, E., ‘‘Contribution a l’étude l’epithélioma contagieux des
oiseaux.” Ann. l’Inst. Past., T. 29, pp. 742-765, 1906.

Sweet, C. D., ““A Study of Epithelioma Contagiosum of the
Common Fowl.”’ Univ. of Calif. Public Zool., Vol. II, pp. 29-51,
1913.

2 Cary, C. A., ‘‘Chicken-pox or Sore-head in Poultry.”’ Alabama
Agr. Expt. Stat. Bul. 136, pp. 17-56, 1906.

Diseases of the Skin 241

water or some other source, under certain conditions.
Warm and wet weather seem to increase the virulency of the
virus and favor the rapid transmission of the disease. It is
not impossible that ants may have a réle to play in the trans-
mission or cause of sore-head.

“ Pathological Anatomy. — On the skin the small, greasy-
like nodules, or hypertrophied nodules of the skin, contain
epithelial cells that have in them ‘greasy’ refractive bodies
that stain yellow with picro-carmine and the nuclei of the
epithelial cells become ‘reddish brown’ in color. Nearly all
the epithelial cells in the nodule appear larger than normal
and contain the refractive bodies. In the younger epithelial
cells these bodies (young coccidia) are relatively small and
occupy + to 3 of the epithelial cavity. In the older or
outer or cast-off epithelial cells these refractive bodies are
said by Freidberger and Frohner to occupy the entire cavities
of the epithelial cells. The invaded or infested epithelial
cells are unusually larger than the epidermal cells of the
healthy neighboring skin. Among the cast-off mass of
epithelial cells are found round refractive bodies and numer-
ous nuclei of leucocytes or pus cells. The subcutaneous con-
nective tissue is hypereemic (congested) and is infiltrated with
cells (leucocytes and nuclei of disintegrated cells). Possibly
some of the small nuclei-like bodies among the cells in the sub-
cutis may represent one stage in the development of coccidia.
Many observers have, also, found various bacteria in the
nodule and subcutis.

“When the exudate on the mucous surface or the crust of
the nodule of the skin is torn off the raw surface bleeds rather
freely and a fresh mount of this blood contains a short oval
bacillus, numerous round bodies usually said to be nuclei of
leucocytes; and a few polynuclear leucocytes. Repeated
inoculations in the comb, wattles, skin and conjunctiva and
oral mucosa of healthy chickens of various ages, with this

R

242 DiPases of Poultry

blood, fresh from under a nodule or a diphtheritic exudate,
has failed to produce positive infective results. I have also
tested it on pigeons with like negative results.

“The exudates on the mucous membrane of the throat,
mouth or larynx appear to be very much alike in all forms of
the disease.”

The period of incubation is said to vary all the way from
2 to 20 days. Cary reports a case in which a newly pur-
chased Barred Plymouth Rock cockerel was placed in the
pen with chickens just recovering from the disease. In 24
hours this bird had developed a well marked case of sore-
head on the wattles, comb, and eyelids. Apparently the
period of incubation varies with the mode of transmission,
virulency of the virus, the weather (rapid in damp, warm
weather and slower in cool and dry weather), and the age and
condition of the chicken or pigeon. Chicks from broiling
size up to 7 or 8 months old seem to be most susceptible.
Chickens with large combs seem to be more susceptible than
birds with small combs and wattles.

Treatment. — The introduction of diseased birds into
healthy flocks should be avoided. The same precautions
should be practiced in the isolation of sick birds and dis-
infecting the houses as is advised for roup (p. 161). When
the disease is localized a small amount of individual treat-
ment cures many cases. The crust or nodules should be
removed and the places treated with creolin (2 per cent
solution) or corrosive sublimate (zo'00) (p. 54) and dusted
with iodoform. The iodoform may be put into the eye.
When the disease is not far advanced one such treatment
may be followed by daily greasing with the ointment rec-
ommended on p. 55 or with vaseline or lard. In bad cases
the iodoform should be used daily for a few days and then the
ointment.

Recently some work has been done on the production of

Diseases of the Skin 243

artificial immunity to this disease. Manteufel! used a virus
obtained by scraping off the softened epitheliomze and
macerating these in physiological salt solution. Chickens
injected intravenously or subcutaneously with this virus
showed an immunity which lasted from one and a half to two
years. He also tried a hyperimmune serum but without
~ success. Hadley and Beach? report good success with a
vaccine prepared in the same way. Their vaccine was pre-
pared by grinding pock scabs, diphtheritic membranes, etc.,
in a sterile mortar with physiological salt solution. This
was then filtered through cotton and heated for one hour at
55°C. Inan infected flock 440 healthy birds were vaccinated
with two doses of 1 cc., each at an interval of five days.
Only four birds, or less than 1 per cent, in this lot developed
noticeablesymptoms. Of 75 control birds, 26 cases developed
in three weeks.

Hadley and Beach recommend this vaccine treatment as
“especially applicable in large commercial and experimental
flocks, where the greatest losses are sustained and where
preventative measures can be most economically carried
out. Breeders of pure bred and fancy fowls whose stock
would be impossible to replace should also find it valuable.”

Prognosis. — The mortality among birds affected with this
disease is said to be from 50 to 70 per cent. Cary (loc. cit)
says: “I judge this a low per cent of losses if birds are left
to themselves without proper care or treatment. But if
individual treatment is patiently and regularly applied the
mortality can be cut down to less than 20 per cent. If only
the skin of the head, and the comb and wattles are involved,

1 Manteufel, Arb. Kaiserl. Gesundheitsamt. Bd. 33, pp. 305-312,
1910.

2 Hadley, F. B., and Beach, B. A., ‘‘Controlling Chickenpox,
Sorehead or Contagious Epithelioma by Vaccination.” Proe.
Amer. Vet. Med. Assoe., Vol. 50, pp. 704-712, 1913.

244 Discs of Poultry

one should lose less than 10 per cent. . . . But if the nasal
passages and trachea are involved, or the intestines become
involved, — good care and treatment may save 50 to 80 per
cent.”

Edema of the Wattles

Seddon! has recently described a disease of the wattles
of fowls showing two very marked symptoms, namely
(1) enlargement due to the presence of the inflammatory
fluid and later (2) distortion with the formation of hard
nodules of cheesy material in the wattle. He believes the
disease is a localized form of fowl cholera, in which the causa-
tive organism gains entrance to the wattles through scratches,
etc. Septiceemia and death occur in a certain percentage of
the cases. The disease usually runs a chronic course with
subsequent replacing of the edematous fluid by fibrous
tissue and results in the wattle assuming a crinkled appear-
ance.

Treatment. — “Cropping” of the wattles is recommended
in some cases. The adoption of general sanitary measures
is of most service in suppressing the disease. (See Chapter
10)

1Seddon, H. R., ‘‘A Disease of the Wattles of Fowls.” Jour.
Dept. Agr. Victoria, Vol. 12, pp. 426-428, 1914.

, ‘Edema of the Wattles of Fowls Due to an Organism of the
Pasteurella Group.” Vet. Jour., Vol. 70, pp. 24-34, 1914.

CHAPTER XVil
DISEASES OF THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS

THE direct economic importance of poultry lies in the
production of two things, viz., meat and eggs. For the
production of the latter the poultryman is dependent upon
the activity of the reproductive system of the hen. Under
natural conditions in the wild state, the progenitors of the
domestic fowl laid relatively few eggs. Judging by other
species of wild birds of the present day, however, it is highly
probable that the wild progenitors of poultry possessed the
potential ability to lay much more than the usual number
of eggs provided they were removed from the nest as fast as
laid. Under domestication this practice of removing the
eggs as fast as laid, together with the feeding of rich foods,
and still other factors, lays heavy demands upon the repro-
ductive system. It is not remarkable that an organ system
which under conditions of nature produced from 12 to
perhaps 30 units per annum, frequently breaks down under
the strain of producing from 100 to 250 per annum of the
same kind of units. It could only be expected that, as is
actually the case, the egg producing organs would be partic-
ularly liable to disease.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

In order that the discussion of the diseases of the reproduc-
tive organs may be intelligible it is desirable to preface it
with a-brief account of the anatomy and physiology of the

245

246 Dieses of Poultry

organs of reproduction in the hen. Because of the fact
that the corresponding organs in the male are less subject
to disease, on the one hand, and are perhaps better under-
stood by the poultryman, because of the prevalence of the
practice of caponizing, on the other hand, it will not be
necessary to discuss the male in detail in this connection.

The organs concerned in egg production in the hen are
shown graphically in Fig. 55. This picture and the accom-
panying explanation of it will make clear the various parts
of this organ system. All of the points shown in the figure
may easily be demonstrated on a hen, killed during a period
of laying activity. It should be noted that this picture is
somewhat diagrammatic and not in accord with normal
conditions in respect to at least two points. These are: (1)
there are two eggs in the upper portion of the oviduct.
Normally there would be but one there at a time. (2) The
proportionate lengths of albumen portion, isthmus and
uterus are not correctly indicated.

In this figure the various numerals have the following sig-
nificance :

1. The ovary; region in which the ovules (later to be-
come yolks) are still small in size.

2. An ovule in an intermediate stage of development,
larger than those at 1, but still not ready to pass into the ovi-
duct to be laid. It is contained in a very vascular capsule,
known technically as the follicle.

3, 3. Ovules still larger and containing more yolk. The
lower one is nearly ready to leave the ovary and pass down
the oviduct.

4. It will be noted that on all the larger follicles there is
one region (forming a line) in which there are no blood vessels.
This region (4, 4) is known as the stigma. Here the follicle
wall breaks and allows the ovule (yolk) to leave the ovary
preparatory to laying.

————— KL oS Cl, lee ee el

a

Fie. 55. — The reproductive or egg producing organs of a hen. See text
for explanation of figures. (After Duval.)

248 aoe of Poultry

5. An empty follicle in which the stigma has opened and
the yolk passed out.

6. Anterior end of the margin of the funnel (or infundibu-
lum) of the oviduct or egg-tube. When an ovule is about to
be discharged from the ovary these funnel lips or margins
wrap around that portion of the ovary, so that the ovule
may certainly pass into the oviduct and not into the ab-
dominal cavity.

7. Opening of the funnel. Through this opening the
yolk passes into the oviduct.

8. A yolk which has just passed through the funnel
opening into the upper portion of the oviduct.

9, 9. Albumen secreting portion of the oviduct in which
the greater portion of the albumen or white of the egg is
secreted by glands in the walls of the oviduct in this region.

10. First layer of albumen, or white, secreted about the
yolk. From this layer are formed the chalaze, or cords of
twisted, thickened albumen, at each pole of the yolk.

11. Yolk, around which albumen is being secreted.

12. The germinal disk. This is the living portion of the
egg, from which the future chick develops, the main mass of
yolk serving as food material for the developing embryo
during the process.

13. Anterior end of the isthmus of the oviduct. The
primary function of the isthmus is to secrete about the egg
the shell membrane, the dense white membrane closely ad-
herent to the inside of the shell of an egg.

14. The uterus, or shell gland, in which the shell is put on
the egg.

15. The rectum.

16. The walls of the abdomen cut and folded back.

17. External opening of the cloaca, or common space into
which open (a) the rectum, (b) the oviduct and (e) the
ureters, or kidney ducts.

Diseases of the Reproductive Organs 249

The processes concerned in the formation of an egg may
be summarized as follows:

Certain ones of the small odcytes in the ovary (Fig. 55,
1) are all the time coming into a state of physiological ac-
tivity, while the hen is in a laying cycle. These oécytes
grow in size by the deposition of yolk until finally they are
of the full size for laying. ‘The time required for this final
growth of yolks preparatory to laying is not far from 20
days, on the average.! .

The fully formed yolk, or ovwm, leaves the follicle through
a rupture of the latter along the stigma (Fig. 55). This
process is called ovulation. As it leaves the ovary the ovum
is received by the funnel of the oviduct.

After entering the infundibulum the yolk remains in the
so-called albumen portion of the oviduct about three hours
and in this time acquires only about 40 to 50 per cent by
weight of its total albumen and not all of it as has hitherto
been supposed. During its sojourn in the albumen portion
of the duct the egg acquires its chalazee and chalaziferous
layer, the dense albumen layer, and (if such a layer exists
as a distinct entity, about which there is some doubt) the
inner fluid layer of albumen.

Upon entering the isthmus, in passing through which
portion of the duct something under an hour’s time is
occupied instead of three hours as has been usually main-
tained, the egg receives its shell membranes by a process
of discrete deposition. At the same time, and during the
sojourn of the egg in the uterus, it receives its outer layer
of fluid or thin albumen which is by weight 50 to 60 per
cent of the total albumen. This thin albumen is taken in
by osmosis through the shell membranes already formed.

1 Cf. Gerhartz, W.., “‘ Uber die zum Aufbau der Eizelle notwendige
Energie (Transformationsenergie).’’ Pfliiger’s Arch., Bd. 156, pp.
1-224, 1914.

250 Diseases of Poultry

When it enters the egg in this way it is much more fluid
than the thin albumen of the laid egg. The fluid albumen
added in this way dissolves some of the denser albumen al-
ready present, and so brings about the dilution of the latter
in some degree. At the same time, by this process of diffu-
sion, the fluid layer is rendered more dense, coming finally
to the consistency of the thin layer of the laid egg. The
thin albumen /ayer, however, does not owe its existence in
any sense to this dilution factor, but to a definite secretion
of a thin albumen by the glands of the isthmus and uterus.

The addition of albumen to the egg is completed only after
it has been in the uterus from five to seven hours. Before
the acquisition of albumen by the egg is completed a fairly
considerable amount of shell substance has been deposited
on the shell membranes. For the completion of the shell
and the laying of the egg from twelve to sixteen, or excep-
tionally even more, hours are required.'

The main factor in propulsion of the ovum along the oviduct
appears to be the peristaltic movements of the latter; it
is probable that the cilia which line the cavity have some-
thing to do with the rotation of the ovum on its chalazal
axis.

With this account of the anatomy and physiology of the
female organs of reproduction in hand we may proceed to
a consideration of their diseases. These diseases fall at
once into two classes: (a) those affecting the ovary, and (b)
those affecting the oviduct.

1 The foregoing account is based upon that given by Pearl and Cur-
tis, Jour. Exper. Zool., Vol. 12, pp. 123 and 124, 1912.

—

Diseases of the Reproductive Organs 25k

DISEASES OF THE OVARY
\
Atrophy of the Ovary

By “atrophy” of the ovary is meant a diminution in size
of that organ accompanied with a cessation of its physiolog-
ical activity. It may shrink to the size and appearance
which it has in a very young bird. The following sorts of
atrophy of the ovary may be distinguished. The different

‘sorts are separated from each other, not because of any

difference in the end result, but because of the different
etiological factors concerned.
1. Physiological atrophy.
a. ‘Temporary.
b. Permanent.
2. Congenital atrophy (Pseudo-hermaphroditism).
3. ~ Black atrophy.”
A physiological diminution in size or partial atrophy of

the ovary occurs normally in fowls when after a period of

laying they go into a more or less prolonged resting period.
This condition of the ovary is usually (in fowls under two
years old) only temporary. The organ resumes its normal
size and activity after a time. In old birds (3 to 6 or more
years of age) it not infrequently happens that the ovary passes
into an atrophied condition, and remains permanently in that
condition thereafter. In such cases the bird as a whole, and
the ovary in particular, may be perfectly healthy, showing no
sign of disease. Cases of permanent physiological atrophy
of the ovary have been observed by the writers as follows:

One case in a White Crested Black Polish.

One case in a Cornish Indian Game.

Several cases in Barred Plymouth Rocks. All of the
latter were birds of very high fecundity (200 or more eggs
per annum) in their pullet years.

252 DM ises of Poultry

It should be noted that in what is here called permanent
physiology atrophy of the ovary there is no associated change
of the secondary sexual characters. That is, the hen does
not assume cock plumage, spurs, enlarged comb and wattles,
nor any other of the secondary sexual characters normal to

a

Fic. 56. — Showing a case of incomplete hermaphroditism. In front of
the line ab the bird has the characters of the male, behind it the char-
acters of the female. The ovary was not functional in this bird. (Origi-
nal.)

the male. This indicates that in permanent physiological

atrophy (just as is known to be the case in temporary) the

only function of the ovary which is disturbed is that which is
involved in egg formation. The activity of the organ in
regard to producing an internal secretion which in some way
controls the secondary sexual characters remains unchanged.

As congenital atrophy of the ovary are to be classed cases of

_.”

Diseases of the Reproductive Organs 253

psuedo-hermaphroditism in fowls. In such cases a true,
functioning ovary never develops. There may be a body
which in gross features resembles an ovary, but it is inactive
and does not take even the first steps in odgenesis (egg
formation).

There may or may not be a testis like body present in
these cases. Not only is the egg producing activity absent
in such cases, but also in many of them at least, the internal
secretion normally produced by the ovary is lacking also.
The bird then takes on some or all of the secondary sexual
characters of the male. The appearance of such a bird is
shown in Fig. 56.

As “black atrophy”’ of the ovary is here designated the
peculiar diseases of the ovary first observed more than a
century ago in England as occurring in pheasants. The
striking feature of the disease is that under its influence the
bird assumes the plumage appropriate to the male. The
change in the ovary and oviduct induced by the disease
appears to be an atrophy accompanied by a blackening which
is probably a true melanosis. The following account of an
outbreak of this disease about fifty years ago by Hamilton !
is of interest. “In the years 1858, 1859, and 1860 this
peculiar alteration of structure in the female organs of
generation in the Pheasants was particularly prevalent in
some parts of England. I had the opportunity of examin-
ing many specimens, and was able completely to confirm
Mr. Yarrell’s views on this subject. Indeed, the majority
of the birds were young females, many of them being birds
of the year, some being in their first molt. I found also
that the plumage varied and approached that of the male,
not in accordance with the age of the bird, but with the

1 Hamilton, E., ‘““On the Assumption of the Male Plumage by the
Female of the Common Pheasant.’’ Proe. Zool. Soe., London, 1862,
pp. 23-25.

254 DM ses of Poultry

amount of disease of the generative organs. The greater
the destruction of the ovarium and oviduct, the nearer the
plumage assimilated that of the male.

“For example, in birds with the hen-plumage _ pre-
dominating, the ovarium and oviduct exist as in the
fecundating hen, the small ova lying in considerable numbers
in the ovarium, the ovarium and oviduct showing dark lead-
colored masses of disease.

“Tn birds with the plumage of the male in a measure ex-
ceeding that of the female, the ovarium is considerably
diminished in size, dark-colored, and containing only a
few blackened ova; the oviduct is spotted with dark patches,
and considerably contracted.

“And thirdly, in birds with the male plumage predominat-
ing over that of the female, the ovarium is reduced to a
small dark amorphous mass, resembling the coagulated blood,
the presence of ova cannot be detected, and the oviduct is
almost entirely obliterated at its junction with the ovarium.
Thus it seems that there are three distinct phases in this pe-
culiar abnormal state of the generative functions.

“T have also noticed that, in most cases where the male
plumage is in excess of the female, the tail-feathers are
particularly long, some being as much as 19 inches in length.

