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" -? + . é ‘ » . z. 3 a be ee cet eee ee Tt - ~~ = om St on a oe a - Terhere op a ,qgenatahe, . s ¥ hell ol AF ee > “* ~~ =" “ os t , " . ne te © Me eee Os re oe ye et es epee ce 4 re er ee Bb ee ee a a a ”* CI.” LOG \* °F. 4a ed ie a he ee | « * + “ww > wettest oy aes SEs Faye Sm Y VW, yy) \ Wi a Wi I) iY “A y / | yf h | Vip i, S My y i Yy Mi Ui fi) co ee ka a WZ WT Wy) iy MYA Wi, See = SSS eee SSS = = —— — = SS HM DOMESTIC ANIMALS. HISTORY AND DESCRIPTION OF THE HORSE, MULE, CATTLE, SHEEP, SWINE, POULTRY, AND FARM DOGS, WITH DIRECTIONS FOR THEIR MANAGEMENT, BREEDING, CROSSING, REARING, FEEDING, AND PREPARATION FOR A PROFITABLE MARKET ALSO, “AEIR DISEASES, AND REMEDIES. TOGETHER WITH FULL DIRECTIONS FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF THE DAIRY. ae) yo ' By RYLY ALLEN, AUTHOR OF “‘ COMPEND OF AMERICAN AGRICULTURE,” ETC. ~ NEW YORK : 0, MOORE, AGRICULTURAL BOOK PUBLISHER, (LATE 0. M. SAXTON & CO.,) NO. 140 FULTON STREET. 1859. Entered sccord’ng to an Act of Congress in the yenr 1847 Bry RICHARD L. ALLEN, Ia the Clerx s Offise of the District Court of the United States for the Southera District of New York. INTRODUCTION. Tue object of the following work, on the History, Breeding, Management, Diseases, &c., of Domestic Animals, is to afford the Stock-breeder and Grazier a connected view of the entire subject in which he has so deep an interest. The writer has endeavored to compress within the limited space assumed as necessary to secure a general circulation and perusal, such principles and practice, and give to each that relative promi- nence, which it becomes the practical man to observe, to realize the greatest amount of value for the labor and capital devoted to his pursuits. Their history is essential, as it shows their introduction into the United States, their progress during the various stages of their improvement, and the comparative value of the improved and ordinary breeds. A knowledge of the best mode of breeding and management is of still higher importance. The first will enable the breeder to preserve the high character of the animals in his hands, or perhaps still farther to advance them; while proper management and feeding will prevent that deterioration and loss from disease, which frequently _ subtract so much from his profits. A larger space has been purposely devoted to the last topics, in preference to the subject of diseases, as prevention is not only less troublesome than cure, but much more econom- ical. Feeding and management, after breeding, are really the important objects in view to the Stock-breeder and Graziet, for if these be judiciously attended to, disease among the herds will rarely be known. 6 INTRODUCT. ON. The subject of animal diseases is complicated and little un- derstood ; and to be properly comprehended, requires years of close, intelligent study, under every advantage for obtaining the necessary information. Nearly every disorder assumes various shades of difference, and to remove it effectually a corresponding change of treatment is required. How absurd then the idea, that a compilation of formal remedies, adminis- tered by an unskilful or inexperienced manager, will be of material service in rescuing his herds or flocks from the rava- ges of disease. All that can consistently be done, is to give a few simple remedies for the most common and well-known ailments, and leave to nature or a professional farrier, such as are more complex or unusual. This work (with many subsequent and important additions) — constitutes a small part of the “‘Compend of American Agri- culture,” the favorable reception of which, though but recent.y given to the public, has induced the writer to offer this im pertant division of the subject in its presert detached form. New York, November, 1847. INDEX. Animals, Bees, reared in ee vu. States . . 9 their number and value . sat 19) their improvement..--.....--.- 10 adaptation to various objects.-- 10 general form and characteristics 13 the lungs 14 respiration .--.-.+-.--....+s0- 14 effects of - : 17 perspiration .-..- 18 food which supplies respiration: 18 circumstances ge auginest eae . 19 ee eset obs Hin aris) eye) ots s\e.e aiare 21 gee fulfilled by food -..... 22 nutritive gees ae various animals. - at eee 93 profit of feeding. 25 See CaTTLE, SHEEr, ke. S85 Tl 2) 2 Ok, See oe eeemsreterse 181 varieties . 2 Seah s Sean eosa ser eM characteristics - 182 breeding in the U. States . Sac ee 182 as a beast of burden .......-..- 183 Breeding—principles of .-- 11 See CaTTLE, SHEEP, &c. Cattle—neat or horned..-....-..... 26 various domestic breeds ....--- 26 native Cattle....--..---...+...- Q7 Devons: -- ee eetwiceris inte patie AD} SHORESIORNS ws<5 w 0c 5 se “on 30) TS ey H EERIE SO Cae CRE RReOemRRE 15) Ayrshire...--..--2.-++-++++--.- 38 ae aueeeiment of Golyes 39 preeding..« . sees 4] breaking steers APE RBdCOencrsae 49 management of oxen...-------- 42 fattening and stall- Be pee 45 ESE ISE Selden wo artic, ain jain in aie wisic ats 1, 50 Reeener ok. I ee Ma Thy choking .-- ~oeee 52 inflammation of ‘stomach.. Saionnat 52 mange or scab ..-.---.--++++-+-- 52 horn-ail—jaundice . 53 eae bloody murrain euapiels 54 hoof-ail.. ‘ 55 loss of cud—scours 0 or r diarrhoea —warbles or Beene won —puerperal or milk-fever..- 56 caked bags—gar Bee oere teats TTT SER Bene chp oenOee eee Cows for dairy. eeee 60 management of. 61 milking - - So. cbogsacoccie 61 See Dary. Comparative value of oxen and IT SESteeicnre dace Soars skis syaee uw QO NO HUICTIS cis wie ncieicicic'e cee siseieiwisicreve © —O9 DAILY; tHE va. cence ceccssencces 60 : cig Ha Paa Dairy—selection and management of COWS evccococcevcce seeoc--s e060, 61 milking --.-...- 52) ee 61 properties of milk. So) ie VAIAON GS TD oeie sencielers everale's esee 63 cream—clouted ditto..---...... 65 Making butter from sour, sweet, and clouted cream....-.--.-66, 67 | sourness of cream .-----+++--.-- 68 quickness in churning. ----.7-. 68 over-churning 69 temperature of milk and cream. 69 advantages of churn’g the yuvle 69 cleanliness in chur ning - ee a0 premium butter, how made - --» 70 Orange county do. do..--. 71 Making cheese, how effected ..-. 72 creamed and uncreamed....... 7 buttermilk cheese..-.-...---..- 73 whey GO yiakateetays ous cetateadlcre 74 vegetable substances added ..-. 74 preparation of rennet...--...-. 75 different qualities of cheese.... 77 “warming the milk....-.......-. 77 quality of rennet.......-....... 78 quantity of rennet..-.-....-.. ayes treatment of.curd..-.-.-...-.... 79 separation of whey .---.-.....- 80 cheese, Salting...--.-.+-++-+.-- 8] addition. of Cream.+---..-.....- 81 size of cheese - oh wlecpaiaeyes SSID mode of CULINE ...2-22<.-5 20-5 82 ammoniacal cheese.. 82. inoculating do. «--.----++.- 82 premium cheese, how made.... 83 Ducks—see Pouutry. Farm dogs.. - .207-214 Feeding defined . Pacer hoakes song aac 21 See CarTLe, SHEEP, &e. Food, comparative nutritive qual- TTESO la onle sp me/eniote ci eeeoseasers how given, pepanes ae by x 22 changes in. : 24 See ANIMALS, “Prop ucts, &e. Geese—see PouLtTRY. Guinea-hen—see ditto. Hens—see PouLtry. | Hinny—see Ass. Horse—the Arabian une po seeeee 138 the English.- : 139 American......-.- sachs 141 Arabians in America. his simran "139, Ranger, the Barb—Bussorah— Narraganset pacer suai ger, imported : -- 140 Morgan horses - . 142 Canadian eae Spanish . steeeeees 143 Conestoga .-- os 2S hice Norman....--- 144 Cart, Cleveland bay, " Belfounder 145 149 8 INDEX. 7 AGE ey Ss ee Americal, -»-e-. 141 | Sheep—the Merino, history of .. points of...... sececeee 146 exportation from Spain -------- 92 Habits o- 22 cee cee ee eee cece ceee 147 importation into the BE Sate 93 PEECHING cis cieewiclase Sania sss 148 WES ES Gc onsen SonaTeoe 94 ie ae aap of colts. te ecee sees 149 Saxon, the.. cece e ewes cece sees OG breaking. - Soon csdcn Jat Rambouillet, Vee SBOGeO nC 99 longevity, feeding «. seoeeeee TSI history of Merino hi in ee States. - 101 Diseases - SokSo Soe anes se! improvements ae bone 102 glanders. SBE nob Heacrcdaclans decoe 154 peculiarities of - nae! LOS: lampas, heaves, &C. .---+--..-- 155 breeding. - SHidodleec cos oocs Ie catarrh or distemper, spasmod- localities for rearings « disaster OG IC COLIC «+--+ ee eee cee eee vee 156 South-Down, He, Esto ofS 106 flatulent coliceedseceee mene ccne 158; Cheviot, the.. egeene| (02) pane mation 2 bower eee 159 Long- -wools, the . 110 physicking.- jneoow oes Bod. GD improvement of the Bakewell.- 110 WOTMS. «cee ccecccccccceseeeseee 164 improvement of Cotswold and DION OmCOODRNO COMA hoon eco e eae, lt Lincolnshire......--+ 112 wind- “galls .. voce cece cess eeee 165 peculiarities of the Long- wools. 113 the fetlock.- vocsceceserees 166 Importation into the. ae States-- 113 cutting - 166 breeding sheep -- neon aasn INI! sprain of ‘the “coffin joint—ring- Winter management. wee e ence eee 116 bone.. 167 sheep-barns and sheds. . --- 116 enlargement of the hock se eenee 168 racks, pn aD CHers ae ‘troughs .. - 117 curb....... dno Ale! Toodececs: 118 bone- “spavin—swelled legs. eteee 170 management of ew es, yeaning.. 119 grease. : eeeee 171 management of Jambs..-.------ 119 setons - -: . eae eee: and docking..---.--- 120 founder—poison from ‘weeds .- 174 tagging or Clatting ...--........ 121 inflammation of the eyes ....... 175 Summer sta 2 aud food « - 121 stings of hornets, &c. .----+--- 175 washing ...... loyel socejnie Reha, ees OND spree eee ime ee 175 shearing......... areata eraposeam ae bruises—fistula - ceecceecees 176 smearing aud salving -. secceecces 125 wounds—galls...- 176 Weaning .-.--- Pvehooon (O45 shoeing, contr action of the foot. 176 drafting... aislhaal fe aiatolslatnleie 126 COYNS--+:--- 177 stall- feeding—-management ‘on over-reach, forging 0 or clicking. . 178 the Dealites cece cece wees ween 127 the bearing-rein ...--- 178| Diseases......-. Boric nici) (Os! THE NDIGie Sere meant mom mee ele caus 179 diarrhoea or scours . 129 Gino Gs code sap coo cueod ara gade 180 looseness in lambs, dysentery- - 130 comparative labor with oxen-. 190 hoven, braxy..-....... onoesaos ath costiveness, stretches, ‘poison, M ile, the—breeding in the U.S..-- 183 inflammation of Ines) rot .-- 131 rearing and management -..... 184 foot-rot -- K 3d se hee advantages over horse-labor .-- 185 flies, maggots, gad- “fly. ce teee sees 133 valuable aUaHHeS cohen wane cee - 185 swollen mouth, foul noses, weak- enduringness of.. teeeee sees 186 ness, scab.--.... 134 in California:...... weeseee 188 ticks, pelt- -rot, ‘staggers < or r sturdy 135 economy of mule-labor . ceeeeeee 189 abortion, garget, ‘bipedinae 136 wounds: - 137 Poultry—their value......-........ 214 to protect from wolves and foxes 138 Hens—constituent of C&ES- Meese soa: sites es idee. siaieeciniee ae 209 FOO cwisewicts wei wecceesess 215] Swine : cae ened omtara steam TO general management soccer ccee Q16 various s breeds. Suiilels eel ree amd the poultry-house-....-........ 218 breeding and rearing coreee eee. 198 Wie blseatoce 8 b6on Gobdadod 220, 221 rearing and ee la GISCASCS Woes ees e Ret eee eDOD weights........ 3 199 Turkey, the... ..- 2.00 see cen eceee 293 treatment of food «+... . +2: 2c 201 breeding and anes ements 223 products of the carcass -....... 202 Peacock, the - 224 lard oil, how made.......-....- 203 Goose, the—varieties—breeding. 225 stearine and oleine . sseeeee 203 feeding and food.. Jonstbees: Pes curing Ee and hams ..... +... 203 Ducks—feeding—varieties . Asie eee OOH Diseases...-.. 204 breeding and rearing -......... 227 coughs and inflammation of. the lungs, costiverless; a lic SNEED ANE «nok Ses = wotmves avi! sees 84 ney-worm . 1 ines ie Se eno () 5 uses of—importance of........ 85 blin staggers. ww duSiriclake eto GUE varieties of wild—domesticated 87 ; NATIVE oc cee reve cece ccseccervees 691 Wild BOar. coos scoccsscccceccesese 199 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTORY REMARKS—GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING, NUTRITION, MANAGEMENT, &c. Tue principal domestic animals reared for economical pur- poses in the United States, are Horned or neat cattle, the Horse, the Mule, Sheep, and Swine. A few Asses are bred, but for no other object than to keep up the supply of jacks for propagating mules. We have also goats, rabbits, and the house domestics, the dog and cat; the two former, only in very limited numbers, but both the latter much beyond our legitimate wants. There have been a few specimens of the Alpaca imported, and an arrangement is now in progress for the introduction of a flock of several hundred, which, if dis- tributed among intelligent and wealthy agriculturists, as pro- posed, will test their value for increasing our agricultural resources. We shall confine ourselves to some general con- siderations, connected with the first-mentioned and most im- portant of our domestic animals. Their number as shown by the agricultural statistics col- lected in 1839, by order of our General Government, was 15,000,000 neat cattle; 4,335,000 horses and mules, (the number of each not being specified ;) 19,311,000 sheep ; and 26,300,000 swine. There is much reason to question the entire accuracy of these returns, yet there is doubtless an approxima- tion to the truth. Sheep have greatly increased since that period, and would probably number, the present year, (1848,) not less than 30,000,000 ; and if our own manufactures con- tinue to thrive, and we should moreover become wool exporters, of which there is now a reasonable prospect, an accurate re- turn for 1850, will undoubtedly give us not ‘ess than 33,000,000 for the entire Union There has been a, eat increase in the 410 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. value of the other animals enumerated, but not in a ratio cor- responding with that of sheep. This is not only manifest in their augmented numbers, but in the gradual and steady im- provement of the species. It may be safely predicted, that this improvement will not _ only be sustained, but largely increased ; for there are some intelligent and spirited breeders to be found in every section of the country, whose liberal exertions and successful examples are doing much for this object. Wherever intelligence and sound judgment are to be found, it will be impossible long to resist the effects of a comparison between animals, which, on an equal quantity of the same food, with the same attention and in the same time, will return 50, 20, or even 10 per cent. more in their intrinsic value or marketable product, than the ordinary class. This improvement has been, relatively, most conspicuous in the Western and Southern states ; not that the present average of excellence in their animals surpasses, or even reaches that of the North and East; bui the latter have long been pursuing this object, with more or less energy, and they have for many years had large numbers of excellent specimens of each variety ; while with few exceptions, if we axclude the blood-horse or racing nag, the former have, till recently, paid comparatively little attention to the improvement of their domestic animals. The spirit for improvement through extensive sections, is now awakened, and the older settled por- tions of the country may hereafter expect competitors, whose success will be fully commensurate with their own. Before going into the management of the different varieties, we will give some general principles and remarks applicable to the treatment of all. The purpose for which animals are required, should be first determined, before selecting such as may be necessary either for breeding or use. Throughout the Northeastern states, cows for the dairy, oxen for the yoke, and both for the butcher, are wanted. In much of the West and South, beef alone is the principal object ; while the dairy is neglected, and the work of the ox is seldom relied on, except for occasional drudgery. Sheep may be wanted almost exclusively for the fleece, or for the fleece and heavy mutton, or in the neighborhood of markets, for large early lambs. The pastures and winter food, climate, and other conditions, present additional circum- stances, which should be well considered before determining on the particular breed, either of cattle or sheep, that will best } “omote the interes of the farmer. PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 11 The kind of work for which the horse may be wanted, whether as a roadster, for the saddle, as a heavy team horse, or the horse of all work, must be first decided, before selecting the form or character of the animal. The range of pig excellence is more circumscribed, as it is only necessary to breed such as will yield the greatest amount of valuable carcass, within the shortest time, and with the least expense. PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. All breeding is founded on the principle, that like begets like. This is, however, liable to some exceptions, and is much more generally true when breeding down than when breeding up. If two animals (which can never be exactly similar in all respects) are requisite to the perpetuation of the species, it necessarily results, that the progeny must differ in a more or less degree from each parent. With wild animals, and such of the domestic as are allowed to propagate without the inter- ference of art, and whose habits, treatment, and food are nearly similar to their natural condition, the change through successive generations is scarcely perceptible. It is only when we attempt to improve their good qualities, that it is essential carefully to determme, and rigidly to apply, what are adopted as the present scientific principles of bréeding. We cannot believe that we have penetrated beyond the mere threshold of this art. Unless, then, we launch into experi- ments, which are necessarily attended with uncertainty, our duty will be, to take for our guide the most successful prac- tice of modern times, until further discoveries enable us to modify or add to such as are already known and adopted. We may assume, then, as the present rules for this art, Ist. That the animals selected for breed, should unite in themselves all the good qualities we wish to perpetuate in the offspring. 2d. These qualities, technically called poznts, should be in- bred in the animals as far as practicable, by a long line of descent from parents similarly constituted. The necessity for this rule is evident from the fact, that in mixing different spe- cies, and especially mongrels, with a long-established breed, the latter will most st:.ngly stamp the issue with its own eculiarities. This is forcibly illustrated in the case of the paca cattle, an ancient race, whose color, form, and charac- teristics are strikingly perpetuated sometimes to the six h or. 12 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. even a later generation. So far is this principle carried by many experienced breeders, that they will use an animal of indifferent external appearance, but of approved descent, (blo0d,) in preference to a decidedly superior one, whose pedigree is imperfect. 3d. All the conditions of soil, situation, climate, treatment, and food, should be favorable to the object sought. 4th. As a general rule, the female should be relatively larger than the male. This gives ample room for the perfect devel- opment of the foetus, easy parturition, and a large supply of milk for the offspring, at a period in its existence, when food has a greater influence in perfecting character and form, than at any subsequent time. 5th. Exceptions to this rule may be made, when greater size is required than can be obtained from the female, and espe- cially when more vigor and hardiness of constitution are de- sirable. For this purpose, strong masculine development in the sire is proper, and if otherwise unattainable, something of coarseness may be admitted, as this may be afterwards cor- rected, and nothing will atone for want of constitution and strength. 6th. Pairing should be with a strict reference to correcting the imperfections of one animal, by a corresponding excellence in the other. 7th. Breeding in-and-im, or propagating from animals nearly allied, may be tolerated under certain circumstances, though seldom ; and only in extreme cases between those of the same generation, as brother and sister. When the animal possesses much stamina and peculiar merit, which it is desired to per- petuate in the breed, it may be done either in the ascending or descending line, as in breeding the son to the parent, or Se : parent to his own progeny. ‘This has been practised with de- cided advantage, and in some cases has even been continued successively, as low as the sixth generation. 8th. It is always better to avoid close relationship, by the selection of equally meritorious stock-getters of the same breed, from other sources. : 9th. Wholesome, nutritious food, at all times sufficient to keep the animals steadily advancing, should be provided, but they must never be allowed to oet fat. Of the two evils, starving 1s preferable to surfeit. Careful treatment, and the absence of disease, must be always fully considered. 10th. Animals should never be allowed to breed cither too early or too late ir life. These periods cannot be arhitrarily GENERAL FORM AND CHARACTERISTICS. 15 laid down, but must depend on their time cf matunty, the longevity of the breed, and the stamina of the individual. 11th. No violent cross, or mixing of distinct breeds, should ever be admitted for the purposes of perpetuation, as of cattle of diverse sizes; horses of unlike characters; the Merino and the long-wools, or even the long, or short, and the middle-wools. For carcass and constitution, these crosses are unexceptiona- ble ; and it is a practice very common in this country, and judicious enough where the whole produce is early destined for the shambles. But when the progeny are designed for breeders, the practice should be branded with unqualified reprehension. GENERAL FORM AND CHARACTERISTICS. Within certain limits, these may be reduced to a common standard. All animals should have a good head, well set up; a clean fine muzzle, and a bright, clear and full, yet per- fectly placid eye. With the exception of the dog and cat, whose original nature is ferocity, and whose whole life, un- less diverted from their natural instincts, is plunder and prey; and the jockey racehorse, which is required to take the purse, at any hazard of life or limb to the groom; a mild, quiet eye is indispensable to the profitable use of the domes- tic brute. The neck should be well formed, not too long, tapering to its junction with the head, and gradually enlarg- ing to a firm, well-expanded attachment to the back, shoulders, and breast. The back or chine should be short, straight, and broad ; the ribs springing out from the backbone nearly at right angles, giving a rounded appearance to the carcass, and reaching well behind to a close proximity to the hip; tail well set on, and full at its junction with the body, yet gradually tapering to fineness; thighs, fore-arms, and crops well developed; projecting breast or brisket ; the fore-legs straight, and hind ones properly bent, strong and full where attached to the carcass, but small and tapermg below; good and sound joints; dense, strong bones, but not large; plenty of fine muscle in the right places; and hair or wool, fine and soft. The chest in all animals should be full, for it will be in- variably found, that only such will do the most work, or fat- ten easiest on the leas: fod. 14 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. The Lungs. From the last-mentioned principle, founded on long ex- perience and observation, Cline inferred, and he has laid it down as an incontrovertible position, that the lungs should always be large; and Youatt expresses the same opinion. This is undoubtedly correct as to working beasts, the horse and the ox, which require full and free respiration, to enable them to sustain great muscular efforts. But later physiolo- gists have assumed, perhaps from closer and more accurate observations, that the fattening propensity is in the ratio of the smallness of the lungs. Earl Spencer has observed, that this is fully shown in the pig, the sheep, the ox, and the horse, whose aptitude to fatten and smallness of lungs, are in the order enumerated. This position is further illustrated by the different breeds of the same classes of animals. The Leicester sheep have smaller lungs than the South Down; and it has been found, that a number of the former, on a given quantity of food, and in the same time, reached 28 lbs. a quarter, while the South Downs with a greater consumption of food, attamed in the same period, only 18 lbs. The Chinese pigs have much smaller lungs than the Irish, and the former will fatten to a given weight, on a much less quantity of food than the latter. (Playfair.) The principle would seem to be corroborated by the fact, that animals generally fatten faster in proportion to the quantity of food they consume, as they advance towards a certain stage of maturity; during all which time, the secre- tion of internal fat is gradually compressing the size, by re- ducing the rvom for the action of the lungs. Hence, the advantage of carrying the fattening beast to an advanced point, by which not only the quality of carcass is improved, but the quantity is relatively greater for the amount of food consumed. These views are “intimately connected, and fully correspond, with the principles of RESPIRATION IN ANIMALS. From careful experiments, it has been found that all ani- mals daily consume a much larger quantity of food than the aggregate of what may have been retained in the system, added to what has been expelled in the foeces and urine, and RESPIRATION IN ANIMALS. 15 what has escaped by perspiration. Boussingault, who com- bines the characteristics of an ingenious chemist, a vigilant observer, and a practical agriculturist, made an experiment with a ‘‘ milch-cow and a full-grown horse, which were placed in stalls so contrived that the droppings and the urine could be collected without loss. Before being made the subjects of experiment, the animals were ballasted or fed for a month with the same ration that was furnished to them, during the three days and three nights which they passed in the ex- perimental stalls. During the month, the weight of the ani- mals did not vary sensibly, a circumstance which happily en- ables us to assume that neither did the weight vary during the seventy-two hours when they were under especial obser- vation. The cow was foddered with after-math, hay, and potatoes; the horse with the same hay and oats. The quantities of forage were accurately weighed, and their precise degree of moistness and their composition were determined from average samples. The water drunk was measured, its saline and earthy constituents having been previously ascertained. The excre- mentitious matters passed, were of course collected with the greatest care; the excrements, the urme, and the milk were weighed, and the constitution of the whole estimated from elementary analyses of average specimens of each. The re- sults of the two experiments are given in the table on the next age. ‘ The oxygen and hydrogen that are not accounted for in the sum of the products have not disappeared in the precise proportions requisite to form water; the excess of hydrogen amounts to as many as from 13 to 15 dwts. It is probable that this hydrogen of the food became changed into water by combining during respiration with the oxygen of the air.” 16 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. FOOD CONSUMED BY THE HORSE IN 24 HOURS. Weight in | Weiehev Elementary Matter in the Food. Forage. the wet the dry = ie state. state. es Hydrogen,| Oxygen. | Azote. Salient a Vos. ° | Ibs. oz. Ibs. oz. |Jb. oz dwt |b. oz. dwt.|lb. oz. @-vt.|Ib. oz, dwt. Fl aycee reco auenatey ie dare 20 l7 74 eels O10 oii) 28 3 2; 1 6 14 Oasiente ee eee 6 Sint Came OM SSS 18/FP 10 4a pet 7| Oo 2 10 Walter sowire veuajuie te 43 “ . “ eee 0.0); 8 Total . 5 . 69 DHF LO, 26) ree | gs ee 22] SOAS ee aa PRODUCTS VOIDED B\ THE HORSE IN 24 HOURS. Weight in| Weight fal X Elementary Matter in the Products. Products. the wet | the dry state. state. Carbon. |Hydrogen.| Oxygen. | Azote. ye 2 lb. oz. se Ib. oz. en lb. 02. awe Ib. oz. dwt.|lb. oz. dwt.| 1b. oz. wee lb. ant Winine Micliarecieie a: edo A\ noun ON OLS SSA OS S10} Oa rO ral Oka e ena 3 10 Excrements . . . . |38 2 2)9 5 6/3 7 1710 5 153 6 1410 2 10} 1 6 10 Totaly) ey eke) oho |e 8) Ny NOMS CO Sy Oey G2 US 7G Og sei lec enc Dotal matter cot) 7169). 20) 10| 226 1 2 15\.8+) @ Velo) ave aigdbegnas the food Difference. WATER CONSUMED BY THE HORSE WATER VOIDED BY THE HORSE IN 24 HOURS. IN 24 HOURS. ! Ibs. OZ. lbs. 02. Miaiah Gieineny a VEG aS Sb Seo 6 2 Sel WWathythetuninai apne) ple er teal 2 6 Wiathpthevaats:.: Aes 96 naneaiocreni se 0 14. | With the excrements . . . « e « 23 8 Male nha Ss Culaky wey | aimem native ce 35 3 aot ‘Rotalaconsuimedince: cic Westen tots 38 4 Notaliwordedi: «fo weitere maa ine 25 14 Waterconsumed. . « © « « » « 38 4 Water exhaled by pulmonary and cutaneous transpiration . . » » « + © « « © « » 12 6 FOOD CONSUMED BY THE COW IN 24 HOURS. eieht in |Wcienia a Elementary Matter in the Food Fodder. the wet | the dry : state. state. Carbon. |Hydrogen,| Oxygen. | Azote. Salts aud ees oz. dwt.|lb. oz. dwt.|ib. oz.dwt.|1b. oz dwt.|Ib. oz. dwt./lb. oz. dwt.| lb. oz. dwt. Potatoes) 2. 3° 6!) eee [o40) DES Poe SS 4 2 AO ee iy Ay NOY igi 6 13 After-mathhay. . 90, 1.2 BING NT 0 ek D0) LS Sa 5 | LO ata PO) 4 S07 eae eee Wratervnis: ee 160 0 0 Bod ose ove ri63 ree, ord cOseee lee DHotal. 205.0 5 21220) 931) 728 1 os 0. M3 SS 7 a OO 4) Oe eee Os ae PRODUCTS VOIDED BY THE COW IN 24 HOURS. P ; 2 : Elementary Matter in the Producte. Weight in| Weight in z Products. the wet | the dry . state. state. Carbon. |Hydrogen.| Oxygen. | Azote. Falieaad lb. 02. dwt.{lb. oz.dwt.|1b. oz.dwt.|lb. oz.dwt./lb. oz dwt.|1b. oz,dwt.|Ib. oz.dwt. Excrements . . . ./| 76 1 9/10 8 12 Te OO 6 son ae Ot OH Osean, | ee Nira} Urine: Vass eee SOLD AQ) s2 Brel 7 Oe 8s en O nO NEN OURS s 283400) lhe ale lass Oem Mlk ee ee, oP 22 0: TO 8s 0) S830 on ret O) a1 Ocs SOON lyn) RO pee teen Totals, os en pee [L2ONTELS TG eae | 6! NT S10) OMM0 12) NS eS 1G | ONS eae oe “matter of food 1220 3 7/28 1 1{12 10 13/1 7 #/10 9 1410 6 9|2 4 ll Difference. . . . .| 99 3 I6\1l 8 12) 5 11 3/0 8 1015 2 1610 © 18)0 0 19 WATER CONSUMED BY THE COW WATER VOIDED BY THE COW IN 24 HOURS. IN 24 HOURS. ']bs. OZ. Ibs. a With the potatoes . 2. 2). 2 2. $23 12 | With the excrements . *%... - 53 10 Witht ole dayin avers sslijetinel jell iscnlouihe 2 Qe Wathithel unin: nei.) voeente ene anaes 15 14 MakencasiGuinks Wey cewe im of vpn oh aloe Onale Wathitheimillceweuscwnerreulelatenecnnte 16 3 Total consumed . ..... . {158 5 HLotalav.O\QeGl mel seielice en aioe ie 85 ll Water consumed .. « o oe, Rls 5 Water passad off by pulmonary and cutancous transpiration . « « » © « © « « e e | 7 ° THE EFFECTS OF RESPIRATION. 17 We here perceive a large loss of water, carbon, hydrogen, &e. Nearly all this loss of carbon and hydrogen escaped by respiration, while most of the water, oxygen, nitrogen, and sal‘s, passed off in perspiration. In further illustration of the subject of respiration, Liebig says, ‘from the accurate deter. mination of the quantity of carbon daily taken into the system in the food, as well as of that proportion of it which passes out of the body in the foeces and urine, unburned, that is, in some form uncombined with oxygen, it appears that an adult taking moderate exercise, consumes 13.9 oz. of carbon daily.” The foregoing are facts in the animal economy, capable of vast practical bearing in the management of our domestic ani- mals. But before following out these principles to their ap- plication, let us briefly examine The Effects of Respiration. We have seen from the experiment of Boussingault, that there is a loss of 6 Ibs. 6 oz. of carbon, and 8 oz. 3 dwt. of hydrogen in the food of the horse, and something less in that of the cow, every 24 hours, which has not been left in the system, nor has it escaped by the evacuations. What has become of so !arge an amount of solid matter? It has escaped through the lungs and been converted into air. The carbon and hydrogen of the food have undergone those various trans- formations which are peculiar to the animal economy, diges- tion, assimilation, &c., which it is not necessary, nor will our limits permit us here to explain; and they appear at last in the veinous blood, which in the course of its circulation is brought mto the cells of the lungs. The air inhaled is sent through every part of their mnumerable meshes, and is there separated from the blood, only by the delicate tissues or mem- branes which enclose it. A portion of the carbon and hydro- gen escapes from the blood into the air-cells, and at the instant of their contact with the air, they affect a chemical union with its oxygen, forming carbonic acid and the vapor of water, which is then expired, and a fresh supply of oxygen is inhaled. This operation is agai repeated, through every successive moment of animal existence. Besides other purposes which it is probably designed to subserve, but which have hitherto eluded the keenest research of chemical physiology, one obvious result of respiration is, the elevation of the temperature of the animal system. By the ever-operating laws of nature, this chemical union of twe QZ 18 ROMESTIC ANIMALS. ; bodies in the formation of a third, disengages latent heat, which taking place in contact with the blood, is by it diffused throughout the whole frame. The effect is precisely analogous to the combustion of fuel, oils, d&c., in the open air. Perspiratior Is the counteracting agent which modifies this result, and prevents the injurious effects, which, under exposure to great external heat, would ensure certain destruction. And this too, it will have been seen, is provided at the expense of the animal food. When from excessive heat, caused by violent exercise or otherwise, by which respiration is accelerated and the ani- mal temperature becomes elevated, the papille of the skin pour the limpid fluid through their mnumerabie ducts, which m its conversion into vapor, seize upon the animal heat and remove it from the system, producing that delicious coolness ‘so grateful to the laboring man and beast in a sultry summer’s day. These two opposing principles, like the antagonistic gperations of the regulator in mechanics, keep up a perfect balance in the vital machine, and enable that entire division of the animal creation, distinguished as warm-blooded, including man and the brute, all the feathered tribes, the whale, the seal, the walrus, &ec., to maintain an equilibrium of temperature, whether under the equator or the poles; on the peaks of Chimborazo, the burning sands ef Zahara, or plunged in the depths of the Arctic Ocean. The connection between the size of the lungs, and the apti- tude of animals to fatten, will be more apparent from the fact, that the carbon and hydrogen which are abstracted, constitute two of the only three elements of fat. The larger size, the fuller play, and the greater activity of the lungs, by exhausting more of the materials of fat, must necessarily diminish its formation in the animal system ; unless it can be shown, which has never yet been done, that the removal of a portion of the fat-forming principles accelerates the assimilation of the re- mainder. ~The Food which supplies Respiration. This, in the herbiverous animals, after they are deprived of the milk, which furnishes it in abundance, is the starch, gum, sugar, vegetable fats, and oils that exist in the vegetables, grain, and roots which they consume; and in certain cases CIRCUMSTANCES WHICH AUGMENT RESPIRATION. 19 where there is a deficiency of other food, it is sparingly fur- nished in woody and cellular fibre. All these substances con- stitute the principal part of dry vegetable food, and are made up of three elements, which im starch, gum, cane-sugar, and cellulur fibre, exist in precisely the same proportions, viz: 44 per cent. of carbon, 6.2 of hydrogen, and 49.8 of oxygen. Grape sugar, woody fibre, and vegetable and animal fats and oils are made up of the same elements, but in different - proportions, the last containing much more carbon and hydro- gen than those above specified. In the fattening animals, it is supposed the vegetable fats and oils are immediately trans- ferred to the fat cells, undergomg only such slight modifica- tion as perfectly adapts them to the animal economy, while respiration is supplied by the other enumerated vegetable matters. If these last are taken into the stomach beyond the necessary demand for its object, they too are converted by the animal functions into fat, and are stored up in the system for future use. But if the supply of the latter is insufficient for respiration, it first appropriates the vegetable fat contained in the food: if this is deficient, it draws on the accumulated stores of animal fat already secreted in the system, and when these too are exhausted, it seizes upon what is contained in the tissues and muscle. When the animal commences drawing upon its own resources for the support of its vital functions, deterioration begins; and if long continued, great emaciation succeeds, which is soon followed by starvation and death. The carniverous animals are furnished with their respiratory excretions, from the animal fat and fibre which exist in their food, and which the herbivore had previously abstracted from the vegetable creation. Circumstances which augment Respiration. These are, exercise, cold, and an abundant supply of food. Exercise, besides exhausting the materials of fat, produces a waste of fibre and tissue, the muscular and nitrogenized parts of the animal system; and it is obvious from the foregoing principles, that cold requires a corresponding demand for car- bon and hydrogen to keep up the vital warmth. The con- sumption of food to the fullest extent required for invigorating the frame, creates a desire for activity, and it insensibly indu- ces full respiration. The well-fed, active man, unconsciously draws a full, strong breath; while the abstemious and the © feeble, unwittingly use it daintily, as if it were a choice com- 20 DOMESTIC ANIMALS: modity not to be lavishly expended. If the first be observed when sleep has effectually arrested volition, the expanded chest will be seen, heaving with the long-drawn, sonorous breath; while that of the latter will exhibit the gentle repose of the infant on its mother’s breast. The difference between the food of the inhabitants of the polar and equatorial regions, is strikingly illustrative of the demands both for breathing and perspiration. The latter are almost destitute of clothing, and subsist on their light, juicy, tropical fruits, which contain scarcely 12 per cent. of carbon, yet furnish all the elements for abundant perspiration ; while the former are imbedded in furs, and devour gallons of train oil or its equivalent of fat, which contains nearly 80 per cent. of carbon, that is burnt up in respiration to maintain a neces- sary warmth. The bear retires to his den in the beginning of winter, load- ed with fat, which he has accumulated from the rich, oily mast abounding in the woods in autumn. There he lies for “months, snugly coiled and perfectly dormant; the thickness of his shaggy coat, his dry bed of leaves, and well-protected den, effectually guarding him from cold, which in addition to his want of exercise, draw slightly upon respiration to keep up the vital heat. When the stores of carbon and hydrogen con- tained in the fat are expended, his hunger and cold compel him to leave his winter-quarters, again to wander in pursuit of food. Many of the swallow tribes, in like manner, hybernate in large hollow trees, and for months eke out a torpid, scarcely perceptible existence, independent of food. Activity and full respiration, on the return of spring, demand a support, which is furnished in the myriads of flies they daily consume. The toad and frog have repeatedly been found in a torpid state, imbedded in limestones, sandstones, and, the breccias, where they were probably imprisoned for thousands of years without a morsel of food; yet when exposed to the warmth of the vital air and the stimulus of its oxygen, they have manifested all the activity of their species. This they are enabled to sustain only by an enormous consumption of insects. Dr. Playfair states, that in an experiment made by Lord ~ Ducie, 100 sheep were placed in a shed, and ate 20 pounds of Swedes turnips each per day; another 100 were placed in the open air, and ate 25 pounds per day; yet the former, which had one-fifth less food, weighed, after a few weeks, thiee pounds more per head than the latter. He then fed five ship THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS. 21 in the open air, between the 21st November and 1st Decem- ber. They consumed 90 pounds of food per day, the tem- perature bemg at 44°, and at the end of this time, they weighed two pounds less than when first exposed. Five sheep were then placed under a shed, and allowed to run about in a temperature of 49°. At first they consumed 82 pounds per day; then 70 pounds, and at the end of the time they had gained 23 pounds. Again, five sheep were placed under a shed as before, and not allowed to take any exercise. They ate at first, 64 pounds of food per day, then 58 pounds, and increased in weight 30 pounds. Lastly, five sheep were kept " quiet and covered, and in the dark. ‘They ate 35 pounds per day, and increased eight pounds. Mr. Childers states, that 80 Leicester sheep in the open. field, consumed 50 baskets of cut turnips per day, besides oil- cake. On putting them im a shed, they were immediately able to consume only 30 baskets, and soon after but 25, being only half the quantity required before, and yet they fattened as rapidly as when eating the largest quantity. The minimum of food, then, required for the support of animals, is attained when closely confined in a warm, dark shelter; and the maxi- mum, when running at large, exposed to all weathers. THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS. This should be regulated by a variety of considerations. The young which may be destined for maturity, should be supplied with milk from the dam until weaning-time. No food can be substituted for the well-filled udder of the parent, which is so safe, healthful, and nutritious. If from any cause there is deficiency or total privation, it must be made up by that kind of food, meal-gruel, &c., which, in its composition, approaches nearest in quality to the milk. At a more ad- vanced age, or the time for weaning, grass, hay, roots, or grain, may be subsiituted, in quantities sufficient to maintain a steady but nota forced growth. Stuffing can only be tolerated in an- imals which are speedily destined for the slaughter. Alter- nately improving and falling back, is injurious to all stock. An animal should never be fut but once. Especially is high feeding bad for breeding animals. Much as starving is to be deprecated, the prejudicial effects of repletion are still greater. The calf or lamb intended for the butcher, may be pushed for- ward with all possible rapidity. Horses or colts should never exceed a good working or breeding condition. BZ DOMESTIC ANIMALS. Purposes fulfilled by different Kinds of Food. The objects designed to be answered by food, are to a cerz- tain extent the same. All food is intended to meet the de- mands of respiration and nutrition, and fattening to a greater or less degree. But some are better suited to one object than others, and it is for the intelligent farmer to select such as will most effectually accomplish his particular purposes. The very young animal requires large quantities of the phos- phate of lime for the formation of bone; and this is yielded in the milk in larger proportions than from any other food. The growing animal wants bone, muscle, and a certain amount of fat, and these are procured from the grasses, roots, and grain ; from the former when fed alone, and from the two latter “when mixed with hay or grass. Horses, cattle, and sheep need hay to qualify the too wa- tery nature of the roots, and the too condensed nutritiveness of the grain. Animals that are preparing for the shambles, require vegetable oils or fat, starch, sugar, or gum. ‘The first is contained in great abundance in flax and cotton-seed, the sun-flower, and many other of the mucilaginous seeds. Indian corn is the most fattening grain. The potato contains the greatest proportion of starch, and the sugar-beet has large quantities of sugar, and both consequently are good for stall- feeding. ‘The ripe sugar-cane is perhaps the most fattening of — vegetables, if we except the oily seeds and grain. The{Swedes turnip jis a good food to commence with fattening cattle and sheep; but where great ripeness in animals is desired, they should be followed Sah beets, carrots or potatoes, and grain. The table of the average composition of the different crops, which we subjoin from Johnston, shows the comparative qual- ities of various kinds of food, and it will be found a valuable reference for their nutritive and fattening qualities. He says, “In drawing up this table, [ have adopted the proportions of gluten, for the most part, from Boussingault. Some of them, however, appear to be very doubtful. The proportions of fatty maticr are also very uncertain. With a few exceptions, those above given have been taken from Sprengel, and they are, m general, stated considerably too low. It is an interesting fact, that the proportion of fatty matter in and immediately under the husk of the grains of corn, is generally much greater than in the substance of the corn itself. Thus I have found the pollard of wheat to yield more than twice as much oil as the OF DIFFERENT KINIS OF FOOD. 23 fine flour obtained fromthe same sample of grain. The four portions separated by the miller from a supericr sample of wheat grown in the neighborhood of Durham, gave of oil re- spectively : fine flour, 1:5 per cent. ; pollard, 2°4; boxings, 3°6 ; and bran, 3°3 per cent. Dumas states that the husk of oats sometimes yields as much as five or six per cent. of oil.” The columns under starch, &c., and fatty matter, denote the value for respiration or sustaiming life, and the fattening qualities ; that under gluten, the capacity for yielding muscle and sup- porting labor; and saline matter indicates something of the proportions which are capable of being converted into bones. Husk or Starch, Gluten, al- Water. woody gum, and bumen, le- Fatty Saline fibre. sugar, gumen, &c. matter. matter Wheat s..