ir^ '^£'RS1 DATE DUE < to 9 from , and ys as lation ngton e use may i and ml ess reten- s two ill be ;d to jnder nable isfac- iable. )Ooks same first ;, and UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS LIBRARY SF 65 A57 1858 ^faces, ke, be- lall be ,n one DOMESTIC ANIMALS/"^*' '' HISTORY AND DESC£IPTIOiN nORSE, MULE, CATTLE, SHEEP, SWINE, POULTay, AND FARM DOGS. WITH DIRECTIONS FflR THEIR MANAGEMENT, BREEDING, CROSSING, REARING, FEEDING, AND PREPARATION FOR A PROFITABLE MARKET ALSO, "HEIR jnSKASES, AXb REMEDIES. TOGETHER WITH FDLL DIRECTIONS FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF THE DAIRY. By R. L. ALLEN, AUTHOR OF " COMPE.\D OF AMERICAN AGilCULTURK," ETC. NEW YORK : A. 0. ]iIOORE, AGRICULTURAL BOOK PUBLISHER, (late C. If. SAXTON * CO.,) NO. 140 FULTON STREET. 18 5 8. 0)VlVERS!Ty~OF MASSACHySETTS AMHERST. Ais Entered tccttrOlng to an Act of Congress in the year 1847 Jiy RICHARD L. ALLEN, Ib the Clcrs s uffi:e of the District Court of the United Suites fowthe Bouthwra District of New York. / '^\>^ "0 INTEODUC nON, The object of '.lie following work, on the History, Breeding, Management, Diseases, (fee., of Domestic Animals, is to afiford tlie Stock-breeder and Grazier a connected view of the entire subject in Avliich lie has so deep an interest. The writer has endeavored to compress wiihin the limited space assumed as necessary to secure a general circulation and perusal, such principles and practice, and give to each that relative promi- nence, which it becomes the practical man to obseiTe, to realize the greatest amount of value for the labor and capital devoted to his pursuits. Their history is essential, as it shows their introduction into the United States, their progress during the various stages of their improvement, and the comparative value of the improved and ordinary breeds. A knowledge of the best mode of breeding and management is of still higher importance. The first will enable the breeder to preserve the high character of the animals in his hands, or perhaps still farther to advance them ; while proper management and feeding will prevent that deterioration and loss from disease, which frequently subtract so much from his profits. A larger space has been purposely devoted to the last topics, in preference to the subject of diseases, as prevention is not only less troublesom.e than cure, but much more econom- ical. Feeding and management, after breeding, are really the knportant objects in view to the Stock-breeder and Graziei, for if these be judiciously attended to, disease among the herds will rarely be known. 6 IXTRODUCT ON. The subject of animal diseases is complicated and little un- derstood ; and to be properly comprehended, requires years of close, intelligent study, under every advantage for obtaining the necessary information. Nearly every disorder assumes various shades of difference, and to remove it effectually a corresponding change of treatment is required. How absurd then the idea, that a compilation of formal remedies, adminis- tered by an unskilful or inexperienced manager, will be of material service in rescuing his herds or flocks from the rava- ges of disease. All that can consistently be done, is to give a few simple remedies for the most common and well-known ailments, and leave to nature or a professional farrier, such as are more complex or unusual. This work (with many subsequent and important additions) constitutes a small part of the " Compend of American Agri- culture," the favorable reception of which, though but recentxj given to the public, has induced the writer to offer this im pcrtant di\asion of the subject in its present detached form. New York, November. 18 i7. INDEX. Pags Aojmals, domestic, reared in the V. States 9 their number and value 9 their improvement lo adaptation to various objects. . . ,10 general form and characteristics 13 the lungs 14 respiration 14 effects of IT perspiratior. — IS food which supplies respiration- 18 circumstances which augment respiration 19 food 21 purposes fulfilled by food 22 nutritive qualities for various animals.. 23 profit of feeding 2j See Cattle, Sheei-, &c. Ass, the ••■ ISl varieties 181 characteristics 182 breeding in the U. Siates Ifc2 as a beast of burden Ib3 Breeding— principles of See Cattle, Sheep, &.c. Cattle— neat or horned various domestic breeds native cattle Devons short-horns Herefords Ayrshire management of calves Dreeding breaking steers management of oxen fattening and stall-feeding Diseases 41 hoven choking inflammation of stomach mange or scab horn-ail— jaundice mad-itch— bloody murrain hoof-ail • -^ loss of cud — scours or diarrhoea — warbles or grubs— wounds — puerperal or milk-fever caked bags— garget — sore teats — warts Cows for dairy management of milking See Dairy. Comparative value of oxen and horses Churns • 11 56 ; 60 ' 61 i 61 I 190 69 I Dairy, the PAOt Dairy— selection and m.magementof ' cows ..■••^0,61 mil km? 61 properties of milk 6'i variations in 63 cream— clouted ditto 65 Making butter from sour, sweet, and clouted cream 6o. 67 sourness of cream 68 quickness in churning 68 over-churning 69 temperature of milk and cream. 69 advantages of churn'g the whole 69 cleanliness in churning ... TO premium butter, how made TO Orange county do. do. Tl Making cheese, how effected T2 creamed and uncreamed T3 buttermilk cheese T3 whey do T4 vegetable substances added — 74 preparation of rennet 75 different qualuies of cheese — 77 warming the milk 77 quality of rennet 78 quantity of rennet 78 treatment of curd 79 separation of whey 80 cheese, salting 81 addition of cream 81 size of cheese 81 mode of curing 82 ammoniacal cheese 82 inoculating do. 82 pi emium cheese, how made — 83 Ducks — see Poultkv. Farm dogs 207-214 Feeding defined 21 See' Cattle, Sheep, &c. Food, comparative nutritive qual- ities of 22 how given, purposesfolfilledbyit 22 changes in 24 See Animals, Products, &c. Geese— see Poultry. Guinea-hen — see ditto. Hens — see Poultry. Hinny — see Ass. Horse — the Arabian and Barb 138 the English 139 American 141 Arabians in America 139, 140 Ranger, the Barb — Bu.ssorah — Narraganset pacers— M essen- ger, imported 140 Morgan horses 142 Canadian and Spaniirh 143 ConesLoga 143 Normun 144 Cart, rievpland hr-ill most stiv^ngly stamp the issue with its own pecuharities. This is forcibly illustrated in the case of the Devon cattle, an ancient race, wh:^se color, form, and charac- teristics are strikingly perpetuated, sometimes to the six h or !2 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. even a later generation. So far is tMs principle carried by many experienced breeders, that ibey will use an animal of indifferent external appearance, but of approved descent, {hlood,) in preference to a decidedly superior one, whose pedigree is imperfect. 3d. All the conditions of soil, situation, climate, treatment,, and food, should be favorable to the object sought. 4th. As a general rule, the female should be relatively larger than the male. This gives ample room for the perfect devel- opment of the foetus, easy partmition, and a large supply of milk for the offsprmg, at a period in its existence, when food has a greater influence in perfecting character and form, than at any subsequent time. 5th. Exceptions to this ride may be made, when greater size is required than can be obtained from the female, and espe- cially when more vigor and hardiness of constitution are de- sirable. For this pm-pos-e, strong masculine development in the sire is proper, and if othervdse unattainable, something of coarseness may be admitted, as this may be afterwards cor- rected, and nothing will atone for want of constitution and strength. 6th. Pairing shoidd be with a strict reference to correcting the imperfections of one animal, by a corresponding excellence in the other. 7th. Breeding in-and-in, or propagating from animals nearly allied, may be tolerated under certain circumstances, though seldom ; and only in extreme cases betw^een those of the same generation, as brother and sister. When the animal possesses much stamina and peculiar merit, w^hich it is desired to per- petuate in the breed, it may be done either in the ascending or descending line, as in breeding the son to the parent, or the parent to his own progeny. This has been practised "with de- cided advantage, and m some cases has even been continued successively, as low as the sixth generation. 8th. It is always better to avoid close relationship, by the selection of equally meritoiious stock-getters of the same breed, from other sources. 9th. Wholesome, nutritious food, at all times sufficient to keep the animals steadily advancing, should be provided, but they must never be allowed to get fat. Of the two evils^ starving is preferable to surfeit. Careful treatment, and the absence of disease, must be always fully considered. 10th. Animals should never be allowed to breed either too early of too late i.'^ life. These, periods cannot be arbitnirily GENERAL FOR>! AXD CHARACTERISTICS. lo laid down, but must depend on their time of matunty, the longevity of the breed, and the stamina of the individual. 11th. No violent cross, or mixing of distinct breeds, should ever be admitted for the purposes of perpetuation, as of cattle of diverse sizes ; horses of unlike characters ; the Merino and the lono'-wools, or even the longr, or short, and the middle-wools. For carcass and constitution, these crosses are unexceptiona- ble ; and it is a practice very common in this country, and judicious enough where the whole produce is early destined for the shambles. But when the progeny are designed for breeders, the practice should be branded with unqualified reprehension. GENERAL FORM AND CHARACTERISTICS. Within certain limits, these may be reduced to a common standard. All animals should have a good head, well set up ; a clean fine muzzle, and a bright, clear and full, yet per- fectly placid eye. With the exception of the dog and cat, whose original nature is ferocity, and whose whole life, un- less diverted from their natural instincts, is plunder and prey ; and the jockey racehorse, which is required to take the purse, at any hazard of life or hmb to the groom ; a mild, quiet eye is indispensable to the profitable use of the domes- tic brute. The neck should be well formed, not too long, tapering to its junction with the head, and gradually enlarg- ing to a firm, well-expanded attachment to the back, shoulders, •and breast. The back or chme should be short, straight, and broad ; the ribs springing out from the backbone nearly at right angles, gi^^ng a rounded appearance to the carcass, and reaching well behind to a close proximity to the hip ; tail well set on, and full at its junction with the body, yet gradually tapering to fineness ; thighs, fore-arms, and crops well developed ; projecting breast or brisket ; the fore-legs straight, and hind ones properly bent, strong and full where attached to the carcass, but small and tapering below ; good and sound joints ; dense, strong bones, but not large ; plenty of fine muscle in the right places ; and hair or wool, fine and soft. The chest in all animals should be full, for it will be in- variably found, that only such will do the most work, or fat- ten easiest on the leas*-^. fi^od. ^4 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. The Lunffs. From the last-mentioned piinciple, founded on long ex- perience and observation, Cline inferred, and he has laid it do^yn as an incontrovertible position, that the lungs should always be large ; and Youatt expresses the same opinion. This is undoubtedly correct as to working beasts, the horse and the ox, which require full and free respiration, to enable them to sustain great muscular efforts. But later physiolo- gists have assumed, perhaps from closer and more accurate observations, that the fattening propensity is in the ratio of the smallness of the lungs. Earl Spencer has observed, that this is fully shown in the pig, the sheep, the ox, and the horse, whose aptitude to fatten and smallness of lungs, are in the order enumerated. This position is further illustrated by the different breeds of the same classes of animals. The Leicester sheep have smaller lungs than the South Down ; and it has been found, that a number of the former, on a given quantity of food, and in the same time, reached 28 lbs. a quarter, while th« South Downs with a greater consumption of food, attained in the same period, only 18 lbs. The Chinese pigs have much smaller lungs than the Irish, and the former will fatten to a given weight, on a much less quantity of food than the latter. [Play fair.) The principle would seem to be corroborated by the fact, that animals generally fatten faster in proportion to the quantity of food they consume, as they advance towards a certain stage of maturity ; during all which time, the secre- tion of internal fat is gradually compressing the size, by re- ducing the r jom for the action of the lungs. Hence, the advantage of carrying the fattening beast to an advanced point, by which not only the quality of carcass is improved, but the quantity is relatively greater for the amount of food consumed. These views are intimately connected, and fully correspond, with the principles of RESPIRATION IN ANIiVIALS. IVom careful experiments, it has been found that all ani- mals daily consume a much larger quantity of food than the aggregate of what may have been retained in the system, added to what has been expelled in the foeces and urine, and RESPIRATION IN ANIMALS. 15 what has escaped by persphation. Boussingault, who com- bines the characteristics of an ingenious chemist, a vigilant observer, and a practical agriculturist, made an experiment with a " milch-cow and a full-grown horse, which were placed in stalls so contrived that the droppings and the urine could be collected ^vithout loss. Before being made the subjects of experiment, the animals were ballasted or- fed for a month with the same ration that was furnished to them, during the three days and three nights which they passed in the ex- perimental stalls. During the month, the weight of the ani- mals- did not vary sensibly, a circumstance which happily en- ables us to assume that neither did the weight vary during the seventy-two hours when they were under especial obser- vation. The cow was foddered vrith after-math, hay, and potatoes ; the horse with the same hay and oats. The quantities of forage were accurately weighed, and their precise degree of moistness and their composition were determined from average samples. The water drunk was measm-ed, its saline and earthy constituents having been previously ascertained. The excre- mentitious matters passed, were of course collected with the greatest care ; the excrements, the urine, and the milk weie weighed, and the constitution of the whole estimated from elementary analyses of average speclrxiens of each. The re- sults of the two experiments are given in the table on the next page. The oxygen and hydrogen that are not accounted for in the sum of the products have not disappeared in the precise proportions requisite to form water ; the excess of hydrogen amounts to as many as from 13 to 15 dwts. It is probable that this hydrogen of the food became changed into water by combining during respiration with the oxyg^en of the air." 16 DOMESTIC AMMALS. FOOD CONSUMED BY THE HORSE IN 24 HOURS. Forage. Wei-ht in tl,p wet state. Weight in the dry state. Elementar V Matter in the Food. Carbon. Hydrogen. lb. oz d-At 0 10 7 0 .S 18 Oxygon. Azote. ^alis and Earths. '^0 6 43 lbs. 01. 17 4 5 2 lbs. ox^ 7 11 2 7 6 8 8 1 10 U ' 6 ' 3" 2 0 1 - lb. oz. dwt. I 6 14 Oats. Water 0 2 10 0 0 8 Toial 6'J 2-2 6 10 6 1 2 5 8 7 2 0 4 9 1 y 12 PRODUCTS VOIDED B^ THE HORSE IN 24 HOURS. Weight in the wet stata. Weight in the dry state. Elementary Matter in the Products. Products. Ca.'bon. Hydrogen. Oxygen. Azote. Salts and Earths, U ine Excrements .... lb. oz. dwt. 3 6 15 38 2 2 lb. oz. dwl 9 9 14 9 5 6 !b. oz. dwt. 0 3 10 3 7 17 lb. oz.dwt. 0 0 7 0 5 15 Ih. oz.dwt. 0 1 2 3 6 14 3 7 16 8 7 2 ib. oz dwt. 0 1 4 0 2 10 0 3 14 0 4 9 0 3 10 1 6 10 Total Toial matter of ( ibe lood S • 71 8 17 69 0 0 27 3 3 10 3 0 22 6 0 3 11 7 10 6 0 0 6 2 1 2 5 I 10 C 1 9 IS Difference 12 3 0 6 6 13 0 8 3 4 11 6 0 0 Is 0 0 8 WATER CONSUMED BY THE HORSE IN 24 HOURS. With the hay . . With the oats . . Taken as drink . Total consumed lbs. oz 2 3 0 14 35 3 33 4 WATER VOIDED B\ THE HORSE IN 24 HOURS. With fheuri Wuh the exc Total voided . Water consumed , Water exhaled by pulmonary and cutaneous transpiration lbs. 2 oz. 6 8 "25" 38 TT 4 12 6 FOOD CONSUMED BY THE COW IN 24 HOURS. Weight in the wet state. Weight in tiie dry state. Elementary Matter in the Food. Fodder. Carbon. Hydrogen. lb. oz dwt 0 7 15 0 11 7 Oxygen. Azote. Salt.s and Earihs. Potatoes Alter-malh hay . . Water ..... lb. oz. dwt. 40 2 5 20 1 2 160 0 0 lb. oz. dwt. 11 2 1 16 11 0 lb. oz.dwt. 4 11 2 7 U 11 lb. oz dwt. 4 10 17 5 10 17 lb. oz. dwt. 0 1 12 0 4 17 0 6 9 lb. oz.dwt. 0 6 13 1 8 6 0 1 12 Total 220 3 7 28 1 1 12 10 13 1 7 2 10 9 14 2 4 11 PRODUCTS VOIDED BY THE COW IN 24 HOURS. Weight in the wet state. Weight irf the dry slate. Elementary Matter in the Prodiicif. Products. Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen. Azote. lb. oz.dwt. 0 2 19 0 1 3 0 1 9 S?.Us and Earths. Excrements .... Urine Milk lb. oz. dwt. 76 1 9 21 11 12 22 10 10 120 11 11 "20 3 7 99 3 16 lb. oz.dwt. 10 8 12 2 6 17 3 1 0 16 4 9 ib. 4 0 "6~ 12 oz. dwt. 7 0 8 7 8 3 11 10 10 13 lb. oz.dwt. 0 6 13 0 0 16 0 3 3 lb, oz .dwt. 4 0 9 0 8 3 0 10 6 lb. 01. dwt. 1 3 8 1 0 6 0 1 16 Total " matter of food 0 10 12 1 7 2 5 6 18 10 9 14 5 8 16 9 5 11 0 6 9 2 £ 10 2 4 a Difference U 8 12 5 11 3 0 8 10 0 0 18 0 0 19 WATER CONSUMED BY THE COW IN 24 HOURS. WATER VOIDED BY THE COW IN 24 HOURS. With thj potato With the hay . Taken as drink Total consumed With the excrements With the urine . . With the milk. . . Total voided . Water consumed Wat«r paswd off by pulmonary and c.itaneous transpiration lbs. 53 10 15 14 16 3 85 11 158 5 73 «■ THE EFFECTS OF RESPIRATION. 17 Wo here perceive a large loss of water, carbon, hydrogen, &Q. Nearly all this loss of carbon and hydrogen escaped by respiration, while most of the Avater, oxygen, nitrogen, and sahs, passed off in perspiration. In further illustration of the subject of respiration, Liebig says, " from the accurate deter- mination of the quantity of carbon daily taken into the system in the food, as well as of that proportion of it which passes out of the body in the foeces and urme, uiihurned, that is, in some form uncombined with oxygen, it appears that an adult taking- moderate exercise, consumes 13.9 oz. of carbon daily." The foregoing are facts in the animal economy, capable of vast practical bearing in the management of our domestic ani- mals. But before following out these principles to their ap- plication, let us briefly examine The Effects of Respiration. We have seen from the experiment of Boussingault, that there is a loss of 6 lbs. 6 oz. of carbon, and 8 oz. 3 dwt. ot hydrogen in the food of the horse, and something less in that of the cow, every 24 hours, which has not been left in the system, nor has it escaped by the evacuations. What has become of so large an amount of solid matter ? It has escaped through the lungs and been converted into air. The carbon and hydrogen of the food have undergone those various trans- formations which are peculiar to the animal economy, diges- tion, assimilation, &c., which it is not necessary, nor will our limits permit us here to explain ; and they appear at last in the veinous blood, which in the course of its circulation is brouo^ht into the cells of the luno;s. The air inhaled is sent through every part of their innumerable meshes, and is there separated from the blood, only by the delicate tissues or mem- branes which enclose it. A portion of the carbon and hydro- gen escapes from the blood into the air-cells, and at the instant of their contact with the aii-, they affect a chemical union with its oxygen, forming carbonic acid and the vapor of water, w^hich is then expired, and a fresh supply of oxygen is inhaled. This operation is again repeated, throi^h every successive moment of animal existence. Besides other purposes which it is probably designed to subserve, but which have hitherto eluded the keenest research of chemical physiology, one ob\ious result of respiration is, the elevation of the temperature of the animal system. By the ever-operating laws of nature, this chemical union of two 2* l8 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. bodies in the foi-mation of a third, disengages latent heat, ■which taking place in contact with the blood, is by it diffused throughout the whole frame. The effect is precisely analogous to the combustion of fuel, oils, Arc, in the open au*. Perspiratior. Is the counteracting agent wliich modifies this result, and prevents the injurious effects, which, under exposure to great external heat, would ensui-e certain desii-uction. And this too, it will have been seen, is provided at the expense of the ariimal food. When from excessive heat, caused by violent exercise or othei-wise, by which respiration is accelerated and the ani- mal temperatm-e becomes elevated, the papillce of the skin pour the limpid fluid through their innumerable ducts, which in its convei-sion into vapor, seize upon the animal heat and remove it from the system, producing that dehcious coolness so grateful to the laboring man and beast in a sultiy summer's day. These two opposing piinciples, like the antagonistic Dperations of the regulator in mechanics, keep up a perfect balance in the vital machine, and enable that entire division of the animal creation, distinguished as warm-blooded, including man and the brute, all the feathered tribes, the whale, the seal, the wahnis, d:c., to maintain an equihbrium of temperature, whether under the equator or the poles; on the peaks ol Chimborazo, the burning sands of Zahara, or plunged in the depths of the Aictic Ocean. The connection between the size of the lunsfs, and the apti- tude of animals to fatten, will be more apparent from the fact, that the carbon and hydrogen which are abstracted, constitute two of the only three elements of fat. The larger size, the fuller play, and the greater activity of the lungs, by exhausting more of the materials of fat, must necessarily diminish its fonnation in the animal system ; unless it can be shown, which has never yet been done, that the removal of a portion of the fat-forming piinciples accelerates the assimilation of the re- mainder. The Food which supplies Respiration. This, in tha herbiverous animals, after they are deprived of the milk, which furnishes it in abundance, is the starch, gum, sugar, vegetable fats, and oils that exist in the vegetables, grain, and root£ which, they consume ; and in certain casee t-lRCt MSTA.VCES WHICH AUGMENT RE5PIRATI N. ]9 where there is a deficiency of other food, it is sparingly fur- nished in woody and cellular fibre. All these subsiances con- stitute the p.incipal part of dry vegetable fo^od, and are made up of three elements, which in starch, gum, cane-sugar, and cellulur fibre, exist in precisely the same proportions, y\z\ 44 per cent, of carbon, 6.2 of hydrogen, and 49.8 of oxygen. Grape sugar, woc»dy fibre, and vegetable and animal fats and oils are made up of the same elements, but in different proportions, the last containing much more carbon and hydro- gen than those above specified. In the fattening animals, it is supposed the vegetable fats and oils are immediately trans- ferred to the fat cells, undergoing only such slight modifica- tion as perfectly adapts them to the animal economv, while respiration is supphed by the other enumerated ve^retable matters. K these last are taken into the stomach beyond the necessary demand for its object, they too are converted by the animal functions into fat, and are stored up in the system for future use. But if the supply of the latter is insufficient for respiration, it first appropriates the vegetable fat contained in the food ; if this is deficient, it dravrs on the accumulated stores of animal fat already secreted in the system, and when these too are exhausted, it seizes upon what is contained in the tissues and muscle. When the animal commences drawing npon i:s own resources for the support of its vital functions, deterioration begins ; and if long continued, great emaciation succeeds, which is soon followed by starvation and death. The camiverous animals are furnished with their respiratory excretions, from the animal fat and fibre which exist in their food, and which the herbivorss had previously abstracted from the vegetable creation. Circumstances which anpient Respiration. These are, exercise, cold, and an abundant supply of food. Exercise, besides exhausting th| materials of fat, produces a waste of fibre and tissue, the muscular and nitrogenized parts of the animal system ; and it is obvious from the foregoing principles, that cold requires a correspondincr demand for car- bon and hydrogen to keep up the ^ital warmth. The con- sumption of food to the fullest exten* required for invigorating the frame, creates a desire for activity, and it insensibly indu- ces full respiration. The well-fed, active man, unconsciously draws a full, strong breath ; while the abstemious and the feeble, unwittingly use it d^iintily, as if it were a choice com- 20 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. modity not to be lavrshly expended. If the first be observed when sleep has effectuall}^ arrested volition, the expanded chest will be seen, heaving with the long-drawn, sonorous breath ; while that of the latter will exhibit the gentle repose of the infant on its mother's breast. The difference between the food of the inhabitants of the polar and equatorial regions, is strikingly illustrative of the demands both for breathing and perspiration. The latter are almost destitute of clothing, and subsist on their light, juicy, tropical fruits, which contain scarcely 12 per cent, of carbon, yet furnish all the elements for abundant perspiration ; while the former are imbedded in furs, and devour gallons of train oil or its equivalent of fat, which contains nearly 80 per cent. of carbon, that is burnt up in respiration to maintain a neces- sary warmth. The bear retires to his den in the beofinninof of winter, load- ed with fat, which he has accumulated from the rich, oily mast abounding in the woods in autumn. There he lies for months, snugly coiled and perfectly dormant ; the thickness of his shaggy coat, his dry bed of leaves, and well-protected den, effectually guarding him from cold, which in addition to his want of exercise, draw slightly upon respiration to keep up the vital heat. When the stoi-es of carbon and hydrogen con- tained in the fat are expended, his hunger and cold compel him to leave his winter-quarters, again to wander in pursuit of food. Many of the swallow tribes, in like manner, hybernate in large hollow trees, and for months eke out a torpid, scarcely perceptible existence, independent of food. Activity and full respiration, on the return of spring, demand a support, which is furnished in the myriads of flies they daily consume. The toad and frog have repeatedly been found in a torpid state, imbedded in limestones, sandstones, and the breccias, where they were probably imprisoned for thousands of years without a morsel of food ; yet Avhen exposed to the warmth of the vital air and the stimulus of its oxygen, they have manifested all the activity of their species. This they are enabled to sustain only by an enormous consumption of insects. Dr. Playfair states, that in an experiment made by Lord Ducie, 100 sheep were placed in a shed, and ate 20 pounds of Swedes turnips each per day ; another 100 were placed in the open air, and ate 25 pounds per day; yet the former, which had one -fifth less food, weighed, after a few weeks, three pounds more per head than the latter. He then fed five sli«>;p THE FEEDIXG OF AXIMALS. 21 in the open air, between the 21st November and 1st Decem- ber. They consumed 90 pounds of food per day, the tem- perature being at 44°, and at the end of this time, they weighed two pounds less than when fiist exposed. Five sheep were then placed under a shed, and allowed to run about in a temperature of 49°. At first they consumed 82 pounds per day ; then 70 pomids, and at the end of the time they had gained 23 pounds. Again, five sheep were placed imder a shed as before, and not allowed to take any exercise. They ate at fii'st, 64 pounds of food per day, then 58 pounds, and increased in weight 30 pounds. Lastly, five sheep were kept quiet and covered, and in the dark. They ate 85 pounds per day, and increased eight pounds. Mr. Childers states, that 80 Leicester sheep in the open field, consumed 50 baskets of cut turnips per day, besides oil- cake. On putting them in a shed, they were immediately able to consume only 30 baskets, and soon after but 25, being only half the quantity required before, and yet they fattened as rapidly as when eating the largest quantity. The minimum of food, then, required for the support of animals, is attained when closely confined in a warm, dark shelter ; and the maxi- mum, when running at large, exposed to all weathers. THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS. This should be regulated by a variety of considerations. The young which may be destined for maturity, should be supphed with milk from the dam until weaning-time. No food can be substituted for the well-filled udder of the parent, which is so safe, healthful, and nutritious. If from any cause there is deficiency or total privation, it must be made up by that kind of food, meal-gruel, &c., which, in its composition, approaches nearest in equality to the milk. At a more ad- vanced acre, or the time for weanino- o-rass, hav, roots, or grain, may be substituted, in quantities sufficient to maintain a steady but not a forced growth. Stuffing can only be tolerated in an- imals which are speedily destined for the slaughter. Alter- nately impro\'ing and falling back, is mjmious to all stock. An animal should never he fat hut once. Especially is high feeding bad for breeding animals. Much as starving is to be deprecated, the prejudicial effects of repletion are still greater. The calf or lamb intended for the butcher, may be pushed for- ward with all possible rapidity. Horses or colts shoidd nevei exceed a good working or breeding condition. i'-i DOMESTIC ANIMALS. Purposes fulfilled by different Rinds of Food. The objects designed to be answered by food, ivo to a cer- tain extent the same. All food is intended to meet the de- mands of respiration and nutrition, and fattening to a greater or less degree. But some are better suited to one object than others, and it is for the intelligent farmer to select such as will most effectually accomplish his particular purposes. The very young animal requires large quantities of the phos- phate of lime for the formation of bone ; and this is yielded in the milk in larger proportions than from any other food. The growing animal wants bone, muscle, and a certain amount of fat, and these are procured from the grasses, roots, and grain ; from the former when fed alone, and from the two latter when mixed with hay or grass. Horses, cattle, and sheep need hay to qualify the too wa- tery nature of the roots, and the too condensed nutritiveness of the grain. Animals that are preparing for the shambles, require vegetable oils or fat, starch, sugar, or gum. The first is contained in great abundance in flax and cotton-seed, the sun-flower, and many other of the mucilaginous seeds. Indian corn is the most fattening grain. The potato contains the greatest proportion of starch, and the sugar-beet has large quantities of sugar, and both consequently are good for stall- feeding. The ripe sugar-cane is perhaps the most fattening of v'eg{;tables, if we except the oily seeds and grain. The Swedes turnip is a good food to commence with fattening cattle and sheep ; but where great ripeness in animals is desired, they should be followed with beets, carrots or potatoes, and grain. The table of the average composition of the different crops, which we subjoin fiom Johnston, shows the comparative qual- ities of various kinds of food, and it will be found a valuable reference for their nutritive and fattening qualities. He says, " In d^a^ving up this table, I have adopted the proportions of gluten, for the most part, from Boussingault. Some of them, however, appear to be very doubtful. The proporticms of fatty matter are also very uncertain. Yv'ith a few exceptions, those above given have been taken from Sprengel, and they are, in general, stated considerably too low. It is an interesting fact, that the proportion of fatty matter in and immediately under the husk of the grains of corn, is generally much greater than in the substance of the corn itself. Thus I have found the pollard of wheat to yield more than twice as much oil as the UF DIFFERENT KIA'IS OF FOOD. 23 fine flour obtained from the same sample of grain. The four portions separated by the miller from a superior sample of wheat ofiown in the neio-hborhood of Durham, o-ave of oil re- spectivelj : fine flour, 1-5 per cent. ; pollard, 2*4 ; boxings, do ; and bran, 3 '3 per cent. Dumas states that the husk of oats sometimes yields as much as five or six per cent, of oil." The columns under starch, (fee, and fatty matter, denote the valuu for respiration or sustaining life, and the fattening qualities ; that under gluten, the capacity for yielding muscle and sup- porting labor ; and saline matter indicates something of the proportions which are capable of being converted into bones. Hnsk or Starch. Gluten, al- Water. uoodv gum, and bumen, le- Fatty Saline fibre: sugar. gumen, &.c. matter. matter Wheat, . . . 16 15 55 10 to 15 2 to 4 J. 2-0 Barley, . . . 15 15 60 12? 2-5 J. 2-0 Oats,' . . . . 16 20 50 14-5? 5-6 J. 3-5 Rye, . . . . 12 10 60 14-5 30 1-0 Indian corn- . 14 15? 50 120 5 to9 D 1-5 Buckwheat, . 16? 25? 50 14-5 0-4? 1-5 Beans, . 16 10 40 28-0 2 + 30 Peas, . . . . 13 8 50 24-0 2-8? 2-8 Potatoes, . . 75? 5? 12? 2-25 0-3 0-8 to 1 rurnips, . . . 85 3 10 1-2 ? 0-8 to 1 (>arrots, . . . 85 3 10 20 0-4 1-0 Meadow hay, . 14 30 40 7-1 2 to 5 D. 5 to 10 Clover hay. . 14 25 40 93 30 9 Pea straw, . 10 to 15 25 45 12-3 1-5 5 Oat do. . . 12 45 35 1-3 0-8 6 Vv'heat do. . 12 to 15 50 30 1-3 0-5 5 Barley do. . . do. 50 30 1-3 0-8 5 Rye do. . . do. 45 38 1-3 0-5 3 Indian corn do. 12 25 52 3-0 1-7 4 This table, it will be perceived, is far from settHng the precise relati\-e value of the dift'erent enumerated articles. An absolute, unchanging value can never be assumed of any one substance, as the quahty of each must diff'er with the particular variety, the soil upon which it is grown, the charac- ter 01 the season, the manner of curing, and other circum- stances. An approximate relative value :s all that can be ex- pected, and this we may hope ere long to obtain, from the spirit of analytical research, which is now developed and ic successful progress. More especially do we need these inves- tigations with American 'prodiicU, some of which are but par- tially cultivated m Europe, whence we derive most of oui analyses. And many vfhich are there reared, differ widely 24: DOMESTIC ANIMALS. from those produced here, as these also differ from each other. What, for instance, is the character of meadow hay ?■ We know that this varies as four to one, according to the particular kinds grown ; and our Indian corn has certainl}'- a less range than from five to nine. The Changes in the Food of Animals. Potatoes, when first ripe, are estimated to be worth, for feeding purposes, nearly twice as much as when old ; and the relative value of the different kinds, varies greatly at the same age and under similar conditions of growth. Perrault ascertained by careful experiment, that hay, clover, and luceine lost much of their nutritive qualities by drying, and m luceine this loss amounted to about thirty-five per cent. This is an important consideration in the feeding of green and dry forage. Oats are among the best feed, both for young and working animals ; but it has been found that they are greatly improved for the latter, and perhaps for both, by allowing the new crop to remain till the latter part of winter, before feeding. The improvement by steaming and cooking food, is seldom sufficiently appreciated. Food properly managed, can never be made worse by cooking for any stock ; although it has not been considered so essential for working, and generally, for ruminating animals, as for swine, and such as w^ere stall- feeding. But the alteration produced in cooking, by fitting it for a m.ore ready assimilation, must, as a genei'al rule, add much to the value of the food, and the rapid improvement of the animal. The effect of slight fermentation, or souring the food, pro- duces the same result. Animals accustomed to tliis acid food, will reject what is unprepared when they can get at the former ; and we have no doubt, from our own experience, that there is a saving in thus preparing it, from 20 to 40 per cent. A mixture of food should be supplied to all animals. Like man, they tire of any constant aliment. For such, especially, as are fattening, and which it is desirable to mature with the greatest rapidity, a careful indulgence of their appetite should be studied. They should be provided with whatever they most crave, if it be adapted to the secretion of fat. Cutting, crushing, and grinding the food ; cooking, souring, and mix- ms\ it, are each by themselves an improvement for feeding ; THE PROFIT OF FEEDING. 25 and frequently two or more of tliese prepaiations combined, are of great utility in effecting the object proposed. The Profit of Feeding. It is e^ddent, that this consists in a valuable return from the animal of the food consumed. In the horse, this can only be received in labor or breeding ; in the ox, from labor and flesh ; in the cow, from the milk, the flesh, and her young. In the sheep, it may be returned in its fleece, its carcass, or its progeny ; and in the swine only by its progeny and flesh. The manure we expect from all ; and if this be not secui'ed and judiciously used, few animals about the farm will be fomid to yield a satisfactory profit for their food and attention ; though it is evident, it should form but a small part of the return looked for. Animals are only profitable to the farmer, when they yield a daily income, as in their milk or labor ; or annuall}^, by their young or fleece ; unless it be in a course of regular improve- ment, either in their ordinary growth or preparation for the butcher. The anunal must consume a certain amount of food merely to keep up its stationary condition, and to supply the materials for waste, respiration, perspiration, and the evacu- ations. These must first be pro^^ded for in all cases, before the farmer can expect any thing for the food. Frequent observation has shown, that an ox will consume about two per cent, of his weight of hay per day, to maintain his condition. If put to moderate labor, an increase of this quantity to three per cent., will enable him to perform his work, and still maintain his flesh. If to be fattened, he re- qidres about 4^- per cent, of his weight daily, in nutritious food. A cow to remain stationary and give no milk, eats two per cent, of her weight daily ; and if in milk, she will consmne three per cent. If these statements are correct, which it is certain they are in principle, though they may not be entirely in degree, it will require the same food to keep three yoke of cattle in idleness, as two at vrork ; and the food of every two that are idle, will nearly support one under the most rapid condition of fatting. Two cows may be kept in milk, with the same feed that will keep three without. No practice is more impohtic, than barely to sustain the stock through the winter, or a part of the year, as is the case in too many instances, and allow them to improve only when turned on grass in summer. Besides subjecting them to the 3 26 DOMESTIC AXIMALS. risk of disease, consequent upon tlieii* privation )f food, nearly half tlie year is lost in their use, or in maturing them for prof- itable disposal ; when if one-thhd of the stock had been sold, the remainder would have been kept in a rapidly improving con- dition, and at three years of age, they would probably be of equal value, as otherwise at five or six. It is true that breed has much to do with this rapid advancement, but breed is useless without food to develop and mature it. CHAPTER II. NEAT OR HORNED CATTLE. The value of our neat cattle exceeds that of any other of the domestic animals in the United States. They are as widely disseminated, and more generally useful. Like sheep and all our domestic bnites, they have been so long and so enthely subject to the control of man, that their original type is un- known. They have been allowed entire freedom from all hu- man dii-ection or restraint for hmidreds of years, on the boimd- less pampas of South America, California, and elsewhere; but when permitted to resume that natural condition, by which both plants and animals approximate to the character of their original head, they have scarcely deviated in any respect, from the domestic herds from which they are descended. From tliis it may be inferred, that our present races do not differ, in any of then* essential featui^es and characteristics, from the original stock. Various Domestic Breeds. Cultivation, feed, and climate, have much to do in deter- mining the form, size, and character of cattle. In Lithuania, cattle attam an immense size, with but moderate pretensions to general excellence, while the Irish KeiTy and Scotch Grampian cows but httle exceed the largest sheep ; yet the last are compact and well-made, and yield a good return for the food consumed. Every country, and almost every district, has its peculiar breeds, which by long association have become adapted to the food and circumstances of its position, and TAx-VA JATTLE. 