“Although Mr. Yarrell states that this condition of the
female generative organs is not confined to the Phasianide,
and that it has occurred in the gold and silver pheasants,
partridges, pea-fowls, common-fowl, common pigeon, king-
fisher, the common duck, and that other classes of animals
are liable to an influence similar in kind, particularly among
insects and Crustacea, yet this disorganization is rarely
observed except among the Phasianide, and particularly
when these birds are produced in a domestic state, 7.e.,
on the present system of breeding pheasants in preserves.
Very few battues take place in which some of these birds

Diseases of the Reproductive Organs 255

(generally designated males) are not killed and mixed in-
discriminately with the heaps of the slain.

“ Ns to the cause of this disorganization, if it occurred only
in the old female, or if it were a common occurrence among
birds either of different genera or of the same genus, it could
be easily accounted for; but when it is generally found exist-
ing among a class of birds which are bred in vast numbers in
a particularly artificial manner, it leads one to suppose that
the cause must be connected with this condition.”

In regard to all sorts of atrophy of the ovary it should be
said that there is no known way to treat them. Such cases
when they appear must be accepted by the poultryman as
one of the vicissitudes of the business.

Gangrene of the Ovary

Salmon and other writers on poultry diseases following
him have designated as gangrene a condition of the ovary
relatively often found at post-mortem. Salmon’s discussion
of the matter is as follows: “This disease is quite common
with all varieties of poultry. On examination of the ovary
after death, the ova are found in different stages of develop-
ment, but instead of being yellowish-pink in color, with the
blood vessels well defined, they are brown or black, easily
crushed and the contents broken down into a putrid liquid.
Death is caused partly by peritonitis and partly by the ab-
sorption of the products of decomposition.

“The cause of this trouble is not well understood. It
has been attributed to the birds being too fat, thus compress-
ing the ovary and hindering the evolution of the ova. As
it may occur in birds which are not fat and as it is evidently
accompanied by the penetration and multiplication of
bacteria, it is possibly an infectious disease.”

We have not been able to find anywhere in the literature
that there has been a thorough investigation of this disease.

256 DR oases of Poultry

Ovarian Tumors

Tumors and cancerous growths on the ovary are not un-
common. ‘These include several sorts of interest to the
pathologist, but not to the practical poultryman. From
the literature it appears that at least the following (and
probably other) kinds of new growths are found to occur
on the ovary with greater or less frequency.

1. Benign tumors, of several types, including yolk tumors.

2. Carsinoma.

3. Dermoid cysts.

For a further discussion of the general question of malig-
nant new growths see Chapter XX.

It is quite clear that none of these conditions can be
successfully treated by the poultryman. In the first place
any cancerous condition of the ovary or oviduct will practi-
cally never be diagnosed until after the bird’s death. In
the second place if it were diagnosed surgery would offer the
only possible means of relief, and operations on the ovary
are much too formidable for any one but the expert to
undertake.

Abortion of Eggs

Regarding this matter Wright ' has the following to say :
“This is not to be confounded with the laying of soft eggs.
These last are laid when mature, and usually by fat birds;
but when violently driven or startled, or subject to violence
of any kind, or even if suddenly and greatly terrified, im-
mature yolks are sometimes detached from the ovary and
expelled. This is most likely to happen with pullets not yet
laying but about to lay, and being a real miscarriage or
abortion, may wreck the constitution of a valuable bird

1 Wright, L., ‘‘The New Book of Poultry.’”’ London, 1902,
p. 574.

————
=
;
;

Diseases of the Reproductive Organs Zon

unless attended to. It is distinguished from the other by
not occurring as a rule in fat birds; by the immature and
small size of the yolk or yolks; generally also by hemor-
rhage; and always by signs of illness of chicks afterwards.
Any such bird should be placed for a few days in a quiet and
comfortable but rather dark pen, with a nest in case of need,
and fed on a little bread and milk. Quiet rest is the main
thing, but 20 grains bromide of potassium may be dissolved
in half a pint of drinking water. With such care the event
may be entirely recovered from.”

Yolk Hypertrophy

There are a number of cases on record where the yolks
formed by the ovary have been very much larger than nor-
mal. These “giant yolks” are due to a diseased condition
of the organ, possibly contingent upon too much forcing for
egg production. Such cases have been described by Gurlt,'
and more recently by von Durski.’

When yolks become very large in this way they may
break loose from the ovary without any rupture of the follicle
wall along the stigma but a breaking or tearing loose of the
stalk or pedicle of the follicle.

Failure of Follicle Wall to Rupture

Closely connected with the last diseased condition is one
discussed by von Durski in which the follicle wall fails to
rupture and release the yolk. In consequence of this, in the
ease described by von Durski, the follicle wall became
stretched and pulled out into a long and very much twisted

1Gurlt, Mag. f. d. ges. Tierheilk. 1849.
2von Durski, ‘“‘Die pathologische Veriinderungen des Hies und
Hileiters bei den Vogeln.” Berlin, 1907.

tS)

258 DMases of Poultry

stalk. This stalk held the hard and decayed yolk fast to
the ovary. In cases of this kind the stalk sometimes breaks,
and the yolk inclosed in the follicle and with the end of the
stalk attached, passes down the oviduct acquiring albumen,
membranes and shell. Instill otherinstances the stalk breaks
and the follicle and contained yolk drops into the abdominal
cavity.
DISEASES OF THE OVIDUCT

Diseases of the oviduct are relatively common and cause
a steady and probably in the aggregate rather large loss to
the poultryman. Fortunately some of the diseases of the
oviduct are more amenable to treatment than are those of the
ovary. Further these diseases in many cases show plain ex-
ternal symptoms at a relatively early stage. Then they may
be recognized and treated while it is still possible to effect
a cure. This is usually not the case with ovarian diseases.

The general external symptoms of the commoner diseases
of the oviduct are very much like those of constipation. The
poultryman watching his birds is indeed rather likely to con-
fuse the two. But if sono harm isdone. The thorough clean-
ing out of the alimentary tract, and stimulation of the liver
indicated in the treatment of constipation is the very best
thing to be done in cases of inflammation and similar disorders
of the oviduct.

Anatomy of the Oviduct

In order to understand more clearly the pathological
conditions of the oviduct it is well to consider briefly at this
point some facts regarding the normal anatomy and histology
of this organ. Here we shall follow the accounts given by
two of the authors in earlier papers.!

The oviduct of a laying hen is a large, much coiled tube

1 Curtis, M. R., ‘‘The Ligaments of the Oviduct of the Domestic

Diseases of the Reproductive Organs 259

filling a large part of the left half of the abdominal cavity.
It is suspended from the dorsal body wall and lies dorsal
to the abdominal air sac. Its anterior end is expanded
into a large funnel which is spread out beneath the ovary
in such a way that the mouth of the tube faces the ovary.

The oviduct is divided into five main parts, readily dis-
tinguishable by gross observation. Beginning at the
anterior end, there are, in order: (a) the infundibulum or
funnel (Fig. 57, 4); (b) the albumen secreting portion (Fig.
57, B); (c) the isthmus (Fig. 57, C); (d) the uterus or
“shell gland” so called (D); and (e) the vagina (FZ). The
functions of these different parts have already been indicated
(cf. pp. 248). ;

The chief features in the finer structure of the oviduct
may be described as follows :

Two muscular layers, an outer longitudinal and an inner
circular layer can be distinguished in all parts of the oviduct.
The inner surface of the oviduct is thrown into a number of»
primary longitudinal ridges. The epithelium over these
ridges forms secondary folds. In the uterus the ridges as
such are lost, and instead there are a number of leaf-like
folds of the inner surface.

Three types of glands are described: (1) Unicellular
epithelial glands occurring between the ciliated cells in all
parts of the oviduct except the anterior portion of the funnel.
(2) Glandular grooves. These are accumulations of gland
cells at the bottom of the grooves between the secondary
folds of the epithelium. These are found only in the funnel
region.. But there they occur well towards the anterior end.
(3) In all parts of the oviduct between the funnel and the
vagina there is a thick layer of glands beneath the epithe-

Fowl.” Me. Agr. Expt. Stat. Bul. 167, pp. 1-20, 4 plates, 1910.
Surface, F. M., ‘‘The Histology of the Oviduct of the Domestic
Hen.”’ Me. Agr. Expt. Stat. Ann. Rept., 1912, pp. 395-430, 5 plates.

260 eases of Poultry

Fig. 57. — Oviduct removed from a laying bird and cut open along the point
of attachment of the ventral ligament. It is opened back, showing the
characteristic glandular regions. A, funnel; B, albumen-secreting re-
gion: X, isthmus ring; C, isthmus; D, shell gland; and H#, vagina.
(Original.)

Diseases of the Reproductive Organs 261

lium. These are called tubular glands. They consist of
long convoluted and branched tubules which open to the
lumen of the oviduct by short epithelial ducts. These
tubular glands are homologous, structurally at least, with
the glandular grooves of the funnel. The tubular glands
reach their greatest development in the albumen secreting
region. Histologically the unicellular epithelial glands
present a similar appearance in all parts of the oviduct ex-
cept the vagina. In this latter region the cells are longer
and much narrower and have a slightly different arrangement
than in other parts of the oviduct.

The walls of the tubular glands consist of large gland cells
which in the albumen portion and the isthmus of a laying
hen have small, irregularly shaped, dark staining nuclei
which lie well towards the basal ends of the cells. In these
two regions the protoplasm of the cells contains rather
coarse granules which vary greatly in size.

The line of demarcation between the albumen region and
the isthmus is characterized by the absence of these tubular
glands in that region. The cells of the tubular glands in
the albumen region and in the isthmus present the same
histological appearance.

In the uterus the cells which form the tubular glands have
a somewhat different appearance. The nuclei of these cells
are large with regular outlines and are situated near the
center of the cells. The protoplasm is very finely granular
and is quite different from the coarsely granular condition
found in other parts of the oviduct.

The tubular glands or any homologous structures are
entirely absent from the vagina. Only the unicellular
epithelial glands occur there.

262 Mescases of Poultry

Inflammation of Oviduct

This is one of the most important and common diseases of
the oviduct. It may occur alone or in association with other
morbid conditions of this organ.

Diagnosis. — Combining the accounts of various observers,
it may be said that a bird affected with inflammation of
the oviduct at first shows indications of a desire to lay with-
out being able to produce eggs, or it may lay eggs containing
more or less blood or eggs without shells or small and mis-
shaped eggs containing albumen but no yolk, or finally the
yolk may be dropped without any covering of albumen or
shell. There is a continual and violent straining (some-
times resulting in apoplexy). The wings are dropped and
the feathers puffed out. As the inflammation increases
there is high temperature, straining and an effort to rub
the abdomen upon the ground. In later stages the bird
becomes dull, indisposed to move and the comb is pale.

Etiology. — There are probably to be distinguished three
classes of causes which lead to inflammation of the oviduct.
These are :

1. Physiological; from irritation due to too frequent
laying or from too stimulating foods or condiments.

2. Traumatic; from irritation due to too large eggs, or to
the breaking of eggs within the oviduct, or to similar causes.

3. Specific infection; it is probably that alone or in com-
bination with the causes classed under 1 and 2 a specific
infection of the lining membranes of the oviduct may occur.

In an inflamed oviduct there very often is a copious sero-
fibrinous exudate. This hardens about any foreign body
(egg, broken egg, ete.) which may be in the oviduct, and by
accretion causes this foreign body to increase in size. This, of
course, makes it still more irritating, which in turn provokes
further inflammation of the walls of the duct. One some-

Diseases of the Reproductive Organs 263

times finds relatively enormous masses of material in a
diseased oviduct, which have been built up in this way.
There is an extensive literature on these “egg concrements”
or “yolk tumors” built up either in the oviduct or in the
abdominal cavity by hardened fibrous exudate, about an
original basis of a broken, or miscarried, or aborted yolk or
yolks. It is not necessary to review this literature here as
it is only of interest to the specialist.

Treatment. — If this disease is to be dealt with at all the
treatment must be individual, since it is something which
will never affect considerable numbers of the flock at the
same time. If individual treatment is to be successful it
must be begun at a relatively early stage of the disease.
Therefore, it is important that a bird showing the symptoms
which have been described above should be isolated at once
and as a first step in the treatment given a purgative dose of
Epsom salts (see p. 53). All stimulating foods such as meat,
green cut bone, linseed meal and similar substances, as
well as condiments like condition powders, pepper, etc.,
should be immediately taken away from the bird. A light
ration and plenty of green food should be given. Salmon
recommends following the purgative with $ drop of tincture
of aconite root 3 times a day. Equally effective, and much
easier to administer, will be found 1-10 gr. aconite root
tablets (see p. 55).

Prolapse of the Oviduct (Eversion)

It not infrequently happens, from one cause or another,
that the lower portion of the oviduct becomes everted and
projects from the vent as a mass of red or purplish tissue.
This condition is known as prolapsus of the oviduct.

Diagnosis. — The diagnosis of this diseased condition is
simple and consists merely in the observation of the pro-

264 DMB ases of Poultry

lapsed oviduct. If there is a mass of red or bloody tissue
projecting from the vent, one is safe in diagnosing prolapsus.
The only point which needs particular attention in the di-
agnosis is as to the degree to which prolapsus has occurred
when the bird is discovered. The importance of this lies
in the fact that on it depends the treatment which it is
advisable to give. Where the prolapse is only partial and
is discovered early it is advisable to treat it by the methods
outlined below. If, on the other hand, the prolapse is
extensive and has existed for some time before the bird is
seen so that the mass of tissue has turned a blue or purplish
color or has been pretty extensively picked and torn by the
other birds in the pen, then it is useless to carry on any treat-
ment and the proper thing to do is to kill the bird at once.

Etiology. — Prolapse of the oviduct may be caused by a
number of different things. It is observed not only in
old hens, but, in our experience, quite as frequently in
pullets. The fundamental cause of the condition is, of
course, a weakness of the oviduct walls and ligaments,
chiefly in respect to their muscular portions, which makes
the oviduct unable to stand the strains put upon it in egg
production. The immediate cause may be either:

1. Straining to lay a very large (double yolked) egg.
This is perhaps the most common cause.

2. Straining to lay when there is an obstruction in the
oviduct (egg bound).

3. Constipation. The rectum full of hardened feces
stimulates all organs in that region of the body to expulsive
reflexes.

4. Ziirn says that oftentimes feces may become lodged
in the cloaca in a sort of blind pocket, and then set up the
same expulsive reflexes as an egg in the cloacal or vaginal
regions normally does. In the effort.to expel this foreign
body the oviduct may become everted.

Diseases of the Reproductive Organs 265

The most serious thing about prolapsus is that if not dis-
covered very shortly after it occurs it is almost sure to result
fatally, because the everted portion will become so badly
infected as to cause blood poisoning, or the protruding mass
of tissue will be picked and torn by the other birds in the pen
until there is no hope of repair, whatever the treatment.

Treatment. — As stated above, the advisability of treating
prolapsus depends upon its degree and duration before dis-
covery.

In treating this condition the first thing to endeavor to
do is to remove the cause. That is, if the bird is constipated
give it a rectal enema of warm soapy water, followed by 3
teaspoon of Epsom salts by the mouth. If there is a lump
of feces lodged in the cloaca this should be carefully removed.
The protruding mass of tissue should be washed with warm
1 to 1000 bichloride of mercury solution, or a warm 4 per
cent cresol solution. After the protruding parts are
thoroughly cleansed they should be well greased with vase-
line, or with the ointment already recommended (p. 55).
Then with the fingers well greased an effort should be made
to replace the protruding mass in the body. In doing this
one should proceed with the greatest gentleness. In most
cases with care and patience it is possible to reduce the
prolapsus, that is, to get the extruded tissue back into the
body in approximately its normal position.

After the parts have been carefully replaced in normal
position the next point to be considered in the treatment
is to insure that they shall stay there. That is to say, it
is necessary some way to bring about a healthy degree of
contraction of the muscular walls of the oviduct so as to
hold the parts in place permanently. In order to do this
Salmon recommends the use of ergot. Robinson follows
Salmon in this recommendation. It should be said, however,
that it is doubtful whether this treatment is advisable.

266 DBP ases of Poultry

Ergot is a rather violent poison for poultry. It seems likely
that the treatment recommended by Salmon and Robinson
is based on a theory that the action which ergot has on the
mammalian uterus will be duplicated on the fowl’s oviduct
rather than upon actual experience in administering the
drug to poultry. The measure recommended by Ziirn to
bring about a healthy contraction of the replaced oviduct
in cases of prolapsus would seem to be simpler and on the
whole more likely to yield desirable results than the ergot
treatment. Ziirn recommends that a lump of ice be placed
in the cloaca after the prolapsed oviduct is returned to its
place and that this treatment be followed up for some hours.

The bird should be kept in a small coop, partly darkened,
where there will be every inducement for it to remain per-
fectly quiet. The success of the treatment depends very
much on keeping the bird quiet for a few days. It should
be fed only a light and unstimulating ration with plenty of
green food.

Prognosis. — If discovered early enough prolapsus is
curable.

Obstruction of the Oviduct (“ Egg Bound’’)

Perhaps the commonest of all diseased conditions of the
oviduct is that which leads the poultryman to say that a
bird is “egg bound.” By this is meant that there is some-
thing in the oviduct which the bird is not able to pass. to
the outside and which in turn prevents the normal passage
of eggs. In many cases this is not properly speaking a
disease at all but rather an accident. Other cases, however,
depend upon a true diseased condition of the oviduct.

Diagnosis. — The symptoms of this trouble, as they are
usually described, consist chiefly in the obvious fact that the
hen is trying to lay but cannot extrude the egg. If this

Diseases of the Reproductive Organs 267

struggle is kept up long enough the bird will become ex-
hausted, and show it by keeping quiet, with roughened
plumage and the general aspect of being ill. Sometimes the
egg can be felt from the vent.

All these general symptoms of egg bound condition may
be observed in mild form in a great many cases with birds
which subsequently lay the egg without trouble. In many
instances the extrusion of an egg which is finally successfully
laid is attended with a good deal of difficulty. There are
all degrees of gradation between this somewhat difficult
but still normal laying and the condition of complete obstruc-
tion of the oviduct where the egg cannot be passed at all.
The practical consideration to which this leads is that one
should not be too hasty in applying treatment for the egg-
bound condition. A diagnosis of the trouble, in other words,
should not be finally settled upon until there remains no
doubt that the hen is not going to pass the egg without help
from the outside. ‘

It must also be remembered that in many cases of obstruc-
tion of the oviduct, the obstruction is so far up that it cannot
be felt from the outside. In such cases the diagnosis must
be made upon the general behavior of the hen, and in partic-
ular in regard to going frequently on the nest without
laying.

Etiology. —In considering the causes of obstruction of
the oviduct it is necessary to distinguish between several
different sorts or categories. This may be done as follows:

1. Simple “egg bound” condition, in which a normal egg
is lodged in the uterus or vagina and cannot be expelled.
This inability to expel the egg may be due to any one or a
combination of the following causes acting together :

a. Egg of too large size, so that it is mechanically difficult
or impossible to force it through the natural passage. Robin-
son regards this as the most common cause.