< «16 15 55 10 to 15 2to4 J. 2:0 Harleys os. 1d 15 60 12? 25 J. 2-0 Oat. t.- » LG 20 50 14:5? 56 J. 3°5 Woyesn: |. ss AZ 10 60 14:5 Sy 1-0 Indian corn. . 14 15? 50 120 5 to9 D. 1-5 Buckwheat, . 16? 252 5G 145 0-4? 1-5 Beans, . sl'6 10 AQ 28:0 2+ 30 esas: 1S 8 50 24:0 2-8? 2:8 Potatoes; . 75? ays 12? Peis. 0:3 0-8 tol Turnips,. . . 85 3 10 12 2 0:8 to 1 Ganaise c. Si+.8d 3 10 2:0 0-4 1:0 Meadow hay, . 14 30 40 71 2to5D. 51010 Clover hay, . 14 25 A0 33 30 9 Pea straw, . 10to15 25 45 1 is 3 ate dew 4.05519 45 35 13 0-8 6 Waeatdo . 12to15 50 30 1s: 0:5 3 Bariey do. . . do. 50 30 13 0:8 5 ixvyerswoor.. do. -' 45 38 Ts 0:5 3 Indian corn do. 12 25 52 3:0 1-7 4 This table, it will be perceived, is far from settling the precise relative value of the different enumerated articles. An absolute, unchanging value can never be assumed of any one substance, as the quality of each must differ with the particular variety, the soil upon which it is grown, the charac- ter of the season, the manner of curing, and other circum- stances. An approximate relative value ‘s all that can be ex- pected, and this we may hope ere long to obtain, from the spirit of analytical research, which is now developed and ir. successful progress. More especially do we need these inves- tigations with American products, some of which are but par- tially cultivated in Europe, whence we derive most of om analyses. And many which are there reared, differ widely 34 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. from those produced here, as these also differ from each other. What, for instance, 1s the character of meadow hay ? We know that this varies as four to one, according to the particular kinds grown; and our Indian corn has certainly a less range than from five to nine. The Changes in the Food of Animals. Potatoes, when first ripe, are estimated to be worth, for feeding purposes, nearly twice as much as when old; and the relative value of the different kinds, varies greatly at the same age and under similar conditions of growth. Perrault ascertained by careful experiment, that hay, clover, and lucerne lost much of their nutritive qualities by drying, and im lucerne this loss amounted to about thirty-five per cent. This is an important consideration in the feeding cf green and dry forage. Oats are among the best feed, both for young and working animals; but it has been found that they are greatly improved for the latter, and perhaps for both, by allowing the new crop to remain till the latter part of winter, before feeding. The improvement by steaming and cooking food, is seldom sufficiently appreciated. Food properly managed, can never be made worse by cooking for any stock; although it has not been considered so essential for working, and generally, for ruminating animals, as for swime, and such as were stall- feeding. But the alteration produced in cooking, by fitting it for a more ready assimilation, must, as a general rule, add much to the value of the food, and the rapid improvement of the animal. The effect of slight fermentation, or souring the food, pro- duces the same result. Animals accustomed to this acid food, will reject what is unprepared when they can get at the former; and we have no doubt, from our own experience, that there is a saving in thus preparing it, from 20 to 40 per cent. A mixture of food should be supplied to ali animals. Like man, they tire of any constant aliment. [or such, especially, as are fattening, and which it is desirable to mature with the greatest rapidity, a careful indulgence of their appetite should be studied. They should be provided with whatever they most crave, if it be adapted to the secretion of fat. Cutting, crushing, and grinding the food; cooking, souring, and mix- ime it, are each by themselves an improvement for feeding ; THE PROFIT OF FEEDING. 25 and frequently two or more of these prepaiations combined, are of great utility in effecting the object proposed. The Profit of Feeding. It is evident, that this consists in a valuable return from the animal of the food consumed. In the horse, this can only be received in labor or breeding; in the ox, from labor and flesh; in the cow, from the milk, the flesh, and her young. In the sheep, it may be returned in its fleece, its carcass, or its progeny ; and in the swine only by its progeny and flesh. The manure we expect from all; and if this be not secured and So used, few animals about the farm will be found to yield a satisfactory profit for their food and attention; though it is evident, it should form but a small part of the return looked for. Animals are only profitable to the farmer, when they yield a daily mcome, as in their milk or labor; or annually, by their young or fleece; unless it be in a course of regular improve- ment, either in their ordinary growth or preparation for the butcher. The animal must consume a certain amount of food merely to keep up its stationary condition, and to supply the materials for waste, respiration, perspiration, and the evacu- ations. These must first be provided for in all cases, before the farmer can expect any thing for the food. Frequent observation has shown, that an ox will consume about two per cent. of his weight of hay per day, to maintain his condition. If put to moderate labor, an increase of this quantity to three per cent., will enable him to perform his work, and still maintain his flesh. If to be fattened, he re- quires about 43 per cent. of his weight daily, in nutritious food. A cow to remain stationary and give no milk, eats two per cent. of her weight daily; and if in milk, she will consume three per cent. If these statements are correct, which it is certain they are in principle, though they may not be entirely - in degree, it will require the same food to keep three yoke of cattle m idleness, as two at work; and the food of every two that are idle, will nearly support one under the most rapid condition of fatting. Two cows may be kept in milk, with the same feed that will keep three without. No practice is more impolitic, than barely to sustain the stock through the winter, or a part of the year, as is the case in too many ” instances, and allow them to improve only when tuned on grass in summer. Besides subjecting them to the 3 36 DOMESTUC ANIMALS. risk of disease, consequent upon their privation sf food, nearly half the year is lost in their use, or in maturing them for prof- itable disposal; when if one-third of the stock had been sold, the remainder would have been kept ma rapidly improving cen- dition, and at three years of age, they would probably be of equa! value, as otherwise at five or six. It is true that breed has much to do with this rapid advancement, but breed 1s useless without food to develop and mature it. CHAP. ER slid. NEAT OR HORNED CATTLE. ‘Tne value of our neat cattle exceeds that of any other of the domestic animals in the United States. They are as widely disseminated, and more generally useful. Like sheep and al! our domestic brutes, they have been so long and so entirely subject to the eontrol of man, that thew original type is un- known. They have been allowed entire freedom from all he- man direction or restraint for hundreds of years, on the bound- less pampas of South America, California, and elsewhere; but when permitted to resume that natural condition, by which both plants and animals approximate to the character ef ther original head, they have scarcely deviated in any respect, from the domestic herds from which they are descended. From this it may be mferred, that our present races do not differ, in any of their essential features and characteristics, from the original stock. Various Domestic Breeds. Cultivation, feed, and climate, have much to do im deter- mining the form, size, and character of cattle. In Lithuania, eattle attain an immense size, with but moderate pretensions to general excellence, while the Irish Kerry and Scotch Grampian cows but little exceed the largest sheep; yet the last are compact and well-made, and yield a good return for the food consumed. Every country, and almost every district, has its peculiar breeds, which by long association have become adanted to the food and circumstances of its position, and ae oti = ee Oe eee eee TA.1.Ve JALILE. 2Q7 when found profitable, they should be exchanged for others, only after the mosi thorough trial of superior itness for the particular location, in those proposed to be introduced. More attention has been paid to the improvement of the va- rious breeds of cattle in England, than in any other country: and it is there they have attamed the greatest perfection ip form and ¢haracter for the various purposes to which they are devoted. e have derived, directly from Great Britain, not only the parent stock from which nearly all our cattle are de- scended, but also most of those fresh importations, to which we have looked for improvement on the present race of animals. A few choice Dutch cattle, generally black and white, and of large size, good forms, and good milkers, with a decided tendency to fatten, have been occasionally introduced among us, but not in numbers sufficient to keep up a distinct breed ; and in the hands of their importers, or immediate successors, their peculiar characteristics have soon become merged in those herds by which they were surrounded. Some few French and Spanish cattle, the descendants of those remote importations, made when the colonies of those kingdoms held possession of our northern, western, and southern frontiers, still exist in those sections; and although possessing no claims to particular superiority, at least in any that have come within our notice, yet they are so well acclimated, and adapted to their various localities, as to render it inexpedient to attempt supplanting them, except with such as are particularly meri- torious. Native Cattle.. This is a favorite term with Americans, and comprehends every thing in the country, excepting such as are of a pure and distinct breed. It embraces some of the best, some of the worst, and some of almost every variety, shape, color, and character of the bovine race. The designation has no farther meaning, than that they are indigenous to the soil, and do not belong to any well-defined or distinct variety. The best native cattle of the Union are undoubtedly to be found in the Northeastern states. Most of the early emigrant cattle im that section were from the southern part of England, where the Devon cattle abound; and though not at the pres- ent time bearing a close resemblance to that breed, unless It has been impressed upon them by more recent importations, yet a large number have that general approximation in char- acter, features, and color, which entitles them to claim a near 28 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. kindred with one of the choicest cultivated breeds. They have the same symmetry, but not in general the excessive delicacy et form, which characterizes the Devons; the same intelli- gence, activity, and vigor in the working cattle, and the same tendency to fatten‘nge but they are usually better for the dairy than their imported ancestors. Some valuable intermixtures have occasionally been made among them. . Aggong these, there have been many brindled cattle widely disseminated, of great merit as workers, and not often surpassed for the dairy and shambles. The Herefords have in a few instances been introduced among the eastern cattle, and apparently with great improvement. The importation made by Admiral Coffin, of four choice Here- ford bulls and cows, which were presented to the State Agri- cultural Society of Massachusetts, nearly thirty years since, is especially to be mentioned, as resulting im decided benefit wherever they were disseminated. Some of the old Yor kshire, or as they are sometimes styled, the long-horned Durhams, have been introduced, though these have been isolated indi- | viduals and never perpetuated as a separate breed. SAN DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 36 ig. 4. eh we HEREFORDS. 37 Rees of middle size; flank targe; flesh everywhere mellow, soft, and yielding pleasantly to’ the touch, especially on the “fe, the shoulder, and the ribs; hide mellow, supple, of ‘a.middle thickness, and loose on ihe neck and huckle; coat neatly haired, bright and silky; color, a middle red, with a bald face characteristic of the true Herefordshire breed.” Youatt further describes them as follows: ‘‘'They are usu- ally of a darker red; some of them are brown, and even yel- low, and a few are brindled; but they are principally distin- guished by their white faces, throats, and bellies. In a few the white extends to the shoulders. The old Heiefoids were brown or red-brown, with not a spot of white about tiem. It is only within the last fifty or sixty years that it has been the fashion to breed for white faces. Whatever may be thought of the change of color, the present breed is certainly far supe- rior to the old one. The hide is considerably thicker than that of the Devon, and the beasts are more hardy. Compared with the Devons, they are shorter in the leg, and also in the carcass ; nigher, and broader, and heavier in the chine; rounder al wider across the hips, and better covered with fat; the thigh fuller and more muscular, and the shoulders larger and coarser. They are not now much used for husbandry, although their form adapts them for the heavier work; and they have all the honesty and docility of the Devon ox, and greater strength, if not his activity. ‘The Herefordshire ox fattens speedily at a very early age, and it is therefore more advantageous to the farmer, and perhaps to the country, that he should go to mar- ket at three years old, than be kept longer as a beast of draught. They are not as good milkers as the Devons. This is so generally acknowledged, that while there are many dairies of Devon cows in various parts of the country, a dairy of Here- fords is rarely to be found. To compensate for this, they are even’more kindly feeders than the Devons. Their beef may be olifected to by some as being occasionally a little too large in the bone, and the fore- -quarters being coarse and heavy ; but the meat of the best pieces is often ver y fine-grained and beautifully marbled. There are few cattle more prized in the marke: than the genuine Herefords.” There have been several importations of the Herefords into the United States, which by crossing with our native cattle, have done great good; but with the exception of a few fine animals at the South, we are not aware of their being kept in a tate of purity, till the importation of the splendid herd. 4 38 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. within the _ast six years, by Messrs. Corning and Sotham of Albany, N. Y. These Herefords are among the very best which England can produce, and come up fully to the descrip- tion of the choicest of the breed. Mr. Sotham, after an expe- rience of several years, is satisfied with the cows for the dairy : and he has given very favorable published statements of the results of their milking qualities, from which it may be properly inferred, that Youatt drew his estimates from some herds which were quite indifferent in this property. ‘They are pecu- liarly the grazier’s animal, as they improve rapidly and mature early on medium feed. They are excelled for the yoke, if at all, only by the Devons, which, in some features, they strongly resemble. Both are probably divergent branches of the same original stock. The Ayrshire Is a breed that has been much sought after of late years, from their reputation for fine dairy qualities. The milk is good both in quantity and quality, yielding, according to a recent statement of Mr. Tennant, of Scotland, who owns a large herd, fifteen quarts per day during the best of the season, twelve of which made a pound of butter. The product of the latter averages about 170 pounds per annum to each cow. Another authority says, on the best low-land pasture, a good cow yields nearly 4000 quarts per year. ‘This is a large quantity, and implies good cows and extra feed. Mr. Cushing, of Massachusetts, who imported several select animals, without regard to their cost, informed us, after three or four years’ trial, that he did net perceive any superiority in them, over the good native cows of that state, for dairy pur- poses. A large number have been imported in detached par- cels, and scattered through the country. They are good ani- mals, but seem to combine no valuable properties in a, higher degree than are to be found in our own good cattle, and espe- cially such as are produced from a cross of the Short Horn bull of a good milking faraily, on our native cows. They are. evidently a recent breed, and do not therefore possess that uniformity of appearance and quality, which attaches to one of long cultivation. My. Aiton, of Scotland, gives the following account of them: “The dairy breed of Scotland have been formed chiefly by skilful management, within the last 50 years; and they are still improving and extending t» other countries. ‘Till after MANAGEMERT OF CALVES. 39 1770, the cows in Cunningham were small, ill-fed, ill-shaped, and gave but little milk. Some cows of a larger breed and of a brown and white color, were about that time brought to ~ A;rshire from Teeswater, and from Holland, by some of the patriotic noblemen of Ayrshire; and these being put on good pasture, yielded more milk than the native breed, and their calves were much sought after by the farmers.” We may fairly infer from the foregoing, which is deemed indisputable authority; from the locality of their origin, in the neighborhood of the Short Horns ; and from their general resemblance, both externally and in their general characteris- tics to the grade animals, that they owe their principal excel- lence to this long-established breed. MANAGEMENT OF CALVES. The safest and least troublesome manner of raising ealves, is at the udder of the dam; and whenever the milk is con- verted into butter and cheese, we believe this to be the most economical. The milk of one good cow is sufficient, with a run of fresh, sweet pasture, to the feeding of two calves at the same time; and if we allow the calves to arrive at three or four months of age before weaning, we may safely estimate, that one good cow will yield a quantity of milk in one season, fully equivalent to bringing up four calves to a weaning age. By keeping the calf on the fresh milk, whether he take it directly from the udder, or warm from the pail, all risk of dis- ordered bowels is avoided. The milk is precisely adapted to the perfect health and thrift of the young, and whenever we substitute for it any other food, we must watch carefully that not the slightest mismanagement produces disorder, lest more is lost by disease or want of improvement, than is gained by the milk of which they are robbed. The first milk of the cow after calving, is slightly purgative, which is essential to cleanse the stomach of the calf. It is, moreover, perfectly worthless for two or three days, for any other purpose except for swine. The calf will seldom take all the milk at first, and whatever is left m the bag should be thoroughly removed by the hand. If the calf is destined for the butcher, he must have all the milk he wants for at least six weeks, and eight or ten is better; and if the cow does not furnish enough, he ought to be fed gruel or linseed tea. He must be closely confined in a snug, but clean and airy stable, 40 DOMFSTIC ANIMALS. and the darker this is, and the more quiet he s kept, the more readily he will fatten. If designed tu be reared, the safest i“ least troublesome method, is to keep the calf on new milk. If saving the milk be an phies it is still doubtful whether it is not better that he should have a part of it fresh from the cow, and depend for his remaining food on a good grass or clover pasture, meal, or roots. Some farmers never allow the calf to approach the dam, but take it when first dropped, and put a handful of salt m its mouth, which is daily repeated till he is put to grass. This has a purgative effect, similar to the first milk. Flaxseed 1s then prepared, by boiling a pint in four to six quarts of water, and diluted with hay tea till it is rather thicker than milk, and fed at blo! heat. Hay tea is made, by boiling a pound of sweet, well-cured clover, in one and a half gallons of clean water. As the calf becomes older, oat, barley, rye, or Indian meal may be scalded and added to the flaxseed. When the skim-milk is of little consequence, a better way is to withdraw him from the cow after three or four days, then scald the milk, adding a little oat meal, and cool to the natural temperature of the milk, and feed it. Oats, either crushed or ground, is the best and safest grain for all young stock. The milk should not stand more than half a day be- fore feedmg to young calves. As they advance in age, it may be fed rather older, but should never be allowed to become sour; nor should it ever be fed cold. Connected with this feed, should be a good range of short, sweet pasture, and shelter against both sun and storms. If expedient, at about 10 weeks old, he may be safely weaned, but four months’ nursing is better for the calf. If allowed too much milk for several months, it is injurious to the future development of the young. It does not distend the stomach properly, nor call into use its ruminating habits. Calves thus brought up, have often proved light-bellied, in- ditferent feeders, Sal decidedly inferior nme When the calf is removed from the cow, they should be effectually sep- arated from sight and hearing, as recognition creates uneasi- ness, and is an impediment to thrift in both. If there be any deficiency of suitable pasture for the calf, a small rack and trough should be placed under the shed im his range, and fine hay put in the former, and wheat bran or oat meal with a little salt in the latter. BREEDING. 41 Diseases and Remedies. For disordered bowels, mix 2 dr. rhubarb, 2 oz. castor oil, and 1 dr. ginger, with a little warm milk or gruel; or give 2 oz. castor oil alone; or 3 oz. of Epsom salts. For scours and diarrhea, a homely remedy is, to administer half a pint of cider, with an equal quantity of blood drawn from the calf’s neck. Or, add a little rennet to its fod. A good remedy is, 1 oz. powdered canella bark ; 1 oz. laud- anum; 4 oz. prepared chalk; and one pint water. Mix to- gether, and give a wine-glass full or more, according to the size of the calf, three times a day. Costiveness is removed by giving pork broth. Or, give 3 to 4 oz. Epsom salts, dissolved in 3 pints of wa- ter, injected into the stomach; and repeat part of this dose every 3 or 4 hours, till the desired effect is produced. Calves, like all young stock, should be allowed to change their feed gradually, from new milk to skimmed, or from the latter to other food. Their stomachs are delicate, and need gentle, moderate changes, when necessary to make them at all. Much depends on the care and attention they receive. It is well to have a little resin within its reach. A comfortable shelter, with a dry, warm bed, suitable food, regularly given three times a day, at blood heat, and keeping the stomach in proper order, will do much to bring them for- ward rapidly, and with a small expenditure of food. The calf requires to be supplied through the winter with an abundance of fine, sweet hay and roots, the latter either chop- ped or mashed by a roller, with the addition of a trifle of meal or oats, and a full supply of salt and pure water. When there are larger animals on the premises, the calves ought to be kept by themselves. They should be sustained on their winter feed through the followmg spring, until the erass furnishes a good bite on a well-compacted sod. The change from hay to grass must be gradual, unless the latter is considerably matured. ‘The extreme relaxation of the bowels from the sudden change, frequently produces excessive purg- ing. Aslight and temporary relax from the early spring grass, is not objectionable. Breeding, The young animals should never be put to breeding under 15 months old, so as to bring their first calf at two years old° 4* £2 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 5 nor then, unless they have large size and good feed. Much depends on the progiess towar ds maturity, and the supply of food in selecting the proper time for breedmg. Some are as ready for this at a year and a half as others are at three, Karly breeding gives dehicacy and symmetry to the form of the heifer, but it checks its growth; and when it is found to put her back too much, she may be allowed to rest for a few months, or even a year, to bring her up to the desired stand- ard. These remarks apply principally to choice breeders, or as they are sometimes termed, fancy stock. For ordinary milch cows which have been moderately fed, three years is a proper age to come in, after which they must be milked as regularly, . and as late before drying as possible. Breaking Steers Should be commenced when two or three years old. Some begin with the calf, accustoming him to a light yoke and occa- sional training. This practice will do as a pastime for trust- worthy boys, as it makes them gentle and manageable after- wards, but is hardly worth a man’s time. If always carefully handled when young, they will be found tractable. They should at first be placed behind a pair of well-broke eattle, nor should they be put to hard labor until quite grown, strong, and perfectly accustomed to the yoke. If properly managed, cattle may be trained with ail the docility, imtelli- gence, and much of the activity of the horse. That they are not, is more frequently the fault of their masters. Management of Oxen. To procure perfect working cattle, it is necessary to begin with the proper breed. Many parts of the country furnish such as are well suited to this purpose. A strong dash of Devon or Hereford blood is desirable, when it needs to be im- proved. A well-formed, compact, muscular body; clean, sinewy limbs; strong, dense bones; large, well-formed joints, with a mild expressive eye, are essential for good working oxen. After breaking, they must be led along gently, and taught before they are required to perform their task; and never put to a load which they cannot readily move, nor dulled by pro- longing exertion beyond that period when it becomes irksome. A generous diet is necessary, to keep up the spirit and ability of cattle, when there is hard work to be done. The horse and mule are fed with their daily rations of grain when at hard MANAGEMENT OF OXEN A438 service, and if the spirit of the ox is to be maintained, he should be equally well fed, when as fully employed. Great and permanent injury is the result of niggardly feeding and severe toil, exacted from the uncomplaining animal. His strength declines, his spirit flags, and if this treatment be con- tinued, he rapidly becomes the stupid, moping brute, which is shown off in degrading contrast with the more spirited horse, that performs, it may be, one half the labor, on twice his rations. The ox should be as little abused by threats and whipping, as by stinted feed and overtasked labor. Loud and repeated halloome, or the severe use of the lash, is as impolitic as it is eruel and disgraceful. We never witness this barbarity with- out wishing the brutes could change places, long enough at least to teach the biped that humanity by his own sufferings which his reason and sensibility have failed to imspire. Clear and intelligible, yet low and gentle words are all that are ne- cessary to guide the well-trained, spirited ox. ‘The stick, or whip, is needed rather to indicate the precise movement de- sired, than as a stimulant or means of punishment. The ox understands a moderate tone more perfectly than a boisterous one, for all sounds become indistinct as they increase. It is of great advantage to have oxen well trained to backing. They may soon be taught, by beginning with an empty cart on a descent ; then on a level; then with an increasing load, or uphill, till the cattle will back nearly the same load they will draw. Some oxen have a bad trick of hauling or crowding. Chang- ing to opposite sides, longer or shorter yokes, and more than all, genile treatment, are the only remedies, and those not unfrequently fail. Cattle will seldom contract this habit, in the hands of a judicious, careful driver. Zhe yokes should be carefully made, and set easy, and the bows fitted to the necks and properly attached to the yoke. Cattle are liable to sore necks if used in a storm; and when subject to this exposure, they must be well rubbed with grease, where the voke chafes them, and respite from work should be allowed til) the necks heal. 44 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. Management of Bulls or Vicious Animals, Fig. 5. If inclined to be vicious, the bulls shoula se=mmem, have rings thrust through the cartilage of yy their nose when young. They are to be }))found at the agricultural warehouses; and " are made of round tron, three-eighths of an inch diameter, with a joint in one side to open, and when thrust through the nose, are fastened in a moment, by a rivet previously prepared. Fig. 5 is a catile-handler, consisting of a bar of iron A, eight inches long, with a ring for a man’s hand, which turns on a swivel at B, and at the other end is a pair of ealliper- shaped legs, one stationary, and the other opening on a joint. ‘The fixed leg is inserted against one side of the nostril, and the other is pressed upon the opposite side, and there } fastened by aslide, C, when the animal is firmly held for administering medicine or performing \ A A Sy A Da Ve ig fe YS SS = ) Yj fj For taming savage Animals. Kigs. 6 and 7, for taming a bull; b, in Fig. 6, is a cap screwed on to the tip of the horn; ac, an iron rod hanging on a pivot in the cap, with a chain reaching to the ring in FATTENING CATTLE. 45 the nese. The effect of his attempting to hook, ‘s illustrated by the various positions of the chain in Y Hig. 7. If the rod at a, is pushed in either direction, it jerks up the nose in a manner that cures him of his inclination. Fig. 8, shows a cattle-tie—This is _ a much more convenient and comfort- able mode of fastening cattle in the : stable, than the common s‘anchions. Cattle-Tie. lie proper time for turning off Cattle. This must depend on their previous feeding and manage- ment, the breed, and the purposes required. ‘The improved breeds and many of their crosses, will mature for the butcher as fully at three or four, as inferior cattle at five to seven years old. If pushed rapidly with proper food, they will of course be rzpe much sooner than if stinted. When cattle have to be purchased for work, or cows for the dairy, it be- comes an object to keep them as long as they can be made profitable, and yet be turned off for fattening at a fair price. We have seen active and spirited oxen in the yoke at 16 or 17; but they seldom do as well after 12 or even 10 years. Old cattle are liable to more diseases than young; are less hardy ; and they recover more slowly when exposed to scanty feed or hard usage. They also fatten with more difficulty, and their meat is inferior. When they can be sold ad- vantageously to the feeder, and replaced without incon- venience, it is found to be most profitable to turn them off at seven or eight years. They will by that time ‘have at- tained full maturity; they will feed rapidly, and make the largest amount of good beef. If there are extraordinary milkers among the cows, or superior workers among the oxen, it is better to keep them as long as they maintain their full vigor. Fattening Cattle. Such as are designed for the shambles the ensuing fall or winter, may be allowed to do their spring’s labor; or “if cows, they may be milked into summer after calving, or go farrow during the previous year. They should early be put on the best summer feed, and it is better to be occasionally changed, to give variety and freshness, and keep the animal in good 46 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. appetite. Let the fattening animals have the best, and after they have cropped it a while, give them a fresh teld; and the other animals or sheep can follow and clear off the re- maining herbage, preparatory to shuttmg it up for a new growth. Some prefer an extensive range of rich feed, which is unchanged throughout the season ; and when it is not neces- sary to divide the pasture with the other animals, this is a good practice. Three cuts of improved forms, Nos. 9, 10, and 11. The above cuts illustrate the forms which the most improved beef- cattle should possess. The selection of Animals for Stall Fattening. This is a nice point, and none without a practised eye and touch, can choose such as will make the best return for the food consumed. ‘The characteristics of choice animals, here- tofore enumerated, are particularly essential in those intendec for profitable fattening. But the most import int of all, is that firm mellowness, and quick elasticity of touch, which un- erringly mark the kindly feeder and profitable bullock. When other means for ascertaining fail, it is a safe rule to select the best-conditioned animals, out of a herd of grass- ST ALL-FEEDING. 47 fed; for if all were of equal flesh and Lealth, when turned out, those which have thriven most on their summer pasture, will generally fatten quickest on their fall and winter keep. Only ‘the best should be selected. The remainder, after con- suming the coarser forage, may be at once disposed of for early use. From repeated trials, it is found that the carcass of stall-fed animals will barely return the value of the ma- terials consumed, and their manure is generally the only com- pensation for the time and attention bestowed. None but choice, thrifty beasts will pay for their food and attention, and all others will make their best returns, by an immediate disposal, after the surplus fodder is gone. Fig. 12. aS, uy ~ > is Points of Cattle Illustrated. ExpLaNnatTion.—A, forehead ; B, face; C, cheek; D, muzzle; E, neck; F, neck vein; G, shoulder point ; aes arm; i shank ; J, gambril, or hock ; K, elbow ; L, brisket, bosom, or breast ; M, " shoulder ; N, crops; O, loin; P, hip, hucks, hocks, or "huckles ; Q, crupper bone, or sacrum : R, rump, or pin-bone ; Ss, round bone, thurl, or whirl; T, buttock; U, thigh, or gaskit; V, flank; W, plates ; X, back, or chine; Y, throat; Z, chest. Stall-Feeding, This ought to be commenced early in the season. An ox may be fed in a box-stall, or if accustomed to a mate, they do better by tying together with sufficient room, yet not so near as to allow of injuring each other. The building should be warm, but not hot; well ventilated, yet having no current of et 48 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. cold air passing through; and as dark as possible. The stall ought to be kept clean and dry, and a deep bed of clean straw is of decided advantage. The ox should be first fed the inferior and most perishable roots with his grain aud dry forage, and his food should be graduaily increased in richness, as he advances towards ma- turity. The food and water should be given three times a day, from thoroughly cleaned mangers or troughs. The animal likes a change of food, in which he should be indulged as often as may be necessary. If he refuses his food, a temporary privation, or variety is essential. When the food is changed, he should be moderately fed at first, till he becomes accustomed to it, as there is otherwise danger of cloying, which is always injurious. The moment the animal has done feeding, the remainder of the food ought to be at once removed. He then lies down, and if undisturbed, rests quictly till the proper hour induces him again to look for his accustomed rations. Regu- arity in the time of feeding, is of the utmost consequence. An animal soon becomes habituated to a certain hour, and if it be delayed beyond this, he is restless and impatient, which are serious obstacles te speedy fattening. 9 epee ee Ox cut up. ¥ Fig. 13—Shows the London method of cutting up the carcass—Fig. I, is the Join - 8, rump ; 3, aitch or adz-bone ; 4, buttock; 5, hock ; 6, thick flank ; 7, thin flank ; 8, fore-rib ; 9, middle rib; 10, cuck-rib; 11, brisxet; 12, leg of mutton piece ; 13, elod or neck ; 14, brisket. SKELETON OF AN OX. Fig. 14. — _— —=— 7 Rear es cae e.g : 1 1 H sae a TE Nl Saye { Ree prdecgs SAL oS ’ wars Lo fea yea LP ve ' eae Sie fs TOS Rah pea eiais,, 83 DOMESTIC ANIM JS. this object, but which has resulted in the ntreduction of fatal diseases and serious deterioration in their flocks. The first Importation cf Saxons inte this Country Was made in 1823, of four good rams, two of whieh went so Boston and the others to Phil: adelphie. The next was made the following year, and consisted of 75 rams and ewes, which we-e brought to Boston, and sold at public auetion, and were afterwards scattered ove: the country. Another lot of 180 collowed the next year, to the same place, and was sold im the same manner, but at an inc:eased price, some selling as high aS $450 stew These prices excited the spirit of speculation, and the fol- lowing year witnessed the importation of near 3,000, many of crn: were decidedly inferior. These were all thrown upon the market for the most they would command ; and m many mstances, the sales not half covering the cost of importation, the enter prise was abandoned as a speculation, or commercial \peration. The late Henry D. Grove, of Hoosic, New York, a native of Germany, and a highly intelligent and thoroughly bred shep- herd, accompanied some of the best early importations to this country. He selected 105 choice animals for his own breed- mg, which he imported in 1827, and 70 more equally good, m 1828, and with these he formed the flock from which he bred to the time of his decease, in 1844. The average weight of fleece from the entire flock of Mr Grove, nearly all of which were ewes and lambs, as stated by him to the writer, m 1842, was 2 Ibs. 14 ounces, thoroughly washed on the sheep’ s back. This was realized alten a short summer and winter’s keep, when the quantity of hay or its equivalent fed to the sheep did not exceed by actual weight 14 lbs. per day, except to the ewes, whieh received an addi- tional quantity just before and after lambing. ‘This treatment was attended with no disease or loss by death, and with an inerease of lambs, equalling one for every ewe. : In a flock of pure Saxony sheep owned by Mr. Smith of Connecticut, as stated m a letter from the owner, published in the American Shepherd, 104 ewes raised 101 lambs, and yielded 341 Ibs. of wool, which sold at 70 vents per lb. For the 18 months preceding, he lost but three animals out of 800, from ordinary casualties. But some flocks of pure Saxony ds uot, in good condi‘ion, average 2 Ibs. per head. THE RAMB, UIL! &T FLU K. 99 A recent importation, (May, 1846,) made by Mr. Taintor of Connecticut, consisting of four bucks and four ewes, from the celebrated Saxon flock of Baron de Spreck, show a size and apparent vigor of constitution, equalling any of their Me- rino progenitors. Fig. 22. oo while e Rambouillet Buck. The Rambouillet Flock. This flock was founded in 1786, by Louis XVI., from a se- lection of 400 of the best Spanish sheep, which were placed on the royal farm at Rambouillet. These, like the Saxon, re- ceived all the attention which intelligence and wealth could bestow, and the consequence was soon manifest in their larger size, and the increased weight and uniformity in the fineness of their fleece; the last improvement being particularly evi- dent. from the absence of the cvarse wool, which in many cases infested the quarters; and the jarr or hair, which fre- quently abounds on the flanks, legs, and thighs of the original Merino. ‘Besides the crown flocks at Rambouillet, they are found in equal perfection on several other of the royal farms, especially those of Malmaison, Perpignan, Arles, Clermont, and some 1GO DOMESTIC ANIMAL». others. These flocks have been bred for hardy constitution, large carcass, and heavy fleece, and of as much fineness as is consistent with large weights, and as uniform in quality through- out, as possible, Mr. Gilbert, who was particularly familiar with them, says, “ almost all the fleeces of the rams, from two years old and upwards, weigh (unwashed) from 12 to 13 Ihs.; but the mean weight, taking the rams and the ewes together, has not quite attained to 8 lbs. ., after deducting the tags and the wool of the belly.” The French pound is about one-twelfth heavier than the English; but from the general custom of folding the sheep in France, feeding them in fallows, and win- tering them jn houses, the fleece becomes very dirty. The loss in washing (fit for manufacturing) is about 60 per-cent., so that the clean fleece of the ram will average about 6 lbs., and that of the whole flock, something under 4 Ibs. The first Importation of the Rambonillets to this Country. This was in 1801, by M. Dellesert, of Paris, for M. Dupont, then in New York, andl consisted of four choice rams, only one of which, Don Pedro, reached this country. He was used emong the native ewes near kingston, N. Y., for three years, and then transferred to Delaware, where he effected great im- provement among the native flocks. The second was that made by the late Chancellor Livingston, before alluded to. ‘There was another in 1840, by Mr. Collins, of Connecticut, compiising 30 select ewes and 2 rams. All these sheep pos- sessed the characteristics peculiar to the variety as described. A still more recent importation has been made by Mr. Tain- tor, at the same time with that of the Saxons previously men- . tioned, consisting of 23 ewes and 3 bucks, variously selected from the choicest flocks of the descendants of the Spanish Mermo. The rams, though young, are the most promising animals of their breed, and when full grown, will weigh from 225 to 250 lbs. each. The sire of one was sold the past season for $500. He sheared 23 Ibs. of unwashed wool. ‘The ewes measu ‘1. after they were shorn, from 251 to 29 inches in height o,. the withers. The height of the under side of their bodies from the ground, was from 9% to 12 inches, which is in the proportion of good American Marine sheep. Their weights varied, after shearing, from 124 to 153 lbs. Some of them were quite thin in flesh, the largest especially, which, if in fine eondition with her fleece on, would weigh at least 200 . . e e 5 lbs. - The following is the weight of their fleeces unwashed PROGRESS OF THE MERINO [IN THE - STATES. 101 The scales used did not mark less than one-quarter of a pound, which will account for the absence of odd ounces. Iida] 7 13 Ibs. No 100%. ALES aiid 123 Ibs. Beg pee SLICE. 15 « CUO OUI: , : oh teens oe ie AMON rc 559, fas > 163 « GE On tee ha ay ae tate ay! is a Ph 144 « ie il by ate Ne 163 « RE enc n a cice ss oe.» 164 « GGie, NARI as ace nearer 108 2: 25 UU i eae 164 « Gers ice co eee eae 143 « CoG Sa aaa aa Wes Ce ROE OAS) Shi 0 TE Be 134 « It was the unbiased opinion of several wool-dealers present, that the shearimg above would yield at least 35 lbs. of cleansed wool, fitted for manulactu: ing without further loss, out of every 100 lbs. shorn. ‘The fourteen ewes yielded 216 Ibs. unwashed, whfich would te equivalent to 75 ibs. 10 oz. thoroughly cleansed, or an average of 5 lbs. 6 oz. per head. One-third may be safely added to bring this up to clean washed. This would make the average, as iiaaly -orowers usually dispose of their fleeces, 7 lbs. 3 Of, per head, a yield totally unprecedented in this country. & The Progress of the Merino in the United States. Though reaching back but half a century, the Merino flocks of this country have been very fluctuating as to their value, increase, and improvement. When first introduced, they were viewed with distrust by the majority of our farmers; and it was not till after several years’ experience of their para- mount merits, that they were generally disseminated. But the confidence of c.r flock-masters having once been se- eured, it has never been withdrawn, and they have ever since been cherished favorites. The prices for choice Merinoes . rapidly increased after their character was fully established, and Livingston states the average price for rams, in 1811, at $1,000, and some were sold at a much higher rate. This was the period of the embargo, when our infant manufactures were just starting into life; and being follow- ed by war with the greatest commercial nation of the world, we were thrown entirely on our own resources for the sup- ply of our woollen and other fabrics, and wool and sheep maintained their full value till after the return of peace, in 1816. The flooding of our country with foreign goods, under low duties, which succeeded this event, eiher broke down or effectually paralyzed our woollen manufactures; and wool, of course, felt the full weight of this crushing influence. The g* 162 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. Merino rapidly declined in value, till its price nearly ap- proximated to that of the native sheep.. Their merits had, however, become so conspicuous, that the low prices =pro- duced a more general diffusion, and they and their crosses were thus sown broadcast over the country. The infrocuction of the Saxons, in great numbers, in 1826, many of which were excessively diminutive and diseased, and their indiscriminate use with our pure-bred Merinoes, was a serious interraption to the career of improvement in many of our flocks. Their mixture with the best Saxons was no further detrimental, than to reduce the quantity of fleece, and, to a certain extent, lessen the peculiar hardiness of the original Transhumanies, which had been fully preserved by their descendants in this country. The use of well-selected Saxon rams with Merino flocks, was extensively practised, and it is still persisted in by many intelligent flock-masters, after twenty years’ experience, who are satisfied that they find it for their interest to continue this style of breeding. The animals being smaller, consume less; and they probably pio- duce a quantity of wool in proportion to their food, which, from its improved and uniform quality, commands a higher price in the market. Wherever they are not sufficiently hardy, they can be bred back towards the Spanish Merino standard, by the use of some of the stouter rams. “Their natures are intrinsically the same. ‘They are only divergent streams from the same original fountain, and when again united, they readily coalesce and flow onwards, without Vlo- lence or disorder. The Merino, as might reasonably have been anticipated, when properly managed, has improved from a variety of causes. Though kept scrupulously pure in Spain, they were seldom bred with that refinement of taste or nice judgment, which distinguishes the accomplished modern breeder. Their management was too entirely intrusted to ignorant shepherds or careless agents, to secure that close attention which is ¢s- sential to improvement. ‘The sheep had to perform a journey of several hundred miles twice in a year, to and from their distant Sierras; and it was absolutely essential that strong animals should be selected for breeding ; and to secure this object, those were frequently used which were deficient in the most profitable qualities. They were also closely bred in-and-in, seldom or never departing from a particular flock to procure a fresh cross. Their wild, nomadic life, approach. ing nearly to that of their natural state, and their peculiarly io = Nd PECULIARITIES OF THE MERINO. 