27 when found profitable, they should be exchanged for others, only after the most thorough trial of superior Stness for the particular location, in those proposed to be introduced. More attention has b«en paid to the improvement of the va- rious breeds of cattle in England, than in any other country; and it is there they have attained the greatest perfection ii> form and character for the various purposes to which they are devoted. We have dei'ived, directly from Great Britain, not only the parent stock from which nearly all oiu- cattle are de- scended, but also most of those fresh importations, to which we have looked for improvement on the present race of animals. A few choice Dutch cattle, generally black and white, and of large size, good forms, and good milkers, with a decided tendency to fatten, have been occasionally mtroduced among us, but not in numbers sufficient to keep up a distinct breed ; and in the hands of their importers, or immediate successors, their peculiar characteristics have soon become merged in those herds by which they were smTOunded. Some few French and Spanish cattle, the descendants of those remote importations, made when the colonies of those kingdoms held possession of our northern, western, and southern frontiers, still exist in those sections ; and although possessing no claims to particular superiority, at least in any that have come within our notice, yet they are so well acclimated, and adapted to their various localities, as to render it inexpedient to attempt supplanting them, except with such as are particularly meri' torious. Native Cattle. This is a favorite term with Americans, and comprehends every thing in the country, excepting such as are of a pure and distinct breed. It embraces some of the best, some of the worst, and some of almost every variety, shape, color, and character of the bo%'ine race. The designation has no farther meaning, than that they are indigenous to the soil, and do not belong to any well-defined or distinct variety. The best native cattle of the Union are undoubtedly to be found in the Xortheastern states. Most of the early emigrant cattle in that section were from the southern part of England, where the Devon cattle abound ; and though not at the pres- ent time bearing a close resemblance to that breed, imless it has been impressed upon them by more recent importations, yet a large number have that general approximation in char- acter, features, and color, which entitles them to claim a neai 28 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. kindred "^dth one of the choicest cultivated breeds. They have the same symmetry, but not in general the excessive delicacy ®f form, which characterizes the Devons ; the same intelh- gence, acti\dty, and \igor in the worbftig cattle, and the same tendency to fatten'ng ; but they are usually better for the dairy than their imported ancestors. Some valuable intermixtures have occasionally been made among them. Among these, there have been many brindled cattle widely disseminated, of great merit as workers, and not often surpassed for the dairy and shambles. The Herefords have in a few mstances been introduced amon^ the eastern cattle, and apparently with great improvement. The importation made by Admiral Coffin, of four choice Here- ford bulls and cows, which were presented to the State Agri- cultural Society of jSIassachusetts, nearly thirty years since, is especially to be mentioned, as resulting in decided benefit wherever they were disseminated. Some of the old Yorkshire, or as they are sometimes styled, the long-horned Durhams, have been introduced, though these have been isolated indi- viduals and never perpetuated as a separate breed. A few small importations have been made of the Short Horns and Ayrshires, but neither of these have been bred in the New England states in distmct herds, to any extent. Their native breed has hitherto, and generally with good reason, possessed claims on the attexition of their owners, which, with some shght exceptions, it has not been in the power of any rivals to supplant, ^yith entire adaptedness to the soil, climate, and wants of the farmer, an originally good stock has, in frequent instances, been carefully fostered, and the breeding animals selected with a strict reference to their fitness for perpetuating the most desirable quahties. As a consequence of this intelligent and persevering policy, widely, but not universally pursued, they have a race of cattle, though possessing considerable diversity of size and color, yet coinci- ding in a remarkable degree in the possession of those utilita- rian features, which so justly commend them to our admiration. In proceeding southwestwardly through New York, New Jersey, and elsewhere, we shall find in this branch of stock, a greater diversity and less uniform excellence ; though they have extensive numbers of valuable animals. Here and there will be found a choice collection of some favorite foreign breed, which emigrants have brought from their native home, as did the Pagan colonists then' penates or household goJ^; the cherished associates of early days, and the only relics oi "heir THE DEVON. 29 father-land. Such are an occasional small herd of polled or hornless cattle, origmally derived from Siiffolk or Galloway, excellent both for the dairy and shan^bles ; the Kyloe, or West Highland, (Scottish,) a hardy animal, imrivalled for beef ; the Welsh runt; the Irish cattle; the crumpled-horn Alderney, and some others. The Devon Is among the o.dest distinctly cultivated breeds in this country, as it undoubtedly is of England, and probably it is the most universal favorite. This popularity is well deserved, and it is based upon several substantial considerations. They are beautifully foiTaed, possessing excessive fineness and syoi' metry of frame, yet with sufficient bone and muscle to render them perfectly hardy ; and they are among the most ^-igorou3 and active of working cattle. They have great uniformity of appearance in every feature, size, shape, horns, and color. The cows and bulls appear small, but the ox is much larger ; and both he and the dam, on cutting up, are found to weigh much beyond the estimates which an eye accustomed only to ordi- nary breeds, would have assigned to them. The flesh is finely marbled or interspersed with alternate fat and lean, and is of superior quahty and flavor. The cows invariably yield milk of great richness, and when appropriately bred, none surpass them for the quantity of butter and cheese it yields. Mr. Bloomfield, the manager of the late Lord Leicester's estate at Holkham, has, by careful attention, somewhat increased the size, -^^thout impairing the beauty of their form, and so successful has he been in de- veloping their milking properties, that his average product of butter from each cow, is 4 lbs. per week for the whole year. He has challenged England to milk an equal nimiber of cows of any breed, against 40 piu-e Devons, to be selected out ot his own herd, without as yet ha^-ing found a competitor. Al- though this is not a test of their merits, and by no means decides their superiority, yet it shows the great confidence reposed in them by their owner. The Devon ox, under six years old, has come up to a nett dead weight of 1,593 lbs. ; and at three years and seven months, to 1,316 lbs., with 160 ibs, of rough tallow. Description. The Devon is of medium size, and so sym- metrical, as to appear smd.l. Tlie color is invariably a deep mahogany red, with usually a white udder and strip under the 3* 30 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. belly ; and the tuft at tlie end of the tail is red while they are calves, but white in the oldei- animal. The head is small, broad in the forehead, and som^hat indented. The muzzle is d<3hcate, and both the nose and the rings around the eye, in the pure breed, are invariably of a bright, clear orange. The cheeks and face are thin and fleshless ; the horns clear, smooth, and of a yellowish white, handsomely curved upward. The neck is small and dehcate at its junct.on viith the head, but is well expanded in its attachment to the breast and shoulders. The last has the true slant for activity and strength, in which it excels all other breeds of equal weight. The barrel is round and deep, with a projecting brisket. The back is broad and level ; the flank full ; hips wide ; the rmnps long ; the quar- ters well developed, and capable of holding a great quantity of the most valuable meat. The tail is on a level with the back, and gracefully tapers hke a drum-stick, to the tuft on the end. The legs are of peculiar dehcacy and fineness, yet possess great strength. The skin is of medium thickness, of a rich orange hue, phable to the touch, and covered with a thick coating of fine, soft, curly hair. The Devon is intelligent, gentle, and tractable ; is good for milk, and unsui-passed for the yoke and for fattening. 'No animal is better suited to our scanty or luxrariant hill pastures than the Devon, and none make a better return for the attention and food received. They ensure a rapid improvement when mLxed with other cattle, imparting their color and characteristics in an eminent degree. Several importations have been made into this countiy witliin the last 30 years, of the choicest animals, and though not yet numerous in the United States, we possess some of the best specimens that exist. The Short Horns, or Durhams. Are deci(kdly the most showy among the cattle species. They are of all colors between a full, deep red, and a pure creamy white ; but generally have both intermixed in larger or smaller patches, or intimately blended in a beautiful roan. Black, brown, or brindled, are colors not recogriised among pm-e-bred Short Horns. Their fonn is well-spread, symmetri- cal, and imposing, and capable of sustaining a large weight of valuable carcass. The horn was originally branching and tm-ned upward, but now frequently has a downward tendency, with the tips pointing towards each other. They are fight, and comparatively shor#^, clear, highly pofished, and waxy. THE SHOKT H0RX5, OR DURHAM5. 31 The head is finely formed, -with a longer face but not so fine a muzzle as the Devon. The neck is delicately formed without dewlap, the brisket projectinoj; and the orreat depth and width :^;', '^ ■^.m\ w A Short-Horn Bull. SQ^ ^ of the chest giving short, well-spread fore-legs. The crops are good ; back and loin broad aMd flar. * ribs projecting ; 32 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. deep flank and twist ; tail well set up, strong at the roots and tapering. They have a thick covering of soft hair, and are mellow to the touch, technically termed, handling well. They mature early and rapidly for the quantity of food consumed, yielding largely of good beef with little offal. As a breed, they are excellent milkers ; though some families of the Short Horns surpass others in this quality. They are inferior to the Devons, in their value as working oxen, and in the riclmess of their milk. The Short Horns are assigned a high antiquit}^ by the oldest breeders in the counties of Dui-ham and Yorkshire, England, the place of their origin, and for a long time, of their almost exclusive breeding. From the marked and de- cided improvement which they stamp upon other animals, they are e\idently an ancient breed, though much the juniors of the Devon and Hereford. Their highly artificial style, form, and character, are unquestionably the work of deeply studied and long-continued art ; and to the same degree that they have been moulded in unresisting compliance w^ith the dictation of their intelligent breeders, have they departed ftom that light and more agile form of the Devon, which con- clusively and beyond the possibility of contradiction, marks the more primitive race. TliE IxAlPORTATION OF SHORT HORNS INTO THIS COUNTRY. This is claimed to have been previous to 1783. They are ,he reputed ancestors of many choice animals existing in Vir- ginia, in the latter part of the last centuiy, and Tsdiich w^ere known as the milk breed ; and some of these, with others termed the heef breed, were taken into Kentucky by Mr. Pat- ton, as early as I'ZQY, and their descendants, a valuable race of animals, were much disseminated in the West, and known as the Paiion stock. The first authentic importations we have recorded, are those of Mr. Heaton, into Westchester, N. Y., in 1791 and '96, from the valuable herds of Messrs. CuUey and Colling, w^hich consisted of several choice bulls and cows. These were fcr many years bred pure, and their progeny was v,'idely scattered. {American Herd Book.) They were also impo:;ted into "New York, by Mr. Cox, in 1816 ; by Mr. Bullock, in 1822 ; by the late Hm. S. Van Rensselaer in 1823 ; and in^ THE IMPORTATION OF SHOUT HORNS. 33 mediately after, by Mr. Charles Henry Hall, of Harlem. Some small importations were made into Massacliiisetts be- tween 1817 and '25, by several enterprising agricuitm-ists, Messrs. Coolidge, Williams, and others ; into Connecticut by Fig 2. ■cf -.<>+. /> TJL^P<^-i'r^^ Short-Horned Cow. Mr. Hall and others; into Pennsylvania by Mr. Powell into Ohio and some other states, by various mdi^-iduals m the present century. ; and earlv 84 DOMESTIC ANIMA18. Since tlie firs', importations, larger accessions from tht best English herds have been frequently made ; and with the nice regard for pedigrees which the introduction of the herd book, and careful purity in breeding has produced, the Short Horns have become the most extensive pure-bred family of cattle in the United States. During the speculative times of 1835 to 1840, they brought high prices, frequently from 8500 to 81000, and sometimes more. The following years of financial embarrassment, re- duced their market price below their intrinsic value ; but the tide is again turning, and the}' are now in demand, but still at piices far below their utihty and merits. They have from the first, been favorites in the rich, corn valleys of the West, their early maturity and great weight giving them a preference over any other breed. The only drawback to this partiahty, is their inability, from their form and weight, to reach remote eastern markets in good condition ; an objection now in a great measure remedied, by the recent remission of duties on foreign beef in the English market, which makes them of nearly equal value where fed, to pack for exportation. On light lands and scanty pastures, they v\-ill probably never be largely introduced. All hea^y animals require full forage vrithin a limited compass, so as to fill their stomachs at once, and quietly compose themselves to their digestion. The weights reached by the Short Horns in England, as given by Mr. Berry, have been enormous. Two oxen, six years old, weighed nett, 1820 lbs. each. A heifer of three years, and fed on grass and hay alone, v^eighed 1260 lbs. A foiir-year-old steer, fed on hay and turnips only, dressed 1890 lbs. A cow reached the prodigious weight of 1778 lbs. A heifer, running vsrith her dam, and on pasture alone, weighed at seven months, 476 lbs. An ox, seven years old, weighed 2362 lbs. From their comparatively small numbers in this country, most of them have been retained for breeders ; few, as yet, have been fattened, and such only as were decidedly inferior. Such animals as have been extensively produced by crossing this breed upon our former stocks, have given evi- dence of great and decided improvement ; and tlie Short Horns, and their grade descendants are destined, at no dis- tant day, to occupy a large portion of the richest feeding grounds in the United States. herefords. 35 Herefords. This is the only remaining piu-e breed, which has hitherto occupied the attention of graziers in this country. Like the Devons, they are supposed to be one of the most ancient races of British caitle. Marshall gives the following description. " The countenance pleasant, cheerful, open ; the forehead broad ; eye full and lively ; horns bright, taper, and spread- ing ; head small ; chap lean ; neck long and tapering ; chest deep ; bosom broad, and projecting forward ; shoulder-bone thin, flat, no way protuberam m bone (?) but full and mellow in flesh ; chest full ; loin broad ; hips standing wide, and level with the chine ; quarters long, and wide at the neck ; rmiip even with the level of the back, and not drooping, nor stand- ing high and sharp above the quarters ; tail slender and neatly hahed; barrel romid and roomy; the carcass throughout Fiff. 3. Heieford Cow deep and well spread ; ribs broad, standing flat and close on the outer surface, forming a smooth, even barrel, the hind- most large and full of lengtli ; round-bone small, snug, and not prominent ; thigh clean, and regularly tapering ; legs up- right and short ; bone below the knee and hock smalf; feet ^ 3G DOMESTIC A.\IMAL3. i Fig. 4. pfiii -iMi!iyiii(iiii.iiiiii)ijii)liJii HEREFORDS. 37 of middle size ; flank large ; flesh everywhere mellow, soft, and yielding pieasanily to the touch, especially on the chine, the shoulder, and the ribs; hide mellow, supple, of a middle thickness, and loose on the neck and huckle ; coat neatly haired, bright and , silky ; color, a middle red, wiih a bald face characteristic of the true Herefordshire breed." Youatt further describes them as follows : "They are usu- ally of a darker red ; some of them are brown, and even yel- low, and a few are brindled ; but they are principally distin- guished by their white faces, throats, and belhes. In a few the white extends to the shoulders. The old Herefords were brown or red-brown, with not a spot of white about tbf m. It is only within the last fifty or sixty years that it has been the fashion to breed for white faces. Whatever may be thought of the change of color, the present breed is certainly far supe- rior to the old one. The hide is considerably thicker than that of the Devon, and the beasts are more hardy. Compared with the Devons, they are shorter in the leg, and also in the carcass ; uigher, and broader, and heavier in the chine ; rounder and wider across the hips, and better covered with fat ; the thigk fuller and more muscular, and the shoulders larger and coarser. They are not now much used for husbandry, although their form adapts them for the heavier work ; and they have all the honesty and docihty of the Devon c^, and greater strength, ii not his activity. The Herefordshire ox fattens speedily at a very early age, and it is therefore more advantageous to the farmer, and perhaps to the country, that he should go to mar- ket at three years old, than be kept longer as a beast of draught. They are not as good milkers as the Devons. This is so generally acknowledged, that while there are many dairies of Devon cows in various parts of the country, a dairy of Here- fords is rarel}^ to be found. To compensate for this, they are even more kindly feeders than the Devons. Their beef may be objected to by some as being occasionally a httle too large m the bone, and the fore-quarters being coarse and heavy ; but the meat of the best pieces is often very fine-grained and beautifully marbled. There are few cattle more prized in the market than the genuine Herefords." There have been several impoitations of the Herefords into the United States, which by crossing with our native cattle, have done great good ; but with the exception of a few fine animals at the South, we are not aware of their bemg kept in a state of purity, till the importrttion of the splendid herd- '4' 38 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. udtliin the _ast six years, by Messrs. Corning and Sotham of Albany, IST. Y. These Hereford s are among the very best which England can produce, and come up fully to the descrip- tion of the choicest of the breed. Mr. Sotham, after an expe- rience of several years, is satisfied \nt\i the cows for the dauy ; and he has given very favorable published statements of the results of their milking qualities, from which it may be properly inferred, that Youatt drew his estimates from some herds which were quite indiflferent in this property. They are pecu- liarly the grazier's animal, as they improve rapidly and mature early on medium feed. They are excelled for the yoke, if at all, only by the D evens, which, in some features, they strongly resemble. Both are probably divergent branches of the same orio-inal stock. a The Ayrshire Is a breed that has been much sought after of late years, from their reputation for fine dairy qualities. The milk is good both in quantity and quality, yielding, according to a recent statement of Mr. Tennant, of Scotland, who owns a large herd, fifteen quarts per day during the best of the season, twelve of which made a pound of butter. The product of the latter averages about 170 pound* per annum to each cow. Another authority says, on the best low-land pasture, a good cow yields nearly 4000 quarts per year. This is a large quantity, and implies good cow^s and extra feed. Mr. Gushing, of Massachusetts, who imported several select animals, without regard to their cost, informed us, after three or four years' trial, that he did not perceive any superiority in them, over the good native cows of that state, for dany pur- poses. A large number have been imported in detached par- cels, and scattered through the country. They are good ani- mals, but seem to combine no valuable properties in a higher degree than are to be found in our ow^n good cattle, and espe- cially such as are produced from a cross of the Short Horn bull of a good milking family, on our native cows. They are evidently a recent breed, and do not therefore possess that uniformity of appearance and quality, which attaches to one of long cultivation, Mr. Alton, of Scotland, gives the following account of them-; *' The dairy breed of Scotland have been formed chiefly by skilful management, within the last 50 years ; and they are still improving and extending t3 other countries. Till after MANAGEMENT OF CALVES. 39 1*770, the cows in Cunningham were small, ill-fed, ill-shaped, and Q:a're but httle milk. Some cows of a laro-er breed and of a brown and white color, v/ere about that time brought to A} rshire from Teeswater, and from Holland, by some of the Datriotic noblemen of Ayrsliire ; and these being put on good pasture, yielded more milk than the native breed, and their calves were much sought after by the farmers." We may fairly infer from the foregoing, which is deemed indisputable authority ; from the locality of their origin, in the neighborhood of the Short Horns ; and from their general resemblance, both externally and in their general characteris- tics to the grade animals, that they owe their principal excel- lence to this long-established breed. MANAGEMENT OF CALVES. The safest and least troublesome manner of raising calves, is at the udder of the dam ; and whenever the milk is con- verted into butter and cheese, we believe this to be the most economical. The milk of one good cow is sufficient, with a nm of fresh, sweet pasture, to the feeding of two calves at the same time ; and if we allow the calves to arrive at three or four months of age before weaning, we may safel}" estimate, that one good cow will yield a quantity of milk in one season, fully equivalent to bringing up four calves to a weaning age. By keeping the calf on the fresh milk, whether he take it directly from the udder, or warm from the pail, all risk of dis- ordered bowels is avoided. The milk is precisely adapted to the perfect health and thrift of the young, and whenever we substitute for it any other food, we must watch carefully that not the slightest mismanagement produces disorder, lest more is lost by disease or Avant of improvement, than is gained by the milk of which they are robbed. The first milk of the cow after cah-ing, is shghtly purgative, which is essential to cleanse the stomach of the calf. It is, moreover, perfectly Avorthless for two or three days, for any other purpose except for swine. The calf will seldom take all the milk at first, and whatever is left in the bag should be thoroughly removed by the hand. If the calf is destined for the butcher, he must have all the milk he Avants for at least six weeks, and eight or ten is better ; and if the cow does not furnish enough, he ought to be fed gruel or linseed tea. He must be closely confined in a snug, but clean and airy stable. 10 DO.Vt^'^TIC ANIMALS. and the darker tliis is, and tlie more quiet he iS kept, the more readily he will fatten. If designed to be reared, the safest and least troublesome method, is to keep the calf on new milk. If saving the milk be an object, it is still doubtful whether it is not better that he should have a part of it fresh from the cow, and depend for his remaining food on a good grass or clover pasture, meal, or roots. Some farmers never allow the calf to approach the dam, but take it when first dropped, and put a handful of salt in its mouth, which is daily repeated till he is put to grass. This has a purgative effect, similar to the first milk. Flaxseed is then prepared, by boiling a pint in four to six quarts of water, and diluted with hay tea till it is rather thicker than milk, and fed at blo-'1 heat. Hay tea is made, by boiling a pound of sweet, well-cured clover, in one and a half gallons of clean water. As the calf becomes older, oat, bailey, rye, or Inditui meal may be scalded and added to the flaxseed. When the skim-milk is of little consequence, a better way is to withdraw him from the cow after thi-ee or four days, then scald the milk, adding a little oat meal, and cool to the natural temperature of the milk, and feed it. Oats, either crushed or ground, is the best and safest grain for all young stock. The milk should not stand more than half a day be- fore feeding to young calves. As they advance in age, it may be fed rather older, but should never be allowed to become sour ; nor should it ever be fed cold. Connected with this feed, should be a good range of short, sweet pasture^ and shelter against both sun and storms. If expedient, at about 10 weeks old, he may be safely weaned, but four montlis' nursing is better for the calf. If allowed too much milk for several months, it is injurious to the future development of the young. It does not distend the stomach properly, nor call into use its ruminating habits. Calves thus brought up, have often proved light-belhed, in- dJiferent feeders, and decidedly inferior animals. When the calf is removed from the cow, they should be effectually sep- arated from sio-ht and hearinsc, as recoo'nition creates uneasi- ncss, and is an impediment to thrift in both. If there be any deficiency of suitable pasture for the calf, a small rack and trough should be placed under the shed in Iiis range, and fine hay put in the former, and wheat bran or oat meal witli a httle salt in the latter. BEEEDIXG. 41 Diseases and Remedies. For disordered loweJs, mix 2 dr. rhubarb, 2 oz. castor oil, jind \ dr. ginger, with a httle warm milk or gruel ; or give 2 oz. castor oil alone ; or 3 oz. of Epsom salts. For scours and diarrhoea, a homely remedy is, to administer half a pint of cider, with an equal quantity of blood drawn from the calf's neck. Or, add a httle rennet to its food. A good remedy is, 1 oz. powdei-ed canella bark ; 1 oz. laud- anum ; 4 oz. prepared chalk ; and one pint water. Mix to- gether, and give a wine-glass full or more, according to the size of the calf, three times a day. Costiveness is removed by giving pork broth. Or, give 3 to 4 oz. Epsom salts, dissolved in 3 pints of wa- ter, injected into the stomach; and repeat part of this dose every 3 or 4 hours, till the desired effect is produced. Calves, like all young stock, should be allowed to change their feed graduallv, from new milk to skimmed, or from the latter to other food. Their stomachs are delicate, and need gentle, moderate changes, when necessary to make them at all. Much depends on the care and attention they receive. It is well to have a little resin ^vithin its reach. A comfortable shelter, with a dry, warm bed, suitable food, regularly given three times a day, at blood heat, and keeping the stomach in proper order, will do much to bring them for- ward rapidly, and with a small expenditure of food. The calf requires to be supplied through the winter with an abimdance of fine, sweet hay and roots, the latter either chop- ped or mashed by a roller, with the addition of a trifle of meal or oats, and a full supply of salt and pure water. "When there are larger animals on the premises, the calves ought to be kept by themselves. They should be sustained on their winter feed through the following spring, until the grass furnishes a good bite on a well-compacted sod. The change fi'om hay to grass must be gradual, unless the latter ia considerably matured. The extreme relaxation of the bowels from the sudden change, frequently produces excessive pm-g- ing. A shght and temporary relax from the early spring gi-ass, is not objectionable. Breeding. The young animals should never be put to breeding under 16 months old, so as to bring their first calf at two years old • 4* i'4. DOMESTIC ANIMALS. aor then, unless they have large size and good feed. • Much depends on the progress towards maturity, and the supply of food in selecting the proper time for breeding. Some are as ready for this at a year and a half as others are at three. Early breeding gives delicacy and symmetry to the form of the lieifer, but it checks its growth ; and when it is found to put her back too much, she m-ay be allowed to rest for a ievf months, or even a year, to biing her up to the desired stand- ard. These remarks apply principally to choice breeders, or as they are sometimes termed, fancy stock. For ordinary milch cows which have been moderately fed, three years is a proper age to come in, after wliich they must be milked as regularly, and as late before drying as possible. Breaking Steers Should be commenced when two or three years old. Some beoin with the calf, accustomino- him to a hg-ht yoke and occa- sional training. This practice will do as a pastime for tnist- wortliy boys, as it makes them gentle and manageable after- wards, but is hardly worth a man's time. If always carefully handled when young, they will be found tractable. They should at first be placed behind a pair of well-broke cattle, nor should they be put to hard labor imtil quite grown, strong, and perfectly accustomed to the yoke. If properly managed, cattle may be trained with all the docility, intelH- gence, and much of the activity of the horse. That they are not, is more frequently the fault of their masters. Management of Oxen. To procure perfect working cattle, it is necessary to begin with the proper breed. Many parts of the country furnish such as are well suited to this purpose. A strong dash of Devon or Hereford blood is desirable, when it needs to be im- proved. A well-formed, compact, muscular body ; clean, sinewy limbs ; strong, dense bones ; large, well-formed joints, with a mild expressive eye, are essential for good working oxen. After breaking, they must be led along gently, and taught before they are required to perform their task ; and never put to a load which they cannot readily move, nor dulled by pro- longing exertion beyond that period when it becomes irksome. A generous diet is necessary, to keep up the spirit and ability of cattle, Avhen there is hard work to be done. The horse and mule ard fed with their daily rations of grain when at hard MANAGEMENT OF OXEN 43 service, and if the spirit of the ox is to be maintained, he should be equally well fed, when as fully employed. Great and permanent injury is the result of niggardly feeding and severe toil, exacted from the uncomplaining animal. His stnmgth declines, his spirit flags, and if this treatment be con- tinued, he rapidly becomes the stupid., moping brate, which is shown off in degrading contrast with the more spiiited horse, that performs, it may be, one half the labor, on twice his rations. The ox should be as little abused by threats and whipping, as by stinted feed and overtasked labor. Loud and repeated hallooing, or the severe use of the lash, is as impolitic as it is ciTiel and disgraceful. We never witness this barbarity with- out Avishing the brutes could change places, long enough at least to teach the biped that humanity by his own sufferings which his reason and sensibility have failed to inspire. Clear and intelligible, yet low and gentle words are all that are ne- cessary to guide the well-trained, spirited ox. The stick, or whip, is needed rather to indicate the precise movement de- sired, than as a stimidant or means of punishment. The ox understands a moderate tone more perfectly than a boisterous one, for all sounds become indistinct as they increase. It is of great advantage to have oxen well trained to hacking. They may soon be taught, by beginning with an empty cart on a descent ; then on a level ; then with an increasing load, or uphill, till the cattle ^t.11 back nearly the same load they will draw. Some oxen have a bad trick of hauling or crowding. Chang- ing to opposite sides, longer or shorter yokes, and more than all, gentle treatment, are the only remedies, and those not unfrequently fail. Cattle will seldom contract this habit, in the hands of a judicious, careful driver. The yokes should be carefully made, and set easy, and the bows fitted to the necks and properly attached to the yoke. Cattle are liable to sore necks if used in a storm ; and when subject to this exposure, they must be well rubbed with grease, where the yoke chafes them, and respite from work should be allowed till the necks heal. 44 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. Manasement of Bulls or Yicioiis Animals. Fig. 5. If inclined to be \icious, the bulls slioula have rings thnist through the cartilage of ^ their nose when young. They are to be found at the agricultural warehouses ; and are made of round iron, three-eighths of an inch diameter, with a joint in one side to open, and when thrust through the nose, are fastened in a moment, by a rivet previously p^-epared. Fig. 5 is a cattle-handler, consisting of a bar of iron A, eight inches long, with a ring for a man's hand, which turns on a swivel at B, and at the other end is a pair of calhper- shaped legs, one stationary, and the other opening on a ioint. The fixed leg is inserted against one side of the nostril, and the other is pressed upon the opposite side, and there fastened by a slide, C, when the animal is firmly held for administering medicine or performing Cattle-Handler, any operation. Fig. 6. Fig. 7. For taming savage Animals. Figs. 6 and 7, for taming a hull ; b, in Fig. 6, is a cap screwed on to the tip of the horn ; a c, an iron rod hanging on a pivot in the cap, with a chain reaching to the ring ia FATTENING CATTLE. 45 the nose. The effect of liis attempting to h')ok, i-s illustrated by the various positions of the chain in Fi Fig. 7. If the rod at a, is pushed in either direction, it jerks up the nose in a manner that cures him of his inclination. Fiof. 8, shows a caitle-tie. — This is a much more convenient and comfort- able mode of fastening cattle in the stable, than the common stanchions. Cattfe^ri TIi8 proper time for turning off Cattle. This must depend on their previous feeding and manage- ment, the bi-eed, and the purposes required. The improved breeds and many of their crosses, will mature for the butcher as fully at tTh'ee or four, as inferior cattle at five to seven years old. If pushed rapidly with proper food, they will of course be rq^e much sooner than if stinted. When cattle have to be purchased for Avork, or cows for the dairy, it be- comes an object to keep them as long as they can be made profitable, and yet be turned oflf for fattening at a fair price. We have seen active and spirited oxen in the yoke at 16 or 17; but they seldom do as well after 12 or even 10 years. Old cattle are liable to more diseases than young ; are less hardy ; and they recover more slowly when exposed to scanty feed or hard usage. They also fatten with more difficulty, and their meat is inferior. "Wlien they can be sold ad- vantageously to the feeder, and replaced without incon- venience, it is found to be most profitable to turn them off at seven or eight years. They will by that time have at- tained full maturity ; they will feed rapidly, and make the largest amount of good beef. If there are extraordinary milkers among the cows, or superior workers among the oxen, it is better to keep them as long as they maintain *"heir full vigor. Fattening Cattle. Such as are designed for the shambles the. ensuing fall or winter, may be allowed to do their spring's labor ; or if cows, they may be milked into summer after cahing, or go farrow during the previous year. They should early be put on the best summer feed, and it is better to be occasionally changed, to give variety and freshness, and keep the animal in good 46 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. appetite. Let the fattening animals have the best, and after they have cropped it a while, give them a fresh field ; and the other animals or sheep can follow and clear off the re- maining herbage, preparatory to shutting it up for a new growth. Some prefer an extensive range of rich feed, which is unchanged throughout the season ; and when it is not neces- sary to divide the pasture with the other animals, this is 8 good practice. Fig. 9. Fig. 10. FW. 11. Three cuts of improved forms, Nos. 9, 10, and 11. The above cuts illustrate the forms Avhlch the most improved beef- cattle should possess. Tlie selection of Animals for Stall Fattening. This is a nice point, and none without a practised eye and touch, can choose such as will make the best return for the food consumed. The characteristics of choice animals, here tofore enumerated, are particularly essential in those intendec for profitable fattening. But the most import mt of all, is that firm mellowness, and quick elasticity of touch, which un- erringly mark the kindly feeder and profitable bullock. When other means for ascertaining fail, it is & safe rule to select the best-conditioned animals, out of a herd of grass- STALL-FEEDING. 47 fed ; for if all were of equal flesh and Lealtli, when turned out, those wliich have thriven most on their summer pasture, will generally fatten quickest on thek fall and winter keep. Only the best should be selected. The remainder, after con- suming the coarser forage, may be at once disposed of for early use. From repeated trials, it is found that the carcass of stall-fed animals will barely retm-n the value of the ma- terials consumed, and their manure is generally the only com- pensation for the time and attention bestowed. IS'one but choice, thrifty beasts will pay for their food and attention, and all others will make their best returns, by an immediate disposal, after the surplus fodder is gone. Fig. 12. Points of Cattle Illustrated. Explanation.— A, forehead ; B, face ; C. cheek ; D, muzzle ; E, neck ; F, neck vein ; G, shoulder point ; H, arm ; I. shank ; J, gambril. or hock ; K, elbow ; L, brisket, bosom, or breast ; M, shoulder ; N, crops : O, loin ; P, hip, bucks, hocks, or buckles ; Q, crupper bone, or sacrum ; R. rump, or pin-bone ; S, round bone, thurl, or whirl : T, buttock ; U, thigh, or gaskit ; Y, flank ; Wj plates ; X, back, or chine ; Y, throat ; Z, chest. Stall-Feeding. This ought to be commenced early in the season. An ox may be fed in a box-stall, or if accustomed to a mate, they do better by tying together with sufficient room, yet not so near as to allow of injuring each other. Tlic building should be warm, but not hot ; well ventilated, yet having no current of 48 DOMESTIC AJn.MALS. cold air passing throiigli ; and as dark as possible. The stall ought to be kept clean and dry, and a deep bed of clean straw is of decided advantage. The ox should be first fed the inferior and most peri-shable roots with his grain and dry forage, and his food should be gradually increased in richness, as he advances towards ma- turity. The food and water should be given three times a day, from thoroughly cleaned mangers or troughs. The animal likes a chanore of food, in which he should be induced as often as may be necessary. If he refuses his food, a temporary privation, or variety is essential. When the food is changed, he should be moderately fed at first, till he becomes accustomed to it, as there is otherwise danger of cloying, which is always injurious. The moment the animal has done feeding, the remainder of the food ought to be at once removed. He then lies down, and if undisturbed, rests quietly till the proper hour induces him again to look for his accustomed rations. Regu- ;arity in the time of feeding, is of the utmost consequence. An animal soon becomes habituated to a certain hour, and if It be delayed beyond this, he is restless and impatient, which are serious obstacles to speedy fattening. Fig. 13. Ox cut up. Fig. 13— Shows the London method of cutting up the carcass— Fig. 1, is the loin ■ S, rump ; 3, aitch or adz-bone ; 4, buttock ; 5, hock ; 6, thick flank ; 7, thin flank : 8. fore-rib ; 9, middle rib ; 10, cuck-rib ; 11, brissot; 12, leg of mutton piece : 13, ciod or neck : 14, brisket. SKELETON OF AN OX. 49 Skeleton of an O: 1. Temporal bone. — 2. Frontal bone, or bone of the forehead. — 3. Orbit of the eye. — 4. Lachrj-mal bone. — 5. Malar, or cheek bone. — 6. Upper jawbone. — 7. Nasal bone, or bone of the nose. — 8. Nippers, found on the lower jaw alone.— 9. Eight true rits.— 10. Humerus, or lower bone of the shoulder.— 11. Sternum.— 12. Ulna, its upper part forming the elbow.— 13. Ulna. — 14. Radius, or principal bone of the arm.— 15. Small bones of the knee.— 16. Large metacarpal, or shank bone. — ]7. Bifurcation at the pasterns, and the two larger pasterns to each foot. — 18. Sessamoid bones.— 19. Bifurcation of the pasterns.— 20. Lower jaw and the grinders. — 21. Vertebroe. or bones of the neck. — 22. Navicular bones. — 23. Two-coffin bones to each foot.— 24. Two smaller pasterns to each foot.— 25. Smaller or splint-bone. —26. False ribs, with their cartilages.— 27. Patella, or bone of the knee. — 28. Small bones of the hock. — 29. Metatarsals, or larger bones of the hind leg. — 30. Pasterns and feet.— 31. Small bones of the hock.— 32. Pointof the hock.— 33. Tibia, or proper leg-bone.— 34. Tliigh-bone.— 35. Bones of the tail.— 36, 37. Haunch and pelvis.— 38. Sacrum.— 39. Bones of the loins. — 40. Bones of the back— 41. Liga mentof the neck and its attachments. — 42. Scapula, or shoulder-blade. — 43. Bones of the back.— 44. Ligament of the neck.— 45. Dentata. — 46. Atlas. — 47. Occipital bone, deeply depressed below the crest or ridge of the head. — 48. Parietal bone, low in the temporal fossa.— 49. Horns, being processes or continuations of the frontal bone. 50 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. DISEASES IN CATTLE. Hoven, or Swelling of the Paunch, Is a temporary ailment, caused by eating too freely of fresh and generally wet clover, or other succulent food. The animal gorges the first stomach with so much food, that its contents cannot be expelled. Inflammation of the membrane takes place, and decomposition of the food soon follows. This is known by the distension of the paunch, and difficulty of breathing, and unless speedily relieved, suffocation and death will ensue. Both sheep and cattle are subject to it. Remedies.* — In its early stages, when not too severe, it has been removed by administering some one of the following remedies. A pint of gin poured down the throat. From one to two pints of lamp or other oil. Strong brine. New milk with one-fifth its bulk of tar mixed. An egg-shell full of tar forced down the throat, followed by a second, if the first fails. A tablespoonful of volatile spirit of ammonia, diluted with water. A wine-glass full of powder, mixed with cold lard and forcea in balls into the stomach. A teaspoonful of unslaked lime dissolved in a pint of warrk water, shaken and given immediately. A pint of tolerably strong lye. The Proper Mode of giving the aboie Remedies Is for a person to hold the horn and cartilage of the nose, while another seizes and draws out the tongue as far as possi- ble, when the medicine is thrust below the root of the tongue. If liquid, it must be inserted by the use of a bottle. The prohang is used when the former remedies are ineffectual. This consists of a taiTed rope, or a flexible whip-stalk, three- fourths of an inch in diameter, with a swab or bulbous end. Two persons hold the head of the animal, so as to keep the mouth in a line with the throat,, while a third forces it into the stomach, when the gas finds a passage out. A stiff leather tube with a lead nozzle pierced with holes, is best for insertion, through which the gas will readily escape. * Besides his own experience, the writer has drawn from the N. E. Farmer, the Albany Cultivator, the American Agriculturist, and other reliable America* MIC English works, some of the remedies for diseases herein mentioned. MODE OF GIVING THE ABOVE REMEDIES. 