268 Di@Gses of Poultry

b. Exhaustion (true physiological fatigue) of the muscu-
lar walls of the oviduct. This condition results after long
continued and unsuccessful attempts to expel the egg. It
leads to

ce. Atony and paralysis of the duct, in which the muscular
walls are incapable of making any effective contraction at
all.

2. Complicated “egg bound” conditions in which the
fundamental source of the trouble is not simply mechanical,
and in which usually the portions of the oviduct anterior
to the uterus are involved. In this general category the
following sorts of cases are to be included.

a. Atony and paralysis of the upper portions of the ovi-
duct. This condition may exist for a long time without
being recognized.

b. Inflammation of the oviduct leading to the formation
of fibrous exudate which accumulates in the duct, until it
may form a mass of relatively enormous size (usually with
one or more yolks as a nucleus) completely obstructing the
duct, and eventually leading either to gangrene or rupture
of the walls, or both.

ce. Volvolus, or twisting of the oviduct about its own
long axis, completely obliterating the cavity.

d. Stenosis or stricture of the oviduct. This may result
from several causes. One frequent one is that in laying a
very large egg the oviduct wall becomes torn to greater or
less degree, and subsequently heals. The scar tissue con-
tracts the cavity and a stricture is thus caused.

Treatment. — Whether treatment is or is not likely to be
effective depends upon which of the two main categories
above defined any given case belongs to. Simple obstruc-
tion of the oviduct may be successfully treated. In cases
of complicated obstruction treatment is not indicated, for
a variety of reasons. ‘These conditions are in the first place

Diseases of the Reproductive Organs 269

difficult to diagnose, and offer little prospect of successful
cure even after a diagnosis has been made.

The best advice which has come to our attention for the
treatment of the simple egg bound condition was published
some years ago in the English journal Poultry and _ is
here quoted verbatim :

“Tt is a good plan to watch those birds that are about to
lay. Should they visit the nest frequently during the course
of the day and leave without depositing an egg, it is almost
certain that something is wrong and when a pullet is in
such a state there are three good remedies that may be tried.
The first is: Take the bird up gently, and hold her so that
her stern is over the mouth of a jug of boiling water, that
the steam arising therefrom may get to the parts and help
to relax and procure delivery of the egg. If this has not the
desired effect after an hour’s rest in a quiet coop, the vent
should be oiled gently with a feather, and the hen given a
powder composed of 1 grain of calomel and 1-12 grain of
tartar emetic. The powder may be mixed in a bolus of food,
and put into the bird’s crop. If it be acting properly, a
marked improvement should be noticeable in the bird a few
hours afterwards, while a second powder given two days
subsequently will probably complete the cure. It is advis-
able for a while to feed the fowl sparingly on a somewhat
low diet, withholding any fat forming food, and giving lime-
water to drink, after the system is rid of the powder. The
second remedy was advocated by Dr. H. B. Greene, .. .
and is best applied when the egg can be felt. It is: Let
an assistant, seated on a chair, hold the bird firmly on his
knees on its back, with the vent directed away from him.
Seating yourself opposite, with the finger and thumb of the
left hand outside the bird’s body, push the egg firmly but
carefully towards the vent, until it is plainly visible, and,
keeping it in that position, with a bradawl in the right hand

270 Dises of Poultry

puncture the egg shell, evacuate the contents of the egg
with an egg-spoon, and afterwards with a pair of tweezers
break down and take out the shell piece by piece until as-
sured by passing the finger into the vent, that the cloaca is
empty. Special care must be taken to avoid injuring the
bird with the point of the awl; and one’s assistant must
maintain a steady and firm hold onthe fowl. A third method
of relieving an egg bound hen was recommended by a
correspondent in our issue of June 10, 1898, and has since
been frequently tried by several poultry keepers, and found
very efficacious. ‘Whena hen is in that state I hold her over
some hot water, bathing the vent at the same time. After
this I use a small penknife (blunt) in the following manner :
Placing the edge of the blade along the first finger so that
the end is level with the finger end, I push the finger with
the knife into the vent until they touch the egg; then I
begin to scrape until I hear that I have scraped the rind or
skin away from the egg (I mean outside the egg). The hen
is then placed on the nest, and I will guarantee she will lay
in 20 minutes, or in most cases even less than that. I got
this advice from a man who has kept poultry on a small
scale for 50 years. I have tried it several times, and have
never known a hen to be egg bound a second time. This
method, it would appear, saves the egg. The great thing
throughout is to keep the bird quiet, and in future to avoid
extra fat forming food.’”

Prognosis. — Good in cases of simple obstruction if taken
in hand early; bad in all cases of complicated obstruction.

Rupture of the Oviduct

In some cases of complicated obstruction, and in cases of
severe inflammation the walls of the oviduct may break
and allow the contents to escape into the abdominal cavity.

Diseases of the Reproductive Organs 271

In such cases death usually ensues in a relatively short time
as a result of peritonitis. These cases are incurable; in-
deed the trouble is usually not known till after the bird dies.
The lower portion of the oviduct (vagina) or the cloaca may
be ruptured in passing a very large egg. If the wounds
made in this way are relatively small they will usually heal
without any trouble. If, on the other hand, such tears are
extensive they may very easily become infected, and unless
treated properly in accordance with the general directions
given in Chapter XXI for the treatment of wounds, the bird
will die of blood poisoning.

Lately in some experimental work we have shown that
extensive ruptures of the upper part of the oviduct (albumen
portion) will heal spontaneously and leave no trace of: the
injury. We have removed large pieces from the oviduct
wall in this way, only to find the bird laying in a perfectly
normal’ way in a month or so after the operation. At
autopsy only a small scar or else no trace whatever of the
wound could be found.

Gangrene of Oviduct

This may result from severe and complicated obstruction.
What is meant by “gangrene” is that walls of the oviduct
die, and putrefy. This causes general blood poisoning from
which the bird dies. Gangrene of the oviduct most frequently
follows severe cases of complicated obstruction where there
is a mass of fibrous exudate deposited in the oviduct. There
is not the slightest hope of successfully treating such cases.

Breaking of Egg in Oviduct

It sometimes happens that an egg in the upper portion
of the oviduct, before it has acquired any shell, is by acci-

272 Diseases of Poultry

dent broken. There is a belief common amongst poultry-
men that this is always immediately fatal. There is but
little discussion of the subject in the literature, but our
experience here indicates that two sorts of results may follow
the breaking of an egg in the oviduct. These are:

1. An inflammatory condition of the oviduct is induced
leading to copious secretion from the glands of the albumen
portion of the duct and the isthmus. ‘There is also a copious
fibrous exudate, and the final outcome is a severe case of
complicated obstruction of the oviduct. Death in these
cases may be delayed for a long time after the original
accident. In the absence of inflammation recovery may
possibly occur.

2. Death within a short time (2 to 3 hours) after the
breaking of the egg, without visible lesion of any organ of
the body. The oviduct is not even inflamed. Absolutely
the only things which are not normal in such cases are (a)
the broken egg in the oviduct, and (6) the fact that the bird
is dead. We have had several such cases come to autopsy.
They are very puzzling. In them is to be found the basis
for the poultryman’s belief as to the fatal character of this
accident. In reality it seems probable that in these cases
the thing which caused the egg to be broken was also the
cause of the death of the bird. That is, a blow, or any sort
of sudden shock violent enough to break an egg in the ovi-
duct might also very well be the cause of death. Such cases
need further study.

Abnormal Eggs

Owing to various diseased conditions of the oviduct many
different kinds of abnormal eggs are produced by fowls.
The explanation of the different types of such eggs is usually
tolerably clear if one gets definitely in his mind the normal
physiology of egg production as outlined above. We shall

Diseases of the Reproductive Organs 273

consider here only some of the more important general classes
of such abnormal eggs. Such eggs are very interesting from
the scientific standpoint but are of relatively little practical
significance to the poultry keeper because of the rarity of
their occurrence.

Soft-shelled Eggs. — These are eggs laid without a suffi-
cient amount of shell substance covering the shell membrane.
The immediate cause lies in a failure of the uterus to function
properly. Regarding this class of abnormal eggs Wright
has the following to say: “Soft eggs may be caused by lack
of shell-material, which, if discovered, points to the remedy,
the most rapid being pounded raw oyster-shell. Or they
may be caused by the fowls being driven or frightened, in
which case they soon cease, and nothing need be done un-
less the injury has been so severe as to prematurely detach
small and unripe yolks, when the case becomes a real abor-
tion, or they may be caused by condiments and too much
animal food, spices in particular leading frequently to all
sorts of trouble with the egg-organs, particularly in the
Mediterranean races of poultry. A few small doses of Ep-
som salts or jalap, and cessation of the extra stimulus,
will remedy this. But far the most usual cause is simple
over-feeding. A little careful investigation will find which
is in fault, and that will indicate the appropriate remedy.
Want of shell material is far less common than it used to be;
over-feeding or over-stimulation probably more so.”

Small, Yolkless Eggs. —'These little eggs, variously called
“wind-eggs,” “cock eggs,” “witch eggs,” “luck eggs,” etc.,
are familiar to every poultry keeper. They contain no
definitely formed yolk, and to the casual observer seem to
consist of nothing but a small shell filled with white. The
laying of one of these eggs is popularly supposed to mark
the end of a laying period. This belief is without founda-
tion in fact. They may be produced at any time. Un-

T

274 Dilses of Poultry

published data collected over a period of years at this Station
in regard to such eggs indicate that three factors are funda-
mentally concerned in their production. ‘These are:

1. The bird must be in an active laying condition; the
more pronounced the degree of physiological activity of
the oviduct, the more likely are these eggs to be produced.

2. There must be some foreign body, however minute, to
serve as the stimulus which shall start the albumen glands
secreting. This foreign body may be either a minute piece
of hardened albumen, a bit of coagulated blood, a small
piece of yolk which has escaped from a ruptured yolk, ete.

3. It seems likely, though this is a point not yet definitely
settled, that ovulation (7.e., the separation of a yolk from
the ovary) must precede the secretion of albumen around
the foreign body to form one of these eggs.

Double and Triple Yolked Eggs. — Eggs with two yolks
are, of course, quite common. They result from a disturb-
ance of the time relations of ovulation, of such nature that
two yolks get into the oviduct at nearly the same time and
become surrounded by common layers of albumen.

Eggs with three yolks are very rare. An egg of this kind
laid by a pullet at this Station is shown in Fig. 58.

Studies made by one of the authors ! have thrown consider-
able light on the general problem of the cause and nature of
multiple-yolked eggs. Summarized some of the chief re-
sults were as follows: As to frequency it appears that the
Maine Station flock, over a long period of time, produces
531 single-yolked eggs to every double-yolked egg. That is,

1 Curtis, M. R., ‘‘Studies on the Physiology of Reproduction in

the Domestie Fowl.’’ VI. Double- and Triple-Yolked Eggs. Biol.
Bul., Vol. XXVI, pp. 55-83, 1914.
‘*Studies on the Physiology of Reproduction in the Domes-
tie Fowl.” XI. Relation of Simultaneous Ovulation to the
Production of Double-Yolked Eggs. Jour. Agr. Research, Vol. III,
pp. 375-385, 1915.

Diseases of the Reproductive Organs 215

only two tenths of 1 per cent of the eggs are double-yolked.
The ratio of double to single yolked eggs is less than twice
as high as the ratio of twin to single births in the human
family.

All birds are not equally likely to lay double-yolked eggs.
In fact the great majority of birds never lay anything but
single-yolked eggs. There are, however, birds which possess
a tendency to lay double-yolked eggs. Such an individual
may produce several such eggs. It has been further found

Fic. 58. — Triple-yolked egg. (Original.)

that a bird which possesses the tendency to lay double-
yolked eggs is not equally likely to produce them at any age.
She is most likely to produce them when she is young.
Eighty per cent of all the double-yolked eggs produced by
the Station flock are produced by birds less than eight months
old. We have only a very few records of birds which have
laid double-yolked eggs after their first adult molt.

It has been usually supposed that double-yolked eggs
are caused by the simultaneous entrance of two yolks into
the egg tube and the consequent common passage of the two

276 Fy, Mer of Poultry

yolks through the duct. A careful study of the structure
of all the double-yolked eggs produced by the Station flock
shows that in only a very small per cent of the cases (about
16 per cent) have the two yolks passed the entire length of
the duct together. In such cases the two yolks are inclosed
in a common thin layer of white membrane, the chalazal
membrane, and have only one pair of chalaze. They also
have common albumen envelopes as well as common egg
membrane and shell.

Since the formation of each egg part (chalazal membrane
and chalaze, thick albumen egg membrane, and shell) is
confined to a particular part of the oviduct, a study of the
number of secondary parts which are common to the two
yolks of a double-yolked egg shows the level of the duct
where the two yolks came together. Such a study carried
out on all double-yolked eggs produced by the large flock of
birds owned by this Station shows that the two yolks unite
at every level of the duct from the mouth of the funnel to
the very end of the albumen secreting portion. It shows
further that the number of eggs of any given structure ob-
served is exactly equal to the number expected on the assump-
tion that the union of the two yolks occurs indiscriminately
at every level of the duct from the mouth of the funnel to
the beginning of the isthmus or egg membrane secreting
portion. When two eggs unite after the first egg has received
its membrane the result is two eggs at the same time.

The structure of the egg has shown us that in a majority
of cases the two yolks of a double-yolked egg have not passed
the entire length of the duct together. On a moment’s
reflection we see that there was never any a priori reason
for the assumption that the cause for the production of a
double-yolked egg was necessarily the simultaneous dis-
charge of two yolks from the ovary into the oviduct or
egg tube. The only condition necessary for two yolks to

Diseases of the Reproductive Organs 277

be inclosed in the same egg membrane is that they enter
the membrane secreting portion of the oviduct together.
There are at least three possibilities besides simultaneous
ovulation which may bring two yolks together before they
reach this portion of the oviduct. First, the first yolk may
be delayed at any level of the duct forward to the point
where the egg membrane begins to be secreted ;_ second, the
first yolk may be returned up the oviduct and then come
back in company with the second yolk; and third, a yolk
may be ovulated into the body cavity and picked up by the
oviduct shortly before or after the ovulation of another
yolk. It is, therefore, unnecessary to assume that the
production of a double-yolked egg represents simultaneous
or even an abnormally rapid succession of ovulations, since
any of these delays may have been as long as the normal
period between ovulations.

A study of the structure of the eggs and the egg records
of the birds leads to the conclusion that double-yolked eggs
do not necessarily represent two simultaneous or even nearly
simultaneous ovulations; but in about a third of the cases of
double-yolked eggs the time between the two ovulations must
have been unusually short since the birds which laid these
double-yolked eggs each laid a normal egg on the preceding
day. A study of the egg structure of these double-yolked
eggs, where the time between the ovulations is known to
have been abnormally short, shows that they have been
simultaneous in only a small per cent of the cases. In fact
the two yolks have come together at every level of the duct
in front of the beginning of the isthmus.

A study of the ovaries of birds which had recently pro-
duced double-yolked eggs showed that each of the two
yolks was discharged from a normal separate follicle exactly
as are the yolks of successive single-yolked eggs.

From these recent studies of double-yolked egg produc-

278 piases of Poultry

tion it is certain that some individual hens have an inherent
tendency to lay double-yolked eggs, while a great majority
of hens never lay anything but normal single-yolked eggs.
A bird with the tendency to double-yolked egg production
is more likely to produce double-yolked eggs when she is
quite young than later in her life.

The two yolks of a double-yolked egg may enter the
oviduct simultaneously and pass the entire length of the
duct together receiving an entire common set of egg
envelopes, or they may come together at any level of the
oviduct from the funnel mouth to the beginning of the
isthmus. It is highly probable that the two ovulations
may be either simultaneous or that they may be separated
by any period up to the normal time which elapses between
ovulations. ;

The production of a double-yolked egg is evidently seldom
‘caused by the simultaneous discharge of two normal separate
follicles into the oviduct. More often it is caused by the
successive discharge of separate follicles at times varying
from simultaneity to the normal period and by the subse-
quent union of the eggs in the duct due to a difference in
the rate of passage of the successive eggs.

Inclusion in Eggs. —'The number of different foreign sub-
stances which at one time or another have been found in-
closed in eggs is great. The list includes blood streaks or
spots, blood clots of firm consistency and often considerable
size, lumps of bacteria, worms, fecal matter, ete., ete.

From the practical standpoint the only inclusions which
need consideration are blood spots. Many inquiries are annu-
ally received at this Station as to what causes these spots and
what to do to get eggs which will be free from them. These
inquiries are most frequent in the spring months. The
only thing which can be done in such cases vs to candle the eggs
and sell only those which show no spots. Hens which are

bo
=I
eo)

Diseases of the Reproductive Organs

s
© te VU
im ; Fig it

fig. 9
9 Fig 10
Fig Iz. Fig 13. Fig. 1%
{
Nh
Y
ui
) Ij
Vi
"i
Fig 18. Fig 16 Fig 17
Fig 78. fig 19 Fig 20

Fig. 59. — Showing shapes of abnormal eggs sometimes found. (From von
Durski after Landois.)

280 se: of Poultry

perfectly normal often lay eggs with blood spots, especially
in the spring of the year when laying is heavy. The blood
which makes the spot probably comes in most cases from the
ovarian follicle. When this ruptures a little blood escapes
into the oviduct and is caught up inthe albumen. The so-
called “liver” or “meat”’ spots in eggs are in nearly every
case thoroughly hardened, well packed together, blood clots.
They may be of large size. These inclusions do not repre-
sent, as they are sometimes said to, portions of the oviduct
wall which have been torn off and inclosed in the egg.

Eggs of Abnormal Shape. —'There are many other kinds
of abnormal eggs besides those here discussed, but as they
have no practical significance it is not desirable to devote
further space to them. In closing this section we append
some figures showing in outline some of the curiously shaped
eggs which have been found.

Vent Gleet (Cloacitis)

This is a true venereal disease of poultry. It usually
begins with a hen, but is transmitted in copulation to the
male, and by him to other birds in the flock.

Diagnosis. — Salmon gives the following clear account of
the symptoms: “The first symptom observed is the fre-
quent passage of excrement which is voided in small quanti-
ties almost as rapidly as it reaches the cloaca. Often the
bird endeavors to drop excrement when cloaca is entirely
empty. This action is due to the tenderness and irritability
of the cloaca which gives to the bird the sensation of fullness,
and produces spasmodic contractions. If an examination
is made the mucous membrane is found in the early stages
to be red, dry, swollen and hot. In a day or two a discharge
makes its appearance. It is, at first, thin and watery, but
soon becomes white, purulent, and offensive. This dis-

Diseases of the Reproductive Organs 281

charge collects upon the skin and feathers about the vent,
obstructs the passage and irritates the parts with which
it comes in contact. The soiled skin becomes red and in-
flamed, it may be abraded by friction or by the bird picking
at it, and thus sores or ulcers are started which may. become
quite troublesome.”

Etiology. — The cause of the disease has not yet been
thoroughly worked out. Wright suspected it to be identical
with human gonorrhea because of the similarity of symptoms,
infectiousness, etc. However, he has not been able to isolate
the Gonococcus, or specific germ of gonorrhea from affected
birds.