103 healthful pasturage, alone prevented a serious deterioration from this cause. When brought into the United States, the Locks were soon mingled with each other, and for many years past, probably, not an unmixed descendant of any distinct original flock could be traced. Abundance of appropriate food has been giver them, without the labor of long and fatiguing journeys; and jastly, there has been much care used in the selection of the most profitable animals for breed. The spirit of improve- ment has been recently awakened to this important branch of American husbandry, and as we already have ail the elements within ourselves for its attainment, if net arrested by any un- toward national policy, it will soon result in giving us numerors flocks of as choice sheep as the world affords. Peeuliarities of the Merins. The prominent peculiarities of the Merino, are the abun¢ ince and fineness of its fleece; the tenacity with which it is :eld; its crimped or spiral form; its felting properties; and t e ex- cessive quantity of yolk, giving to it that softness whi h dis- tinguishes it from all others. Their large horns are ¢ »mmon _to several other varieties. Their hoofs are sometimes si gularly tone, reaching 8 or 10 inches when allowed to ore y. The c 5 « > ° J aS horns, hoofs, and wool scarcely difer in their chem .cal con- stituents; and the Bea r development of the two former, is justly considered as an additional evidence of their wc ol-bearing properties. 3 The yolk, in most of the sheep, forms, with the dust which adheres to it, a firm crust on the exterior, an a t ge ether with the compactness of the fleece, it offers consideraLie resistance to the open hand on being pressed, giving the impression of rigidity. ‘This outer covering repels the rain, the snow, and the wind like a coat of mail, thus fitting the Merino to endure exposure beyond any other sheep. On opening the crust, the wool is found of a brilliant, golden hue, sparkling with yolk, and firmiy held together in masses, hardly dis’ inguish- able from the cocoon of the silk-worm. The wool closel; y cavers every part of the body, and frequently the entire Ices and head, excepting a part of the face. Still another pecu- larity of the Merimo is its longevity. They attain a great age when properly managed, and, in healthy localities, sometimes breed till 20 years of age. The Merino may be described, generally, as a srea!!-boned, {C4 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, closely made, medium-sized sheep, varying from 80 lbs. of live weight, for a small ewe, to 160 lbs. for- good-sized wethers and rams, in ordinary condition. They are light in the shoulders and chest, and altogether are more deficient in form than the best mutton sheep. ‘This apparent difference is materially lessened when both are denuded of their fleece ; as the longer pile of the latter covers defects, which would manifest them- selves under the closer covering of the Merino. Yet, with this seeming deficiency, Young found, im feeding the Merino and Bakewell, that the latter ate the most, and gained the least, in the ratio of two to three. We give the statement as we find it, though it apparently contravenes a fundamental principle, which a knowledge of all the. circumstances of the irial, the peculiarities of the particular animals, &e., might probably explain satisfactorily. The mutton is excellent, and it is probably not surpassed by that of any other sheep. Lord Somerville claims it as a rule, that the quality of the flesh in each class of sheep follows that of the wool, and that the flesh of the short and fine- woolled sheep is closer in the grain and more highly flavored than the long-woolled. Sir Joseph Banks says, the London bu chers, after having some of the Merinoes, eagerly sought for mo.e, from its popularity with their best customers ; and it is certain that the flavor of our mountam-fed Merino does not suffi r in comparison with the choicest breeds. Breeding Merinoes. The general principles of breeding cattle and sheep, as laid down by the most approved authorities, must be taken with some cxceptions, when applied to the Merino. Good form and feeding qualities are desirable in this breed, but they are not as essential as with the others. Wool is the great object, and if this be sufficiently fine, even, and abundant, something may be abated m the perfection of form. Early maturity, so much sought after in the mutton sheep, cannot be reconciled with the er “reat longevity, and the prolonged productive powers of the M. erino. We must content ourselves, therefore, with slowly eugrafting such improvements on the breed, as can be effected without prejudice to his other good qualities, and look to his crosses with others for such qualities as are irreconcilable with his nature. It is considered indispensable to the improvement of the Merino, that it be not bred too young. A vigorous ewe may BREEDING MERINOES, 105 pring her first lamb at two years old, but it is better that it be deferred till three. The ram should never be used till his second year, and’ then but sparingly. From 24 to 6 years old is deemed the most vigorous age, though many may be safely used till 8 or 10, and occasionally later. Both ewes - and rams have been known to breed till 20 years old. The ram should be large, stout, and well made, carrying his weight as compactly as possible. The nose should be convex; the face covered with a soft velvety hair; the eye lively and prominent; the veins near the lachrymal glands, of a clear red; the horas rough; short neck; pendent dewlap not objectionable ; full chest ; broad shoulders ; broad, level back ; large quarters; tail large and well set up; good legs, and sound hoofs; with a firm, easy, regular gait; the head carried high, with a look of boldness and decision, without in any degree approaching to wildness or ferocity. The ewe should possess these characteristics generally, with such modifications as are suited to the sex. Great care should be taken to breed from such as are most perfect in all the essential points of constitution, form, and size; and weight, uniformity, and fineness of fleece. The closest observation is requisite, to select the best in all respecis. In-and-in breeding should be avoided where practicable, ° which can be done where there is a careful registry of the sheep through successive generations. Excessive use cf rams can never be permitted without decided injury to them and their progeny. In Spain, four rams are supplied to every hundred ewes. This limited number is proper enough, where they undergo so much tatigue in travelling, and kept too, as they are, entirely on grass. But if moderately grained hefore and during their use, and especially if kept up, and allowed to serve the ewes once onlygas they come in heat, this nrmber may be largely increased. A vigorous ram will suffice for 35 to 40 ewes, when running with the flock ; yet his powers would not be more taxed by double or even treble this number, if # admitted to each but once. Bread is a convenient food for the ram while running with the sheep. If he is gentle, which he should always be, he will come up readily and eat from the hand, without exciting the attention of the other sheep, which crowd, and not unfrequently injure each other when grain is placed before him; or he may be stabled at night and fed with grain. If young ewes have stolen lambs, they should be taken away immediately after yeaning, and the nourishment supplied 106 DOMESTIC ANIMAIS. to the lamb from the milk of a cow. The tax of nursing is nearly equal to that of gestation, and farther injury to the dam may be avoided by this practice. Merino ewes have had the reputation of being indifferent nurses in Spain. This is owing - to their fatigue in travelling, and scanty pasturage, rather than to any constitutional deficiency. It is a frequent practice there, to kill a part of the lambs, and put one on to two®wes. ‘This has never been found necessary m the countries where they have been transplanted, as generous feed for the dams has invariably been found entirely adequate to their support of the young. The localities in which Merizo Sheep can be profitably kept in the United States, Are wherever the pastures are sweet and dry; the climate not excessively hot; and the land not too valuable for other purposes. Wool is generally the great object in the sheep husbandry of this country, and when sheep farms are remote from the large markets, the Merino will make much the most profitable returns. In the neighborhood of cities, where large and fat sheep and early lambs bear a high price, the mutton sheep may be substituted. fe ece The South Bown. This valuable sheep has been known and bred for a long time on the chalky downs of England, where it has always maintained the character of a hardy animal, yielding a medium quality of weol, and furnishiug mutton of a superior flavor. It was not, however, till withm the last 70 years, that any considerable attention was devoted to its improvement. Since that period, its fine points have b€en remarkably developed, which is shcwn in its improved .ize and form, and its early maturity and productiveness. The late Mr. John Ellman, of Enyland, was the first who took them thoroughly in hand ; and so eminent was his success, that he founded a flock which has been the source whence al] the best blood has been since derived. : The form and characteristics of the South Bowas. . His criteria of a good South Down, are as follows :—“ The head small and hornless; the face speckled or gray, and hnei- ther too long nor too short. The lips thin, and the space "tae, Oe CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SOUTH DOWNS. 107 between the nose and the eyes narrow. The under Jaw, or chap, fine and thin; the ears tolerably wide, and well covered with wool, and the forehead also, and the whole space between the ears well protected by it, as a defence against the fly. The eye full and bright, but net prominent. The orbits of the > Wey s y yy f Wy IS ey Zi lm», My BATA ART) Oat SEARING SS LM 4, > GUE MZ Bi FZ Wh HNces KRONT SYS" South Down Buck. seye—the eye-cap, or bone,—not too projecting, that it may not form a fatal obstacle in lambing. ‘The neck of a medium lenoth, thin towards the head, but enlarging towards the shoulders, where it should be broad and high, and straight in its whole course above and below. ‘The breast should be wide, deep, and projecting forwards between the fore-legs, indicating a good constitution, and a disposition to thrive. Covrespond- mg with this, the shoulders should be on a level with the back, and not too wide above; they should bow outward fom the top to the breast, indicating a springmg rib beneath, and -leaymg room for it. The ribs coming out horizontally from the spine, and extending far backward, and the last 11b pro. i 108 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. jecting more than the others ; the back flat from the shoulders to the setting on of the tail; the lom broad and flat; the rump i Fig. 24. South Down Ewe. long and broad, and the tail set on high and nearly on a level with the spine. The hips wide; the space between them and the last rib on either side as narrow as possible, and the ribs, generally, presenting a circular form like a barrel. The belly as straight as the back. The legs neither too long nor too short. ‘The fore-legs straight from the breast to the foot; not bending inward at the knee, and standing far apart both before and behind ; the hocks having a direction rather outward, and the twist, or the meeting of the thighs behind, being particu- larly full; the bones fine, yet having no appearance of weak THE CHEVIOT. 109 ness, and of a speckled or dark color. The belly well defended with wool, and the wool coming down before and behind to the knee, and to the hock; the wool short, close, curled, and fine, and free from spiry projecting fibres.” Other breeders have commenced where Ellman left off, and have apparently pushed their improvement to its utmost capa- city ; and especially has tlis been done by Messrs. Grantham and Webb, the latter of whom, while preserving all the es- - sential merits of the sheep, has carried. the live weight of breeding rams to 250 lbs., and well-fattened wethers to 200 Ibs. dressed weight. Many of the choicest animals have been imported into this country, and they are now to be found, in limited numbers, in almost every state of the Union. The wool was formerly short, and used only for cloths, flan- nels, &c. It has been considerably lengthened in many of the late flocks, and with the improvements in the combing ma- chinery, is now much ysed in England as a combing wool. The quantity produced is nearly equal to that of the Mermo flocks when well kept, varying, according to the size and style of breeding, from 3 to 4 lbs. of clean washed wool, which in quality does not differ materially from half-blood Merino, and sometimes rather exceeds it. ‘The larger animals, of course, produce fleeces of much greater weight, sometimes reaching” to 8 or 9 Ibs. The South Down will subsist on short pasture, but well repays full feeding. It attains early maturity, is hardy and prolific, frequently producing two at a birth. Like ail highly-improved English breeds, it is not a long-lived sheep. It may be considered in its prime at three. The wethers may be fattened at 18 to 30 months, and the ewes at 3 to 5 years, when first required as breeders. The last are sometimes al- lowed to come in with a lamb at a year, but they cannot be sustained in vigor if put to breeding before two. The Cheviot Ts thus described by Blacklock: ‘‘ They have a bare head, with a long jaw and white face, but no horns. Sometimes they have a shade of gray upon the nose, approaching to dark at the tip; at others, a tinge of lemon color on the face, but these markings scarcely affect their value. The legs are clean, long, and small-boned, and covered with wool to the hough ; but there is a sad want of depth at the breast, and of breadth both there and on the chine. A fat carcass weighs from 12 Ibs. to 18 Ibs. per quarter, and a medium fleece about 3 Ibs 10 110 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. The purest specimens of this breed are to be found on the Scotch side of the Cheviot hills, and on the high and stony mountain farms which lie between that range and the sources of the Teviot. These sheep are a capital mountaim stock, pro- vided the pasture resembles the Cheviot hills, in containing a good proportion of rich herbage.” They are eminently adapted to high lands and a severe cli- mate, though less so than the Black-faced or Heath sheep of Scotland. They have become an American sheef, by their repeated introduction into this country. A late importation of several choice sheep was made by Mr. Carmichael of New York. The wool on these is from 5 to 7 inches long, coarse, but well suited to combing. Like the Downs, it has heretofore been classed among the middle-wools, but these specimens would seem to indicate that they are verging towards the long- wools. The Bakewell or Leicester, the Cotswold and Lincolnshire, Possess several qualities in common, and it is only a prac- ticed eye that can readily detect the difference. This resem- blance arises from.a recent, common oiigin. They are all sarge and hornless; of a pure white; with long, coarse, and heavy fleeces; excellent mutton sheep; coming early to ma- turity, and capable of carrying enormous quantities of fat. There have been from time immemorial numerous flocks of © these large, coarse-woolled sheep, existing in certain parts of England, under a variety of names, and partaking of some sheht peculiarity of features, according to the district in which they are bred. Thus, besides those above-mentioned, there were the Teeswater, the Romney-Marsh, the Kentish, the Bampton, the Exmoor, &., all of which were deficient in form, slow-feeders, and late in coming to maturity. Improvement of the Long-Wools. The late Robert Bakewell first commenced a decided im- provement with the Leicesters, nearly a century since. He began by selecting the choicest sheep in England, which pos- sessed the essential qualities; and by judicious feeding and manageraent throughout, he soon brought them up to a char- acter widely differing from the original with which he started. So eminent was his success, that in 1787 he let three rams, for a single season, for 1250 pounds, (about $6,200,) and was offered 1050 pounds (about $5,200) fer 20 ewes. Scan after « Hi] THE LONG-WOOLS- OF ry IMPROVEMEN this, he received the eno for the use of two-thi guineas, or $4,000, r one season, reserving the rmous price of 800 ds of a ram fo bid iL other third for himself. Long-wool Buck. worthless parts of the car- t of the valuable parts, and es- y ‘ a} > He reduced the bone and offal or «ass, and increased the wei 112 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. pecially their tendency to fatten and early maturity. Thi was effected mainly by a nice discrimination, which has prob ably never been surpassed, if it has ever been equalled. He selected medium sizes for the breed, with as much evenness and perfection of form as possible, for he found that excellence and profitable feeding qualities were seldom connected with extra size, large bones, or imperfect form. He also observed the disposition to fatten in individuals, and used only such as were conspicuous in this respect. He relied more than all upon their quality of handling well, depending even more upon _- the-elastic, mellow touch, than upon the most symmetrical figure. He used only the choicest rams, a: little under size, while the ewes were of full medium weight.’ The progeny were pushed with a full supply of nutritious food, and system- atically brought to early maturity. Connected with this, was his practice of zn-and-in breeding, or breeding the parent upon the progeny, for several succes- sive generations, which had the tendency still further to refine the bone and offal, and impress most effectually the desirable characteristics of the race. It is even credibly asserted, that he produced rot in such of his fattening sheep as he wished to mature early for the shambles, as in the first stages of that loathsome disease the fat-secreting organs accomplish their office more rapidly than in a state of perfect health; and it at least secured them against breeding when they left his own hands. It is certain, that Bakewell carried his refining sys- tem to such an extent, as partially to destroy the procreative powers ; and he was subsequently obliged to introduce new animals, to reinvigorate and continue his flock. The general system of Bakewell, however, was attended with complete success. He produced a race of animals, not only far beyond what England had ever before seen, but which, in all the qualities he endeavored to establish, have not been since exceeded ; and his zmproved Leicesters have come down to the present day as perfect as he left them, showing conclusively, that he not only formed, but stamped the pe- culiarities of the breed, with a permanence which yet bears witness to his genius. One of these attained the enormous live weight of 368 lbs., and dressed 248 lbs. The Cotswold and Lincolnshire. Other breeders were not slow in following in Bakewell g footsteps with different breeds, and the Cotswold and Lincoln- *J BREEDING OF LONG-WOOLS. 113 shire es pecially, have become the subjects of an equally decided improvement, while the errors of Bakewell were entirely avoided. They possess a rather more desirable robustness, approaching, im some few specimens, almost to coarseness, as compared with the finest Leicesters ; but they are more hardy and less liable to disease. They attain as large a size, and yield as great an amount of wool, of about the same value. These breeds scarcely differ more f:om each other, than do flocks of a similar variety, which have been separately bred for several generations. They are prolific, and when well fed, the ewes will frequently produce two lambs at a birth, for which they provide liberally from their udder till the time for weaning. The weight of the fleece varies from 4 to 8 lbs. per head. Peculiarity of long Wool and its Uses. The striking peculiarity of the long-wools, is in the produc- tion of a fleece, which is perfectly adapted, by its length and the absence of the felling property, to the manufacture of worsted stufis, bombazines, mousseline de laines, &e. This is a branch of manufactures, for which we had little material that was suitable, till the introduction of the long-wools ; and its rapid extension in the United States, within the past few years, clearly shows that a large and increasing demand for this kind of wool will contmue at remunerating prices. Be- sides its uses for combing, it is extensively manufactured into blankets, carpeting, and many other fabrics. Importation of Long-Wools. Several of the Bakewells were imported during the last cen- tury ; and many flocks, containing some of the best specimens, have been introduced and scattered over every section of the country. ‘The largest of any single importation of the long- wools, was made by Messrs. Corning & Sotham, in 1842, and immediately preceding, and consisted of 70 or 80 choice Cots- wolds. Breeding the Long-Wools. Some information on this subject will be found under the head of breeding Merinoes, and improvement of the Long- Wools. The ram and ewe should be selected from the best specimens of the breed which is to be perpetuated. There are peculiar- ities of form or appearance in each, which should be carefully 10* {14 DOMESI.t! iNIMALS. observed. A violent cross should never be permitted for the put pose of per petuation, as sugges‘ed under the head of prin- ciples of breeding, in a previous “chapter ; ; such as between those possessing totally opposite properties, as the Merino and long- wools; and there is no conceivable advantage in mixing the middle-wools, South Downs, &c., wiih either. Lord Western has long experimented on the blending of the Merino and long-wools, through several generations, with- out any well-defined results, nor is it believed to be attainable. There is no evenness or integrity of character, either in the animal or fleece, from such mixtures; nor is it possible to foretel the character of progeny fiom these bastard crosses. The general rule, that like begets like, will not hold true here, for the animal comes large or small, with a long or short fleece, fine or coarse, or intermixed; and this, tov. is repeated through numerous generations, when the immediate parents exhibit properties altogether unlike the ofspring, and which they derive from some remote ancestry. This practice will do to produce lambs for the butcher, as the consequence of a fresh cross is greater stamina and thrift; and it is found that lambs thus bred attain an early and fell development. Thou- sands of such are annually bred on the banks of the Hudson, Long Island, and around our large cities, and in the worst possible way, as the large, coarse ram 1s used on the delicate Saxon ewe; yet the lambs thrive and command a good price in the market, and the owner is satisfied to oe the resutt. But nothing could be more absurd than to prepagate from such progeny for any other purpose than to make early and profitable mutton. The mixture of breeds of similar character, is attended with the best consequences. Such was the intermingling of the improved Leicesters with the Cotswold and Lincolnshire, by which their former coarseness was removed ; and such was the use of the latter with the Leicesters, when they became impo- tent and almost worthless, from over-refinement in breeding. Good results have followed the mixture of the South and Hampshire Downs. A marked improvement in the Merino in this country, has been claimed by Mr. Jarvis and several others, from the mixture of the various flocks, which for ages nad been kept distinct in Spain; and the same result is known to have followed-a similar course with the Rambouillet and Saxon flocks, -BREEDING SHEEP. 115 The ewe soes with young About five months, varying from 145 to 162 days. Each flock-master will of course determine what is the proper lamb- ing time. For early market, or when there are few sheep, and those well looked after, the lambs may come while the ewes are in the yards, and provision can be made for them, by placing such as are heavy in warm stalls. Both the dam and young thus receive a closer attention than they would in the field; and after a week’s housing, in severe weather, the lamb may be turned out into the dry yard, where he will suffer no more, apparently, than the full-grown sheep. But with large flocks, early lambing is attended with much trouble, and it is generally avoided, by deferring it till the weather has become more settled, and a full bite of grass will afford the dam a plentiful supply of milk. Yet in this case, the young sheep must daily be under the eye of the shepherd, who should see that they are well supplied with food, and es- pecially that they are brought under cover, in severe or stormy weather. A ram will serve from 20 to 100 ewes in a season, according to his age, health, feed, and management. A South Down or long-woolled iamb, of 7 or 8 months, is sometimes used ; and when this is done, he should. be well fed, and allowed to run only with a very few ewes. If full-grown rams are turned into a lean pasture to remain with the ewes, not less than four should be put in for every hundred. But if a well-fed ram, in full health and vigor, is kept up, and led out to the ewe as she comes into heat, and allowed to serve her once only, he will suffice for one hundred, without injury to himself or pro- geny. For this purpose, the ram should be prepared, not by being fat, for this, neither he nor the ewe should ever be; but by being fed with grain for a short time before, and during the continuance of the season. The ewes are more likely to come quickly into heat, and prove prolific, if lightly fed with stimulating food at the time. It is reasonably enough conjectured, that if procreation, and the first period of gestation, takes place in cold weather, the foetus will subsequently be fitted for the climate, which rules during the early stages of its existence. If this be so, and it is certainly in accordance with the laws of nature, fine-woolled sheep are most likely to maintain their excellence, by deferring the connection of the male till the commencement of cold weather ; and wm the Northern states, this is done about the 116 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. first, of December, which brings the yeaning time in the lmct of April or first of May, when the early grass will afford a large supply and good quality of feed. Winter Management and Food. Sheep should be brought into winter-quarters soon after the severe frosts occur, as these diminish the feed, and materially impair its nutritious qualities. They ought also to be removed from the grass-lands, before they become permanently soften- ed by the rains, as they will iajuriously affect their comfort and health ; and allowme them to remain is equally objection- able, from their poaching the sod. If the number be large when brought to the yards, they must be divided into flocks of 50 to 100, according to the size of the yards and sheds. The young and feeble ought to be separated from the others, and the ailing ones placed by themselves; and that no one may suffer from the others, all should be classed as uniformly as possible as to strength. The yards must be dry, well sup- plied with a trough of fresh water, and with comfortable sheds, to which they can retire when they choose. - Shelters, These, in northern climates, are indispensable to profitable sheep-raising, and in every latitude north of the Gulf of Mexico they would be advantageous. There is policy as well as humanity in the practice. An animal eats much less when thus protected; he is more thrifty, less liable to disease, and his manure is richer and more abundant. The feeding may be done in the open yard in clear weather, and under cover in severe storms. The shelters for sheep are variously constructed, to suit the taste or circumstances of the flock- master. A sheep-barn, built upon a side hill, will afford two floors ; one underneath, surrounded by three sides of wall, should open to the south, with sliding or swinging doors to guard against storms; and another may be provided above, if the floors are perfectly tight, with proper gutters to carry off the wine; and sufficient storage for. the fodder can be furnished by scaffolds overhead. Or they may be constructed with twelve or fifteen feet posts on level ground, allowing the sheep to occupy the lower part, with the fodder stored above. in all cases, however, thorough ventilation should be pro vided, for of the two evils of exposure to cold or too great RACKS OR MANGERS, AND. TROUGHS. 1 privation of air, the former is to be preferred. Sheep cannot _ long endure close confinement without injury. In all ordinary © weather, a shed closely boarded on three sides, with a tight roof, is sufficient protection; especially, if the open side is shielded from bleak winds, or leads into a well-enclosed yard. If the floors above are used for storage, they should be made _ tight, that no hay, chaff, or dust can fall upon the fleece. Racks or Mangers. These are indispensable to economical feeding. If the hay is fed on the ground, the leaves and seeds, the most valuable part of the fodder, are almost wholly lost; and when wet, the sheep, in their restlessness while feeding, will tread much of it into the mud. ‘To make an economical box or rack, take six light pieces of scantling, say three inches square, one for each corner, and one for the centre of each side. Boards of pine or hemlock, 12 or 15 feet long and 12 or 14 inches wide, may then be nailed on to the bottom of the- posts for the sides, which are separated by similar boards at the ends, 24 feet long. Boards 12 inches wide, raised above the lower ones by a space of 9 to 12 inches, are nailed on the sides and ends, which completes the rack. The edges of the opening should be made perfectly smooth, to prevent chafing or tearing out the wool. ‘The largest dimensions above given, are suitable for the large breeds, and the smallest for the Saxon, and still smaller are proper for their lambs. These should be set on dry ground, or under the sheds, and they can easily be removed wherever necessary. Some prefer the racks made with slats, or smooth, upright sticks, in the form of the usual horse-rack. There is no ob- jection to this, but it should always be accompanied by a board trough affixed to the bottom, to catch the fine hay which falls in feeding. These may be attached to the side of a building, or used double. A small lamb requires fifteen inches of space, and a large sheep two feet, for quiet, com- fortable feeding; and at least this amount of room should be provided around the racks for every sheep. Troughs. , They may be variously constructed. The most econumica. are made with two boards of any convenient length, ten to twelve inches -wide. Nail the lower side of one upon the eage of the other, fastening both into a two or three inch 118 DOMZSTIC ANIMALS. plank, fifteen inches long and a foot wide, notched in ts upper edge in the form required, Food. There is no better tood for sheep, than well-ripened, sound, timothy hay; though the clovers, and nearly all the cultivated grasses, may be advantageously fed. Bean and pea. straw are valuable, and especially the former, which, if properly cured, they prefer to the best hay; and it is well adapted to the production of wool. All the other straws furnish a good food, and sheep will thrive on them without hay, when fed with roots or grain. Roots cught to be given them occasional ly for a change, and especially to the ewes after lambing, if this occurs before putting them on to fresh pasture. They keep the stomach properly distended, the appetite and general health good; and they render their winter forage nearly equal to ther summer feed. Much grain is not suited to store-sheep. It is too rich, and should be given sparingly except to the lambs, the old ewes, or feeble sheep, or to restore the rams after hard service. For the above purposes, oats are the best; and if any other grain, beans or peas are given, it should be in small quantities. When there is a deficiency of hay and roots, grain may be used with straw. The flock ought to be so fed as to receive the same amount of nourishment. throughout every part of the year. The even- ness and value of the fleece depends much upon this. ~ When the amount of nuérition is great, the wool-secreting organs are distended, and the fibre becomes enlarged ; when limited, they necessarily contract, and the fibre is.small. This produces a want of trueness, which the experienced stapler readily detects, and which he does not fail to estimate against the value of the fleece. Sheep ought to have a full supply of salt, and if accessible, sulphur, ashes, tar, and clay would frequently be nibbled by them when their stomach required either. Pine or hemlock boughs are a good substitute for tar, and afford a most health- ful change in the wiiter-food of sheep. Entire cleanliness and dryness are also essential to the health of the flock. The smaller sizes of the Saxon may be well sustained on two pounds of hay, but larger sheep will consume from three and a half to four, or even “five pounds per day. . Sheep, like all é A EY MANAGEMENT OF. LAMBs. ‘419 viher animals when exposed to cold, will consume much more than if well protected, or than during a warmer season. The Care of the Ewes with Young Ts an important consideration, as the lamb is sometimes the - only profit yielded by the flock; for when fodder is high, or wool low, the fleece will barely pay for the food and attention. Pregnant ewes require the same food as at all other times; but “caution is necessary to prevent injury or abortion, which is - often the resuit of excessive fat, feebleness, or disease. The first may be remedied by blood-letting and spare diet; and both the last by restored health and generous food. Sudden fright, as from dogs or strange objects ; long or severe journeys ; oveat exertions ; areeale ce food ; blows in the region of the footus, and some other a produce abortion. Yeaning, Most flocks are turned into the pasture before yeaning time, and the ewe is then left to nature, which is a good practice, if 2 is healthy and the weather good. Rut a larger number of bs will be reared by a careful oversight of the ewes, and f proper precautions. As their time approaches, . be known by the springing of the udder and the of the natural parts, they should be put by them- ,in a warm stable or with others in the same well looked after, late and early in the day. need any assistance, nor should any be render- ease of wrong presentation, or feebleness in ex- In the former case, the shepherd may and finger, after oiling, to push back the ly turning it till the nose and fore-feet tter, only. the slightest.aid should be jem the throes of the dam. apply. his young, and ¢ appear; and rendered, and t Min ie of Lambs. When lambing in the field, only a few should be together, as the young sometimes get changed, and the dams refuse to < own them. This difficulty is generally obviated, by holding the ewe till the lamb has sucked two or three times; or they may be shut up together, and the lamb rubbed with a little fine salt. The lamb does not require nourishment for some hours — eit Sel 420 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. after its birth; but if the dam refuse to lick it as soon as it appears, it must be carefully wiped dry. If the weather be cold and the lamb is drapped in the field, the shepherd should be furnished with large pockets or a well-lmed pasket, in which it must be placed till the ewe is brought to the shed. After the first day or twe, the udders ought to be com- pletely drained of their milk by the hand, se as te prevent. swollen or caked bag. In case of deficiency of milk, the lamb may be supplied from a new milch cow, by means of a suck- ing-bottle with an air vent, or it may draw a part of its nourish- ment from another ewe, which can be held while the lamb Is sucking. It is sometimes necessary to substitute a foster-mother, in which case, the ewe may be made to own the jamb, by milk- ing from her udder ever the lamb and under his tail, rubbing tt on well; or rub the adopted lamb with the entrails and con- tents of the stomach of the dead lamb, or cover it with the skin. If the ewe proves a bad nurse, or it is desirable to bring the lambs forward rapidly, they may be early taught to eat boiled oats or other grain, cabbage, roots, and fender hay. Lambs should be aie fed, as this 5 important to produce size, constitution, and perfection of form. The ewes and their young cught te be divided into small] flocks, and have a frequent change of pasture. Some careful shepherds adept the plan of confining their lambs, and allow them to sack two or three times a day ; by which they suffer a0 fatigue, and thrive much faster. But this is troublesome ind injurious, as the exercise is essential te the health and sonstitutien ef the famb intended for rearing. It is admissible snly when they are wanted for an early market, and by those vho rear them for this purpose, it is a commen practice. Vastrating and Decking Lambs. After selecting enough ef the cheicest rams for stock-get- ers, the castrating may be performed at any time between ‘vo and six weeks” old, when the lamb is in gocd health. A ol day should be chosen; or if warm, it must be done early athe merning. The best methed is fer one person to hold the lamb firmly between his legs, on an inclined plank upon which he rests, while. another with a sharp knife cuts off about two-thirds of the lower part of the scrotum. ‘The testicles are then drawn out till the spermatic cord is reached, which is divided by the thumb nail; or it is pulled out and cut witha SUMMER MANAGEMENT 121. sharp knife. It is sometimes done by simply opening the scro- tum, when the testicles amd spermatic cord are jerked out. The wound should then be rinsed with cold water, after which apply lard. The operation of docking is by many deferred till a late pe- riod, from apprehension of too much loss of blood; but if the weather be favorable, and the lamb in good condition, it may be performed at this time with the least trouble and without injury. The tail should be laid upon the plank, the person holding him in the same position as before. With one hand _he draws the skin towards the body, while the other person, with a two-inch chisel and mallet, strikes it off at a blow, be- tween the bone joints, leaving it one and a half to two inches long. ‘The skin immediately shps back over the wound and is soon healed. Ewe lambs should be docked closer than the rams. ‘To prevent flies and maggots, and assist in healing, it is well to apply an ointment composed of lard and tar, in the proportions of four pounds of the former to one quart of the latter. ‘This is also a good application for the scrotum. The lambs should be carefully protected from cold and wet till they are perfectly well. Tagging, or Clatting, Is the removai of such wool as is liable to get fouled, when the sheep are turned on to the fresh pastures, and of course it should be done just before leaving their winter quarters. It is most easily accomplished by placing the animal on a low table, and then holding it as in shearing, till the operation is performed. All the noo! near the extremity of the sheath, and the scrotum of the males; from the udder of the ewes; and from below the dock, the inside of the thighs, and the legs of the sheep, should be removed. Summer Management. As soon as the warm weather approaches, and the grass appears, sheep become vestive and impatient for the pasture. This instinct should be repressed till the ground has become choroughly dry, and the grass has acquired substance. They ought, moreover, to be provided for the change of food, by the daily use of roots for a few days before turning out. It would also check the tendency to excessive purging, which is induced by the first spring feed, if they were housed at night, and fed for the first few days with a little sound, sweet hay. Tes 122 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. They must be provided with pure water, salt, &c., as in win- ter, for though they may sometimes do tolerably well without either, yet thrift and freedom from disease are cheaply secured by this slight attention. Dry, sweet pastures, and such as abound in aromatic and bitter plants, are best suited for sheep-walks. No animal, with the exception of the goat, crops so great a variety of plants. They eat many which are rejected “by the horse and the ox, and which are even essential to their own wants. In this respect, they are valuable assistants to the husbandman, as they feed greedily on wild mustard, burdocks, thistles, marsh-mallows, milkweed, and various other offending plants ; and the Merino exceeds the more recent breeds in the variety of his selections. Many prepare artificial pastures for fhe flocks. This may be done with a number of plants. Winter rye, or wheat sown early in the season, may be fed off in the fall, without mjury to the crop; and in the following spring, the rye may be pas- tured till the stalks shoot up and begin to form a head. This affords an early and nutritious food. Corn may be sown broadcast, or thickly in drills, and either fed off in the fields, or cut and carried to the sheep in their folds. White mustard is a valuable crop for this purpose. To give sheep sufficient variety, it would be better to divide their range into smaller ones, and change them as often at least as once a week. They seek a favorite resting-place, ona dry, elevated part of the field, which soon becomes soiled. By removing them from this for a few days, rains will cleanse, or the sun dry it, so as again to make it suitable for them. More sheep may be kept, and in better condition, where this practice is adopted, than where they are confined to the same pasture. Washing Sheep. In most of that portion of the Union north of 40°, the washing is performed from the middle of May till the first of June, according to the season and climate. When the streams are hard, which is frequently the case in limestone regions, it is better to do this immediately after an abundant rain, by which the lime derived from the springs is proportionally lessened. The practice of a large majority of our farmers, is to drive their sheep to the washing-ground early in the morn- ing on a warm day, leaving tie lambs behind. The sheep are confined on the bank of the stream by a temporary enclosure ‘ WASHING SHEEP. 123 from whish they are taken, and if not too heavy, are cairied into water sufficiently deep to prevent their touching bottom. They are then washed, by gently squeezing the fleece with the hands, after which they are led ashore, and as much of the water pressed out as possible before letting them go, as the great weight retained in the wool frequently staggers and throws them down. A good practice is to lead the sheep into the water and sat- urate the fleece, after which they are taken ashore. When they commence steaming, they are again led mto the water, and washed clean. This msures thorough cleansing, where the water is pure. Others make use of a boat,.one end of which rests on a bold shore, and ‘he other is in deep water. The operator stands in the boat and plunges the animal over the side, when the washing is performed. It is sometimes done by sinking a tight hogshead or large box in the water, with heavy weights, in which a man stands, and the sheep are brought or led to him by another person, who walks on a plat- form reaching from the bank to the hogshead. Lither of the last methods obviates the necessity of standing for a long time in water, by which colds, rheumatism, d&c. are frequently contracted. In parts of Germany, and sometimes in this country, sheep are forced to swim across a narrow stream several times, by which the fleece is tolerably cleaned, if all the water be pressed out when they get to the land. The yolk being a saponaceous compound, and not an oily matter as is gencrally supposed, it readily combines with the water and passes out of the wool. An excellent practice, when streams are not convenient, is to lead a small ripple of soft water into a tub. . To this, a little soap is added, after which the sheep are immersed and thor- oughly cleansed. Perfect whiteness and purity of the fleece is readily secured afterwards, by throwing over the sheep a jet of water. This practice has a good effect, in preventing or removing cutaneous disorders, and destroying ticks or other vermin. Many judicious farmers object to washing sheep, from its tendency to produce colds and catarrhal affections, to which sheep are particularly subject ; but it cannot well be dispensed with, as the wool is always more saleable, and if carefully done, need not be attended with injury. Warm settled weath- er, however, is indispensable to washing with safety to the general health of the sheep. 124 VUMESTIC ANIMALS. Fig. 26 shows 1 ewe, with lines indicating the usual method of sorting wool; number 1 indicating the retina or picklock ; 2 and 3, the second and third qualities. Lig. 26. GE ORS A 5m mW A SONG of vi \ qn) Sh gi q J = == ——+ | {eee 7s \\ SW mn SION Swonllamen Wool Sorting Shearing, The manner of shearing varies with almost every district ; but as this is an art to be acquired under a skilful master, we shall omit particular details on the subject. First clip all the tags and filth, if any remains or has been accumulated after the tagging in the apne then take off the fleece and spread it with the outside uppermost on a smooth bench or table, and ~ yush the wool carefully together, to render it more compact ; double the sides over to the centre; throw the clean loose locks into the middle, and roll together from each end. This makes a smooth, dense package, which is secured by passing a stout twine one or more times around the sides and ends. All the wool from the extremities, should he closely sheared SMEARING OR SALVING SHHEP. 