51 Some one of the above purgatives should be given after the bloat has subsided, and careful feeding for some days must be observed. Light gruels are best for allaying inflammation, and restoiing the tone of the stomach. When no other means are available, the paunch may be tapped with a sharp penknife, plimging it 1^ inches forward of the hip bone, towards the last rib in the left side. If the hole fills up, put in a large goose-quill tube, which to prevent shpping into the wound, may remain attached to the feather, and the air can escape through a large hole in the upper end. Prevention is vastly better than cure, and may be ajwajs secured, by not alloT\-ing hungry cattle to fill themselves with clover, roots, apples, &c. When first put upon such feed, it should be when the dew and rain are off, and their stomachs are already partially filled ; and they should then be with- drawn before they have gorged themselves. Fig. 15. The Stomach Pump. This is a convenient instrument for extracting poisonous sub stances from the stomach. It is also highly useful for ad- ministering medicines and injections, and if fitted with several tubes, one may suffice for animals of any size. It consists of a spinge, a, with a side opening at h, and another at the bot- tom d, as shown in Fig, ] 6. For injections. Fig. 15 is used, and b2 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. the end of the syringe is placed in a vessel containing the fluid, when a probang or injection- tube is screwed on to the side opening at b, through which the fluid is forced into the stomach or rectum, as may be required. The probang should be a tube of thick but elastic leather, and it may be passed into the mouth, through an apertiu^e in a block, placed on edge between the teeth, which is easily done while a person holds the head of the animal firmly. Choking Is frequently relieved by some of the following expedients. The use of the probang or whip-stock, mentioned under the head of remedies for Hoven, by which the root is forced into the stomach. A soft root may be crushed so as to allow of swallowing, by holding a smooth block against it, and striking with a mal- let on the opposite side. If within arms-length, the root may be removed by hand. It is said this can be done, by tying up the fore-leg with a small cord, close to the body, and giving the animal a sudden start with a whip ; or by jerking the fore-leg out forward. Or pour down the throat a pint bottle full of soft soap, mixed with sufficient hot water to make it run freely. Prevention consists in cuttinjr the roots ; not feedino- them when the animals are very hungry, and not disturbing them while eating. Inflammation of the Stomach. This is frequently produced by a sudden change from dry to green food, and some other causes. Epsom salts, castor oil, sulphur, and carbonate of soda, in sufficient quantity to purge freely, are good remedies. It may be prevented by changing the food gradually. Mange, or Scab. This is denoted by the animal rubbing the hah' off' about I'be eyes and other parts. The skin is scaly or scabby, some- times appearing like a large seed-wart. Remedies. — Rub the spots A\ith sulphur and lard, after scra- ping and washing with soap. When the skin is cracked, take sulphur, 1 lb. ; turpentine, \ lb. ; unguentum, (or mercurial ointment,) 2 ounces ; linseed uil, 1 pint. Melt the turpentine and warm the oil, and when HOLLOW HORX JAUXDICE. 53 partly cooled, stir in the siilpliiir ; when cold, add the unguen- tum, mixing all well. Rub this thoroughly with the hand on the parts atfected. We have no doubt this, hke scab in sheep and itch in the human species, will be found, on close investigation, to be caused by minute insects located in the skin. Salt and water ought, in that case, to be a good remedy. Hollow Horn, or Horn Ail. This is not unfrequently hollow stomach, and very often follows stinted fare, hard usage, and exposure to cold. We have noticed this as most prevalent among oxen that have done a severe winter's work. Symptoms. — Bloody urine ; swollen udder ; shaking the head ; eyes and head swollen ; standing with the head against a fence or barn ; eyes dull and sunken, and horns cold. Remedies. — Bleed and physic, shelter and feed properly. Take a half pint of good vinegar, two tablespoonfuls of salt, one teaspoonful of pepper, and mix and pour into each ear, holding the head on one side for two minutes. Bore with a large gimlet on the under side of the horn, three or four inches from the head ; and if hollow, bore nearer the head and let out all the matter, and syringe two or three times a day with salt and water, or soap-suds, or salt and ■Ninegar. Spirits of turpentine rubj^ed in around the base of the horns, will arrest the disease in its incipient stages. Pour a spoonful of boiling hot brimstone into the cavity be- tween the horns. Pour a teakettle of boiling water on the horns, holding so as to prevent injury to the other parts. Soot and pepper given internally are good. Jaundice, or Yellows. This is owing to gall-stones or calculi, which occasionally accumulate in large munbers, and is sometimes owing to in- creased or altered quality of the bile. It is manifested by the yello^vness of the eye and skin, and high color of the mine, and poor appetite. Remedies. — Bleed, and purge with Epsom salts. If taken in season, 2 ounces of ground mustard may' c mixed with a liquid, and given twice a day. Green food is a good preventive. 5* 54 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. Mad ItCll. This disease exists in some of the Western states, and shows itself by jerking of the head, and itching ground the nose and base of the horns. They will lick their sides and backs, and jerk and hiccup till they fill themselves with Avind ; afterwards they froth at the mouth, and in 24 hours die raving mad. Remedy. — Give as much soot and salt as the animal will eat ; soon after, give f or 1 lb. of brimstone or sulphur ; and 8 hom's after, as many salts. Bloody Murrain, or Red Water. This disease first shows itself in a cough, then heaving of the flanks, with bloody, black, and foetid eracuations, tender- ness over the loins, and coldness of the horns. Tumors and biles sometimes appear. The animal holds down the head, moans, is restless, and staggers when walking. Causes. — We have lost several animals by this fatal disease, and are not aware of having cured any when severely attacked. In repeated instances, we have seen large flukes taken out of the fiver, strongly resembling the common leech, which abounds in many of our swampy lands. It is certain that on new, low swamps and clay lands, cattle are most liable to it ; and when they have been subject to repeated attacks in such localities, clearing and draining have checked it. Youatt attributes it to certain kinds of forage, which are pe- culiar to the above situations. We are rather inclined to as- cribe it to exposure, to excessive dampness, and especially to miasma ; for although the brute creation are perhaps less sen- sitive to these influences than man, yet, as they are governed by the same unvarying laws of nature, when subjected to conditions totally unsuited to their economy, they must suff"er equally in kind, though probably not in degree, with the more refined human frame. But it is evident the disease, its causes, and remedies, are as yet imperfectly understood. Remedies. — However intelligent men may difier as to its causes, all agree that the animal should first be bled, and then thoroughly purged. In oljstinate cases, this last is a difficult matter. We have given repeated doses of powerful cathartics without producing any eff'ect ; and whenever the medicine is mnperative, death speedily follovrs. Large doses of common salt, or Epsom salts dissolved in water, are good purgatives, and if the animal neglects drink- :iooF AIL. 55 ing after takiiig them, he should be drenched with copious draughts of water. These should be repeated every few hours, if ineffectual. Injections are sometimes useful, when medicine fails to act. These may be made of soap and water ; or take 2 or 3 gills of oats boiled, 3 drachms saltpetre, 1^ oz. linseed oil, mix and use them Avhen waim. The opening of the bowels may be followed with a pmt of linseed oil, as an additional and gentle laxative. When the animal begins to recover, gentle astringents and tonic-s may be given. Preventives. — We have more confidence in preventives than in remedies. Good keep, shelter, dryness, and clean pastures, will generally prevent attack. The cattle shoidd at all times be supplied with two or three troughs under cover, on the sides and bottoms of which tar should be plentifully spread. Let equal portions of salt and slaked lime be in one ; salt and wood ashes in another ; and salt and brimstone in a third. Many farmers have entirely avoided this disease while using one or more of these, when they annually lost many by it pre- viously. Hoof Ail Is indicated by lameness, fever, and a soft swelling just above the hoof. Remedies. — Carefully wash the foot in warm soap-suds, and while still damp, apply between the claws on the affected part from one to three grains of corrosive sublimate. If it does not fully adhere, it must be mixed with hog's lard, but it should be so apphed as to be out of the reach of the animal's tongue, as it is a powerful poison, and the extreifoe initabihty of the feet will induce him to hck them. The claw is efficiently cleansed, by drawmg a cord briskly through it, when either of the above apphcations, or blue vitriol put on two or three times a day, or spirits of turpentine, will effect a cure. It is sometimes cured by putting the animals in the stan- chions, and applying a sharp chisel three-fourths of an inch from the toe, and striking it with a mallet till it is cut ofl\ If it does not bleed freely, cut off shavings till it docs. If the animal is refractory, let a person hold up the opposite foot. Keep them m the stable two or three days', and out of the mud for a weak. 56 D03IESTIC ANIMALS. Loss of Cud Is loss of appetite, prostration, and general ill-health. Remedies. — Give a warm bran mash, with good hay, and warm water with salt. An aloe tincture, made with brandy and ginger, is good. Afterwards give good, dry, nom'ishing food ; and bitter in- fusions, chamomile flowers, hoarhound, oak bark, &c., in beer. Scours, or DiarrhcBa. A common remedy, is to boil the bark of white oak, white pine, and beech, and give a strong infusion in bran. If they refuse to eat it, pour it down. The oak is astringent, and the pine and beech soothing and healing. \Yarbles Are grubs, the egg of which is deposited in the back oi cattle by the gad-fly, {CEstrus hovis.) They are discernible by a pro- tuberance or swelling on the back. They may be pressed out by the thiunb and finger ; or burnt out by plunging a hot wu'e in them ; or a few apphcations of strong brine will remove them. Wounds In cattle are readily healed, when the animal's blood is in good order, by applying a salve made of 1 oz. green copperas ; 2 oz. white vitriol ; 2 oz. salt ; 2 oz. linseed oil ; 8 oz. molasses. Boil over a slow fire 15 minutes in a pint of urine, and when almost cold, add 1 oz. oil of vitriol, and 4 oz. spirits turpentine. Apply it with a feather to the wound, and cure soon follows. Milk, or Puerperal Fever, Is a common disease with cows in high condition, at the time of cal-idng. It may, in almost every case, be avoided, by keep- ing them in moderate feed and flesh. Remedies. — Bleed freely, say 6 to 10 quarts, according to the ch'culation of the blood ; then give 1 to 1^ lbs. of Epsom salts, according to the size of the beast, to be repeated in half lb. doses every six hours, till she pm-ges freely. Injections should always be given when purgatives are tardy in their operation. GARGET SORE TEATS— WARTS. 57 Caked Bag May be removed by simmering the bark of the rojt of bit- ter-sweet in lard, till it becomes very yellovr. When cool, apply it to the swollen udder once in 8 or 10 hom-s; or wash it several times a day in cold water. A pint of horseradish, fed once a day, cut up with potatoes or meal, is useful for the same purpose. This is also a tonic, helps the appetite, and is good for oxen subject to heat. Garget Is a more intense degree of inflammation than exists in caked bag and sore, swollen teats, and shows itself in hard bunches on the udder. The cow should be bled, and take a large dose of physic ; then wash the udder as in caked bag. Repeated doses of sulphur is a good remedy. Garget, or scoke root, given of the size of a large finger, grated and fed in their food, is a general apphcation with farm- ers. The garget plant grows from three to six feet high, with a purple stalk, and strings of berries hanging down between the branches. Sore Teats May be healed by rubbing with goose oil, cream, new milk ; or make the same apphcations for it as for caked bag. The bag and teats should be well cleansed with warm soft water, if to be followed by any ointment. The follo^ving application is recommended by Youatt : One ounce of yellow wax and three of lard ; melt together, and when cooling, rub in one quarter ounce of sugar of lead, and a drachm of alum finely powdered. Warts Are of two kinds ; the first, on the outer skin, may be re- moved by rubbing with camphorated olive oil. The others penetrate into the flesh, and may be removed by a hgature of fine twine, or silk, or india-rubber drawn into a string, and tied tightly around the wart, which falls oflF in a few days. Bemedies. — Nitrate of silver, (lunar caustic,) apphed to the wart, will remo^'e it, but it produces a sore. Apply a strong wash of ?^.um. 58 DOMESTIC \NI>tAL8. Pvub "svith the jiiice of milk- weed. Poultice with grated carrot. Cut off the wart with sharp scissors, when the cow is dry. It will bleed httle, and soon heal. Sore Necks on Working Oxen. These occur* when w^orked m wet weather, or ^-ith bad yokes. The remedy is, rub with a heahng application. The preventive is, good yokes ; the application of grease ; or a decoction of white or yellow oak bark apphed to the affected parts. Or, a better preventive is a canvass or leather cap to protect the neck entirely from the storm. The Bite of Poisonous Snakes May be cui-ed by shaking together equal parts of olive oil and hartshoni, and rubbing the wound and adjacent parts three or four times a day. For a full-grown animal, one quart of olive oil and an oimce of hartshorn should be administered internallv, in addition to the above. For Stings of Bees, Hornets, &c. Apply warm vinegar and salt, rubbing the parts thoroughly. For a Forming Tumor. Rub thoroughly with strong bi'ine, or a solution of sal ammo- niac dissolved m eight times its weight of water. If the tumor comes to a head, open it near the bottom with a lancet ; or place a seton in it so as to admit the escape of purulent matter. Lice and Vermin Sometimes abound on cattle during the latter part of winter and spring. These are generally the result of mange, which IS itself the effect of ill-feeding and ill-condition. They are removed with the cause. We doubt if they can be perma- nently kept off, where the animal is losing flesh and health. Remedies. — Restore the health and condition, and sprinkle sand, ashes, or dirt plentifully around the roots of the horns, and along the ridge of the neck and back. A hberal application of train or other oil has nearly a simi- lar effect. Never apply an ointment containing corrosive sublimate oi THE TRKMBLE3. 69 Other poisou, as it may be licked by the animal or its fellows, who may thus become, seriously poisoned. The Trembles, Producing milk sichiess (a most fatal disease) in the human family, from eating- the milk or flesh of animals affected by it. This disease;^ which exists principally in the region of the Wa- bash River, is supposed by Dr. Drake to be owing to the poi- son oak, (Rhus Toxicodendron,) or iwison vine, (Radicans,) which the animals eat. Symptoms. — The animal mopes, is feverish and costive, but apparently preserves its appetite. The next stage of the dis- ease is faintness and vertigo, which is shown when the animal is put upon exertion, being followed by excessive trembling and entire prostration. Remedy. — Almost every cathartic has been tried in vain. Indian com, both dry and green, has been fed to all animals accustomed to eating it, and when they can be induced to feed upon it freely, pm-ging is generally secm-ed. Rest of the ani- mal is absolutely essential while the disease continues, and is itself an eflectual remedy in mild cases. Besides the diseases enumerated, there are occasional epi- demics, such as Hack tongue, black foot, or foot root, etc., which carry off great numbers of animals. Remedies for these are frequently not discovered, and the epidemic is allowed to run its course unchecked. The only preventives are such care, food, and management as the experienced herdsman knows tat of skimmed milk need not be quite so high. If the milk be warmer the curd is hard and tough, if colder, it is soft and difficult to ob- tain free from the whey. When the former happens to be the case, a portion of the first whey that separates may be taken out into another vessel, allowed to cool, and then poured in again. If it prove to have been too cold, hot milk or water may be added to it ; or a vessel containing hot water may be put into it before the curdling commences ; or the first portion of whey that separates may be heated and poured again upon the cm-d. The quahty of the cheese, however, will always be more or less affected, when it happens to be necessary to adopt any of these remedies. To make the best cheese, the ^.!'ue temperature should always be attained as nearl}^ as possibL, before the rennet is added. Mode in which the Milk is warmed. If, as is the case in some dairies, the milk be warmed in an iron pot upon the naked fire, great care must be taken that it is not singed or Jire-fanged. A very shght inattention may cause this to be the case, and the taste of the cheese is sure to be more or less affected by it. In Cheshire, the milk is put into a large tin pail, which is plunged into a boiler of hot water, and frequently stirred till it is raised to the proper tempera- ture. In laio-e dairy estabhshments, however, the safest 78 DOMESTIC ANIM/.LS. method is to lave a pot with a double bottom, consisting ol one pot within another, after the manner of a glue-pot ; the space between the two being filled with water. The fire ap- plied beneath, thus acts only upon the water, and can never, by any ordinary neglect, do injury to the milk. It ii desirable in this heating, not to raise the temperature higher than is ne- cessary, as a great heat is apt to give an oihn^ss to the fatty matter of the milk. The time during which the Curd stands. This is also of importance. It should be broken up as soon as the milk is fully coagulated. The longer it stands after this, the harder and tougher it will become. The quality of the Rennet. This is of much importance, not only in regard to the cer- tamty of the coagulation, but also to the flavor of the cheese. In some parts of Cheshire, it is usual to take a piece of the dried membrane and steep it overnight with a little salt for the ensuing morning's milk. It is thus sure to be fresh and sweet, if the dried maw be in good preservation. But where it is customary to steep several skins at a time, and to bottle the rennet for after-use, it is very necessary to saturate the solution completely with salt, and to season it with spices, in order that it may be preserved in a s^v'eet and wholesome state. The quantity of Rennet added. This ought to be regulated as carefully as the temperature of the milk. Too much renders the curd tough ; too little causes the loss of much time, and may permit a larger portion of the butter to separate itself from the curd. It is to be ex- pected also, that when rennet is used in great excess, a portion of it will remain in the curd, and will naturally affect the kind and rapidity of the changes it afterwards undergoes. Thus, it is said to cause the cheese to heave or swell out from fer- mentation. It is probable, also, that it will affect the flavor whif^h the cheese acquires by keeping. Thus it may be, that the agreeable or unpleasant taste of the cheeses of certain dis- tricts or dairies may be less due to the quality of the pastures or of the milk itself, than to the quantity of rennet with which it has there been customjuy to coagulate the milk. THE WAV IN W!Ii( Tl THE CURD jS TREATED. 79 The way in wliidi tks Ecniict is made. This, no less than its state of preservation and the quantity employed, may also influence the flavor or other qualities of the cheese. For instance, in the manufacture of a celebrated French cheese, that of Epoisse, the rennet is prepared. as fol- lows : — Four fresh calf-skins, with the curd they contain, are well washed in water, chopped into small pieces, and digested in a mixture of 5 quarts of brandy with 15 of water, adding at the same time 2 J lbs. of salt, half an ounce of black pepper, and a quarter of an ounce each of cloves and fennel seeds. At the end of six weeks, the hquor is filtered and preserved in well-corked bottles, while the membrane is put into salt-water to form a new portion of rennet. For making rich cheeses, the rennet should always be filtered clear. On Mont d'Or, the rennet is made with white wine and vin- egar. An ounce of common salt is dissolved in a mixture of half a pint of vinegar ^\'ith 2^ pints of white wine, and in this solution a prepared goat's stomach or a piece of dried ing's bladder is steeped for a length of time. A single spoonful of this rennet is said to be sufficient for 45 or 50 quarts of milk. No doubt the acid of the vinegar and of the wine aid the coagulating power derived from the membrane. The way in wliicli the Curd is treated. It is usual in our best cheese districts, carefully and slowly to separate the curd from the whey, not to hasten the separa- tion, lest a larger portion of the fatty matter should be squeezed out of the curd, and tlie cheese should thus be rendered poorer than usual. But in some places, the practice prevails of wash- ing the curd with hot water, after the whey has been partially separated from it. Thus at Gouda in Holland, after the greater part of the whey has been gradually removed, a quan- tity of hot water is added, .and allowed to remain upon it for at least a quarter of an hour. The heat makes the cheese more solid and causes it to keep better. In Italy, the pear-shaped caccio-cavallo clieeses and the round palloni cheeses of Gra\ina, in the Neapolitan territory, are made from curd, which after being scalded with boiling- whey, is cut into slices, kneaded in boiling water, worked with the hand till it is perfectly tenacious and elastic, and then made into shapes. The water in which the curd is washed, after standing twenty-four liours, throws up much oily matteXo, vhich is skijamed off and made into butter. 80 ZiUMESTIC ANIArALS. The Separation of the Whey Is a part of .tlie process, upon v/hich the quality of the cheese in a considerable degree depends. In Cheshire, more time and attention is devoted to the perfect extraction of the whey than in almost any other district. Indeed, when it is considered that the whey contains sugar and lactic acid, which may undergo decomposition, and a quantity of rennet which may bring on fermentation, by both of which processes the flavor of the cheeses must be considerably affected, it will ap- pear of great importance that the whey should be as com- pletely removed from the curd as it can possibly be. To aid in effecting this, a curd-mill, for chopping it fine after the whey is strained off, is in use in many of the large English dairies, and a very ingenious and effectual pneumatic cheese- press for sucking out the whey, was lately invented. But the way in which the whey is separated is not a matter of indifference, and has much influence upon the quality of the cheese. Thus, in Norfolk, according to Marshall, when the cm'd is fairl}^ set, the dairy-maid bares her arm, plunges it into the curd, and wilh the help of her wooden ladle, breaks up minutely, and intimately mixes the curd with the whey. This she does for ten or fifteen minutes, after which the curd is allowed to subside, and the whey is drawn oft^. By this agitation, the whey must cany off more of the butter and the cheese must be pooier. In Cheshire and Ayrshire, the curd is cut with a knife, but is gently used and slowly pressed till it is dry enough to be chopped fine, and thus more of the oily matter is retained. On the same principle, in making the Stilton cheese, the curd is not cut or broken at all, but is pressed gently and with care till the whey gradually drains out. Thus the butter and the curd remain intermixed, and the rich cheese of Stilton is the result. Thus, while it is of importance that all the whey should be extracted from the curd, yet the quickest way may not be the best. More time and care must be bestowed in order to effect this object, the richer the cheese we wish to obtain. The quality of the milk or of the pastures, may often be blamed for the deficiencies in the richness or other qualities of cheese, which are in reality due to slight but material differ- ences in the moce of manufacturing it. The kind of salt used, is considered by many to have some effect upon the taste of the cheese. Thus the cheese of Gf** SIZE OF THE CHEESE. 8] rome, in the Yosges, is supposed to derive a peculiar taste from the Lorena salt Tvith which it is cured. In Holland, the efficacy of one kind of salt over another for the curing ol cheese is generally acknowledged. The Mode in wMcli the Salt is applied. In making the large Cheshire cheeses, the dried curd, for a single cheese of sixty pounds, is broken down fine and divided into three equal portions. One of these is mingled with double the quantity of salt added to the others, and this is so put into the cheese-vat as to form the central part of the cheese. By this precaution, the after-salting on the surface is sure to pene- trate deep enough to cure effectually the less salted parts. In the counties of Gloucester and Somerset the curd is pressed without salt, and the cheese, when formed, is made to absorb the whole of the salt afterwards through its surface. This is found to answer well with the small and thin cheeses made in those counties, but were it adopted for the large cheeses of Cheshire and Dunlop, or even for the pine-apple cheeses of Wiltshire, there can be no doubt that their quality would frequently be injured. It may not be impossible to cause salt to penetrate into the very heart of a large cheese, but it cannot be easy in this way to salt the whole cheese equally, while the care and attention reqiui-ed must be greatly increased. Addition of Cream or Butter to the Curd. Another mode of impro\4ng the quahty of cheese, is by the addition of cream or butter to the dried and crumbled curd. Much diligence, however, is required fully to incorporate these, so that the cheese may be uniform throughout. Still this practice gives a peculiar character to the cheeses of certain districts. In Italy, they make a cheese after the manner of the English, into which a considerable quantity of butter is work- ed ; and the Reckem cheese of Belgium is made by adding half an omice of butter and the yolk of an egg, to every pound of pressed curd. Size of the Cheese. From the same milk, it is obvious that cheeses of different sizes, if treated in the same way, will, at the end of a given number of months, possess qualities in a considerable degTee different. Hence, without supposing any inferiority, either in 82 DOMESTIC iXiMALS. tlie milk or in the general mode of treatment, the size usually adopted for the cheeses of a particular district or dairy, may be the cause of a recognised inferiority in some quality, which it is desirable that they should possess in a high degree. Tie Method of Curing. This has very much influence upon the quality of the cheese. The care with which they are salted, the warmth of the place in which they are kept during the first two or three weeks, the temperature and closeness of the cheese-room in which they are afterwards preserA'ed, the frequency of tm-n- mg, of cleaning from mould, and rubbing with butter ; all these circumstances exercise a remarkable influence upon the after-qualities of the cheese. Indeed, in very many instances, the high reputation of a particular dairy district or dairy farm, is derived from some special attention to some or to all of these apparently minor points. In Tuscany, the cheeses, after being hung up for some time at a proper distance from the fire, are put to ripen in an un- derground, cool, and damp cellar ; and the celebrated French cheeses of Roquefort, are supposed to owe much of the peculiar estimation in which they are held, to the cool and uniform temperature of the subterranean caverns in which the inhabitants of i:he village have long been accustomed to preserve them. Hmmoniacal Cheese. . The influence of the mode of curing, is shown very stri- kingly in the small ammoniacal cheeses of Brie, which are very much esteemed in Paris. They are soft unpressed cheeses, which are allowed to ripen in a room, the tempera- ture of which is kept between 60^ and 70° Fahrenheit, till they begin to undergo the putrefactive fermentation, and emit an ammoniacal odor. They are generally unctuous, and some- times so small as not to weisfh more than an ounce. Inoculating Cheese. It is said that a cheese, possessed of no very striking taste of its own, may be inoculated with any flavor we approve, by putting into it with a scoop a small portion of the cheese IXOCULATIX'J rilEESE. 83 which we are desirous Of course, this can ap- ply only to cheeses otherwise of equal richness, for we could scarcely expect to give^ a Gloucester the flavor^ of a Stilton, by mere- ^ ly putting into it a small portion of a lich and esteemed Stilton cheese. \Johnstoii and various other authori- • ties^ Fig. 19 is a self-act- ing cheese-press, light yet strong. The cheese itself gives a pressure of twelve times its own weight ; and if this is insufficient, ad- ditional weight may be added as required. that it should be made to resemble. Ficr. 19. Cheese-Fress. The following statements were made by those receiving premiums from the New York State Agricultural Society : " Number of cows kept, eleven. Cheese made from two milkings, in the English manner ; no addition made of cream. For a cheese of twenty pounds, a piece of rennet about two inches square is soaked about twelve hours in one pint of water. As rennets differ much in quality, enough should be used to coagulate the milk sufficientli/ in about forty minutes. No salt is put into the cheese, nor any on the outside during the first six or eight hours it is pressed ; but a thin coat of fine Liverpool salt is kept on the outside during the remainder of the time it remains in press. The cheeses are pressed fortv-eio-ht hours, under a weigrht of seven or eisfht cwt. Nothing more is required but to turn the cheeses once a day on the shelves." " The milk is strained ^n large tubs over night ; the creani stirred in milk, and in the morning strained in same tub ; milk heated to natural heat ; add color and rennet ; curd broke fine and whey off, and broke fine in hoop with fast bottom, and put in strainer ; pressed twelve hoi»rs ; then taken fram 84 DOMESTIC VVIMALS. hoop, and salt rubbed on llie surface ; tlien put in lioop, without strainer, and pressed forty-eight hours ; then put on tables, and salt rubbed on siurface, and remain in salt six days, for cheese weighing thirty pounds. The hoops to have holes in the bottom ; the crushings are saved, and set, and churned, to grease the cheese. The above method is for making one cheese per day. As in butter-making, the utmost cleanliness is required in every part of the cheese-making premises." CHAPTER IV. SHEEP With the exception of the dog, there is no one of the brute creation which exhibits the diversity of size, color, form, cov- ering, and general appearance, which characterizes the sheep, and none which occupies a wider range of climate, or subsists on a greater variety of food. In every latitude between the equator and the arctic, he ranges over the sterile mountains, and through the fertile valleys. He feeds on almost every species of edible forage, the cultivated grasses, clovers, cereals and roots ; he browses on aromatic and bitter herbs ; he crops the leaves and bark from the stunted forest shrubs, and the pungent, resinous evergreens. In some parts of Norway and Sweden, when other resources fail, he subsists on fish or flesh during their long and rigorous winters, and if reduced to necessity, he eats his own wool. He is diminutive like the Orkney, or massive hke the Tees- water. He is policerate or many horned ; he has two large or small spiral horns like the Merino, or is polled or hornless like :he mutton sheep. He has a long tail like our own breeds ; a broad tail, like many of the eastern ; or a mere button of a tail, ike the fat-rumps, discernible only by the touch. His coat is sometimes long and coarse, like the Lincolnshire ; short and hairy, like those of Madagascar ; soft and furry, like the Angola ; or fine and spiral, like the silken Saxon. His color, either pure or fancifully mixed, varies from the white or black of our o^vn country, to every shade of brown, diyi, butf, blue, and gra}^, hke the spotted flocks of the Cape of Good Hope sii'-EP. 85 and other parts of Africa and Asia. This T\dde di\ersity is the result of long domestication, under almost every conceivable variety of condition. Uses. Among the antediluvians, sheep were immolated for sacri- ficial offerings, and their fleeces probably fm-nished them with clothing. Since the deluge, their flesh has with all nations been used as a favorite food for man. By many of the rude, roving nations of the East, they are employed in carry- ing burdens. Their milk is generally used by the uncirilized, and to some extent by the refined nations of Europe, not only as a bev- erage, but for making into cheese, butter, and curds. Job re- fers to its use, as do Isaiah and other of the Old Testament Avriters. Most of the Greek and Roman authors describe its general use and manufacture. The ewe's milk scarcely differs in appearance from that of the cow, but is generally thicker, and yields a pale, yellowish butter, that is always soft and soon becomes rancid. Culley remarks, " the cheese from their milk is exceedingly pungent, and for that reason is preferred by many to that from the cow." In Wales, the milk is mixed with that of the dairy, and makes a tart, palatable cheese. We have never seen it appropriated for dairy purposes in the United States, except by a few Welsh and Highland emigrants. The sheep is frequently employed in the dairy regions of this country, at the tread-mill or horizontal wheel, to pump the water, churn the milk, or perform other hght domestic work. The dignity akd importance of the shepherd's vocation have ever been conspicuous. Abel, the supposed twin-brother of the first-born of the human race, was a " keeper of sheep ;" and from this, it may be fairly mferred, that there is no ani- mal which has so long been under the immediate control of man. Abraham and his descendants, as well as most of the ancient patriarchs, were shepherds. Job had 14,000 sheep. It is said of Rachel, the favored mother of the Jewish race, " she came with her father's sheep, for she kept them." The seven daughters of the priest of Midian, " came and drew water for their father's flocks." Moses, the statesman and law- giver, who " was learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians, kept the flocks of Jethro, his father-in-law ;" and Darid, the future monarch of Israel, the hero, poet, and di\ine, was a keeper of sheep. It was to shepherds, while " abiding in the field, keeping watch over their flocks by night," that tho 8 86 DOMESTIC AMMALS. birth of the Sa^iollr was announced. The root of the Hebrew name for sheep, signifies fruitfuhiess, abundance, plenty ; as indicating the blessings they were destined to confer on the human race. With the sacred writers, they were the chosen symbol of purity and the gentler \irtues ; they were the victims of propitiatory sacrifices ; and finally, they became the type of redemption to fallen man. These may not be considered accidental allusions in a book, whose every feature is full of design. Nor has the sheep been less the subject of eulogy and at- tention with profane writers. Among these, Homer and Hesiod, Virgil and Theocritus, introduced them with evident delight in their pastoral themes ; while their heroes and demi- gods, Hercules and Ulysses, JEneas and Numa, carefully per- petuated them throughout their regal domains. In modern tunes, they have commanded the attention of the most enlightened nations ; and their prosperity has in no in- stance been independent of those useful animals, wherever wool and its manufactures have been regarded as essential staples. Spain and Portugal, for more than two centuries, were the most enterprising nations of Europe, and during that period, they excelled in the production and manufacture of wool. Flanders, for a time, was before England in the perfection of the arts and the enjoyments of life, and England then sent the little wool she raised to that country to he manufactured. Her politic sovereigns soon fomid this a losing game, and offered large bounties for the importation of artists and machinery. By a systematic and thorough course of legislation, which looked to the utmost protection and augmentation of wool and woollens, she has carried their production beyond any thing the world has ever sev.n. The small islands of Gi-eat Britain and Ireland, in addition to the support of their 26,000,000 of people, 15,000,000 of cattle, 2,250,000 horses, 18,000,000 swine, and innumerable smaller domestic animals, maintain over 40,000,000 sheep, worth $250,000,000 ; and besides manufacturing nearly all their fleeces, annually import nearly an equal amount from abroad. The sumptuary law for bury- ing the dead in woollen, still occupies its place in their statute book. And beyond all question, England is the leading power of the nineteenth century, m the combination of all those qual- ities which constitute national greatness, civihzation, and strength THE Da*IE3T ^ATED SHEEP. 87 VARIETIES. S"aturalists have divided the wild sheep into four varieties, The Musimon, [Ovis Miisimon,^ inhabiting Corsica, Sardinia, and other islands of the Mediterranean, the mountainous parts of Spam and Greece, and some other regions bordering upon that inland sea, have been frequently domesticated and mixed with the long-cultivated breeds. The Argall, (0. Ammon,) ranges over the steppes, or ele- vated plains of Central Asia, northward and eastward to the ocean. They are larger, more hardy, and more untameable than the Musimon. The Roclaj Mountain Sheep, ( 0. Montana,) frequently called the Big-horn by our western hunters, is found on the prairies west of the Mississippi, and throughout the wild mountainous resfions, extendino- throuo-h California and Oreiron to the Pa- cific. They are larger, but in other respects resemble the Ar- gali, of which they are probably descendants, as they could easily cross upon the ice at Beliring's Straits, from the north- eastern coast of Asia: Like the Argali, when caught young they are easily tamed ; but we are not aware that they have ever been bred with the domestic sheep. Before the country was overrun by the white man, they probably inhabited the region bordering on the Mississippi. Father Hennepin, a French Jesuit, who wrote nearly two hundred years ago, often speaks of meeting with goats in his travels through what is now the territory embraced by Illinois and Wisconsin. The wild, clambering propensities of these animals, occupying the giddy heiglits far beyond the reach of the traveller, and the outer coating of hair (supplied underneath, however, with a thick coating of soft wool) gives to them much of the ap- pearance of that animal. In summer they are generally found single ; but when they descend from their isolated, rocky heights in winter, they are gregarious, marching m flocks un- der the guidance of leaders. The Bearded Sheep of Africa (0. Tragelaphus) inhabit the mountains of Barbary and Egypt. They are covered with a «oft, reddish hair, and have a mane hanging below the neck, and large locks of hair at the ankle. Tlie Domesticated Sheep (0. Aries) Embraces all the varieties of the subjugated species. Wheth- er they have descended from any one of the wild races, is a S8 DOMESTIC ANIIVkVLS. question yet undetermined among naturalists ; but liowevei this may be, many of the varieties apparently differ less from their -wild namesakes than from each other. The fat-rumped and the broad-tailed sheei') are much more extensively diffused than any other. They occupy nearly all the southeastern part of Europe, Western and Central Asia, and Northern Africa. They are supposed to be the varieties which were propagated by the patriarchs and their descend- ants, the Jewish race. This is inferred from various passages in the Pentateuch, Exodus xxix. 22 ; Leviticus iii. 9 ; viii. 25 ; ix. 19, and some others, where "the fat and the rump" are spoken of in connection with offerings, in which the fat was always an acceptable ingredient. Dr. Boothroyd rendeis one of the foregoing passages, " the large, fat tail entire, taken clear to the rump." It is certain this variety gives indisputa- ble evidence of remote and continued subjugation. Their long, pendent, drowsy ears, and the highly artificial posterior developments, are characteristic of no wild or recently-domes- ticated race. This breed consists of numerous sub-varieties, differing in all their characteristics of size, fleece, color, &c., with quite as many and marked shades of distinction as the modern Euro- pean varieties. In Madagascar, they are covered with hair ; in the south of Africa, with coarse wool ; in the Levant, and along the Mediterranean, the wool is comparatively fine ; and from that of the fat-rumped sheep of Thibet the exquisite Cashmere shawls are manufactured. Both rams and ewes are sometimes bred with horns, and sometimes without, and they exhibit a great diversity of color. Some yield a carcass of scarcely 30 lbs., while others have weighed 200 lbs. dressed. The tail or rump varies greatly, according to the purity and style of breeding ; some are less than one- eighth, while others exceed one-third the entire dressed weight. The fat of the rump or tail is considered a great dehcacy, and in hot climates resembles oil, and in colder, suet. The broad-tailed sheep were bi ought into this country, about 50 years since, by Commodore Barron and Judge Pe- ters, and bred with the native flocks. They were called the Tunisian mountain sheep. Some of them were subsequently distributed by Col. Pickering, of Massachusetts, among the farmers of Pennsylvania ; and their mixed descendants were highly prized as prolific and good nurses, coming early to maturity, attaining large weights, of a superior quality of car- cass, and yielding a heavy fleece of excellent wool. The prio- NATIVE OR COMMON SHEEP OF THE U. STATES. 