Lewis and Clark! report an outbreak of vent gleet among
recently purchased Orpingtons at the poultry plant on the
New Jersey college farm, as a result of which the average egg
production for the year was but 25 per cent of the theoreti-
cal. The percentage of fertility of the eggs was low, about
60, although apparently good vigorous male birds were used.
The disease was found to be very hard to overcome, and it is
concluded that in dealing with it the best method lies in
the destruction of the affected fowls.

Treatment. —'The following is the treatment outlined by
Wright: “Any hen found with it should at once be isolated,
and the male bird carefully examined, and if necessary also
isolated. Give 30 grains Epsom salts, and twice a day in-
ject first a 4 per cent solution of cocaine, and immediately
afterwards a solution of nitrate of silver 4 grains to the
ounce. The fifth day commence a small copaiba capsule
daily, and inject acetate of lead, 1 dram to the pint. Feed
rather low meanwhile, and dust any sore places outside with
iodoform or aristol. If not well after 2 or 3 weeks, we would
lall the bird, as the disease is not quite free from danger ;

“1 Lewis, H. R., and Clark, A. L., ‘‘ Poultry Diseases.”” N. J. Agr.
Expt. Stat. Rept., 1913, pp. 276-279.

282 Diseases of Poultry

for if the operator should touch his eyes accidentally before
he has cleansed his hands, the result might be a most violent
inflammation.”

Diseases of the Male Reproductive Organs

A number of diseases of the male reproductive organs have
been described, but they are all of no practical significance,
for the reason that no poultryman ought ever to use as a
breeder a male bird that ever had any disease of these organs,
whether it had been “cured” or not.

CHAPTER “XVI
WHuiTE DIARRHEA

OF all the diseases which the poultryman is called upon to
fight, there is probably none so destructive, year after year,
as the disease (or diseases) known as “ white diarrhea.’ The
loss of chicks ascribed to this cause varies in different years
and in different places from 10 to 90 per cent. It is perhaps
not too much to say that more than 50 per cent of the chicks
hatched throughout the country are lost from white diarrhea
in its various forms. The number of inquiries concerning
this disease which are annually received, and the amount
_of space devoted to it by the poultry press, lead one to be-
lieve that “white diarrhea”’ is perhaps the worst enemy with
which the poultryman must contend.

White diarrhea is more common among artificially hatched
and brooded chicks than among those which have been
hatched and cared for by hens. However, it is by no means
unknown among the latter. Many poultrymen report as
heavy mortality from this disease among hen hatched and
reared chicks as from those which were incubated and
brooded by artificial methods.

Almost any chick that comes out of the shell apparently
healthy on the 21st day will live for the first week. If
white diarrhea is going to strike the brood they usually begin
to show symptoms about the end of the first week. The
heavy loss of chicks from this disease occurs between the ages
of one and three weeks. Where the brood is badly affected

283

284 DiMiscs of Poultry

chicks may continue to die until the fourth or fifth week.
On the other hand if a brood goes through its first three
weeks of life without being attacked by this disease it is
practically safe from its ravages. White diarrhea then may
be said to be limited to the first three weeks of the chick’s
life so far as serious mortality from it is concerned. The
reason for this no doubt is that the digestive system of
chicks under three weeks old is so delicate that even a
slight disturbance makes a very serious handicap for the
chick.

Etiology. — Within recent years a large number of studies
concerning the cause, prevention and cure of white diarrhea
have been conducted. Investigations have been carried on
by state and national institutions as well as by many private
individuals. Consequently a large number of alleged causes
of the disease are given by different writers. Among these
may be mentioned: Debilitated breeding stock, improper
incubation, improper brooding, overheating, chilling, poor
ventilation, over-crowding, poor or improper food: and filth
as well as specific bacteria, fungi or other parasitic organisms.

It is doubtful if many of the cases of true white diarrhea are
caused by physical or mechanical agents. In most cases
true white diarrhea appears to be an infectious disease.
Such disease we know is caused by some form of parasitic
organism. Without doubt improper incubation, brooding
and feeding, resulting in weakened chicks, very often lay
the foundation for the attacks of parasitic organisms. In
many cases these faulty methods of handling the eggs and
chicks appear to be the real cause of the disease while they
are really only indirect causes.

From this it should not be understood that such things
as poor food, poor brooding and weakened breeding stock
are of no importance in the study of white diarrhea. It is
just exactly these predisposing factors which result in chicks

White Diarrhea 285

with weak constitutions, easily overcome by disease germs.
Without doubt the points at which most progress can be
made in combating such diseases are in the methods of in-
cubation and in the care of the chicks for the first three weeks
of their lives. Nevertheless it should not be forgotten that
the death of the chick is caused by the ravages of some mi-
nute parasitic organism.

Within recent years several investigators have discovered
organisms which they believe to be the specific cause of
white diarrhea. Three of these may be mentioned at this
place: (1) Coccidium tenellum or cuniculi producing the
disease called “coccidiosis.” (2) Bacterium pullorum pro-
ducing “bacillary white diarrhea’? and (3) Aspergillus
fumigatus and allied species, producing aspergillosis or
brooder pneumonia of chicks. Of these the first two dis-
eases will be considered in some detail in the following
paragraphs. Aspergillosis is treated in a separate section
of this chapter (cf. p. 173).

Intestinal Coccidiosis

In 1908 Morse! published a preliminary account of some
investigations on the cause of white diarrhea. He claimed
that microscopic examination of the intestines of chicks
dying with this disease revealed the presence of large num-
bers of protozoan organisms which he identified as Coccidiwm
tenellum. Cole and Hadley? of the Rhode Island Experi-
ment Station reported finding a similar organism in white
diarrhea chicks. They identified it as Coccidium cunicult.
These two species of coccidium are so nearly alike that it is

1 Morse, G. B., ‘‘White Diarrhea of Chicks.” U.S. Dept. of
Agr. Bur. Anim. Indus. Cire. 128, pp. 1-8, 1908.

2Cole, L. J., and Hadley, P. B., ‘‘Blackhead in Turkeys.”
Rhode Island Agr. Expt. Stat. Bul. No. 141, pp. 138-272, 1910.

286 Diseases of Poultry

very difficult to distinguish them except by prolonged study
of their life cycles.

Various species of coccidia have long been known to in-
fest many domestic animals. A number of these have
been described in fowls and other birds. In many cases
they produce very serious lesions. But the contention of
Smith! that in many cases these parasites are more or less
normal inhabitants of the digestive tract seems fairly well
founded.

Coccidiosis in birds and the relation of coccidia to the
disease known as entero-hepatitis have been discussed on
pages 71 and 94. On page 73 a detailed description of the
life history of a typical coccidium is given. It is supposed
that it is the same coccidium causing entero-hepatitis in
turkeys which is related to white diarrhea. For further
description of this organism the reader is referred to the
preceding chapter.

Hadley and Kirkpatrick! have reported some feeding
experiments with these coccidia in which they have been
able to produce the disease in chicks several days or weeks
old. As will be noted later, it is claimed that infection with
the bacterium of bacillary white diarrhea must take place
during the first two or three days of the chick’s life if it is
to produce the disease. It is possible that these facts may
be of some use in distinguishing the two forms of this disease. .

Diagnosis. — The symptoms of coccidiosis are similar to
those of other forms of white diarrhea (cf. p. 292). The
only exception is that according to Morse the ceca are always
distended with yellowish-white cheesy matter. In other

1 Smith, Theobald, ‘‘Ameba meleagris.”” Science, N. S., Vol. 32,
pp. 509-512, 1910.

2 Hadley, P. B., and Kirkpatrick, W. F., ‘‘ Further Investigations
upon White Diarrhea of Chicks.”’ Successful Poultry Jour., Vol. 14,
pp. 18-19, 1909.

White Diarrhea 287

forms of white diarrhea this may or may not be the case.

These different forms of white diarrhea have been too little’
studied as yet to permit of an exact differential diagnosis

on external symptoms even supposing that ever to be pos-

sible.

Up to the time of writing no further work has appeared
to substantiate the claims that this coccidium is an impor-
tant cause of white diarrhea. On the other hand, work
with the bacillary form of this disease has been carried on
by a number of investigators. At the present time it
appears that by far the greater number of epidemics of white
diarrhea are caused by the bacterium described below.

Bacillary White Diarrhea

In May, 1908, Rettger and Harvey! published a paper
on “ Fatal Septicemia in Young Chickens or White Diarrhea.”
From a large number of observations and experiments they
came to the conclusion that white diarrhea was caused by a
bacterium. A number of later papers by Rettger and his
associates have appeared since then. In these it has been
clearly proven that at least one form of white diarrhea is
caused by a bacterium.

Rettger took chicks which had died with all the symptoms
of white diarrhea and by the ordinary bacteriological methods
obtained pure cultures of a bacterium which had certain
definite reactions and habits of growth. By these methods
this bacterium can be distinguished from other kinds. To
this species of bacteria he gives the name Bacteriwm pullorum.
If entirely healthy chicks are inoculated with the pure
culture of this bacterium they almost invariably show

1 Rettger, L. F.,and Harvey, S. C., ‘‘ Fatal Septicemia in Young
Chickens or White Diarrhea.” Jour. Med. Research., Vol. 18, pp.
277-290, 1908.

288 Diseases of Poultry

symptoms of white diarrhea and in many cases die. To
cite only one case; at the Storrs Experiment Station (Bul.
68) chicks 12 hours old were fed cultures of this organism.
During twenty-five days allotted to the experiment the
mortality of the infected chicks was 76 per cent, while that
of the controls was only 4 per cent.

In many cases Rettger was able to find Bacteriwm pullorum
pure in the artificially infected birds. Further he was able
to obtain the same bacterium from a large number of differ-
ent chicks gathered from widely different localities.

These results of Rettger and his associates have been
confirmed not only by their own later work but also by
others. Thus Jones! was able to produce the disease in
healthy chicks by inoculation with this organism. Inocu-
lation of chicks 24 hours old gave a mortality of 82.5 per
cent, while in the controls it was only 2 per cent. Gage?”
isolated this organism from the ovaries of adult fowls and
proved by inoculation that it would produce the disease in
young chicks.

Conclusive evidence has been produced that it is only
during the first few days of its life that a chick is liable to
infection with this disease. It has been shown at the
Storrs Station? that the greatest danger of infection lies
within the first 48 hours, but that infection may take place
up to four days or occasionally later in the case of weak
chickens. The same writers have shown that in the majority

1 Jones, F. S., ‘Fatal Septicemia or Bacillary White Diarrhea of
Young Chickens.’’ Report of N. Y. State Vet. College for 1910,
pp. 111-129.

2 Gage, G. E., ‘‘Notes on Ovarian Infection with Bacterium
pullorum (Rettger) in the Domestic Fowl.” Jour. Med. Research,
Vol. 24, pp. 491-496, 1911.

3’ Rettger, L. F., Kirkpatrick, W. L., and Stoneburn, F. H.,
“Bacillary White Diarrhea in Young Chicks.’’ Conn. (Storrs)
Agr. Expt. Stat. Bul. 74, pp. 155-185, 1912.

; White Diarrhea 289

of cases the hen is the source of the infection. It has been
fairly well proven that female chickens recovering from
white diarrhea become bacillus carriers. In such birds
these bacteria are found particularly in the ovary. In this

Fie. 60. — The normal ovary of a laying hen. (After Rettger, Kirkpatrick
and Jones.)

organ they cause many of the developing ova to become

abnormal and undergo degeneration as shown in Fig. 61.

Many of the yolks which do not degenerate contain these

bacteria. These infect the chick which hatches from such

an egg. These chicks then serve to infect others in the

incubator or in the brooder. This is undoubtedly one of
U

bal
290 Diseases of Poultry

the reasons that incubator chicks suffer more from this
disease than hen hatched chicks. In the incubator there
are eggs from a large number of different hens. There is a
great probability that one of the mothers may be a bacillus

Fic. 61. — An ovary from a hen infected with B. pullorum, showing the
degenerating and discolored ova. (After Rettger, Kirkpatrick and
Jones.)

carrier and one such infected chick may spread the disease
to all the others. With a hen there is much less chance
that any of the eggs she broods comes from an infected
bird. Hence, while some broods will be infected, others
will not and one easily gains the impression that hen hatched
chicks are less susceptible. This point will be discussed in
connection with prevention (p. 299).

White Diarrhea 291

The following figure taken from the Storrs Experiment
Station Bulletin 68 shows diagrammatically how the infection
perpetuates itself from the hen to egg and the chick and
from the recovered chick back to the hen again.

Recently Rettger! and others have shown that healthy
adult fowls may become infected both by contact with
infected fowls and through infected litter. This adds

Aap
Ho te Oe
wah

oe -
Fic. 62. — Showing how bacillary white diarrhea perpetuates itself in the
breeding stock. (After Rettger and Stoneburn.)

another means by which the infection can be spread through
the flock.

In this connection it is worth pointing out that Smith
and Ten Broeck? have found that the bacillus of fowl
typhoid shows very many points of resemblance to B.
pullorum. The only differences found between these bacilli
are in respect to their ability to ferment the sugars, dextrose,

1 Rettger, Kirkpatrick and Jones, loc. cit.

2 Smith, T.,and Ten Broeck, C., ‘‘A Note on the Relation between

B. pullorum (Rettger) and the Fowl Typhoid (Moore). Jour. Med.
Research, Vol. 31, pp. 547-557, 1915. ;

292 Diseases of Poultry

mannite and maltose. Even these differences appear to be
lost if strains of B. pullorum are used which have been cul-
tivated in the laboratory for some time. These studies,
however, are not extensive enough to justify as yet the
assumption that the two organisms are identical.
Diagnosis of White Diarrhea. —The symptoms of white
diarrhea are in general the same for the different forms of
the disease. They may be briefly stated as follows: The
affected chicks appear stupid and remain under the hover or
hen much of the time. They isolate themselves from the
rest of the flock and appear indifferent to what goes on

Fria. 63. — Ten day White Leghorn chicks showing symptoms of bacillary
white diarrhea. (After Rettger and Stoneburn.)

about them. Their feathers become rough and the wings
droop (cf. Fig. 63). There is progressive loss of weight.
The birds eat little or nothing and appear unable to pick
up their food. Their actions in this direction are chiefly
mechanical. The characteristic whitish discharge from the
vent very soon makes its appearance. The discharged mat-
ter may be creamy or sometimes mixed with brown. ‘The
discharged matter is more or less sticky or glairy. In many
cases it clings to the down in sufficient quantity to plug up
the vent. This condition is known as “ pasting up behind.”
This latter condition, however, is not necessarily indicative
of white diarrhea.

White Diarrhea 293

Many of the chicks chirp or peep constantly or will utter
a shrill ery apparently of pain, when attempting to void the
excreta. These sounds are often characteristic of the
disease.

In many cases the chicks present the appearance of being
“short backed” or “big bellied.”’ Woods ! describes this as
follows :

“The weakling is almost always big-bellied, the abdomen
protruding to the rear so that it bunches out behind, well out
of line with the vent, with the result that the chick looks as if

Se

(After Rettger and

= ee a 3
a F a % é
: i ‘oe

Fic. 64. — Normal ten day White Leghorn chicks.
Stoneburn.)

the tail piece and backbone has been pushed forward and in
just above the vent ”’ (cf. Fig. 63).

In some cases the chicks die with but little warning and
show few of the above symptoms. In other cases the sick
chick will last a long time showing all the symptoms men-
tioned.

Post-mortem examination often reveals but few lesions.
One of the most striking things is the loss of flesh if the dis-
ease has lasted for some time. The alimentary canal is
usually nearly empty except for some slimy fluid. The

1 Woods, P. T., ‘‘ Reliable Poultry Remedies.”’ Quincy, Ill.

oe
294 Diseases of Poultry

organs are all very pale. The liver may have a few streaks
showing congested areas. Some of the unabsorbed yolk
may or may not be present. There is considerable variation
in its appearance. It is not usually putrid unless the chick
has been dead for some time.

The following post-mortem appearances in bacillary
white diarrhea are reported by Rettger and Stoneburn:?

“Crops — Empty or partially filled with slimy fluid or
with food. .

“Lungs — Apparently normal. (Tubercles not — ob-
served. )

“Liver — Pale, with streaks and patches of red. These
apparently slightly congested areas are usually large in size.

“Kidney and Spleen — Apparently normal.

“Intestines — Pale, and for the greater part empty. A
small amount of dark grayish or brownish matter frequently
present.

“Ceca — With few exceptions but partially filled with a
grayish soft material. Only occasionally cheesy or firm
contents.

“Unabsorbed Yolk — Usually present varying in size
from a pea to a full-sized yolk. The color may vary from
yellow to brownish green or nearly black. In consistency
there is also much variation. It may appear perfectly
normal, distinctly gelatinous, or watery. Frequently it is
observed in the character of custard and again more or less
dry and firm. Unless the chick has been dead for some
time the yolk is usually not found putrid, but merely stale.

“The chick as a whole appears more or less anemic and
emaciated. The muscles of the wings, breast and legs may
be almost completely wasted away.”

1 Rettger, L. F., and Stoneburn, F. H., ‘‘ Bacillary White Diarrhea

of Young Chicks.’’ Conn. (Storrs) Agric. Exper. Stat. Bull. 60,
pp. 33-57. 1909.

White Diarrhea 295

The chief difference between this and coccidiosis appears
to be in the contents of the ceca (cf. p. 286).

Undoubtedly the most specific method of diagnosing
white diarrhea is by bacteriological examination. Rettger
and Stoneburn ! have perfected methods for the examination
of eggs, dead chicks and the ovaries of laying hens. By
these methods it is possible for a bacteriologist to determine
whether the chicks or the laying stock are infected with
Bacterium pullorum. Such examination cannot be made by
the poultryman. In some states the Experiment Station
will undertake such examinations. In others it will be
necessary to depend upon private laboratories. The fol-
lowing bacteriological description of Bacterium pullorum is
taken from Rettger, Kirkpatrick and Jones.” It is inserted
here for the convenience of bacteriologists who may wish to
study this disease.

Description and General Characteristics of Bactervum
Pullorum

Morphology, Staining Properties, ete. —'The organism is
a long, slender bacillus (0.4—0.54 * 2-4) with slightly
rounded ends. It usually occurs single, chains of more than
two bacilli being rarely found. It is a non-motile, non-
liquefying, non-chromogenic, facultative anaérobe. In its
microscopic appearance it resembles the bacillus of typhoid
fever. It is stained readily by the ordinary basic aniline
dyes. It does not stain by the Gram method; neither does
it retain its color when treated with dilute acetic and mineral
acids. The organism does not produce spores, or at least
they have never been observed.

Liboe; it.) AOL.

2 Rettger, L. F., Kirkpatrick, W. L., and Jones, R. E., ‘‘ Bacillary

White Diarrhea of Young Chicks.’’ Conn. (Storrs) Agr. Expt.
Stat. Bul. 77, pp. 263-309, 1914.

ail
296 Diseases of Poultry

The thermal death point (moist) is 56 to 57° C. for an
exposure of fifteen minutes. The optimum temperature is
ShetGvar se.

