GIFT OF
Prof. E.J. tticksnn

THE DOMESTIC SHEEP

ITS CULTURE AND GENERAL
MANAGEMENT.

BY HENRY STEWART,

AUTHOR OF

The Shepherd's Manual; The Dairyman's Manual; Irrigation

for the Farm ; Garden and Orchard ; The

Culture of Farm Crops.

PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED.

"The Sheep is the most profitablest
animal a man can have." — FITZHERBERT.

CHICAGO:

AMERICAN SHEEP BREEDER PRESS.
1898.

MAIN

Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1898, by the

AMERICAN SHEEP RREEDER TRESS,
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.

PREFACE.

Since the publication of the Shepherds' Manual by the
present author a vast increase has occurred in the estima-
tion in which the sheep has been held by America!! farm-
ers, and indeed this great agricultural interest has ad-
vanced by strides everywhere all over the civilized world
where agriculture has reached its full development. And
while the work mentioned is still in print and circulation,
and fills a useful place in the special literature of the farm,
yet circumstances have occurred which make it desirable
that some newer work of wider adaptation to the great in-
terest involved should be undertaken for the information
of all concerned in the rearing of sheep and for the en-
couragement of this part of farm industry.

This present work is therefore offered to shepherds in
the hope that it may be found useful and effective in ad-
vancing this- important interest, and in assisting to more
fully develop the breeding and rearing of sheep.

HENRY STEWART.

526693

CONTENTS.

PAGE

PREFACE i Hi

CHAPTER I.

THE NATURAL HISTORY OB- THE SHEEP 7-21

Antiquity of the Sheep Husbandry — Lessons to be
Learned from Ancient Shepherds— The Anatomy of the
Sheep : Its Mouth and Teeth ; Its Stomach ; Its Intes-
tines and Their Functions.

CHAPTER II.

THE VARIETIES AND BREEDS OF SHEEP 22-102

The American Merino— Points of Excellence in a
Merino— Sub-Breeds of the Merino: The Dickinson,
The Standard Delaine, The National Delaine, The Im-
proved Delaine, The Black Top, The Improved Black
Top— The Saxony Merino— The Rambouillet Merino—
The French Breeds— The British Breeds— Short- wools :
The Southdown, Shropshire, Hampshire, Suffolk, Ox-
ford, Dorset. Long-wools : The Lincoln, Cotswold, Lei-
cester, Romney Marsh and Wensleydale. Mountain
Breeds : The Cheviot, Black-Faced Highland, Welsh-
Other Varieties of Sheep : The Tunis, etc.

CHAPTER III.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF BREEDING 103-126

Breeding an Art Based on Strictly Scientific Prin-
ciples— What Is a Breed? — Breeding by Ancient Shep-
herds—Heredity a Special Function— Selection a Special
Feature— Climatic Influences— Cross Breeding— Influ-
ence of Soils on Health of Sheep/

CHAPTER IV.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF FEEDING 12T 200

Feeding the Most Important Part of Agriculture-
Character of Food and Composition of Animal — The
Nutritive Ratio— Feeding for Lambs— Table of Nutri-
tive Value of Foods— Rules for Winter Feeding— Feed-
ing Crops for Sheep— Feeding Roots— Ensilage— Filling
the Silo— Feeding Lambs— Feeding Lambs in a Corn
Field — Rearing House Lambs — Feeding Grass Lambs —
Experiments in Feeding Lambs, and Possible Gain in
a Year's Growth— Winter Feeding for Wool— Scientific
Experiments in Feeding Lambs for Market.

(4)

CONTENTS. V

CHAPTER V.

BARNS AND STABLES 201-225

Best Arrangement of Buildings— Octagonal, Square
and Round Barns— Shed lor Soiling Sheep, with Floor
Plan— Handling Sheep— A Texas Catch Pen for Sorting
and Dipping— A Manitoba Sheep House— J. E. Wing's
Barn— Mr. Vestal's Barn— Shepherd Dogs.

CHAPTER VI.

WOOL: ITS HISTORY, USES, ETC 226-291

On the Difference in Wools — Wool Growing a Science
—The Nature of Wool— Cross Breeding for Wool— The
Culture of Wool — Uniformity in Wool — Washing Sheep
—Sheep Dips and Dipping — Shearing: By Machine
and Hand— Sorting Wool— Pulled Wool— Care of the
Sheared Sheep.

CHAPTER VII.