89 .:ipal objection brought against tliem, was the difficulty of propcigation, which always required the assistance of the shep- herd. The lambs were dropped white, red, tawny, bluish, or black , but all excepting the black, grew white as^ the^^ ap- proached maturity, retahiing some spots of the original color on the cheeks and legs, and sometimes ha\ing the entire head tawny or black. The few which descended from those origin- ally imported into this country, have become blended with American flocks, and are now scarcely distinguishable from them. ]\ative or Common Sheep of the United States. Strictly speaking, there are no sheep mdigenous to North America, excepting the Ovis Montana, or Rocky Mountain sheep. Before the introduction of the improved European breeds, during the present centmy, our sheep were generally a hardy, long-legged, coarse, open-fleeced animal, which yielded, according to attention and feed, from 1 ^ to 4 lbs. of indifl"er- ent wool. We have seen numerous flocks within the last 20 years, of the pure-bred native, whose bellies were entirely destitute of wool, and sometimes the vvdiole carcass was bare, excepting a mere strip or ridge like a mane, reaching from the head to the tail. The wool which was retained on the neck, back, and sides, was frequently matted almost as firmly as a leather apron ; and that on the thighs, and sometimes on the sides, was often composed almost wholly of long hair. Although indi0"erently formed in comparison with the best breeds of the present day, being thin in the breast and back, light quartered, and slow in coming to maturity, they yet pos- sessed some good qualities. They were prohfic, excellent nurses, tallowed well, and yielded good mutton. There were, occasionally, some smutty-nosed or brockle-faced sheep among them, distinguished by their additional size, superior merits, and courage. These were usually the leaders of the flock, in their marauding expeditions on their neighbor's domains ; and in common with the others, they were eminently adapted to purvey for themselves on the frontier settlements. There were, besides, some black or dark chocolate-brown members in every flock, which were much valued by the thiifty house- wife for their wool, which afibrded an economical mixture for jackets, hose, and trousers, known as sheep's gray. Our original stock were principally derived from England, where their counterparts may be seen at the present day, in ihe refuse breeds of that countr ' When these sheep were 8* * 90 DOxMES'i ? VIVIMALS. v\'ell selecteti and properly bred, tliere was rapid and satisfac- ory improvement, and from sncli flocks, mixed with some of Jie more recently improved varieties, have sprmig many valu- able animals. There was but one exception to this general character of the native flocks, so far as our observation extended, which was a considerably numerous, and, probably, accidental varie- ty, known as the Otter breed, or Creepers. These were an ex- cessi^-ely duck-legged animal, with well-formed bodies, full chest, broad backs, yielding a close heavy fleece of medium quahty of wool. They were deserved favorites, where indifter- ent stone or wood fences existed, as their power of locomo- tion was absolutely limited to their enclosures, if protected by a fence not less than two feet high. The quality of their mutton was equal, while their aptitude to fatten was decidedly superior to their longer-legged contemporaries. They are probably now nearly or quite extinct. An excellent variety was produced by General Washington, from a cross of a Persian ram, upon the Bakewell, which bore wool 14 inches in length, soft and silky, and admirably suited to combing. They were called the Arlington sheep, but they have long since become incorporated with the other flocks of the country. The Merino. This is undoubtedly one of the most ancient race of sheep extant. The loose descriptions and indefinite generalities of the ancient writers, leave much to conjecture on this point ; yet we have a few passages from Pliny, Columella, and some other Roman authors, which leave little doubt that the Mermo was bred in their age, and had even been introduced into Italy from Greece. It is a matter of history, that the Greeks had choice breeds of sheep at an early day, which they might have derived from Egypt, Tyre, and Asia Mnor, as they were intimately connected in commerce with those coun- tries, where the woollen manufacture early reached great per- fection. It is supposed that the celebrated Argonautic ex- pedition, in quest of the golden fleece, undertaken by the Greeks nearly 1300 years before Christ, resulted in procuiing a valuable rase of sheep from Colchis, in the Euxiiie. However this may be, it is certain that when Augustus ex- tended his peaceful sceptre over half the known world, the Romans were in possession of som^ flocks, bearing fleeces of THE MERINO. 91 exceeding fineness and beaiit5\ They had been reared in the province of Apiiha, on the southeast coast of Italy, and were called Tarentine, from Tarentuni, the capital of the province. Here, then, may have been one branch of the Merino family. Another is midoubtedly described by Pliny, who says, " the red Jieece of Bcetica was of still superior quality, and had no fellow.''' All the Spanish coast on the Mediterranean, of which Bsetica formed a considerable part, comprising the modern Spanish provinces of Jaen, Cordova, Seville, An- dalusia, and Granada, was early colonized by the enterprising Greeks ; and this red fl,eece that had no felloiv, was probably introduced by them at an early day, and by their descend- ants had been carried to a still higher degree of perfection than that of Apulia. Columella, the uncle of the writer on agriculture, a wealthy emigrant to Spain from Italy ^ a. d. 30, carried with him some of the Tarentine sheep, and thus added to the fine-woolled sheep of Spain. These two ancient streams, united perhaps with a third from the more ancient stock of the Euxine, (for Strabo asserts that some of the finest- woolled sheep were brought from that region in his time, and sold for the enormous sum of $750,) flowed on in an uninterrupted current over that broad country, and brought down to modern times the unrivalled race of the Merino. The limited region of Italy, overrun as it repeatedly was by hordes of barbarians during and after the times of the late emperors, soon lost her pampered flocks ; while the extended regions of Spain, intersected in every direction by almost impassable mountains, could maintain their more hardy race, in defiance of revolution or change. Whatever distrust may be attached to these scraps of history, which apparently establish the remote antiquity of the Merino, this much is absolutely certain, that they are a race whose quali' ties are inbred, to an extent surpassed by no others. They have been improved in the general weight and evenness of their fleece, as in the celebrated flock of Rambouillet ; in the uni- formity and excessive fineness of fibre, as in the Saxons ; and in their form and feeding qualities, in various coimtries; but there has never yet been deterioration either in quantity or quality of fleece or carcass, wherever transported, if supplied with suitable food and attention. Most sheep annually she(^ their wool if undipped ; while the Merino retains its fleece, sometimes for five years, when allowed to remain unshorn. This we conceive afl'ords conclusive evidence of long-con- 92 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. tinned breeding among themselves, by which the very con^ stitution of the wool-producing organs beneath the skin have become permanently established ; and this property is trans- mitted to a great extent even among the crosses, thus marking them as an ancient and peculiar race. The conquest by the Moors of a part of those fine prov- inces in the south of Spain, so far from checking, served rather to encourage the production of fine avooI. They were ncrt only enterprising, but highly skilled in the useful arts, and carried on extensive manufactories of fine woollen goods, which they exported to different countries. After their ex- pulsion in the 15th century, by Ferdinand and Isabella, the Spaniards preserved these manufactures in part, and sedu- .'ously cherished their fine flocks ; and knowing the incompar- ible advantage they had in them, their sovereigns, except in few isolated instances, strictly prohibited their exportation. Exportation of Merinoes from Spain. History asserts that Henry VIII. of England, by permission of Charles V., imported 3,000 Spanish sheep ; but of what kind is not mentioned, they having numerous varieties in Spain. If of the true Merino, it will explain the superior quality of the Enghsh middle-wools, the Ryeland, South Dovnis, and some others. The first well-authenticated exportation of the Spanish Merino, was made to Sweden in 1*723, by Alstroemer, which solved the problem of their capacity for sustaining their character, on rough fare and in a high northern latitude. Lasteyrie, who wrote fifty years after the experiment had been tried, speaks of their improvement, both in carcass and the quality and quantity of fleece. The next exportation was made to Saxony, in 1765, and consisted of 105 rams and 114 ewes, but from what flocks they were taken, history nowhere mentions. A second ex- portation to that country was made in 1778, of 110 that were variously selected, from the best flocks in Spain. From these have descended the high-bred, . silken-fleeced Saxons, whose wool stands confessedly without a rival. In 1775, the Empress Maria Theresa imported 300 Merinoes into Germany, and placed them on the imperial farm in Hun- gary. In 17S6, an importation was made into Denmark and her provinces ; and again, in 1797, another flock of 300 was brought into th^. kingdom, and placed at Esserum, about eight IMPORTATION OF MERINOES. 93 leagues from Copenhagen. In ITSG, 100 rams and 200 ewes were imported into Prussia, most of which were allowed to perish from neglect and disease ; but their places were fully made up by later importations. The same year, 400 ewes and rams were st'^ected from the choicest Spanish flocks, and placed on the royal farm of Rambouillet, in France, which laid the foundation of the celebrated flock which bears that name. A small flock of inferior animals was clandestinely procured by George III., of England, in 1788, which attracted little attention. In 1791, a small but choice flock was presented to that monarch by the Cortes of Spain, which soon acquired high favor among many intelligent breeders. A part of these were kept pure, and their descendants fm-nished the superb flock of 700 Nigrettis, which procured for their owner, Mr. Trimmer, in 1829, the gold medal from the London Society of Arts. Others were mixed Avith diff'erent flocks in the king- dom, to the evident improvement of their fleeces. The first importation of Meriiioes into the United States, Which resulted in the propagation of a pure breed,'* was ' made by Chancellor Livingston, then minister at the court of Versailles, who sent two choice rams and ewes from the Ram- bouillet flock, in 1802, to Claremont, his country seat on the Hudson. In the latter part of the same year. Col. Humphreys, our minister in Spain, sent out nearly one hundred Merinoes, which were followed by more numerous flocks from the same and other sources. The largest importations of the Merino, however, were made through Mr. Jar^is of Vermont, in 1809, then U. S. Consul in Spain, and immediately thereafter. He first shipped, as he states, "200 Escurial, afterwards 1400 Paulars, IVOO Aqueirres, 100 Nigrettis, and about 200 Mon- tarcos. 2700 Montarcos were sent out by a Spaniard and a Portuguese, and about 300 Guadaloupes by others ; also 200 to 300 Paulars, by Gen. Downie, to Boston. Of the Montarco flock shipped by others, about 2500 came to Boston, Provi- dence, New York, and other ports. All were imported in the latter part of 1809 and '10, and early in 1811, and were the only Leonese Transhumantes, if we include Humphreys' and Livingston's, (which I have no doubt were of the same stock,) that were ever shipped to the United States." * One or more pure Merinoes were imported into Massachusetts, in the latter part of tho last century, by a citizen of that state, but they were soon mixed with o'her flocks, and resulted in the perpetua'ijn e^no distinct breed. 94 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. Fig. 20 is a £ minted cut of a variety of the Merino ■without dewlap, and wiih a long and somewhat open lieece. Fiff. 20. iimm^^mk v^^ epherds in driving and herding then* flocks on the open ground. DISEASES OF SHEEP. The dry and healthful climate, the rolling siu-face, and the sweet and varied herbage, which generally prevail in the United States, insm-e perfect health to an originally sound and well-selected flock, imless peculiarly exposed to disease. No country is better suited to sheep, than most of the northern and some of the southern parts of our own. In Europe, and especially in England, where the system of management is necessarily in the highest degree artificial, consisting fre- quently in early and continued forcing the system, folding on wet, plowed groimds, and the excessive use of that watery food, the Swedes turnip, there are mmaerous and fatal dis- eases. Hence the long list which lumbers the pages of for- eign writers on sheep. The most destructive of these are the rot, and epidemics which are scarcely known in America, except by report. The diseases incident to our flocks may generally be considered as casualties, rather than as inbred, or necessarily arising from the quahty of food, or from local causes. It may be safely asserted, that with a dry pasture, well stocked with varied and nutritious grasses ; a clear, running stream ; sufficient shade and prote^ion against severe storms ; a constant supply of isltf tar, and sulphur in suborner ; good hay, and sometimes DIAERIICEA OR SCOURS. 129 foots, with ample shelters in -vrinter ; young sheep, originally- sound and healthy, will seldom or neyer get diseased on American soil. The few diseases which it may be necessary here to mention, will be treated in the simplest manner. Remedies of general apphcation, to be administered often by the unskilful and ignorant, must neither be elaborate nor complicated ; and, if expensive, the lives of most sheep would be dearly purchased by their application. A sheep which the owner has reared or purchased at the ordinary price, is the only domestic animal which can die wdthout material loss to its o^vner. The wool and pelt will, in most instances, repay its cost, while the carcasses of other animals will be worthless except for manure. The loss of sheep from occasional disease, will leave the farmer's pocket in a very different condition from the loss of an equal value in horses or cattle. Yet humanity, equally with interest, dic- tates the use of such simple remedies for the removal of suffer- ing and disease, as may be within reach. o Diarrhcea or Scours, Wlien light and not long continued, calls for no remedy. It is a healthful provision of nature for the more rapid expul- sion of some offendino- matter in the system, which, if retained, might lead to disease. It is generally o^ving to improper food, as bad hay or noxious weeds ; to a sudden change, as from dry food to fresh grass ; or to an excess, as from overloading the stomach ; and sometimes, from cold and wet. The remedies are obnous. Change to suitable food in the first two cases ; enforce ab- stinence after repletion ; and provide warm, dry shelter, with lio'ht diet, if owincr to the latter causes. When severe or long continued, a dose of castor oil may be given, and after its operation, give four grains of opium and one ounce chalk, and put them on dry food. "VVheat-bran or shorts, and oat-meal or flaxseed g^^icl, are both good for ailing lambs and sheep ; as are also ripe oats or wheat, fed in the sheaf, with well cm-ed, sweet hay, and plenty of salt. Fresh boughs of the juniper, or pine and hemlock, help to check the disorder. Locseness in the larger lamhs is prevented by ha^dng chalk within their reach ; or if they refuse it, administer it in their food. When it happens soon after birth, place it with the 130 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. ewe in a warm place, and feed the latter with plenty of oats, or other soim4 grain. If the milk be deficient, give the lamb cow's milk scalded, or let it suck the cow. The tail is some- times glued on to the buttocks, while the scours continue. Separate it immediately by the use of warm water, and rub the parts with dry loam or clay. Dysentery. This is a different and frequently a fatal disease, but re- sembles the former in its general symptoms. It is owing to prolonged diarrhoea, unwholesome or meager food, and other causes. Bleeding and physic should be resorted to, after which give warm, nourishing gruel. noven. For descrijJtion and remedies, see hoven in cattle. Braxy. This is manifested by uneasiness, loathing of food, frequent drinking, carrying the head down, drawing the back up, swollen belly, feverish symptoms, and avoidance of the flock. It appears mostly in late autumn and spring, and may be in- duced by exposure to severe stoims, plunging in water when hot, and especially by constipation brought on by feeding on frostbitten, putrid, or indigestible herbage. Remedies u.re not often successful, unless promptly applied. Bleed freely, and to effect this, in consequence of the stagnant state of the blood, immersion in a tub of hot water may be necessary. Then give two ounces Epsom salts, dissolved in warm water, with a handful of common salt. If this is unsuccessful, give a clyster made with a pipe-full of tobacco, boiled for a few minutes in a pint of water. Administer half, and if this is not effectual, follow with the remainder. Then beu. ilie animal in dry straw and cover w^ith • blankets, and assist the purgatives with warm gruels, followed by laxative provender till well. — [BlacMoch.) Thou- sands of sheep have died on the prairies from braxy, in- duced by exposure and miserable forage. Entire preven- tion is secured by warm, dry shelters, and nutriti3us, digesti- ble food. DigEASES IN SHEEP. 181 Costiveness. This is removed by giving two tablespoonfuls of castor oil every twelve hours, till the difficulty is removed ; or give one omice Epsom salts. This may be assisted by an injection of warm, weak suds and molasses. Stretches. Sheep sometimes stretch out their noses on the ground, and around their sides, as if in severe pain. This may be caused by an involution of one part of the intestine within another. When owing to this cause, the difficulty is frequently re- moved by jerking the animal by the hind-legs several times, when the pain disappears. But it is generally occasioned by costiveness, which see above. This may be prevented by using green food, roots, (fee, once a week, or by allowing them to browse on the ever- greens, pines, hemlock, and firs. Poison, From laurel and other plants, is cured by poming a gill of melted lard down the throat, or boil for an hour the twigs of the white ash, and give half to one gill of the strong hquor immediately ; to be repeated if not successful. Inflammation of the Lnngs. This is produced by improper exposm-e to cold and wet. The remedy for slight affections, is warm, dry shelter, and hght food. When severe, resort must be had to bleeding and purging freely, then to hght bran or Imseed mashes. Rot. This sometimes causes the death of a million of sheep in a single year in England, yet it is a disease almost unknown in this country. Foreign authorities ascribe it entirely to excessive humidity of chmate, wet pastm'es, or too watery food. The preventives are therefore obvious. After the use of dry food and dry bedding, one of the best is the abundant use of pure salt. In violent attacks, early bleeding, followed by a dose of two ounces Epsom salts, to be repeated if neces- sary, with a change of diet and location, is all that can be done. 132 DOMESTIC ANIMAL,-^. Foot-Rot. This is frequently a p'revalent disease among American sheep. It is sometimes spontaneous, but more often pro- duced by contagion. In the former case, it is caused by soft, rich, or moist pastures. A dry grarelly or rocky range, will of course be an efifectual preventive when owing to this cause. The disorder is communicated by the absorbents of the foot coming in contact with the suppuration which has been left on the ground from the diseased part. Absolute safety g^gainst this contagion is secured only by a total avoidance of the walks of the infected animals, till repeated rains, or what is better, frosts, have disarmed the virus of its malignity. Remedies are variously compounded, of blue vitriol, verdigris, tar, spirits of turpentine, alum, saltpetre, salt, lime, copperas, white-lead, antimony, alcohol, uiine, vinegar, &c., all of wiiich have proved effectual. The hoof should first be pared and thoroughly scraped. Then apply a wash made of three parts of blue vitriol, one of verdigris pulverized finely, mth scalding (not boiling) vinegar; stirring briskly till it is of the consistence of thin cream, and put it upon the affected part with a paint brush. It is a good preventive, to apply this to the sound feet of the aftected animal. Another remedy is to use spirits of turpentine after scra- ping ; and if the disease is of long standing, add to the tur- pentine a strong decoction of blue vitriol dissolved in water. The foot should be examined every week, and the remedy re- peated till perfect soundness is restored. A feather dipped in muriatic or nitric acid, and applied to the parts after scraping and cleansing, is a good remedy. When put upon the soles of foot-sore sheep, it hardens the hoofs, and enables them to travel better. Sheep are sometimes cured by keeping them on a dry sur- face, and driving over a barn-floor daily, w^hich is well covered with quicklime. It may also be cured by dryness, and re- peated washing with soap-suds. The above ailment should not be confounded with a tempo- rary soreness, or inflammation of the hoof, occasioned by the irritation from the long, rough grasses which abound in low situations, which is removed with the cause ; or if it continues, apply white paint or tar, after thorough washing. rROTECTIOX FROM THE GAD-FLY. 133 Corrosion of the Fiesh by Flies or 3Iaggots, Maybe cuied by fii'st remo^^ng the vermin; then wash with Castile soap and warm soft water, after which apply white-lead with Ihiseed oil. Tar put on the festering womid corrodes it ; but this, or spirits of turpentine placed on the sound parts near it, kee^; off the flies by their strong effluvia. If tlie wound be slight, and the weather moderate, apply a little sj ii-its of turpentine with a strong decoction of elder bark. Flies on Sheep May be prevented by smearincr with a composition made of two pounds lard or soft grease, one pound sulphur, half pint oil of amber, or oil of tar, or tar alone. A small spoonful is suflScient for a sheep. — Genesee Farmer, Protection from the Gad-Fly. In July, August, and September, in the Northern states, the gad-fly {CEstus ovis) attacks the nostiils of the sheep, and there deposites its eggs,- which, on being hatched, immediately crawl up and make a lodgment in the I ead. They are frequently repelled by laying a thick coat of lar on the bottom of the troughs, and sprinkling it with salt. The smell of the tar ad- hering to the nose will drive off the fly. A more effectual remedy is to apply it thoroughly with a brush to the external part of the nose. If a few furrows of loose earth are turned up in their pas- tures, the sheep will hold their noses to them, and thus keep off the fly. The symptoms of gnibs in the head, are drooping of the head and ears, discharge of bloody and watery matter from the nostrils, and loss of strength in the limbs. If worms have made a lodgment, take half a pound of good Scotch snuff, and two quarts boilmg water : stir, and let it stand till cold. Inject about a tablespoonful of this liquid and sed- iment up each nostril, with a syringe. Repeat this three or four times at intervals, from the middle of October till Janua- ry : the grubs are then small, and will not have injured the sheep. The efficacy of the snuff will be increased, by adding half an ounce assafcetida, pounded in a little water. The ef- fev;t on the sheep is immediate prostration and apparent death, but they will soon recover. A decoction of tobacco will afford a substitute for snuff. — iV. Eng. Far. 12 134 DOMESTIC AMLVIALS. Blacklock's remedy is, to half fill tlie bowl of a pipe with tobacco, light it, and then hold the sheep, while a person in- serts the stem some distance into the nostril, and blows a few whiffs into the nose. The operation is then repeated with the other nostril. Swollen Mouth Is sometimes fatal. It is said to be cured by daubing the lips and mouth plentifully with tar. — Albany Cultivator. Fonl Noses. Dip a small swab into tar, then roll in salt. Put some on the nose, and compel the sheep to swallow a small quantity. — American Far. A disease indicated by drooping, running at the eyes, weak- ness in the back and loins, inabihty to use the hind legs, was removed by turning the sheep into a pasture containing lobe- lia, [Indian tobacco.) Dried lobelia was also given, and pro- duced the same effect. — Cultivator ^ Scab. This loathsome disease, to which fine-wooUed sheep are par- ticularly liable, is caused, like itch in the human subject, by a small insect, a species of the acari. It is first manifest by the rubbing of the sheep, and soon after by one or more tufts of wool, which is loosened at the roots. On feeling the skin, a hard, dry lumor is perceptible. To prevent contagion, re- move the infected sheep to a separate pasture or yard as soon as discovered. Remedies. — The Spanish shepherds dissolve a little salt in their mouth, and drop it upon the infected part. When the tumor has become enlarged, the wool should be removed closely to the skin, the scab scraped with a curry- comb, then wash with strong soap-suds or ley, and afterwards rub thoroughly with sulphur or brimstone, mixed with lard or grease. An effectual remedy is prepared by taking one pound of to- bacco, which add to 12 quarts ley from wood ashes of suffi- cient strength for washing, and four quarts urine ; to this add another mixture of a gill high-wines ; ^ oz. camphor ; \ oz. Spanish brown, and ^ gill spirits of turpentine. A small quan- tity of this applied to the sore will never fail. .Imraediately after shearing, scab may readily be cured by TICKS AND LICE PELT-ROT. 135 hnmersing tlie sheep, (excepting the head,) in a strong decoc- tion of tobacco hquor, adding a gill of spirits of turpentine for the first, and making a slight addition of fresh liquid for each sheep, enough to keep up the strength of the tobacco and tur- pentine, and taking care to rub the affected part thoroughly. For lambs, this liquor should be diluted, but yet left strong enough to kill ticks in one or two minutes, which may be ascertained by experiment. Scab is also removed by using a composition of one pound plug tobacco to three gallons of water, with lime-water and oil of \itriol added ; or a decoction of hellebore with vinegar, sulphur, and spirits of turpentine. — {^H. D. Grove.) Scab is propagated more by using the same rubbing posts, than by contact with each other. Sheep in low condition are more subject to it than others. Ticks and Lice Sometimes infest sheep. Good feeding ana shelter is a partial preventive, but when they have made their lodgment, they must be dipped in a decoction of t-obacco water. The most effectual time for their destruction, is a few days after shearing, when they will ha^-e left the naked bodies of the old ewes, to hide in the fleeces of the lambs. The dipping in tobacco water, with the addition of a small quantity of tur- pentine, is an effectual remedy. After dipping the sheep or lambs, the liquor should be pressed out from the avooI, upon an inclined plane, so arranged as ascain to run into the vessel. •» Pelt-rot Will be recognised as one of the staple diseases of our native sheep, described on page 89. The wool in this case falls off, leaving the sheep partially or almost wholly naked ; but this is not accompanied v\'ith soreness or apparent disease. The animal must be provided with a warm stall and generous feed, and the naked skin should be anointed with tar and grease. The preventive is good keeping and shelter. Staggers or Sturdy, and Water in the Head, Som- jtimes affect sheep, but more especially lambs under a year old. The first is caused by the hydatid. It is considered 130 DOMESTIC \NIMALS. as an almost incurable disorder, but is sometimes removed Dy trepanning. Chancellor Livingston carefully supplied two thus attacked, with food for three months, when nature eflfected a cure. Re- moval to dry lands and purging, is a good precaution when they are first taken. An English lad lately cured one which had been given up, by boring with a gimlet into the soft place on the head, when the water rushed out, and the sheep immediately followed the others to the pasture. A correspondent of the Albany Cultivator asserts, that ^ a pu:t of melted lard poured down the throat, will cure blind staggers in ten minutes. Abortion Occurs sometimes, and is usually caused by excessive fright or exertion, and sometimes by severe exposure and poor feed. It is seldom fatal, except to the lamb. The Uterus Is occasionally protruded after lambing. It should be im- mediately returned, first washing it in warm milk and water, if any dirt adheres to it. For this, the hand only should be used. After rubbing it with lard or oil, hold up the hind legs, and gently replace the protruded parts, then keep the ewe quiet till fully recovered. For Garget, or Caked Bag. Keep the bag thoroughly drained of milk, for which purpose the lamb is the most efficient. If it is lost, another may be temporarily substituted. Purge freely with Epsom salts, and wash the udder repeatedly with very warm water. If matter forms, it should be opened with the lancet. Bleeding. "Nothing tends so much to the recovt../ of an animal from a disease in which bleeding is required, as the rapid flow of the blood from a large orifice. Little impressioi\ can be made on an acute disease by the siow removal of even a large quantity of blood, as the organs have time to accommodate themselves to the loss, which might, for any good it will do, as well be dispensed with. Either bleed rapidly, or not at all. The nearer the commen':'cment of an ailment, in which you em- iJLEEDING. .37 ploy bleeding, the operation is ]-esorted to, the gieater tho chance of its doing good. Bleeding by nicking the under surface of the tail, does very well, where no great deal of blood is required, but it is not to be thought of if the veins of the face or neck can possibly be opened. These are to. be taken in pi-eference to a vein on the leg, as they are much more readily got at. The facial vein commences by small branches on the side of the face, and runs downwards and backwaids to the base of the jaw, where it may be felt within two inches of the angle, or opposite the middle grinding tooth. It is here that the orifice must be made : the thumb of the left hand being held against the vein, so as to prevent the flow of blood towards the heart, will make it rise. Some prefer opening the jugular vein, which commences behind the eye and runs down the side of the neck. T'liis vessel is, however, more difficult to open than the former, be- ing better covered with wool, and not so easily exposed or made to swell. Stringing is the mode commonly resorted to for this end ; that is to say, a cord is drawn tightly round the* neck close to the shoulder, so as to stop the circulation througl? the vein, and render it perceptible to the finger. A lancet is the instrimient generally used in bleeding, though a well-pointed penknife will do at a pinch. The opening must always be made obliquely ; btit before attempting this, the animal must be secured, by placing it between the operator's legs, with its croup against a wall. The selected vein is then fixed by the fingers of the operator's left hand, so as to pre- vent its rolling or slipping before the lancet. Having fairly entered the vein, the point of the instrument must be elevated at the same time that it is pushed a little forward, by which motion it will be lifted from or cut its way out of the vein. A i^rescrihed quantity of hlood should never he draion, for the simple reason that this can never be precisely stated. If the symptoms are urgent, as in all hkelihood they will be, your best plan is not to stop the flow of blood till the animal fall or is about to fall. When this occurs, run a pin through the edges of the orifice, and finish by tv/isting round it a lock of wool."— {BlacMock.) Large cuts are healed By first sewing and then covering" with salve. Smaller may be secured with an adhes've plaster or bandage. 12^ 138 DOMESTIC AXIMALS. To protect lambs from wolves and foxes, Smeai the neck plentifully witli a mixture of tar and sul- phur. Bells are also said to guard the flock, as both are ex- cessively wary, and have a great dishke to any thing ai-tificial. Large dogs will keep them at bay. A better remedy is to kOl the marauders, which may be done by inserting strychnine in fresh meat and leavinsf it in their haunts. CHAPTER V, THE HORSE. Ix nearly all ages and countries, the horse has been the devoted servant, and the object of the pride and afiection of man. Among the semi-ci^dlized Tartars of Middle and North- ern Asia ; the aborigines of our remote Western prairies, reaching even beyond the Rocky Mountains, and many other rude nations, his flesh is used for food. Most of the tribes among the former use the milk for domestic purposes, and especially when fermented and changed to an unpleasantly sour and intoxicating beverage. But throughout the civilized world, with some slight exceptions, the horse is useful only for his labor. For this purpose he is pre-eminently fitted by his compact, closely-knit frame ; his sinewy, muscular Hmbs ; his easy, rapid stride ; his general form, and entire structure and habits. He is found in his wild condition in Central Asia, Siberia, and the interior of Africa ; and for 300 years he has been turned loose to follow his native instincts on the illimitable pampas of South America, and the wide-spread prairies of Mexico and California. In all these regions he closely resem- bles the medium varieties of the domesticated horse ; but as the natural result of his freedom, he possesses more fire and spii it than any other, except the blood-horse. Arabia is generally claimed as the original native locahty of the horse, and as the only source frcm which he is to be de- rived in the requisite perfection for the highest improvement of the race. But Strabo, who wrote more than 1,800 jeavs ago, asserts that the horse did not then flomish in Arabia, and it was not till some centrries later that h3 attained any de- THE HORSE. 139 cided supeiioiity there. Great attention, however, has been paid in that country, since ihe era Df Mahomet, to breeding a light, agile, and enduring frame ; intelhgence and tractability of character; and the perpetuation of these quahties by the most scrupulous regard for the purity of blood. This is equally true of the Barb or pure-bred horse of Mo- rocco, and those of the northern coast of Africa, in Egypt, among the Turks, and indeed wherever the followers of the Prophet are to be found. It is unquestionable, that the influ- ence of the Eastern blood among the choicest animals of mod- em Europe, has been followed by great improvements in racing stock. Yet it is equally certain, that the race-horse, both of England and the United States, has accomphshed what has never been demonstrated as w^ithin the ability of their progen- itors ; and on repeated trials with the Eastern horses, he has shoAvn himself confessedly their superior in speed, strength, and endunmce. In 1825, two English horses ran against the two fleetest Cossacks which could be found throughout the entire region of their best blood, and in a continued race of 47 miles, the European took the stakes ; Sharper, the most successful, per- forming the distance in 2 hours and 48 minutes. About the same time. Recruit, an English horse of moderate reputation, easily beat Pyramus, the best Arabian on the Bengal side of India. The Leeds, the Darley, and the Godolphin Arabian ; the Lister and D'Arcey's White Turk, and other noted Eastern horses, would not compare in performance with many of their descendants. But these, with some other choice Arabians, on the best mares, and with every advantage for obtaining celeb- rity, have succeeded in establishing a fame as just as it has been enduring. Yet it must at the same time be remembered, that of the innumerable other pure-bred horses which have been tried in Europe, a few only have rescued their names from oblivion. The experience of Eastern blood in this countiy, in compar- ison ^-ith the best English, is decidedly in favor of the latter. We have had one horse of unsurpassed excellence, which a fortunate accident threw upon our shores a short time previous to 1770. This was the white Barb Ranger, which was pre- sented by the Emperor of Morocco, as the choice of his stud, to an English naval oflicer for some distinguished service. On his route homeward, the animal was set on shore for exercise at an intermer'iate port, where in his gambols lie broke three 140 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. of his legs, and tliinking him worthless, his owner gave him to the commander of a New England merchantman, then present. He was readily accepted, and placed in slings on board of Ms vessel, and recovered. TMs animal stood for many years, in the eastern part of Connecticut ; and on their good mares, produced a numerous progeny of unrivalled cavalry horses, which rendered invalu- able services in the troop commanded by that consummate partisan, Captain (afterwards General) Lee, of the Revolution. It is said the favorite white field-horse of General Washington was of the same stock. He was afterwards sold to Captain Lindsey, as a special favor, and taken to Virginia, where he produced some good racers. Bussorah, a small sorrel horse, brought into this country in 1819, from the head of the Persian Gulf, got many choice roadsters, though no racers of celebrity. The Narraganset pacers, a race belonging to our Northern states, but for many years almost extinct, possessed for a long time an unrivalled reputation for spirit, endurance, and easv rapid motion under the saddle. They are said to have origi- nated from a Spanish horse, many of which are pure descend- ants of the Barb. As an offset to these isolated examples of success in this country, we have numerous instances of the importation of the best Orientals, Avhich have been extensively used on some of our superior mares, without any marked effect. We shall refer to three prominent importations only. The first consisted of two choice Arabians, or Barbs, selected m Tunis by General Eaton, and sent to his estate in Massachu- setts. The second was a present of four choice Barbs, from the' Emperor of Morocco to our government, in 1830 ; and the third consisted of two Arabians, sent by the Imaum of Mus- cat, near the Persian Gulf, to our government in 1840. These were all claimed to be, and no doubt were, of the pure Koch- lani, the unadulterated line royal ; yet none have earned any distinguished reputation, either by their own performances or those of their descendants. It is to England we are mainly indebted for the great im- provement in our blood, road, and farm horses. A numerous race of fine horses was reared on that island, long previous to its authentic history ; for, in his first invasion Julius Caesar took many of them to Rome, where they immediately became great favorites, although she had already plundered every i*3gion of some of their best breeds. THE HORSE. 141 What miglit have been the particular meiit of .lie English horse at the time of the ISTorman invasion, is no kmiwn, but it is certain that the Saxon cavalry under Harold were speed- ily overpowered by William, at the battle of Hastings, which at once secured the throni to the Conqueror. History first informs us of the improvement of British horses, by importa- tions from abroad during this reign, which consisted of a num- ber of Spanish stallions. These were supposed to be strongly imbued with the Arabian blood, which had been brought over to that country by the Moors, who had founded the Saracenic empire in the Peninsula, three centuries before. More than a century later, John made some importations from Flanders, to give weight and substance to their draught and cavalry horses. The improvement of their various breeds was afterwards pur- sued, with more or less judgment and zeal, by other British monarchs, till they reached their highest excellence during the middle of the last century. Flymg Childers, Eclipse, Highflyer, and others on the course, have pi obably exceeded in speed anything ever before accom- plished , while the draught-horse, the roadster, the hackney, the cavalry-horse, and the hunter, attained a merit at that time which some judicious authorities claim has not been since in- creased. It is even asserted, that some of the more serviceable breeds have been seriously injured by too great an infusion of the blood ; while the almost universal absence of long heats on the turf has tended to the improvement of speed rather than bottom in the race-horse. The improvement of the horse in this coimtry has not been a matter of record or history, till within a comparatively recent period. But it has silently, and with no little rapidity, been ^'oing forward for more than a century, till we have obtained a race of animals, throughout the Eastern and Middle states at least, which probably equal those of any other country for adaptedness to draught, the road, and the saddle. This im- provement has been mainly brought about by the importation of some of the best and stoatest of the English blood. In breed- ing from these for purposes of utility, particular rciference has been paid to strength, enduringufss, and speed. No horses surpass our best four-mile bloods ; none equal our trriters ; and though much inequality exists in those bred for ^ arious other uses, yet for profitable service, it is believed, no equal number of animals elsewhere can exceed those in the region above indicated. It woidd be a superfluous task to attempt enumerating aU 142 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. the imported horses that have contributed to this improvement. Each good animal has done something. But among the ear- her horses which may he named with distinction, as having effected much for our useful beasts, are Lath, Wildair, Slender, Sourkrout, Tallyho, Figure, Bay Richmond, Expedition, Baro- net, and a host of others. Pre-eminent among these, was imported Messenger. He was foaled in 1780, imported in 1788, and died in 1808. He stood in different places in New Jersey, and in Dutchess, Westchester, and Queens counties in New York ; and upon the mares derived from the foregoing and other good horses, he got a numerous progeny of illustrious descendants. Of these we may name those capital stalhons, Potomac, Hamlin- tonian. Bay Figure, Engineer, Mambrino, Tippoo Saib, Colum- bus, Gunn's, and Bushe's Messenger, and many others, which were extensively disseminated over the Northern and Middle states ; and he has the credit of imparting a large share of his merits to that nonpareil of horses, his grandson, American Eclipse. His posterity were so numerous and widely spread, that it may be safely asserted, that of the best horses bred in the above states, scarcely one can now be found which does not trace one or more crosses to this distinguished sire. His success in producing roadsters, besides his blood qualities of speed and endurance, consisted in his great strength, and the peculiar formation of his limbs, large forehand and deep quar- ters, in which he excelled any other of the imported bloods. As an illustration of what may be accomplished by judi- cious breeding with the present materials in our hands, we mention one family of the American roadster, which is strong- ly tinctured with blood, and which has attained an enviable notoriety among the choicest of the Northern horses. They are derived from the Morgan horse of Vermont, that was foaled in Springfield, Mass., in 1793. He was got by True Britton, supposed to have been bred by Gen. Delancey of New York, and got by imported Wildair, (or one of his sons,) a horse of such distinguished excellence, as to have been re- exported to England, for the benefit of his stock. The Morgan horse stood in Vermont from 1795 till his deatl , at an advanced age. From him and the choice mares of Vjrmont, descended many excellent colts ; and his merits were inherited in an eminent degree by three of his sons, which stood in the same state and continued the career of im- provement commenced by the sire. The result has been the production of a family of roadsters, of much similarity of ap- THE HORSE. 