Cultural Characters. Agar plates. — Small white colonies
make their appearance within twenty-four hours. They
increase in size slowly and seldom attain more than one
millimeter in diameter, even after three or four days’ in-
cubation. Under the microscope they appear yellow and
vary in form, being oval, spindle-shaped or round. The
surface is usually marked with one or two rosette figures.

Slant Agar. — The ordinary streak growth is quite visible
in twenty-four hours, and resembles that of the typhoid
bacillus. It spreads little and remains delicate even after
prolonged incubation. When, however, the entire surface
of the agar is streaked, with a platinum loop, the charac-
teristic cultural appearance of the common pus streptococcus
is obtained. The growth is not continuous and compact,
but consists of minute, delicate colonies, which may be so
small as to require a magnifying lens for detection. This
cultural characteristic is of extreme importance in identifi-
cation work.

Gelatin Plates. —Small white colonies may be seen in
forty-eight hours. They remain small for several days,
and only under exceptional conditions do they develop into
characteristic surface colonies which to a certain extent
resemble the grape-leaf colony of B. typhosus.

Gelatin Stab. —A delicate growth occurs in forty-eight
hours along the whole line of inoculation. In litmus milk
little or no apparent change occurs within the first forty-
eight hours, after which the milk becomes slightly acidified
without any signs of coagulation of the casein.

Gas Production in Sugar Bouillon. — Negative results were
obtained with maltose, lactose, saccharose, inulin, and
dextrin bouillon. Dextrose and mannite were attacked,

White Diarrhea 297

however, with both acid and gas production. In the dextrose
fermentation tubes about 20 per cent of the closed arm
is filled with gas, and the mannite tubes average about the
same. The gas consists of COz and H in the ratio of 1: 3.
Some of the strains do not produce gas in any of the sugar
media, though acid production is quite apparent.

Indol and Nitrate Production. — Neither indol nor nitrate
could be detected in Dunham’s peptone solution at the end
of one week’s growth in the incubator.

Quite recently still another method for the diagnosis of
this disease has been proposed. Jones! points out that the
bacteriological examination of eggs is an unsatisfactory
method of detecting fowls that are harboring this germ in the
ovary. This arises from the fact that with such an infected
hen only occasional eggs may contain this organism. Yet
such a hen is a source of danger to the flock. Jones then
suggested the use of the agglutination test. This test con-
sists in adding a very small quantity of the blood serum of a
suspected fowl to a dilute (milky) suspension of the bacteria.
If the fowl has the disease the bacteria will clump together
and settle to the bottom of the test tube so that the liquid
above will appear clear. If the bird is not affected the
bacteria will not clump together and the suspension will
retain its milky appearance.

This test has now been used by Jones, Gage ” and Rettger,
Kirkpatrick and Jones.’ In all of these studies it has proved
to be an important aid in the recognition of this infection in
laying hens.

1Jones, F. S., ‘‘The Value of the Macroscopic Agglutination
Test in Detecting Fowls that are Harboring Bacterium pullorum.”
Jour. Med. Res., Vol. 27, pp. 481-495, 1913.

2Gage, G. E., ‘“On the Diagnosis of Infection with Bacterium
pullorum in the Domestic Fowl.’”’ Mass. Agr. Expt. Stat. Bul. 148,
pp. 1-20, 1914.

3 Loc. cit. 1914.

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298 Diseases of Poultry

This like the bacteriological test cannot be made by the
poultryman. It must be done in a well equipped laboratory
and under the direction of a competent bacteriologist. The
practicability of the test depends upon the value of the
fowls.

Treatment. — The treatment of white diarrhea like that
of most other poultry diseases consists in prevention rather
than cure. Proper care of the breeding birds, proper incu-
bation and proper care and feeding of the chicks will do
much to prevent the ravages of this disease. A chick that
lacks constitutional vigor, or that is weak from improper
incubation or improper brooding falls an easy prey to an
infectious organism. On the other hand, a healthy vigorous
chick will resist the attacks of such an organism for some
time.

However, care in housing and raising the chicks is not
sufficient to prevent this disease in a badly infected flock.
Undoubtedly, in the light of the researches reviewed in the
preceding pages, the best point to attack this disease is the
laying hen. Recent work has shown that these infected
hens can best be identified by the agglutination test. Where
it is possible to apply this test, all reacting birds should be
removed from the breeding pens and not allowed to come in
contact with the healthy birds. Such a method accom-
panied by care and cleanliness in raising the chicks will
practically eradicate the disease.

There are many poultry plants, however, where it is
impossible or impracticable to apply this test. Under such
circumstances there is no certain way of identifying the
bacillus carriers in the breeding pens. The following
method will greatly aid in reducing the mortality from this
disease although it will not eradicate it completely.

In the first place every incubator and brooder should be
thoroughly disinfected before using and between each hatch.

White Diarrhea 299

This can easily be done by spraying with cresol soap (see p.
17) or some other good disinfectant. This will insure that
no germs remain from the preceding hatch. Next some
kind of wire trays or baskets should be provided which hold
from 12 to 15 eggs each. These should be made with a cover
and of such shape that they will conveniently fit into an
incubator tray. On the eighteenth day the eggs should be
placed in these trays and the lids carefully fastened. The
ideal method is to have the eggs from each hen in a separate
tray but where trap nesting and pedigree breeding are not
carried out this is impracticable. The chicks should be
allowed to hatch in these trays and to remain in them until
they are 48 hours old. By this time they have passed the
most critical stage and they may then be put together in the
brooder. By thus isolating the chicks in small groups only
a few of these groups will usually prove to be infected. It
has already been pointed out that one infected chick will
spread the disease to an entire incubator or brooder if al-
lowed free range among its neighbors at the critical period.
This method has been used with marked success on a number
of large poultry plants.

During the last few years there have appeared many
articles in the poultry press regarding the use of sour milk
as a cure or preventive of white diarrhea. The Storrs
Experiment Station has carried out careful experiments in
this connection extending over several years. Their results
are summed up in a recent bulletin.!

“Sour milk feeding has a most beneficial influence on the
growth of chicks and in lessening mortality from all causes.
As an important agent in the prevention and suppression
of white diarrhea its value is somewhat doubtful, and fur-
ther investigation is necessary before unqualified statements

1 Rettger, Kirkpatrick and Jones, loc. cit., 1914.

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300 Diseases of Poultry

can be made. Milk which is soured by the Bulgaricus
bacillus of Metchnikoff possesses no distinct advantages
over naturally soured milk; on the other hand, it has several
disadvantages. Its method of preparation involves consider-
able time and care, and it is not relished by chicks to the
same extent as naturally soured milk.”

Other remedies have been proposed for this disease but
most of them appear to have but little value. Kaupp!
recommends a sulphocarbolate treatment as follows: To
each gallon of drinking water he dissolves one 380-grain
tablet sulphocarbolate compound of zine, sodium and
calcium, 6 grains of bichloride of mercury and 3 grains of
citric acid. With this mixture he reports good results.
Horton? at the Oregon Experiment Station used this
treatment on 50 infected chicks of which only seven sur-
vived. He says: “From the manner in which the
chicks died off and from the general appearance of the
seven that remained alive it seems evident that sulphocar-
bolates in the treatment of white diarrhea (bacillary form)
have very little if any efficiency.”

1Kaupp, B. F., ‘‘Some Poultry Diseases.’”’ Colo. Agr. Expt.
Stat. Bul. 185, 1912.

2 Horton, G. D., ‘“‘Sulphoearbolates in the Treatment of White
Diarrhea (bacillary form) of Young Chicks.’”’ Amer. Vet. Rev.,
Vol. 46, pp. 321-322, 1914.

CHAPTER XIX

OTHER DISEASES OF CHICKENS
Leg Weakness

THE term “leg weakness” is sometimes used by poultry-
men to indicate the lameness due to rheumatism in adult
birds. Regarding this form of the disease see page 201. The
more usual use of the term “leg weakness” is to denote a
disease or ailment which is found in growing chicks from one
month to six months of age. It is said to be more common
among cockerels than pullets and is more frequent in the
heavier than the lighter breeds. The chief cause of the
trouble seems to be that in birds growing rapidly and fed
heavily the weight sometimes increases faster than the
strength. This results in a weak kneed, wobbling bird.
The disease is sometimes ascribed to other causes such as
overcrowding, close, unventilated quarters, overheating,
etc. Salmon says, “It may develop in young chickens kept
in brooders in which the heat is not properly distributed or
where there is too much bottom heat, also in those which
are kept constantly upon wooden floors.”” Regarding these
cases Robinson says, “ Where such conditions are present the
leg weakness is more likely to be an accompaniment of
diseases which plainly show other symptoms.”’

Diagnosis. — The symptoms are indicated in the name of
the disease. It first appears as an unsteadiness in the walk.
This may gradually become worse until the bird is unable to
stand alone and is constantly tumbling over. The birds are

301

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302 Diseases of Poultry

found sitting while eating and are inclined to walk very little.
When the trouble first appears there is little else wrong with
the bird. The eye and comb are bright and healthy, the
appetite is good. Later, however, the bird being weaker
than the others gets less grain and becomes thin, feathers out
poorly and is a distressed object. It is said that rheumatism
can be distinguished from leg weakness by the swelling of the
joints in the former disease.

Treatment. — This consists chiefly, of course, in removing
the cause. Since the most common cause is the overfeeding
with fat producing foods, the amount of these should be
reduced. The weak birds should be removed to a pen by
themselves. Substitute bran, wheat and oatmeal for the
corn and cornmeal. Give skim milk, if possible, instead of
water. Feed plenty of green food. This is one of the most
important measures. Sanborn recommends rubbing the
legs with tincture of arnica and adding 3 teaspoonful of
tincture of nux vomica to each quart of drinking water.

Aspergillosis or Pneumomycosis

This disease, which is discussed on page 173, not only occurs
in hens but it is also a very common and fatal disease in
young chicks. It often occurs with white diarrhea and the
double disease was for a long time considered as one. Poul-
trymen designated the cases in which the lesions occurred in
the lungs as “lungers.”’ Investigation has shown that there
are two diseases which may occur separately or together.

Diagnosis. — This disease is characterized by a dumpish
sleepy condition of the chick. The wings are pendulant.
Breathing is rapid and sometimes accompanied by snoring
sounds. A whitish diarrhea is present. A differential
diagnosis between this and the coccidial white diarrhea is only
possible by an examination of the dead birds. In asper-

Other Diseases of Chickens 303

gillosis, yellowish tubercles which closely resemble those of
tuberculosis occur in the lungs and in the walls of the air
sacs and often also in the intestines, mesentery, liver and
other organs. In very acute cases the lungs are simply
inflamed, death occurring before the formation of the
tubercles. The mycelium and spores of the fungus may be
found by microscopic examination of the tubercles and this
fungus may be obtained by inoculating cultures from these
tubercles.

Etiology. —'The disease is caused by the spores of an
Aspergillus, usually A. fumigatus, Fig. 32. This is a very
common fungus and the spores are widely distributed in
nature. The spores are often found on the food or on the
litter and are inhaled or taken in with the food. Incubator
chickens are often infected from the incubators and brooders
and hen hatched chickens from the straw or chaff in the nests.
Sometimes the chicks get the disease from chick food not
properly cared for. It is possible that this disease as well as
the coccidial and bacillary white diarrhea is sometimes
carried in the egg. The spores and mycelium are often found
in the digestive tract of hens and it is not unlikely that they
may work up the oviduct from the cloaca and infect an egg
before it gets its shell.

Treatment. —'The treatment of diseased chicks is useless.
When they are infected the spores develop on the mem-
branes and new spores are formed which spread the infection
throughout the respiratory system and also to the other
organs. The only effective treatment is prevention. Keep-
ing the flock under good hygienic conditions with clean food,
litter and nesting material reduces the chance of infection
and keeps the chicks in a vigorous condition in which they
are able to-resist the disease. The dead chicks should be
burned or buried.

Prognosis. — 'The disease is fatal so far as known.

_

304 Diseases of Poultry

Emphysema

This name is applied to a disease of young chicks in which
the skin puffs out in the sides of the neck near its juncture
with the body. The size of the puff varies somewhat.
In mild cases it is about the size of a hickory nut. Some-
times there is one puff, sometimes several.

According to Vale the trouble generally occurs in growing
chicks which have been confined in close quarters. It is
often associated with some lung trouble. It seems to be
due to obstruction of the air passages and the rupture of
some of the air sacs. The air thus escapes into the tissues
beneath the skin. While not common this disease does
occur in Maine. Some cases were reported to the Station
while this work was in preparation.

The treatment suggested by Vale is to puncture the skin
with a needle and to give 2 grains nitrate of iron to each
wine glassful of drinking water.

Gapes

Gapes is a disease which attacks domestic poultry and
many species of wild birds. In fowls it is more frequently
observed in young chicks. It occurs also in adult fowls but
rarely causes enough inconvenience to attract attention.
The disease is due to the presence of minute parasitic worms
in the air passages.

Diagnosis. — The characteristic symptoms of this trouble
are frequent gaping, sneezing, coughing with discharge of
mucus. The affected birds appear weak and dumpish with
drooping wings. When badly affected the bird stands or
sits with its eyes closed, wings drooped, mouth open and at
frequent intervals gasps as if suffocating.

The correctness of a diagnosis for gapes should be tested by

—

Other Diseases of Chickens 305

Fic. 65. — Trachea (windpipe) of a Fic. 66.— A pair
pheasant showing gape worms of Syngamus
(Syngamus trachealis) attached to trachealis, at-
the mucous membrane. (After tached. (After
Megnin.) Megnin.)

determining whether or not the worms are present in the
trachea. When chicks are dying from a disease supposed to

be gapes the trachea of a dead bird may be examined. If the
x

al
306 Diseases of Poultry

trouble is gapes the worms will be found attached in pairs to
the mucous membrane of the trachea.

The two sexes are joined together in such a way that a pair
looks like a double headed worm. The female is about 4
inch long and the male about $ inch. The worms are
pale in color when empty but when they have been feeding
they are red with the blood of the chick. The presence of the
worms in the trachea of a living chick may be demonstrated
by passing a gape worm extractor (a loop of horse hair or
fine wire or a feather with the vane removed except at the
tip) carefully down the trachea for some distance turning it
around to loosen the worms and drawing it out. If the
worms are present some will be removed with the ex-
tractor.

The presence of the worms causes an irritation and inflam-
mation of the membrane and stimulates the secretion of
mucus. Some of the accumulation of worms and mucus is
expelled by coughing. Sometimes part of it is swallowed
and expelled with the feces. The loosened material may be
drawn into the deeper air passages during inspiration.
Death may occur from suffocation due to the obstruction of
the air passages with worms and mucus, or weak individuals
may die from loss of blood.

Etiology. —'The only cause of the disease is the nematode
or thread worm Syngamus trachealis Siebold, called the gape
worm, red worm, or forked worm (see Figs. 65 to 67).
These parasites obtain their nourishment by sucking the
blood from the mucous membrane of the trachea. They are
attached in pairs to the membrane by their sucker-like
mouths. Besides bringing about a considerable loss of blood
the worms cause irritation and inflammation of the membrane
and a copious secretion of mucus. The two sexes are so
closely attached to each other that they cannot be separated
with tearing. The body of an adult female is swollen with

Other Diseases of Chickens

Fie. 67. — A pair of Syngamus trachealis.
B, female. (After Megnin.)

A, male.

308 Diseases of Poultry

thousands of eggs and occasionally contains some embryos.
The eggs are not laid but escape when the body of the female
is ruptured. This may take place with the decomposition
of the worm or the body may be torn by the coughing of the
bird. The eggs may develop and grow to adult worms within
the trachea of the same bird. The worms, eggs and embryos
are often coughed up. Sometimes they are swallowed and
then some of the eggs and embryos may be passed with the
feces. The worms coughed up are eagerly eaten by the
same or other birds and the ova and embryos are often taken
with contaminated food and drink. Developing embryos
have been found in earth worms living in infected poultry
yards, and these will cause gapes if fed to chicks.

The eggs and embryos need only warmth and moisture to
develop. Eggs may develop in the digestive organs. It is
not known how the embryos reach the trachea from the
digestive organs. A large number of those eaten never reach
the trachea but are either digested or voided with the feces.
Salmon says: “Although there are some thousands of eggs
in the adult worms, 10 to 15 worms have been fed to a single
chicken, and, as a result, not over 4 or 5 embryos would
reach and develop in the trachea.’ According to Theobald,
Ehler found copulated worms where several of the females
were full of eggs 10 days after feeding ova to healthy chicks.
Wet clay soils are especially favorable to the gape worms,
and they thrive best in warm, wet weather.

Treatment. — In eradicating the disease it is important to
isolate all affected birds so that the worms and ova coughed
up or voided with the excrement may not be eaten by the
other chicks or contaminate the food, drink, and the ground
of the runs. Burn 'the bodies or at least the heads and necks
of all dead birds. The feed troughs and water dishes should
be scalded and the houses and coops disinfected. Use
potassium permanganate in the drinking water. If possible

Other Diseases of Chickens 309

provide fresh runs on which there has been no poultry for
several years.

The following methods have been recommended for dis-
infecting the ground. It is doubtful if these are economically
advisable.

Treating the ground with air slaked lime and spading.

Sprinkling with one of the following solutions :

1 per cent or 2 per cent sulphuric acid.

2 ounces of copperas dissolved in a pail of water.

4 ounce of crystals of potassium permanganate to a bar-
rel of water.

The lime or acid treatments are most often recommended.
The infected birds should be kept in houses easily cleaned
and disinfected and this should be done frequently to prevent
reinfection of the recovering birds. Theobald advises an
addition of 3 drams of salicylate of soda to each quart of
drinking water to destroy eggs and embryos that may con-
taminate it.

The individual surgical method may be profitably practiced
in some cases. It seems to be the only sure method yet ad-
vised of ridding an infested bird of the parasites. Wright '
gives the following description of the method :

“The old-fashioned cure was to strip a small quill-
feather, all but a small tuft at the point, and (moistening it
in turpentine or not) introduce it into the trachea, turn it
round, and withdraw it with the worms. This is effectual,
but requires care to prevent lacerating the windpipe or
causing suffocation. In this way 30 worms have been suc-
cessfully extracted from one chicken. A very much better
method is to take two straight hairs from a horse’s tail, laid
together, tie a knot on the end of the pair, and cut off the
ends close to the knot. This is passed straight (7.e., without
twisting) down the windpipe as far as it will go without

1 Wright, L., ‘The New Book of Poultry.’? London, 1905.

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310 Diseases of Poultry

bending, then twisted between the finger and thumb and
drawn out. A trial or two may miss, but usually 5 or 6
attempts will bring up 4 or 5 worms, and the hairs inserted
in this way, without twisting, do not seem to hurt the chicks,
and are used with the greatest facility. The bringing up of
even from 4 to 10 worms, and the failure of more to come
after a blank trial or two, may usually be reckoned as a
cure.”

Wire gape worm extractors may be bought from dealers in
poultry supplies, or one can make one for himself by taking
No. 30 wire, forming a loop at one end just big enough to go
easily down the trachea, and then twisting together the ends
of the wire to form a long handle. Worms removed should
be burned.