125 and saved by itself, before dismissing the sheep, out not put up with choice fleeces. If wounds are made, which is sometimes the case with un- skilful operators, a mixture of tar and grease ought to be ap- plied. After shearing, such horns and hoofs as are likely to be troublesome, should be sawed and pared. The branding, or marking, is essential to distineuish them from other flocks, and this is done on the shoulder, side, or buttock. A brush or marking-iron is used for this purpose, with paint made of lampblack, to which a little spirits of turpentine is first added, and then diluted with linseed or lard oil. If the weather be cool, and especially, if severe storms oc- cur after washing or shearing, the flock should be housed. If sultry, they should have a cool, shady retreat, where they will be shielded f-om the flies and the heat. Blisters and perma- — aent injury to the skin and fleece, are frequently the result of such exposure. Shade trees in their pastures, contribute much to the comfort of sheep, when exposed to a blazing sun. A close examination of the skin should be made at shearing, for the detection of disease or vermin. For remedies, see article dzseases. Nmearing or Nalving Sheep Ts a custom little practised in this country. For cold, ele- vated, and bleak exposures, it may be necessary, and it is, there- fore, generally adopted in Scotland. The object is, to prevent cutaneous diseases and vermin, and furnish additional warmth and protection to the fleeces of such breeds as are deficient in yolk. It is usually performed in the latter part of October, but is sometimes done immediately after shearing. The mixture or salve consists of tar and butter or grease, in different proportions; 1 gallon of the former to 12, or some- times 20 lbs. of the latter; the greater proportion of tar being required for the younger sheep, or for more exposed situations. The grease is melted over the fire, and the tar stirred in, and when sufficiently cool, it is applied to the whole body of the sheep, by carefully parting the wool and rubbing it on the skin with the fingers. The above quantity is sufficient for 30 or 50 sheep, according to their size and the character of the wool. This application is not required for fine-woolled sheep, whose fleeces are more appropriately protected by a natural hie 126 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. secretion of yolk; and it is better to omit it in all cases, where the health and com:fort of the animal do not render it abso- lutely essential. Mr. Stewart, an experienced Scotch shepherd, uses only tallow and train oil, mixed in equal proportions. He asserts, that the improvement in the growth and quality of the wool is at least one-third, and it materially benefits the con- dition of the sheep. Weaning. The lambs may be weaned from 34 to 4 months old. They should be put upon rich, sweet feed, but not too luxuriant; while the dams are turned upon the poorest, and so remote from their young, as to be out of sight and hearing. The ewes ought to be carefully examined after a day or two, and if necessary, the milk removed with the hand. If it continues to accumulate, the ewe may be fed on hay for a few days. When thoroughly dried off, they should have the best fare, to enable them to recover condition for subsequent breeding and wintering. The fall is a critical period to lose flesh, either for sheep or lambs; and if any are found deficient, they should ‘be at once provided with extra feed and attention. If cold weather overtakes them poor or in ill-health, they will scareely outlive it; or if by chance they survive, their emaciated car- cass, Impaired constitution, and scant fleece, will ill repay the food and attention they will have cost. The time for taking Sheep from the Pastures. This must depend on the state of the weather and food Severe frosts destroy much of the nutriment in the grasses, ana they soon after cease to afford adequate nourishment. Long exposure to cold storms, with such food to sustain them, will rapidly reduce their condition. The only safe rule is to trans- fer them to their winter-quarters the first day they cease to thrive abroad. Drafting the Flock, For the purpose of ridding it of the supernumeraries, should be done at an earlier day. Such of the wethers as have attained their prime, and those ewes that have passed it, ought to be withdrawn soon after shearing, provided with the best feed, and rapidly fitted for the shambles. If they have been properly pushed on grass, they will be in good flesh by _ the time they are taken from it; and if not intended for stall- fesding, the sooner they are then disposed of the better. MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP FUR THE PRAIRIES 127 Ntall-Feeding. This will be lost on an ill-shaped, unthrifty beast. The perfection of form and health, and the uniform good condition, which characterize the thrifty one, indicate too plainly to be misunderstood, those which will best repay the care of their owner. ‘The selection of any indifferent animal for stall-fat- tening, whether catile or sheep, will inevitably be attended with loss. Such ought to be got rid of when first brought from the pasture, for the most they will bring. Management of Sheep fer the Prairies. When destined for the praines, sheep ought to commence their journey as early after shearing as possible. They are then disencumbered of their fleece, and do not catch and re- tain as much dust, as when driven later. Feed is also ger.er- ally better, and the roads are dry and hard. Young and healthy sheep should be selected, with early lambs; cc if the latter are too young, and the distance great, they should be left and the ewes dried off. A large wagon ought to accom- pany the flock, to carry such as occasionally give out; or they may be disposed of whenever they become enfeebled. With good care, a hardy flock may be driven at the rate of 12 or 14 miles a day. Constant watchfulness is requisite, to keep them healthy and in good plight. One-half the expense of driving, may be saved by the use of well-trained shepherd- dogs. When arrived at their destination, they must be thoroughly washed, to free them from all dirt, and closely examined as to any diseases they may have contracted, which, if discovered, should be promptly removed. A variety of suitable food and good shelter must be provided, for the autumn, winter, and spring ensuing, and every necessary attention given them. This would be necessary if indigenous to the country; how much more so, when they have just undergone a campaign, to which neither they nor their race have been accustomed! Sheep cannot be kept on the prairies without much care, artificial food, and proper attention ; and from a false system of economy, hitherto attempted by many, losses have occurred from disease and mortality in the flocks, sufficient to have made ample provision for the comfort and security of twice the number lost. More especially do they require proper food and attention, after the first severe frosts set in, which wither and kill the natural grasses. By nibbling at the fog, 128 i DOMESTIC ANIMALS. (the frostbitten, dead grass,) they are inevitably subject te constipation, which a bountiful supply of roots, sulphur, d&e., is alone sufficient to remove. Roots, grain, and good hay ; straw, or corn-stalks, pea or bean vines, are essential to the preservation of their heaith and thrift durmg the winter, everywhere north of 39°. In sum- mer, the natural herbage is sufficient to sustain them in fine condition, till they shali have aequired a denser populatien of animals, when it will be found necessary to stock their meadows with the best varieties of artificial grasses. The prauies seem adapted to the usual varieties of sheep imtroduced into the United States; and of such are the flocks made up, according to the taste or judgment of the owners. Shepherd-dogs are invaluable to the owners of flocks, in those unfenced, illimitable ranges, beth as a defence agamst the smal] prarrie-wolf, which prowls around the sheep, but which are rapidly thinning off by the settlers ; and also as assistants _ to the s>epherds in driving and herding their flocks on the open ground. DISEASES OF SHEEP. The dry and healthful climate, the rolling surface, and the sweet and varied herbage, which generally prevail in the United States, insure perfect health to an originally sound and well-selected flock, unless peculiarly exposed to disease. No country is better suited to sheep, than most of the northern and some of the southern parts of our own. In Europe, and especially in England, where the system of management is necessarily in the highest degree artiftcial, consisting fre- quently in early and continued forcing the system, foldmg on wet, plowed grounds, and the excessive use of that watery food, the Swedes turnip, there are numerous and fatal dis- eases. Hence the long list which lumbers the pages of for- eign writers on sheep. The most destructive of these are the rot, and epidemics which ave scarcely known m America, except by report. The diseases incident to our flocks may generally be considered as casualties, rather than as inbred, or necessarily arisme from the quality of food, or from local causes. It may be safely asserted, that with a dry pasture, well stocked with varied and nutritious grasses; a clear, running stream ; sufficient shade and protesion against severe storms; a constant supply of galt, tar, and sulphur in swamer; good hay, and sometimes DIARRHGA OR SCOURS. 129 roots, with ample shelters in winter; young sheep, originally sound and healthy, will seldom or never get diseased on American soil. The few diseaSes which it may be necessary here to mention, will be treated in the simplest manner. Remedies of general application, to be administered often by the unskilful and ignorant, must neither be elaborate nor complicated ; and, if expensive, the lives of most sheep would be dearly purchased by their application. A sheep which the owner has reared or purchased at the ordinary price, is the only domestic animal which can die without material loss to its owner. The wool and pelt will, in most instances, repay its cost, while the carcasses of other animals will be worthless except for manure. The loss of sheep from occasional disease, will leave the farmer’s pocket in a very different condition from the loss of an equal value in horses or cattle. Yet humanity, equally with interest, dic- tates the use of such simple remedies for the removal of suffer- ing and disease, as may be within reach. Diarrhea or Scours, When light and not long continued, calls for no remedy. It is a healthful provision of nature for the more rapid expul- sion of some offending matter in the system, which, if retained, might lead to disease. It is generally owing to improper food, as bad hay or noxious weeds; to a sudden change, as from dry food to fresh grass; or to an excess, as from overloading the stomach; and sometimes, from cold and wet. The remedies are obvious. Change to suitable food in the first two cases ; enforce ab- stinence after repletion; and provide warm, dry shelter, with light diet, if owing to the latter causes. When severe or long continued, a dose of castor oil may be given, and after its operation, give four grams of opium and one ounce chalk, and put them on dry food. Wheat-bran or shorts, and oat-meal or flaxseed g-2<’, are both good for ailing lambs and sheep; as are also ripe cats or wheat, fed in the sheaf, with well cured, sweet hay, and plenty of salt. Fresh boughs of the juniper, or pme and hemlock, help te check the disorder. Locseness in the larger lambs is prevented by having chalk within their reach; or if they refuse it, administer it in their food. When it happens soon after birth, place it with the 130 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. ewe in a warm place, and feed the latter with plenty of oats, or other sound grain. If the milk be deficient, give the lamb cow’s milk scalded, or let it suck the cow. ‘The tail is some- times glued on to the buttocks, while the scours continue. - Separate it immediately by the use of warm water, and rub the parts with dry loam or clay. Dysentery. This is a different and frequently a fatal disease, but re- sembles the former in its general symptoms. It is owing to prolonged diarrhcea, unwholesome or meager food, and other causes. Bleeding and physic should be resorted to, after which give warm, nourishing gruel. Hoven. For description and remedies, see hoven in cattle. Braxy. This is manifested by uneasiness, loathing of food, frequent drinking, carrying the head down, drawing the back up, swollen belly, feverish symptoms, and avoidance of the flock, It appears mostly in late autumn and spring, and may be in- duced by exposure to severe storms, plunging in water when hot, and especially by constipation brought on by feeding on frostbitten, putrid, or indigestible herbage. Remedies are not often successful, unless promptly applied. Bleed freely, and to effect this, in consequence of the stagnant state of the blood, immersion in a tub of hot water may be necessary. Then give two ounces Epsom salts, dissolved in warm water, with a handful of common salt. If this is unsuccessful, give a clyster made with a pipe-full of tobacco, boiled for a few minutes in a pint of water. Administer half, and if this is not effectual, follow with the remainder. Then peu ‘is animal in dry straw and cover with blankets, and assist the purgatives with warm gruels, followed by laxative provender till well.—(Blackiock.) Thou- sands of sheep have died on the prairies from braxy, in- duced by exposure and miserable forage. Entire preven- tion is secured by warm, dry shelters, and nutritious, digesti- ble food. DISEASES IN SHEEP. 13] Costiveness. This is removed by giving two tablespoonfuls of castor oil every twelve hours, till the difficulty is removed; or give one ounce Epsom salts. This may be assisted by an injection of warm, weak suds and molasses. Stretches. Sheep sometimes stretch out their noses on the ground, and around their sides, as if in severe pain. This may be caused by an involution of one part of the intestine within another. When owing to this cause, the difficulty is frequently re- moved by jerking the animal by the hind-legs several times, when the pain disappears. But it is generally occasioned by costzveness, which see above. This may be prevented by using green food, roots, é&c., once a week, or by allowing them to browse on the ever- greens, pines, hemlock, and firs. Poison, From laurel and other plants, is cured by pouring a gill of melted lard down the throat, or boil for an hour the twigs of the white ash, and give half to one gill of the strong liquor immediately ; to be repeated if not successful. Inflammation of the Lungs. This is produced by improper exposure to cold and wet. The remedy for slight affections, is warm, dry shelter, and light food. When severe, resort must be had to bleeding and purging freely, then to light bran or linseed mashes. Rot. This sometimes causes the death of a million of sheep ina single year in England, yet it is a disease almost unknown in this country. Foreign authorities ascribe it entirely to excessive humidity of climate, wet pastures, or too watery food. The preventives are therefore obvious. After the use of dry food and dry bedding, one of the best is the abundant use of pure salt. In violent attacks, early bleeding, followed by a dose of two ounces Epsom salts, to be repeated if neces- sary, with a change of diet and location, is all that can be done. 132 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. Foot-Rot. This is frequently a prevalent disease among American sheep. It is sometimes spontaneous, but more often pro- duced by contagion. In the former case, it is caused by soft, rich, or moist pastures. A dry gravelly or rocky range, will of course be an effectual preventive when owine to this cause. ' The disorder is communicated by the absoibents of the foot coming in contact with the suppuration which has been left on the ground from the diseased part. Absolute safety against this contagion is secured only by a total avoidance of the walks of the infected animals, till repeated rains, or what is better, frosts, have disarmed the virus of its malignity. Remedies are variously compounded, of blue vitriol, verdigris, tar, spirits of turpentine, alum, saltpetre, salt, lime, copperas, white-lead, antimony, alcohol, urine, vinegar, &., all of which have proved effectual. The hoof should first be pared and thoroughly scraped. Then apply a wash made of three parts of blue vitriol, one of verdigris pulverized finely, with scalding (not boiling) vinegar; stirrmg briskly till it is of the consistence o. thin cream, and put it upon the affected part with a paint brush. It is a good preventive, to apply this to the sound feet of the affected animal. Another remedy is to use spits of turpentine after scra- ping; and if the disease is of long standing, add to the tur- pentine a strong decoction of blue vitriol dissolved in water. The foot should be examined every week, and the remedy re- peated till perfect soundness is restored. A feather dipped in muriatic or nitric acid, and applied te the parts after scrapmg and cleansing, is a good remedy. When put upon the soles of /foot-sore sheep, it hardens the hoofs, and enables them to travel better. Sheep are sometimes cured by keeping them on a dry sur- face, and driving over a barn-floor daily, which is well covered with quicklime. It may also be cured by dryness, and re- ‘peated washing with soap-suds. The above ailment should not be confounded with a tempo- rary soreness, or inflammation of the hoof, occasioned by the irritation from the long, rough grasses which abound in low situations, which is removed with the cause; or if it continues, apply white paint or tar, after thorough washing. PROTECTION FROM THE GAD-FLY. 133 Corrosien of the Flesh by Flies or Maggots, May be cwed by first removing the vermin; then wash with Castile soap and warm soft water, after which apply white-lead with linseed oil. Tar put on the festering wound corrodes it ; but this, or spirits of turpentine placed on the sound parts near it, kee,, off the flies by their strong effluvia. If tie wound be slight, and the weather moderate, apply a little sj irits of turpentine with a strong decoction of elder bark. Flies on Sheep May be prevented by smearine with a composition made of -two pounds lard or soft grease, one pound sulphur, half pint oil of amber, or oil of tar, or tar alone. A small spoonftl is sufficient for a sheep.— Genesee Harmer. Protection from the Gad-Fly. In July, August, and Septeinber, in the Northern states, the gad-fly (GEstus oves) attacks the nostrils of the sheep, and there deposites its eggs, which, on batpy hatched, immediately crawl up and make a lodgment in the ! vad. They are frequently repelled by laying a thick coat ot iar on the bottom of the troughs, and sprinkling it with salt. The smell of the tar ad- hering to the nose will d:ive off the fly. A more effectual remedy is to apply it thoroughly with a brush to the external part of the nose. If a few furrows of loose earth are fonned up in their pas- tures, the sheep will hold their noses to them, and thus keep off the fly. The symptoms of grubs in he head, are drooping of the head and ears, discharge of bloody and watery matter from the nostrils, and loss of strength in the limbs. If worms have made a lodgment, take half a pound of good Scotch snuff, and two quarts boiling water: stir, and let it stand : till cold. Inject about a tablespoonful of this liquid and sed- iment up each nostril, with a syringe. Repeat this three or four times at intervals, from the middle of October till Janua- ry: the grubs are then small, and will not have injured the sheep. ‘The efficacy of the snuff will be increased, by adding haJf an ounce assafcetida, pounded in_a little water. The ef- fevt on the sheep is immediate prostration and apparent death, but they will soon recover. A decoction of oe will afford a substitute for snuff.—V. Eng. Far. 12 134 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. Blavklock’s remedy is, to half fill the bowl of a pipe with tobacco, light it, and then hold the sheep, while a person in- serts the stem some distance into the nostril, and blows a few whiffs into the nose. The operation is then repeated with the other nostril. Swollen Mouth Is sometimes fatal. It is said to be cured by daubing the lips and mouth plentifully with tar—Albany Cultivator. Foul Noses. Dip a small swab into tar, then roll in salt. Put some on the nose, and compel the sheep to swallow a small quantity.— American Far. A disease indicated by drooping, running at the eyes, weak- ness in the back and loins, inability to use the hind legs, was removed by turning the sheep into a pasture containing lobe- ha, (Indian tobacco.) Dried lobelia was also given, and pro- duced the same effect.— Cultivator. Scab. This loathsome disease, to which fine-woolled sheep are par- ficularly liable, is caused, like itch in the human subject, by a small insect, a species of the acarz. - It is first manifest by the rubbing of the sheep, and soon after by one or more tufts of wool, which is loosened at the roots. On feeling the skin, a hard, dry wamor is perceptible. To prevent contagion, re- move the infected sheep to a separate pasture or yard as soon as discovered. Remedies.—The Spanish shepherds dissolve a little salt in their mouth, and drop it upon the infected part. When the tumor has become enlarged, the wool should be removed closely to the skin, the scab scraped with a curry- comb, then wash with strong soap-suds or ley, and afterwards rub thoroughly with sulphur or brimstone, mixed with lard or grease. An effectual remedy is prepared by taking one pound of to- bacco, which add to 12 quarts ley from wood ashes of suffi- cient strength for washing, and four pee urine; to this add another mixture of a oil high-wines ; 4 02. camphor ; 1 oz. Spanish brown, and gill spirits of turpentine. A small quan- tity of this applied to the sore will never fail. Immediately after shearing, scab may readily be cured by TICKS AND LICE—PELT-ROT. 135 mmersing the sheep, (excepting the head,) in a strong decoc- tion of tobacco liquor, adding a gill of spirits of turpentine for the first, and making a slight addition of fresh liquid for each sheep, enough to keep up the s:rength of the tobacco and tur- pentine, and taking care to rub the affected part thoroughly. For lambs, this liquor should be diluted, but yet left strong enough to kill ticks in one or two minutes, which may be ascertained by experiment. Scab is also removed by using a composition of one pound plug tobacco to three gallons of water, with lime-water and oil of vitriol added ; or a decoction of hellebore with vinegar, sulphur, and spirits of turpentine.—(H. D. Grove.) Scab is propagated more by using the same rubbing posts, than by contact with each other. Sheep in low condition are more subject to it than others. Ticks and Lice Sometimes infest sheep. Good feeding ana shelter is a partial preventive, but when they have made their lodgment, they must be dipped in a decoction of tobacco water. The most effectual time for their destruction, is a few days after shearing, when they will have left the naked bodies of the old ewes, to hide in the fleeces of the lambs. The dipping in tobacco water, with the addition of a small quantity of tur- pentine, is an effectual remedy. After dipping the sheep or lambs, the liquor should be ‘pressed out from the wool, upon an inclined plane, so arranged as again to run into the vessel. Pelt-rot . Will be recognised as one of the staple diseases of our native sheep, described on page 89. The wool in this case falls off, leaving the sheep partially or almost wholly naked ; but this is not accompanied with soreness or apparent disease. The animal must be provided with a warm stall and generous feed, and the naked skin should be anointed with tar and grease. The preventive is good keeping and shelter. Staggers or Sturdy, and Water in the Head, Somtimes affect sheep, but more especially lambs under a year old. The first is caused by the hydatid. It is considered 136 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. as an almost incurable disorder, Dut is sometimes removed py trepanning. Chancellor Livingston carefully supplied two thus attacked, with food for three months, when nature effected a cure. Re- moval to dry lands and purging, is a good precaution when they are first taken. An English lad lately cured one which had been given up, by boring with a gimlet mto the soft place on the head, when the water rushed out, and the sheep immediately followed the others to the pasture. A correspondent of the Albany Cultivator asserts, that 3 a put of melted lard poured down the throat, will cure blind staggers in ten minutes. Abortion Occurs sometimes, and is usually caused by excessive fright or exertion, and sometimes by severe exposure and poor feed. It is seldom fatal, except to the lamb. The Uterus Is occasionally protruded after lambing. It should be m- mediately returned, first washing it in warm milk and water, if any dirt adheres to it. For this, the hand only should be used. After rubbing it with lard or oil, hold up the hind legs, and gently replace the protruded parts, then keep the ewe quiet till fully recovered. For Garget, or Caked Bag, Keep the bag thoroughly drained of milk, for which purpose the lamb is the most efficient. If it is lost, another may be temporarily substituted. Purge freely with Epsom salts, and wash the udder repeatedly with.very warm water. If matter forms, it should be opened with the lance:. Bleeding. “Nothing tends so much to the recovc.¢ of an animal from a disease in which bleeding is required, as the rapid flow of the blood from a large orifice. Little cnpression can be made on an acute disease by the slow removal of even a large quantity of blood, as the organs have time to accommodate themselves to the loss, which might, for any good it will do, as well be dispensed with. Either bleed rapidly, or not at all. The nearer the commencement of an ailment, in which you em- BLEEDING. Bias Wf pluy bleeding, the operat tion is resorted to, the giveater the chance of its doing good. Bleeding by nicking the under surface of the tail, does very well, where no great deal of blood is required, but it is not to be thought of if the veins of the face or neck can possibly be opened. ‘These are to be taken in preference to a vein on the leg, as they are much more readily got at. The facial vem commences by small branches on the side of the face, and runs downwards and backwards to the base of the jaw, where it may be felt within two inches of the angle, or opposite the middle grinding tooth. It is here that the orifice must be made: the thumb of the left hand being heid against the vein, so as to prevent the flow of blood towards the heart, will make it vase. Sorhe prefer opening the jugular vein, which commences behind the eye and runs down the side of the neck. This vessel is, however, more difficult to open than the former, be- ing better covered with wool, and not so easily exposed or made to swell. Stringing is the mode commonly resorted to for this end; that is to say, a cord is drawn tightly round the neck close to the shoulder, so as to stop the circulation through the vein, and render it perceptible to the finger. A lancet is the instrument generally used in bleeding, though a well-pointed penknife will do at a pmch. The opening must always be made obliquely; but before attempting this, the animal must be secured, by placing it between the operator’s legs, with its croup against a wall. The selected vein is then fixed by the fingers of the operator’s left hand, so as to pre- vent its rolling or slipping before the lancet. Having fairly entered the vein, the point of the instrument must be elevated at the same time that it is pushed a little forward, by which. motion.it will be lifted from or cut its way out of the vein. A prescribed quantity of blood sheuld never be drawn, for the simple reason that this can never be precisely stated. If the symptoms are urgent, as in all likelihood they will be, your best plan is not to stop the flow of blood till the animal fall or is about to fall. When this occurs, run a pin through the edges of the orifice, and finish by twisting round it a lock of wool.” — (Blacklock.) Large cuts are healed By first sewing and then covering with salve. Smaller ones may be secured with an adhes’ve plaster or bandage. 12* 438 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. To pretect lambs from wolves and foxes, Smea: the neck plentifully with a mixture of tar and sul- phur. Bells are also said to guard the flock, as both are ex- cessively wary, and have a great dislike to any thing artificial. Large dogs will keep them at bay. A better remedy is to kill the marauders, which may be done by inserting strychnine in fresh meat and leaving it in their haunts. CHAPTER V. THE HORSE. In nearly all ages and countries, the horse has been the devoted servant, and the object of the pride and affection of man. Among the semi-civilized Tartars of Middle and North- ern Asia; the aborigines of cur remote Western prairies, reaching even beyond the Rocky Mountains, and many other rude nations, his flesh is used for food. Most of the tribes among the former use the milk for domestic purposes, and especially when fermented and changed te an unpleasantly sour and intexicating beverage. But throughout the civilized world, with some slight exceptions, the horse is useful only for his labor. Fer this purpese he is pre-eminently fitted by his compact, closely-knit frame; his sinewy, muscular limbs; his easy, rapid stride; his general form, and entire structure and habits. He is found in his wild condition in Central Asia, Siberia, and the interior of Africa; and for 300 years he has been turned loose to follow his native instincts on the illimitahble pampas of South America, and the wide-spread prairies of Mexico and California. In all these regions he closely resem- bles the medium varieties of the domesticated horse; but as the natural result of his freedom, he possesses more fire and spirit than any other, except the blood-horse. Arabia is generally claimed as the original native locality of the horse, and as the only souree frcm which he is to be de- rived in the requisite perfection for the highest improvement of the race. But Strabo, who wrote more than 1,800 years ago, asserts that the horse did net then flourish in Arabia, and if was not till some centuries later that he attained any de- THE HORSE. 139 cided superiority there. Great attention, however, has been a in that country, since the era of Mahomet, to breeding a ight, agile, and enduring frame; intelligence and _tractability of character; and the perpetuation of these qualities by the most scrupulous regard for the purity of blood. This is equally true of the Barb or pure-bred horse of Mo- rocco, and those of the northern coast of Afncea, in Egypt, ameng the Turks, and indeed wherever the followers of the -Prophet are to be found. It is unquestionable, that the influ- ence of the Eastern blood among the choicest animals of mod- ern Europe, has been followed by great improvements in racing stock. Yet it is equally certain. that the race-horse, both of England and the United States, has accomplished what has never been demonstrated as within the ability of their progen- itors ; and on repeated trials with the Eastern horses, he has shown himself confessedly their superior in speed, strength, and endurance. In 1825, two English horses ran against the two fleetest Cossacks which could be found throughout the entire region of their best blood, and in a continued race of 47 miles, the European took the stakes; Sharper, the most successful, per- forming the distance in 2 hours and 48 minutes. About the same time, Recruit, an English horse of moderate reputation, easily beat Pyramus, the best Arabian on the Bengal side of India. The Leeds, the Darley, and the Godolphin Arabian; the Lister and D’Arcey’s White Turk, and other noted Eastern horses, would not compare in performance with many of their descendants. But these, with some other choice Arabians, on the best mares, and with every advantage for obtaining celeb- rity, have succeeded in establishing a fame as just as it has been enduring. Yet it must at the same time be remembered, that of the innumerable other pure-bred horses which have been tried in Europe, a few only have rescued their names from oblivion. The experience of Eastern blood in this country, in compar- ison with the best English, is decidedly in favor of the latter. We have had one horse of unsurpassed exvellence, which a fortunate accident threw upon our shores a short time previous to 1770. This was the white Barb Ranger, which was _pre- sented by the Emperor of Morocco, as the choice or his stud, to an English naval officer for some distinguished service. On his route homeward, the animal was set on shore for exercise at an interme(iate port, where in his gambols he broke three 140 ; POMESTIC ANIMALS. of his legs, and thinking him worthless, his owner gave him to the commander of a New England merchantman, then present. He was readily accepted, and placed in slings on board of his vessel, and recovered. This animal stood for many years, m the eastern part of Connecticut ; and on their good mares, produced a numerous progeny of unrivalled cavalry horses, which rendered invalu- able services in the troop commanded by that consummate partisan, Captain (afterwards General) Lee, of the Revolution. It is said the favorite white field-horse of General Washington was of the same stock. He was afterwards sold to Captain Lindsey, as a special favor, and taken to Virginia, where he produced some good racers. Bussorah, a small sorrel horse, brought into this country ip 1819, from the head of the Persian Gulf, got many choice roadsters, though no racers of celebrity. The Narraganset pacers, a race belonging to our Northern states, but for many years almost extinct, possessed for a long ‘time an unrivalled reputation for spirit, endurance, and easy rapid motion under the saddle. ‘They are said to have origi- nated from a Spanish horse, many of which are pure descend- ants of the Barb. As an offset to these isolated examples of success in this country, we have numerous instances of the importation of the best Orientals, which have been extensively used on some of our superior mares, without any marked effect. We shall refer to three prominent importations only. The first consisted of two choice Arabians, or Barbs, selected in Tunis by General Eaton, and sent to his estate in Massachu- seits. ‘The second was a present of four choice Barbs, from the Emperor of Morocco to our government, in 1830; and the _third consisted of two Arabians, sent by the Imaum of Mus- cat, near the Persian Gulf, to our government in 1840. These were all claimed to be, and no doubt were, of the pure Koch- lani, the unadulterated line royal; yet none have earned any distinguished reputation, either by their own performances or those of their descendants. It is to England we are mainly indebted for the great im- provement in our blood, road, and farm horses. A numerous race of fine horses was reared on that island, long previous to its authentic history ; for, in his first invasion Julius Ceesar took many of them to Rome, where they immediately became great favorites, although she had already plundered every region 3f some of their best breeds. THE HORSE. 14] What might have bcen the particular merit of jhe English horse at the time of the Norman invasion, is no known, but it is certain that the Saxon cavalry under Harold were speed- ily overpowered by William, at the battle of Hastings, which at once secured the throm to the Conqueror. History first informs us of the improvement of British horses, by importa- tions from abroad during this reign, which consisted of a num- ber of Spanish stallions. These were supposed to be strongly imbued with the Arabian blood, which had been brought over to that country by the Moors, who had founded the Saracenic empire in the Peninsula, three centuries before. More than a century later, John made some importations from Flanders, to give weight and substance to their draught and cavalry horses. ‘The improvement of their various breeds was afterwards pur- sued, with more or less judgment and zeal, by other British monarchs, till they reached their highest excellence during the middle of the last century. Flying Childers, Eclipse, Highflyer, and others on the course, have probably exceeded in speed any thing ever before accom- plished ; while the draught-horse, the roadster, the hackney, the cavalry-horse, and the hunter, attained a merit at that time which sume judicious authorities claim has not been since in- creased. It is even asserted, that some of the more serviceable breeds have been seriously injured by too great an infusion of the blood; while the almost universal absence of long heats on the turf has tended to the improvement of speed rather than bottom in the race-horse. The improvement of the horse in this country has not been a matter of record or history, till within a comparatively recent period. But it has silently, and with no little rapidity, been zoing forward for more than a century, till we have obtained a race of animals, throughout the Eastern and Middle states at least, which probably equal those of any other country for adaptedness to draught, the road, and the saddle. This im- provement has been mainly brought about by the importation of some of the best and stoutest of the English blood. In breed- ing from these for purposes of utility, particular reference has been paid to strength, enduringnéss, and speed. No horses surpass our best four-mile bloods; none equal our trotters; and though much inequality exists in those bred for various other uses, yet for profitable service, it is believed, no equal number of animals elsewhere can exceed those in the region above indicated. It would be a superfluous task to attempt enumerating all 142 DUMESTIC ANIMALS. the imported horses that have contributed to th’s .m provement, Each good animal has done something. But among the ear- lier horses which may »e named with distinction, as having effected much for our useful beasts, are Lath, Wildair, Slender, Sourkrout, Tallyho, Figure, Bay Richmond, Expedition, Baro- net, and a host of others. Pre-eminent among these, was imported Messenger. He was foaled in 1780, imported in 1788, and died in 1808. He stood in different places in New Jersey, and in Dutchess, Westchester, and Queens counties m New York; and upon the mares derived from the foregoing and other good horses, he got a numerous progeny of illustrious descendants. Of these we may name those capital stallions, Potomac, Hamlin- tonian, Bay Figure, Engineer, Mambrino, Tippoo Saib, Colum- bus, Gunn’s, and Bushe’s Messenger, and many others, which were extensively disseminated over the Northern and Middle states; and he has the credit of imparting a large share of his merits to that nonpareil of horses, his grandson, American Eclipse. His posterity were so numerous and widely spread, that it may be safely asserted, that of the best horses bred in the above states, scarcely one can now be found which does not trace one or more crosses to this distmguished sire. His success in producing roadsters, besides his blood qualities of speed and endurance, consisted in his great strength, and the peculiar formation of his limbs, large forehand and deep quar- ters, in which he excelled any other of the imported bloods. As an illustration of what may be accomplished by judi- cious breeding with the present materials in our hands, we mention one family of the American roadster, which is strong- ly tinctured with blood, and which has attained an enviable notoriety among the choicest of the Northern horses. They are derived from the Morgan horse of Vermont, that was foaled in Springfield, Mass., n 1793. He was got by True Britton, supposed to have been bred by Gen. Delancey of New York, and got by imported Wildair, (or one of his sons,) a horse of such distinguished excellence, as to have been re- exported to England, for the benefit of his stock. The Morgan horse stood in Vermont from 1795 till his deat, at an advanced age. From him and the choice mares of Vurmont, descended many excellent colts; and his merits were inherited in an eminent degree by three of ‘his sons, which stood in the same state and continued the career of im- provemert commenced by the sire. The result has been the production of a family of roadsters, of much similarity of ap- THE HORSE. 143 pearance* and uniformity of character, unsurpassed by any others for serviceable qualities. They are of medium size, from 134 to 15 hands high; with a well-formed head and neck; high withers; deep chest; round body; short back; long quarters; broad flat legs: moderately small feet; long wavy mane and tail; presenting altogether the beau ideal of the road horse. They are spirit- ed, docile, hardy, and easily kept. They have an easy, rapid trot, and glide along witl a good lead, without clatter or apparent effort, at the rate of ten or twelve miles an hour. This family of horses has not of course been bred long enough within themselves, to have attained to the emimence of a distinct breed. The; are mentioned, merely as a type of what the serviceable roadster ought to be, and what he may become by the use of the proper instruments for breeding. And if the materials already in our hands are imtelligently and perseveringly used, we can produce all we require of horse-flesh. Besides our unsurpassed blood-horses, we have others de- rived from various sources, and especially from the different English breeds, all of which are variously compounded, with the first and with each other. On our northeastern frontier, the Canadian prevails, a bastard but not degenerate race, made up of the French Norman and the English or American. At the extreme South and West, we have the horse of Spanish origin, obtained in his domestic state in Florida and Louisiana ; and from another branch of the Spanish, are descended the wild horses of Mexico and the more northern prairies. These are diversified in character, and generally possess medium size and merit. The Conestega, a heavy roadster, is principally reared in Pennsylvania, and is used for the team and truck. He is an amalgamation of several breeds, but probably owes a share of his character to the Flemish horse, for which there was a decided partiality among the numerous German emi- grants of that state. Several varieties of pomees are to be found m different sec- trons, but principally among the French, the half-breed, and the Indians upon the frontiers, who have bred a stunted race from the Canadian or wild-horse, and such others as could * Many of the Morgan horses have the steep rump and heavy breast and neck, whick indicate a Norman cross on the side of their dams. These have beew largely imparted through the French horse in the adjoining Canadian settle ments ; but none of these are said to have characterized the founder of the racs 144 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. survive the hard usage and scanty winter feed afiorded by nature and their rude husbandry. Many of these have con- siderable beauty and symmetry, and are fleet, hardy od spirited. wes Fig. 27. MOURA \\\ Cao Se I SS YS Nerman Florse. ‘ The modern Norman, or mixture ef the oid Fiench Norman draught-horse, (heavy-framed, big-limbed, but stout and bardy,) and the Andalusian, a descendant of the Movrish barbs, has been introduced within a few years, and will un- questionably become a very pepular horse for many purposes. He exhibits the qualities of both ancestry in the proper pro- portions for farm service. He has a thick head ; lively, prick ‘thee. \ CHE HORSE. 145 ars; short, heavy neck: large breast and shoulders; strong limbs ; well-knit back ; large quarters, with much wavy mane, ears ad fetlock. Like his F rench progenitor, he frequently sianu. low in the withers, which enables him to throw great weight into the collar ; and the diminished, flattened leg. the wind and game derived from his Moorish blood, give him much of the capacity and endurance of the thorough-bred. The Hnglish cart-horse has for a long time made up some of the best, heavy dray-horses in the country, and late importa- tions have refreshed the breed with additional choice speci- mens. The Cleveland bay has been introduced of late, and _ promises good carriage-horses from our well-spread, sizeable mares. The Worfolk trotier Lelfounder was imported many years since, and with our high-bred mares, has produced ae choice roadsters and trotters. The remainder of our horse-flesh deserving of any notice, is chiefly composed of such as are superior in poit of blood. The improvement in the American horse, from this source, is conspicuous and decided. Judicious breeders still look for qualities in the descendants, which they sought for im their imported sires, and the infusion of some of the stoutest of the blood is rapidly gaining an ascendency in the general stock. Our intelligent agriculturists should look to this subject closely, and not permit this system to proceed to an extent that may be prejudicial to their value as draught-horses, as has been done in some portions of England and our Southern states. There is no danger from excess of blood, if it be of the right kind ; but it is seldom found combining that fulness and stout- ness, and that docility and tractableness of disposition, which are essential to the gig-horse or the horse of all work. Yorke says truly, that ‘‘the road-horse may possess different degrees of blood, according to the nature of the country and the work required of him. [He might have added with propriety, and according to the character of the blood.| His legs will be too slender; his feet too small; his stride too long, and he will rarely be able tc trot. Three parts, or half, and for the horse of all work, even less than that, will make a good and useful animal.” For the saddle only, the high-bred, if not disposed to be vicious, is never objectionable to an enterprising and accomplished rider. His long elastic pasterns, giving easy, flexible motions; his quick and almost electrical obedience when under thorough discipline ; his habitual canter and high spirit, always commend him for this purpose. 