143 pearance* and uniformity of character, unsurpassed by any others for serviceable quahties. They are of medium size,, from 13 J to 15 hands high; with a well-formed head and neck ; high withers ; deep chest ; round body ; short back ; long quarters ; broad flat legs ; moderately small feet ; long wavy mane and tail ; presenting altogether the beau ideal of the road horse. They are spirit- ed, docile, hardy, and easily kept. They have an easy, rapid trot, and ghde along with a good load, without clatter or apparent effort, at the rate of ten or twelve miles an hour. This family of horses has not of course been bred long enough within themselves, to have attained to the eminence of a distinct breed. The j are mentioned, merely as a type of what the serv-iceable roadster ought to be, and what he may become by the use of the proper instruments for breeding. And if the materials already in our hands are intelhgently and perseveringly used, we can produce all we require of horse-flesh. Besides our unsurpassed blood-horses, we have others de- rived from various sources, and especially from the different English breeds, all of which are variously compounded, with the first and with each other. On our northeastern frontier, the Canadian prevails, a bastard but not degenerate race, made up of the French jS'orman and the Enghsh or American. At the extreme South and West, we have the horse of Spanish origin, obtained in his domestic state in Florida and Louisiana; and from another branch of the Spanish, are descended the wild horses of Mexico and the more northern prairies. These are diversified in character, and generally possess medium size and merit. The Conestoga, a heavy roadster, is principally reared in Pennsylvania, and is used for the team and truck. He is an amalgamation of several breeds, but probably owes a share of his character to the Flemish horse, for which there was a decided partiality among the numerous German emi- grants of that state. Several varieties of j^onies are to be found in difl'erent sec- tions, but principally among the French, the half-breed, and the Indians upon the frontiers, w'ho have bred a stunted race from the Canadian or wild-horse, and such others as could * Many of the Morgan horses have the steep rump and heavy breast anil neck, which indicate a Norman cross on the side of their dams. These have beec iargely imparted through the French horse in the adjoining Canadian settle irient5'; but none of these are said to have characterized the founder of the rac3. 144 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. sur\ivf, the hard usage aPxd scanty winter food afforded by nature and then- rude husbandry. Many of these have con- siderable beauty and symmetry, and are fleet, hardy, and spirited. Fig. 27. Nonnan Hon The modem JYorman, or mixture of the old Frencli Noi man draught-horse, (heavy-framed, big-hmbed, but stout and hardy,) and the Andakisian, a descendant of the Moorish barbs, has been introduced within a few years, and will un- ques-tionably become a very popular horse for many purposes. He exhibits the quahties of both ancestry in the proper pro- portions for farm service. He has a thick head ; lively, pricfe THE HORSE. 145 Bars ; sliort, heavy neck ; large breast and shoulders ; strong limbs ; well-knit back ; large quarters, with much wavy mane, tail, and fetlock. Like hk French progenitor, he frequently stands low in the withers, which enables him to throw great freight into the collar ; and the diminished, flattened leg, the wind and game derived from his Mooiish blood, give him much of the capacity and endurance of the thorough-bred. The English cart-horse has for a long time made up some of the best, heavy dray-horses in the country, and late importa- tions have refreshed the breed with additional choice speci- mens. The Cleveland hay has been introduced of late, and promises good carriage-horses from our well-spread, sizeable mares. The I\^orfolk trotter Belfounder was imported many years since, and with our high-bred mares, has produced many choice roadsters and trotters. The remainder of our horse-flesh deser\'ing of any notice, is chiefly composed of such as are superior in point of blood. The improvement in the American horse, from this source, is conspicuous and decided. Judicious breeders still look for quahties in the descendants, which they sought for in their imported skes, and the infusion of some of the stoutest of the blood is rapidly gaining an ascendency in the general stock. Our intelhgent agriculturists should look to this subject closely, and not permit this system to proceed to an extent that may be prejudicial to their value as draught-horses, as has be^n done in some portions of England and our Southern states. There is no danger from excess of blood, if it be of the right kind ; but it is seldom found combining that fulness and stout- ness, and that docility and tractableness of disposition, which are essential to the gig-horse or the horse of all work. Yorke says truly, that "the road -horse may possess different degrees of blood, according to the nature of the country and the work required of him. [He might have added with propriety, and according to the clmracter of the l)lood7\^ His legs will be too slender ; his feet too small ; his stride too long, and he will rarely be able to trot. Three parts, or half, and for the horse of all v\^ork, even less than that, will make a good and useful animal." For the saddle only, the high-bred, if not disposed to be vicious, is never objectionable to an enterprising and accomplished rider. His long elastic pasterns, giving easy, flexible motions ; his quick and almost electrical obedience when under thorough discipline ; his habitual canter and high spirit, always commend him for this purpose. 13 146 DOMESTIC \X1MALS. Fig. 28. Points of a Horse. 1. Muzzle —2. Race.— 3. Forehead.— 4. Poll.— 5. Crest.— 6. Withers.— 7. Back;— 8. Loins.— 9. Hip.— 10. Croup.— 11. Dock.— 12. Quarter.— 13. Thigh, or Gaskin.— 14. Ham-string.— 15. Point of the Hock.— 16. Cannon.— 17. Fetlock.— 18. Large Pastern.— 19. Small Pastern —20. Hoof.— 21. Coronet.— 22. Ham, or Hock.— 23. Sheath.— 24. Flank.— 25. Girth.— 26. Elbow.— 27. Heel.— 28. Hoof.— 29. Small Pas- tern.—30. Large Pastern.— 31. Fetlock.— 32. Cannon.— 33. Knee.— 34. Arm.— 33. Breast, or Bosom.— 36. Point of the Shoulder.— 37. Windpipe.— 38. Gullet.— 39. JowL Some of the prominent external points of a fine Saddle or Gig Horse, Are, a moderately small head, free from fleshiness ; fine muzzle and expansive nostrils ; broad at the throat and wide between the eyes, which denotes intelhge-nce and com'age ; a dished face indicates high breeding, and sometimes viciousness ; a convex or Roman nose frequently betokens the reverse ; the ears rather long, yet so finely formed as to appear small, and playing quicldy like those of a deer ; the eyes clear, full, and confident, with a steady forward look. Glancing them back- ward or askance with a sinister expression, and with none or only a slight movement of the head, is indicative of a mis- chievous temper. The neck should be handsomely arched, and fine at the junction with the head, while the lower extremity must be full and muscular, and well expanded at the breast and shoul- ders. The latter ought to be high and run well back ; the withers strong, firmly knit, and smooth ; tiie breast neither totrike his belly with his feet, and ciouch in a peculiar man- ner, advancing his hind limbs under him ; he will then sud- denly Ue^^or rather fall down, and balance himself upon his back, with his feet resting on his belly. The pain now seems to cease for a little while, and he gets up and shakes himself, and begins to feed ; the respite, however, is but short — the spasm returns more violently — every indication of pain is in- creased— he heaves at the fl>.\rks, breaks out into a profust» SPASMODIC COLIC. 157 peispiration, and throws himself more recklessly about. In the space of an hour or two, either the spasms begin to relax, and the remissions are of longer duration, or the torture is augmented at every paroxysm ; the intervals of ease are fewer and less marked, and inflammation and death super- vene. The pulse is but little affected at the commencement, but it soon becomes frequent and conti acted, and at length is scarcely tangible. Amono^ the causes of colic are, the drinkincr of cold water when the horse is heated. There is not a surer origin of vio- lent spasm than this. Hard water is very apt to produce this effect. Cohc will sometimes follow the exposure of a horse to the cold air or a cold wind after strong exercise. Green food, although, generally speaking, most beneficial to the horse, yet, given in too large a quantity, or when he is hot, will frequently produce gripes. Doses of aloes, both large and small, are not unfrequent causes of colic. In some horses there seems to be a constitutional predis- position to colic. They cannot be hardly worked, or exposed tc unusual cold, without a fit of it. In many cases, when these horses have died, calculi have been found in some part of the alimentary canal. Habitual costiveness and the presence of calculi, are frequent causes of spasmodic colic. The seat of colic is occasional!}^ the duodenum, but oftener the ileum or the jejunum ; sometimes, however, both the caecum and colon are affected. Fortunately, we are acquainted with several medicines that allay these spasms ; and the disease often ceases as suddenly as it appeared. Remedies. — Turpentine is one of the most powerful remedies, especially in union with opium, and in good warm ale. A so- lution of aloes will be advantageously added to the turpen- tine and opium. If relief is not obtained in half an hour, it will be prudent to bleed, for the continuance of violent spasm may produce inflammation. Some practitioners bleed at first, and it is far from bad practice ; for although the majority of cases will 3neld to turpentine, opium, and aloes, an early bleeding may occasionally prevent the- recurrence of inflam- mation, or at least mitigate it. If it is clearly a case of colic, half of the first dose may be repeated, with aloes dissolved in warm water. The stimulus produced on the inner surface of the bowels by the purgative, may counteract the irritation that caused the spasm. The belly should be well rubbed with a brush or warm cloth, but not bruised and injured by the broom-handle rubbed o\e.t 14 158 DOMESTIC A\IMAL». it, with ;ill tliei'. strength, by two great fellows. The horse should be walked about or trotted moderately. The motion thus produced in the bowels, and the friction of one intestine over the other, may relax the spasm, but the hasty gallop might speedily cause inflammation to succeed to colic. Clysters of warm water, or containing a solution of aloes, should be injected. The patent syringe will here be exceedingly useful. A clyster of tobacco-smoke may be thrown up as a last resort. When relief has been obtained, the clothing of the horse, saturated "vvith perspiration, should be removed, and fresh and dry clothes substituted. He should be well littered down in a warm stable or box, and have bran mashes and lukewarm wa- ter for the two or three next days. Some persons give gin, or gin and pepper, or even spirit of pimento, in cases of gripes. This course of proceeding is, however, exceedingly objection- able. It may be useful, or even sufficient, in ordinary cases of colic ; but if there should be any inflammation, or tendency to inflammation, it cannot fail to be highly injurious. Flatulent Colic. This is altogether a diff"erent disease from the former. It is not spasm of the bowels, but inflation of them, from the pres- ence of gas emitted by undigested food. Whether collected in the stomach, or small or large intestines, all kinds of vege- table matter are liable to ferment. In consequence of this fermentation gas is evolved to a greater. or less extent-— per- haps to twenty or thirty times the bulk of the food. This may take place in the stomach ; and if so, the life of the horse is in immediate danger, for the animal has no power to expel this dangerous flatus by eructation. The symptoms, according to Professor Stewart, are, *' The horse suddenly slackening his pace, preparing to lie down, or falling down, as if he were shot. In the stable he paws the ground with his fore-feet, lies down, rolls, starts up all at once, and throws himself down again mth great violence, looking wistfully at his flanks, and making many fruitless attempts to void^is urine." The treatment is considerably diff'erent from that of spas- modic colic. The spirit of pimento would be here allowed, or the turpentine and opium drink ; but if the pain, and espe- cially the swellmg, do not abate, the gas, which is the cause of it, must be 2:ot rid of, or the animal is inevitably lost. This I\FI>AMMATIO\ >F THE BOWELS. 159 is usually, or almost invariably, a combination of hydroo-en with some other gas. It has a strong affinity for chlorine. Then if some compound of chlorine — the chloride of lime — dissolved in water, is administered in the form of a drink, the chlorine separates from the lime as soon as it comes in contact with the hydrogen, and muriatic gas is formed. This gas, having a strong affinity for Avater, is absorbed by any fluid that may be present, and, quitting its gaseous form, either disap- pears, or does not retain a tliousandth part of its former bulk. All this may be very rapidly accomplished, for the fluid is quickly conveyed from the mouth to every part of the intes- tinal canal. Where these two medicines are not at hand, and the dano-er is imminent, the trocJtar may be used, in order to open a way for the escape of the gas. The trochar should be small, but longer than that which is used for the cow, and the puncture should be made in the middle of the light flank, for there the large intestines are most easily reached. It is only when the practitioner despairs of otherwise saving the hfe of the animal, that this operation should be at :empted. Much of the danger would be avoided by using a very small trochar, and by with- drawing it as soon as the gas has escaped. The wound in the intestines will then pi'obably close, from the innate elas- ticity of the parts. Inflammation of the Bowels. There are two varieties -if this malady. The first is inflam- mation of the external coats of the intestines, accompanied by considerable fever, and usually costiveness. The second is that of the internal or mucous coat, and almost invariably connect- ed with purging. The muscular coat is that which is oftenest aff"ected. Inflammation of the external coats of the stomach, whether the peritoneal or muscular, or both, is a very fre- quent and fatal disease. It speedily runs its course, and it is of great consequence that iis early symptoms should be known. Sijinptoms. — If the horse has been carefully observed, rest- lessness and fever will have been seen to precede the attack. In many cases a direct shivering fit will occur ; the mouth will be hot, and the nose red. The animal will soon express the most dreadful pain by pawing, striking at his belly, look- ing Avildly at his flanks, groaning, and rolling. The pulse will be quickened and small ; the ears and legs cold ; the bell} tender, and sometimes hot ; the breathing quickened ; too DOMESTIC ANIMALS. the bowels costive ; and the animal becoming rapidly and fear* fully weak. Tlw causes of this disease are, iirst of all and most fre- quen'tiy, sudden exposure to cold. If a horse that has been highly fed, carefully groomed, and kept in a warm stable, is heated with exercise, and has been during some hours without food, and in this state of exhaustion is suffered to drink freely of cold water, or is drenched with rain, or have his legs and belly washed with cold water, an attack of inflammation of the bowels will often follow. An overfed horse, subjected to severe and long-continued exertion, if his lungs were previ- ously weak, will probably be attacked by inflammation of them ; but if the lungs were sound, the bowels will on the following day be the seat of disease. Stones in the intestines are an occasional cause of inflammation, and colic neglected or wrongly treated will terminate in it. Remedies. — The treatment of inflammation of the bowels, like that of the lungs, should be prompt and energetic. The first and most powerful mean ^ of cure will be bleeding. From six to eight or ten quarts of blood, in fact as much as the horse can bear, should be abstracted as soon as possible; and the bleeding repeated to the extent of four or five quarts more, if the pain is not relieved and the pulse has not become rounder and fuller. The speedy weakness that accompanies this dis- ease, should not deior from bleeding largely. That Aveakness is the consequence of violent inflammation of these parts ; and if that inflammation is subdued by the loss of blood, the weak- ness will disappear. The bleeding should be effected on the first appearance of the disease, for there is no malady that more quickly runs its course. A strong solution of aloes should unmediately follow the bleeding, but, considering the irritable state of the intestines at this period, guarded by opium. This should be quickly fol- lowed by back-raking, and injections consisting of warm water, or very thin gruel, in which Epsom salts or aloes have been dissolved ; and too much fluid can scarcely be thrown up. The horse should likewise be encouraged to drink plentifully of warm water or thin gruel ; and draughts, each containing a couple of drachms of dissolved aloes, with a httle opium, should be given every six hours, until the bowels are freely opened. It will now be prudent to endeavor to excite con- siderable external inflammation, as near as possible to the seat of internal disease, and therefore the whole of the belly should be blistered. INFLAMMATION UF THE BOWELS. IGi In a well-marked case of this disease, no time should be lost in applying fomentations, but the blister at once resorted to. The tincture of Spanish fiies, whether made with spirits of wine or turpentine, should be thoroughly rubbed in. The legs should be well bandaged, in order to restore the circula- tion in them, and thus lessen the flow of blood to the inflamed part ; and, for the same reason, the horse should be warmly clothed, but the air of the stable or box should be 300I. No grain or hay should be allowed during the disease, but bran mashes, and green food if it can be procured. The latter will be the best, and may be given withou . the slightest ap- prehension of danger. When the horse begins to recover, a handful of grain may be given two or three times in the day ; and, if the weather is warm, he may be turned into a paddock for a few hours in the middle of the day. Clysters of gruel sliould be continued for three or four days after the inflamma- tion is beginning to subside, and good hand-rubbing applied to the legs. Tlie second variety of Inflammation of the Bowels Aff'ects the internal or mucous coat, and is generally the consequence of physic in too great quantity, or of an improper kind. The purging is more violent and continues longer than was intended ; the animal shows that he is suffering great pain; he frequently looks round at his flanks ; his breathing is la- borious, and the pulse is quick and small, and the mouth is hot and the legs and ears are warm. Remedies. — Unless the purging is excessive, and the pain and distress great, the surgeon sL.')uld hesitate at giving any astringent medicine at first ; but he should plentifully adminis- ter gruel or thin starch, or arrow-root, by the mouth and by clyste:", removing all hay and grain, and particularly green food. He should thus endeavor to soothe the irritated surface of the bowels, while he permits all remains of the purgative to be carried off". If, however, twelve hours have passed, and the purging and the pain remain undiminished, he should con- tinue the gruel, adding to it chalk, catechu, and opium, re peated every six hours. As soon as the purging begins to subside, the astringent medicine should be lessened in quantity, and gradually discontinued. Bleedmg will rarely be necessary, unless the inflammation is very great, and attended by symptoms of general fever. The horse shoulc be warmly clothed, and placed in a coit«' 14^- 102 DOMl'.STIC ANIMALS. fortable stable, and his legs should be hand-rubbed and bandao'ed. o Violent purging, and attended with much inflammation and fever, will occur from other causes. Green food will fre- quently purge ; and a horse worked hard upon it will sometimes scour. The remedy is change of diet, or less labor. Young horses will often be strongly purged, without any apparent cause. Astringents should be used "with much caution here. It is probably an effort of nature to get rid of something that offends A few doses of gruel will assist in effecting this purpose, and the purging will cease without astringent medicine. Many horses that are not loell rihhed home (having too great space between the last rib and the hip-bone) are subject to purging, if more than usual exertion is required from them. They are recognised by the term of ivashg horses. They are often free and fleet, but destitute of continuance. They should have rather more than the usual allowance of grain, with beans, when at work. A cordial ball, with catechu and opium, will often be serviceable either before or after a journey. Physicking. When a horse comes from grass to dry food, or from the cool, open air to a heated stable, a dose, or even two doses, of physic may be useful to prevent the tendency to inflamma- tion, which is the necessary consequence of so sudden and ofreat a chano-e. To a horse that is becominQ* too fat, or has surfeit, grease, or mange, or that is out of condition from inac- tivity of the dig'estive organs, a dose of physic is often most serviceable. A horse should be carefully prepared for the action of physic. Two or three bran mashes given on that or the preceding day, are far from sufficient when a horse is about to be physicked, whether to promote his condition, or in obe- dience to custom. Mashes should be given until the d^.mg becomes softened. A less quantity of physic Avill then suffice, and it will more quickly pass through the intestines, and be more readily diffused over them. Five drachms of aloes, given when the dung has thus been softened, will act more effectually and much mor€ safely than seven drachms, when the lower intestines are obstructed by hardened feces. On the day on which the physic is given, tlie horse should have walking exercise, or may be gently trot- ted for a quarter of an hour twice in the day ; but after the PHY5ICK ?fG. 163 physic begins to work, he should not be moved from his stall. Exercise would then produce giipes, irritation, and, possiblv dangerous inflammation. A little hay may be put into the rack. As much mash should be given as the horse will eat, and as much water, with the coldness of it taken oflf, as he will drink. If, however, he obstinately refuses to Irink warm water, it is better that he should have it cold, than to continue without taking any fluid ; but in such case he should not be suff"ered to take more than a quart at a time, with an interval of at least an hour between each draught. When the purging has ceased, or the physic is set, a mash should be given once or twice every day until the next dose is taken, between which and the setting of the first, there should be an interval of a week. The horse should recover from the languor and debihty occasioned by the first dose, before he is harassed by a second. Eight or ten tolerably copious mo- tions, will be perfectly suflftcient to answer e^ery good purpose, although the groom may not be satisfied unless double the quantity are procured. The consequence of too strong purga- tion will be, that weaknf'ss will hang about the animal for sev- eral days or weeks, ana inflammation will often ensue from the over-in'itation of the intestinal canal. Long-continued custom has made aloes the almost invaria- ble purgative of the horse, and very properly so ; for there is no other at once so sm-e and so safe. The Barbadoes aloes, although sometimes very dear, should alone be used. The dose, with a horse properly prepared, will vary from four to seven drachms. Custom has assigned the form of a ball to physic, but good sense will in due time introduce the solution of aloes, as acting more speedily, eftectually, and safely. The only other purgative on which dependence can be placed is the CROTox. The farina or meal of the mit is generally used ; but from its acj-imony it should be given in the foim of ball, Avith linseed meal. The dose varies from a scruple to half a drachm. It acts more speedily than the aloes, and without the nausea whicl they produce ; but it causes more watery stools, and, consequently, more debility. LixsEED OIL is an uncertain but safe purgative, in doses from a poimd to a pound and a half. Olive oil is more un- certain, but safe ; but castor oil, that mild aperient in the human being, is both uncertain and unsafe^. Epsom salts are ineflEicacious, except in the immense dose of a pound and a half, and then they are not always safe. 164 D(jmestic ax[.mal.s. Worms. The long white 'vorm {lumbricus terrs) much resembles the common earth-worm, and bemg from six to ten inches in length, inhabits the small intestines. It is a formidable looking ani- mal ; and if there are many of them, they may consume more than can be spared of the nutritive part of the food, or tlie mu&us of the bowels. A tight skin, and rough coat, and tucked-up belly, are sometimes connected with their presence. "'^hey are then, however, voided in large quantities. Jxe/i'iedies. — A dose of physic will sometimes bring away almost incredible quantities of them. Calomel is frequently gfiven as a vermifuQre. The seldomer this druo^ is adminis- tered to the horse, the better. When the horse can be spared, a strong dose of physic is an excellent vermifuge, so far as the long round worm is concerned. But a better medicine, and not interfering with either the feeding or work of the horse, is emetic tartar, with ginger, made into a ball with hn- seed meal and treacle, and given every morning, half an hour before the horse is fed. A smaller, darker colored worm, called the needle-worm, ^^r ascaris, inhabits the larger intestines. Hundreds of them sometimes descend into the rectum, and immense quantities have been found in the coecum. These are a more serious nuisance than the former, for they cause a very troublesome irritation about the fundament, which sometimes sadly annovs the horse. Their existence can generally be discovered by a small portion of mucus, which, hardening, is found adhering to the anus. Remedies. — Physic will sometimes bring away great numbers of these worms ; but when there is much irritation about the tail, and much of this mucus, indicating that they have de- scended into the rectum, an injection of linseed oil, or of aloes dissolved in warm water, will be a more effectual remedy. The tape-worm is seldom found in the horse. Bots. While they inhabit the stomach of the horse, cannot give the animal any pain, for they have fastened on the cuticular and insensible coat. They cannot stimulate the stomach and increase its digestive power, for they are not on the di- gestive j^ortion of the stomach. They cannot, by tlieir rough- ness, assist the trituration or rubbing down of the food, for ao such office is pei formed in that part of the stomach — the WIXD-QALLS. 165 food is softened, not rubbed down. They cannot be injurious to the horse, for he enjoys the most perfect health when the cuticular part of his stomach is filled with them, and their presence is not even suspected until they appear at the anus. They cannot be removed by medicine, because they are not m that part of the stomach in which medicine is usually con- veyed ; and if they were, their mouths are too deeply buried in the mucus for any medicine, that can be safely adminis- tered, to affect them ; and, last of all, in due course of time they detach themselves, and come away. Therefore, the wise man will leave them to themselves, or content himself with picking them off when they collect imder the tail and annoy the animal. Wind-galls. In the neighborhood of the fetlock, there are occasionally found considerable enlargements, oftener on the hind-leg than the fore one, which are denominated tvind-galls. Betw^een the. tendons and other parts, and wherever the tendons are exposed to pressure or friction, and particularly about their extremities, little bags or sacs are placed, containing and suffering to ooze slowly from them, a mucous fluid to lubricate the parts. From undue pressure, and that most frequently caused by violent action and straining of the tendons, or often from some predisposition about the horse, these little sacs are injured. They take on inflammation, and sometimes become large and indurated. There are few horses perfectly free from them. When they first appear, and until the inflammation subsides, they may be accompanied by some degree of lameness ; but otherwise, except when they attain a great size, they do not interfere w^ith the action of the animal, or cause any consider- able unsoundness. The farriers used to suppose that they contained wdnd — hence their name, Avind-galls ; and hence the practice of opening them, by which dreadful inflammation w^as often produced, and many a valuable horse destroyed. Remedies. — A slio-ht wind-ojall will scarcely be subjected to treatment ; but if these tumors are numerous and large, and seem to impede the motion of the limb, they may be attacked first by bandage. The roller should be of flannel, and soft pads should be placed on each of the enlargements, and bound down tightly upon them. The- bandage should also be wetted with warm water, two or three times a day, for half an hour each time. The wind-gall wiTi often diminish or disappea.t 166 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. by this treatment, but will too frequently retuin, wLjii .fte horse is again hardly worked. A blister is a more effectual, but too often temporary remedy. Firing is still more certain, if the tumors are sufficiently large and annoying to justify our having recourse to measures so severe ; for it will not only effect the immediate absorption of the fluid, and the reduction of the sv,^elling, but, by contract- ing the skin, will act as a permanent bandage, and therefore prevent the reappearance of the tumor. The iodine and mercurial ointments have occasionally been used with advantage, in the proportion of three parts of the former to two of the latter. Inflammatian of the Fetlock. The fetlock-joint is a very complicated one, and from the stress which is laid on it, and its being the principal seat of motion below the knee, it is particularly subject to injury. There are not many cases of sprain of the back-sinew, that are not accompanied by inflammation of the ligaments of this joint ; and numerous supposed cases of sprain higher up, are simple affections of the fetlock. It requires a great deal of care, and some experience, to distinguish the one from the other. The heat ab^ut the part, and the point at which the horse least endures the pressure of the finger, will be the prin- cipal guides. Remedy. — Occasionally, by the application of cooling lotions, the inflammation may be subdued, but at other times, the horse suffers dreadfully, and is unable to stand. A serious affection of the fetlock-joint demands prompt treatment. Cutting. The inside of the fetlock is often bruised by the shoe or the hoof of the opposite foot. Many expedients used to be tried to remove this ; the inside heel has been raised and low- ered, and the outside raised and lowered ; and sometimes one operation has succeeded, and sometimes the contrary ; and there was no point so involved in obscurity or so destitute of principles to guide the practitioner. Remedy. — The most successful remedy and that Avhich in the great majority of cases supersedes all :)thers, is Mr. Tur- ner's shoe, of equal thickness from heel to toe, and having but one nail, and that near the toe, on the inside of the shoe ; care being taken that the shoe shall not extend beyond (he SPRAIN OF THE COFFIN-JOINT —RINGBOXE. 107 edge of the crust, and that the crust shall be rasped a little at the quarters. Sprain of the Coffin-Joint. The proof of this is when the lameness is sudden, and the heat and tenderness are principally felt round the coronet. Remedy. — Bleeding at the toe, physic, fomentation, and blis- ters, are the usual means adopted. This lameness is not easily removed, even by a bhster ; and if removed, like sprains of the fetlock and of the back-sinews, it is apt to return, and finally produce a great deal of disorganization and mischief in the foot. Sprain of the coffin-joint sometimes becomes a very serious affair. Not being always attended by any external swelling, and being detected only by heat round the coronet the seat of the lameness is often overlooked by the groom ana the farrier ; and the disease is suffered to become confirmed before its nature is discovered. Ringbone. This is a deposite of bony matter in one of the pasterns, and usually near the joint. It rapidly spreads, and involves not only the pastern-bones, but the cartilages of the foot, and spreading around the pasterns and cartilages, thus derives its name. When the first deposite is on the lower pastern, and on both sides of it, and produced by violent inflammation of the hgaments of the joints, it is recognised by a "l^ght en- largement, or bony tumor on each side of the foot, and just above the coronet. Horses with short upright joints, and with small feet and high action, are oftenest, as may be supposed, the subjects of this disease, which is the consequence either of concussion or sprain" of the pastern -joints. It is also more frequent in the hind foot than the fore, because, from the violent action of the hind legs in propelling the horse forward, the pasterns are more subject to ligamentary injury behind than before; yet the lameness is not so great there, because the disease is con- fined principally to the ligaments, and the bones have not beei injured by concussion ; while, from the position of the fore limbs, there will generally be in them injury of the bones to be added to that of the ligaments. Remedy. — In its early stage, and when recognised only by a bony enlargement on bolh sides of the pastern -joint, or ui Bcmie few caser on one side onlv, tke lameri-e^s is not very cun 168 D( viesth: ammals. sidcrable, and it is not impossible to remove the disease by active blisteiiiig, or by the appUcation of the cautery ; but there is so much wear and tear in this part of the animal, that the inflammation and the disposition to the formation of bone rapidly spread. The pasterns first become connected together by bone instead of hgament, and thence results what is called an anchylosed or fixed joint. From this joint the disease pro- ceeds to the cartilages of the foot, and to the union between the lower pastern, and the coffin and navicular bones. The motion of these parts likewise is impeded or lost, and the whole of the foot become^ one mass of spongy bone. Enlargement of the Ilock. First, there is inflammation, or sprain of tlu hock-joint gener- ally, arising from sudden violent concussion, by some check at speed,. or over-weight, and attended with enlargement of the whole joint, and great tenderness and lameness. Remedy. — This, however, like all other diff'used inflamma- tions, is not so untractable as an intense one of a more circum- scribed nature, and by rest and fomentation, or, perchance, firing, the hmb recovers its action, and the horse becomes fit for ordinary work. Tlie swelling, however, does not always subside. Enlargement, spread over the whole of the hock- joint, remains. A horse with an enlarged hock must always be regarded with si^'inicion. In truth, he is unsound. The parts, altered in structure, must be to a certain degree weakened. The ani- mal may discharge his usual work during a long peri©d, ^vith- out return of lameness ; but if one of those emergencies should occur when all his energies require to be exerted, the disor- ganized and weakened part will fail. He may be ridden or driven moderately for many a year without inconvenience, yet one extra hard day's work may lame him forever. Curb. There are often injuries of particular parts of the hock- joint. Curb is an aflection of this kind. It is an enlargement at the back of the hock, three or four inches below its point. It is either a strain of the ring-Hke ligament which binds the tendons in their place, or of the sheath of the tendons ; oftener, however, of the ligament than of the sheath. Any sudden action of the limb of more than usual violence may produce it, and therefore horses are found to throw out curbs CURBS. 16y after a hardly -contested race, an extraordinary leap, a severe gallop over heavy ground, or a sudden check in the gallop. Young horses are particularly liable to it, and horses that are cow-hocked, whose hocks and legs resemble those of the cow, the hocks being turned inwards, and legs forming a con- siderable angle outwards. Tliis is intelligible enough ; for in hocks so formed, the annular ligament must be continually on the stretch, in order to confine the tendon. Curbs are gen- erally accompanied by considerable lameness at their first ap- pearance, but the swelling is not always great. The}^ are best detected by observing the leg sidewise. Remedies. — The first object in attempting the cure, is to abate inflammation, and this will be most readily accomplished by cold evaporating lotions, frequently applied to the part. Equal portions of spirit of wine, water, and Adnegar, will af- ford an excellent apphcation. It will be almost impossible to keep a bandage on. If the heat and lameness are considera- ble, it will be prudent to give -a dose of physic, and to bleed from the subcutaneous vein, whose course is near it ; and whether the injury is of the annular ligament, or the sheath of the tendon, more active means will be necessary to perfect a cure. Either a liquid bhster should be rubbed on the part, con- sisting of a vinus or turpentine tincture of cantharides, and this daily appHed until some considerable swelling takes place ; or, what is the preferable plan, the hair should be cut off, and the part blistered as soon as the heat has been sub- dued. The blister should be repeated, until the swelling has disappeared, and the horse goes sound. In severe cases it may be necessary to fire ; but a fair trial, however, should be given to milder measures. If the iron is used, it should be applied in straight hues. There are few lamenesses in which absolute and long-con- tinued rest is more requisite. It leaves the parts materially weakened, and, if the horse is soon put to work again, the lameness will frequently return. No horse that has had curbs, should be put even to ordinary work in less than a month after the apparent cure ; and, even then he should very gradu- ally resume his former habits. A horse with a curb, is manifestly unsound, or generally condemned as unsound. Curb is also an hereditary complaint ; and therefore a horse that has once suflfered from it, should always be regarded with suspicion, especially if either of the parents have exhibited it. 15 170 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. Bone Spavin. This is an affection of the bones of the hock-joint. Spav- ined horses are generally capable of slow work. They are equal to the greater part of the work of the farm, and there- fore they should not always be rejected by the small farmer, as they may generally be procured at a small price. Tl>ese horses are not only capable of agricultural work, but they generally improve under it. The lameness in some degree abates, and even the bony tumor to a certain degree lessens. There is sufficient moderate motion and friction of the limb to rouse the absorbents to action, and cause them to take up a portion of the bony matter thrown out, but not enough to re- new or prolong inflammation. It cannot be said that the plow affords a cure for spavin, but the spavined horse often materially impioves while working at it. For fast work, and for work that must be regularly performed, spavined horses are not well calculated ; for this lameness behind produces great difficulty in rising, and the consciousness that he will not be able to rise without painful effort, occasionally prevents the horse from lying down at all ; and the animal that cannot rest well, cannot long travel far or fast. B£medies. — The treatment of spavin is simple enough, but far from being always effectual. The owner of the horse will neither consult his own interest, nor the dictates of humanity, if he suffers the chisel and mallet, or the gimlet, or the point- ed iron, or arsenic to be used ; yet measures of considerable severity must be resorted to. Repeated blisters will usually cause either the absorption of the bony deposite, or the abate- ment or removal of the inflammation of the ligaments, or, as a last resource, the heated iron may be applied. Swelled Legs. The fore-legs, but oftener the hind ones, and especially in coarse horses, are sometimes subject to considerable enlarge- ment. Occasionally, when the horse does not seem to laboi* under any other disease, and sometimes from an apparent shifting of disease from other parts, the hind legs suddenly swell to an enormous degree from the hock, and almost from the stifle to the fetlock, attended by a greater or less degree of heat, and tenderness of the skin, and sometimes excessive and very peculiar lameness. The pulse likewise becomes quick axMl Lara, and the horse evidently labors imder considerable GREASE. 