It is reported (Jour. Bd. of Agric., London, Vol. 18, p. 368,
1906) that gapes may be successfully treated by the fumes of
carbolic acid. The method given is to place the chicks in a
basket over a pail containing carbolic acid. A hot brick is
placed in the pail for the purpose of volatilizing the acid.

Prognosis. — This disease is often fatal in young chicks
from one to four weeks old, especially in small, weak birds.
In young chicks and in most adult fowls it often causes little
inconvenience. These fowls, however, are constant sources
of infection. The removal of the worms from the trachea
if skillfully done so that the delicate membrane is not injured
usually effects a cure but this individual treatment requires
considerable time and the value of the chicks must determine
whether or not it is economically profitable.

Crooked Breast Bone

The normal breast bone of a fowl is shaped like a boat with
a deep keel. This keel is a thin plate of bone which furnishes
a place for the attachment of the large flying muscles. Ina

Other Diseases of Chickens alt

fully mature bird the breast bone is completely ossified but
at hatching it is almost entirely cartilaginous.

Normally the keel of the bone is straight and perpendicular
to the basal portion of the bone. In many individuals,
however, it is bent to one side or first to one side and then
the other forming an S-shaped curve. Also it may be in-
clined at the base at an abnormal angle.

Poultrymen usually attribute these abnormalities to the
fact that the birds go to roost too young. They believe that
they are caused by the pressure of the hard roost on the soft
bone. About fifty years ago Rottiger' called attention to
the fact that crooked breast bones occur in chicks showing
retarded growth before they have ever roosted and also in
wild birds kept in captivity and prevented from early roost-
ing. He also found these malformations associated with
diseased conditions, especially catarrh. He believed that
they were due not to external pressure but to a lack of bone
forming elements in the diet or to a derangement of the
digestive apparatus which prevented the proper assimilation
of these elements.

Our own experience is in accord with this view. Crooked
breast bones often occur in cases of malnutrition or disease
without reference to whether the birds have or have not
roosted. In utility stock the crooking of the bone in itself
may not be of great importance, though it lowers the sale
value of a bird greatly. Some good layers have crooked
breast bones. However, when large numbers having this
malformation occur in the flock there is something wrong
with the feeding or care of the chicks and such mistakes
should be looked into and corrected.

1 Rottiger, The Poultry World, Vol. 5, p. 298. (Translated
from Ztschr. f. Gegliigel u. Singvogelzucht by W. G. Todd), 1876.

CHAPTER OSS
TUMORS

New tissue growths or neoplasms (tumors) are by no
means uncommon in domestic fowls. It has been the routine
practice at the Maine Agricultural Experiment Station for
several years to autopsy all birds that are killed for material
or data and all birds that die from natural causes. The
archives of the laboratory now contain about nine hundred
autopsy records sufficiently complete to determine whether
or not the birds had tumors and in what organs the tumors
were located. These records show that 8.98 per cent of all
the birds autopsied had tumors. That is, there were about
90 cases of tumors per thousand birds. The genital organs,
at least in the females,' were most often affected. In fact
37 per cent of all the tumors found were in the ovary and
19 per cent in the oviduct. Twenty-two per cent were found
in the peritoneum (some of these were attached to the walls
of the abdominal cavity and some were in the mesenteries).
Tumors have also been found in the intestine walls, kidney,
gizzard, liver, spleen, pancreas, heart and breast bone.

Some of these tumors occurred in fowls killed for dissection
or data and in apparently normal health. The tumors were
the probable cause of death in less than half the cases of
birds with tumors which died from natural causes.

The tumor was usually confined to one organ, but there

1 Very few males were autopsied. One of the three tumors found
in males was located in one of the testes.
312

Tumors 313

were fifteen cases in which tumors of similar nature occurred
in two or more organs. In these cases the tumor had prob-
ably undergone metastasis.

The age of the bird is also related to frequency of the
occurrence of tumors. Tumors being much more frequent
in old than in young birds. Only 7.37 per cent of the birds
under two and one-fourth years of age had tumors, while
19.17 per cent of those older than this were affected.

A further proof of the common occurrence of new tissue
growths in fowls is the fact that in the course of ten months
Rous, Murphy, and Tytler’ obtained without difficulty
about thirty spontaneous tumors in living fowls.

Fowl tumors are apparently in every way analogous to
tumors in human beings. They are masses of new tissue
(neoplasms) which persist and grow independently of the
surrounding structures. These growths are of no physiolog-
ical use to the host but they are often harmless. Tumors
may be classified as malignant or benign. Benign tumors do
not penetrate into the surrounding tissues but push them
aside. They are usually encapsuled. On the other hand
there are a number of tumors which are malignant and tend
to infiltrate the tissues. Many of these produce growth in
adjacent organs and even in distantly removed parts of the
body. Usually they affect the general health and when
removed tend to recur.

On examining four thousand hens brought to a hotel,
Ehrenreich? found seven malignant tumors. All of these
were found in one thousand hens more than one year old.

1 Rous, P., Murphy, J. B., and Tytler, W. H., ‘‘A Filterable Agent
the Cause of a Second Chicken Tumor, an Osteochondrosarcoma.”’
Jour. Amer. Med. Assoc., Vol. 59, pp. 1793-1799, 1912.

2 Bhrenreich, M., and Michaelis, L., ‘‘Ueber Tumoren bei Hiih-
nern.” Zeitschr. f. Krebsforch, p. 586, 1906.

Ehrenreich, M., ‘‘ Weitere Mitteilungen iiber das Vorkommen
malignes Tumoren bei Hiihnern.” Med. Klin., Berlin, III, 614, 1907.

o
314 Diseases of Poultry

In the three thousand hens under one year old no malignant
tumors were found.

There are many theories regarding the origin of tumors.
One which has been quite generally accepted being that
unused embryonic cells may remain collected in certain spots
and that they may later be sufficiently stimulated to grow
independently. In accord with this theory is the fact that
the histological structure of a tumor resembles one or another
of the general classes of body tissues, and in fact usually
copies more or less closely the structure of the organ in which
the primary tumor arises. However, when growths arise
secondarily in other organs, that is, when the tumor has
undergone metastasis, the secondary tumors are similar
in structure to the primary tumor. Further Rous and his
colleagues ' have found several distinct chicken tumors
which may be produced in healthy fowls by the injection of a
cell free filtered extract of the tumor. In the case of each of
these tumors the neoplasm produced in the inoculated fowl
always resembles the tumor from which the extract was made.
That is, the type of tumor is determined by the individuality
of the causal agent and not alone by the potentialities of the
stimulated cells. That is, the cells are not simply stimulated
to grow, but they are stimulated to grow in a specific
way.

According to the general type of body tissue they resemble,
tumors may be classified as follows :

! Rous, P., ‘‘A Transmissible Avian Neoplasm (Sarcoma of the
common fowl).”’ Jour. of Exper. Med., Vol. XII, pp. 696-705.

Rous, P., Murphy, J. B., and Tytler, H. W., loc. cit.

Rous, P., and Lange, Linda B., ‘“‘ The Characters of a Third Trans-
plantable Chicken Tumor Due to a Filterable Cause. A Sarcoma
of Intracanalicular Pattern.” Jour. Exper. Med., Vol. XVIII, pp.
651-664, 1913.

Rous, P., and Murphy, J. B., “On the Causation by Filterable
Agentsof Three Distinct Chicken Tumors.” Jour. Exper. Med., Vol.
XIX, pp. 52-68, 1914.

Tumors 315

I. Connective tissue type.

II. Epithelial tissue type.

III. Muscle tissue type.

IV. Nervous tissue type.

Each of these groups may be subdivided according to the
more specific resemblance of the histology of the tumors to a
particular kind of body tissue. At least six different types
of the first group have been described in the domestic fowl.

I. Tumors of the connective tissue type.

1. Sarcoma (made up of embryonic connective tissue
composed of closely packed cells embedded in a fibrillar or
homogeneous substance).

2. Myxoma (mucous tissue, a soft translucent growth, made
up of variously shaped cells of connective tissue and capillary
blood vessels incased in a jelly-like matrix.

3. Fibroma (composed mainly of fibrous or fully developed
connective tissue). The tumors of this group are benign.

4. Chondroma (a cartilaginous growth).

5. Osteoma (bony tissue usually but not always develop-
ing on bone).

6. Lymphoma (made up of lymphoid tissue).

According to Tyzzer and Ordway! tumors of the sixth
group (lymphomata) occur more frequently than any other
type. They suggest that this is probably due to two facts.
(1) This type of tumor apparently develops in younger birds
than other types, and (2) birds kept for egg production are
usually killed at the end of their first year. They have
described in detail seven different tumors of this group. In
summing up their results they say: “In some cases lymph-
oma occurs as a local primary growth either with or without
metastasis. In other cases the tumor tissue is so uniformly
disseminated throughout certain organs that it is impossible

1Tyzzer, E. E., and Ordway, T. “Tumors in the Common
Fowl.” Jour. Med. Research, Vol. 21, pp. 459-477, 1909.

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316 Diseases of Poultry

to determine the point of origin. Certain lymphomata are
more or less alveolar in structure; others grow diffusely
through the tissues. The tumor may be confined to the
fixed tissues so that it is essentially extravascular, or the
tumor cells may also occur in the circulatory blood constitut-
ing a lymphatic leukemia.”

Probably the second most frequent type of connective

Fia. 68. — Sarcoma Chicken Tumor No. I, Second Generation. (After
Rous.)

tissue tumor is sarcoma. This may occur as simple sarcoma
or it may occur in combination with one or more of the other
types. That is, it is a generalized and simple tissue which
may represent the complete adult stage of a tumor, as Rous
Chicken Tumor No. I, and Chicken Tumor No. XVIII.

However, since it is a simple generalized tissue, it may also
represent an early stage in the development of one of the
other forms of connective tissue tumors. In these cases it
remains as a matrix in which the further developed tissues

Fic. 69. — Chicken tumor XVIII in the gizzard of
the original fowl. Three metastases are visible in
the skeletal muscles, namely one in the neck, another
in the thoracic wall above the right lobe of the liver
and the third on the inner surface of the pelvis. All
are indicated by arrows. (After Rous and Lange.)

318 Diseases of Poultry

are embedded. Tyzzer and Ordway! have described a

myxosarcoma in which masses of mucus were embedded in a

Fig. 70. Large osteo-chondrosarcoma produced by intramuscular in-
jection of 4 cc. of the Berkfeld filtrate of an extract of chicken tumor VII.
The fowl was killed when comatose eighty-seven days after the injection.
Its emaciation should be noted. (After Rous and Murphy.)

. . . 9
connective tissue matrix and Rous, Murphy, and Tytler °
found a transmissible Osteo-chondrosarcoma.

1 Loc. cit. 2 Loc. cit.

Tumors 319

When the filtered extracts of this tumor were injected into
susceptible individuals a rapid growth of cartilage forming
connective tissue elements took place. These growths soon
became cartilaginous and finally bony.

The connective tissue tumors (especially the sarcomas)

Fic. 71.— The growth shown in the preceding photograph after it had
been sawed open. Scattered amid the smooth whitish cartilage is much
bone with red marrow. (After Rous and Murphy.)

are of frequent occurrence in mammals, and a large number of
the avian tumors which have been described belong to this
group. These tumors are sometimes benign but are often

_
320 Diseases of Poultry

very malignant and appear in many organs of the body and
frequently cause emaciation and death. All three of the
chicken tumors which Rous and his colleagues have found
capable of transference to other individuals belong to this
group. ‘Tumors of this group are usually covered with a
hard, tough, fibrous tissue.

The next group of tumors are those of the epithelial type.
As in the preceding group, these tumors are further classified
according to the particular type of body tissue they resemble.
Two types of these epithelial tumors have been described in
the domestic fowl.

1. Adenoma (tumors with a gland-like structure).

2. Carcinoma (cancer — epithelial cells developing in
epithelial tissue).

Pickens ' has described an adenoma of the bile ducts in the
domestic fowl (Fig. 72). This tumor was evidently of a
highly malignant type as it had been transferred from the
liver to the proventriculus, gizzard, spleen, intestines and
peritoneum. The growths were small lobulated masses,
the larger ones contained small cysts (saes filled with serous
liquid). The abdominal cavity contained about a pint of
this liquid.

Pick ? and Koch * have each described a carcinoma found
in the mouth of a fowl and Ehrenreich * considered that five of
the seven malignant tumors he studied were carcinomata.
Three types of carcinoma have been described: squamous
celled, alveolar and granular cancer. Tumors of this class
are malignant.

1 Pickens, EK. M., ‘‘A Cysto-adenoma in a Fowl.” Rept. of
New York State Veterinary College, pp. 261—268, 1913-1914.

2 Pick, L., ‘‘ Zur Frage von Vorkommen des Carcinoms bei Végeln :
Grossen Plattenepithelkrebs des Mundhohlenbodens dei einem
Hiihn.”’ Berliner klin. Wochenschr., 29, 669, 1903.

3 Koch, M., ‘‘Geschwiilste bei Tieren.”’ Verhandl. der deutsch.
Gesellsch. f. Path., 136, 1904 4 Loc. cit.

Tumors By

Tumors of the third group are formed of muscle-like tissue.
In some mammalian tumors (rhabelomyoma) the muscle
cells are striated. In others (leiomyoma) they are un-
striated. So far as we know no tumors of the first group
have been described in fowls, but Tyzzer and Ordway ' have
described a tumor in the mesentery of a domestic fowl which
was composed of typical smooth muscle fibers.

At present we know of no description of tumors of the
fourth or nervous tissue group in the domestic fowl. Such
tumors, however, very likely exist.

We have seen that there are many different kinds of new
tissue growths or neoplasms in the domestic fowl. Some of
these are benign and some malignant. We are entirely
ignorant of the cause of these growths when they spontane-
ously occur in fowls. Only three out of thirty different
tumors tested by Rous, Murphy and Tytler” can be repro-
duced in another individual. None of these tumors has been
transmitted to healthy fowls kept with those which have
developed it. The work of Rous and others has, however,
shown that particular neoplasms have specific causative
agents which in some cases can be separated from the neo-
plasm. In the cases studied this was apparently a living
virus, although if organisms are present they are ultramicro-
scopic and able to pass through a Berkfeld filter impermeable
to Bacillus fluorescens liquefaciens.

The work of Rous has shown that many birds possess a
perfect natural immunity to these tumors and that in general
young, vigorous birds are most susceptible. Funk® has shown
that birds stunted by a deficient diet are less susceptible than

1 Loc. cit.

2 Loc. cit.

3 Funk, Casimir., ‘‘Studies on Growth: The Influence of Diet
on Growth, Normal and Malignant.”’ Veterinary Journal, Vol. 21,
N.S., pp. 126-132, 1914. (Reprinted from Lancet.)

Y

al

322 Diseases of Poultry

normally developed birds and that the growth of the tumor
(Rous sarcoma) is slower in the underdeveloped birds.

It is a well known fact in human pathology that physiolog-
ical activity stimulates the growth of some tumors, while
physiological decline stimulates others. This is undoubtedly
true also of fowl tumors.

Non-malignant tumors located on external parts may be

Fie. 72. — Cysto-adenoma on the serosaof the intestine. (After Pickens.)

removed or they may be left alone. They will not ordinarily
affect the health of the bird. Even malignant tumors are
apparently not contagious.

The ultimate nature of the causative agents has not been
determined. With our present knowledge it is impossible to
explain either the spontaneous origin of these agents within
an individual or to account for their transfer from one individ-

Tumors Bue

ual to another under natural conditions. However, the
above work on avian neoplasm together with similar work
on the smaller mammals gives us some ground to hope that
the cause, methods of prevention and cure for tumor and
cancer in animals and man may soon be discovered.

CHAPTER our
PouULTRY SURGERY

Ir is proposed to consider in this chapter only those
common pathological conditions of poultry which demand
surgical treatment for their cure. At the outstart it should
be said that poultry bear and recover from surgical operations
very well. The common practice of caponizing, usually
done without any aseptic precaution whatever and with small
losses from infection, 1s sufficient evidence of this. Probably
no mammal would bear opening the abdominal cavity (which
is done in every caponizing operation) with such entire and
nearly uniform freedom from ill effects as attends this opera-
tion with poultry. The reason why poultry make such
excellent surgical subjects lies in their marked resistance to
all pyogenic (pus producing) germs.

The Treatment of Cuts, Tears and All Open Wounds

Very severe wounds may be successfully treated by adher-
ing to the following procedure :

1. Thoroughly wash the hands in warm water, using
plenty of soap, before handling the wounds at all. After
the hands have peen well scrubbed, rinse them thoroughly in
a pan of 1 to 1000 bichloride of mercury solution (p. 54) and
dry with a clean towel.

2. Pull out the feathers in the region around the wound,
and thoroughly cleanse it, using first warm water, and follow
this with warm 1 to 1000 bichloride solution. A piece of clean

324

Poultry Surgery 325

soft cloth may be used for this purpose, or absorbent cotton.
Make sure that the wound is thoroughly clean. Do not be
afraid of hurting the bird. A little pain at the start is pref-
erable to a dead bird later.

3. If necessary sew up the wound, using a good sized sew-
ing needle and silk. Both needle and silk should be soaked
in alcohol for 15 minutes before using. Small wounds need
not be sewed. Large ones will heal much quicker and more
certainly if they are sewed. If the wound involves the mus-
cles as well as the skin sew it up in two layers; one set of
stitches including only the muscles, the other set only the skin.

4, Paint the skin in the region about the wound, but not the
wound itself with dilute tincture of iodine.

5. Powder the wound well with iodoform.

6. Smear a thick layer of the omtment already recom-
mended (p. 55) over all.

7. Ifthe wound is very severe bandage it with aclean cloth.

The above treatment is only necessary in its entirety in
very severe cases. Depending upon the gravity of the con-
dition the following items in the treatment may be omitted
in the order named :

7 may be omitted except in most serious cases.

7 and 3 may be omitted in less severe cases.

7, 3 and 4 may be omitted in still less severe cases.

7, 3, 4, and 1 may be omitted in still less severe cases.

In case of slight wounds which appear still to demand some
treatment 6 and 2 or even 6 alone will suffice.

Abscess

Should an abscess appear lance it with a clean sharp knife,
making sure to cut to the bottom. Squeeze out the pus and
core if there is one, and then proceed to heal it by following
the treatment above outlined for wounds in general.

_

326 Diseases of Poultry

Bumblefoot

This is an abscess of the foot which may result from a
variety of causes, e.g., too high roosts, too narrow roosts,
undiscovered wounds caused by stepping on nails, splinters
of glass, ete. It is usually not discovered until the bird
becomes lame.

The best treatment to follow is first to tie a cord tightly
about the leg above the foot to control the flow of blood ;
then with a clean, narrow bladed, sharp knife open up the
abscess thoroughly. Go clear to the bottom and dig out
the core. Then follow in detail, omitting nothing except 3, the
treatment given above for wounds. Two days after the
first treatment take off the bandages and repeat the treat-
ment, going through in order steps, 1, 2,4, 5, 6, and 7. In
some cases a third treatment after a lapse of 2 or 3 days may
be necessary, but usually not if the first treatment is thorough.