13 146 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. Fig. 28. 1. Muzzle.—2. Race.—3. Forehead.—4. Poll.—5. Crest.—6. Withers.—7. Back.— §. Loins.—9. Hip.—10. Croup.—l1. Dock.—12. Quarter.—13. Thigh, or Gaskin,— 14. Ham-string.—15. Point of the Hock.—16. Cannon.—17. Fétlock.—18. Large Pastern.—l9. Small Pastern —20. Hoof.—21. Coronet.—-22. Ham, or Hock.—23. Sheath.—24. Flank.—25. Girth.—26. Elbow.—27. Hee].—28. Hoof.—29. Small Pas- tern.—30. Large Pastern.—-31. Fetlock.—32. Cannon.—33. Knee.--34. Arm.—35. ae or Bosom.—36. Point of the Shoulder.--37. Windpipe.---38. Gullet.—39. owl. \ Some of the prominent external points ef a fine Saddle or Gig Horse, Are, a moderately small head, free from fleshiness; fine muzzle and expansive nostrils; broad at the throat and wide between the eyes, which denotes intelligence and courage; a dished face indicates high breeding, and sometimes viciousness ; a convex or Roman nose frequently betokens the reverse; the ears rather long, yet so finely formed as to appear small, and playing quickly like those of a deer; the eyes ejvar, full, and confident, with a steady forward look. Glancing them back- ward or askance with a sinister expression, and with none or only a slight movement of the head, is indicative of a mis- chievous temper. | The neck should be handsomely arched, and fine at the junction with the head, while the lower extremi‘y must be full and muscular, and well expanded at the breast and shoul- ders. The latter ought to be high and run well back; the withers strong, firmly knit, and smooth; the breast neither toe THE HORSE. 147 peat nor reti eating, too wide nor too narrow, and supported y a pair of straight fore- -legs, standing well apart. The chest should be deep, rd the girth large; the body full, znd not drawn up too much in the flank ; the back short, and the hips gathered well towards the withers; the loins wide and rising above the spine; the nbs springing nearly at right angles from the back, giving roundness to the body. The hips ought to be long to the root of the tail, and the latter may approach to near the line of the back, which is a mark of good breeding. Both the thigh and hock should be large and muscular ; and between the hock or knee and pastern, the legs should be broad, flat, and short; the hind legs properly bent, and all well placed under the ‘body ; the paster ns of moderate length, and standing ppently oblique ; ie hoof hard, smooth, sont before, ene wide at the heel; the frog large and sound ; and the sole firm and concave. A white hoof is generally tender, easy to fracture and to lame, and difficult to hold a shoe. The draught-horse ought to differ from the foregoing, in pos- sessing a heayier and shorter neck ; a wider and stouter breast, and low withers, so as to throw the utmost weight into the collar; a hezvier body and quarters; larger legs and feet ; and more upright shoulders and pasterns. Sa: 53 Considerations which affect the Value of the Horse. The color is not material, provided it be not pied or mealy. No better coler for horses can be found than the dark bay or brown, with black mane, tail, and legs. But most of the other colors are frequently found with the best horses. Hard-mouthed horses, when accompanied with great spirit, are objectionable, as they require peculiar bitting and ‘the utmost vigilance. The paces and action of a horse are important, for if good they give a much greater capacity for performance. Some of these depend on form and structure, and are unchangeable ; others are the result of breaking. All horses should be taught to walk fast, as it is their eaeitat and most economical pace, and it will help them over a great deal of ground ina day, even with a heavy load, and with comparativ ely little effort. A horse that steps short and digs his toes into the ground, is vorthless as a traveller, and suited only to a ferry-_ boat or bark-mill. It is important that a horse be good-tempered. If inclined to viciousness, he should be gently yet firmly managed when if 148 DOMESTI ANIMALS. is first apparent. A resort to sreat severity will be justified, if necessary to conquer him; for if once-allowed to become a habit, it will be difficult to cure him. Grooms and mischievous stable-boys, frequently do much injury by their idle tricks with horses; and when detected, they should be discharged at once. Some horses are nervous, easily excited, and start at every — unusual noise or object. Others are restive and fretful, and ever anxious to be on the move. Kindness, and firm, yet mild treatment, by which their motions and will are at all times controlled, and their confidence secured, are the only reme- dies. Others. are inclined to sluggishness. These should have stimulating food, and never be overloaded or overworked, and then kept well to their paces. Whatever they are capable of performing, can be got from them in this way only. Habit has great influence with animals, as with man; and when within the compass of his ability, he may be habituated to any rea- sonable physical exertion. Breeding. i Agreeably to the general principles before enumerated, such animals should be selected, as most eminently possess those points which it is desired to propagate, and these, they should not only exhibit im themselves, but should inherit as far as possible, from a long line of ancestry. For the perpetuation of particular points in progeny, it would be safer to rely on the latter quality than the former. The selection of a mare, relatively larger than the horse, is an important rule in breeding, and it is believed that much of the success of Arabian and other Eastern horses as stock- getters, has resulted from the application of this principle. They possess valuable traits, but condensed within too small a compass. When sueh an animal is put to a well-bred, larger mare, the foetus has abundancé of room and nourishment to develop and perfect the circumscribed outlines of the male parent, and acquire for itself increased volume and character. The horse ought not to be less than four or five, and the mare one year older, before being put to breeding. It would be still better to defer it for two or three vears, or till the. frame is fully matured. ee . oS MANAGEMENT OF THE COLT——-CASTRATING, 149 The Gestation of the Mare Sometimes varies from 44 to 56 weeks, but she usually goes with young from 47 to 50; and it is advisable she should take the horse at a time which will ensure the foaling when the weather is settled, and there is a fresh growth a grass. She will be the better for light working till near the time of foaling, if well, but not too abundantly fed. In a few days after this, she may resume moderate labor; and if not m }e way or troublesome, the foal may run with her; but if she is exposed to heating, it should be confined till she cools, as suckling then is decidedly injurious to it. The mare is in danger of slinking her foal from blows and over-exertion, the use of smutty grain, foul hay, or offensive objects or smell; and when this has once occurred, which happens usually in the fourth or fifth month, she should after- wards be generously fed at that period, and only moderately worked, to prevent a recurrence of the casualty. When liable to slinking, the mare should be removed from others in foal, lest a peculiar sympathy should excite an epidemic. The Mare comes in Heat From nine to eleven days after foaling, when she should be put to the horse, if it be desirable to have a colt the following season. She comes round at intervals of about nine days. Management of the Colt. The colt may be weaned when five to seven months old: ‘and preparatory to this, while with the mare, may be taught to feed on fine hay, meal, or oats. When taken away, he should be confined beyond a hearing distance of the dam, and plentifully supplied with rowen or aftermath hay, crushed oats, or wheat shorts. It is economy to provide a warm shelter through the inclement season for ul animals, and especially for colts, which, with all other young, should have an abundance of nutritious food. They will thus grow evenly and rapidly, . and attain a size and stamina at two years ald, they would not otherwise have acquired at three. Castrating. The colt should be altered at about one year, but if thin in the neck and light before, the operation may be deferred to such time as the requisite development is secured. Few of ere 150 ae DOMESTIC ANIMALS. the French diligence and farm horses, and scarcely any of the Oriental, are ever castrated. They are thought to be more hardy and enduring; but the slight advantage they may possibly possess in this respect, would hardly compensate for the trouble and inconvenience too frequently arising from their management. The cperation should be performed late in the spring or early in autumn, while the weather is mild. If in high con- — u.uvon, the animal must first be bled and physicked. if large and fractious, he must be cast. Some back him into the an- gle of a worm fence, where he is firmly held by the head with a bridle, and the operator accomplishes the object without any trouble or material restiveness from the animal while standing. The scrotum should be opened on both sides, and the testicles cut, or rather the cord scraped off, which prevents much bleeding. The wound may be dressed with a little _ lard; then She him loose in a pasture which has a shelter from sun, wind, or rain. Another method of castrating is by torsion, or twisting. Docking Is practised by many, but merely to gratify an absurd and eruel caprice, without a single advantage, and the animal is better in every respect with the tail unmutilated. If done at all, it should be when young, and with a single stroke of the knife, or chisel and mallet; and if the weather be favorable, no further attention is necessar y- Nicking. This inhuman custom is now getting unfashionable, and we omit any description of it. Breaking, While feeding in the stable, the colt should be gently treat- ed, and accustomed to the halter and bit, which prepares him for breaking. If permitted to run with the others while at work, he becomes familiarized to it, and when harnessed by the side of some of his well-trained mates, he seems to consider his discipline rather a privilege than a task. The colt may be taken in hand for breaking | at three years of age, and thor- oughly broken to light work at four, but should not be put to hard service till six or eight. A due regard to humanity and sound judgment, in thus limiting the hurden in his early yeate “ONGEVITY OF THE HORSE—FEEDING. 151 would save much disease and suffermg to the animal, and profit to the owner, by his unimpaired strength and pr olonged life. The annual loss from neglecting this precaution is enor- mous, which might be entirely avoided by less eagerness to grasp the Eohetance: while as yet the shadow only is within reach. Many animals are thus broken down at twelve, and are in their dotage at fifteen, while others of good constitution, if well treated, perform hard service till thirty. Longevity of the Horse. Mr. Percival mentions one that died at 62. Mr. Mauran, of New York, has a fine gig and saddle horse, now in his 45th year, Spend. spirited, and playful as a kitten. He is of a dark brown, with a tanned nose. We never yet saw a horse with a buff or bear muzzle, that had not great endurance. American Eclipse was successfully covering mares in Ken- tucky at the age of 32, the result of late and light service till his smews became fully matured. We have frequently seen a large, compact, flea-bitten horse at work, dragging a heavy load in a single cart, which was formerly used as one of Goy- ernor Maitland’s coach-horses, and though upwards of 30, he was apparently as sound and vigorous ‘as an overtasked colt of seven or eight. Feeding, The vigor and duration of the horse depend much on proper feeding. Like the cow and sheep, he may be made to subsist on animal food, ish, and almost every species of nutritious vegetable. But his natural and proper aliment is the grasses, grain, and roots. In the middle and. northern sections of this _ country, his dry forage is almost invariably good meadow-hay, generally timothy, which is the richest of the cultivated grasses. At the South, this is often supplied by the blades of Indian corn. But in all the states, a great variety of the grasses and clover are used. When put to hard labor, grain ought always to accompany hay in some form. Of the different kinds of grain, oats are peculiarly the horse’s food, and they are always safe, digesti- ble, and nutritive. Barley is the best substitute for it. Wheat and Indian corn are sometimes given, but both are unsuitable ; the first is too concentrated, «nd the last too heating. They ought to be sparingly used, and only when ground and mixed with chaff. The offal of wheat is never objectionable. 152 - DOMESTIC AN MA- 8S. (train is always more advantageously fed when ground or crashed, and wet some time previous to eating ; and it is still better when cooked. On both sides of the Mediterranean, in the Barbary States, in Spain, France, and Italy, much of the food is given in small baked cakes, and the saving in this way is much | greater than the expense of preparing it. When confined to dry food, roots or apples fed once a day ar are always beneficial. They keep the bowels open, the appetite und general health good, and contribute largely to the nutri- ment of the animal. Carrots are the best of the roots, as besides giving muscle and working power, they, more than any other, improve the wind and prevent all tendency to heaves. ‘They have even been found effectual in removing an obstinate cough. By many of the keepers of livery stables, they are always used, for which purpose they command the same price as oats. Potatoes, parsnips, beets, and Swedes tumips, in the order ' mentioned, are next to be preferred. Potatoes are improved by cooking. Mixtures of food are best, as of cut hay, meal, and roots. Old horses, or such as are put to hard labor, will do much better if their food be given in the form easiest of digestion. No inconsiderable part of the vital power is exhausted by the digestion of dry, raw food. Tee ses ought to be fed, and if possible, exercised or worked regularly, but never on a full stomach. This is a frequent cause of disease, and especially of broken wind. If their food is given at the proper time, and the horse be allowed to finish it at once, without expecting more, he will lie down quietly and digest it. This will be much more refreshing to him, than to stand at the rack or trough, nibbling continually at ee hay or oats. What remains after he has done feeding, should be at once withdrawn. They should have water in summer three times, and in win- ter twice a day. Soft or running water is much the best. While working, and they are not too warm, they may have it as often as they desire. Neither should they be fed when heated, as the stomach is then fatigued and slightly mflamed, and is not prepared for digestion till the animal is again cool. Salt should always be within reach, and we have found an oecasional handful of clean wood-ashes, a preventive of disease and an assistance to the bowels and appetite. Wie sb rs SKELETON OF A HORSE 153 Fig. 29. HONS : 6 ) IS KN‘ rile Ui; \ Q h Zi. A A 4) = \ Sit , 2h) {t OP '"\—4 q CASA pp GS | ba OO a) r=54 : aera ~ = SG — — YY Skeleton of a Horse. A The Head.—a The posterior maxillary or under jaw.—d The superior max- dlary or upper jaw. A little lower down than the letter isa foramen, through which pass the nerves and blood-vessels which chiefly supply the lower part ol the face —c The orbit, or cavity containing the eye.—d The nasal bones, or bones of the nose.—e The suture dividing the parietal bones below from the occipital poues above.—f The inferior maxillary bone, containing the upper incisor teeth.— B The Seven Cervical Vertebrx, or bones of the neck.—-C The Eighteen Dorsal Vertebre, or bones of the back.-—-D The Six Lumbar Vertebre, or bones of the loins.—-E The Five Sacral Vertebr, or bones of the haunch.—F The Caudal Vertebrz, or bones of tlhe tail, generally about fifteen.—G The Scapula, or shoul- der-blade.—H The Sternum, or fore-part of the chest.—I The Coste or ribs, seven or eight articulating with the sternum, and called the true ribs; and ten or eleven united together by cartilage, called the false ribs.—J The Humerus, or upper bone of the arm.—KX The Radius, or upper bone of the arm.—L The Ulna or elbow. The point of the elbow is called the Olecranon.—M The Carpus, or knee, con- sisting of seven bones.—N The metacarpal bones. The larger metacarpal or can non or shank in frent, and the smaller metacarpal or splint bone behind.—g The fore pastern and foot, consisting of the Os Suffraginis, or the upper and larger pastern bone, with the sesamoid bones behi: 1, articulating with the cannon and 154 DOMESLIC) ANIMALS: Freeh pastern, the Os Corona, or lesser pastern; the Os Pecis, or coffin- ne; and the Os Naviculare, or navicuiar, or shuttle- bone, not seen, and artic- ulating with the smaller pastern and coffin- bones.—A. The corr esponding bones ot the lind-feet—O The Haunch, consisting of three portions: the Llium, the Ischium, and the Pubis.—P The Femur, or thigh.—Q The stifle joint with the Patella.—R The Tibia, or proper Jeg bone ; behind is a small bone called the fibula.—S The Tarsus, or hock, composed of six bones. The prominent part is the Os Calcis, or point of the Hock.—I The Metatarsals of the hind leg. ‘ DISEASES. The list is long and fearful, and even the brief one subjoined, will be found sufficiently great t» inculcate the utmost caution in their management. ‘The horse in his natural condition is subject to few ailments. It is only in his intensely artificial state, and when made the slave of man, that he becomes a prey to disease in almost every shape. A careful and judi- cious attention to his diet, water, exercise, stable, and general management, will prevent many cf those to which he is sub- ject. Glanders, This is one of the most alarming. The first and most marked symptom is a discharge from the nostrils of a peculiar character. The disease produces inflammation there and in the windpipe, and in aggravated cases passes down to the lungs, which are soon destroyed. It is propagated by contagion, by exposure in humid stables, and is induced by hereditary indisposition and great exhaus- tion. Youatt says, there is not a disease which may not lay the foundation for glanders.“ The poison resides in the nasal discharge, not in the breath. When exposed to it, the man- gers should be thoroughly scraped, washed with soap and water, and. afterwards with chloride of lime. All the clothing and harness, which may have received any of the contagious matter, must be thoroughly cleansed and baked. The best preventives are dry, clean, and well-ventilated stables, proper exercise, green food in summer, and roots in - winter. The disease may be arrested in its early stages, by ie the animal on a dry pasture, but it is hable to return on sub- sequent confinement. lodine has lately been announced asa remedy, but of the certainty of its effects, we are not aware. It is generally considered incurable, and when thoroughly seated, it may be deemed an act both of humanity and econo- my to terminate the existence of its victim at once. This course becomes a duty, from the fact that many grooms, by gets veal FARCY LAM? AS——POLL-EVIL——HEAVES. 155 their attendance on glandered horses, have been affected, and though the disease is, in their case, more manageable, yet it is frequently fatal. Farey. This is intimately connected with glanders, and the diseases frequently run into each other. Lampas. This consists nm the swelling of the bars of the mouth toa level or even above the teeth. It may occur from inflamma- tion of the gums; shedding of the teeth; a febrile tendency, and from over-feeding or want of exercise. It will generally subside by low dieting and proper exercise ; or it may be at once relieved by lancing the bars with a sharp penknife. Poll-evil. This arises from some contusion or injury to the head, which produces a swelling that eventually suppurates. The inflammation may be abated, in its earliest stages, by a blister ; and in its later, by bleeding, physic, and cold lotions applied to the part. If these are ineffectual, and the swelling con- tinues, it should be hastened by poultices, and warm, stimula- ting lotions; and when fully formed, the tumor must be open- ed, so as to permit all the matter to run out. Repeated ap- plications of salt will sometimes cure it. Heaves. All those affections, distinguished in the English veterinary works as pneumonia or inflammation of the lungs, chronic cough, thick and broken wind, consumption, &c., are popularly desig- nated as heaves. To some or all of these the horse may have an hereditary or constitutional tendency. ‘Their incipient stages are also induced by a sudden transition from heat to cold, and sometimes from cold to close and hot stables; and by a chilly wind or damp stables, especially after severe. ex- ercise. Feeding on musty, dry hay, or on straw, will produce an irritation which may lead to heaves. Inflammation of the lungs is frequently dangerous, and re quires the immediate and full use of the lancet. After the inflammation is decidedly allayed, by copious bleeding, smal. doses of aloes may be given, and frequent injections of. 196 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. warm soap and water, which should be omittea the morent the feces become soft and approaching to the fluid state. Blistering the sides and prisket, to be often repeated if other- wise ineffectual, must be resorted to. Convalescence should be followed with sedative medicines, and during all the severe stages of the disease, withhold all food, except light gruels after protracted abstinence. As health returns, put the ani- mal out to grass. Inflammation of the lungs is sometimes succeeded by a chronic cough, and the other maladies enumerated. When firmly seated, it is incapable of removal. Its effects can be alleviated, and with suitable food and treatment, the horse may be made to do much moderate labor for many years, but he can never become sound or sustain great exertion. Equal and proper temperature, moist, stimulating food, and espe- cially carrots or potatoes, and moderate exercise, (but never on a full stomach,) and dry, clean stables, are all the remedies ' that can be prescribed. Catarrh or Horse Distemper. This sometimes attacks the horse in the spring or fall, and is shown by soreness and swelling in the glands of the throat, a cough; difficulty of swallowing; discharging at the nose: and general prostration. It is seldom fatal, if properly managed. Give light bran-mashes, purge thoroughly, and keep warm. If he 1s violently attacked, he may be bled while fever exists; and blisters or setons may be applied, to reduce the swelling, if extreme. The disease is contagious, and the animal should be at once placed where he cannot communicate it. Spasmodic Colic, Symptoms.—The attack of colic is usually very sudden. There is often not the slightest warning. The horse begins to shift his posture, look round at his flanks, paw violently, strike his belly with his feet, and crouch in a peculiar man- nér, advancing his hind limbs under him; he will then sud- denly lie, or iather fall down, and balance himself upon his back, with his feet: resting on his belly. The pain now seems to cease for a little while, and he gets up and shakes himself, and begins tc feed; the respite, however, is but short—the spasm returns more vivlently—every indication of pain is in- creased—he heaves ai the flarks, breaks out into a profuse 4 Peet Re SPASMODIC COLIC. - 157 _ perspiration, and throws himself more recklessly about. In the space of an hour or two, either the spasms begin to relax, and the remissions are of longer duration, or the torture is augmented at every paroxysm; the intervais of ease are fewer and less marked, and imflammation and death super- vene. ‘The pulse is but little affected at the commencement, but it soon becomes frequent and contracted, and at length is scarcely tangible. Among the causes of colic are, the drinking of cold water when the horse is heated. ‘There is not a surer origin of vio- lent spasm than this. Hard water is very apt to produce this effect. Colic will sometimes follow the exposure of a horse to the cold air or a cold wind after strong exercise. Green food, although, generally speaking, most beneficial to the horse, yet, given in too large a quantity, or when he is hot, will frequently produce gripes. Doses of aloes, both large and small, are not unfrequent causes of colic. In some horses there seems to be a constitutional predis- position to colic. They cannot be hardly worked, or exposed tc unusual cold, without a fit of it. In many cases, when these horses have died, calculi have been found in some part of the alimentary canal. Habitual costiveness and the presence of ealeuli, are frequent causes of spasmodic colic. The seat of colic is occasionally the duodenum, but oftener the ileum or the jejunum ; sometimes, however, both the czecum and colon are affected. Fortunately, we are acquainted with several medicmes that allay these spasms; and the disease often ceases as suddenly as it appeared. Remedies.—Turpentine is one of the most powerful remedies, especially in union with opium, and in good warm ale. <3) much resembles the common sa athe worm, and being from six to ten inches in length, inhabits the small intestines. It is a formidable looking ani- mal; and if there are many of them, they may consume more than can be spared of the nutritive part of the food, or the mucus of the bowels. A tight skin, and rough coat, and tucked-up belly, are sometimes connected with their presence. “hey are then, however, voided in large quantities. henredies.—A dose of physic will sometimes brmg away almost incredible quantities of them. Calomel is frequently given as a vermiluge. ‘The seldomer this drug is adminis- tered to the horse, the better. When the horse can be spared, a strong dose of physic is an excellent vermifuge, so far as the long round worm is concerned. But a better medicine, and not interfering with either the feeding or work of the horse, is emetic tartar, with ginger, made into a ball with lin- seed meal and treacle, and given every morning, half an hour before the horse is fed. A smaller, darker colored worm, called the needle-worm, vr ascaris, inhabits the larger intestines. Hundreds of them sometimes descend into the rectum, and immense quantities have been found in the ccecum. ‘These are a more serious nuisance than the former, for they cause a very troublesome irritation about the fundament, which sometimes sadly annoys the horse. Their existence can generaily be discovered by a small portion of mucus, which, hardening, is found adhering to the anus. Hemedies.—Physic will sometimes bring away great numbers of these worms ; ; but when there is much irritation about the tail, and much of this mucus, indicating that they have de- scended into the rectum, an injection of linseed oil, or of aloes dissolved in warm water, will be a more effectual remedy. The tape-worm is seldom found in the horse. Bots. While they inhabit the stomach of the horse, cannot give the animal any pain, for they have fastenea on the cuticular and insensible coat. They cannot stimulate the stomach and increase its digestive power, for they are not on the di- gestive portion of the stomach. They cannot, by their rough- hess, assist the trituration or rubbing down of the food, for no such office is peiformed in that part of the stomach—the WIND-GALLS. 165 food is softened, not rubbed down. They cannot be injurious to the horse, for he enjoys the most perfect health when the cuticular part of his stomach is filled with them, and their presence is noi even suspected until they appear at the anus. They cannot be removed by medicine, because they are not in that part of the stomach in which medicine is usually con- veyed ; and if they were, their mouths are too deeply buried in the mucus for any medicine, that can be safely adminis- tered, to affect them; and, last of all, in due course of time they detach themselves, and come away. Therefore, the wise man will leave them to themselves, or content himself _ with picking them off when they collect under the tail and annoy the animal. Wind-galls, In the neighborhood of the fetlock, there are occasionally found considerable enlargements, oftener on the hind-leg than the fore one, which are denominated wind-galls. Between the tendons and other parts, and wherever the tendons are exposed to pressure or friction, and particularly about their extremities, little bags or sacs are placed, containing and suffering to ooze slowly from them, a mucous fluid to lubricate the parts. _ From undue pressure, and that most frequently caused by violent action and straining of the tendons, or often from some predisposition about the horse, these little sacs are injured. They take on inflammation, and sometimes become large and indurated. ‘There are few horses perfectly free from them. When they first appear, and, until the inflammation subsides, they may be accompanied by some degree of lameness; but otherwise, except when they attain a great size, they do not interfere with the action of the animal, or cause any consider- able unsoundness. The farriers used to suppose that they contained wind—hence their name, wind-galls ; and hence the practice of opening them, by which dreadful inflammation was often produced, and many a valuable horse destroyed. Remedies.—A slight wind-gall will scarcely be subjected to treatment ; but if. these tumors are numerous and large, and seem to impede the motion.of the limb, they may be attacked first by bandage. The roller should be of flannel, and soft pads should be placed on each of the enlargements, and bound down tightly upon them. The bandage should also be wetted with warm water, two or three times a day, for half an hour _ each time. The wind-gall wil often diminish or disappeat 166 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. by this treatment, but will too frequently return, when ‘fi liorse is again hardly worked. A blister is a more effectual, but too often temporary remedy. Firing is still more certain, if the tumors are sufficiently large and annoying to justify our having recourse to measures so severe; for it will not only effect the immediate absorption of the fluid, and the reduction of the swelling, but, by contract- ing the skin, will act as a permanent bandage, and therefore prevent the reappearance of the tumor. The iodine and mercurial ointments have occasionally been used with advantage, in the proportion of three parts of the former to two of the latter. Inflammation of the Fetlock., The fetlock-joint is a very complicated one, and from the stress which is laid on it, and its being the principal seat of motion below the knee, it is particularly subject to mjury. There are not many cases of sprain of the back-sinew, that are not accompanied by inflammation of the ligaments of this joint ; and numerous supposed cases of sprain higher up, are simple affections of the fetlock. It requires a great deal of care, and some experience, to distinguish the one from the other. The heat about the part, and the point at which the horse least endures the pressure of the finger, will be the prin- cipal guides. Remedy.—Occasionally, by the application of cooling lotions, the inflammation may be subdued, but at other times, the horse suffers dreadfully, and is unable to stand. A serious affection of the fetlock-joint demands prompt treatment. Cutting, The inside of the fetlock is often bruised by the shoe or the hoof of the opposite foot. Many expedients used to be tried to remove this; the inside hecl has been raised and low- ered, and the outside raised and lowered; and sometimes one operation has succeeded, and sometimes the contrary ; and there was no point so involved in obscurity or so destitute of principles to guide the practitioner. Remedy.—The most successful remedy and that which in the great majority of cases supersedes all sthers, is Mr. Tur- ner’s shoe, of equal thickness from heel to toe, and having but one nail, and that near the toe, on the inside of the shoe; care being taken that the shoe shall not extend beyond the- SPRAIN OF THE COFFIN*JOINT -—RINGBONE. 167 edge of the crust, and that the crust shall be rasped a little at the quarters. Sprain of the Coffin-Joint. The proof of this is when the lameness is sudden, and the heat and tenderness are principally felt round the coronet. Remedy.—Bleeding at the toe, physic, fomentation, and blis- ters, are the usual means adopted. This lameness is not easily removed, even by a blister; and if removed, like sprains of the fetlock and of the back-sinews, it is apt to return, and finally produce a great deal of disorganization and mischief in the foot. Sprain of the coffin-joint sometimes becomes a very serious affair. Not being always attended by any external swelling, and being detected only by heat round the coronet the seat of the lameness is often overlooked by the groom ana the farrier; and the disease is suffered to become confirmed before its nature is discovered. Ringbone, This is a deposite of bony matter nm one of the pasterns, and usually near the joint. It rapidly spreads, and involves not only the pastern-bones, but the cartilages of the foot, and spreading around the pasterns and cartilages, thus derives its name. When the first deposite is on the lower pastern, and on both sides of it, and produced by violent inflammation of the hgaments of the jomts, it is recognised by a clynht en- largement, or bony tumor on each side of the foot, and just above the coronet. Horses with short upright joints, and with small feet and high action, are oftenest, as may be supposed, the subjects of this disease, which is the consequence either of concussion or sprain of the pastern-joints. It is also more frequent in the hind foot than the fore, because, from the violent action of the hind legs m propelling the horse forward, the pasterns are more subject to lizamentary injury behind than before; yet the lameness is not so great there, because the disease is con- fined principally to the ligaments, and the bones have net beet injured by concussion; while, from the position ef the fore limbs, there will generally be im them injury of the bones to be added to that of the ligaments. ftemedy.—In its early stage, and when recognised only by a bony enlargement on both sides of the pastern-joint, or im some few cases on one side onlv, the lameness is not very con- {68 DC MESTIC ANIMALS. siderable, and it is not impossible to remove the disease . by active blistering, or by the application of the cautery; but there is so much wear and tear in this part of the animal, that the inflammation and the disposition to the formation of bone rapidly spread. The pasterns first become connected together by bone instead of ligament, and thence results what is called an anchylosed or fixed joint. . From this jomt the disease pro- ceeds to the cartilages of the foot, and to the union between the lower pastern, and the coffin and navicular bones. The motion of these parts likewise is impeded or lost, and the whole of the foot become: one mass of spongy bone. Enlargement of the Hock. First, there is inflammation, or sprain of the hock-joint gener- ally, arising from sudden violent concussion, by some check at speed, or over-weight, and attended with enlargement of the whole joint, and great tenderness and lameness. Liemedy. —This, however, like all other diffused imflamma- tions, is not so untractable as an intense one of a more circum- scribed nature, and by rest and fomentation, or, perchance, firing, the limb recovers its action, and the horse becomes fit for ordinary work. The swelling, however, does not always subside. Enlargement, spread over the whole of the hock- joint, remains. A horse with an enlarged hock must always be regarded with svsnicion. In truth, he is unsound. ‘The parts, altered in structure, must be to a certain degree weakened. The ani- mal may discharge his usual work during a long peried, with- out return of lameness; but if one of those emergencies should occur when all his energies require to be exerted, the disor- ganized and weakened part will fail. He may be ridden or driven moderately for many a year without inconvenience, yet one extra hard day’s work may lame him forever. Curb. There are often injuries of particular parts of the hock- joint. Curb is an affection of this kind. It is an enlargement at the back of the hock, three or four inches below its point. it is either a strain of the ring-hke ligament which binds the tendons in their place, or of the sheath of the tendons; oftener, however, of the ligament than of the sheath.. Any > sudden aetion of tee. ial of more than usual violence may CURBS. 169 after a hardly-contested race, an extraordinary leap, a severe gallop over heavy ground, or a sudden check in the gallop. Young horses are particularly liable to it, and horses that are cow-hocked, whose hocks and legs resemble those of the cow, the hocks being turned inwards, and legs forming a con- siderable angle outwards. This is intelligible enough; for in hocks so formed, the annular ligament must be continually on the stretch, in order to confine the tendon. Curbs are gen- erally accompanied by considerable lameness at their first ap- pearance, but the swelling is not always great. They are best _ detected by observing the leg sidewise. ; _femedies.—The first object in attempting the cure, is to abate inflammation, and this will be most readily accomplished by cold evaporating lotions, frequently applied to the part. Equal portions of spirit of wine, water, and vinegar, will af- ford an excellent application. It will be almost impossible to keep a bandage on. If the heat and lameness are considera- ble, it will be prudent to give a dose of physic, and to bleed from the subcutaneous vein, whose course is near it; and whether the injury is of the annular ligament, or the sheath of the tendon, more active means will be necessary to perfect a cure. Hither a liquid blister should be rubbed on the part, con- sisting of a vinus or turpentine tincture of cantharides, and this daily applied until some considerable swelling takes place ; or, what is the preferable plan, the hair should be cut off, and the part blistered as soon as the heat has been sub- dued. ‘The blister should be repeated, until the swelling has disappeared, and the horse goes sound. In severe cases it may be necessary éo fire ; but a fair trial, however, should be given to milder measures. If the iron is used, it should be applied in straight lines. » There are few lamenesses in which absolute and long-con- tinued rest is more requisite. It leaves the parts materially weakened, and, if the horse is soon put to work again, the lameness will frequently return. No horse that has had curbs, should be put even to ordinary work in less than a month after the apparent cure; and, even then he should very gradu- ally resume his former habits. ; A horse with a curb, is manifestly unsound, or generally condemned as unsound. Curb is also an hereditary complaint ; and therefore a horse that has once suffered from it, should always be fegarded with suspicion, especially if either of the parents have exhibited it. 15" DCS SUPERS? Dat 170 _ DOMESTIC ANIMALS. Bone Spavin. This is an affection of the bones of the hock-jomt. Spay- ined horses are generally capable of slow work. They are equal to the greater part of the work of the farm, and there- fore they should not always be rejected by the small farmer, as they may generally be procured at a small price. These horses are not only capable of agricultural work, but they generally improve under it. The lameness in some degree abates, and even the bony tumor to a certain degree lessens. There is sufficient moderate moticn and friction.of the limb to rouse the absorbents to action, and cause them to take up a portion of the bony matter thrown out, but not enough to re- new or prolong inflammation. Jt cannot be said that the plow affords a cure for spavin, but the spavined horse often materially improves while working at it. For fast work, and for work that must be regularly performed, spavined horses are not well calculated; for this lameness behind produces great difficulty in rising, and the consciousness that he will not be able to rise without painful effort, occasionally prevents the horse from lying down at all; and the animal that cannot rest well, cannot long travel far or fast. Remedies.—The treatment of spavin is simple enough, but far from being always effectual. The owner of the horse will neither consult his own interest, nor the dictates of humanity, if he suffers the chisel and mallet, or the gimlet, or the point- ed iron, or arsenic to be used; yet measures of considerable severity must be resorted to. Repeated blisters will usually cause either the absorption of the bony deposite, or the abate- ment or removal of the inflammation of the ligaments, or, as a last resource, the heated iron may be applied. Nwelled Legs. The fore-legs, but oftener the hind ones, and especially in coarse horses, are sometimes subject to considerable enlarge- ment. Occasionally, when the horse does not seem to labor under any other disease, and sometimes from an apparent shifting of disease from other parts, the hind legs suddenly swell to an enormous degree from the hock, and almost from _ the stifle to the fetlock, attended by a greater or less degree of heat, and tenderness of the skin, and sometimes excessive and very peculiar lameness. The pulse likewise becomes quick and hara, and the horse evidently labors under consKieraie GREASE. 17] fever. It is acute inflammation of the cellular substance of the legs, and that most sudden in its attack, and most violent in its degree, and therefore attended by the effusion of a con- siderable quantity of fluid into the cellular membyrane.. It oc- curs in young horses, and in those which are over-fed and little exercised. Remedies. —Fomentation, diuretics, or purgatives, or, if there is much fever, a moderate bleeding, will often relieve the distention almost as suddenly as it appeared. Mild cases will generally yield to their influence ; but, if the animal has been neglected, the treatment must be decisive. If the horse is in high condition, these should be preceded or accompanied by bleeding ; but if there are any symptoms of debility, Deane would only i increase the want of tone in the vessels. Horses taken from grass and brought into close stables, very speedily have swelled legs, because the difference of food. and increase of nutriment rapidly increase the quantity of the circulating fluid, while the want of exercise takes away the means by which it might be got rid of. The remedy here is sufficiently plain. Swelled legs, however, may proceed from general debility. They may be the consequence of starvation, or disease that has considerably weakened the animal; and these parts, being farthest from the centre of circulation, are the first to show the loss of power by the accumulation of fluid in them. Here the means of cure would be to increase the general strength, with which the extremities would sympathize. Mild diuretics and tonics would therefore be evidently indicated. Horses in the spring and fall are subject to swelled legs. The powers of the constitution ure pyncipally employed in providing a new coat for the animal, and the extremities have not their share of vitai influence. Mingled cordials and diu-— retics are indicated here; the diuretic to lessen the quantity of the circulating fluid, and the cordial to invigorate the, frame. Grease. © Swelled legs, although distinct from grease, is a disease that is apt to degenerate into it. Grease is a specific inflammation of the skin of the heels, sometimes of the fore-feet, but oftener of the hinder ones. Bad stable management is the true cause of it. Grease is a local complaint. The heel should be well but gently washed with soap and water, and as much of the ee eee ee ee 172 DOMESTIC ANIM: LS.. scurf detached as is easily removable. An ointment should be applied, to supple, cool, and heal the part. When cracks appear, the mode of treatment will depend on their extent cand depth. If the cracks are deep, with an ichorous discharge and considerable lameness, it will be neces- sary to poultice the heel. A poultice of linseed meal will be generally effective, unless the discharge is thin and offensive, when an ounce of fmely-powdered charcoal should be mixed with the linseed meal; or a poultice of carrots, boiled soft and mashed. After the chaps or cracks have healed, the legs will sometimes continue gorged and swelled. A flannel band- age, evenly applied over the whole of the swelled part, will be very serviceable ; or should the season admit of it, a run at grass, particularly spring grass, should be allowed. The feeding should likewise vary with the case, but with these rules, which admit of no exception; that green food should be given, and more especially carrots, when they are not too expensive ; and mashes, if the horse will eat them ; and never the full allowance of grain. Walking exercise should be resorted to as soon as the horse is able to bear it, and this by degrees may be increased to a gentle trot. From bad stable-management at first, and neglect during the disease, a yet worse kind of grease occasionally appears. The ulceration extends over the skin of the heel and the fet- lock, and a fungus springs from the surtace of both, highly sensible, bleeding at the slightest touch, and interspersed with scabs. By degrees portions of the fungus begin ‘to be covered with a horny substance, protruding in the form of knobs, and collected together in bunches. These are known by the name of grapes. "A foetid and very peculiar exudation, proceeds from nearly the whole of the unnatural substance. The horse evidently suffers much, and is gradually worn down by the discharge. The assistance of a veterinary surgeon is here indispensable. Some horses are more subject to grease than others, par- ticularly draught-horses, both heavy and light, but particulariy the former, and if they have no degree of “blood in them. It was the experience of this, which partly contributed to the gradual change of coach and other draught-horses to those of a lighter ed In the great majority of cases, grease arises from mismanagement and neglect. Every thing that has a tendency to excite inflammation in — the skin of the heel is a cause of grease. Therefore want JUTTING THE HAIR FROM THE HEELS—SETONS. 