171 fever. It is acute inflammation of the cellular substance of the legs, and that most sudden in its attack, and most violent in its degree, and therefore attended by the eflusion of a con- siderible quantity of fluid into the cellular membrane. It oc- curs in young horses, and in those "which are over-fed and little exercised. Remedies. — Fomentation, diuretics, or purgatives, or, if there is much fever, a moderate bleeding, will often relieve the distention almost as suddenly as it appeared. Mild cases will generally yield to their influence ; but, if the animal has been neglected, the treatment must be decisive. If the horse is in high condition, these should be preceded or accompanied by bleeding ; but if there are any symptoms of debihty, bleeding would only increase the want of tone in the vessels. Horses taken from ofrass and brouQ-ht into close stables, very speedily have swelled legs, because the difference of food and increase of nutriment rapidly increase the quantity of the circulating fluid, while the want of exeixise takes away the means by which it might be got rid of. The remedy here is sufficiently plain. Swelled legs, however, may proceed from general debihty. They may be the consequence of stai-vation, or disease that has considerably weakened the animal ; and these parts, being farthest from the centre of circulation, are the first to show the loss of power by the accumulation of fluid in them. Here the means of cure would be to increase the general strength, with which the extremities would sympathize. Mild diuretics and tonics would therefore be evidently indicated. Horses in the spring and fall are subject to swelled legs. The powers of the constitution ..re principally employed in pro\'iding a new coat for the animal, and the extremities have not their share of "^ital mfluence. Mingled cordials and diu- retics are indicated here ; the diuretic to lessen the quantity of the circulating fluid, and the cordial to invigorate the, frame. Grease. Swelled legs, although distinct from grease, is a disease that is apt to degenerate into it. Grease is a specific inflammation of the skin of the heels, sometimes of the fore-feet, but oftener of the hinder ones. Bad stable management is the true cause of it. Grease is a local complaint. The heel should be well but gently washed with soap and water, and as much of the 172 DOMESTIC ANIM^ LS. scurf detaclied as is easily removable. An ointment should be applied, to supple, cool, and beal the part. When cracks appear, the mode of treatment Y>-ill depend on their extent and depth. If the cracks are deep, with an ichorous discharge and considerable lameness, it will be neces- sary to poultice the heel. A poultice of linseed meal will be generally effective, unless the discharge is thin and offensive, when an ounce of f.nely-powdered charcoal should be mixed with the linseed meal ; or a poultice of carrots, boiled soft mid mashed. After the chaps or cracks have healed, the legs will sometimes continue o-oro-ed and swelled. A flannel band- age, evenly applied over the whole of the swelled part, will be very serviceable ; or should the season admit of it, a run at grass, particularly spring grass, should be allowed. The feeding should likewise vary with the case, but with these rules, which admit of no exception ; that green food should be given, and more especially carrots, when they are not too expensive ; and mashes, if the horse will eat them ; and never the full allowance of grain. Walking exercise should be resorted to as soon as the horse is able to bear it, and this by degrees may be increased to a gentle trot. From bad stable-management at first, and neglect during the disease, a yet worse kind of grease occasionally appears. The ulceration extends over the skin of the heel and the fet- lock, and a fungus springs from the surface of both, highly sensible, bleeding at the slightest touch, and interspersed with scabs. By degrees portions of the fungus begin to be covered with a horny substance, protruding in the form of knobs, and collected together in bunches. These are known by the name of grapes. A foetid and very peculiar exudation, proceeds from nearly the whole of the unnatural substance. The horse evidently suffers much, and is gradually worn down by the discharge. The assistance of a veterinary surgeon is here indispensable. Some horses are more subject to grease than others, par- ticularly draught-horses, both heavy and light, but particularly the former, and if they have no degi-ee of blood in them. It was the experience of this, which partly contributed to the gradual change of coach and other draught-horses to those of a lighter breed. In the great majority of cases, grease arises from mismanaorement and neo-lect. Every thing that has a tendency to excite inflammation m the skin of the heel is a cause of grease. Therefore want ;crTTi\G THE hair from the heels — setons. 173 of exercise is a frequent source of this disease. When high feeding is added to ineguhir or deficient exercise, the disease is e\adently still more hkely to be p: oduced. Want of clean- liness in the stable is a fruitful source of grease. When the heels are imbedded in filth, they are weakened by the con- stant moisture surrounding them. The absurd practice of washing the feet and legs of horses when they come from their work, and either carelessly sponging them down after- wards, or leaving them to dry as they may, is, however, the most common origin of grease. When the horse is warmed by his Avork, and the heels share in the warmth, the momentary cold of washing may not be injurious, if the animal is immediately nibbed dry ; yet even this would be better avoided ; but to wash out the heels, and then leave them partially dry or perfectly wet, and suffering from the extreme cold that is produced by evaporation from a moist and wet surface, is the most absurd, dangerous, and in- jurious practice that can be imagined. It is worse, when the post-horse or the plow-horse is plunged up to his belly in the river or pond immediately after his work. Cutting tli8 Hair from the Heels. Custom has very properly retained the hair on our farm- horses. Nature would not have given it had it not been use- ful. It guards the heel from being injm-ed by the inequahties of the plowed field, and prevents the dirt, in which the heels are constantly enveloped, from reaching, and caking on, and irritating the skin. When the horse is carefully tended after his work is over, and his legs quickly and completely dried, the less hair he has about them the better, for then both the skin and the hair can be made perfectly dry before evapo- ration begins, or proceeds so far as to deprive the legs of their heat. Grease is the child of negligence and mismanagement. Setons Are pieces of tape or cord, passed, by means of an instru- ment resembling a large needle, either through abscesses, or the base of ulcers with deep sinuses, or between the skin and the muscular or other substances beneath. They are re- tained there by the ends being tied together, or by a knot at each end. The tape is moved in the wound twice or thrice in the day, and oi^casionally wetted with spirits of turpentine, or some aciid fluid, in order to increase the inflammation wliicb 15* 174 'lOMESTIC AMMALS. it produces, or tlie discharge whicli is intended to be estab- lished. In abscesses, such as occur in the withers or the poll, and when passed from the summit to the very bottom of the swell- ing, ; etons are highly useful by discharging the pu"ulent fluid, and suffering any fresh quantity of it that may be secreted to flow out ; and, by the degree of inflammation which they ex- cite on the interior of the tumor, stimulating it to throw out healthy granulations, which gradually occupy and fill the hol- low. In deep fistulous wounds they are indispensable, for ex- cept some channel is made through which the matter may flow from the bottom of the wound, it will continue to penetrate deeper into the part, and the heahng process will never be ac- comphshed. On these accounts, a seton passing through the base of the ulcer in poll-e\il and fistulous withers is so beneficial. Setons are sometimes useful by promoting a discharge in the neighborhood of an inflamed part, and thus diverting and car- rying away a portion of the fluids which distend or overload the vessels of that part ; thus, a seton is placed with consid- erable advantage in the cheek, when the eyes are much in- flamed."— [Youatt.) Founder, Or inflammation of the foot, arises from various causes ; ex cessive exertion, great heat, and particuhirly when followed by drinking cold water, or overloading the stomach in any way, sudden transition f] om o-reat cold to excessive heat, and chancre of inflammation from some other part. Remedies. — When the attack is severe and confined to the fore-feet, Youatt recommends removing the shoe and paring the hoof as much as possible, taking four quarts of blood from each toe, placing the feet in warm water, and afterwards ap- pl}ing soft poultices of linseed meal to the whole foot and pastern. If this is ineffectual, take three quarts of blood from each foot the succeeding day. It may then be necessary to blister the foot and coronet. The animal should b'j kept on green food or light mashes, and allowed to run on grass with- out labor. An effectual cure has followed from taking off the shoe, and applying lard, raised to the boiling point, to every part of the foot. Poison From weeds, sometimes gives to horses ulcerated tongues and Ups, and swollen legs and sheath. If there be much in- EPIDEMICS AMONG HORSES, ETC 175 flammation, bleeding should be resorted to, then give daily- bran mashes, Avith Glauber salts in doses of ^ to 1^ pounds, according to the size of the horse, Avith half a teaspoonful of saltpetre. A^ ashing the ulcerated parts -with warm soap- suds, copperas, and sugar-of-lead may follow. Epidemics among Horses, Sometimes occm-, producing great mortahty. One of these vv-as prevalent in the neighborhood of New York, in 1846, termed a malarious congestive fever, staggers, or apoplexy, which destroyed many valuable animals. It occurred during the heat of summer, and was principally confined to such as were at pasture. By many it was attributed to excessive heat and exposure at night. The animals that were opened, ap- peared sound in all respects excepting the brain, which exhib- ited one mass of clotted blood. The remedy found to be the most effectual, consisted in ta- king about one quart of blood from the head, swathing it Avith cloths saturated Avith cold AA'ater, and giA'ing two drachms daily of calomel. The horse should be kept in a cool stable. A similar disease in Spain is cured by copious bleeding, and SAvathing the head in blankets constantly wet Avith hot water. luflammatioii of the Eyes. Shut up in a dai-k stable, and feed on fresh-cut grass and bran mashes. Bleed freely from the mouth, and give \\ lbs. Glauber salts, 2 drachms nitre, and 15 grains tartarized antimo- ny, dissolved in a bucket of water, which the animal Avill drink Avhen thirsty. This to be repeated daily till purging is effect- ed. If it fails, bleed from the large veins just beloAV the eye, taking 15 to 20 ounces of blood. — (Dr. Campbell.) The Sting of Hornets, Bees, or snakes, may be reheved by immediate external ap- phcation of strong spirits of hartshorn : salt and Ainegar are also good. For Sprains, Take a mixture of one ounce SAveet oil, four ounces spirits of hartshorn, half an ounce oil of thyme, and rub Avith it fre- quently. The remedies mentioned below are also effectual for sprains 176 DOMESTIC AMMALS. For a Braise or Blow. Apply hot water a long time with wet cloths. Beef brine is an excellent lotion for both sprains and bruises. A veteran among horses, claims, that it will almost set a joint or heal a fractui'e. Wormwood or tansy lotions are also good. Fistula. This is frequently cured by repeated apphcations of salt. Wounds Should be washed twice a day with clean, soft water, or with a little Castile soap added, and then rub with whale-oil. This answers for all seasons, keeps off flies, restores the hair, and of the original color. Galls, Or wounds on the back from the saddle, are most effectually healed by white-lead, moistened wdth sweet-oil or milk. The saddle ought always to fit easily and be well padded, and it should be taken oflf and the animal's back washed at every baiting. Shoeing. Tliis is an important operation, and should never be at- tempted but under the supeivision of an experienced person ; nor ought the shoes to remain so long as to produce contrac- tion of the hoof, which is followed by lameness and corns. They should be reset as often as every five or six Aveeks. Contraction of the Foot. This is also caused by standmg on the dry stable for some days. In this case, the hoof should be stopped with fresh cow-manure and clay, or with a thick felt, soaked in water, and cut to suit the foot. This is also a good apphcation over night, for horses that have accomphshed a hard day's work on a dry road. Litter. This is not objectionable to the feet, if clean anr* . oc too damp. Some suppose tliis the cause of contraction, but it is the reverse. It is besides of great benefit when shook out for CORNS. 177 a bed, b}' inducing the horse to rest himself. He is thus en- abled to do more work, and with a less expenditui'e of food. Corns. In tlie angle between the bars and the quarters, the horn of the sole has sometimes a red appearance, and is more spongy and softer than at any other part. The horse flinches when this portion of the horn is pressed upon, and occasional or permanent lameness is produced. This disease of the foot is termed corns ; beaiing this resemblance to the corn of the human being, that it is produced by pressure, and is a cause of lameness. When corns are neglected, so much inflamma- tion is produced in that part of the sensible sole, that suppu- ration follows, and to that, quittor succeeds, and the matter either undermines the horny sole, or is discharged at the coronet. Remedies. — The cure of old corns is difiicult ; for as all shoeing has some tendency to produce pressure here, the habit of throwing out this diseased horn is difficult to get rid of when once contracted ; recent corns, however, will yield to good shoeing. The first thing to be done is well to pare out the angle between the crust and the bars. Two objects are answered by this ; the extent of the disease will be ascertained, and one cause of it removed. A very small drawing-knife must be used for this purpose. The corn must be pared out to the very bottom, taking care not to wound the sole. It may then be discovered whether there is any effusion of blood or matter underneath. If this is suspected, an opening must be made through the horn, the matter evacuated, the separated horn taken away, the coiu'se and extent of the sinuses explored, and introduce into them a saturated solution of sulpliate of zinc, by means of a small syringe. Place over this dressing the common cataplasm, or the turpentine ointment, and renew the apphcation every twenty-four hours. Three or four such ap- plications complete a cure. Should there be no collection of fluid, the butyr of antimony should be apphed over the whole extent of tlie com, after the horn has been thinned as closely as possible. The object of this is to stimulate the sole to throw out more healthy horn. In bad cases, a bar-shoe may be put on, so chambered that there shall be no pressure on the diseased part. This may be worn for one or two shoeinjs, but not constantly, for there are few frogs that would bear the constant pressure of the bar- 178 DOMESTIC AVIMALS. shoe ; and the ivant of pressure on the heel, generally occa- Bioned by theh use, would produce a softened and bulbous state of the heels, that would of itself be an inevitable source of lameness. Turning out to grass, after the horn is a little grown, first with a bar-shoe, and afterwards with the shoe fettered on one side, or with tips, will often be serviceable. A horse that has once had corns to any considerable extent should, at eveiy shoeing, have the seat of corn well pared out, and the butyr of antimony applied. An Over-reach Is a tread upon the heel of the corone-t of the fore foot, by the shoe of the corresponding hind foot, and either inflicted by the toe, or by the inner edge of the inside of the shoe. The preveyitive treatment is the bevelling, or rounding off of the inside edge or rim of the hind shoes. The cure is the cutting away of the loose parts, the apphca- tion of Friar's balsam, and protection from the dirt. Forging, or Clicking, " Is a singular species of over-reaching. The horse, in the act of trotting, strikes the toes of the hind shoes against the fore oae. This noise of the chcking is unpleasant, and the trick or habit is not altogether free from danger. It is most frequent in young horses, and is attributable to too great ac- tivity, or length of stride in the hind legs. Hemedies. — The rider may do something by keeping the head of the horse well up ; but the smith may effect more bv makincr the hind shoes of clickinor horses short in the toe, and having the web broad. When they are too long, they are apt to be torn off; when too narrow, the hind foot may bruise the sole of the fore one, or may be locked fast between the ])ranches of the fore shoe." — Touatt. The Bearing Rein Is a matter Oi" much controversy ; some claiming that it should be entirely abolished, while others as strenuously con- tend for its alrsost universal use. Ximrod, who is deemed perfectly competent authority, insists on its use with fast road- stei"s and coach-horses. With team-horses, it may generally be dispensed with, and always should be in ascending hills, as it materially diminishes the : capacity for exertion. The THE BEARING REIN. 179 fault in its use is its excessive tightness, and wlien standing, the lio se ouo-ht nevei to be tormented with it. Saf ty Rein illustrated. Directions for use of Safefij Rein. — In putting on the rein for a gig, keep the buckle to the left hand, or near side ; that will place the loop, which is on the middle of the rein, below the hook or head of the bridle, which prevents it from being thrown out by the motion of the horse's head. For a pair of horses, keep the two short chapes outmost, and the loops on the middle downward. For saddle, keep the buckle to the left hand. When the rein is used either for runnino-, rearingr, kickinsr or going backward, it should be applied suddenly with a strong arm, keeping up the pressure imtil the horse is still ; it should then be relieved suddenly, at the same time motioning the horse to go on. If he is only a runaway he will obey it at once, such horses being generally of a willing, good temper. After the horse has been a few times firmly gripped with it, use it occasionally, instead of the bit-rein, to stop him on ordinary occasions ; this will remind the horse of his subjection, and will accustom the rider or driver to the ready and accurate use of it in case of an emergency. The, Bit Is a frequent cause of injury to the mouth of the horsey 180 DOMESTIC ANIMAL!:?. fretting and teasing liim, and in many cases inducing perma- nent injury and viciousness. It should never be made annoy- ing to the horse beyond the absolute necessity for his proper restraint. All Unruly Stud may be controlled By passing the rein from the ring on the off- side over the head and through the left ring. This gives a purchase to the groom which the horse cannot resist. Blinds Have for a long time been fashionable, but in few cases are necessary, while in nearly all they are decidedly injurious. Fiff.31 The Crib Biter. This small instrument is made entirely of iron, and riveted firmly to the head-stall. It answers the threefold pur- pose, to prevent biting, crib-, biting, and wind-sucking. All of the foregoing are bad hab- its for horses, for which there is no eftectual cure, but in adopting the use of the above implement. The Crib Biter. The Stable Is an important matter connected with the proper manage- ment of horses. This should be as much as possible of a uniform temperature, cool in summer, warm in winter, and al- ways clean, dry, and well- ventilated. But no air must be allowed to blow directly upon the animal. The horse is a na- tive of a warm climate, and ought to be well protected against cold. The stable should be neither too light nor too dark, nor must the light ever be admitted before the eye of the horse. For judicious and extended arrangement of stables, and man- agement of horses, the inquuing reader is referred to Stewart's Stable Economy. THE AS3. 181 CHAPTER VI. THE ASS, THE MULE, AND THE COMPARATIVE LABOR OF WORKING ANIMALS. THE ASS Is a native of Arabia, Persia, and the central parts of Asia and Africa, Like the horse, he goes in troops and displays great natural sagacity, aativity, and courage. Job says, " He scorneth the multitude of the city, neither regardeth the ciy^- ing of the driver." Like the horse, too, he has from time im- memorial been tamed, and become the faithful servant of man ; but unlike him, he is subject to few maladies, is hardy and enduring, and subsists and even thrives on coarse and scanty forage. Thus Job says of his natural haunts, " Whose house T have made the ivilderness, and the barren land his dwellings ; .ne range of the mountains is his pasture, and he searcheth after every green thing. ^' Xenophon, in his Anabasis, a thou- sand ) cars later, says of one of the Asiatic deserts through which he passed with the army of Cyrus, " that it was full of wormwood ; if any other kinds of shrubs or reeds grew there, they had all an aromatic smell ; but no trees appeared. Of wild creatures, the most numerous are ivild asses, Avhich our horses sometimes chased ; but the ^vild asses exceeded them much in speed." Varieties. The different breeds of asses are supposed to be quite as nuDierous as those of the horse. Four distinct races are mentioned in the earliest scriptures. In modern times we find a similar diversity. There are two kinds in Persia, the largest a slow, hea-sy brute, used only for burdens ; the other smaller and more spirited, and used for the saddle. In Egypt, a con- siderable though less marked difference exists, those near the Delta being inferior to those which are bred in Upper Egypt and Nubia. In Spain, a difference in size and spirit prevails, greater even than in Persia. 16 182 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. Tlie Zebra is nearly allied in size, shape, and character to the wild ass, but his iintameable ferocity has hitherto effectually bid defiance, alike to the scourges and caresses, the frowns and the favors of man. Arabia produces some of the most spirited and hardy asses, but their size, hke that of their horses, is too small for pur- poses of the greatest utility. The Maltese Jack is by American breeders deemed the choicest animal from which to propagate. He is evidently of Arabian descent, and possesses all the good qualities of his ancestiy, with considerable additional size. We have several varieties, all of which are imported, as there are no natives of the Western Continent. The early im- portations were principally made from the Azores, and Cape de Verd Islands, and were mostly of an inferior character. A superior Maltese Jack was presented to Gen. Washington, in 1*787, by La Fayette, and is believed to be the first ever sent to this country. Mr. Custis describes him as of moderate size, clean-limbed, possessing great activity, the fire and ferocity of a tiger, of a dark brown and nearly black, with white belly and muzzle, and manageable only by one groom, nor then safely. He lived to a great age. His mules were all active, spirited, and serviceable, and when from stout mares, attained considerable size. A Spanish Jack and Jennet were also presented to Washing- ton about the same time, by the King of Spain. The first is characterized by the same authority, as a huge, ill-shapen animal, nearly 16 hands high, very large head, clumsy hmbs, and to all appearance httle calculated for active service ; he was of a gray color, and not much valued for his mules, which were unwieldy and dull. From the Maltese Jack and Spanish Jennet, which approach the size of the large Spanish Jack, was bred a valuable animal, Comjoound, which partook of all the good qualities of the sire, with the weight of the dam. From him descended many of the best mules of Mount Vernon. Many other valuable importations followed these animals, and it is beheved we have for many years had as fine speci- mens of the ass as the world affords. Jennets, or she-asses, are used among us principally for breeding Jacks, and of course are not numerous. They are sometimes, though seldom, bred to the horse. It is difficult to induce the horse to notice them, and the produce, which is called a hinny, is less hardy and useful than the mule. The milk of the she-ass is hghter and more digestible than that THE MULE. 183 of any other animal, and in former times was in great request '"or invalids. The ass is occasionally used in the cart, or as a beast of burden. Such as are employed for these purposes are generally of an inferior kind, and are only used for the lightest work. They may sometimes be seen among the fishmongers and small vegetable dealers about our city markets, but little larger than a Newfoundland dog or Shetland pony, trundling alono^ a ho-ht cart with a wheelbarrow load. In ancient times they have been, and in foreign countries — even at the present time, they are extensively used. But the most enlightened of the moderns have adopted the mule as the proper and almost exclusive substitute for the ass ; and it would show a still greater intelligence and economy, if it much more extensively took the place of the horse. THE MULE Is the hybrid produced b}^ the ass with the mare. How early this animal was bred, is uncertain, but we know he was in high repute in the reign of David, near 3,000 years ago, for he was rode by Absalom, the favorite prince of Israel, on the field of battle. They have from time immemorial been bred in various parts of the East, on the borders of the Mediterra- nean, and throughout Spain, Portugal, and other coimtries, many of them being of splendid appearance and of fine quali- ties. In these countries, they are frequently used by the grandees and nobles, and indeed by royalty itself; and how- ever much they may be undervalued elsewhere, when they are finely bred and trained, and richly caparisoned, they ex- hibit a stateliness and bearing, that few of the highest bred horses can match. Breeding 3!ulcs in the United States, Was commenced with much spirit in some of the New England states, soon after the American revolution. The object was not to breed them for their own use, but only as an article of commerce. They were at first shipped exclusively to the West Indies ; and afterwards to the South and West, for employment in the various work of the plantation. In- different animals, both as sires and dams, were used at first, as a«v thing which boxe the name of mule, then commanded a ]84 DOMESTIC AXiMALS. ready sale. The progeny were necessarily inferior brutes, and viewed with almost universal derision ; and being considered the type of their race, a prejudice was excited against them, which more than half a century has not been sufficient to dispel. Among a few thinking men at the North, they have been adopted and made highly useful in the various duties of the farm. They have been largely introduced at the South and West, but principally in the slave states, where the manage- ment of the team devolves upon the ignorant and heedless. It is there, and in other and hotter climates, that the superior merits of the mule over the horse as a laboring animal, are peculiarly manifest. In many instances they are indifferently fed, hardly worked, and greatly neglected by their drivers ; yet they sustain themselves for years, in defiance of usage that would annihilate two generations of horses. Their powers have been largely increased and their merits improved, by the introduction of some of the best Maltese and Spanish Jacks, and the use of large, blood mares. The propriety of this course is seen in the value of the product ; for while some of the inferio^r are unsaleable at $50, others of the same age, and reared under the same circumstances of keep and condition, could not be purchased for $150. The Breeding, Rearing, and Management of Mules Is similar to that of colts. They will be found, equally with horses, to repay generous keep and attention, by their in- creased and rapid growth. But they should not be pampered by high feed, as it not only has a tendency to produce disease, but to form habits of fastidiousness, which materially lessens their economical feeding in after life. The diseases to which mules are subjected, (which are always few, and if properly managed will seldom or ever occur,) require a treatment like that of horses. The hreeding from mules has sometimes been questioned, but it has been demonstrated in several instances. Neither the sexual development nor propensities are wanting, but they are seldom indulged with effect. Mr. Kilby, of Virginia, states in the Farmer's Register, that a mare mule brought two colts from a young horse, which they closely resembled. The first was a male, and died, apparently with staggers, which no treatment could arrest, at six months old. The second was a female^ 16 months younger than the first, marked like the AFA-AXTAGES OF MULE OVER HORSE . \BOR. 185 Sire, being jet-black, excepting a white foot and stcii* in the forehead, and died at a year old, after two days' illness, not- withstanding the utmost care was bestowed upon it. Suc- cessful propagation of this hybrid, hovfever, beyond the first cross, seems to be incompatible with the fixed laws of nature. With a view of encouraging the substitution of mules for a part of the horses now employed in American husbandry, we give the following testimony from experienced individuals, of great intelligence and careful observation. ADVANTAGES OF MULE OVER HORSE LABOR. The official report of an agricultural committee in South Carolina, in 1824, says : — " The annual expense of keeping a horse is equal to his value. A horse at four years old would not often bring more than his cost. Two mules can be raised at less expense than one horse. The mule is fit for service earlier, and if of sufficient size, will perform as much labor as the horse ; and if attended to when first put to work, his gait and habits may be formed to suit the owner." Mr. Pomeroy, who used them near Boston for 30 years, and to such an extent as to have had more labor performed by them probably than any person in New England, says : — " I am convinced the small breed of mules will consume less in proportion to the labor they are capable of performing than the larger race, but I shall confine myself to the latter in my comparison, such as stand 14^ to 16 hands, and are capable of performing any work a horse is usually put to. From re- peated experiments, 1 have found that three mules of this description, which were constantly at work, consumed about the same quantity of hay, and only one-fourth the provender, which was given to two middling-size coach-horses, only moderately worked. I am satisfied a large-sized mule will not consume more than three-fifths to two-thirds the food to keep him in good order, that will be necessary for a horse perform- ing the same labor. The expense of shoeing a mule the year round, does not exceed one-third that of the horse, his hoofs being harder, more horny, and so slow in their growth, that shoes require no removal, and hold on till worn out ; and the wear from the lightness of the animal is much less. Mules have been lost by feeding on cut straw and corn meal ; in no other instance have I known disease in them, ex- cept by inflammation of the intestines, caused bv the grossest 16* 186 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. exposure to cold and wet, and excessive drinking cold water, after severe labor, and while in a high state of perspira- tion. It is not improbable a farmer may work the same team of mules for twenty years, without having a farrier's bill pre- sented to him. In my experience of thirty years, I have never found but one mule inclined to be vicious, and he might have been easily subdued while young. I have always found them truer pullers and quicker travellers, with a load, than horses. Their vision and hearing are much more accurate. I have used them in my family carriage, in a gig, and under the saddle ; and have never known one to start or run from any object or noise, a fault in the horse, that continually causes the maiming and death of numerous human beings. The mule is more steady in his draught, and less likely to waste his strength than the horse, hence more suitable to work with oxen ; and as he walks faster, he will habituate them to a faster gait. In plowing among crops, his feet being small and following each other so much more in a line, he seldom treads down the ridges or crops. The facility of instructing him to obey imphcitly the voice of 'the driver is astonishing. The best plowed tillage land I ever saw, I have had perform- ed by two mules tandem, without lines or driver. The mule is capable of enduring labor in a temperature of heat that woidd be destructive to a horse. Although a large mule Vv'ill consume something over one- Iialf the food of a horse, yet the saving in shoeing, farrying, and insurance against diseases and accidents, will amount to at least one-half. In addition, the owner may reh' with tolerable certainty on the continuance of his mule capital for thirty years ; whereas the horse owner must, at the end of fifteen years, look to his crops, his acres, or a bank for the renewal of his. The longevity of a mule is so proverbial, that a pur- chooser seldom inquires his age. Pliny mentions one 80 years old ; and Dr. Rees, two m England, that reached the age of 10. I saw one performing his labor in a cane-mill in the West Indies, which the owner assured me was 40 years old. I have now a mare-mule 25 years old, that I have had in con- stant work for 21 years. She has often within a year taken a ton weight in a wagon to Boston, five miles, and manifests no diminution of her powers. A neighbor has one 28 years old, which he would not exchange for any horse in the country. One iu Maryland, 35 years old^ is now as capable of labor as at any fi )rmer period." ADVANTAGES OF MULE OVER HORSE LABOR. 187 Mr. Hood of Maryland, in the American Farmer, estimates tlie annual expenst of a horse for 12 months, at $44, and that of a mule at $22, just half price, and his working age at more than twice that "of the horse, and that too after 30 yeais' experience in keeping both. A correspondent of the Baltimore Patriot, asserts that " Col. John E. Howard had a pair of mules that worked 30 } ears, after which they were sold to a carter in the city, and performed hard service for several years longer. Many mules 25 years old, and now in this country, perform well. Many have been at hard work for 12 or 15 years, and would now sell for $100 each. They are not subject to the colt's ail- ments, the glanders, heaves, yellow-water, and colic, like horses ; and seldom are afflicted with spavin, ringbones, or bots ; and they will not founder." General Shelby says, "he has known mules to travel 12 miles within the hour in light harness, and has himself driven a pair 45 miles in six hours, stopping an hour by the way." Four match mules have been sold in this country for $1,000. They were of course superior animals, and made elegant coach-horses. These animals were driven 80 miles in a day without injury ; and they proved a first-rate team for many years. Mr. EUicott, of the Patuxent Furnaces, asserts that, " out of about 100 mules at the works, we have not lost on an average one in two years. Bleeding at the mouth will cure them of nearly every disease, and by being turned out on pasture, they will recover from almost every accident. I do not recollect we have ever had a wind-broken one. They are scarcely ever defective in the hoof, and though kept shod, it is not as important as with the horse. Their skin is tougher than that of the horse, consequently they are not as much worried by flies, nor do they suffer so much with the heat of summer." To the foregoing testimony may be added that of the late Judge Hinckley of Massachusetts ; a shrewd and close ob- server through a long life of 84 yeafs. He bred mules at an early day, and always kept a team of them for his farm work, much preferring them to horses for this purpose, after an ex- perience of 50 years. He had a pair nearly 30 years old, which, with light pasturage in summer, and Avith a moderate supply of hay with little grain in winter, and no grooming, performed all the drudgery, though he kept his stable full of horses besides. They outlived successive generations of 188 DCilESTIC ANIMALS. horses, and though the latter were often sick and out of con- dition, the mules never were. One from his stock, 45 years old, was sold for the same price paid for a lot of young mules, being at that mature age perfectly able to perform his full share of labor. For the caravans that pass over the almost inaccessible ranges which form the continuation of the Rocky Mountains, and the extensive arid plains that lie between and west of them, on the route from Santa Fe to California, mules are the only beasts of burden used in these exhausting and perilous adventures. Their value may be estimated from the compar- ative prices of mules and horses ; for while a good horse may )e bought for 810 to 820, a good mule is worth 8oO to 8*75. Dr. Lyman, who recently passed through those regions, in- 'orms us that their caravan left Santa Fe with about 150 mules, 15 or 20 horses, all beasts of bm'den, and two choice blood- norses, which were led and treated with peculiar care. On the route, all the working-horses died from exhaustion and suf- fering ; the two bloods that had been so carefully attended, but just survived ; yet of the whole number of mules but 8 or 10 orave out. A mule 36 years of acre was as strono-, en- during, and performed as hard labor, as any one in the cara- van. When thirst compelled them to resort for successive days to the sahne waters, which are the only ones furnished by those sterile plains, the horses were at once severely, and not unfrequently fatally affected ; while the mules, though suf- fering greatly from the change, yet seldom were so much in- jured as to require any remission of their labor. The mules sent to the Mexican possessions from our west- ern states, Missouri, Tennesst e, and Kentucky, are considered of much more value than such as are bred from the native (usually wild) mares. The difference probably arises, in part, from the Mexicans using jacks so inferior to most of the stock animals used by the citizens of those states. Mare mules are estimated m those regions at one-third more than horse mules. The reason assigned for this is, that after a day's journey of excessi\-e fatigue, there is a larger quantity of blood secreted in the bladder, which the female, owing to her larger passage, voids at once, and without much apparent suffering, while the male does not get rid of it, frequently, till after an hour of considerable pain. The effect of this differ- ence is seen in the loss of flesh and strength in the male to au extent far beyond that of the female. The method of reducing refractory ir.ules in the northern Mex- THE MULE. ]S9 ican possessions, is for the person to grasp them fii-mly by the ears, while another whips them severely on the fore-legs and belly. Estimated annual saving to the United States from the em- ^yloyment of mules in the place of horses. — To sum up the ad- vantages of working mules over horses, we shall have as advantages: 1. They are more easily, surely, and cheaply raised. 2. They are maintained, after commencing work, for much less than the cost of keeping horses. 