Of course the bird under treatment should be isolated and
kept in a small pen with soft litter on the floor.

Broken Bones

If a bird is sufficiently valuable to warrant the trouble it is
possible to set fractures of the long bones of legs and wings,
and get successful union. <A splint should be made for the
affected part and carefully and thoroughly bound into place.
Healing is rapid, and it should be possible to remove the
splints in three weeks from the time they are put on if not
before. In our experience firm union has occurred in less
time than this.

Frozen Combs and Wattles

In northern parts of the country frozen wattles and combs,
especially in male birds, are very common occurrences. The

Poultry Surgery 327

trouble is more apt to be with the wattles than the comb,
because the former dip into the drinking water and then
_ freeze at times when if dry they would not do so.

The following brief but adequate directions for treating
frozen combs and wattles are taken from Farm Poultry, Vol.
15, p.41: “First thaw the wattles or combs out by manipulat-
ing with the fingers well smeared with vaseline. Keep the
bird in a cool (not cold) place, and anoint the frozen parts
with a mixture of vaseline, 5 tablespoonfuls; glycerin,
2 tablespoonfuls; turpentine, one tablespoonful, once or
twice a day. If he is not very badly frosted it probably will
make no difference with his breeding a few months from now
— provided he is not again injured the same way.”

Anesthetizing Poultry

The difficulty which we have found to be inherent in anes-
thetizing the domestic fowl may be stated briefly in this way :
If any anesthetic is pushed to the point at which the bird is in
satisfactory condition for operative procedure in about 9
cases out of 10 the bird will die on the table from the effects
of the anesthesia before the operation, if extensive, can be
completed. If, on the other hand, the anesthetic is given less
freely the bird does not lose its reflex excitability. Every
time a cut is made or a nerve is pinched with the forceps the
bird will struggle. Our experience in anesthetizing birds,
which has now covered a large number of individuals, leads
us to believe that the only middle ground between these two
extremes is afforded by those cases (unfortunately too few)
in which the individual idiosyncrasy of the bird toward ether
makes it take the anesthetic well.

While we have made no detailed physiologic study as to the
fundamental reasons underlying this difficulty respecting
anesthesia which has been described, it seems reasonably

-
328 Diseases of Poultry

apparent what these reasons are. Connected with the
respiratory organs proper of a bird are the relatively enor-
mous air sacs. During anesthesia the ether or chloroform
vapor gets into these air sacs either by diffusion or directly
as a result of respiratory movements. There is reason to
believe that the vapor, once in the air sacs, stays there until
it is absorbed by the tissues; in other words, it appears to be
the case that the great bulk of an inhaled anesthetic in the
case of birds must be eliminated from the body by way of the
urinary organs rather than the respiratory organs. Assum-
ing this to be the case there is no difficulty in seeing why
forcing an anesthetic in a bird leads to disastrous results.
The relatively enormous area for absorption afforded by the
air sacs insures that a correspondingly large amount of the
aneesthetic will be taken up very quickly. This almost imme-
diately affects the vagus center, with the consequent cardiac
inhibition, respiratory failure and death.

The exact method of procedure which we now follow in
aneesthetizing birds is as follows: Immediately before be-
ginning the administration of the anesthetic a 1-200 grain
atropin sulphate tablet is dissolved in 1 ¢.c. of warm normal
saline solution. The salt solution with the dissolved atropin
is then injected subcutaneously in the axilla. Ether is used
astheanesthetic. It is administered from a small improvised
mask which admits of the condition of the comb being seen
during the operation. Depending on how hard the ether is
pushed, the bird is ready for operation in from 15 to 20
minutes after the anesthesia is begun. The dosage of 1—200 ©
grain atropin to a bird may seem large, but we have never
been able to see the slightest bad effect from it, provided the
administration of ether was begun immediately after the
injection of the atropin.!

1 The foregoing account of anesthesia is taken from a paper by

two authors (Pearl and Surface) published in Jour. Amer. Med Assoc.,
Vol. 52, pp. 382-383, 1909.

GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS

Abdomen. — That portion of the body which contains the internal
organs. Belly.

Agglutination. — The massing together of bacteria or the red cor-
puscles of the blood when subjected to certain substances.

Air sac. — One of the membranous sacs filled with air in different
parts of the body, especially in the abdominal region. They
often extend into the cavities of the bones and connect with
the lungs.

Albumen portion of oviduct. — See p. 248.

Amebiasis. — A diseased state produced by amcebe.

Anemia. — A condition in which the blood is deficient either in
quality or quantity. It is marked by paleness and loss of
energy.

Anterior. — Situated in front of or in the forward part of.

Anus. — The external opening of the intestine. Vent.

Apathetic. — Lacking in feeling or ambition. Indifferent.

Arachnida. — A class of invertebrate animals including among other
groups the spiders, scorpions and mites.

Articular. — Pertaining to the joints.

Astringent. — Causing contraction and arresting discharges.

Atony. — Lack of normal tone or strength.

Atrophy. — A wasting or diminution of the size of a part.

Auditory meatus. — The opening into the ear.

Autopsy. — The post-mortem examination of a body.

Avian. — Pertaining to birds.

Avilla. — The region under the wing where the latter joins the body.

Bile. — The substance secreted by the liver. Gall.

Bronchi. — The tubes which lead from the end of the windpipe
(trachea) to the two lungs (cf. Fig. 26).

Carcinoma. — A malignant tumor or cancer.

Catheter. — A tubular surgical instrument for discharging fluids
from a cavity of the body or for distending a passage.

Cecum (pl. ceca). — A blind intestinal pouch of which there are
two in the fowl.

Cell. — The smallest element of an organized body that manifests

329

-
390 Glossary

independent vital activities. A morphological or structural
unit of an organism.

Chronic. — Long continued but not acute.
Cleavage. — The division of the cells of an embryo.
Cloaca. — The enlarged portion of the alimentary canal just before

the vent. The intestine, the ureters (tubes from the kidneys)
and the oviduet open into the cloaea.

Concrement. — A lump or mass formed by successive additions.

Congestion. — Excessive or abnormal accumulation of blood in a
part or organ.

Conjunctiva. — The delicate membrane that lines the eyelids and

covers the eyeball in front.
Contagious. — A disease which is communicable by direct contact.

Copulation. — Sexual intercourse. With fowls “treading.”

Cornea. — The hard transparent structure forming the anterior part
of the eyeball.

Cranium. — The brain ease.

Creolin. — A thick black liquid coal tar preparation. It has anti-
septic properties.

Cresol. — A coal tar product with antiseptic and germicidal proper-
ties.

Cyst. — A sac-like growth which usually contains a liquid or a semi-
solid.

Demulcent. — A soothing mucilaginous or oily medicine.

Dermoid cyst. — A form of congenital cyst often containing skin-
like structures.

Diuretic. — A medicine that increases the activity of the kidneys.

Dorsal. — Pertaining to the back.

Ecchymoses (ek-kim-o-ses). — Discoloration of the skin caused by
blood outside of the blood vessels as in a bruise.

Emaciated. — Very lean or wasted condition of the body.

Enema. — A liquid injection in the rectum or cloaca.

Enteritis. — Inflammation of the intestine. In human medicine
confined chiefly to the small intestine.

Epidemic. — A disease that is widely prevalent in a community or
locality.

Epidermis. — The outer or non-vascular layer of the skin. The
cuticle.

Epithelioma. — A cancer or malignant tumor consisting chiefly of
cells derived from the skin or mucous membrane.

Epithelium. — The covering or outer layer of the skin and mucous
membranes.

Epizootic. — Occurring as an epidemic disease among animals.

Ergot. — A fungus which affects and finally replaces the seed of a

Glossary pal

cereal grass. Used chiefly in connection with the ergot of rye,
which is poisonous to poultry. Ergot as a drug has the prop-
erty of causing the mammalian uterus to contract.

Etiology. — The causation of any disease.

Excrement. — Fecal matter; matter cast out as waste from the
body.

Exudate. — A substance thrown out of the body or deposited in a
tissue by a vital process.

Feces. — The excrement or undigested residue of the food discharged
from the intestines. Dung. Droppings.
Flagellate micro-organism. — Any minute microscopic organism

which swims through the water by means of the lashing of one
or more hair-like structures (flagella).

Follicle. — See p. 246.

Gall bladder. — The reservoir for the bile or gall sécreted by the
liver. It is readily seen on the upper side of the liver.

Gallus domesticus. — The scientific name for the domestic fowl.

Gangrene. — See p. 271. Gangrene of oviduct.

Gastritis. — Inflammation of the stomach.

Hermaphrodite. — An organism which has both male and female re-
productive organs.

Hemorrhage. — Bleeding. A copious escape of blood from the
vessels.

Hepatic. — Pertaining to the liver.

Hyperemia. — Excess of blood in any part of the body.

Hypertrophy. — The morbid enlargement or overgrowth of an organ

or part.
Immunity. — Security against any particular disease.
Infection. — The transmission of disease from one animal to another,

usually through some intermediate agent.
Impaction. — The condition of being firmly lodged or wedged.
Incinerate. — To burn to ashes. Cremate.

Incision. — A eut.

Infiltration. — The accumulation in a tissue of substances not nor-
mally found in it.

Inflammation. — A morbid condition characterized by pain, heat,
redness, and swelling, and by hyperemia and various exuda-
tions.

Inoculation. — The insertion of a virus into a wound or abrasion in

the skin in order to communicate a disease.

Isthmus. — See p. 248.

Keratitis. — Inflammation of the cornea of the eye.

Larva. — The first stage in development after leaving the egg.
Used in connection with insects, worms, ete.

ll
332 Glossary

Larynx. — A muscular and cartilaginous structure situated at the
base of the tongue and connecting with the windpipe (trachea).
It is the organ of voice.

Lesion. — Any hurt, wound or local degeneration.

Leucocytes. — White blood corpuscles.

Lumen. — A transverse section of the clear space within a tube.

Lymphatic. — Pertaining to or containing lymph which is a trans-
parent slightly yellow liquid which fills the lymphatic vessels.
It corresponds in some respects to the serum or liquid portion
of the blood.

Mammal. — Any vertebrate animal which suckles its young.

Melanosis. — Pertaining to an abnormal deposit of pigment.

Mesentery. — The fold of peritoneum attached to the intestines.

Metamorphosis. — In insects the change from larval to adult form
as from caterpillar to butterfly.

Micro-organism. — Any minute (microscopic) animal or plant.
Often used in referring to bacteria or germs.

Mite. — A small arthropod somewhat related to spiders (ef.

Fig. 40).
Morphological. — Pertaining to the forms and structures of or-
ganized beings.
Mucosa. — The mucous membrane.
Mucous membrane. — The lining of the internal cavities of the body. ©
Mucus. — The viscid secretion of certain (mucous) glands.
Mycelium. — The thread-like portion of a fungus (ef. Fig. 53).
Nacreous. — Resembling mother-of-pearl.
Necrosis. — Death of a tissue.
Necrotic. — Pertaining to dead or decaying tissue.

Nictitating membrane. — The third or lateral eyelid in birds and
some related forms, springing from the inner or anterior border
of the eye and capable of being drawn across the eyeball.

Nucleus (pl. nuclei). — A spherical body within a cell. The nucleus
is essential to the life of the cell.

(Esophagus. — That portion of the alimentary canal between the
mouth (pharynx) and the crop.

Oral. — Pertaining to the mouth.

Ovary. — The female sexual organ in which the eggs develop.

Oviduct. — The tube through which the egg passes from the ovary
to the cloaca.

Ovum (pl. ova). — The egg, particularly while in the ovary,
(ef. Fig. 60).

Panophthalmia. — Inflammation of all the structures or tissue of
the eye.

Papilla. — A small nipple shaped elevation.

Glossary 333

Paralysis. — A loss of motion or sensation in a living part or mem-
ber.

Pathology. — That branch of medicine which treats especially of the
tissue changes caused by disease.

Pectoral. — Pertaining to the breast or chest.

Pelvis. — The girdle or ring of bone at the posterior extremity of
the trunk, supporting the spinal column and resting upon the

legs.
Pericardium. — The membranous sae which contains the heart.
Peristalsis. — The worm-like movements of the intestine and ovi-
duct by which the contents of these tubes are propelled.
Peritonitis. — Inflammation of the peritoneum or the membrane

lining the abdominal cavity.

Pharynzx. — That portion of the alimentary canal between the mouth
and the cesophagus. It also communicates with the larynx
and nasal passages at its upper end.

Pleural. — Pertaining to the serous membrane which covers the

lungs.
Posterior. — Situated behind or towards the rear.
Post-mortem. — Latin for after death. See autopsy.
Prognosis. — The prospect as to recovery from a disease or a forecast

as to the probable result of an attack of a disease.

Protoplasm. — A viscid granular material which forms the essential
constituent of the living cell. Living substance.

Protozoa. — A elass of unicellular animal micro-organisms.

Proventriculus. — That portion of a bird’s alimentary canal lying be-
tween the crop and the gizzard. Often called the stomach.

Punctiform hemorrhages. — Presenting the appearance as if punc-
tured by a large number of fine prickle or needle holes from
which the blood oozes.

Purgative. — Causing evacuations of the bowels.

Pyemia. — Blood poison due to microbie origin.

Sarcoma. — A kind of tumor or cancer not always of a malignant
nature.

Scabies. — A contagious skin disease caused by a mite.

Sclerotic. — Pertaining to the hard white fibrous membrane which
with cornea forms the outermost coats of the eyeball.

Serum. — The clear liquid which separates from the clot and the
corpuscles in the clotting of blood.

Spleen. — An oval shaped organ normally about one-half inch in
diameter and of a dark red color. It lies immediately above
the liver and between that and the proventriculus.

Spirochete. — A protozo6n parasite belonging to the genus Spiro-
cheta.

-
304 Glossary

Spore. — The reproductive cell of many protozoa and of many
lower plants. It is usually inclosed in tough membranes and
is difficult to kill.

Stigma. — See p. 248.

Subcutaneous. — Beneath the skin.

Sub-mucosa. — The layer of tissue situated beneath the mucous
membrane.

Syncope (sin-ko-pe). — Fainting. Failure of the heart’s action.

Trachea. — The wind-pipe.

Traumatic. — Caused by an injury.

Therapeutic. — Pertaining to the art and science of healing.

Thoracic. — Pertaining to the chest.

Urate. — A salt of urie acid. <A product of the secretion of the kid-
neys. The white part of a fowl’s droppings.

Ureters. — The tubes leading from the kidneys to the cloaca.

Uterus. — See p. 248.

Vagina. — That portion of the oviduct between the shell gland and
the cloaca.

Ventral. — Pertaining to, or situated toward, the belly.

Virulent. — Extremely poisonous or dangerous.

Virus. — Any animal poison, especially one produced by and ca-
pable of transmitting a disease.

Viscera. — The internal organs of the body.

INDEX

Abdomen, baggy, 80; liquid in, 80; !
swollen, 79.

Abdominal dropsy, 80.

Abnormal eggs, 272.

Abortion of eggs, 256.

Abscess, 325.

Acarina, 213.

Achorion schonleinii, 234.

Aconite root, 55.

Adenoma, 320, 322.

Agglutination test for tuberculosis,
127; for white diarrhea, 297.

Air, 19.

Air-sac mite, 180, 227.

Air sacs, 147.

Ajowan oil, 169.

Alimentary tract, diseases of, 57.

Ameba meleagridis, 95.

Anzemia, 120.

Anesthetizing poultry, 327.

Anatomy, of the fowl, 41; of repro-
ductive organs, 245; of respiratory
organs, 147.

Apoplectiform septicemia, 189.

Apoplexy, 194.

Apothecaries’ weights and measures,
56.

Argas persicus, 192, 228.

Arsenic as poison, 82.

Articular gout, 200.

Ascaris inflexa, 144.

Ascites, 80.

Aspergillosis, 101, 173;
302.

Aspergillus species, 175; fumigatus,
176, 285, 303.

Atoxyl, 193.

Atrophy of liver, 93; ovary, 251.

Autopsy, 46.

in chicks,

Bacillary white diarrhea, 287.
Bacillus avisepticus, 103; bipolaris sep-

ticus, 103; fluorescens liquefaciens,

321; pullorum, 112, 285, 287,
291, 295; swisepticus, 104; tuber-
culosis, 116; typhi gallinarum

alcalifaciens, 112; typhosis, 111.
Bacterium sanguinarium, 11.
Baldness, 233.

Balfour, 191.

Bang, B., 131.

Bang, Oluf, 118.

Banks, 206, 207.

“Bed-bug”’ of poultry, 230.

Beeck, 82.

Beri-beri, 197.

Berke, 146.

von Betegh, 156, 160.

Bichloride of mercury, 54, 324.

Blackhead, 94.

Blood, diseases of, 185.

Blood vessels, rupture of, 184.

Bloody diarrhea, 68, 83, 91, 138.

Bloody spots in eggs, 278.

Body mange, 226.

Bollinger, 183.

Bones, broken, 326.

Boracie acid, 152.

Bordet et Fally, 160.

Borrel, 160.

Bradshaw, 52, 142.

Brain, congestion of, 195; hemor-
rhage of, 194; post-mortem ap-
pearance of, 194.

Breaking of egg in oviduct, 271.

Breast bone, crooked, 310.

Breeding for health and vigor, 3.

Broken bones, 326.

Bronchi, 147.

Bronchitis, 153.

Brown, 27.

Bruet, 240.

Bumblefoot, 326.

Burckhardt, 186.

335

_
336

Calomel, 52.

Cancers, 101.

Canker, 164, 166, 172.

Carbolic acid for cholera, 109;
catarrh, 152.

Carcinoma, 320.

Carcinomatosis, 101.

Carnwath, 156.

Cary, 155, 240, 243.

Castor oil, 53,

Catarrh, simple, 151;
contagious, 156.

Catechu, 52.

Cayenne, 52.

Ceca, post-mortem appearance of,
97, 98, 294.

Cephalogonimus pellucidus, 145.

Cercomoniasis, 100.

Cerebral hyperzemia, 195.

Chelosperura hamulosa, 143.

Chicken pox, 155, 237.

Chickens, diseases of, 301.

Chilomastix gallinarum, 146.

Cholera, 103, 188.

Circulatory system, diseases of, 182.

Cleanliness, 14.

Cloacitis, 280.

Coccidia, 96.

Coccidiosis, 71, 285.

Coccidium tenellum, 285;
285; life history of, 73.

Cock eggs, 273.

Cold, 151; treatment for, 152.

Cole and Hadley, 75, 95, 96, 285.

Comb, frozen, 326; white, 233, 236.

Common measure, equivalents of, 56.

Complement fixation, 127.

Congestion of lungs, 177; brain, 195.

Constipation, 69, 70.

Constitutional vigor, breeding for, 3;
definition, 6.

Convulsions, 83, 196.

Copper poisoning, 83.

Corrosive sublimate, 54.

Cotton seed oil, 54.

Cremation, 31.

Crematory, 31, 33.

Creolin, 152.

Cresol soap, 17.