178 of exercise is a frequent source of this disease. When high feeding is added to irregular or deficient exercise, the disease is evidently still more likely to be produced. Want of clean- liness in the stable is a fruitful source of grease. Wher the heels are imbedded in filth, they are weakened by the con- stant moisture surrounding them. The absurd practice of washing the feet and legs of horses when they come from their work, and either carelessly sponging them down after: wards, or leaving them to dry as they may, is, however, the most common origin of grease. When the horse is warmed by his work, and the heels share in the warmth, the momentary cold of washing may not be injurious, if the animal is immediately rubbed dry ; yet even this would be better avoided ; but to wash out the heels, and then leave them partially dry or perfectly wet, and suffering from the extreme cold that is produced by evaporation from a moist and wet surface, is the most absurd, dangerous, and in- jurious practice that can be imagined. It is worse, when the post-horse or the plow-horse is plunged up to his belly in the river or pond immediately after his work. Cutting the Hair from the Heels. Custom has very properly retained the hair on our farm- horses. Nature would not have given it had it not been use- ful. It guards the heel from being injured by the inequalities of the plowed field, and prevents the dirt, in which the heels are constantly enveloped, from reaching, and caking on, and irritating the skin. When the horse is carefully tended after his work is over, and his legs quickly and completely dried, the less hair he has about them the better, for then both the skin and the hair can be made perfectly dry before evapo- ration begins, or proceeds so far as to deprive the legs of their heat. Grease is the child of negligence and mismanagement. Netons é Are pieces of tape or cord, passed, by means of an instru- ment resembling a large needle, either through abscesses, or the base of ulcers with deep sinuses, or between the skin and tke muscular or other substances beneath. They are re- tained there by the ends being tied together, or by a knot at each end. The tape is moved in the wound twice or thrice in, the day, and ovcasionally wetted with spirits of turpentine, or some acrid fluid, in orde> to increass the inflammation which 15* 174 NOMESTIC ANIMALS. it produces, or the discharge which is intended to be estab- lished. In abscesses, such as ovcur in the withers or the poll, and when passed from the summit to the very bottom of the swell- ing, ;etons are hiyhly useful by discharging the purulent fluid, and suffering any fresh quantity of it that may be secreted to flow out ; and, by the degree of inflammation which they ex- cite on the interior of the tumor, stimulating it to throw out healthy granulations, which gradually oceupy and fill the hol- low. In deep fistulous wounds they are indispensable, for ex- cept some channel is made through which the matter may flow from the bottom of the wound, it will continue to penetrate deeper into the part, and the healing process will never be ac- complished. On these accounts, a seton passing through the base -of the ulcer in poll-evil and fistulous withers is so beneficial. Setons are sometimes useful by promoting a discharge in the “neighborhood of an inflamed part, and thus di¥®rting and car- rying away a portion of the fluids which distend or overload the vessels of that part; thus, a seton is placed with consid- erable advantage in the cheek, when the eyes are much in- flamed.” —( Youatt.) Founder, Or inflammation of the foot, arises from various causes ; ex cessive exertion, great heat, and particularly when followed by drinking cold water, or overloading the stomach in any way, sudden transition from great cold to excessive heat, and change of inflammation from some other part. Remedies—When the attack is severe and confined to the fore-feet, Youatt recommends removing the shoe and paring the hoof as much as possible, taking four quarts of blood from each toe, placing the feet in warm water, and afterwards ap- plying soft poultices of linseed meal to the whole foot and pastern. If this is ineffectual, take three quarts of blood from each foot the succeeding day. It may then be necessary to Blister the foot and coronet. The animal should b¢ kept on. green food or light mashes, and allowed to run on grass with- out labor. An effectual cure has followed from taking off the shoe, and applying lard, raised to the boiling point, to every part of the foot. Poison From weeds, sometimes gives to horses ulcerated tongues and lips, and swollen legs and sheath. If there be much in- EPIDEMICS AMONG HORSES, ETC RS flammation, bieeding should be resorted to, then give daily bran mashes, with Glauber salts in doses of 4 to 14 pounds, according to the size of the horse, with half a teaspoonful of saltpetre. Washing the ulcerated parts with warm soap- suds, copperas, and sugar-of-lead may follow. Epidemics among Ilorses, Sometimes occur, producing great mortality. One of these was prevalent in the neighborhood of New York, in 1846, termed a malarious congestive fever, staggers, or apoplexy, which destroyed many valuable animals. It occurred during the heat of summer, and was principally confined to such as were at pasture. By many.it was attiibuted to excessive heat and exposure at night. The animals that were opened, ap- peared sound in all respects excepting the brain, which exhib- ited one mass of clotted blood. The remedy found to be the most effectual, consisted in ta- king about one quart of blood from the head, swathing it with cloths saturated with cold water, and giving two drachms daily of calomel. The horse should be kept in a cool stable. A similar disease in Spain is cured by copious bleeding, and swathing the head in blankets constantly wet with hot water. Inflammation of the Eyes, Shut up in a dark stable, and feed on fresh-cut grass and bran mashes. Bleed freely from the mouth, and ‘give 14 lbs. Glauber salts, 2 drachms nitre, and 15 grains tartarized antimo- ny, dissolved ina bucket of water, which the animal will drink when thirsty. This to be repeated daily till purging is effect- ed. If it fails, bleed from the large veins just below the eye, taking 15 to 20 ounces of blood.—(Dr. Campbell.) The Sting of Hornets, Bees, or snakes, may be relieved by immediate external ap- plication of strong spirits of hartshorn: salt and vinegar are also good. For Sprains, Take a mixture of one ounce sweet oil, four ounces spirits of hartshorn, half an ouncé oil of thyme, and rub with it fre- quently. The remedies meztioned below are also effectual for sprains. 176 32OMESTIC ANIMALS. For a Broise or Blow. Apply hot water a long time with wet cloths. Beef brine is an excellent lotion for a sprains and bruises. A veteran among horses, claims, that 3t will almost set a jomt or heal a fracture. Wormwood or tansy lotions are also good. Fistula. This is frequently cured by repeated applications of salt. Wounds Should be washed twice a day with clean, soft water, or with a little Castile soap added,.and then rub with whale-oil. This answers for all seasons, keeps off flies, restores the hair, and of the original color. falls, Or wounds on the back from the saddle, are most effectually healed by white-lead, moistened with sweet-oil or milk. The saddle ought always to fit easily and be well padded, and it should be taken off and the animal’s back washed at every baiting. Shoeing. This is an important operation, and should never be at- tempted but under the supervision of an experienced person ; nor ought the shoes to remain so long as to produce contrac- tion of the hoof, which ts followed by lameness and corns. They should be reset as often as every five or six weeks. Contraction af the Foot. This is also caused by standing on the dry stable for some days. In this case, the hoof should be stopped with fresh cow-manure and clay, or with a thick felt, soaked in water, and cut to suit the foot. ‘This is alse a good application over night, for horses that have Sone a hard day’s work on a dry road. Litter, This is not objectionable to the feet, if clean an? ov too damp. Some suppose this the cause of contraction, but it is the reverse. It is besides of great benefit when shook out for CORNS. . 177 a bed, by inducing the horse to rest himself. He is thus en- abled to do more work, and with a less expenditure of food. Corns, In the angle between the bars and the quarters, the horn of the sole has sometimes a red appearance, and is more spongy and softer than at any other part. The horse flinches’ when this portion of the horn is pressed upon, and occasional ‘or permanent lameness is produced. This disease of the foo: is termed corns ; bearing this resemblance to the corn of the human being, that it is produced by pressure, and is a cause of lameness. When corns are neglected, so much inflamma- tion is produced in that part of the sensible scle, that suppu- ration follows, and to that, guettor succeeds, and the matter either undermines the horny sole, or is discharged at the coronet. Remedies.—The cure of old corns is difficult; for as all shoeing has some tendency to produce pressure here, the habit of throwing out this diseased horn is difficult to get rid of when once contracted ; recent corns, however, will yield to good shoeing. The frst thing to be done is well to pare out the angle between the crust and* the bars. Two objects are answered by this; the extent of the disease will be ascertained, and one cause of it removed. A very small drawing-knife . must be used for this purpose. The corn must be pared out to the very bottom, taking care not to wound the sole. It may then be discovered whether there is any effusion of blood or matter underneath. If this is suspected, an opening must be made through the horn, the matter evacuated, the separated horn taken away, the course and extent of the sinuses explored, and introduce into them a saturated solution of sulphate of zine, by means of a small syringe. Place over this dressing the common cataplasm, or the turpentine ointment, and renew the application every twenty-four hours. Three or four such ap- plications complete a cure. Should there be no collection of fluid, the butyr of antimony should be applied over the whole extent of tl.e corn, after the horn has been thinned as closely as possible. The object of this is to stimulate the sole to throw out more healthy horn. In bad cases, a bar-shoe may be put on, so chambered that there shall be no pressure on the diseased part. This may be worn for one or two shoeinys, but not constantly, for there are few frogs that would bear the ‘constant pressure of the bar- 178 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. shoe ; and the want of pressure on the heel, generally occa- sioned by their use, would produce a softened and bulbous state of the heels, that would of itself be an inevitable source of lameness. ‘Turning out to grass, after the horn is a little grown, first with a bar-shoe, and afterwards with the shoe fettered on one side, or with tips, will often be serviceable. A horse- that has once had corns to any considerable extent should, at every shoeing, have the seat of corn well pared out, and the butyr of antimony applied. An Over-reach ls a tread upon the heel of the coronet of the fore foot, by the shoe of the corresponding hind foot, and either inflicted by the toe, or by the inner edge of the inside of the shoe. The preventive treatment is the bevelling, or rounding off of the inside edge or rim of the hind shoes. The cure is the cutting away of the loose parts, the applica- tion of Friar’s balsam, and protection from the dirt. Forging, or Clicking, “Is a singular species of over-reaching. The horse, in the act of trotting, strikes the toes of the hind shoes against the fore one. This noise of the clicking is unpleasant, and the trick or habit is not altogether free from danger. It is most frequent in young horses, and is attributable to too great ac- tivity, or length of stride in the hind legs. Remedies.—The rider may do something by keeping the head of the horse well up; but the smith may effect more by - making the hind shoes of clicking horses short in the toe, and having the web broad. When they are too long, they are apt to be torn off; when too narrow, the hind foot may bruise the sole of the fore one, or may be locked fast between the branches of the fore shoe.”— Youatt. The Bearing Rein Is a matter or much controversy ; some claiming that it should be entirely abolished, while others as strenuously con- tend for its alreost universal use. Nimrod, who is deemed perfectly competent authority, insists on its use with fast road- sters and coach-horses. With team-horses, it may generally be dispensed with, and always should be in ascending hills, as it materially diminishes the : capacity for exertion. The THE BEARING REIN. 179 fault in its use is its excessive tightness, and when standing, the hovse ought nevei to be tormented with it. Safety Rein illustrated: Directions for use of Safety Rein.—In putting on the rein for a gig, keep the buckle to the left hand, or near side; that will place the loop, which is on the middle of the rein, below the hook or head of the bridle, which prevents it from being thrown out by the motion of the horse’s head. For a pair of - horses, keep the two short chapes outmost, and the loops on the middle downward. For saddle, keep the buckle to the left hand. When the rein is used either for running, rearing, kicking, or going backward, it should be applied suddenly with a strong arm, keeping up the pressure until the horse is still; it should then be relieved suddenly, at the same time motioning the horse to go on. .If he is only a runaway he will obey it at once, such horses being generally of a willing, good temper. After the horse has been a few times firmly gripped with it, use it occasionally, instead of the bit-rein, to stop him on ordinary ocgasions ; this will remind the horse of his subjection, and will accustom the rider or driver to the ready and accurate use of it in case of an emergency. . The Bit Is a frequent cause of injury to the mouth of the horse, 180 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. fretting and teasing him, and in many cases inducing perma- nent injury and viciousness. It should never be made annoy- ing to the horse beyond the absolute necessity for his proper restraint. | An Unruty Stud may be controlled By passing the rein from the rmg on the off-side over the head and through the left ring. This gives a purchase to the groom which the horse cannot resist. Blinds Have for a long time been fashionable, but in few cases are necessary, while in nearly ail they are decidedly injurious. Fig. 31 The Crib Biter. This small instrument is made entirely of iron, and riveted firmly to the head-stali. It answers the threefold pur- pose, to prevent biting, crib- biting, and wind-sucking. All of the foregoing are bad hab- its for horses, for which there - is no effectual cure, but in adopting the use of the above implement. The Stable . Is an important matter connected with the proper manage- ment of horses. This should be as much as possible of a uniform temperature, cool in summer, warm in winter, and al- ways clean, dry, and well-ventilated. But no air must be allowed to blow directly upon the animal. © The horse is a na- tive of a warm climate, and ought to be well protected against cold. The stable should be neither too light nor too dark, nor must the light ever be admitted before the eye of the horse. For judicious and extended: arrangement of stables, and man- agement of horses, the inquiring reader is referred to Stewart's Stable EHconomy. | . THE ASS. 18] CHAPTER VI. THE ASS, THE MULE, AND THE COMPARATIVE LABO:n. OF WORKING ANIMALS. THE ASS Is a native of Arabia, Persia, and the central parts of Asia and Africa. Like the horse, he goes in troops and displays great natural-sagacity, activity, and courage. Job says, ‘He scorneth the multitude of the city, neither regardeth the cry- ing of the driver.” Like the horse, too, he has from, time im- memorial been tamed, and become the faithful servant of man ; but unlike him, he is subject to few maladies, is hardy and enduring, and subsists and even thrives on coarse and scanty forage. Thus Job says of his natural haunts, ‘“‘ Whose house T have made the wzlderness, and the barren land his dwellings ; ne range of the mountains is his pasture, and he searcheth after every green thing.” Xenophon, in his Anabasis, a thou- sand ycvars later, savs of one of the Asiatic deserts through which he passed with the army of Cyrus, “ that it was full of wormwood ; if any other kinds of shrubs or reeds grew there, they had all an aromatic smell; but no trees appeared. Of wild creatures, the most numerous are wild asses, which our horses sometimes chased; but the wild asses exceeded them much in speed.” Varieties, The different breeds of asses are supposed to be quite as numerous as those of the horse. Four distinct races are mentioned in the earliest scriptures. In modern times we find a similar diversity. There are two kinds in Persia, the largest a slow, heavy brute, used only for burdens ; the other smaller and more spirited, and used for the saddle. In Egypt, a con- siderable though less marked difference exists, those near the Delta being inferior to those which are bred in Upper Egypt and Nubia. In Spain, a difference in size and spirit prevails, greater even than in Persia. 16 182 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. The Zebra is nearly allied in size, shape, and character to the wild ass, but his untameable ferocity has hitherto effectually bid defiance, alike to the scourges and caresses, the frowns and the favors of man. Arabia produces some of the most spirited and hardy asses, but their size, like that of their horses, is too small for pur- poses of the greatest utility. The Maltese Jack is by American breeders deemed the choicest animal from which to propagate. He is evidently of Arabian descent, and possesses all the good qualities of his ancestry, with considerable additional size. We have several varieties, all of which are imported, as there are no natives of the Western Continent. The early im- _ portations were principally made from the Azores, and Cape de Verd Islands, and were mostly of an inferior character. A superior Maltese Jack was presented to Gen. Washington, in 1787, by La Fayette, and is believed to be the first ever sent to this country. Mr. Custis describes him as of moderate size, clean-limbed, possessing great activity, the fire and ferocity of a tiger, of a dark brown'and nearly black, with white belly and muzzle, and manageable only by one groom, nor then safely. He lived to a great age. His mules were all active, spirited, and serviceable, and when from stout mares, attained considerable size. A Spanish Jack and Jennet were also presented to ;Washisk ton about the same time, by the King of Spain. The first is characterized by the same authority, as a huge, ill-shapen animal, nearly 16 hands high, very large head, clumsy limbs, and to all appearance little calculated for active service; he was of a gray color, and not much valued for his mules, which were unwieldy and dull. From the Maltese Jack and Spanish Jennet, which approach the size of the large Spanish Jack, was bred a valuable animal, Compound, which partook of all the good qualities of the sire, with the weight of the dam.. From him descended many of the best mules of Mount Vernon. Many other valuable importations followed these animals, and it is believed we have for many years had as fine speci- mens of the ass as the world affords. Jennets, or she-asses, are used among us principally for breeding Jacks, and of course are not numerous. They are ~ sometimes, though seldom, bred to the horse. It is difficult to induce the horse to notice them, and the produce, which is called a fanny, is less hardy and useful than the mule. The milk of the she-ass is lighter and more digestible than that THE MULE. 183 of any other animal, and in former times was in great request ‘or invalids. The ass is pocasionally used: in the cart, ,or as a beast of burden. Such as are employed for these purposes are generally of an inferior kind, and are only used for the lightest work. They may sometimes be seen among the fishmongers and small vegetable dealers about our city markets, but little larger than a Newfoundland dog or Shetland pony, trundling along a light cart with a wheelbarrow load. In ancient times they have. been, and in foreign countries—even at the present time, they are extensively used. But the most enlightened of the moderns have adopted the mule as the proper and almost exclusive substitute for the ass; and it would show a sitill greater intelligence and economy, if it much more extensively took the place of the horse. THE MULE Is the hybrid produced by the ass with the mare. How early this animal was: bred, is uncertain, but we know he was in high repute in the reign of David, near 3,000 years ago, for _ he was rode by Absalom, the favorite prince of Israel, on the field of battle. They have from time immemorial been bred in various parts of the East, en the borders of the Mediterra- nean, and throughout Spain, Portugal, and other countries, many of them being of splendid appearance and of fine qual:- ties. In these countries, they are frequently used by the grandees and nobles, and indeed by royalty itself; and how- ever much they may ‘be undervalued elsewhere, when they are finely bred and trained, and richly caparisoned, they ex- hibit a stateliness and bearing, that few of the highest bred horses can match. Breeding Mules in the United States, Was commenced with much spirit in some of the New England states, soon after the American revolution. The object was not to breed them for their own use, but only as an article of commerce. They were at first shipped exclusively to the West Indies; and afterwards to the South and West, for employment in the various work of the plantation. In- different animals, both as sires and dams, were used at first, ‘as amy thing which boxe the name of mule, then commanded a 184 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. ready sale. ‘The progeny were necessarily inferior brutes, and viewed with almost universal derision; and being considered the type of their race, a prejudice was excited against them, which more than half a century has not been sufficient to dispel. Among a few thinking men at the North, they have been adopted and made highly useful in the various duties of the farm. They have been largely introduced at the South and West, but principally in the slave states, where the manage- ment of the team devolves upon the ignorant and heedless. It is there, and in other and hotter climates, that the superior merits of the mule over the horse as a laboring animal, are peculiarly manifest. In many instances they are indifferently fed, hardly worked, and greatly neglected by their drivers ; yet they sustain themselves for years, in defiance of usage that would annihilate two generations of horses. Their powers have been largely increased and their merits improved, by the introduction of some of the best Maltese and Spanish Jacks, and the use of large, blood mares. The propriety of this - course is seen in the value of the product; for while some of the inferior are unsaleable at $50, others of the same age, and reared under the same circumstances of keep and condition, could not be purchased for $150. The Breeding, Rearing, and Management of Mules Is similar to that of colts. They will be found, equally with horses, to repay generous keep and attention, by their in-_ creased and rapid growth. But they should not be pampered by high feed, as it not only has a tendency to produce disease, but to form habits of fastidicusness, which materially lessens their economical feeding in after life. The diseases to which mules are subjected, (which are always few, and if properly managed will seldom or ever occur,) require a treatment like that of horses. The breeding from mules has sometimes been questioned, but it has been demonstrated in several instances. Neither the sexual development nor propensities are wanting, but they are seldom indulged with effect. Mr. Kilby, of Virginia, states in the Farmer’s Register, that a mare mule brought two colts from a young horse, which they closely resembled. The first was a male, and died, apparently with staggers, which no treatment could arrest, at six months old. The second was a female, 16 months younger thar the first; marked like the ADVANTAGES OF MULE OVER HORSE . 1BoR. 185 sire, being jet-black, excepting a white foot and star in the forehead, and died at a year old, after two days’ illness, not- withstanding the utmost care was bestowed upon it. Suc- cessful propagation of this hybrid, however, beyond the first cross, seems to be incompatible with the fixed laws of nature. With a view of encouraging the substitution of mules for a part of the horses now employed in American husbandry, we give the following testimony from experienced individuals, of great intelligence and careful observation. ADVANTAGES OF MULE OVER HORSE LABOR. The official report of an agricultural committee in South Carolina, in 1824, says :—‘“‘ The annual expense of keeping a horse is equal to his value. A horse at four years old would not often bring more than his cost. Two mules can be raised at less expense than one horse. The mule is fit for service earlier, and if of sufficient size, will perform as much labor as the horse ; and if attended to when first put to work, his gait and habits may be formed to suit the owner.” Mr. Pomeroy, who used them near Boston for 30 years, and to such an extent as to have had more labor performed by them probably than any person in New England, says :— “T am convinced the small breed of mules will consume less’ in proportion to the labor they are capable of performing than the larger race, but I shall confine myself to the latter in my comparison, such as stand 145 to 16 hands, and are capable of performing any work a horse ts usually put to. From re- peated experiments, I have found that three mules of this ° description, which were constantly at work, consumed about the same quantity of hay, and only one-fourth the provender, which was given to two middling-size coach-horses, only moderately worked. I am satisfied a large-sized mule will not consume more than three-fifths to two-thirds the food to keep him in good order, that will be necessary for a horse perform- ' ing the same labor. The expense of shoeing a mule the year round, ‘does not exceed one-third that of the horse, his hoofs being harder, more horny, and so slow in their growth, that shoes require no removal, and hold on till worn out; and the wear from the lightness of the animal is much less. Mules have been lost by feeding on cut straw and corn meal; in no other instance have I known disease in them, ex- cept by inflammation of the wa caused by the grossest | 16 186 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. exposure to cold and wet, and excessive drinking coid water, after severe labor, and while in a high state “of perspira- tion. It is not improbable a farmer may work the same team of mules for twenty years, without having a farrier’s bill pre- sented to him. In my experience of thirty years, I have never feund but one mule inclined to be vicious, and he might have been easily subdued while young. I have always found them truer pullers and quicker travellers, with a load, than herses. Their vision and hearing are much more accurate. I have used them in my family carriage, in a gig, and under the saddle; and have never known one to start or run from any object or noise, a fault in the horse, that continually causes the maiming and death of numerous human beings. The mule is more steady in his draught, and less likely to waste his strength than the horse, hence more suitable to work with oxen; and as he walks faster, he will habituate them to a faster gait. In plowing among crops, his feet being small and following each other so much more in a line, he seldom treads down the ridges or crops. The facility of instructing him to obey implicitly the voice of the driver is astonishing. The best plowed tillage land I ever saw, I have had perform- ed by two mules tandem, without lines or driver. The mule is capable of enduring labor in a temperature of heat that would be destructive to a horse. Although a large mule will consume something over one- half the food of a horse, yet the saving in sheeing, farrying, and insurance against diseases and. accidents, will amount to at least one-half. In addition, the owner may rely with tolerable certainty on the continuance of his mule capital for thirty years ; whereas the horse owner must, at the end of fifteen years, look to his crops, his acres, or a bank for the renewal of his. The longevity of a mule isso proverbial, that a pur- chaser seldom inquires his age. Pliny mentions one 80 years old ; and Dr. Rees, two in England, that reached the age of 70. I saw one performing his labor in a cane-mill in the West Indies, which the owner assured me was 40 years old. I have now a mare-mule 25 years old, that I have had in con- stant work for 21 years. She has often within a year taken a | ton weight in a wagon to Boston, five miles, and manifests no diminution of her powers. A neighbor has one 28 years old, which he would not exchange for any horse in the country. One in Maryland, 35 years old, is now as op of labor as at any fiormer period.” ADVANTAGES OF MULE OVER IlORSE LABOR. 187 \ Mr. Hood of Maryland, in the American Farmer, estimates the annual expense of a horse for 12 months, at $44, and that of a mule at $22, just half. price, and his working age at | more than twice that of the horse, and that too after 30 years’ experience in keeping both. A correspondent of the Baltimore Patriot, asserts that * Col. John EK. Howard had a pair of mules that worked 30 years, after which they were sold to a carter in the city, and performed hard service for several years longer. Many mules 25 years old, and now in this country, perform well. Many haye been at hard work for 12 or 15 years, and would now sell for $100 each. They are not subject to the colt’s ail- -ments, the glanders, heaves, yellow-water, and colic, like horses; and seldom are afflicted with spavin, ringbones, or . bots ; and they will not founder.” General Shelby says, “he has known mules to travel 12 miles within the hour in light harness, and has himself driven a pair 45 miles in six hours, stopping an hour by the way.” Four match mules have been sold in this country for $1,000. ‘They were of course superior animals, and made elegant coach-horses.. These animals were driven 80 miles in a day without injury; and they proved a first-rate team for many ears. ; Mr. Ellicott, of the Patuxent Furnaces, asserts that, “out of about 100 mules at the works, we have not lost on an average one in two years. Bleeding at the mouth will cure them of nearly every disease, and by being turned out on pasture, they will recover from almost every accident. I do not recollect we have ever had a wind-broken one. They are scarcely ever defective in the hoof, and though kept shod, it is not as important as with the horse. Their skin is tougher than that of the horse, consequently they are not as much worried by flies, nor do they suffer so much with the heat of summer.’ To the foregoing testimony may be added that of the late Judge Hinckley of Massachusetts; a shrewd and close ob- server through a long life of 84 years. He bred mules at an early day, and always kept a team of them for his farm work, much preferring them to horses for this purpose, after an ex- perience of 50 years. He had a pair nearly 30 years old, which, with light pasturage in summer, and with a moderate ‘supply of hay with little grain in winter, and no grooming, performed all the drudgery, though he kept his stable full of horses besides. They outlived successive generations of 188 DCMESTIC ANIMALS. horses, and though the latter were often sick and out of con- dition, the mules never were. One from his stock, 45 years old, was sold for the same price paid for a lot of young mules, being at that mature age perfectly able to perform his full share of labor. For the caravans that pass over the almost inaccessible ranges which form the continuation of the Rocky Mountains, and the extensive arid_ plains that lie between and west of them, on the route from Santa Fé to California, mules are the only beasts of burden used in these exhausting and perilous adventures. Their value may be estimated from the compar- ative prices of mules and horses ; for while a good horse may ye bought for $10 to $20, a good mule is worth $50 to $75. Dr. Lyman, who recently passed through those regions, in- ‘orms us that their caravan left Santa Fé with about 150 mules, 15 or 20 horses, all beasts of burden, and two choice blood- norses, which were led and treated with peculiar care. On the route, all the working-horses died from exhaustion and suf- ferme; the two bloods that had been so carefully attended, but just survived ; yet of the whole number of mules but 8 or 10 gave out. A mule 36 years of age was as strong, en- during, and performed as hard labor, as any one in the cara- van. When thirst compelled them to resort for successive days to the saline waters, which are the only ones furnished by those sterile plains, the horses were at once severely, and not unfrequently fatally affected ; while the mules, though suf- fering greatly from the change, yet seldom were so much in- jured as to require any remission of their labor. The mules sent to the Mexican possessions from our west- ern states, Missouri, Tennessee, and Kentucky, are considered of much more value than such as are bred from the native (usually wild) mares. The difference probably arises, in part, from the Mexicans using jacks so inferior to most of the stock animals used by the citizens of those states. Mare mules are estimated in those regions at one-third more than horse mules. The reason assigned for this is, that after a day’s journey of excessive fatigue, there is a larger quantity of blood secreted in the bladder, which the female, owing to her larger passage, voids at once, and without much apparent suffering, while the male does not get rid of it, frequently, till after an hour of considerable pain. ‘The effect of this differ- ence is seen in the loss of flesh and strength in the male to an extent far beyond that of the female. The method of reducing refractory mules in the northern Mex- ~ THE MULE. i: 89 _ iean possessions, is for the person to grasp them firmly by the ears, while another whips them severely on the fore-legs and belly. z Estimated annual saving to the United States from the em- ployment of mules in the place of horses—To sum up the ad- vantages of working mules over horses, we shall have as advantages: 1. They are more easily, surely, and. cheaply raised. 2. They are maintained, after commencing work, for much less than the cost of keeping horses. 3. They are not subject to many of the diseases of the horse, and to others: only in a mitigated degree, and even these are easily cured in the mule. 4. They attain a greater age, and their average working years are probably twice that of the horse. In 1840, there were reported to be 4,335,669 horses and mules in the Union, no discrimination having been made be- tween them. Suppose the total number at the present time is 4,650,000, and that of these 650,000 are mules. If we de- duct one-fourth, supposed to be required for the purposes of breed, fancy-horses, &c., we shall have 3,000,000: horses, whose places may be equally well supplied by the same num- ber of mules. We have seen that Mr. Hood, of Maryland, estimates the expense of a working horse at $44 per annum, (not an over estimate for the Atlantic states, ) while that of the mule is $22. The difference is $22, which it is proper to re- duce to meet the much lower rate of keeping at the West. If we put the difference at $10, we shall find the saving in the keep, shoeing, farriery, &c., by substituting mules for the 3,000,000 horses that can be dispensed with, will be $30,000,000 per annum. But this is noi all. The working age of the horse will not exceed an average of eight years, while that of the mule is probably over sixteen. To the difference of keep, then, must be added the annual waste of the capital invested in the animal. A mule is more cheaply raised to working age than a horse, but allowing them to cost equally, we shall “have the horse exhausting one- eighth of his capital annually for his decay, when the mule is using up but one-sixteenth ; and if we allow $48 as the first cost of both animals, we shall find the horse wasting $6 annually for this item, while the mule deteriorates but $3, making an addi- tional item of $9,000,000. This will give an aggregate of $39,000,000, as the annual saving to the United States by substituting good mules for three-fourths of the horses now used in this country. When will our farmers have the good sense to make this change? It may be fairly answered, when 190 DOMESTIC ANLMALS. they shall prefer utility, interest, and a just taste, to a dis eased fancy; for though we admit the superiority in apjyear- ance of the race of horses over mules, we deny that a bad horse looks better or even as well as a good mule; and with the same keep and attention, a good mule will outwork and outlook most horses of any breed. The comparative Economy of Horse and 0x Labor. This is a question which has been often discussed, and when with candor, the conclusion has generally been in favor of ox- labor. The different employments, the variety of situation, the season, and the kind of stock reared on the farm, are all questions which should be fully considered in arriving at their true comparative advantages. Most farmers would find it for their interest to keep teams of each, where there is employ- ment for more than one; or if this be not the case, the pref- erence should be given to that which is best suited in all re- spects to their particular position. If work upon the road is required, a horse team will gener- ally be best. Their superiority will consist principally in then greater speed ; for even with a heavy load, they will be able to trot occasionally, and when driven without it, they may in- crease their pace to nearly double the natural gait of the ox. This will amount to a large annual saving in the time of the driver when steadily employed. ‘The same is true when re-' “moving manures or crops on the farm to remote distances, over a smooth surface, which admits of trotting with the empty wagon. Harrowing ought always to be done with a quick team, as a violent stroke of the teeth breaks the clods and pulverizes the earth much better than when slowly dragged. But we should assume in this comparison, that oxen shall not only be well adapted to their work by their natural for- mation, like the Hereford, the Devon, and others equally good, but also that they be well trained, well managed, accustomed to quick movements, and as well fed and looked after as horses. We shall then find their wa’k equal to a quick horse team, and that in this case the horse will have no advantage over the ox in harrowing. For plowing, the teams are on a par, as a good ox team will do as-much in a day in cool weather as horses. The.situation of the farm may materially affect this estimate. In a warm climate, horses, and more especially mules, would be more serviceable than oxen, as they are capable of enduring COMPARATIVE EC JNOMY OF HORSE AND OX LABOR. 19] much greater heat with impunity. If the farm be small and convenient to market, the labor may, m general, be best ac- complished by oxen, as little travelling will be required. So, too. if the land be-stony or rough, the plowing and harrow- ing will be more kindly and patiently done by oxen than by spirited horses. Other considerations will suggest themselves as affecting the comparative economy of this labor. The time of work isto be fully considered. If much and heavy work be required in summer, as is often the case in plowing extensive wheat farms, horses are to be preferred; yet if the ox-team be started at early dawn, and worked briskly four or five hours, and then turned out to rest with a supply of suit- able food, they may again commence when the extreme heat has abated, and accomplish a day’s work that few horses will exceed. During the season of muddy roads, the horse, with lis broad, compact foot, and longer leg, has a decided advan- taye over the ox. If the ox draws by ‘the yoke, (which on the _ whole is the best mode,) he is liable to a sore neck when work- ing in wet or snowy weather, and at such times he is over- matched by his competitor. The kind of stock raised on the farm has an important bai ing on this question. Some farms are devoted to rearing horses, and some exclusively to rearmg cattle. These oeca- sionally remain on hand after they are fit for market, from the want of a profitable demand. They ean then be employed not only without mjury, but in consequence of the thorough traming thus secured, with positive benefit to therr future value. Even if mtended for the shambles, the well-developed ox may advantageously be put to light work at three, after which it may be gradually increased till he is six or eight, and during all this time he will be improving. After domg an early sprmg’s work, he w ty then be turned on to good pasture, and if followed with proper stall-feeding, he will in the latter part of the winter or sprmg yield a tender, better-flavored, and more profitable careass, than can be procured by any other mode of fattening. The first cost of oxen is Jess than that of horses, and they are at all times cheaply reared on the coarser herbage of the farm. The expense of working-gear, tackle, and shoeing, is: much less than with horses. They are subject to fewer dis- eases, and these are -more within the reach of ordmary medi- eines. The cost of food is also less, and while the fois is depreciatmg, the ox is increasing im value till eight or nine years ald. iy 192 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. Accidents are less frequent with oxen, from their slower — movements; and when they occur, the ox may be turned out to fatten, and still be worth as much for this purpose as for the yoke. A permanent injury to the horse is perhaps a total loss of the beast, with a lave farrier’s bill in addition, for which there is nothing to fiquidat e it but the hide. The small farmer can make out a most serviceable team, by putting a single horse before a yoke of cattle. If well trained, they will soon accommodate themselves to each other’s pace, _ and work as advantageously together as an entire team of either class would do alone. Bulls are frequently put to the draught, and when they have not other services that fuily test their powers, they can- not be better emploved. Heifers and cows are sometimes worked, but hitherto they have sot been used to any extent in this country. In the absence of other animals, they might perform light work to advantage, but severe labor would stint their growth or impair their milk beyond the benefit derived from it. The spayed heifer is an exception to the foregoing wemark, and by many is esteemed even more useful than an ox of equal weight. We have no definite statements of the comparative money value of the labor of oxen and horses. But in England re- peated triais have been made, and while some have discovered no advantage in the employment of oxen over horses, others -have proved them decidediy superior. One Anglesey farmer found in an experience of three years, with 12 horses and 20 oxen, which accomplished an equal amount of work, that he had saved by the latter, $1150. The foregoing facts prove the subject to be one of sufficient importance, to justify the closest investigation of every farmer to determine for himself the comparative value of ox, horse, or mule labor. CHAPTER VII. SWINE. Tu hog is a cosmopolite of almost every zone, though his natural haunts, like those of the hippopotamus, the elephant, the rhinoceros, and most of the thick-skinned animals, are i eae lie SWINE. 193 in warm climates. They are most abundant in China, the Kast Indies, and the immense range of islands which extends over the whole Southern and Pacific Oceans; but they are also numerous throughout Europe, from its southern coast to the Russian dominions within the Arctic. Fig. 32. SSS iN Ny . Se Zz a, —— <= The Wild Boar. In the United States, swine have been an object of attention since its earliest settlement, and whenever a profitable market could be found for pork abroad, it has been exported to the fuli extent of the demand. For near twenty years following the commencement of the general European wars, soon after the organization of our national government, it was a comparatively large article of commerce; but from that time, exports have not been justified to any extent, till within the last two years, since which, a material reduction in the British import duty on pork, lard, and hams, has again brought it up as a prominent article of trade with that country. The recent use which has been made of the carcass in converting it into lard. oil, has still further increased its consumption. S ‘ne are reared in every part of tne Union, and when 17 : - “194 DOMESTIC ANiIALS. properly managed, always at a f.ir profit. At the extreme North; in the “neighborhood of large markets; and on such of the Southern plantations as are particularly suited to sugar or rice, they should not be raised beyond the rumber required for the consumption of the coarse or refuse food produced, Swine are advantageously kept in connection with a dairy or - orchard, as with little additional food besides what. is thus afforded, they can be put into good condition for the butcher. But it is on the rich bottoms and other lands of the West, where Indian corn is raised in profusion, and at small expense, that they can be reared in the greatest numbers and yield the largest profit. The Sciota, Miami, Wabash, Illinois, and other valleys, and extensive tracts in Kentucky, Tennessee, Missouri, and some adjoining states, have for many years taken the lead in the production of swine ; and it is probable the climate and soil, which are peculiarly suited to their rapid growth, as well as that of their appropriate food, will enable them forever to remain the leading pork-producers of the North American continent. : Breeds of Swine. The breeds cultivated in this country are numerous, and like our native cattle, they embrace many of the best, and a few of the worst to be found among the species. Great attention has for many years been paid to their improvement in the Eastern states, and nowhere are there better specimens than in many of their yards. This spirit has rapidly extended West and South; and among most of the intelligent farmers who make them a leading object of attention, on their rich corn grounds, swine have attained a hich degree of excellence. This does not consist in the introduction and perpetuity of any distinct races, so much as in the breeding up to a desirable size and aptitude for fattening, from such meritorious individu- als of any breed, or their crosses, as come within their reach. Fig. 33, represents an English breed of hogs, a century or more ayo: though coarse and slouch- eared, it is yet the por- trait of a tolerable hog, and far before many of the swine that still maintain their ascendency in varioas parts of the European continent.. This breed is nearly extinct, having been crossed successively by the Chinese and other good breeds, thus di- minishing the size and materially improving its thrift and ten- dency to fattening. We hav2 few such animals in the United States, though we have man~ that are worse. * BREEDS OF SWINE. 