3. They are not subject to many of the diseases of the horse, and to others only in a mitigated degree, and even these are easily cured in the mule. 4. They attain a greater age, and their average working years are probably twice that of the horse. In 1840, there were reported to be 4,33.5,669 horses and mules in the Union, no discrimination having been made be- tAveen them. Suppose the total number at the present time is 4,650,000, and that of these 650,000 are mules. If we de- duct one-fourth, supposed to be required for the purposes of breed, fancy-horses, ttc, we shall have 3,000,000 horses, whose places may be equally well supplied by the same num- ber of mules. We have seen that Mr. Hood, of Maiyland, estimates the expense of a working horse at -$44 per annum, (not an over estimate for the Atlantic states,) while that of the mule is 822. The difference is 822, which it is proper to re- duce to meet the much lower rate of keeping at the West. If we put the difference at 810, we shall find the saving in the keep, shoeing, farriery, Arc, by substituting mules for the 3,000,000 horses that can be dispensed with, will be 830,000,000 per aimum. But this is not all. The working age of the horse will not exceed an average of eio-ht years, while that of the mule is probably over sixteen. To the difference of keep, then, must be added the annual waste of the capital invested in the animal. A mule is more cheaply raised to working age than a horse, but allo^ving them to cost equally, we shall have the horse exhausting one-eighth of liis capital annually for his decay, when the mule is using up but one-sixteenth ; and if we allow 848 as the first cost of both animals, we shall find the horse wasting 86 amiually for this item, while the mule deteriorates but 83, making an addi- tional item of 89,000,000. This will give an aggregate of $39,000,000, as the annual saving to the United States by substituting good mules for three-fom-ths of the horses now used in this country. "Wlien will our farmers have the good «ense to make this change ? It may be fairly answered, when 190 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. they shall prefer utility, interest, and a just taste, to a dis- eased fancy ; for thougfc we admit the superiority in apjiear- ance of the race of horses over mules, we deny that a bad horse looks better or even as well as a good mule ; and with the same keep and attention, a good mule will outwork and outlook most horses of any breed. The comparative Economy of Horse and Ox Labor. This is a question which has been often discussed, and when with candor, the conclusion has generally been in favor of ox- labor. The different employments, the variety of situation, the season, and the kind of stock reared on the farm, are all questions which should be fully considered in arri\ing at their true comparative advantages. Most farmers would find it for their interest to keep teams of each, where there is employ- ment for more than one ; or if this be not the case, the pref- erence should be given to that which is best suited in all re- spects to their particular position. If work upon the road is required, a horse team will gener- ally be best. Their superiority will consist principally in theii greater speed ; for even with a heavy load, they will be able to trot occasionally, and when driven without it, they may in- crease their pace to nearly double the natural gait of the ox. This will amount to a large annual saving in the time of the driver when steadily employed. The same is true when re- moving manures or crops on the farm to remote distances, over a smooth surface, which admits of trotting with the empty wagon. Harrowing ought always to be done ^ith a quick team, as a violent stroke of the teeth breaks the clods and pulverizes the earth much better than when slowly dragged. But we should assume in this comparison, that oxen shall not only be well adapted to their work by their natural for- mation, like the Hereford, the Devon, and others equally good, but also that they be well trained, well managed, accustomed to quick movements, and as well fed and looked after as horses. We shall then find their wd'k equal to a quick horse team, and that in this case the horse will have no advantage over the ox in harrowing. For plowing, the teams are on a par, as a good ox team will do as much in a day in cool weather as horses. The situation of the farm may materially affect this estimate. In a warm climate, horses, and more especially mules, would be more serviceable than oxen, as they are capable of enduring COMPARATIVE EC JNOMY OF HORSE AND OX LABOR. 191 much greater heat with impunity. If the farm be small and convenient to market, the labor may, in general, be best ac- complished by oxen, as little travelling will be required. So, too. if the land be stony or rough, the plowing and harrow- ing will be more kindly and patiently done by oxen than by spirited horses. Other considerations will, suggest themselves as affecting the comparative economy of this labor. The time of work is to be fully considered. If much and heavy work be required in summer, as is often the case in plowino' extensive wheat farms, horses are to be preferred ; yet if the ox-team be started at early dawn, and worked briskly four or five hours, and then turned out to rest with a supply of suit- able food, they may again commence when the extreme heat has abated, and accomplish a day's work that few horses will exceed. During the season of muddy roads, the horse, with his broad, compact foot, and longer leg, has a decided advan- tage over the ox. If the ox draws by the yoke, (which on the whole is the best mode,) he is liable to a sore neck when work- ing in wet or snow}^ weather, and at such times he is over- matched by his competitor. The kitid of stock raised on the farm has an important bear- ing on this question. Some farms are devoted to rearing horses, and some exclusively to rearing cattle. These occa- sionally remain on hand after they are fit for market, from the want of a profitable demand. They can then be employed not only without injury, but in consequence of the thorough training thus secured, with positive benefit to their future value. Even if intended for the shambles, the well-developed ox may advantageously be put to light work at three, after which it may be gradually increased till he is six or eight, and during all this time he will be improving. After doing an early spring's work, he nr ly then be turned on to good pasture, and if followed with proper stall-feeding, he will in the latter part of the winter or spring yield a tender, better-flavored, and more profitable carcass, than can be procured by any othe: mode of fattening. The first cost of oxen is less than that of horses, and they are at all times cheaply reared on the coarser herbage of the farm. The expense of working-gear, tackle, and shoeing, is much less than \nW\ horses. The^ are subject to fewer dis- eises, and these are more within the reach of oj'dinary medi- cines. The cost of food is also less, and while the horse is depreciating, the ox is increasing in value till eight or ninabor. CHAPTER VIL SWINE. The hog is a cosmopolite of almost every zone, though his natural haunts, like those of the hippopotamus, the elephant, the rhinoceros, and most of the thick-skinned animals, are swixE. 193 in warm climates. They are most abundant in China, the East Indies, and the immense range of islands Avhich extends over the whole Southern and Pacific Oceans; but they are also numerous throughout Europe, from its southern coast to the Russian dominions within the Arctic. Fiff. 32. The Wild Boar. In the United States, swine have been an object of attention since its earhest settlement, and whenever a profitable market could be found for pork abroad, it has been exported to the full extent of the demand. For near twenty years following the commencement of the general European wars, soon after the organization of our national government, it was a comparatively large article of commerce ; but from that time, exports have not been justified to any extent, till within the last two years, since vvhich, a material reduction in the British import duty on pork, lard, and hams, has again biought it up as a prominent article of trade with that country. The recent use which has been made of the carcass in converting it into lard oil, has stiU further mcreased its consumption. S ne are reared in '^very part of the Union, and when IT 194 D03IESTIC AXI-3IALS. properly managed, always at a fair profit. At the extreme North ; in the neighborhood of large markets ; and on such of the Southern plantations as are particularly suited to sugar or rice, they should not be raised beyond the r.umber requii-ed for the consumption of the coarse or refuse food produced. Swine are advantageously kept in connection with a dairy or orchard, as with little additional food besides what is thus afforded, they can be put into good condition for the butcher. But it is on the rich bottoms and other lands of the West, where Indian corn is raised in profusion, and at small expense, that they can be reared in the greatest numbers and yield the largest profit. The Sciota, Miami, Wabash, Illinois, and other valleys, and extensive tracts in Kentucky, Tennessee, Missouri, and some adjoining states, have for many years taken the lead in the production of swine ; and it is probable the chmate and soil, which are pecuharly suited to their i-apid growth, as well as that of their appropriate food, Avill enable them forever to remain the leading pork-producers of the North American continent. Breeds of Swiue. The breeds cultivated in this country are numerous, and like our native cattle, they embrace many of the best, and a few of the worst to be found among the species. Great attention has for many years been paid to their improvement in the Eastern states, and nowhere are there better specimens than in many of their yards. This spirit has rapidly extended West and South ; and among most of the intelligent farmers who make them a leading object of attention, on their rich corn grounds, swine have attained a high degree of excellence. This does not consist in .he introduction and perpetuity of any distinct races, so much as in the breeding up to a desirable size and aptitude for fattening, from such meritorious individu- als-of any breed, or their crosses, as come within their reach. Fig. 33, represents an English breed of hogs, a century or more ago : though coarse and slouch-eared, it is yet the por- trait of a tolerable hog, and far before; many of the swine that still maintain their ascendency in vario. is parts of the European continent. This breed is nearly extinct, having been crossed successively by the Chinese and other good breeds, thus di- minishing the size and materially improving its thrift and ten- dency to fattening. We hav? few such animals in the United States, though we have man/ that are worse. BRt.Jiii3S OF S\VI\E. 195 Fi£. 3' LB ar J- CIHOW. Old English Hog. The ByefieJd, some 30 years ago, was a valuable hog in tke Eastern states, and did much good among the species gen- erally. They are white, ^vith fine cuily hair, vrell made and compact, moderate in size and length, with broad backs, and at 15 months attainino^ some 300 to 350 lbs. net. The Bedford or JVohurn is a breed originating with the Duke of Bedford, on his estate at Wobuiai, and brought to their perfection, probably, by judicious crosses of the China hog, on some of the best English swie. A pair was sent by* the duke to this country, as a present to Gen. Washington, but they were dishonestly sold by tYn. messenger in Maryland, in which state and Pennsylvania they were productive of much good at an eai'ly day, by their extensive distribution through different states. Several other importations of this breed have been made at various times, and especially by the spirited masters of the Liverpool packet ships, in the neighborhood of New York. They are a laige, spotted animal, well made, and inclining to early maturity and fattening. They are an ex^ 196 DOMESTIC ANIMALte. ceedingly valuable hog, but are nearly eximct both in England ^nd this country, as a breed. The Leicesters are a large, white hog, generally coarse in the bone and hair, great eaters, and slow in maturing. Some varieties of this breed differ essentially in these particulars, and mature early on a moderate amount of food. The crosses with smaller compact breeds, are generally thrifty, desirable animals. Other large breeds deserving commendation in this country, are the large Miami white, the Yorkshire white, and the Kenihvorth, each frequently attaining, Avhen dressed, a weight of 600 to 800 lbs. Fip-. 34. China Hog. The Chinese is among the smaller varieties, and without doubt is the parent stock of the best European and American swine. They necessarily vary in appearance, size, shape, and color, from the diversity in the style of breeding, and the various regions from which they are derived. The Fig. represents the pure Cliina pig, and is a striking likeness of many of the imported and their immediate descend- ants that we have seen in this country. They are too small fin animal for general use, and require to be mixed with largei BHRED.? uF SWIXE. 197 breeds to produce the most profitable carcass for the market. For the pm-pose of lefiiiing the coarse breeds, no animal has ever been so successful as this. They are fine-boned, short, and very compact, with bellies almost touching the ground, light head and ears, fine muzzle, of great docility and quiet- ness, small feeders, and producing much meat for the quantity of food consumed. From the rapidity with which generations of this animal are multiphed, the variety of other breeds on which they are crossed, and the treatment to which they are subjected, it is not surprising that their descendants should rapidly assume distinct features. They furnish not only a strong dash of blood in the best class of large breeds, but in such of the smaller as have any pretensions to merit, they constitute the greater part of the improvement. Such are the Neapolitan, the Essex Imlf-hlack, the Grass breed, and some others. Fia. 35. Berltshire Hog. The Berkshires are an ancient English breed, formerly of large size, slow feeders, and late in maturing. Their color was a buff or sandy ground, with large black spots, and the feet, 'ower part of the legs, and tuft on the tail, bufif. Tlie 17^^ 198 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. latter color has given place, in most of the modern ace, to white in the same jjarts. This variation, with the more im- portant ones of early matmity and good feeding-properties, are by Professor liOw ascribed to a Chinese c oss, which has added the only characteristic in which they wcie before deficient. They weie first introduced and reared as a distinct breed in this country by Mr. Brentnall, of Orange Co., and Mr. Hawes, of Albany, N. York. In their hands, and those of other skil- ful breedeis, their merits were widely promulgated. No other breeds have been so extensively diffused in the United States, within comparatively so brief a period, as the Berkshires, since 1882, and they have produced a marked improvement in many of our former races. They weigh variously, from 250 to 400 lbs. net, at 16 months, according to their food and style of breeding ; and some full-grown have dressed to more than 800 lbs. They particularly excel in their hams, which are round, full, and heavy, and contain a large proportion of lean, tender, and juicy meat, of the best flavor. None of our improved breeds afford long, coarse hair or bristles ; and it is a gratifying evidence of our decided im- provement in this department of domestic animals, that our brush-makers are under the necessity of importing most of what they use from Prussia and northern Europe. This im- provement is manifest not only in the hair, but in the skin, which is soft and mellow to the touch ; in the finer bones, shorter head, upright ears, dishing face, delicate muzzle, and mild eye ; and in the short legs, low flanks, deep and wide chest, broad back, and early maturity. Breeding. Swine should not be allowed to breed before 12 or 15 months old, unless the animals are large and coarse, when they may be put to it somewhat younger. Not only choice individuals, but such as are well descended, should be selected for the purpose of breeding. The sow should be in good con- dition, but not fat, nor approaching to it ; and a proper degree of exercise is essential to the dev^elopment of the foetus and the health of the parent ; for which reason, she should have an extended range connected with her pen. The sow goes with young about 114 days. A week before he' time comes r->und, a comfortable, quiet place should be MANAGEMENT AND FATTENING. 199 prepared for her under cover, and well-protected from cold, if the weather be severe ; or if warm, a range in a pasture with an open shed to n tire to, is sufficient. Too much htter for beddino- must be avoided, and no chanci^e or disturbance of the sow permitted, till two or three weeks after pigging, as the restlessness thereby produced may result in the loss of the pigs. The sow should be fed only with a small quantity of the hghtest food or thin gruel, for two or three days, nor put on full feed for a week. If inchned to eat her pigs, she should be fed two or three times with raw pork or fresh meat. The pigs may be taught to crack oats or soaked corn after three weeks, and if provided with a trough inaccessible to the dam, they will soon learn to feed on milk and other food, pre- paratory to weaning. This may take place when they are 8 or 10 weeks old ; and to prevent injury to the sow, let one or two remain ^4th her a few days longer, and when finally re- moved, if her bag appears to be full, they may be allowed to drain the milk after 20 or 30 hours. The sow should be re- stricted to a light, dry diet for a few days at this ^^eriod. Management and Fattening. There are but two objects in keeping swine, for breeding and for slaughter, and their management is consequently sim- ple. Those designed for breeding, should be kept in growing condition, on light food, and have every advantage for exer- cise. Such as are destined exclusively for fattening, ought to be steadily kept to the object. It is the usual, though a bad practice in this country, to let spring pigs run at large for the first 15 months, with such food as is convenient ; and if fed at all, it is only to keep them in moderate growth till the second autumn. They are then put up to fatten, and in the course of 60 or 90 days are fed off and slaughtered. During this brief period, they gain from 50 to 100 per cent, more of dressed weight, than in the 15 or 18 months preceding : nor even then do they yield a greater average weight than is often attained by choice, thrifty pigs, which have been well-fed from weaning to the age of 8 or 9 months. Three pigs of the Bedford breed, when precisely 7^ months old, dressed 230, 235, and 238i lbs. Two of the Berkshire and Leicestei breeds, at 9 months, dressed 304 and 310 lbs. Three others )f the Berkshire and Grass breeds, 7 months and 27 days old weighed 240, 250, and 25'?' lbs. net. Inntune- 200 DOMESTIIJ ANIMALS. rable instances could be adduced of similar weights, gained within the same time, with a good breed of animals under ju- dicious treatment. We have no one accurate account of the food consumed, so as to determine the relative profit of short or long feeding. But that an animal must consume much more in 18 or 20 months to produce the same quantity of dressed meat, which is made by others of 8 or 9 months, does not admit of a doubt. We have seen that an ox requires but Httle more than double the quantity of food to fatten, that is necessary for supporting existence. If we apply this principle to swine, and state the quantity of food which will fatten the pig rapidly, to be three times as great as for the support of life, we shall find that the pig will fatten in 1 months, on the same food he w^ould con- sume to kerp him alive for 21. This is based on the supposi- tion that joth animals are of equal size. But the pig that matures and is slaughtered at 7 months, has only a moderate capacity for eating. During the early stages of his growth, his size and the consequent incapacity of the digestive organs, prevent thr consumption of the same quantity which the larger animal requires ; and his accumulating fat, his limited respira- tion, consequent upon the compression of his lungs, and his indisposition to exercise, all conspire to keep the consumption of food within the smallest possible limit. This result, in the absence of any experiment, must be conjectural entirely ; but we believe that experiments will show, that of two thrifcy pigs from the same litter, one of which is properly fed to his utm jst capacity for 1 months, and the other fed with precisely double the quantity of similar food for 21 months, the first will yield more carcass and of a better and more profitable quality than the latter, which has consumed 100 per cent, the most. The food is only one item in this calculation. The oldest re- quires the most attention, is liable to more accidents and dis- ease, besides the loss of interest. We are necessarily forced to the conclusion, that by far the cheapest mode of wintering pigs is in the pork-barrel. We can readily anticipate one objection to this practice, which is the want of food at the requisite season of the year to fatten them. This can be obviated, by reser\ang enough of the previous year's grain, to keep the animal in a rapidly thriving state, till the next crop matures sufficiently to feed. In the rich corn regions, on its beginning to ripen, as it does in August, the fields are fenced off into suitable lots, and MAXAGEMEXr AND FA^TEXIXG. 201 large lierds are successively turned into tliem, to consume the grain at their leisure. They waste nothing except the stalks, which in that region of plenty are considered of little value, and they are still useful as manure for succeeding crops ; and whatever grain is left by them, leaner droves which follow, will readily glean. Peas, early buckwheat, and apples, may be fed on the ground in the same way. There is an improvement in the character of the grain from a few months' keeping, which is fully equivalent to the interest of the money and cost of storage. If fattened early in the season, they will consume less food to make an equal amount of flesh than in colder weather ; they will lequire less atten- tion ; and generally, early pork will command the highest price in market. It is most economical, to provide the swine with a fine clover pasture to run in during the spring and summer ; and they ought also to have access to the orchard, to pick up all the unripe and superfluous fruit that falls. They should also have the wash of the house and the dairy, to which add meal, and sour in large tubs or barrels. Not less than one-third, and perhaps more, of the whole grain fed to swine, is saved by grinding and cooking or souring. Yet care must be ob- served that the souring be not carried so far as to injure the food by putrefaction. A mixture of meal and water, with the addition of yeast or such remains of a former fermentation as adhere to the side or bottom of the vessel, and exposure to a temperature between 68° and 77° will produce immediate fermentation. In this process there are five stages. The saccharine, by which the starch and o-um of the veo-etables, in then' natural condition, are converted into sugar ; the vinous, which changes the sugar into alcohol ; the mucilayinous, sometimes taking the place of tlie vinous, and occurring when the sugar solution, or fermenting principle is weak, producing a slim}^ glutinous product ; the acetic, forming vinegar, from the vinous or alco- holic stage ; and th^ loiitrefa.ctive, which destroys aU the nutritive principles and converts them into a poison. The precise point in fermentation when the food becomes most profitable for feeding, has not yet been satisfactorily deter- mined ; but that it should stop short of the putrefactive, and probably the full maturity of the acetic, is certain. The roots for fattening animals ought to be wasiied, and steamed or bciled; and when not intended to be fermented, the meal may ')e scalded with the roots. A small quantity of 202 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. salt sliould be added. Potatoes are the best roots for swine ; then parsnips ; orange or red carrots, white or Belgian ; sugar beets ; mangel-wurzel ; ruta-bagas ; and the white tur- nips, in the order mentioned. The nutritive properties of tur- nips are diffused through so large a bulk, that we doubt if they can ever be fed to fattening swine with advantage; and thev will barely sustain lift when fed to them uncooked. There is a great loss in feeding roots to fattening swine, without cooking. When unprepared grain is fed, it should be on a full stomach, to prevent imperfect mastication, and con- sequent loss of the food. It is better indeed to have it always before them. The animal machine is an expensive one to keep in motion, and it should be the object of the farmer to put his {(jod in the most available condition for its immediate conver- sion into fat and muscle. Swine ought to be kept perfectly dry and clean, and pro- vided with a warm shelter, to which they can retire at pleas- ure. This will greatly hasten the fattening and economize the food. They thrive better and are generally less subject to disease, when long confined in yards, by having a clear run- ning stream always accessible, to wallow in. This is one of the best preventives of vermin and cutaneous diseases. A hog ought to have three apartments, one each for sleeping, eating, and evacuations, of which the last may occupy the lowest, and the first the highest level, so that nothing shall be drained, and as little carried into the first two as possible. They must be regularly fed three times a day, and if there is a surplus, it should be removed at once. If they are closely confined in pens, give them as much charcoal twice a week as they will eat. This corrects any tendency to disorders of the stomach. Rotten wood is an imperfect substitute for charcoal. Grav-es, scraps, or cracklings, as they are variously called, the residuum of rough lard or tallow, after expressing the fat, are a good change and an economical food. Some animal food, although not essential, is always acceptable to swine. When about to finish them off, many feed for a few weeks on hard corn. This is proper when slops or indifferent food has been given, and meal cannot be conveniently procured ; but when fattened on sound roots and meal, it is a wasteful prac- tice, as the animal thus falls behind his accustomed growth. It is better to give him an occasional feed of the raw grain, for a change, and to sharpen his appetite. The 'products furnished hy the carcass of swine ar* numerous. Every part of the animaV is used for food, and it admits of a CURING HAMS AND PORK. 203 far greater variety of preparation for the table, tiian any other flesh. From the remotest antiquity to the present time, and in every grade of barbarous and civihzed hfe, it has been es- teemed as one of the choicest dehcacies of the epicure. Lard-oil {pleine) has, within a few years, given to pork a new and profitable use, by which the value of the carcass is greatly increased. At some of the large pcrrk-packing depots of the West, one-third of the whole quantity has been thus dis- posed of. This has withdrawn a large amount of pork from the market, and prevented the depression wliich must other- wise have occurred. Where the oil is required, the whole carcass, after taking out the hams and shoidders, is placed in a tub having two bot- toms, the upper one perforated with holes, on which the pork is laid, and then tightly covered. Steam, at a high tempera- ture, is then admitted into the tub, and in a short time all the fat is extracted and falls upon the lower bottom. The remain- ing mass is bones and scraps. The last is fed to pigs, poultry, or dogs, or affords the best kind of manure. The bones are either used for manure, or are converted into animal charcoal, worth about three cents per pound, which is valuable for va- rious purposes in the arts. When the object is to obtain lard of a fine qualit}^, the animal is first skinned, and the adhering fat carefully scraped off. The oily, viscid matter of the skin is thus avoided. When tanned, the skin makes a valuable leather. An aorofreo-ate weio-ht of 1*790 lbs. from four well- fattened animals, after taking out the hams and shoulders, say about 400 lbs., gave Avithin a fraction of 1200 lbs. of the best lard. Stearine and Oleine. — Lard and all fatty matters consist of three principles, of which stearine contams the stearic and margaric acids, both of which, when separated, are solid, and used as inferior substitutes for wax or spermaceti candles. The other, oleine, is fluid at a low temperature, and in Ameri- can commerce, is known as lard-oil. It is very pure, and ex- tensively used for machinery, lamps, and most of the purposes for which olive or spermaceti oils are used. Curing Hams and Pork. After dressing, the carcass should be allowed to hang till perfectly drained and cool, when it may be cut up and salted. The usual way is to pack the pork in clean salt, adding brine to the barrel when filled. Bu: it may be dry salted, by rubi* 204 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. bing it in thoroughly on every side of each piece, with a strong leather rubber firmly secured to the palm ot the right hand. The pieces are then thrown into heaps and sprinkled with salt, and occasionally turned till cured ; or it may at once be pack- ed in dry casks, w^hich are occasionally rolled to bring the salt into contact w^ith every part. Hams and Shoulders May be cured in the same manner, either dry or in pickle, but with differently arranged materials. The following is a good pickle for 200 lbs. Take 14 lbs. of Turk Island salt ; ^ lb. of saltpetre ; 2 qts. of molasses, or 4 lbs. of brown sugar, wdth water enough to dissolve them. Bring the liquor to the scalding point, and skim off all the impurities which rise to the top. When cold, pour it upon the ham, which should be perfectly cool but not frozen, and closely packed ; and if not sufficient to cover it, add enough pure water for this purpose. Some extensive packers in Cincinnati and elsewhere, who send choice hams to market, add pepper, allspice, cinnamon, nut- megs, or mace and cloves. The hams may remain six or eight weeks in this pickle, then hung up in the smoke-house, wdth the small end down, and smoked from 10 to 20 days, according to the quantity of smoke. The fire should not be near enough to heat the hams. In Holland and Westphalia, the fire is made in the cellar, and the smoke carried by a flue into a cool, dry chamber. This is undoubtedly the best method of smoking. The hams should at all times be dry and cool, or their flavor will suffer. Green sugar-maple chips are best for smoke ; next to them are hick- ory, sweet-birch, corn-cobs, white-ash, or beech. The smoke-house is the best place to keep haras till wanted. If removed, they should be kept cool, dry, and free from flies. A canvass-cover for each, saturated with hme, w^hich may be put on with a whitewash brush, is a perfect protection against flies. When not to be kept long, they may be packed in dry salt, or even in sweet brine, without injury. A common meth- od is to pack in dry oats, baked sawdust, &c. DISEASES OF SWIJNE. Mortifying as the fact may be to human pride, it is never- theless certain, that the mternal arrangements, the viscera, digestive organs, omnivorous propensities, and the cceneraJ PULMONARY AFFECTIONS, ETC. 205 physiological structure of the hog and the bear, more nearly resemble man, than any other animal. Many of their diseases may therefore be expected to be a modification of those of the human species, and require a similar treatment Skeleton of a Pig A Maxilla inferior, vel posterior; lower jaw.— B Denies; the teeth.— C Ossa na.si ; the nasal bones. — D Maxilla superior, vel anterior; upper jaw. — E Os frontis ; the frontal bone. — F Orbiculus ; the orbit or socket of the eye.— G Os oocipitis ; the occipital bone.— H Atlas ; the first vertebra of the neck.— I Verte- bra; colli, vel cervicales ; the vertebra^ of the neck —J Vertebras dorsi, vel dorsa- les ; the vertebras of the back. — K Vertebrie luinborum, vel lunjbales ; the verte- bra; of the loins.— L Ossa coccygis ; the bones of the tail.— a Scapula; tlie shoulder-blade.— 6 Humerus; the round shoulder-bone. — c Sternum; the breast- bone.— d Ulna ; the elbow. — c Radius ; the bone of the fore-arm.—/ Os navicu- lare ; the navicular bone.— ^ Phalanges vel ossa pedis ; the first and second bones of the foot. — h Phalanges, vel ossa pedis ; the bones of the hoof. — i Pelvis, (ossa innorninata ;) the haunch bones.— j Os femoris; the thigh-bone.— A; Patella; the stifle-bone. — I Tibia ; the upper bone of the leg. — m Tarsus, (one of which is the (N) OS calcis ;) the hock-bones. — n Os naviculare ; the navicular bone. — o Digiti, vel phalanges, (ossa pedis ;) the hrst digits of the foot.— p Digiti, vel phalanges, rossd pedis ;) the second digits of the foot. Pulmonary infections, Colds, Conglis, and illeasles. To each of these, swine are peculiarly liable, and, as with most other evils, prevention of disease in swine is more easy and economical than cure. A dry warm bed, free from winds or siorms, and suitable food, will most effectually prevent any injuiies, or fatal attacks. The hog has little external covering to protect him against cold. Nature has provided this imme- diately within the skin, in the deep layer of fat which sur- rounds the full, plump hog. Fat is one of the best non-con- 18 206 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. ductors of heat, and the pig which is well-fed bids dedance to the intense cold, which would produce great suffering, and consequent disease, in the ill-conditioned animal. By the ob- servance of a proper medium between too much fat or lean, for the store or breeding swine, and providing them with comfortable beds and proper feed, nearly all diseases will be avoided. For Coughs and Inflammation of the Lungs, bleeding should immediately be resorted to, after which give gentle purges of castor oil, or Epsom salts ; and this should be followed with a dose of antimonial powders — 2 grains, mixed with half a drachm of nitre. For Costiveness or loss of appetite, sulphur is an excellent remedy, given in a light mess. Ttch may be cured by anointing with equal parts of lard and brimstone. Rubbmg-posts, and a running stream to wal- low in are preventives. The Kidney Worm is frequently fatal ; and always produces weakness of the loins and hind legs, usually followed by entire prostration. A pig thus far gone, is hardly worth the trouble of recovering, even where practicable. Preventives, are general thrift, a range in a good pasture, and a dose of half a pint of wood-ashes every week or fort- night in their food. A small quantity of saltpetre, spirits of turpentine, or tar, will effect the same object. When attacked, apply spirits of turpentine to the loins, and administer calomel carefully ; or give half a tablespoonfid of copperas daily for one or two weeks. Blind Staggers. This is generally confined to pigs, and manifests itself in foaming at the mouth, rearing on their hind legs, champing and grinding their teeth, and app'ai-ent bhndness. The proper remedies are bleeding and purging freely, and these frequently fail. Many nostrums have been suggested, but few are of any utility. It is important to keep the issues on the inside of the fore-legs, just below the knee, thoroughly cleansed. The tails of 3'oung pigs frequently drop or rot off, which is attended with no further disadvantage 'to the animal than the loss of the member. The remedies are, to give a little brim- stone or sulphur in the food of the dam ; or rub oil or grease daily on the affected parts. It may be detected by a rough- ness or scabbiness at the point where separa';on is likely to ocem FARM-DOGS. 207 -The most convenient mode, is from an artery just above the knee, on the inside of the fore- arm. It may be drawn more copiously from the roof of the mouth. The flow of blood may usually be stopped, by applying a sponge or cloth with cold water. The diseases of sw^ne, though net numerous, are formidable, and many of them soon become fatal. They have not been the subject of particular scientific study, and most of the rem- edies applied, are rather the result of casual or hap-hazard Suggestion, than of well-digested inference, from long-continued and accurate observation. CHAPTER VIII. FARM-DOGS. No grazing farm is complete without one or more intelligent, ?v ell-trained dogs, adapted to the various wants of their owners; and the general taste has made their presence almost universal in every rural household. The dog is peculiarly the friend of man. Many other animals have a temporary though feeble attachment to him, which seems the result rather of constant companionship, or the selfishness of dependence, than any well-settled atiection towards a master. The dog alone, of all the brute creation, seems capable of a disinterested, self-sacrificing afi:ection ; and this, united with his usefulness and adaptedness to all chmes and countries, has made him a favorite in every quarter of the globe. Since this animal is the habitual tenant of the farm, and, when suited to his peculiar duties, can be made of great utility by the assist- ance he is capable of affording in its management, w^e deem it entirely appropriate to our subject to indicate such of the spe- cies as are deserving the farmer's attention. Discarding all ideas of fancy or sportsmanship, and looking to utility alone, vre may safely afiirm that the farmer needs only such as may be found in the four breeds of the Newfoundland, the Shep- herd's and Drover's dog, ant the Terrier. 208 DOMESTIC AN IMA IS. Fig 37. The Newfoundland Dog. This dog, of -vYliicli we give a portrait, is always above me* (lium height, and treqiiently is of the largest size. He is hmg- haired and shaggy, and has a thick coat of fine, soft fur, be- neath the outer covering, which is almost impenetrable by water. His color is most frequently black ; ofien spotted find partially flecked or gra}nsh ; and occasionally buff. The Newfoundland is of the Spaniel family, but derives its name from the island where it has been bred for centuries, to tlie great advantage of its inhabitants. There are two varieties : the large, used in the north, called the Labrador ; and the smaller, more docile and intelligent, of the south, called the St. John's. They are employed by the islanders, and the people of the neio-hboring- coast, in drawinor their sleds and carts load- ed with fish, wood, &g. They aid them in various ways in their fishing operations ; they are strong, courageous, and Avatchful ; and with slight training, they are scare el}^ infeiior to the best hunting-dogs in pursuing the wild game that abounds in those high northern latitudes. These estimable qualities, coupled with their uniform good-nature, have always made them favorites Vvith the farmer. The Newfoundland is an excellent watch-dog ; sagacious in discriminating between a friend and a foe, and with courage THE SHEPHERD S DOG. 20^ •tnd strength to follow out his prompt and judicious conclu- sions. He is easily trained for the drover, to whom he is fi-e- quently a great assistant ; and with a scent sufficiently acute to pursue game, he is readily broken in as a useful companion to the sportsman. He can also be made serviceable in the various duties of the farm : destroying noxious vermin, taking the cattle and horses to the field or water, drawing a hght load, churning the butter, (fee. It is true, he has not all the sagacity of the Poodle, whose intelligence approaches nearer to human j-eason than any other of the brute creation. But if he has not that quick apprehension, which too often leads, as in the case of forward children, to the attainment of every worthless accomplishment and the indulgence of every loafer- ish habit, he seems to have a sedate, well-formed judgment, which makes all his wit available for some useful pm-pose. He is unsurpassed as a water-dog ; and his courageous efforts, wherever an opportimity has been afforded, in rescuing number- less human beings from a watery grave, together with his un- swerving fidelity and devotion, commend him as the prince of the canine family. The Slieplierd^s Dog. This animal, of which we give a beautiful portrait on the next page, of the long-haiied Scottish breed, belongs to the same family as the Newfoundland and Poodle, which embraces the most intelligent and useful of the canine species. There are two classes of these dogs, which differ widely in their size and characteristics. The larger is of great size and courage, and when protected by a stout leather collar studded with spikes, is a full match for the Avolf. These are used by the Spanish and ISIexican shepherds, on their wild sierras, as effective guards against the attacks of all marauders, and are essentially the same race as the far-famed dogs of Mount St. Bernard. They are not suf- ficiently gentle for guides, and the shepherds who employ them rely on some well-trained wethers or goats to lead the flock at their call. Some have been imported into this country, but on account of then- headstrong and ferocious character, and occasional depredations upon the flocks, they have been found unsuited to our wants, except on the borders of the wilderness. The Colley or Scottish sheep-dog, the English, and those extensively used upon the continent, differ much in their form and appearance, but ao^ree in their intelligence, docility, and 18* 210 DOMESTIC A\" .\I>Vi.9. Fiff. 38 Shepherd's Dog usefulness. They are of medium size, with a sharp nose, broad forehead, and small upright ear ; they are both shaggy and smooth-haired, with a bushy tail, and much hair about the neck ; variously colored, though more frequentl}^ inclined tc black or darkly spotted and gray ; and one branch of the family is entirely destitute of a tail. They possess an instinc- tive sagacity for the management of sheep ; and in company with a well-trained dog, under the direction of the shepherd, they soon become enth-ely competent to the control of the flock. They perceive his wishes by a word or sign, and with almost the speed of the greyhound, dart off to execute them. Accounts of their performances have been frequently related, which seem almost incredible to those unacquainted with their peculiar character. The following anecdote, often told by the gifted poet, Mr. James Hogg, more generally known by the soubriquet of the Ettrick Shepherd, will shov" their capacity more fully than any description. THE DRUVERS DOG. 211 * On one niglit, a large flock of lambs that were under the Ettrick Shepherd's care, frightened by something, scampered away in three different directions across the hills, in spite of all that he could do to keep them together. 'Sirrah,' said the shepherd, ' they're a' awa !' It was too dark for the dog and his master to see each other at any considerable distance, but Sirrah understood him, and set off after the fugitives. The night passed on, and Hogg and his assistant traversed every neighboring hill in anxious but fruitless search for the lambs ; but he could hear nothing of them nor of the dog, and he w^as returning to his master with the doleful intelligence that he had lost all his lambs. ' On our way home, however,' says he, ' we discovered a lot of lambs at the bottom of a deep ra- vine called the Flesh Cleuch, and the indefatigable Sirrah standing in front of them, looking roimd for some relief, but still true to his charge. We concluded that it was one of the divisions which Sirrah had been unable to manage, until he came to that commanding situation. But what was our as- tonishment when we discovered that not one lamb of the flock was missing ! How he had got all the divisions collected in the dark, is beyond my comprehension. The charge was left entirely to himself from midnight until the rising sun ; and, if all the shepherds in the forest had been there to have assisted him, they could not have effected it with greater promptitude. All that I can say is, that I never felt so grateful to any creature under the sun as I did to my honest Sirrah that morningf.' " They are quiet and good-natured, never inchned to roam or neglect their duties, and as httle disposed to injure the animals intrusted to their keeping. They have almost the intelligence of the shepherd in discerning the vagaries of the flock, and ten times his efficiency in driving it. No extensive sheep-walks, unless closely hemmed in by impassable fences, should be without one or more of these useful animals. The Drover's Bog. Tliis animal is shown in the annexed figure. He is closely alhed to the sheep-dog, from Avhich he derives all his intelli- gence and capacity, differing only in being somewhat larger and hea\'ier, which is essential to his controlling the sturdier bullocks under his charge. His additioial size is acquired by crossing witli some of the stouter races, such as the Newfound- land or the pointer ; and even the bull-doo^ and large shaggy 212 D'-iMFF'TIC ANIMALS. Fig. 39. Drover's Dog. tender have sometimes been resorted to for a strain of that in- domitable courage and game, which is frequently requisite to the proper discharge of his duties. He requires more training than the sheep-dog, as his pecuhar instincts are rather to the management of the flock than the herd ; but vrhen fairly bio- ken in, he is equally expert in its management. The drover's dog may also be useful for watching, if crossed with a refer- ence to this object, which the sheep-dog seldom is. Tlie Terrier. This, in addition to the foregoing, is the only dog necessary to the farm. He is needed principally for his great sagacity and indefatigable perseverance in exterminating rats and other vermin, that frequent y congregate in swarms around the farmer's premises, proilucing such an aggn^gate of aniioyance and devastation. Other dogs may occasionally be good rat- ters, but the teriier takes to them from n^tinct. as the New- THE T EERIER. 