Cresol solution, 15; disinfectant, 17.

for

severe, 153;

cuniculi,

Index

Crooked breast bone, 310.

Crop, impacted (crop bound), 58;
inflammation of, 61; catarrh of,
61; enlarged, 62; inflated, 63;
paralyzed, 105.

Crop, post-mortem appearance of,
48, 294.

Cropping poultry ranges, 27.

Croup, 153.

Crurea, 143.

Curtain-front house, 11; interior, 13.

Curtice, 102.

Curtis, 78, 258, 274.

‘| Cuts, treatment of, 324.

Cysticercoid, 136.
Cytodites nudus, 180, 181.

Dammann and Manegold, 190.

Dampness, 10, 21.

Dandelion, for liver trouble, 92.

Davainea proglottina, 142.

Davainea tetragona, 137.

Dawson, 188.

Dead birds, disposal of, 30.

Decayed food, 85.

Denny, 207.

Depluming scabies, 225.

Depperich, 113.

Dermanyssus galline, 214.

Diagnosis of disease, 36.

Diagnosis, table for differential, 37,
50.

Diarrhea, 64, 67, 70, 85, 98, 105, 120,
154, 167, 174; bacillary, 287;
bloody, 85, 91, 167; diagnosis of,
292; watery, 89; white, 95, 112,
283.

Digestive organs, inflammation of,
106.

Diphtheria, avian, 155, 164; vaccine
for, 169; serum for, 169.

Diphtheritic roup, 164, 166.

Disease, prevention of, 3.

Disinfection, 15; formalin, 16; form-
aldehyde gas, 16; cresol, 17.

Dispharagus spiralis, 143; nasutus.
143.

Dissection of bird, 46.

Distemper, 154.

Distoma ovatum, 145; species, 145.

Index

Double-yolked eggs, 274.
Dove cot bug, 230.

Drepanidotenia infundibuliformis,
135.
- Drinking water, 24; antiseptic for,
25.
Droppings, green, 105; normal, 65.
Dropsy, 80.

von Durski, 257, 279.
Dysentery, 67.
Dyspepsia, 70.

Edema of wattles, 244.

Egg, bound, 266; breaking of, in
oviduct, 271; laying, physiology
of, 249.

Eggs, abnormal, 272; abortion of,
256; soft-shelled, 273; yolkless,
ii COCK ne 2ioieaa: WatChs lato
double-yolked, 274; triple-yolked,
274; inclusions in, 278; spots in
278; small, 273.

Ehrenreich, 313, 320.

Ehrenreich and Michaelis, 313.

Ellerman and Bang, 186.

Emaciation, 120.

Emphysema, 304.

Endocarditis, 183.

_ Enlargement of heart, 184; liver, 90.

Enteritis, 67.

Enterohepatitis, infectious, 94.

Epidermoptes bilobatus, 226;
catus, 226.

Epilepsy, 196.

Epithelioma contagiosum, 155, 237.

Epizootiec, 154.

Epsom salts, 53.

Ergot of rye, 84.

Eversion of oviduct, 263.

Exercise, 29.

External parasites, 30, 203; keeping
poultry free, 203.

Extractor, gape worm, 310.

Eye worm, 232.

Eyes, roup of, 157, 162.

bifur-

Fally, 156.

Fantham, 75.

Fatty degeneration of liver, 92.
Favus, 226, 233.

Z

337

Feeding, hygienic, 21.

Fleas, 230, 231.

Flukes, 145.

Follicle, 246; failure to rupture, 257.
Formaldehyde gas, 16.

Formalin, 16.

Fowl cholera, 102, 188.

Fowl plague, 112.

Fowl typhoid, 102, 111, 186.
Freese, 113.

Freidberger and Frohner, 237, 241.
Fresh air, 10, 19.

Frozen comb and wattles, 326.
Funk, 197.

Gadow, 149.

Gage, 288, 297.

Gage and Opperman, 53, 139, 140, 141.

Galli-Valerio, 160.

Game, Cornish Indian, 251.

Gangrene of oviduct, 271.

Gapes, 304.

Gastritis, 63.

Geese, 113.

Gerhartz, 249.

Gingylonema ingluvicola, 1438.

Gizzard, post-mortem appearance of,
48.

Gleet, vent, 280.

Glossary, 329.

Going light, 173.

Goniodes dissimilis, 207.

Gonococcus, 281.

Gout, 101, 199; visceral, 200; articu-
lar, 200.

Greene, 85, 91, 269.

Green droppings, 105.

Green food, 24.

Grippe, 154.

di Gristiana, 201.

Guerin, 160.

Guinea-fowl, 113.

Gurlt, 257.

Hadley, 105, 109, 110.

Hadley and Amison, 110.
Hadley and Beach, 155, 239, 243.
Hadley and Kirkpatrick, 286.
Haiduk, 218, 219, 220, 221, 223.
Hamilton, 253.

-

308

Haring and Kofoid, 156.

Harrison, 240.

Harrison and Streit, 155, 158, 160, 162.

Harvest-bug, 227.

Hauer, 193.

Health, breeding for, 3.

Health type, 4.

Heart, diseases of, 182; enlargement
of, 184; hypertrophy of, 184; rup-
ture of, 184.

Heart, post-mortem appearance of,
47, 106, 113, 182, 183, 188, 200.

Heart sac, dropsy of, 182.

Heat prostrations, 195.

Hebrant and Antoine, 200.

Helodrilas parvus, 143.

Hermaphroditism, 252.

Hemorrhage, of brain, 194.

Heterakis perspicillum, 143, 144.

Higgins, 115.

Hill, 182, 222.

Himmelberger, 119, 127.

Hirschfeld and Jacoby, 185.

Horton, 300.

Housing, poultry, 9.

Hydrogen peroxide, 152.

Hygiene, 8; essentials of, 35.

Hyperzemia, cerebral, 195.

Hypertrophy of heart, 184; of liver,
90; of yolk, 257.

Illness, symptoms of, 37.

Immunity against cholera, 109.

Inclusions in eggs, 278.

Indigestion, 70.

Infectious enterohepatitis, 94.

Infectious leukzmia, 111, 112, 185.

Inflammation of mouth, 171; of ovi-
duct, 262.

Influenza, 154.

Internal parasites, 133.

Inoculation for cholera,
roup, 169.

Intestinal cocciciosis, 285.

Intestinal worms, 133, 196.

Intestines, congestion of, 86.

Intestines, post-mortem appearance
of, 48, 68, 86, 87, 106, 123, 124,
294, 303.

Isolation of sick birds, 34.

109; = for

Index

Jaundice, 94.
Jewett, 75.

Johne’s disease, 119.
Jones, 288, 297.

von Katz, 156, 160.

Kaupp, 231, 300.

Kidneys, congestion of, 86; diseases
of, 199; enlarged, 199; inflamma-
tion of, 106; post-mortem appear-
ance of, 49, 86, 122, 199, 294.

King and Hoffman, 113.

Kingsley, 155.

Kitt, 110.

Knemidocoptes (Dermatoryctes) (Sar-
coptes) mutans, 216, 218, 220, 221.

Koch, 320.

Koch and Rabinowitsch, 119, 122,
128.

Kolle and Hetsch, 191, 192.

Lameness, 120, 121.

Land, 26.

Landois, 279.

Landsterner, 113.

Larynx, 147.

Laurie, 228, 229.

Lawry, 211.

Lead as poison, 83.

Leg weakness, 301.

Leuksemia, 185;
12 186:

Levaditi and Manouclian, 191.

Levaditi and McIntosh, 193.

Lewis, 5.

Lewis and Clark, 281.

Lice, 206; life history of, 207; mer-
curial ointment for, 205; method
of infestation, 208.

Lice powder, how to make, 211.

Life history of coccidium, 73.

Light, 19.

Limberneck, 86, 199, 202.

Lipeurus heterographus, 207 ;
bilis, 207.

Lisoff, 110.

Litter, 20.

Liver, congestion of, 86, 88, 93;
diseases of, 87; nodules on, 87;
spotted 87, 92, 95; hypertrophy,

infectious, 111,

varia-

Index

90; enlarged, 90; fatty degenera-
tion of, 92; atrophy of, 93; post-
mortem appearance of, 47, 68, 86,
87, 92, 93, 94, 95, 98, 106, 122, 125,
187, 294, 303.

Liver disease, 87;
treatment of, 89.

Lounoy and Bruhl, 191.

Lowenstein, 129.

Lungs, congestion of, 177; post-
mortem appearance of, 48, 122,
125, 147, 294.

Lye as poison, 81.

cause of, 88;

Maine Experiment Station, 11, 17,
DA 25. 27, 31, 164,204; 211.

Male reproductive organs, diseases
of, 282.

Mallophaga, 206.

Mange, 226.

Manson’s eye worm, 232.

Manteufel, 243.

Marchoux, 114.

Martin and Robertson, 146.

Materia medica, 52.

Measures, 56.

Medical Record, 129.

Medicines, 52.

Mégnin, 94, 217, 235, 305, 307.

Menopon biseriatum, 206; pallidum,
206, 208.

Mercurial ointment, 205.

Mercury, bichloride of, 54, 324.

Mercury poisoning, 83, 205.

Mesogonimus commutataris, 145.

Metchnikoff, 300.

Metric equivalents, 56.

Meyer and Crocker, 76.

Mitchell and Bloomer, 111.

Mites, 114, 213; air-sac, 180, 227;
connective tissue, 227; depluming,
224; harvest-bug, 227; red, 214.

Mohler and Buckley, 176.

Monocercomonas gallinarum, 100.

Moore, 102, 111, 137, 186, 188, 189.

Moore and Ward, 115.

Morse, 25, 131, 285, 286.

Mouth, inflammation of, 171.

Muller, R., 160.

Miller, J., 107.

O09

Murray, 227.
Mycosis, 173.
Myocarditis diphtheritica, 183.

Nematode worms, 142.

Nervous system, diseases of, 194.
New flock building, 131.

New Jersey Experiment Station, 5.
Neumann, 145.

Nitrate of soda as poison, 81.
Nits, 208.

Nodular teeniasis, 137, 138.
Notocotyle triserialis, 145.

Obstruction of oviduct, 266; of vent,
69.

Ointment, for wounds, 55; mer-
curial, 205.
Operation for egg bound, 269; im-

pacted crop, 60.

Oppel, 150.

Oregon Experiment Station, 300.

Osborn, H., 214.

Ostertag and Ackermann, 106.

Ovary, 246; atrophy of, 251;
eases of, 251; gangrene of,
tumors on, 256.

Ovary, post-mortem appearance of,
48, 122.

Overfeeding, 24.

Oviduct, 248, 260; anatomy of, 258;
diseases of, 258; inflammation of,
262; prolapse of, 263; obstruc-
tion of, 266; rupture of, 270;
gangrene of, 271; broken egg in,
PHANG

Ovule, 246.

Oxysperura mansoni, 232.

dis-
255);

Paralysis, partial, 85.
Parasites, external, 203;
lesy
Parrots, 119; 121.
Pasteur, 104.
Pearl and Curtis, 78, 250.
Pearl and Surface, 328.
Pearson, 196, 233.
Pearson and Warren, 138, 195.
Pericarditis, 182. :
Pericardium, inflammation of, 182.

internal,

_

340 Index

Peritoneum, post-mortem appearance
of, 49, 79.

Peritonitis, 77.

Permanganate, potassium, 25, 152;
for roup, 163.

Pernot, 115, 120.

Pfeiler and Rehse, 112.

Pharynx, 147.

Pheasants, 113, 253, 254.

Philips, 170.

Phosphorus poisoning, 84, 113.

Physiology, of reproductive organs,
245; respiratory organs, 147.

Pick, 320.

Pickens, 320, 322.

Pierce, 216.

Pip yaa

Plague, fowl, 102, 112.

Plymouth Rock, 251.

Pneumomycosis, 302.

Pneumonia, 178.

Poisons, 81; ptomaine, 85;
ment for, 86.

Poisonous plants, 85.

Polish, White Crested Black, 251.

Polyneuritis, 197.

Post-mortem appearance of brain,
194; ceca, 97, 98, 294; heart, 47,
106, 113, 182, 1838, 188, 200; in-
testines, 48, 68, 86, 87, 106, 123,
124, 294, 303; kidneys, 49, 86, 122,
199, 294; liver, 47, 68, 86, 87, 92,
93, 94, 95, 98, 106, 122, 125, 187,
294, 303; lungs, 48, 122, 125, 147,
174, 177; 178, 183, 188, 294, 303’;
ovary, 48, 122; spleen, 48, 68, 87,
122; 1125; 294.

Post-mortem appearances, 47, 48;
diagnostic value of, 49; table of,
50.

Post-mortem examination, 40; di-
rections for making, 46.

Potassium permanganate, 25, 152;
for roup, 163.

Poultry surgery, 324.

Powder, lice, 211.

Prevention of cholera, 107; of dis-
ease, 3.

Prolapse of oviduct, 263.

Prowazek, 192.

treat-

Ptomaine poisoning, 85.
Ptychotes coptica, 169.
Pulex galline, 230, 231.

Rabies, 114.

Range sanitation, 26.

Ransom, 136, 143, 232.

Rats, 156.

Red. mite, 214.

Reidenbach, 169.

Reproductive organs, 247; anatomy
and physiology, 245; diseases of,
245; diseases of male, 282.

Respiratory system, anatomy and
physiology, 147; diseases of, 147.

Rettger and Harvey, 287.

Rettger and Kirkpatrick, 288.

Rettger and Stoneburn, 291, 292,
293, 294.

Rettger, Kirkpatrick and Jones, 289,
290, 291, 295, 297, 299.

Rheumatism, 199, 201; in tubercu-
losis, 121.

Rhode Island Agricultural Experi-
ment Station, 109, 110.

Robinson, 90, 224, 236, 265, 266, 301.

Roebuck, 157, 166.

Rosenthal, 114.

Rotation, crops and chickens, 27.

Rottiger, 311.

Round worms, 142.

Roup, 155; nasal, 156; diphtheritic,
164.

Rous, 314, 316, 321.

Rous and Lange, 314, 317.

Rous and Murphy, 314, 318, 319.

Rous, Murphy and Tytler, 313, 314,
SS) O21.

Rupture, of blood vessels, 184; heart,
184; oviduct, 270.

Russ, 112.

Saccharomyces albicans, 173.

Salmon, 4,.77, 96, 102, 115, 129, 139,
144, 154, 156, 182, 183, 188, 196,
209, 226, 255, 265, 266, 280, 301.

Salt, as poison, 81.

Salts, Epsom, 53.

Salvarsan (606), 193.

Sanitation, 9.

Index

Sarcomatosis, 101.

Sarcoptes mutans, 240.

Sarcoptes levis var.
225.

Scabies, depluming, 224.

Sealy leg, 216.

Schiffmann, 114.

Schmid, 156.

Schalze, 150.

Scott, 148.

Seddon, 244.

Serum for diphtheria, 169.

Sickness, isolation, 34.

Sigwart, 156, 169.

Skeleton, 41.

Skin, diseases of, 233.

Sleepy disease, 189.

Small eggs, 273.

Smith, 95, 96, 286.

Smith and Ten Broeck,
291.

Soft-shelled eggs, 273.

Sore-head, 237, 239.

Sour milk for white diarrhea, 299.

Sparrows, 119.

Spirocheta gallinarum, 191.

Spirocheta marchouxi, 230.

Spirocheetosis, 190.

Spleen, post-mortem appearance of,
48, 68, 87, 122, 125, 294.

“Spotted liver,’’ 100.

Spots in eggs, 278.

Staggering, 195.

Stieda, 149.

Stiles, 135, 136, 138, 142.

Stock tonic, 71.

Stomach, inflammation of, 63.

Storrs Experiment Station, 288.

Streit, 160.

Streptococcus capsulatus gallinarum,
190.

Strychnine, 84.

Suffram, 81.

Sunlight, 10, 19.

Surface, 259.

Surgery, poultry, 324.

Sweet, 156, 240.

Symplectoptes cysticola, 227.

Symptoms, table of external, 37.

Syngamus trachealis, 305, 306, 307.

galline, 224,

te 2,

o41

Table of post-mortem appearances,
50.

Tables of symptoms, 37.

Tablets, 54.

Teeniasis, nodular, 137.

Tainted ground, 27.

Tape worms, 134;
prevention, 141.

Tears, treatment of, 324.

Tetranychus (Leptus) autumnalis, 227.

Theobald, 145, 181, 225, 227, 228,
2328

Thompson, D. S., 7.

Thompson, J. A., 145.

Thrombosis, 185.

Thrush, 173.

Ticks, 114, 192, 228.

Tonic, 71.

Trachea, 147.

Trematodes, 145.

Trichomastix gallinarum, 146.

Trichomonas gallinarum, 146.

Trichosoma strumosum, 143.

Triple-yolked eggs, 274.

Trypanosoma eberthi, 146.

Tubercle, 122.

Tuberculin, 126; reaction to, 127.

Tuberculosis, 115, 137, 180; diagno-
sis, 125; method of contagion, 128;
treatment for, 129.

Tumors, 101, 121, 312; ovarian, 256;
kinds of, 315.

Turkeys, blackhead in, 94, 113.

Typhoid, fowl, 102, 111, 187.

Tyzzer and Ordway, 315, 318, 321.

treatment, 139;

Uhlenhuth and Gross, 193.

Uhlenhuth and Manteufel, 156, 160.

Ulcers, 121.

United States Department of Agri-
culture, 216.

Urates, green, 105.

Urates, yellow, 104.

Vaccine for diphtheria, 169.

Vale, 144, 236, 304.

Van Bs, 125.

Van Es and Schalk, 119, 123, 125,
126, 127, 130.

Vedder and Williams, 197.

all
342

Vent gleet, 280.

Vertigo, 195.

Vigor, breeding for, 3.
Viscera, normal, 43.

Visceral gout, 200.

Vomiting, 61.

Von Linstor and Railliet, 145.

Ward, 106, 108, 122,

Warthin, 185.

Wasting of liver, 93.

Water, drinking, 24.

Wattles, edema of, 244; frozen, 326.

Weights, 56.

White comb, 233, 236.

White diarrhea, 95, 112, 283;
lary, 287; diagnosis of, 292.

Wilcox and McClelland, 232.

124, 128, 240.

bacil-

Index

Windpipe, 147.

Witch eggs, 273.

Woods, 293.

Worms, 133; eye, 232; flukes, 145;
gape, 305; round, 142; tape, 134;
trematode, 145.

Wounds, treatment of, 324.

Wright, 1, 236, 256, 281, 309.

Wry-neck, 202.

Wyandottes, Silver-laced, 7.

Yarrell, 253, 254.
Yolk hypertrophy, 257.
Yolkless eggs, 273.

Zine as poison, 83.
Zurn, 79, 82, 115, 137, 139, 183, 235;
264, 266.

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Taking this book as a basis the author has now made a wholly new book, extending it to cover
the field of general farming, stock-raising, dairying, poultry-rearing, horticulture, gardening,
forestry, and the like. It is essentially a small cyclopedia of ready rules and references
packed full from cover to cover of condensed, meaty information and precepts on almost every
leading subject connected with country life.

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York

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