195 -—_ —_—— — = olis aT & GIHON. Old English Hog. The Byefield, some 30 years ago, was a valuable hog in the Eastern states, and did much good among the species gen- erally. They are white, with fine curly hair, well made and compact, moderate in size and length, with broad backs, and’ at 15 months attaining some 300 to 350 lbs. net. ._ The Bedford or Woburn is a breed originating with the Duke of Bedford, on his estate at Woburn, and brought to their perfection, probably, by judicious crosses of the China hog, on some of the best English swine. A pair was sent by the duke to this country, as a present to Gen. Washington, but they were dishonestly sold by the messenger in Maryland, in which state and Pennsylvania they were productive of much good at an early day, by their extensive distribution through different states. Several other importations of this breed have been made at various times, and especially by the spirited masters of the Liverpool packet ships, in the neighborhood of New York. They are a large, spotted animal, well made, and inclining to early maturity and fattening. They are an ex- . L368 DOMESTiv aNIMALS. ceedingly valuable hog, but are nearly exunct both in England snd this country, as a breed. The ZLeicesiers are a large, white hog, generally cuarse in the bone and hair, great eaters, and slow in maturing. Some _varieties of this breed differ essentially in these particulars, and mature early on a moderate amount of food. The crosses with smaller compact breeds, are generally thrifty, desirable animals. Other large breeds deserving commendation in this country, are the large Miami white, the Yorkshire white, and the Aenilworth, each frequently attaining, when dressed, a weight of 600 to 800 lbs. China Hog. The Chinese is among the smaller varieties, and without doubt is the parent stock of the best European and American swine. They necessarily vary in appearance, size, shape, and color, from the diversity in the style of breeding, and the various regious from which they are derived. _ The Fig. represents the pure China pig, and is a striking likeness of many of the imported and their immediate descend- ants that we have seen in this country. They are too small an animal for general use, and require to be mixed with larger / OT ae a BREED3 UF SWINE. 197 breeds to produce the most profitable carcass for the inarket. For the purpose of refining the coarse breeds, no animal haa ever been so successful as this. They are fine-boned, short, and very compact, with bellies almost touching the ground, light head and ears, fine muzzle, of great docility and quiet- ness, small feeders, and producing much meat for the quantity of food consumed. From the rapidity with which generations of this animal are multiplied, the variety of other b.eeds on which they are crossed, and the treatment to which they are subjected, it is not surprising that their descendants should rapidly assume distinct features. They furnish not only a strong dash of blood in the best class of large breeds, but in such of the smaller as have any pretensions to merit, they constitute the greater part of the improvement. Such are the Weapolitan, the Hssex half-black, the Grass breed, and some others. Berkshire Hog. The Berkshires are an ancient English breed, formerly of large size, slow feeders, and late in maturing. Their color was a buff or sandy ground, with large black spots, and the feet, ower part of the legs, and tuft on the tail, buff. The LE 198 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. latter color has given place, in most of the modern ace, to white in the same parts. ‘This variation, with the more im- portant ones of early maturity and good feeding-properties, are by Professor low ascribed to a Chinese cross, which has added the only characteristic in which they were before deficient. They were first introduced and reared as a distinct breed in this country by Mr. Brentnall, of Orange Co., and Mr. Hawes, of Albany, N. York. In their hands, and those of other skil- ful breeders, their merits were widely promulgated. No other breeds have been so extensively diffused in the United States, within comparatively so brief a period, as the Berkshires, since 1832, and they have produced a marked improvement in many of our former races. They weigh variously, from 250 to 400 Ibs. net, at 16 months, according to their food and style of breeding; and some full-grown have dressed to more than 800 lbs. They particularly excel in their hams, which are round, full, and_ heavy, and contain a large proportion of lean, tender, and juicy meat, of the best flavor. None of our improved breeds afford long, coarse hair or bristles; and it is a gratifying evidence of our decided im- provement in this department of domestic animals, that our brush-makers are under the necessity of importing most of what they use from Russia and northern Europe. This im- provement is manifest not only in the hair, but in the skin, which is soft and mellow to the touch; in the finer bones, shorter head, upright ears, dishing face, delicate muzzle, and mild eye; and in the short legs, low flanks, deep and wide chest, broad back, and early maturity. Breeding. Swine should not be allowed to breed before 12 or 15 months old, unless the animals are large and coarse, when - they may be put to it somewhat younger. Not only choice individuals, but such as are well descended, should be selected for the purpose of breeding. The sow should be in good con- dition, but not fat, nor approaching to it; and a proper degree of exercise is essential to the development of the foetus and the health of the parent; for which reason, she should have an extended range connected with her pen. The sow goes with young about 114 days. A week before he’ time comes round, a comfortable, quiet place should be MANAGEMENT AND FATTENING, 199 prepared for her under cover, and well-protected from cold, if the weather be severe; or if warm, a range in a pasture with an open shed to 1 tire to, is sufficient. ‘Too much litter for bedding must be avvided, and no change or disturbance of the sow permitted, till two or three weeks after pigging, as the restlessness thereby produced may result in the loss of the pigs. The sow should be fed only with a small quantity of the lightest food or thin gruel, for two or three days, nor put on full feed fora week. If inclined to eat her pigs, she should be fed two or three times with raw pork or fresh meat. The pigs may be taught to crack oats or soaked corn after three weeks, and if provided with a trough imaccessible to the dam, they will soon learn to feed on milk and other food, pre- paratory to weaning. ‘This may take place when they are 8 or 10 weeks old; and to prevent injury to the sow, let one or two remain with her a few days longer, and when finally re- moved, if her bag appears to be full, they may be allowed to drain the milk after 20 or 30 hours. The sow should be re- stricted to a light, dry diet for a few days at this eriod. Management and Fattening. There are but two objects in keeping swine, for breeding and for slaughter, and their management is consequently sim- ple. Those designed for breeding, should be kept in growing condition, on light focd, and have every advantage for exer- cise. Such as are destined exclusively for fattening, ought to be steadily kept to the object. It is the usual, though a bad practice in this country, to let spring pigs runat large for the first 15 months, with such food as is convenient ; and if fed at all, it is only to keep them in moderate growth till the second autumn. They are then put up to fatten, and in the course of 60 or 90 days are fed off and slaughtered. During this brief period, they gain from 50 to 100 per cent. more of dressed weight, than in the 15 or 18 months preceding: nor even then do they yield a greater average weight than is often attained by choice, thrifty pigs, which have been well-fed from weaning to the age of 8 or 9 months. Three pigs of the Bedford breed, when precisely 74 months old, dressed 230, 235, and 2384 lbs. Two of the Berkshire and Leiceste: breeds, at 9 months, dressed 304 and 310 Ibs. Tkree others of the Berkshire and Grass breeds, 7 months and 27 days old we'ghed 240, 250, and 257 Ibs. net. Innume- 200 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. rable instances could be adduced of similar veights, gained within the same time, with a good breed of animals under jyu- dicious treatment. We have no one accurate account of the food consumed, so as to determine the relative profit of short or long feeding. But that an animal must consume much more in 18 or 20 months to produce the same 4uantity of dressed meat, which is made by others of 8 or 9 months, does not admit of a doubt. We have seen that an ox requires but httle more than double the quantity of food to fatten, that is necessary for supporting existence. If we apply this principle to swme, and state the quantity ef food which will fatten the pie rapidly, to be three times as great as for the support of life, we shall find that the pig will fatten in 7 months, on the same food he would con- sume to kerp him alive for 21. This is based on the supposi- tion that voth animals are of equal size. But the pig that matures and is slaughtered at 7 months, has only a moderate eapacity for eating. During the early stages of his growth, his size and the consequent incapacity of the digestive organs, prevent the consumption of the same quantity which the larger animal requires ; and his accumulating fat, his limited respira- tion, ccasequent upon the compression of his lungs, and his indisposition to exercise, all conspire to keep the consumption ef food within the smallest possible limit. This result, m the absence of any experiment, must be conjectural entirely ; but we believe that ex pei rments will show, that of two thrifty pigs from the sarne litter, one of which ts properly fed to his atm ost eapacity for 7 months, and the ether fed with precisely double the quantity of similar food for 21 months, the first will yield more carcass and of a better and more profitable quahty than the latter, which has consumed 100 per cent. the most. The feod is only one item in this calculation. The oldest re- quires the most attention, is lable to more accidents and dis- ease, besides the loss of interest. We are necessarily forced to the conclusion, that by far the cheapest mode of wintering pigs is in the pork-barrel. We can readily anticipate one objection to this practice, which is the want of food at the requisite season of the year to fatten them. This can be obviated, by reserving enough of the previous year’s grain, to keep the animal im a rapidly thriving state, Gll the next crop matures sufficiently to feed. In the rich corn regions, on its beginning to ripen, as & =) does in August, the fields are fenced off into suitable lots, and MANAGEMENI AND. FA/TENING. 201 large herds are successively turned into them, to consume the gram at their leisure. They waste nothing except the a which in that region of plenty are considered of little val ue, and they are still useful as manure for succeeding crops ; and whatever grain is left. by them, leaner droves which follow, will readily glean. Peas, early buckwheat, and apples, may be fed on the ground in the same way. There is an improvement in the character of the grain from a few months’ keeping, which is fully equivalent to the interest of the money and cost of storage. If fattened early in the season, they will consume less food to make an equal amount of flesh than in colder weather; they will require less atten- tion ; and generally, early pork will command the highest price in market. It is most economical, to provide the swine with a fine clover pasture to run in during the spring and summer; and they ought also to have access to the orchard, to pick up all the unripe and superfluous fruit that falls. They should also have the wash of the house and the dairy, to which add meal, and sour in large tubs or barrels. Not less than one-third, and perhaps more, of the whole grain fed to swine, is saved by grinding and cooking or souring. Yet care must be ob- served that the souring be not carried so far as to injure the food by putrefaction. A mixture of meal and water, with the addition of yeast or such remains of a former fermentation as adhere to the side or bottom of the vessel, and exposure to a temperature between 68° and 77° will produce immediate fermentation. In this process there are five stages. The saccharine, by which the starch and. gum of the vegetables, in their natural condition, are converted into sugar; the vinous, which changes the sugar into alcohol; the mucilaginous, sometimes taking the place of the vinous, and occurring when the sugar solution, or fermenting principle is weak, producing a‘slimy, glutinous i aa the acetic, forming vinegar, from the vinous or alco- holic stage; and the putr ofactive, which destroys all the nutritive principles and converts them into a poison. The precise point in fermentation when the food becomes most profitable for feeding, has not yet been satisfactorily deter- mined; but that it should stop short of the putrefactive, and probably the full maturity of the acetic, is certain. The roots for fattening animals ought to be wasied, and steamed or boiled; and ‘when not intended to be fermented, the meal may ‘e scalded with the roots. A small quantity of 202 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. salt should be added. Potatoes are the best roots for swine ; then parsnips; orange or red carrots, white or Belgian; sugar beets; mangel-wurzel ; ruta-bagas; and the white tur- nips, in the order mentioned. The nutritive properties of tur- nips are diffused through so large a bulk, that we doubt if they can ever be fed to fattening swine with advantage; and they will barely sustain lift when fed to them uncooked. There is a great loss in fecding roots to fattening swine, without cooking. When unprepared grain is fed, it should be on a full stomach, to prevent imperfect mastication, and con- sequent loss of the food. It is better indeed to have it always before them. The animal machine is an expensive one to keep in motion, and it should be the object of the farmer to put his fuod in the most available condition for its immediate conver- sion into fat and muscle. Swine ought to be kept perfectly dry and clean, and pro- vided with a warm shelter, to which they can retire at pleas- ure. This will greatly hasten the fattening and economize _the food. They thrive better and are generally less subject to disease, when long confined in yards, by having a clear run- ning stream always accessible, to wallow in. This is one of the best preventives of vermin and cutaneous diseases. A hog ought to have three apartments, one each for sleeping, eating, and evacuations, of which the last may occupy the lowest, and the first the highest level, so that nothing shall be dramed, and as little carried into the first two as possible. They must be regularly fed three times a day, and if there is a surplus, it should be removed at once. If they are closely confined in pens, give them as much charcoal twice a week as they will eat. ‘This corrects any tendency to disorders of the stomach. Rotten wood is an imperfect substitute for charcoal. Graves, scraps, or cracklings, as they are variously called, the residuum of rough lard or ‘tallow, after expressing the fat, are a good change and an economical food. Some animal food, although not essential, is always acceptable to swine. When about to finish them off, many feed for a few weeks on hard corn. This is proper when slops or indifferent food has been given, and meal cannot be conveniently procured ; but when fattened on sound roots and meal, it is a wasteful prac- tice, as the animal thus falls behind his accustomed growth. It is better to give him an occasional feed of the raw grain, for u change, and to sharpen his appetite. The products furnished by the carcass of swine are numerous. Every part 2f the anima is used for food, and it admits of a ee reed CURING HAMS AND PORK. 203 far greater variety of preparation for the table, than any other flesh. From the remotest antiquity to the present time, and in every grade of barbarous and civilized life, it has been es- - teemed as one of the choicest delicacies of the epicure. Lard-oil (oleine) has, within a few years, given to pork a new and profitable use, by which the value of the carcass is greatly increased. At some of the large pork-packing depots of the West, one-third of the whole quantity has been thus dis- posed of. This has withdrawn a large amount of pork from the market, and prevented the depression which must other- wise have occurred. Where the oil is required, the whole carcass, after taking out the hams and shoulders, is placed in a tub having two bot- _ toms, the upper one perforated with holes, on which the pork is laid, and then tightly covered. Steam, at a high tempera- ture, is then admitted into the tub, and in a short time all the fat is extracted and falls upon the lower bottom. The remain- ing mass is bones and scraps. ‘The last is fed to pigs, poultry, or dogs, or affords the best kind of manure. The bones are either used for manure, or are converted into animal charcoal, worth about three cents per pound, which is valuable for va- rious purposes in the arts. When the object is to obtain lard of a fine quality, the animal is first skinned, and the adhering. fat carefully scraped off. The oily, viscid matter of the skin is thus avoided. When tanned, the skin makes a valuable leather. ~ An aggregate weight of 1790 lbs. from four well- fattened animals, after taking out the hams and shoulders, say about 400 lbs., gave within a fraction of 1200 lbs. of the best lard. Stearine and Oleine.—Lard and all fatty matters consist of three principles, of which stearine contains the stearic anc margaric acids, both of which, when separated, are solid, and used as inferior substitutes for wax or spermaceti candles. The other, oleine, is fluid at a low temperature, and in Ameri- can commerce, is known as lard-oil. It is very pure, and ex- tensively used for machinery, lamps, and most of the purposes for which olive or spermaceti oils are used. Curing Hams and Pork. After dressing, the carcass should be allowed to hang till perfectly drained and cool, when it may be cut up and salted. The usual way is to pack the pork in clean salt, adding brine to the barrel when filled. Bu‘ it may be dry salted, by rub- 204 — DOMESTIC ANIMALS. bing it in thoroughly on every side of each piece, with a strong leather rubber firmly secured to the palm of the right hand. The pieces are then thrown into heaps and sprinkled with salt, and occasionally tured till cured; or it may at once be pack- ed in dry casks, which are occasionally rolled to bring the salt into contact with every part. Hams and Shoulders May be cured in the same manner, either dry or in pickle, but with differently arranged materials. The following is a good pickle for 200 lbs. ‘Take 14 lbs. of Turk Island salt ; 3 lb. of saltpetre; 2 gts. of molasses, or 4 lbs. of brown sugar, with water enough to dissolve them. Brine the liquor to the scalding point, and skim off all the impurities which rise to the top. When cold, pour it upon the ham, which should be perfectly cool but not frozen, and closely packed ; and if not sufficient to cover it, add enough pure water for this purpose. Some extensive packers in Cincinnati and elsewhere, who send choice hams to market, add pepper, allspice, cinnamon, nut- megs, or mace and cloves. The hams may remain six or eight weeks in this pickle, then huag up in the smoke-house, with the small end down, and smoked from 10 to 20 days, according to the quantity of smoke. ‘The fire should not be near enough to heat the hams. In Holland and Westphalia, the fire is made im the cellar, and the smoke carried by a fiue into a cool, dry chamber. This is undoubtedly the best method of smoking. The hams should at all times be dry and cool, or their flavor will suffer. Green sugar-maple chips are best for smoke ; next to them are hick- ory, sweet-birch, corn-cobs, white-ash, or beech. The smoke-house is the best place to keep hams till wanted, If removed, they should be kept cool, dry, and free from flies, A canvass-cover for each, saturated with lime, which may be put on with a whitewash brush, is a perfect protection against flies. When not to be kept long, they may be packed in dry salt, or even in sweet brine, without injury. A common meth- od is to pack in dry oats, baked sawdust, &e. DISEASES OF SWINE. Mortifying as the fact may be to human pride, it is never- theless certain, that the mternal arrangements, the viscera, digestive organs, omnivorous propensities, and the genera} PULMONARY AFFECTIONS, ETC. 265 physiological structure of the hog and the bear, more nearly resemble man, than any other animal. Many of their diseases may therefore be expected to be a modification of those of the human species, and require a similar treatment Skeleton of a Pig A Maxilla inferior, vel posterior; lower jaw.—B Dentes; the teeth—C Ossa nasi; the nasal bones.—D Maxilla superior, vel anterior; upper jaw.—E Os frontis ; the frontal bone.—F Orbiculus; the orbit or socket of the eye.—G Os occipitis ; the occipital bone.—H Atlas ; the first vertebra of the neck.—I Verte- bree colli, vel cervicales; the vertebrw of the neck.—J Vertebre dorsi, vel dorsa- les ; the vertebre of the back.—K_ Vertebrze lumborum, vel lumbales; the verte- bree of the.loms.—L Ossa coccygis; the bones of the tail—a Seapula; the shoulder-blade.—b Humerus; the round shoulder-bone.—c Sternum; the breast- bone.—d Ulna; the elbow.—e Radius; the bone of the fore-arm.—f Os navicu- lare ; the navicular bone.—g Phalanges. vel ossa pedis; the first and second bones of the foot.—h Fhalanges, vel ossa pedis; the bones of the hoof.—iz Pelvis, (ossa innominata ;) the haunch bones.—j Os femoris; the thigh-bone.—é Patella ; the stifle-bone.—/ Tibia ; the upper bone of the leg—m Tarsus, (one of which is the (N) os calcis ;) the hock-bones.—-n Os naviculare ; the navicular bone.—-o Digiti, vel phalanges, (ossa pedis ;} the first digits of the foot.—p Digiti, vel phalanges, (Ossa pedis ;) the second digits of the foot. Pulmonary Affections, Colds, Coughs, and Measles, To each of these, swine are peculiarly liable, and, as with most other evils, prevention of disease in swine is more easy and economical than cure. A dry warm bed, free from winds or storms, and suttable food, will most effectually prevent any injuries, or fatal attacks. The hog has litile external covering to protect him against cold. Nature has provided this imme- diately within the skin, in the deep layer of fat which sur- rounds the full, plump hog. Fat is one of the best non-con- 18 206 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. ductors of heat, and the pig which is well-fed bids deflance to the intense cold, which would produce great suffering, and consequent disease, in the ill-conditioned animal. By the ob- servance of a-proper medium between too much fat or Jean, for the store or breeding swine, and providing them with comfortable beds and proper feed, nearly all diseases will be avoided. For Coughs and Inflammation of the Lungs, bleeding should immediately be resorted to, after which give gentle purges of castor oil, or Epsom salts; and this should be followed with a dose of antimonial powders—2 grains, mixed with half a drachm of nitre. For Costiveness or loss of appetite, sulphur is an excellent remedy, given in a light mess. Ttch may be cured by anointing with equal parts of lard and brimstone. Rubbing- -posts, fae. a running stream to wal- low in are preventives. The Kidney Worm is frequently fatal; and always produces weakness of the loins and hind legs, usually followed by entire prostration. A pig thus far gone, is hardly worth the trouble of recovering, even where practicable. Preventives, are general thrift, a range in a good pasture, and a dose of half a pint of wood-ashes every week or fort- night in their food. A small quantity of saltpetre, spirits of turpentine, or tar, will effect the same object. When attacked, apply spirits of turpentine te the loins, and administer calomel carefully; or give half a tablespoonful of copperas daily for one or two weeks. Blind Staggers. This is generally confined to pigs, and manifests itself in foaming at the mouth, rearing en their hind legs, champing | and grinding their teeth, and apparent blindness. ‘The proper remedies are bleeding and purging freely, and these frequently fail. Many Spey ce have been suggested, but few are of any utility. It is important to “eep the issues on the inside of the fore-legs, just below the knee, thoroughly cleansed. The tazls of young pigs frequently drop or rot off, which is attended with no further disadvantage to the animal than the loss of the member. The remedies are, to give a little brim- stone or sulphur in the food of the dam; or rub oil or grease daily on the affected parts. It may be detected by a rough-_ ness er scabbiness at the point where separa'ton is likely te oceul FARM-DOGS. 207 Bleeding.—The most convenient mode, is from an artery just above the knee, on the inside of the fore-arm. It may be Jrawn more copiously from the roof of the mouth. ‘The flow of blood may usually be stopped, by applying a sponge or cloth with cold water. The diseases of swine, though not numerous, are formidable, and many of them soon become fatal. They have not been the subject of particular scientific study, and most of the rem- edies applied, are rather the result of casual or hap-hazard suggestion, than of well-digested inference, from long-continued and accurate observation. CnaA PPE RV FY. FARM-DOGS. No grazing farm is complete without one vr more intelligent, well-trained dogs, adapted to the various wants of their owners; and the general taste has made their presence almost universal in every rural household. The dog is peculiarly the friend of man. Many other animals have a temporary though feeble attachment to him, which seems the result rather of constant companionship, or the selfishness of dependence, than any well-settled affection towards a master. The dog alone, of all the brute creation, seems capable of a disinterested, self-sacrificing affection; and this, united with his usefulness and adaptedness to all climes and countries, has made him a favorite in every quarter of the globe. Since this animal is the habitual tenant of the farm, and, when suited to his peculiar duties, can be made of great utility by the assist- ance he is capable of affording in its management, we deem it entirely appropriate to our subject to indicate such of the spe- cies as are deserving the farmer’s attention. Discarding all ideas of fancy or sportsmanship, and iooking to utility alone, we may safely affirm that the farmer needs only such as may be found in the four breeds of the Newfoundland, the Shep- herd’s and Drovei’s dog, anc the Terrier. 208 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. Newfoundland Dog. The Newfoundland Dog. This dog, of which we give a portrait, is always above me- dium height, and frequently is of the largest size. He is long- haired and shaggy, and has a thick coat of fine, soft fur, be- neath the outer covering, which is almost impenetrable by water. His color is most frequently black; often spotted and partially flecked or grayish; and occasionally buff. The Newfoundland is of the Spaniel family, but derives its name from the island where it has been bred for centuries, to the great advantage of its inhabitants. ‘There are two varieties: the large, used in the north, called the Labrador; and the smaller, more docile and intelligent, of the south, called the St. John’s. They are employed by the islanders, and the people of the neighboring coast, in drawing their sleds and carts load- ed with fish, wood, &c. They aid them in various ways in their fishing operations; they are strong, courageous, and watchful; and with slight training, they are scarcely inferior to the best huntineg- dogs in pursuing the wild game that abounds in those high ‘northern latitudes. These estimable qualities, coupled with their uniform good-nature, have always made them favorites with the farmer. The Newfoundland is an excellent watch-dog; sagacious in discriminating between a friend and a foe, and with courage THE SHEPHERD'S DOG. 209 and streneth to follow out his prompt and judicious conclu. sions. He is easily trained for the drover, to whom he is fre- quently a great assistant; and with a scent sufficiently acute to pursue game, he is readily broken in as a useful companion to the sportsman. He ean also be made serviceable in the various duties of the farm: destroymg noxious vermin, taking the catile and horses to the field or water, drawing a light load, churning the butter, &c. It is true, he has not all the sagacity of the Poodle, whose intelligence approaches nearer to comers reason than any other of the brute creation. But if he has not that quick apprehension, which too often leads, as in the case of forward children, to the attamment of every worthless accomplishment and the indulgence of every loafer- ish habit, he seems to have a sedate, well-formed judgment, which makes all his wit av alae for some useful purpose. He is unsurpassed as a water-dog ; and his courageous efforts, wherever an opportunity has been afforded, in rescuing number- less human beings from a watery grave, toether with his un- swerving fidelity and devotion, commend him as the prince of the canine family. The Shepherd’s Dog, This animal, of which we give a beautiful portrait on the next page, of the long-haired Scottish breed, belongs to the same family as the Newfoundland and Poodle, which embraces the most intelligent and useful of the canine species. There are two classes of these dogs, which differ widely in their size and characteristics. The larger is of great size and courage, and when protected by a stout leather collar studded with spikes, is a full match for the wolf. ‘These are used by the Spanish and Mexican shepherds, on their wild sierras, as effective guards against the attacks of all marauders, and are essentially the same race as the far-famed dogs of Mount St. Bernard.’ They are not suf- ficiently gentle for guides, and the shepherds who employ them rely on some well-trained wethers cr goats to lead the flock at their cail. Some have been imported into this country, but on account of them headstrong and ferocious character, and occasional depredations upon the flocks, they have been found unsuited to our wants, except on the borders of the wilderness. The Colley or Scottish sheep-dog, the English, and those - extensively used upon the continent, differ much in their form and appearance, but agree in their intelligence, docility, and 18* 210 DOMESTIC AN Mas.Be Fig. 38 GR BERTH cong ae he Se = e Shepherd’s Dog usefulness. They are of medium size, with a sharp nose, broad forehead, and small upright ear; they are both shaggy and smooth-haired, with a bushy tail, and much hair about the neck; variously colored, though more frequently inclined tc black or darkly spotted and gray; and one branch of the family is entirely destitute of a tail. They possess an instine- tive sagacity for the management of sheep; and in company with a well-trained dog, under the direction of the shepherd, they scon become entirely competent to the control of the flock. They perceive his wishes by a word or sign, and with almost the speed of the greyhound, dart off to execute them. Accounts of their performances have been frequently related, which seem almost incredible to those unacquainted with thei | peculiar character. The following anecdote, often told by the gifted poet, Mr. James Hogg, more generally known by the soubriquet of the Ettrick Shepherd wil: show their capacity more fully than any description. THE DROVER’S DOG. 211 « On one night, a large flock of lambs that were under the Ettrick Shepherd’s care, frightened by something, scampered away in three different directions across the hills, in spite of all that he could do to keep them together. ‘Sirrah,’ said the shepherd, ‘ they’re a’ awa!’ It was too dark for the dog and his master to see each other at any considerabie distance, but Sirrah understood him, and set off after the fugitives. The night passed on, and Hogg and his assistant traversed every neighboring hill in anxious but fruitless search for the lambs ; but he could hear nothing of them nor of the dog, and he was returning to his master with the doleful intelligence that he had lost all his lambs. ‘On our way home, however,’ says he, ‘ we discovered a lot of lambs at the bottom of a deep ra- vine called the Flesh Cleuch, and the indefatigable Sirrah standing in front of them, looking round for some relief, but still true to his charge. We concluded that it was one of the divisions which Sirrah' had been unable to manage, until he came to that commanding situation. But what was our as- tonishment when we discovered that not one lamb of the flock was missing! How he had got all the divisions collected in the dark, is beyond my comprehension. ‘The charge was left entirely to himself from midnight until the rismg sun; and, if all the shepherds in the forest had been there to have assisted -him, they could not have effected it with greater promptitude. All that I can say is, that I never felt so grateful to any creature under the sun as I did to my honest Sirrah that morning.” ” : . They are quiet and good-natured, never inclined to roam or neglect their duties, and as little disposed to injure the animals intrusted to their keeping. They have almost the intelligence of the shepherd in discerning the vagaries of the flock, and ten times his efficiency in driving it. No extensive sheep-walks, unless closely hemmed in by impassable fences, should be without one or more of these useful animals. The Drover’s Bog, This animal is shown in the annexed figure. He is closely allied to the sheep-dog, from which he derives all his intell- gence and capacity, differing only in being somewhat larger and heavier, which is essential to his controlling the sturdier buliocks under his charge. His additio1al size is acquired by ‘crossing with some of the stouter races, such as the Newfound- land or the pointer; and even the bull-dog and large shaggy 212 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. Fig. 39. WN Sa esses Ss ——w SSS ae ) e Drover’s Dog. teriier have sometimes been resorted to for a strain of that in- domitable courage and game, which is frequently requisite to the proper discharge of his duties. He requires more training than the sheep-dog, as his peculiar mstincts are rather to the management of the flock than the herd; but when fairly bro- ken in, he is equally expert in its management. The drover’s dog may also be useful for watching, if crossed with a refer- ehce to this object, which the sheep-dog seldom is. The Terrier. This, in addition to the foregoing, is the only dog necessary to the farm. He is needed principally for his great sagacity and indefatigable perseverance in extermimating rats and other vermin, that frequent y congreeate in swarms around the farmer’s premises, proitucing such an ageregate of annoyance and devastation. Other dogs may occasionally be good rat- ters, -but the terrier takes to them from nstinct. as the New- THE TERRIER. 213 foundland does to the water, or the sheep-dog to his flock. He has great ingenuity and activity in ferreting out and cap- turing his prey, and whenever a fair opportunity is afforded, he seldom fails of success. The famous English terrier, Billy, on two occasions, killed 100 rats ma ring at each time, in an average of less than six and a half minutes. The terrier is usually below the medium size, but sometimes fully comes up to or even exceeds it. He is smooth-haired or rough according to the breed, of which there are several, each claiming to be equally pure. Besides his capacity for the destruction of smali game, his mnate love for the sport renders him a valuable assistant in keeping off vagrant cattle from the premises; and his quick ear, habitual watchfulness, and prompt courage, fully qualify him, to the extent of his size, for an excellent watch-dog. The fancy of country residents may incline them to keep a variety of other dogs than are herem enumerated, some of which, with good training, can be made partial assistants to their masters. But it is unnecessary to specify the various breeds that may possibly be of some use on the farm, as the slight crossing they will be likely to have, equally with their opportunities and the attention bestowed upon them, will serve materially to develop or obscure their peculiar instincts. The Spaniel family and its crosses will be found to combine the greatest intelligence, fidelity, and aptitude to learn; the hound has the keenest scent and greatest endurance in the pursuit of game; while the bull-dog has the most courage, sullen fero- city, and strength. Each may occasionally be wanted for a strain of blood for some particular objects; and this is espe- cially necessary from the bull-dog in the management of re- fractory cattle, or to give the terrier greater stoutness and courage. The absurd custom of keeping from one to a dozen dogs, untrained for any valuable purpose, or supernumeraries even if capable of rendering occasional service, ought to be abandoned by every rational man. Besides the great annual cost, the danger of communicating rabies or madness is sufficient to justify a legal restraint on their numbers. The sad havoc they commit on the flocks, demands the extermination by law of every dog that is guilty, whether Mongrel, puppy, whelp, or hound, Or cur of low degree. And even if it includes the ides / 2ates, or parlor companions, 214 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. Tray, Blanche, and Sweetheart, the work of extirpation should proceed, to the extent of cur- tailing this branch of farm-stock to its wholesome and legiti- mate proportions. COA Pal BR lk POULTRY. Cuorce varieties of fowls add a pieasant feature to the farra premises. ‘They engage the attention and sympathy of the juvenile farmers, and the time bestowed in the poultry yard keeps them from mischief: it is an agreeable and salutary - rehef from toil and study, and elicits the taste, the judgment, and the kindlier feelings of humanity, which are to be matured in the future accomplished breeder. When properly managed, poultry are a source of considerable profit, yieldmg more for the food they consume, than any other stock, although their value is not often considered. The agiicultural statistics of the United States, for 1839, give us over $12,000,000 in poultry, and it probably exceeds $15,000,000 at the present time. It is estimated by McQueen, that the poultry of Eng- land exceeds $40,000,000, and yet McCulloch says she im- ports 60,000,000 eggs annually from France, (McQueen states it at near 70,000,000 ;) and fiom other parts of the continent, 25,000,000 ; besides 80,000,000 imported from Ireland. Poul- try, then, ceases to be an unimportant object of agricultural attention, and assumes its appropriate place among the other staples of the farmer. Hens Are the most numerous and profitable, and the most gen- erally-useful of the feathered tribe. The hen is peculiarly an egg-producing bird. ‘She has the same predisposition for lay- ing, that the cow has for secreting milk. Some breeds are better adapted for this object than others ; but in all that have ever come within our notice, the proper food and circum- stances are alone wanting, to produce a reasonable quantity of egos. The egg cons sts of three distinzt parts; the shell, the white. HENS——-THEIR FOOD. 215 and the yolk. A good-sized egg will weigh 1,900 grains, of which about 107 are shell, 604 are white, and 289 are yolk. Of the shell, 97 per cent. is: carbonate of lime, 1 per cent. phosphate of lime and magnesia, and 2 per cent. albumen. The white consists of 12 per cent. of albumen, 2.7 of mucus, 03 of salts, and 85 of water. The yolk has about 17.4 per cent. of albumen, 28.6 of yellow oil, 54 of water, with a trace of sulphur and phosphorus. The foregoing are the constituents of eggs, which have been formed when the bird has free access to the various articles which constitute her natural food: But they vary with cir- cumstances. When-full fed and denied all aceess to ime, she will form-an egg without the shell, and deliver it enclosed in the membrane or sack which always surrounds the white, when covered by the shell. When scantily fed, they will frequently lay; but from a deficiency of nutriment, the egg will be meager and watery, and possess but a small portion of the nutritious qualities peculiar to them. To produce the largest number of good eggs, several con- ditions are important ; and they must especially have an abun- dance of the right kind of food. ‘This‘ts the most readily ob- tained in part from animal food. In warm weather, when they bave a free range, they can generally supply their wants in the abundance of insects, earth-worms, and other anima! mat- ters withm their reach. The large proportion of albumen contained in their eggs, requires that much of their feod should be highly nitrogenized, and when they cannot procure this .in animal matter, it must be given in graims contaming it. If te the usual qualities of hens, a breed of peculiar clegance, of graceful form, and beautiful plumage, be added, together _ with entire adaptation to the economical purposes required, good layers and good careass, we have a combination of utility, tuxury, and taste in this bird, which should commend them as general favorites. They can everywhere be kept with advan- tage, except in dense cities. A hen that costs a shilling or two, if provided with a suitable range, will consume 30 or 40 eents worth of food, and produce from 80 to 150 eggs per annum, worth three or four times the cost of feed and attention. The Food Of hens may consist of different kinds of grain, either broken, ground, or cooked ; roots, and especially boited potatoes, are nutritious. and economical; green herbage as clover and most 216 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. of the grasses, chickweed, lettuce, cabbage, &ec., will supply them with much of their feed, if fresh and tender. Fig. 40,is a Food fountain. The grainis placed in the hopper, which is closely covered, and the grain falls into the bottom below. It is accessible en four sides by spring doors, which are thrown open by the weight of the fowl on the connecting spring. One is shown as opened by the fowl in stepping up te feed. This is a protection against dirt and vermin. Food Fountain. Though net absolutely essential te them, yet nothing contrib- © utes so much te their laying, as unsalted, animal food. Thisisa natural aliment, as is shown by the avidity with which they pounce en every fly, insect, or earth-worm which comes within their reach. It would not of ceurse pay te supply them with valuable flesh, but the blood and offal of the siaughter-heuses, refuse meat of all kinds, and especially the scraps er crackkngs te be had at the melters’ sheps, after soaking for a few hours in warm water, is one of the best and most economical kinds of food. Such with boiled meal is a wery fattening food. Grain is at all times best fer them when cocked, as they wil lay more, fatten quicker. and eat much less when fed to them in this state; and it may be thus used unground, with the same advantage to the fowls as if first crushed, as their digestive crgans are certain to extract the whole nutriment. All grain is good for them, including millet, rice, the (leagmeus seeds, as the sun-flower, flax, hemp, &c. It is always better to affurd them a variety of HENS—THEIR FOOD: 217 grains where they can procure them at their option, and select as their appetite craves. They are also fond of milk, and especially when it has be- come curdled ; and indeed scarcely any edible escapes their notice. They carefully pick up most of the waste garbage around the premises, and glean much of their subsistence from what would otherwise become offensive; and by their destruction of immumerable insects and worms, they render great assistance to the gardener. Of course their ever-busy propensity for scratching, is indiscriminately indulged just after the seeds have been sown and while the plants are young, which renders it necessary that they be confined in some close yard for a time; yet this should be as capacious as possible. Water Fountain. Water is placed in the cask as represented in the Fig., and it is then closely stopped, except an opening through a tube leading into a vessel below. As the water is exhausted from this, it descends from the cask above, and a supply is thus at all times within reach of the poultry. Their food is better when given to them warm, not hot: and there should always be a supply before them to. prevent gorgine. It is better to be placed on shelves or suspended boxes or hoppers, which are variously and cheaply constructed, to keep it clean and out of the reach of rats. Besides their food, hens ought to be at all times abundantly supplied with clean water, egg or pounded oyster shells, old mortar or slacked lime. If not allowed to run at large, where they can vate U2) 218 DOMESTIC <4 NIMALS. help themselves, they must also be furnished with gravel to assist their digestion; and a box or bed of ashes, sand, and dust, is equally essential to roll in for the purpose of ridding themselves of vermin. | — ut nt " i aA atl ie ale a —_ alin iF ii ns CG ATCT, LTT HUTTE Tint JT TH} ni ———_ Poultry House The Hen-house ‘May be constructed in various ways to suit the wishes of the owner, and when tastefully built it is an ornament to the premises. “It should be perfectly dry throughout, properly lighted, and capable of being made tight and warm in winter, yet afford all the ventilation desirable at any season. In this, arrange the nests in boxes on the sides, in such a manner as to humor the instinct of the hen for concealment when she resorts to them. When desirable to set the hen, these nests may be so placed as to shut out the others, yet open into another yard or beyond the enclosure, so that they can take an oc- ‘casional stroll and help themselves to food, &. This prevents . other hens laying in their nests, while setting; and it may be easily managed, by having their boxes placed on the wall of THE EGG-HATuUaAER. 