213 foundland does to the water, or the sheep-dog to his flock. He has e^reat ingenuity and activity in ferreting out and cap- turing his prey, and whenever a fair opportunity is afforded, he seldom fails of success. The famous English tenier, Billy, on two occasions, killed 100 rats in a ling at each time, in an average of less than six and a half minutes. The terrier is usually below the medium size, but sometimes fully comes up to or even exceeds it. He is smooth-hah-ed or rouorh accordino- to the breed, of which there are several, each claiming to be equally pure. Besides his capacity for the destruction of small game, his innate love for the sport renders him a valuable assistant in keeping off vagrant cattle from the premises ; and his quick ear, habitual watchfulness, and prompt courage, fully qualify him, to the extent of hi^ size, for an excellent watch-dog. The fancy of country residents may incline them to keep a variety of other dogs than are hereifi enumerated, some of which, with good training, can be made partial assistants to their masters. But it is unnecessary to specify the various breeds that may possibly be of some use on the farm, as the slight crossing they will be likely to have, equally with their opportunities and the attention bestowed upon them, will serve materially to develop or obscure their peculiar instincts. The Spaniel family and its crosses will be found to combine the greatest intelligence, fidelity, and aptitude to learn ; the hound has the keenest scent and greatest endurance in the pursuit of game ; while the bull-dog has the most courage, sullen fero- city, and strength. Each may occasionally be wanted for a strain of blood for some particular objects ; and this is espe- cially necessary from the bull-dog in the management of re- fractory cattle, or to give the terrier greater stoutness and courage. The absurd custom of keeping from one to a dozen dogs, untrained for any valuable purpose, or supernumeraries even if capable of rendering occasional senice, ought to be abandoned by every rational man. Besides the great annual cost, the danger of communicating rabies or madness is sufficient to justify a legal restraint on their numbers. The sad havoc they commit on the flocks, demands the extermination by law of every dog that is guilty, whether Mongrel, puppy, whelp, or hound, Or cur of low degree. And even if it includes the fides j^ hates, or parlor companions, 214 DOMESTIC AN1MAL3. Tray, Blanche, and Sweetheart, the work of extirpation should proceed, to the extent of ciir- tailing this branch of farm-stock to its wholesome and legiti- mate proportions. CHAPTER IX. POULTRY. Choice varieties of fowls add a pieajrctnt feature to the farm premises. They engage the attention and sympathy of the juvenile farmers, and the time bestowed in the poultry yard keeps them from mischief : it is an agreeable and salutary relief from toil and study, and ehcits the taste, the judgment, and the kindlier feehngs of humanity, which are to be matured in the future accomplished breeder. When properly managed, poultry are a source of considerable profit, yielding moie for the food they consume, than any other stock, although their value is not often considered. The agricultural statistics of the United States, for 1839, give us over $12,000,000 in poultry, and it probably exceeds 815,000,000 at the present time. It is estimated by McQueen, that the poultry of Eng- land exceeds $40,000,000, and yet McCulloch says she im- ports 60,000,000 eggs annually from France, (McQueen states it at near 70,000,000 ;) and from other parts of the continent, 25,000,000 ; besides 80,000,000 imported from Ireland. Poul- try, then, ceases to be an unimportant object of agiicultural attention, and assumes its appropriate place among the other staples of the farmer. Hens Are the most numerous and profitable, and the most gen- erally useful of the feathered tribe. The hen is peculiarly an eo-g-producing bird. She has the same predisposition for lay- ino-, that the cow has for secreting milk. Some breeds are better adapted for this object than others ; but in all that have ever come within our notice, the proper food and circum- stances are alone wanting, to produce a reasonable quantity of CiggS. The egg cons-^sts of three distinct parts ; the shell, the white. HENS THEIR FOOD. 215 and the yolk. A good-sized egg will weigh 1,000 grains, of which about 107 are shell, 604 are white, and 289 are yolk. Of the shell, 97 per cent, is carbonate of lime, 1 per cent, phosphate of lime and magnesia, and 2 per cent, albumen. The white consists of 12 per cent, of albumen, 2.7 of mucus, 0 3 of salts, and 85 of water. The yolk has about 17.4 per cent, of albumen, 28.6 of yellow oil, 54 of water, with a trace of sulphur and phosphorus. The foregoing are the constituents of eggs, which have been formed when the bird has free access to the various articles which constitute her natural food. But they vary with cir- cumstances. When-full fed and denied all access to hme, she will form an egg without the shell, and dehver it enclosed in the membrane or sack which always surrounds the white, when covered by the shell. When scantily fed, they will frequently lay ; but from a deficiency of nutriment, the egg will be meager and watery, and possess but a small portion of the nutritious qualities peculiar to them. To produce the largest number of good eggs, several con- ditions are important ; and they must especially have an abun- dance of the right kind of food. This is the most readily ob- tained in part from animal food. In warm weather, when they have a free range, they can generally supply their wants in the abundance of insects, earth-worms, and other animal mat- ters within their reach. The large proportion of albumen contained in their eggs, requires that mucli of their food should be highly nitrogenized, and when they cannot procure this in animal matter, it must be given in grains containing it. If to the usual quahties of hens, a breed of peculiar elegance, of graceful form, and beautiful plumage, be added, together with entire adaptation to the economical purposes required, good layers and good carcass, we have a combination of utihty, luxury, and taste in this bird, which should commend them as general favorites. They can everywhere be kept with advan- tage, except in dense cities. A hen that costs a shilhng or two, if provided Avith a suitable range, -will consume 30 or 40 cents worth of lood, and produce from 80 to 150 eggs per annum, worth three or four times the cost of feed and attention. The Food Of hens may consist of different kinds of grain, either broken, ground, or cooked ; roots, and especial!}^ boiled potatoes, are nutritious and economical ; green herbage as clover and most 2JG DOMESTIC AMMALS. of the grasses, chickweed, lettuce, cabbage, &g., will supply them with much of their food, if fresh and tender. Fig. 40, is a Food fountain. The grain is placed in the hopper, which is closely covered, and the grain falls into the bottom below. It is accessible on four sides by spring doors, which are thrown open by the weight of the fowl on the connecting spring. One is shown as opened by the fowl in stepping up to feed. This is a protection against dirt and vermin. Fig. 40. Food Fountaiu. Though not absolutely essential to them, yet nothing contrib- utes so much to their laying, as unsalted, animal food. This is a natural aliment, as is shown by the avidity with which they pounce on every fly, insect, or earth-worm which comes within their reach. It would not of course pay to supply them with valuable flesh, but the blood and ofi'al of the slaughter-houses, refuse meat of all kinds, and especially the scraps or cracklings to be had at the melters' shops, after soaking for a few hours in warm \7*iter, is one of the best and most economical kinds of food. Such with boiled meal is a very fattening food. Grain is at all times best for them when cooked, as they will lay more, fatten quicker, and eat much less when fed to them in this state ; and it may be thus used unbound, with the same advantas^e to the fowls as if first crushed, as their diirestive organs ai-e certain to extract the whole nutrimen t. All grain is good for them, including millet, rice, the ( leaginous seeds, as the sun-flower, flax, hemp, &c. It i? always better to afford them a variety of HE\S THEIR FOOD. 217 grains where they can procure them at their option, and select as their appetite craves. They ai-e also fond of milk, and especially when it has be- come curdled ; and indeed scarcely anj' edible escapes their notice. They carefully pick up most of the waste garbage around the premises, and glean much of their subsistence from what would otherwise become offensive ; and by their destruction of innumerable insects and worms, they render great assistance to the gardener. Of course their ever-busy propensity for scratching, is indiscriminately indulged just after the seeds have been sown and while the plants are young, which renders it necessary that they be confined in some close yard for a time ; yet this should be as capacious as possible. Fig. 41. Water Fountain. Water is placed in the cask as represented in the Fig., and it is then closely stopped, except an opening through a tube leading into a vessel below. As the water is exhausted from this, it descends from the cask above, and a supply is thus at all times within reach of the poultry. Their food is better when given to them warm, not hot • and there should always be a supply before them to prevent gorging. It is better to be placed on shelves or suspended boxes or hoppers, which are variously and cheaply constructed, to keep it clean and out of the reach of rats. Besides their food, hens ought to be at all times abundantly supplied with clean water, egg or pounded oyster shells, old mortar or •slacked ]ime. If not allowed to rvm at large, where they can 10 218 DOMESTIC NIMALS. help themselves, tl\ey must also be furnished with gravel to nssist their digestion ; and a box or bed of ashes, sand, and dust, is equall}^ esseniial to roll in for the purpose of ridding tJiemselves of vermin. Fig. 42. Poultry House The Hen-house May be constructed in vaiious ways to suit the wishes of the owner, and when tastefully built it is an ornament to the premises. It should be perfectly dry throughout, properly lighted, and capable of being made tight and warm in winter, yet afford all the ventilation desirable at any season. In this, .irrange the nests in boxes on the sides, in such a manner as to humor the instinct of the hen for concealment when she resorts to tliem. When desirable to set the hen, these nests may be so placed as to shut out the others, yet open into another yard or beyond the enclosure, so that they can take an oc- casional stroll and help themselves to food, &c. This prevents other hens laying in their nests, rrhile setting ; and it may be easily managed, by having their boxes placed on the wall of THE £GG-1IA'J- 219 the building,, with a movc;rbIe door m:ide t ) open on either side at pleasure. Hens will lay equcJly well without a nest- egg, but when broken up, they ramble off and form new nests, if they are not confined. They will lay if kept from the cock, DUo it is doubtful if they w^ill thus yield as many eggs. Hens disposed to set at improper times, should be dismissed from the common yard, so as to be out of reach of the nests, and plentifully fed till weaned from this inclination. Fig. 43. e -'— — = ^=r^ 1 1 h : ' ffifP^^-Ki 1 :. 1 ■■ ■-"■ ' ^'- Eg^-Hatchor, or Eccalobeon. Fig. 43 represents an egg-hatcher or Eccalobeon, made of different sizes, with shelves so arranged as to hold from 200 to 800 egf^s without touchincr each other. The outer box is a non-conductor, so as to retain the heat conveyed to every part by water tubes, connected by a reservoir below, the bottom of which is heated by the flame from a spirit-lamp. The temperature is indicated by a thermometer on the door in- side, which should be made equal to that of the hen, say aboxit 106^ Fahrenheit. Her natural temperature is somewhat ele- vated by the feverish condition of the bird at the period of in- cubation. Chickens require to be kept warm and dry, for a few days after hatching, and they may be fed w^ith hard-boiled eggs, crumbs of bread or pudding, and milk or water, and allowed to scratch in ;he gravel in front of the hen, which should be confined in a coop for the first three or four weeks. After 220 DOiMESTIC ANIMALS. this, they may be turned loose, when tliey will thrive on any thing the older ones eat. Many use them for the table when they are but a few weeks old ; but they are unfit for this pur- pose, till the}^ have attained full maturity. The Avhite-legs are preferred by some, from the whiteness and apparent delicacy of the meat ; but the yellow-legged are the richest and most highly-flavored. The color of the feathers does not seem to affect the quality of the flesh or their char- acter for laying. If w^e consider the chemical principles of the absorption and retention of heat, we should assume the white coat to be best, as it is coolest in summer when exposed to the sun, and warmest in winter. Yet some of the wdiite breeds are delicate, and do not bear rough usage or exposure. Fig. 44. The Dorking Varieties. These differ materially in their sizes, shapes, and colors. The Dorking is esteemed one of the best, being large, well formed and hardy, good layers and nurses, and yielding an excellent carcass. They are both white and speckled, and generally have five toes. The Poland is both while and black, with a large tuft, VAK. ETIES TF FOWLS. 221 generally of vrliiie fealheis, on the head. They are of good size, and excellent layeis, but are seldom inclined to set, which makes them peculi-arly desirable for such as wish eggs only. The Dominique is a speckled fowl, of barely medium size, compact, hardy, good layers, and valuable for the table. The Bucks county fowls, heretofore principally reared near Phila- delphia, posbess but moderate pretensions to notice, except in their immense size, a brace of capons havinp- been fattened to \^\ lbs. when dressed. Fig. 45. The Bantam. The Bantam is but little larger than a pigeon, and is usually of a pure white, but is sometimes speckled. It is generally feathered to the toes, but may be bred with clean legs. It is very domestic, and a pleasant little bird around the premises, and is not improfitable. The Game cock is of medium weight, and yields good flesh, but is a poor layer, and an undesirable tenant for the farm-yard. Besides these, there are many fan- ciful varieties, as the Creeper, wnth excessively short legs ; the Rumpless, without a tail ; the Frizzled, wiih irregular feathers turned towards the head ; the Silky or Merino fowl, vnih. brown or buff down, instead of feathers ; the Negro, with its black crest, wattles, skin, legs, and feathers; the Java and Cochin China, of great size ; several varieties of the Top-knot^ aad others. 19* 222 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. The Diseases of Hens. Tliese are not numerous or complicated, and may be mostly avoided by proper treatment and food, whicli are indicated with sufficient minuteness in the foregoing observations. Gapes or Pij) is generally owing to drinking unwholesoraa or dirty water. Remove the white blister on the tip of the tongue, and wash with sharp vinegai-, diluted with warm water ; or compel the bird to swallow a large lump of fresh butter, mixed with Scotch snuff. It h:is been cured by open- ing the mouth and forcing a pigeon fe-itlier, with a tuft of the feathers left on the end, (the others having been stripped off,) down the windpipe, and gently turning it as withdrawn, to be repeated the following day if necessa,ry. This detaches large numbers of a slender red worm, collected in the larynx of the throat, which impedes respiiation and swallowing. A little spirits of turpentine mixed with the food is a preventive ; as are also clean, whitewashed premises, and good food. After these attacks, feed for a few days with light food, soaked bran and cabbage, or lettuce chopped fine. Roup, Catarrh, or siuelled head, is shown by feverish symp- toms, swollen eyelids, frequently terminating in bhndness, rattling in the throat, and temporary strangulation. These are accompanied with a highly offensive watery discharge, from the mouth and nostrils, loss of appetite, and much thirst. They should be placed near the fire ; their head bathed in warm Castile soap-suds, or milk and water. Stimulating food, as flour or barley-meal, mustard and grated ginger, mixed and forced down the throat, Boswell says, has been effectual in their speedy restoration. This, like many other diseases, is contagious, and when it appears, the bird should be at once separated from the flock. Flux is cured by the yolk of an eg"F0RMATI0>' FOR PRESERVING THj? Eetith acd Caring the Diseases of Oxen, Cows, Sheep, and Swine, with a great variety ef Ori^-iiial Keclpes and Yainab'e Informatioii in relerence to Farm and Dairy Dnanage- EienL, \viierefcy every man can be his own Cattle Doctor. The princii-ies taught in this work are. that a! f Medication shall be snbservient to JTatnre — that ail Medicinea mart be sanative in their operation, and adnriinisterefl with a view ol aiding the vital pcw(.rs. iiic-cead of uepres.Mng. a> heretofore, with the lancet or by pcisoa. J?y G 11. Dajjd, M. D., Veterinary Prac;itioner. rHE DOG AND GUN, - - 50 A Fett Loo.^e CpAPTERS ON Srootixg. ainonar which will be found 6<'me Anecdote? and Incidents ; also, insfxuctions for Dog Breaking, and Interesting let- ter? from Sportsmen. Ej A Bad Shot. ftlOKGAN HOESES, 1 00 A PREMIUil Es?AY OS THE OrIGIN. HiSTORY, AND ChaRACTEBI>TIC3 of this remarkable American Breed of Horses ; tracing the Pedigree from the original Justin Morgan, througli the most noted of his progeny, down to the j>resent time. With numerous i)ortraits. To which are added hints for Breeding, Breaking, and General Use and Management of Horses, with practical Directions for training them for exhibition at Agricultural Fairs. By D. C. Linslet. SOEGHO AKD'iMPEIE, THE CHINESE AND ATEICAN SUGAE CAKES. 1 00 A Co>rRLETE Treati.se upon THEra Origix axd Yarietfes, Culture and Usea. their value as a Forage Crop, and directions for making Sugar, Molasses, Alcohol, Spaikling and Still Winee, Beer, Cider, Vinegar. Paper, Starch, and Dye Stufis. Fully Illustrated with Drawings of Approved Machinery ; With an Appendix by Leonard Wray. of Cafiraria, and a description of his patented process of crystailiz- ing_the juice of the Imphee ; ^^ith the latest American erperirr.ents. including those of 1S.T. in the South. By HEyEV S. Olcott. To which are added translations of valu- able French Pamphlets, received from the Hon. Johm Y. Mason, American Minister at Paris. THE STABLE EGOZ. 1 00 A Treati.se ox the Management of Hor.^^es, in Relation to gtabHng, Groom'- --ling, "Watering and "Working, Construction of Stables, YenM a- tion. Appendag,r„ .^^ .-tatiles. Management of the Feet, and of Diseased and Defective Horses. By Joh>- Sti.wast. Veterinary Surgeon. With Notes and Additions, adapt- ing it to American Food and Climate. By A. B. Alles, Editor of the American Agriculturist. THE HORSES FOOT, AND HOW TO EEEP IT SOUND, - 50 AVirn Cuts. Illustrating tee Anatomy of the Foot, and contain- ing valuable Hints on Shoeing and Stable Management, In Health and in Disease. By WiLUAM MiLZS. ^HE FKUIT GARDEN, 1 25 A 'I'reatise, intended to Explain and Illu.-trate the Physi- ology of Frait Trees, the The<-)ry and Practice of all Operations connected with the Pr..i.agation^ Transplanting. Pruning and Training of Orchard and Garden Trees, as &t:iri'i;irds. Dwarts. PjTamids, E.-pa'.ier. &c. The Lajing outand Arr.'\n2ing differenl kind- of Orchards and Gardens, the selection of suitable varieties for different purposes and localities. Gathering and Preserving Fruits, Treatment ofDi-seases, Destruction ol Instcts. Description and Uses of Implements, igns for Plantations, Implements, &c. By P. Baeet, of the Mount Hope Norserias, Eochester, N. Y. FIELD'S PEAECTJLTUEE 75 The Pear Garden : or, a Trr:!ati.=;e on the Propaoration nnd Cultivation -.f the Pear Tree, with Instructions for its ilanAgement from the See411c» (o the Bearing Tree. By Thomaa a. Fikld. Books PulUsJied by A. 0. Moore. ? BRIDor^ifAK'S (THOS.) YOUNG GAEDENEE'S ASSISTANT. SI 50 l.v Tnr.EE P^ETs. CoDtaining Catalosues of Garden ar.'i Flower Becd, «i..b i^ractical Direction? under each head for the Cnltivation of CuJinarv Te«e "oi^^^rd Viowers. Also direcrion? for Cnltivating Frnit Trees, the Grape Vine, &c, , tu which is tdded, a Calendar to each part, showing the work necessary to be done ii the vwioiii departments each month of the jear. One volume octavo.' BaiDGEiilAN-S KITCHEN G^^DENER'S INSTEUCTOR, i Cloth, 50 " " Clotk, 60 BBIDG-EMAN'S FLORIST'S GTHDE, .... i Cloth, 50 " *' - - - Cloth, eo BRIDGEHIAN-S FRUIT CULTIVATOR'S MANUAL, . i Cloth, 60 " - Cloth, 60 COLE'S AMERICAN FRUIT BOOK, 50 CoxrAlXIXG DlRECTIOXS FOR EaISIXG. PROrAGATTNG AND MaXAO- bxg Fruit TT;?e*, Shrubs and Plants ; with a description of the Best Varieties of Tizit. Including New and Valuable Kinds. COLE'S AJklERICAN VETERINARIAN. .... 50 CoxTAiNixG Diseases of Domestic Aximals, their Causes. Symptoms and Eemedie* ; with Eules for Eestoring and Preaervlng Health by ^ood management ; also for Training and Breeding. SCHENCK'S GARDENER'S TEXT BOOK. .... 50 CON'TAIXING DlRECTIOXS FOR THE FORMATION AND MANAGEMENT of the Kitchen Garden, the Ctilture and Use of Vegetables, Fruits and Medicinal Herbs. AMERICAN ARCHITECT, 6 00 The American Architect, Coinprising original Designs of Cheap Country and Village Residence?, with Details, Specifications. Plans "and Directions, and anEscimate of the Cost of Each DesigiL By Johs W. Eitch, Architect. First and Second Series, 4to, bound in 1 ■'oL BUIST'S (ROBERT) AMERICAN FLOWER GARDEN DIRECTORY, 1 rg Containing Practical Directions for the Culture of Plants, in the Flower-Garden, Hot-House, Green-House, Rooms or Parlor Windows, for every ^onth in the Year ; with a Description of the Plants most desirable in each, the nati:re of the Soil and Situation best adapted to their Growtlu the Proper Season for Trans- planting. &c. : with Instructions for Erecting a Hot-House, Green-House, and Laving out a Flower Garden : the whole adapted to" either Lai^e or Small Gardens, with In- structions for Preparing the Soil, Propagating, Planting, Pruning, Training and Fruit- ing the Grape Vine. TEE AMERICAN BIRD FANCIER, ..... CoXSIDERED ^ITH REFERENCE TO THE BrEEPIXG. EeaRING, FeEI)- lEg. Mana£:ement and Pectiliarities of Cage and House Birds. Illustrated with Engrav- ings. By D. Jat Beowtte. REEKELIN'S (CHAS.) VINE DRESSER'S MANUAL. . - 50 A.v Illustrated Treatise on Yintyards ant> Wixe-Mak:ing, containing Full Instructions as to Location and Soil. Preparation 0/ Ground. Selection ai:d I'ropiuration of Vines, the Treatment of Young Vineyards, Trtmming and Training the Vines, Manures, and th3 Making of Wine. DANA'S KUCK MANUAL, FOR THE USE OF FARMERS, . 1 CO A Treatise on the Physical and Chemical Properties op P..ils and Chemistry of Manures* Including, also, the subject of Compoets. Artificial Manures and Irrigation. Anew edition, with a Chapter on Bones and Superphos- phates. CHEMICAL FIELD LECTURES FOR AGRICULTURISTS, . 1 00 By Dr. Julius Arournus Stockhardt, Professor in the Royal Aca-ieniy of Agriculture at Tharant Translated from the German. Fdltt>d, wltfc totes, hi Jam s E. Teohemachsk. i Books Fublisfted by A. 0. Moorf. BUISrS (PECIET) Fi^MIiy KITCEI17 GAI.riKIE, - - t>0 75 Containing Plain and Accura.te L-F.e-ciaPTiONP of \w. tee Dif- ferent Species and Varieties of Culinary Vegetables, with their Eptanical, hr.giish, French and German namos, alphabetically arranged, with the Best I^ode of OuUivatlng them tn the Garden or under Glass; also ^Descriptions and Character of the niv?ot Select Fruit?, their Management, Propagation, &c. By Eoblet Buist, author cf the " Am- erican Flower Garden Directory,'' &c. DOMESTIC AND OKKAMENTAL POTJITKY. Plain Plates, - 1 00 Do. Do. Do. Colored Plates, - 2 00 A Treatise on the History and Mangement of Ornamental end Domestic Poultry. By Kev. Edmuxd Sa^tl Dixon, A.M., with large addiMona b* J. J. Kekr, M.D. Illustrated with sixty-five Original Portraits, engraved esprefitly fol this work. Fourth edition revised- HOW TO BUILD KSQ VEJfTILATE HOT-fiOUSES, - - 1 ?5 A Practical Treatise on the Construction, Heating and Ventilation of Hot-Houses, including Conservatories, Green-Houses, Graperies an4 other kinds of Horticultural Structures, with Practical Directions for their Manage ment, in regard to Light, Heat and Air. Illustrated with numerous engravings. By P. B. Leuchars, Garden Architect. CHOELTON'S GEAPE-GEOWEE'S GUIDE, ... - 60 Intended Especially for the American Cldiate. Beinof a Practical Treatise on the Cultivation of the Grape Vine in each department of Hoi House, Cold Grapery, Retarding House and Out-door Cultiire. With Plans for th* Confltruction of the Kequisite Bui]dlDgs, and giving the best methods for Heating the Sfcme. Every department being fully illustrated. By Williaai Choelton. iJOETON'S (JOHN P.) ELEMENTS OF SCIENTIFIC AGEICULTUEE, 6P Or, the Connection between Science and the Art of Practicai, Farming. Prize Essav of the New York State Agricultural Society. By John P. KoKTox, M.A., Professor of Scientific Agriculture in Yale College. Adapted to tb9 n.se of Schools. JOHNSTON'S (J. F. W.) CATECHISM OF AGEICULTUEAL CEEM- ISTEY AND GEOLOGY, 25 By James F. W. Johnston, M.A., F.Pt.SS.L. and E., Honorary Member of the Eoyal Agricultural Society ol England, and author of "Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry and Geology." With an Introduction by John Pitkin Nor- ton, M.A., late Professor of Scientific Agricultt^re in Yale College. With notes and additions by the author, prepared expressly for this edition, and an Appendix compiled by the Superintendent ot Education in Nova Scotia. Adapted to the use of Schools. JOHNSTON'S (J. F. \V.) ELEMENTS OF AGEICULTUEAL CHEM- ISTEY AND GEOLOGY, 1 00 With a Complete ADalytical and Alphabetical Index and an American Preface. By Hon. Simon Browk, Editor of the "New England Farmer.' JOHNSTON'S (JAMES F. V7.) AGEICULTUEAL CHEMISTEY, 1 25 Lectures on the Application of Chemistry and Geology to Agriculture. New edition, with an Appendix, containing the Author's Experimenta in Practical Agriculture. the: COMPLETE FAEMEE AND AMEEICAN GAEDENEE, 1 25 Rural Economist and New American Gardener ; Conta'ninpf a Compendious Epitome of the most Important Branches of Aerlcuiture and Rnrai Economy ; with Practical Directions on the Cultivation of Fruits and Vegetables, in- cluding Land.'^cape and Ornamental Gardening. ByTnoMAB G. Fessknpen. 2 vola, in one. fESSENDEN'S (T. G.) AMEEICAN KITCHEN GAEDENEE, - 50 Containing Directions fob the Cultivation of Vegetables and Garden Fruits Cl>th. Books Published by A. 0. Moore. CASH'S (J. A.) PROGRESSIVE FARMER, . - .. -• eo 60 A Sjiextific Treatise on Agricultural CnKMiPTRY, thr(Jr- ology of Agriculture, on Plants and Animals, Manures and Soils, apyilicd to Prnrtiral Agriculture ; with a Catechism of Scientific and Practical Agriculture. By .i. A. ^" a6u EESCK'S BOOK OP FLOWERS, 1 00 Lv WHICH ARE Described all the Various Hardy ITERnACEous Perennials, Annuals, Shrubs, Plants and Evergreen Trees, with Directions for theli ('ultivatlon. I ttllH'S (C. H. J.) LANDSCAPE GARDENING, PARKS AND PLEASURE GROUNDS. 1 25 With Practical Notes on Country Eesidences, Villas, Public Parks and Gardens. By Charles H. J, Bmtth, Landscape Gardener and Garden Architect, «fec. "With Notes and Additions by Lewis F. Allen, author of " Kural Architecture." IKE COTTON PLANTER'S MANUAL, - - - - 1 00 Being a Compilation of Facts from the Best Authorities on the Culture of Cotton, its Natural History, Chemical Analysis. Trade and Consumption, and embracing a History ol Cotton and the Cotton Gin. By J, A. Tukneb, C'OBBETT'S AMERICAN GARDENER, .... 50 A Treatise on the Situation. Soil, and Laying-out of Gardens, and the making and managing of Hot-Beds and Green-Houses, and on the Propagation and Cultivation of the several sorts of Vegetables, Herbs, Fruits and Flowers. ALLEN (J. FISK) ON THE CULTURE OF THE GRAPE, - 1 00 A Practical Treatise on the Culture and Treatment of the Grape Vine, embracing its History, with Directions for its Treatment in the United States ol America, in the Open Air and under Glass Structviree, with and without Artificial Heat. By J. Fisk Allen. ALLEN'S (R. L ) DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANOTALS, - ?5 Being a Hiptory and Description of the Horse. Mule, Cattle, Sheep. Swine, Poiiltrv, and Farm Dogs, with Directions for their Mana. Mo'N, Landscape Gardener, ELLIOTT'S AMERICAN FRUIT GROWER'S GTJIDE IN ORCHARD AND GARDEN ; 1 25 Beixg a Compend of the History. Modes of Propagatiox. Cul- mre. Ac, of Fruit Trees and Sh ubs, with descriptions of nearly all the varieties of >TOit8 cultivated in this country ; and Notes of their adaptation to localities, soils, and B complete list of i ruits worthy of cultivation. ! y V. K. Eluott, Pomologist. PRACTICAL FRUIT, FLOWER, AND KITCHEN GARDENER'S COM- PANION; 1 GO With a Calexdar. By Patrick Neill, LL.D.. F.R.S.E.. Serre tary of the Eoyal Caledonian Horticultural Society. Adapted to the United States from the fourth edition, revised and improved by the author. Edited by G. Emf.p.son, M D.. Editor of '-The American Farmer's Encyclopedia." With Notes and Additions by E. G Pabdee, author of "Manual of the Strawberry Culture." With illustrations STEPHENS" (HENRY) BOOK OF THE FARM; - - 4 00 A Complete Guide to the Farmer, Steward, Plowmax. Cat- tleman. Shepherd. Field Worker, and Dairy ifaid By IIenrt Stephens. With Four Hundred and Fifty Illustrations ; to which are added Explanatory Notes, Eemarks, &c., by J S Skixnee Really ons of the best books a farmer can possess. PEDDERS- (JAMES) FARMERS' LA?«:D MEASURER; - - 50 Or, Pocket Compaxiox ; Showing at one view the Contents of any Piece of Land from Dimensions taken in Yards. With » set of U*efal Agriculturi. Tables. WHITE'S (W. N.) GARDENING FOR THE SOUTH; - - 1 L^5 Or. the Kitchex axd Fruit Gardex, with the best methods for their Cultivation ; together with hints upon Landscape and Flo.wer Gardening: con- taining-modes of culture and dei^criptious of the species and varieties of the Culinary Vef'etable's Fruit Trees, and Fruits, and a select list of Ornamental Trees ano Pl.nnfs. found by t^ial adapted to the States of the Union south of Pennsylvania, with Garden- ing Calendars tor the same. Ey Wii. N. Whttb, of Athens, Georgia. EASTWOOD (B.) ON THE CULTIVATION OF THE CRANBERRY ; £0 With a Description of the best Yaeieties. By B. Eastwohp, "Septimus" of the New York Tribune. LTCERIC AN BEE-KEEPER'S MANUAL ; - - - - ICO Beixg a Practical Treatise ox the History axd Do.vr>---f Economy of the Honey Bee. embracins a full Illustration of the whole svhjcct. ■« il; the most approved methods of manasing this Insect, through every btnncb of -.m Cullu e: the resnH of many years' experience. Illustrated with maoy ensrTaMn;:.^ By T. B. Mrssa. Books Published by A. 0. ^Ioore. THAER'S ULBEET D.) AGRICULTUES ... 82 CO The Principles of Aqriculture, Oy Albfrt D. Th \er ; trans- lated by William Shaw and Citthbeet W. Johkson, Esq., F.E.S. With a Memoir oi the Author. 1 vol 8vo. This work is regarded by those who are competent to judge as one of the most beautiful works that has ever appeared on the subject of Agriculture. At the same time that it is eminently practical, it is philoso, hical, and, even to the general reader, remarkably entertainmg. BOUSSIKGAULT'S (J. B.) EUEAL ECONOMY. - - 1 25 In its Relations to Chemistry, Physics, and jyiETKoroLOGY : or, Chemistry applied to Agriculture. By J. B. Bofssingault. Translated, witii notes, etc., by George Law, Agriculturist. " The work is the fruit of a long life of study and expenment, and its perusal »vlll Kid the farmer greatly in obtaining a practical and scientific knowledge of his profes sion.'" MYSTERIES OF BEE-KEEPING EXPLAINED ; - - - 100 Being a Complete Analysis of the Whole Subject, consisting of the Natural History of Bees ; Directions for obtaining the greatest amount of Pure Surplus Honey with "the least possible expense; Eomedies for losses given, and the Science of Luck fully illustrated; the result oi more than twenty years' experience In extensive .\piaries. ByM Quinbv. THE COTTAGE AND FARM BEE-ZEEPER ; - . . 50 A Practical Work, by a Country Curate. WEEKS (JOHN M.) ON BEES.-A MANUAL ; . . - 50 Or. an Easy Method of INIanaging Bees in the most profitable manner to their owner; with infallible rules to prevent their destruction by the Moth With an appendix, by Woostee A. Flandeks. THE ROSE ; - 50 Being a Practical Treatise on the Propagation, Cultivation, and Management «f the Rose in all Seasons; with a li=t of Choice and Approved Varie- ties, adapted to the Climate of the United States; to which is added full directions for the Treatment of the Dahlia. Illustrated by Engravings. MOORE'S RURAL HAND BOOKP, 1 25 First Series, containing Treat"s(S rn — The Horse, The Pests of the Faem, The Hog, Domestic Fowls, and The Honey Bee, The Cow, Second Series, containing — .... 1 25 £vEET Lady hee own Flowee Gaedenke, Essay on Manures, iSLEMENTS or AgEIOULTUEE, AMERICAN KiTCHEN GaRDEIIEK, RtED Fanci£E, American Rose Cultueist. Third Series, containing — 1 25 Miles on the Horse's Foot, Vine Dressee's Manual, The Rabbit Fanclee, Bee-Keb .e's Chart, Weeks on Bees, Chemistry made Easy. Fourth Series, containing— - . . - 1 25 Persoz on the Vise, Hooper's Dog and Gtm, LlEBIG 8 FaMILIAE LETTERS, 8kILLF0L HorSEWIFB, Browne's Memoies op Indian Coen. RICHARDSON ON DOGS : THEIR ORIGIN A2^ D VARIETIES. . 50 Directions as to their General Management. With numernu? original anecdotes. Also. Complete Instructions as to Treatment under Disease. By H ^D. Richardson. Illustrated with numerous wood engravings. ThiB Is not only a che*p work, but one of the best ever mblished on the Dog. Boohs Published hy A. 0. MooiiE. LIEBIG'S (JUSTUS) FAMILIAR LECTURES ON CHEMISTRY, %Q 50 And its Relatiox to Commerce, Physiology, and Agriculture, Edlved by Johs Gabdenee, M.D. BEMEKT'S (C. N.) RABBIT FANCIER; - . . . 50 A Treatise ox the Breeding, Rearing, Feeding, and General Management of Eabbits, with remarks upon their diseases and emedies, to which are added full directions for the construction of Hutches, Eabbitries, «fec., together with recipes for cooking and dressing for the Table. Beautifully illustrated. IHOHPSON (R. D.) ON THE FOOD OF ANIMALS - . 75 Experimental Researches on the Food of Animals and the Fattening of Cattle; with remarks on the Food of Man. Based upon Experiments undertaken by order of the British Government, by Robebt Dundas Tnosii bon, M.D., Lecturer on Practical Chemistry, University of Glasgow. THE WESTERN FRUIT BOOK ; 1 25 Being a Compend of the History. Modes of Propagation, Cul- tare, &c., of Fruit Trees and Shrubs, &c., &c By F. E. Eluott. THE SKILLFUL HOUSEWIFE; 50 Or Complete Guide to Domestic Cockery, Taste. Comfort, and Economy, embracing 659 recipes pertaining to Eousehold Duties, the care of Health, Gardening, Birds, Education of Children, iix.,&c. By Mrs L. G. Abkll. THE AMERICAN FLORISTS GUIDE; 75 Comprising the American Rose Culturist and Every Lady heb own Flower Gardener. EVERY LADY HER 0 ./N FLOWXR GARDENER; - - 50 Addressed to the Industeious and Economical only ; cnntainini^ simple and practical Directions for Cultivating Plants and Flowers: also, F.lnts for tlie Management of Flowers in Eooms, with brief Botanical Descriptions 'i Plants and Flowers. The whole in plain and simple language. By Louisa .iouNS ,s. FISH CULTuRi: ; - - - - - - " " ^ ^^ \ 'Ppf^tise on the Artificlu. Propagation of certain kinds op Fish, with the description and habitus of such -i°^s,=^ a'-exnost suitable for piscicultn^^^^ Also directions for the most successful methods of Anghpg, illustrated with numerous fngravings ^y Theodattjs Gaelice, M.D., Vice President ot Cleveland Academy ofVatural Science. FLINT ON GRASSES ; ^ ^^ A Practical Tre^se on Grasses and Forage Plants, compris- iac, their natural history, comparative nutritive value methods of cultivahng, cutting Sid curincr. and the management of grass lands. By Cuas. L. Flint, A.M., Secretary of Mass. Slate Board of Agriculture. WARDER ON HEDGES AND EVERGREENS ; - - - 1 00 4. M\NU\L ON Live Fences, with particular directions for their plandng, culture and trimming, especially with regard to the Madura hedges and how to make it. Also an essay on Evergreens their varieties, prorogation ti^n^p^ ms and culture in the United States. By Johji A. Wabdbe, M.D., President of Cincinnati Horticultural Society. IG Books FuhUshed by A. 0. Moore. MOORE^S All arranged and adapted to the Use 0/ American Farntsra. PRICC 25 CENTS EACH. aOGS ; Their Origin, Varieties and JSIanagement, with a Yiew to Pro- fit, and Treatment under Disease; also Plain Directions relative to the most approved modes of preserving their Flesh, By H. D. Eichakdson, author of "The Hive and th« Honey Bee," &C,, n. Cultivation, and Management in all Seasons, &c With fall directions for the Treat Qent of the Dahlia. THE PESTS OF THE FARM ; Wiin Instrucions for their Extirpation ; being a Mai.ual of Plain D*ro.ctions for the certain Destruction of every description of Vermin. With numeroup Illustrations on Wood. KS ESSAY OK KANUEES ; Submitted to the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture, for their Premium. By Samttzl H. Dana- TKE AMEKICAN BIED FANCIEE ; Considered ttith Reference to the Breeding, Reartno. Ffed- Ing, Managament, and Peculiarities of Cage and House Birds. Illustrated with Engrar in^s. By D. Jay Browne. GIIfiMISTEY HADE EASY ; For the Use of Farmers. By J, Topham. ELEMENTS OF AGEICTTLTURE ; Tr:ANsi,ATED FROM THE French, and Adapted to the use of American Farraars. By F. G. Skisnbk. Books Published by A. 0. Moore. U THE HOUSE'S FOOT AND HOW TO KEEP IT SOUND; AViTii Cuts, ii!ustratin,£r the Ai]atomy of the Foot, and containiug F»liial>!e liints on shoeing and stable management, both In health and disease. By "Wil- UAM Miles. THE SKILLFUL HOUSEWIFE; Uv, Complete Guide to Domestic Cookery, Taste, Comfort, and Econ- omy, embracinir 659 recipes pertaining to Household Duties, the care of Health, Gar- dening, Birds. Education of Children, &c., &c. By Mrs. L. 6. Abell. THE A?JERICAN KITCHEN GAKDENER ; CoxTAixixG Directions for the Cultivation of Vegetables and Garden Fruits. By T. 6. Fessendex. CHINESE SUGAR CANE AND SUGAE MAKING : Jts History, Culture, and Adaptation to the Soil, Climate, and Economy of the United States, with an account of Tarious processes of Manufac- turing Sugar, Drawn from authentic sources by Chaeles F. Staksbuet, A.M., lata Commissioner at the Exhibition of all Kations at London. PERSOZ' CULTURE OE THE VINE ; A New Process for the Clt^ture of the Vine, by Persoz, Pro- fessor to the Faculty of Sciences of Strasbourg; directing Professor of the School of Pharmacy of the same city. Translated by J, O'C. Barclay, Surgeon U.S. N. THE BEE KEEPER'S CHART; Being a Brief Practical Treatise on the Instinct, Habits, and Management of the Honey Bee, in all its various branches, the result of many years' practical experience, whereby the author has been enabled to divest the subject of much that has been consideed mysterious and difficult to overcome, and lender it more sure, profitable, and interesting to every one, than it has heretofore been. By E. W. PUELVS. EVERY LADY HER OWN FLOWER GARDENER ; Addressed to the Indu'strious and Economical only ; containing Simple and Practical Directions for Cultivating Plants and Flowers: also, Uinta for the Management of Flowers in Pwuoms, with brief Botanical Descriptions of Plants and Flowers. The whole in plain and simple language. By Louisa Johnson. THE COW; DAIRY HUSBANDRY AND CATTLE BREEDING. By M. M. MiLBURN. and revised by H. D. Richardson and Ambrose 8TEVSN9. "With Illustrations. WILSON ON THE CULTURE OF FLAX ; Its Treatment. Agricultural and Technical ; delivered before the New York State Agricultural Society, at the Annual Fair »t Saratoga, in Septem- ber iasr^ by Joun Wilson, late President of the Pvoyal Agriculture] College at Ciren cester, England. ^EEXS ON BEES: A MANUAL. Or. an Easy Method of Managing Bees in the most profits • ble manner to their owner, with infallible rules to prevent their dastructiop by Vi» Moth ; with an Appendix by Woostee A, Flandebs. BEEMELIN'S (CHAS.) VINE DRESSER'S MANUAL ; Containing full Instructions as to Location and Soil ; Prepara- tion of Ground; Selection and Propagation of Via- s; the Treatm'^?! of a Tonng Vineyard ; trinmiing and training the vines ; manures and the making cf ^ (re. Er ery department illustrated. HYDE'S CHINESE SUGAR CANE; Containing m] History. Mode of Culture. Manufactueh of the Sugar, &c ; with Eeports of its success in different parts of the United Sfca^^A 12 Boohs PuhlisJied htj A. O. MoORE. BEMENT'S (C. M.) EABBIT FANCIER ; A Treatise ox the Breedixg, Rearing, Feeding, and General Manasement of Eabbits, witb remarks upon their diseases and remedies; to which are added lull directions for the construction of Hutches, Eabbitries, &c., together with recipes for cooking and dressing for the table. EIGHASDSON ON DOGS : THEIR ORIGIN AND VARIETIES ; Directions as to their General Management. With nnmerons original anecdotes. Also Complete Instructions as to Treatment under Disease. Ey H. T). RicHARDSOX. Illustrated with numerous wood engravings. This is not only a cheap, but one of the best works ever published on the Dog. LISBIG'S (JUSTUS) EAMILI/ R LETTERS ON CHEMISTRY ; And its Relation to Commerce, Physiology, and Agriculture. Edited by Jonx Gardexer, M. D. THE DOG AND GUN ; A few Loose Chapters on Shooting, among which will be found some Anecdotes and Incidents. Also Instructions for Dog Breaking, and interesting letters from Sportsmen. By a Bad Shot. THE PRESERVATION OF FOOD ; The various methods of preserving Meats, Fruits, Vegetables, Milk, Butter. Grain, &c., by drying, smoking, pickling, and other processes. By E. Goodrich Smith. n >P ■X ^ - ■C'