219 the building, with a moveable. door made ta open on either side at pleasure. Hens will lay equally well without a nest- ego, but when broken up, they ramble off and form new nests, if they are not confined. They will lay if kept from the cock, put it is doubtful if they will thus yield as many eggs. Hens disposed to set at improper times, should be dismissed from the common yard, so as to be out of reach of the nests, and plentifully fed till weaned from this inclination. Fig. 43. wO— a i ae cy i i eae or Eccalobeon. Fig. 43 represents an egg-hatcher or Eccalobeon, made of different sizes, with shelves so arranged as to hold from 200 to - 800 egos without touching each other. The outer box is a non-conductor, so as to retain the heat conveyed to every part by water tubes, connected by a reservoir below, the bottom of which is heated by the flame from a spirit-lamp. The temperature is indicated by a thermometer on the door in- side, which should be made equal to that of the hen, say about 106° Fahrenheit. Her natural temperature is somewhat ele- vated by the feverish condition of the bird at the period of in- cubation. ° Chickens require to be kept warm and dry, for a few days after hatching,-and they may be fed with hard-boiled eggs, crumbs of bread: or pudding, and milk or water, and dlowed to scratch in ‘he gravel in front of the hen, which should be confined in a coop for the first three or four weeks. After 220 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. this, they may be turned loose, when they will thrive on any thing the older ones eat. Many use them for the table when they are but a few weeks old; but they are unfit for this pur- pose, till they have attained full maturity. The white-legs are preferred by some, from the whiteness and apparent delicacy of the meat; but the yellow-legged are the richest and most highly-flavored. The color of the feathers does not seem to affect the quality of the flesh or their char- acter for laying. If we consider the chemical principles of the absorption and retention of heat, we should assume the white coat to be best, as it 1s coolest in summer when exposed to the sun, and warmest in winter. Yet some of the white breeds are delicate, and do not bear rough usage or exposure, 5 Fig. 44. Varieties. These differ materially in their sizes, shapes, and colors. The Dorking is esteemed one of the best, being large, well formed and hardy, good layers and nurses, and yielding an excellent carcass. They are both white and speckled, and generally have five toes. The Poland is both white and black, with a large tuft, VAK ETIES CF FOWLS. 221 generally of white feathers, on the head. They are of good size, and excellent layers, but are seldom inclined to set, which makes them peculiarly desirable for such as wish eggs only. _ The Dominique is a speckled fowl, of barely medium size, compact, hardy, good layers, and valuable for the table. The Bucks county fowls, heretofore principally reared near Phila- delphia, possess but moderate pretensions to notice, except in their immense size, a brace of capons having been fattened to 194 Ibs. when dressed. The Bantam. The Bantam is but little larger than a pigeon, and is usually of a pure white, but is sometimes speckled. It is generally feathered to the toes, but may be bred with clean legs. It is very domestic, and a pleasant little bird around the premises, and is not unprofitable. The Game cock is of medium weight, and yields good flesh, but is a poor layer, and an undesirable tenant for the farm-yard. Besides these, there are many fan- ciful varieties, as the Creeper, with excessively short legs; the Pumpless, without a tail; the Mrizzled, with irregular feathers turned towards the head; the Szlky or Merino fowl, with brown or buff down, instead of feathers ; the MVeg7o, with its black crest, wattles, skin, legs, and feathers; the Java and. Cochin China, of great size; several varieties of the Zop-knot, and others. 19* 222 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. The Diseases of Hens. These are not numerous or complicated, and may be mostly avoided by proper treatment and food, which are indicated with sufficient minuteness in the foregoing observations. Gapes or Pip is generally owing to drinking unwholesoma or dirty water. Remove the white blister on the tip of the tongue, and wash with sharp vinegar, diluted with warm water; or compel the bird to swallow a large lump of fresh butter, mixed with Scotch snuff. It has been cured by open- ing the mouth and forcing a* pigeon feather, with a tuft of the feathers left on the end, (the others having been stripped off,) down the windpipe, and gently turning it as withdrawn, to be repeated the following day if necessary. This detaches large numbers of a slender red worm, collected in the larynx of the throat, which impedes respiration and swallowing. _> oo + ¢______——_- AMERICAN FARMER’S ENCYCLOPEDIA, - - - - - = $400 As a Boox or RerereNceE FOR THE FARMER OR GARDENER, THIS Work is superior to any other. Jt contains Reliable Information for the Cultivation of every variety of Field and Garden Crops, the use of all kinds of Manures, descriptions and figures of American insects ; and is, indeed, an Agricultural Library in itself, con- taining twelve hundred*pages, octavo, and is illustrated by numerous engravings of Grasses, Grains, Animals, Implements, Insects, &c., &. By GOUVERNEUR EMERSON OF “PENNSYLVANIA. AMERICAN WEEDS AND USEFUL PLANTS, - - - - - 150 An Inuustratep Epition or AcricutturaL Borany; An Enu- meration and Description of Weeds and Useful Plants which merit the notice or require the attention of American Agriculturists. By Wm. Daruneron, M. D. Re- vised, with Additions, by Grorce TuurserR, Prof. of Mat. Med. and Botany in the New York College of Pharmacy. Illustrated with nearly 300 Figures, drawn expressly for this work. ALLEN’S (2. L.) AMERICAN FARM BOOK, - - - - - 100 Or a CompEnD oF AMERICAN AGRICULTURE; being a Practical Treatise on Soils, Manures, Draining, Irrigation, Grasses, Grain, Roots, Fruits, Cotton, Tobacco, Sugar Cane, Rice, and every Staple Product of the United States ; with the best methods of Planting, Cultivating and Preparation for Market. Illustrated with more than 100 engravings. ALLEN’S (RB. L.) DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS, = 75 Berne A History AND DescripTion of THE Horss, Mute, Cattie, Sheep, Swine, Poultry and Farm Dogs, with Directions for their Management, Breeding, Crossing, Rearing, Feeding, and Preparation for a Profitable Market ; also, their Diseases and Remedies, together with full Directions for the Management of the Dairy, and the comparative Economy and Advantages of Working Animals,—the Horse, Mule, Oxen, &c. ALLEN’S (L. F.) RURAL ARCHITECTURE, See a ee eo Betne a Compete Description or Farm Housss, CottaGEs AND Out Buildings, comprising Wood Houses, Workshoys, Tool Houses, Carriage and Wagon Houses, Stables, Smoke and Ash Houses, Ice Houses, Apiaries or Bee Houses, Poultry : Houses, Rabbitry, Dovecote, Piggery, Barns and Sheds for Cattle, &c., &c. - ‘together with Lawns, Pleasure Grounds and Parks ; the Flower, Fruit and Vegetable Garden ; also, the best method of conducting water into Cattle Yards and Houses. Beautifully illustrated. ALLEN (J. FISK) ON THE CULTURE OF THE GRAPE, - - 100 A Practicat TREATISE ON THE CULTURE AND PeearmeNe OF THE Grape Vine, embracing its History, with Directions for its Treatment in the United States of America, in the Open Air and under Glass Structures, with and without Artificial Heat. a 2 Books published by A. O. Moors & Co. Le AMERICAN ARCHITEST, - - - - - = = = = = 600 Comprising OrtginaL Desians or Cazar Country anD VILLAGE Residences, with Details, Specifications, Plans and Directions, and an Estimate of the Cost of each Design. By Joun W. Rireg, Architect. First and Second Series, 4to, bound in 1 vol. AMERICAN FLORIST’S GUIDE, - + - = = = = - 75 Comprising THE AMERICAN Rose Cuiturist, AND Every Lapy her own Flower Gardener. BARRY’S FRUIT GARDEN, “USSR e bee ie teen 9 aye eee A Truatiss, InTENDED to HxpLaIN AND ILLUSTRATE THE PHyst- ology of Fruit Trees, the Theory and Practice of. all Operations connected with the Propagation, Transplanting, Pruning and Training of Orchard and Garden Trees, as Standards, Dwarfs, Pyramids, Espalier, &c. The Laying out and Arranging different kinds of Orchards and Gardens, the selection of suitable varieties for different purposes and localities, Gathering and Preser ving Fruits, Treatment of Diseases, Destruction of Insects, Description and Uses of Implements, ”&e. Illustrated with ‘upwards of 150 Figures. By P. Barry, of the Mount Hope Nurseries , Rochester, N. Y. BEMENT’S (C, N.) RABBIT FANCIER, - - - - = = = 50 A TREATISE ON THE Breepina, Rearine, FEEDING AND GENERAL Management of Rabbits, with Remarks upon their Diseases and Remedies, to which are added Full Directions for the Construction of Hutches, Rabbitries, &c., together with Recipes for Cooking and Dressing for the Table. Beautifully illustr ‘ated. BLAEKE’S (REV. JOHN L.) FARMER AT HOME, .- - - - 125 “A Famity Text Book ror tue Country; being a Cyclopedia of Agricultural Implements and Productions, and of the more important topics in Domestic Economy, Science and Literature, adapted to Rural Life. By Rev. Joun L. Bake, D. D. BOUSSINGAULT’S (G. B.) RURAL ECONOMY, - - - - = 125 Or, CHEmistry APPLIED TO AGRICULTURE ; PRESENTING DISTINCTLY and in a Simple Manner the Principles of Farm Management, the Preservation and Use of Manures, the Nutrition and Food of Animals, and the General Economy of Agriculture. The work is the fruit of a long life of study and experiment, and its perusal will aid the farmer greatly in obtaining a ‘practical and scientific knowledge of his profession. BROWNE'S AMERICAN BIRD FANCIER, - - - - = = 25 _ sr Breepine, Rearine, Frepinc, MANAGEMENT AND PEcuLI- arities of Cage and House Birds. Illustrated with engravings. BROWNE’S AMERICAN POULTRY YARD, - - - = - - 1090 ComMpRISING THE OricIN, History anD DeEscRIPTION OF THE Different Breeds of Domestic Poultry, with Complete Directions for their Breeding, Crossing, Rearing, Fattening and Preparation for Market ; including specific directions for Caponizing Fowls, and for the Treatment of the Principal Diseases to which they are subject, drawn from authentic sources and personal observation. Illustrated with numerous engravings. BROWNE'S (D. JAY) FIELD BOOK OF MANURES, - - - = i125 Or, American Muck Boox; Treating of the Nature, Properties, Sources, History and Operations of all the Principal Fertilizers and Manures in Common Use, with specific directions for their Preservation and Application to the Soil and to Crops ; drawn from authentic sources, actual experience and personal observation, as combined with the Leading Principles of Practical and Scientific Agriculture. BRIDGEMAN’S (THOS.) YOUNG GARDENER’S ASSISTANT, - - 1450 In Taree Parts; Containing Catalogues of Garden and Flower Seed, with Practical Directions under each bet for the Cultivation of Cu nary Vege- tables, Flowers, Fruit aoe the Grape Vine, &c. ; to which is added a Calendar to each part, showing the work necessary to be done in the var ious departments each month of the year. One volume octavo. BRIDGEMAN’S KITCHEN GARDENER’S INSTRUCTOR, 3g Cloth, 50 66 66 66 66 Cloth, 60 Books published by A. O. Moorn & Co. 3 DD eee oe PID ooo aoe BRIDGEMAN’S FLORIST’S eae Pgh ot ot Te aera OF Clouse 7g Or sé 6é 66 SS uke Rt a ae Cloth 60 EBRIDGEMAN’S Ns CULTIVATOR’S thee a = eae G37 Clothy /. 50 nS di ane Cloth, 60 BRECK’S BOOK OF FLOWERS, Soci > aie trie: LOD IN WHICH ARE Dusortpep ALL THE eee Suet Hrrsaceous Perennials, Annuals; Shrubs, Plants and Evergreen Trees, with Directions for their Cultivation. BUIST’S (ROBERT) AMERICAN FLOWER GARDEN DIRECTORY, 1 25 ConTAINING PracticaL DirecTIONS FOR THE CULTURE OF PLANTs, in the Flower Garden, Hothouse, Greenhouse, Rooms or Parlor Windows, for every month in the Year ; with a Description of the Plants most desirable in cach, the nature of the Soil and situation best adapted to their Growth, the Proper Season for Trans- * planting, &c. ; with Iustructions for erecting a Hothouse, Greenhonse, and Laying out ‘a Flower Garden ; the whole adapted to either Large or ‘Small Gardens, with Instruc- tions for Preparing the Soil, Propagating, Planting, Pruning, Training and Frui ting the Grape Vine. BUIST’S (ROBERT) FAMILY KITCHEN GARDENER, == a) ee 75 Contarnina PuaIn AND ACCURATE Descriptions OF ALL THE Different Species and Varieties of Culinary Vegetables, with their Botanical, English, French and German names, alphabetically arranged, with the Best Mode of Cultivat- ing them in the Garden or under Glass ; also Descriptions and Character of the most Select Fruits, their Management, Pr opagation, &c. By Rosert Buisr, author of the “American Flower Garden Dir rectory,’? &c. CHINESE SUGAR CANE AND SUGAR-MAKING, - - - .- 25 Ivs History, Cutrure AND ADAPTATION TO THE SOIL, CLIMATE, and Economy of the United States, with an Account of Various Processes of Manu- facturing Sugar. Drawn from authentic sources , by CuaRLes F. Sranspury, A. M., late Commissioner at the Exhibition of ail Nations at London. CHORLTON’S GRAPE-GROWER’S GUIDE, - - - - - 60 INTENDED EspEcIALLY FOR THE AMERICAN CLIMATE. Being a Practical Treatise on the Cultivation of the Grape Vine in each department of “Hot- house, Cold Grapery, Retarding House and Out-door Culture. With Plans for the con- struction of the Requisite Buildings, and giving the best methods for Heating the same. Every department being fully illustrated. By Wittiam CHoRLTON. COBBETT’S AMERICAN GARDENER, - - - - - - - 50 A TREATISE ON THE Situation, Sor, anp LayInc-ouT or GARDENS, and the Making and Managing of Hotbeds and Greenhouses, and on the Propagation and Cultivation of the several sorts of Vegetables, Herbs, Fr uits and Flowers. COTTAGE AND FARM BEE-KEEPER, - - - = = «= = 50 A Practican Work, by a Country Curate. (OLE’S AMERICAN FRUIT BOOK, - - - - - « = - 50 Containtinc Directions For Raisinec, PropaGatiInGc AND MaAnac- ing Fruit Trees, Shrubs and Plants ; with a Description of the Best Varieties of Fruit, including New and Valuable Kinds. COLE’S AMERICAN VETERINARIAN, - - - - - = - 50 ConTaINING DISEASES OF Dounsric ANIMALS, THEIR Causes, SYMP- toms and Remedies ; with Rules for Restoring and Preserving Health by good manage- ment ; also for Tr ining and Breeding. DADD’S AMERICAN CATTLE DOCTOR, - - - - - - - 100 ConTAINING THE Neocrssary INFORMATION FOR PRESERVING THE Health and Curing the Diseases of Oxen, Cows, Sheep and Swine, with a Great Variety of Original Recipes and Valuable Information in reference to Farm and Dairy Manage- ment, whereby every Man can be his own Cattle Doctor. The principles taught in this work are, that all Medication shall be subservient to Nature—that all Medicines must be sanative in their operation, and administered with a view of aiding the vital powers, instead of depressing, as heretofore, with the lancet or by poison, By G. H. Dapp, M. D., Veterinary practitioner. 4 Books publithed by A. O. Moorr & Co. a DADD’S MODERN HORSE DOCTOR, a Se Soe a BGs Bis Bie oleOe An American Book For Amsrican Farmers; Containing Practi- cal Ciaran on the Causes, Nature and Treatment of Disease and Lameness of Horses, embracing the Most Recent and Avproved Methods, according to an enlightened system of Veterinary Practice, for the Preservation and Restoration of Health. With illustrations. 5 DADD! 5 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF cue HORSE, Plain, - 200 ** Colored Plates, 4 00 Wira ANatomtcaL AND QuEsTionsL InLUsTRATIONS ; Containing, also, a Series of Examinations on Equine AEE EET and Philosophy, with Instructions in refer ence to Dissection and the mode of making Anatomical Preparations ; to which is added a Glossary of Veterinary Technicalities, Toxicological Chart, and Dictionary of Veterinary Science. DANA’S MUCK MANUAL, FOR THE USE OF FARMERS, - - 100 A TRHATISE ON THE PuysicaL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SOILS and Chemistry of Manures ; including, also, the subject of Composts, Artificial Manures and Irrigation. A new edition, with a Chapter on Bones and Superphosphates. DANA’S PRIZE ESSAY ON MANURES, Pere ever eet 26 SUBMITTED TO THE TRUSTEES OF THE MASSACHUSETTS SOCIETY FOR Promoting Agriculture, for their Premium. By Samver H. Dana. DOMESTIC AND [Ee EOULIRY Plain Plates; - - - 100 Colored Plates, Ss emt ee ROO A TREATISE ON THE History AND MaNnaGEMENT OF ORNAMENTAL and Domestic Poultry. By Rev. Epmunp Saunt Dixon, A. M., with large additions by J. J. Kerr, M. D. Illustrated with ‘sixty- -five Original Portraits , engraved expressly for this work. Fourth edition, revised. DOWNING’S (A. J.) LANDSCAPE GARDENING,- - - - - $8850 Revisep, ENLARGED AND New.y In.ustratep, By Henry Wry- throp Sargent. This Great Work, which has accomplished so much in elevating the American Taste for Rural Improvements, is now rendered doubly interesting and valuable by the experience of all the Prominent Cultivators of Ornamental Trees in the United States, and by the descriptions of American Places, Private Residences, Central Park, New Yor k, Llewellyn Park, New Jersey, and a full account of the N ewer Decidu- ous and Evergreen Trees and Shrubs. ‘The illustrations of this edition consist of seven superb steel plate engravings, by SMILLIE, HINSHELWOOD, DuTHIE and others ; besides: one hundred engravings on wood and stone, of the best American Residences and Parks, with Portraits of many New or Remarkable Trees and Shrubs. DOWNING’S (A. J.) RURAL ESSAYS, - - - - - - - $300 On Horticutture, LANDscAPE GARDENING, RuRAL ARCHITECTURE, Trees, Agriculture, Fruit, with his Letters from England. Edited, with a Memoir of the Author, by Grorce Wm. CurTIs, and a Letter to his} Friends, by FREDERIKA BREMER, and an elegant Steel Portrait of the Author. EASTWOOD (B.) ON THE CULTIVATION OF THE CRANBERRY, 50 Wiru a Descriprion or tHE Best Varieties. By B. Dospeon “ Septimus,” of the New York Tribune. Illustrated. ELLIOTT’S WESTERN FRUIT BOOK, - - - - - -« - 1295 A New Epition or tats Worx, TuHorovucaiy Revisep. Em- bracing all the New and Valuable Fruits, with the Latest Improvements in their Cultiva- tion, up to January, 1859. especially adapted to the wants of Western Fruit Growers - oe of pace illustrations. By F. R. Exurorr, Pomologist, late of Cleveland, Ohio, now* of St. Louis EVERY LADY HER OWN FLOWER GARDENER, - - - - 50 ADDRESSED To THE INDUSTRIOUS AND Economtcar, ONLY ; containing simple and practical Directions for Cultivating Plants and Flowers ; also, Hints for the Management of Flowers in Kooms, with brief Botanical Descriptions of Plants and Flowers. The whole in plain and simple ipaenaae: By Louisa JOENSON.. . Books published by A. O. Moorzt & Co. 5 — ARM DRAINAGE, + = = 2 2S Re Bete Vase sy 000 THe Principtes, Processes anpD Hrrsects or Drarnine Lanp, with Stones, Wood, Drain-plows, Open Ditches, and especially with Tiles - including Tables of Rainfall, Evaporation, Filtration, Excavation, capacity of Pipes, cost and num- ber to the acre. With more than 100 illustrations. By the Hon. Henry F. Froncu, of New Hampshire. FESSENDEN’S (T. G.) AMERICAN KITCHEN GARDENER, - - 50 CONTAINING DIRECTIONS FOR THE CULTIVATION OF.VEGETABLES AND Garden Fruits. Cloth. FESSENDEN’S COMPLETE FARMER AND AMERICAN GARDENER, 1 25 Rorar, Economist anp New American Garprner; Containing a Compendious Epitome of the most Important Branches of Aenicnltive and Rural Economy ; with Practical Directions on the Cultivation of Fruits and Vegetabies, includ- ing Landscape and Ornamental Gardening. By Tuomas G. FESSENDEN. 2 vols. in qr. FIELD'S PEAR CULTURE,- - - - - - = = = - 100 THe Pear eae ; or, a Treatise on the Propagation and Cultivation of the Pear Tree, with Instructions for its Management from the Seedling to the Bearing Tree. By THomas W. FIELD. MCHMCIEUR Rs) fo SOL ee lie me nee ggg A. TREATISE ON THE ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION OF FISH, AND THE Construction of Ponds, with the Description and Habits of such kinds of Fish as are most suitable for Pisciculture. By TuropaTus GARLICK, M. D., Vice-President of the Cleveland Academy of Nat, Science. FLINT ON GRASSES, - - - - = = «© - -= «= = 125 A Practica, TREATISE oN Grasses AND ForacE Puants ; ; Com- prising their Natural History, Comparative Nutritive Value, Methods of Cultivation, Cut- ting, Curing and the Management of Grass Lands. By CHARLES L. Fut, A. M., Secre- tary of the Mass. State Board of Agriculture. GUENON ON MILCH COWS, - - = = = = * =| = 60 A Treatise on Mitcu Cows, whereby the Quality and Quantity of Milk which any Cow will give may be accurately determined by observing Natural Marks or External Indications alone ; the length of time she will continue to give Milk, &c., &. By M. Francis Guenon, of Libourne, France. Translated by Nicnonas P. TRIST, Esq. ; with Introduction, Remarks and Observations on the Cow and the Dairy, by JouN S. SKINNER. Tlustrated with numerous Engravings. Neatly done up in paper covers, 37 cts. HERBERT'S HINTS TO HORSE-KEEPERS, Sf spay ee al ey 2B CompLeTE MANUAL FOR Honseiun ; Embracing : How-To BREED A HORSE. How to Puysic A HORSE. How ro Buy A Horse. (ALLOPATHY AND HOM@OPATHY. How To BREAK» A HORSE. How tro Groom A HORSE. How to Usr A Horse. How To Drive A Horse. How To Freep A Horse. How To RipE A HORSE. And Chapters on Mules and Ponies. By the late Henry WituiaM HERBERT (FRANK FORRESTER) ; with additions, including RaREy’s Meruop or Horse Taine, and BAUCHER’S Sysrem or HORSEMANSHIP ; - also, giving directions for the Selection and Care of Carriages and Harness of every description, from the City ‘‘ Turn Out’? to the Farmer’s ‘“ Gear,” and a Biography of the eccentric Author. Illustrated throgighout. HOOPER’S DOG AND GUN, SBS rare anny oh ets 1 se 50 A Few Loose Carters on Snootine, among which will be found some Anecdotes and Incidents ; also Instructions for Dog Breaking, a interest- ing letters from Sportsmen. By A BAD Suor. HYDE’S CHINESE SUGAR CANE, - - - = = = = = 29 ConTainine irs History, Mope or Cu.irure, MANUFACTURE OF the Sugar, &c. ; with Reports of its success in different parts of the United States, > 6 Books published by A. O. Moort & Cow - Re JOHNSTON’S GAMES F. W.) AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY, - 125 Lectures oN THE APPLICATION oF CHEMISTRY AND GEOLOGY TO Agricuiture. New Iidition, with an Appendix, containing the Author’s Experiments in Practical Agriculture. JOHNSTON'S VJ. F. W.) ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURAL CHEM- ISTRY AND GEOLOGY, - - - - = - = = 100 Wits a Complete ANALYTICAL AND ALPHABETICAL INDEX, and an American Preface. By Hon. Smion Brown, Editor of the ‘‘ New England Farmer.’ JOHNSTON'S (J. F. W.) CATECHISM OF Garon cet CHEM- ‘ISTRY AND GEOLOGY, ce apie SS 29 By James IF. W. Jounston, Howorary Mente of one ca Agricultural Society of England, and author of ‘‘ Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry and Geology.”? With an Introduction by Joun Pitkin Norton, M. A., late Professor of Scientific Agriculture in Yale College. With Notes and Additions by the Author, pre- pared expressly for this edition, and an Appendix compiled by the Supsrintendent of Education in Nova Scotia. Adapted to the use of Schools. LANGSTROTH (REV. L. L.) ON THE HIVE AND HONEY BEE, - 1 25 A PracticaL TREATISE ON THE Hive anpd Honey Bez, Third edition, enlarged and illustrated with numerous engravings. This Work is, without a doubt, ‘the best work on the Bee published in any languaze, whether we consider its Scientific accuracy, the practical instructions it contains, or the beauty and completeness of its illustrations. ‘LEUCHARS’ HOW TO BUILD AND VENTILATE HOTHOUSES, - 1 25 A Practica, TREATISE ON THE ConstrucTION, HEATING AND Ventilation of Hothouses, including Conservatories, Greenhouses, Graperies and cther kinds of Horticultural Structur es; with Practical b ‘rections for their Management, in regard to Light, Heat and Air. L[lustrated with numerous engravings. By P. B. LEUCHARS, Garden Architect. LIEBIG’S (JUSTUS) FAMILIAR LECTURES ON CHEMISTRY, - 50 AND ITS RELATION TO CoMMERCE, PrysioLocy, and AGRICULTURE. Edited by JoHN GARDENER, M. D., . LINSLEY’S MORGAN HORSES,- - - - = ee seh aa ae A Premium Essay on tHE Origin, History, anp CHARACTERISTICS of this remarkable American Breed of Horses ; tracing the Pedigree from the original Justin Morgan, through the most noted of his progeny, down to the present time. With numerous portraits. To which are added Hints for Breeding, Breaking and Gene- ral Use and Management of Horses, with practical Directions for Training them for Exhibition at Agricultural Fairs. By D. C. Linstry, Editor of the American Stock Journal. : MOORE’S RURAL HAND BOOKS, - - = = = |= = = 126 First Serizs, containing Treatises on— THE HORSE, THe PESTS OF THE FARM, Tue Hoe, Domestic Fow1s, and Tur Honry Brx, . THE Cow. Srconp Serizgs, containing — - - = - 1 25 Kyi RY LADY HER OWN FLOWER GARDENER, ESSAY ON MANURES, KILEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE, AMERICAN KITCHEN ‘GARDENER, Bmp FANCIER, AMERICAN ROSE CULTURIST. TuirD SERIES, containing — - - - - - 125 MILES ON THE Horsr’s Foor, VINE-DRESSER’S MANUAL, THE RABBIT FANCIER, BrEE-KEEPER’S CHART, WEEKS ON BEES, CHEMISTRY MADE EAsy. Fourts Sxrtiss, containing— — - - - - 1 25 PERSOZ. ON TH! VINE, HOooper’s NoG AND GUN, ; Liesie’s FaMimiar LETTERS, SKILLFUL HoUSEWIFF, BROWNE’S MEMOIRS OF INDIAN CORN. Books published by A. O. Moorx & Co. 7 OS eee eee wee eee ee MINER’S BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL, - - - = seve e108 Brine a Practica TREATISE ON THE History anp DomeEsti¢ Economy of the Honey Bee, embracing a Full Illustration of the whole snbject, with the: Most Approved Methods of Managing this Insect, through every branch of its Culiure ; the result of many years’ experience. Illustrated with many engravings By T. B. MINER. : MILES ON THE HORSE'S FOOT AND HOW TO KEEP IT SOUND, 56 Wire Oovrs, Intustrating THE Anatomy or THE Foor, and contain- ing valuable Hints on Shoeing and Stable Management, in Health and in Disease. By Wa. Mites. : MILBURN ON THE COW AND DAIRY HUSBANDRY, - - -¢= 25 By M. M. Mizurn, and revised by H. D. Ricuarpson and AmBROSE STEVENS. With illustrations. MUNN’S (B.) PRACTICAL LAND DRAINER, - - - =- - 50 Berne A Treatise on Draintine Lanp, in which the Most Ap- proved Systems of Drainage are Explained, and their Differences and Comparative Merits Discussed ; with full Directions for the Cutting and Making of Drains, with Remarks upon the yarious materials of which they may be constructed. With many illustrations. By B. Munn, Landscape Gardener. NASH’S J. A.) PROGRESSIVE FARMER, - - - = = = 60 A Sorentiric Treatise on AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY, THE GE- ology of Agriculture, on Plants and Animals, Manures and Soils, applied to Practical Agriculture ; ; with a Catechism of Scientific and Practical Agriculture. By J. A. Nass. NEILL’ S PRACTICAL FRUIT, FLOWER ANE yey eae ER’S COMPANION, - - - - 100 Wirn a CaLenDar. By Panace eae See of the Royal Caledonian Horticultural Society. Adapted to the United States from the fourth edition, revised and improved by the Author. Edited by G. Exerson, M. D., Editor of “The American Farmer’s Enecyclopedia.”? With Notes and Additions by Be Gs PARDEE, author of ‘* Manual of the Strawberry Culture.”? With illustrations. _ NORTON’S (JOHN P.) ELEMENTS OF SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURE, 60 Or, THE CONNECTION BETWEEN SCIENCE AND THE Art OF PRACTICAL Farming. Prize Essay of the New York State Agricultural Society. By Joun P. Nor- TON, M. A., Professor of Scientific Agriculture in Yale College. Adapted to the use of Schools. OLCOTT'S SORGHO AND IMPHEE, THE CHINESE AND AFRICAN RPRCRNEG ih clt gayinds lier cercoh i Lomaeyor ah MoE OO A Comp ete T'REATISE UPON THEIR ORIGIN AND VARIETIES, CULTURE and Uses, their value as a Forage Crop, and Directions for making Sugar, Molasses, Alcohol, Sparkling and Still Wines, Beer, Cider , Vinegar, Paper, Starch and Dye Stufis. Fully illustrated with Drawings of "Approved Machinery : ; with an Appendix by LEONARD Wray, of Caffraria, and a Description of his Patented Process of Crystallizing the Juice: of the ‘Imphee ; with the Latest American Experiments. By Henry S. OLcorr. PARDEE (R. G.) ON STRAWBERRY CULTURE, - - - =] = 60 A CompLets MANuaL FoR THE CULTIVATION OF THE STRAWBERRY ; with a Description of the Best Varieties. Also notices of the Raspberry, Blackberry, Currant, Gooseberry and Grape ; with Directions for their Cultivation, and the Selection of the Best Varieties. ‘* Every process here recommended has been pr oyed, the plans of others tried, and the result is here given.”” With a Valuable Appendix, containing the observations and experience of some of the most successful cultivators of these fruits in our country. PEDDERS’ (JAMES) FARMERS’ LAND MEASURER,- - - - 50 Or Pocket Companion; Showing at one view the Contents of any Piece of Land, from inecions taken in Yards. With a Set of Useful Agricultural Tables. : 8 Books published by A. QO. MoorE & Co. ~—_—~ a Oe aad PERSOZ’ CULTURE OF THE VINE, - - - = - + = 2 A. New Process FOR THE eee or THE ViNE, by PERsoz, Pro- fessor of the Faculty of Scisaces of Strasbourg ; Directing Professor Of the School of Phar- macy of the same city. Transiated by J. OC. BARCLAY, Surgeon U.S. N. PHELPS’ BEE KEEPER'S CHART, - - - - = = = = 25 Berne A Brier Practica, TREATISE ON THE Instinct, HaBITs AND Management of the Honey Bee, in all its various branches, the result of many years’ practical experience, whereby the author has been enabled to divest the subject of much that has been considered mysterious and difficult to overcome, and render it more sure, profitable and interesting to every one, than it has heretofore been. By E. W. PHELPS. QUINBY’S MYSTERIES OF BEE-KEEPING EXPLAINED, - - 100 Bretng a Compiere ANALYsIS or THE WHOLE SuBseEct, Consisting of the Natural History of Bees ; Directions for obtaining the Greatest Amount of Pure Surplus Honey with the least possible expense ; Remedies fer Losses Given, and the Science of Luck fully illustrated ; the resuit of more than twenty years’ experience in extensive Apiaries. By M. QurnsBy. RANDALL'S (H. 8.) SHEEP HUSBANDRY, - - - - = = 128 Wira an Account or THE Dirrerent Breeps, and general direc- tions in regard to Summer and Winter Management, Breeding and the Treatment of Diseases, with Portraits and ether engravings. By HENRY 8. RANDALL. REEMELIN’S (CHAS.) VINE DRESSER’S MANUAL, Ry gil 50 An IxuustRaTeD TREATISE ON VINEYARDS AND WHunzE-MaAKING, containing full Instructions as to Location and Soil, Preparation of Ground, Selection and Propagation of Vines, the Treatment of Young Vineyards, Trimming and Training the Vines, Manures and the Making of Wine. BRICHARDSON ON HOGS, - - = = © = = = = = 95 THEIR ORIGIN, “Fererre AND MANAGEMENT, with a View to Profit and Treatment under Disease ; also, plain Directions relative to the Most Approved Modes of Preservi ng their Flesh. By H. D. Ricuarpson, author of ‘‘ The Hive and the Honey Bec,’’ &c., &. With illustrations. RICHARDSON ON THE HIVE AND THE HONEY BEE,- - ~- 25 Wirtn Puarin Directions For Oprarnine A ConsIDERABLE ANNUAL income from this branch of Rural Economy ; also, an Account of the Diseases of Bees and their Remedies, and Remarks as to their Enemies, and the best mode of protecting the Hives from their attacks. By H. D. RicHaRDSON. With illustrations. RICHARDSON ON DOMESTIC FOWLS, Sid em Mm HE SS 25 Toeir Natrurau History, Bae: REARING, anp GENERAL Management. By H.D. Ricasrpson. With illustrations. RICHARDSON ON THE HORSE, - - - += © = |= = 25 THEIR ORIGIN AND Vaxinere ES; WITH Pian DIRECTIONS AS TO THE Breeding, Rearing and General Management, with Instructions as to the Treatment of Disease. Handsomely illustrated. By H. D. RICHARDSON. RICHARDSON ON THE PESTS OF THE FARM, = 25 Wire INSTRUCTIONS FOR THEIR Txrme sain - ; being a Manual of Plain Directions for the Certain Destruction of every description of Vermin. With numerous illustrations on Wood. RICHARDSON OB DOGS; THEIR ORIGIN AND VARIETIES, page 50 DirECTIONS AS TO THEIR GENERAL ManacemEnt. With numerous Original Anecdotes. Also, Complete Instructions as to Treatment under Disease. By H. D. RIcHARDSON. Iliustrated with numerous woed engravings. This is not only a cheap, but one of the best works ever published on the Dog. SCHENCE’S GARDENER’S TEXT BOOK, mae Sm) es ce Aaa ts 50 Containine Directions FoR THE ForMATION AND MANAGEMENT of the Kitchen Garden, the Culture and Use of Vegetables, Fruits and Medicinal Horbs. env. Ve Books published by A. O. Moons & Co. 9 ————$— — es SHEPHERD’S OWN BOOK, ahi Saieie! ne oi eh eae er et el Oe OO Whura an Account of tat Dirrerent Breeps, DISEASES AND Man- agement of Sheep, aud General Directions in regard to Summer and Winter Management, Breedi ng and the Treatment of Diseases ; with illustrative engravings by Youatr & RANDALL ; embracing Skinner’s Notes on the Breed and Management of Sheep in the United States , aud on the Culture of Fine Wool. : STEWART’S STABLE BOOK, - - - = - = = = = 100 A TREATISE ON THE Manacement oF Horses, IN RELATION TO Stabling, Grooming, Feeding, Watering and Working, Construction of Stables, Ventila- tion, Appendages of S tables, Management of the Feet, and of Diseased and Defective Horses. By JOHN STEWART, Veter rinary Surgeon. . With Notes and Additions, adapting it to American Food and Climate. By A. B. “ALLEN, Editor of the American Agriculturist. STRAY LEAVES FROM THE BOOK OF NATURE, - - - - 100 By M. Scaete De Vers, or THE UNIversity oF VIRGINIA. CONTENTS : I. ONLY A PERBLE. Il. Nature IN MorTIon. Til. Tae OckeAN AND rvs LIFE, IV. A CHAT ABOUT PLANTS. VY. YOUNGER YEARS OF A PLANT, VI. Later YEARS OF A PLANT. VII 7 TIT ae Ene tees . PLANT MuMaAnEs. . UNKNOWN TONGUES. IX. A Trip TO THE Moon. STEPHENS’ (HENRY) BOOK OF THE FARM, - - - - = 400 A CompLeTe GUIDE To THE Farmer, STEwaRD, PLowMAN, CatTTLeE- man,Shepherd, Field Worker and Dairy Maid. By Henry SrepHens. With Four Hun- dred and Fifty illustrations ; to which are added Explanatory Notes, Remarks, &c., by » J.S.SKinNER. Really one of the best books a farmer can possess. SKILLFUL HOUSEWIFE, - - = = = = *. = = = .50 Or Complete GuipEe To Domestic CooKerry, Toke CoMFORT, AND Economy, embracing 659 Recipes pertaining to Household Duties, the Care of Health, Gardening, Birds, Education of Children, &c., &. By Mrs. L. G. ABELL. ° SKINNER’S ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE, Se ye inl iter) ae 25 Apaprep To THE Use or Amprican Farmers. By F.G. SKINNER, SMITH’S (C. H. J.) LANDSCAPE GARDE maNG, PARES AND PLEASURE GROUNDS, - - VES ORG ats OPE: Wrira Practican Notes on Country neve oe. Viuuas, Pusiic Parks and Gardens. By Caartes H. J. Swmru, Landscape Gardener and Garden Archi- tect. With Notes and Additions by Lewis F. Aten, author of “‘ Rural Architecture.” THAER’S (ALEERT D.) AGRICULTURE, - - - - = = 200 THE PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE, BY ALBERT D. THaEr; Trans- lated by WILLIAM SaAw and Curuperrt W. JCHNSON, Esq., F. R.S. With a Memoir of the Author. 1 vol. 8vo. This work is regarded, by those who are competent to judge, as one of the most yaluable works that has ever appeared on the subjectof Agriculture. At thesame time that it is eminently practical, it is philosophical, and, even to the general reader, re- markably entertaining. THOMAS’ J. J.) FARM IMPLEMENTS,- - - - += = - -100 ' AND THE PRINCIPLES OF THEIR ConsTRUCTION AND Use; An ELE; mentary and familiar Treatise on Mechanics and Natural Philosophy, as applied to the ordinary practices of Agricuiture. With 200 illustrations. THOMPSON (RB. D.) ON THE FOOD OF ANIMALS, - - - . 1 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHES ON THE F'ooD or ANIMALS AND THE Fattening of Cattle “ with Remarks on the Food of Man. Based upon Experiments under- taken by order of the British Government, by Roperr Dunpas Tuompson, M. D., Lecturer on Practical Chemistry, University of Glasgow. . 10 Books published by A. O. Moonz & Co. oo ews “ THE ROSE CULTURIST, of 6 =) = ee er ae ee 50 Being A PRacticaL TREATISE ON THE Propacation, CULTIVATION, and Manazement of the Rose in all seasons ; with a List of Choice and Approved Varie- ties, adapted to the Climate of the United States ; to which is added full directions for the Treatment of the Dahlia. MDlustrated by engravings. TOPHAM’S CHEMISTRY MADE EASY, - - - = -*«© - = 25 For tae Usre or Farmers. By J. TopHam. TURNER’S COTTON PLANTER’S MANUAL,- - - - - - 100 Berna A CoMPILATION OF Facts From THE Best AUTHORITIES ON the Culture of Cotton, its Natural History, Chemical Analysis, Trade and Consumption, and embracing a History of Cotton and the Cotton Gin. By J. A. TURNER. WARDER’S (J. A.) HEDGES AND EVERGREENS, - - - - 100 A Compiete Manvuat Fos THE CULTIVATION, PRUNING AND Man- agement of all Plants suitable for American Hedging, especially the Maclura or Osage Orange. Fully illustrated with engravings of plants, implements and processes. To which is added a Treatise on Hvergreens, their different Varieties, their propagation, transplanting and Culture in the United States. WARING’S ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE, - - - - - 4% A Boox ror Youne Farmers, with QUESTIONS FOR THE USE OF Schools. WEEKS JOHN M.) ON BEES—A MANUAL, FM Ranke ts sc 50° Or, aN Hasy Merruop or Manacina BEES IN THE MOST PROFIT- able manner to their Owner ; with Infallible Rules to Prevent their Destruction by the Moth. With an Appendix, by Wooster A. FYANDERS. %, WHITE'S (W. N.) GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH, - - - - 125 Or, tHE KirceHEeN anp Fruir Garpen, with THE Best MerHops for their Cultivation ; together with Hints upon Landscape and Flower Gardening ; con- taining Medes of Culture and Descriptiens of the Species and Varieties of the Culinary Vegetables, Fruit Trees and Fruits, and a Select List of Ornamental Trees and Plants, Adapted to the States of the Union South of Pennsylvania, with Gardening Calendars for thesame. By Wm. N. Waits, of Athens, Georgia. YOUATT AND MARTIN ON CATTLE, - - - = = = = I 85 Berne A TREATISE ON THEIR Bregeps, MANAGEMENT, AND DISEAsss, comprising a Full History of the Various Races ; their Origin, Breeding and Merits ; their capacity for Beefand Milk. By W. Youarrand W.C. L. Martin. The whole form-: - ing a Complete Guide for the Farmer, the Amateur and the Veterinary Surgeon, with 100 illustrations. Edited by AMBROSE STEVENS. YOUATT ON THE HORSE, - .- = = = 2© = = = = 195 YouaT?T ON THE STRUCTURE AND DiskasEs Or THE Horst, with their Remedies ; also, Practical Rules for Buyers, Breeders, Smiths, &c. Edited by W. C. Spooner, M. RCV. S. With an Account of the Breeds in the United States, by HENRY S. RANDALL. : YOUATT ON SHEEP. jms) ban) ete Ne ee ee 15 Vuntr Breep, MANAGEMENT AND Disraszs, with Illustrative En- gravings ; to which are a lded Remarks on the Breeds and Management of Sheep in the United States, aad on the Culture of Vine Woolin Silesia. By WM. YOuUATT?. YOUATT AND MARTIN ON THE HOG,- - - - - -. - 9% * A TREATISE ON THE Breeps, ManaGEMENT, anD MeEpIcAL TRBAT- ment of Swine, with Directions for Salting Pork and Curing Bacon and Hams. By Wm. Youatr, V.S.,and W. C. L. Margin. Edited by AmBrose Stevens. Illustrated with engravings drawn from life. * Books published by A. O. Moorn & Co. ig ae — eee. Moore’s Hand Books of Rural and Bomestic Economy, ALL ARRANGED AND ADAPTED TO THE USH OCF AMERICAN FARMERS. Pice 25 Cents Hach. HOGS, Herr ORIGIN, VARIETIES AND MANAGEMENT, with a View to Pro- fit and Treatment under Disease ; also, Plain Directions relative to the Most Approved Modes of Preserving their Flesh. By i. D. RicHaRpson. With illustrations THE HIVE AND THE HONEY BEE, Wirs Puatn Directions ror OpTarnina A ConsIDERABLE ANNUAL Income from this branch of Rural Economy ; also, an Account of the Diseases of Bees and their Remedies, and Remarks as to their Enemies, and the best mode of protecting the Hives from their attacks. By H. D. Richarpson. With illustrations. DOMESTIC FOWLS, THerr NaruraL History, Breepina, REARING AND GENERAL Management. By H. D. Ricsarpson. With illustrations. THE HORSE, THEIR ORIGIN AND VARIETIES; WITH: Piain DIRECTIONS AS TO THE Breeding, Rearing and General Management ; with instructions as: to the Treatment of Disease Handsomely illustrated. By H. D. RicHaRpson. THE ROSE, Tue American Rose Cutturist ; being a Practical Treatise on the * Propagation, Cultivation and Management in all Seasons, &c. ; with full directions for the treatment of the Dahlia. THE PESTS OF THE FARM, Wira Insrructions ror THEIR Extirpation ; being a Manual of Plain Directions for the Certain Destruction of every description of Vermin. With numerous illustrations on wood. AN ESSAY ON MANURES, SUBMITTED TO THE TRUSTEES OF THE MAssAcHUSETTS SOCIETY FOR Promoting Agriculture, for their Premium. By Samvuret H. Dana. THE AMERICAN BIRD FANCIER, GoNSIDERED WITH REFERENCE TO THE BREEDING, REARING, FEED- ‘ing, Management 10d Peculiarities of Cage and House Birds. Illustrated with Engray- ings. By D. Jay Browne. ie 3 cage MADE EASY, For tue User or Farmers. By J. TopHam. eee OF AGRICULTURE, TRANSLATED FROM THE FRencu, and Adapted to the use of American Farmers. By F. G. SKINNER. THE HORSE'S FOOT, AND HOW TO KEEP IT SOUND, Wira Cors, illustrating the Anatomy of. the Foot, and containing valuable Hints on Shoeing and Stable Management, both in Health and Disease. By W Na MILss. ‘ THE SKILLFUL HOUSEWIFE, Or, Compiere Guinea ro Domestic Cooxsry, Taste, Comrorr aND Economy, embracing 65) Recipes pertaining to Househol:l Duties, nb Care of Health, Gar dening, Birds, Education of Children, &e., &. By Mrs. L. G. ABELL. THE AMERICAN KITCHEN GARDENER, - ConTAINING DrrEcTIONS FOR THE CULTIVATION OF VEGETABLES and Garden Fruits. By T. G. Fessenpen. 12 Books published by A. O. Moorr & Co. —— — — eee CHINESE SUGAR CANE AND SUGAR-MAKING, Irs History, Contour th AND ADAPTATION TO THE Sort, CLIMATE and Econoiny of the United States, with an Account of Various Processes of Manufactur- ing Sugar. Drawn from authentic sources by Cuaries F. Sranssury, A. M., late Com- missioner at the Exhibition of all Nations at London. PERSOZ’ CULTURE OF THE VINE, A New Process ror THe CULTURE OF THE VINE, BY PeERsoz, Pro- fessor of the Faculty of Sciences of Strasbourg ; Directing Professor of the School of Pharmacy of the same city. Translated by J. O’C. Barciay, Surgeon, U.S. N. THE BEE-EEEPER’S CHART, BEING A Brier, Practica, TREATISE ON THE InstINcT, Hapits and Management of the Honey Bee, in all its various branches, the result of many years’ practical experience, whereby the author has been enabled to divest the subject of much that has been considered mysterious and difficult to overcome, and render it more sure, profitable and interesting to every one, than it has heretofore been. By E. W. PaErps. EVERY LADY HER OWN GARDENER, ADDRESSED T0 THE INDUSTRIOUS AND HCONOMICAL ONLY; containing Simple and Practical Directions for Cultivating Plants and Flowers ; also, Hints for the Management of Fiowers in Rooms, with Brief Botanical Descriptions of Plants and Flowers. The whole in Plain and simple language. By Louisa JoHNSoN. THE COW; DAIRY HUSBANDRY AND CATTLE EREEDING, By M. M. Mivpurn, anp Revisep By H. D. RicHarpson AnD AMBROSE STEVENS. With illustrations. WILSON ON THE CULTURE OF FLAX, Irs TREATMENT, AGRICULTURAL AND TECHNICAL ; delivered before the New York State Agricultural Society, at the Annual Fair at Saratoga, in September last, by Joun WIson, late President of the Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester England. WEEKS ON BEES; A MANUAL, Or, AN Hasy (epson or ] NO cme BEES IN THE MOST PROFITABLE manner to their owner, with Infallible Rales to Prevent their Destruction by the Moth ; with an Appendix by W OOSTER A. FLANDERS. REEMELIN’S (CHAS.) VINE DRESSERS’ MANUAL, ConTAINING FULL Instructions as to Location and Sort ; Prepara- tion of Ground ; Selection and Propagation of Vines ; The Treatment of a "Young Vine- yard ; Trimmi ing and Training the Vines; Manures and the Making of Wine. Every department illustr ated. HYDE’S CHINESE SUGAR CANE, ConrTaINInG its Uisrory, Mops oF CuLture, Manuracture of the Sugar, &c. ; with Reports of its success in different parts of the United States. BEMIENT’S (C, M.) RABBIT FANCIER, A TREATISE ON THE Brexpinc, Rearine, Fnepine, AND GENERAL Management of Rabbits, with. Remarks upon their Diseases and Remedies ; to which are added Full Directions for the Construction of Hutches, Rabbitries, &c., together with - Recives for cocking and dressing for the table. RICHARDSON ON BOGS; THEIR ORIGIN AND VARIRXTIES, Directions as To Tuerr GuneraL Manacement. With numerous Ori igh inal Anecdotes ; also, Complete Instructions as to Treatment under Disease. By H. D. RicusArpson. Illustrated with pumerous wood engravings. This is not only a cheap, but one of the best’ wor ks € 2ver published on the Dog. LIESIG’S GUSTUS) FAMILIAR LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY, Anp irs Renation To Commercr, PaysioLocy, AND AGRICULTURE Edite i by Joan GaRbaNER, M. D. THE DCG AND GUN, A Few Looser Caeemors on SHootine, among which will be found some Anecdotes and Incidents ; also, Instructions for Dcg Breaking, and interesting lef- ters {rem Sportsmen. By A BAD Snot. Hi MY. y Lae, Pret yi A Pat - © _oN ae v ree! > . Qs : : ES Ws, 7 eS ATS a eas wun O000%e37?e1LS