MINOR BRITISH BREEDS OF SHEEP 292-304

The Herdwick— The Ryeland— The New Ryeland—
The Lonk— The Roscommon— The Radnor— The Sheep
of North Wales — The Exmoor — The Limestone or Crag
Sheep— The Devon Long- wool— The Dartmoor— The
Glamorganshire Sheep— The Clun Forest Sheep.

CHAPTER VIII.

DISEASES OF SHEEP : PREVENTION AND TREATMENT 305-368

Parturition of the Sheep: Retention of the After-
Birth, Bleeding from and Inversion of the Womb, In-
flammation of the Vagina, Garget, Abortion— Internal
Parasites : Throat Thread Worms (Anemia) ; Tape
Worms (Tenia Marginata, Tenia Coenurus, Tenia
Fimbriata, Tenia Expansa) ; Stomach Round Worms
(Strongylus Contortus) ; Intestinal Round Worms ; Nod-
ular Disease of the Intestines (CEsophagostoma Colum-
bianum); Fluke Disease; The Sheep Bot-Fly (CEstrus
Ovis) — Albuminaria — Anthrax — Anasarca — Bronchitis
— Carbuncular Erysipelas — Catarrh — Colic — Diarrhea
— Foot Rot — Impaction of the Stomach — Inflammation
of the Brain — Inflammation of the Spinal Cord (Mye-
letis)— Pleurisy— Inflammation of the Udder (Mammitis)
— Inflammation of the Lungs (Pneumonia) — Inflamma-
tion of the Skin (Herpes) — Parturition Fever in Ewes —
Poisoning — Porcupine Grass — Red Water — Redness of
the Eyes — Small Pox of Sheep — Retention of the Dung
in Lambs — Inflammation and Castration of Testicles —
External Parasites: The Scab, The Maggot The Louse,
The Tick.

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THE DOMESTIC SHEEP;

ITS CULTURE AND GENERAL MANAGEMENT.

CHAPTER I.

THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SHEEP.

It is not only interesting, but exceedingly useful practi-
cally, to know as much as possible of the origin and general
history of the domestic animals which have— during, we
know not how many centuries — been brought under the
dominion of mankind, and have gradually been domesticated,
changed by this culture, and made subservient to the profit
of the farmer and the uncountable advantage of mankind.

There are several different races of the original wild
sheep, and as it is certain that some of these original races
have become the progenitors of our domestic sheep it is
interesting to study the peculiarities of these races, and so
learn as much as may be of the true origin of our modern
sheep.

This is by no means as ancient as might be supposed.
Unlike the horse or the ox whose origin may be traced back
through the early ages of the history of the world, long
before mankind tame into existence, our sheep seems to
have been almost co-existent with the first appearance of
man. and may quite possibly have been the survival of the
domestication, and improvement thereby, of one of the
original breeds of the wild sheep.

Of these there are several, but there is no evidence in
support of the belief that any one in particular has been so
domesticated and changed by special breeding, except in re-
gard to two of the ancient wild races referred to. These
are the Argali of Southern and Central Asia, and the Mus-
mon of Southern Europe.

It is quite probable that both of these original races have

8 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP

an ancient relationship to the sheep, and that the latter is
the original parent of our European race, while the races
at present existing1 in Asia have descended from the former.
As we have to do with the sheep of Europe, it will be neces-
sary to confine ourselves simply to this European wild sheep,
and note its resemblance to the first domesticated breed of
modern sheep, the Merino.

MUSMON OF EUROPE.

For the first record of sheep we have is of this tiiia
wooled variety, which was most carefully cultivated by the
ancient Romans who made the fine and costly garments,
even the imperial robes dyed in the costly Tyrian purple,
of the wool of the ancient Merino of Spain, which is the
progenitor of the Merino of the present time.

NATURAL HISTORY 9

The illustration of the Musmon, given here, will go to
show that this belief is well founded and that all our modern
breeds have descended from this first parent, which still
exists in the islands of Crete and Cyprus, and the mountains
of Greece, as well as in Corsica and Sardinia. It formerly
abounded in Spain, and it is from these very localities that
the ancient inhabitants of Home procured their choicest
fleeces.

It is also on record by some of the ancient Roman writers,
and by that ancient naturalist Pliny, that the Musmon was
used to cross on the ancient sheep, bred by the Romans for
the sake of its fleece, and that the produce of the cross was
fertile, But however it may have boon, this we know on

ARGALI OF ASIA.

the authority of the most ancient records, tnat of the history
of mankind given in the Scriptures, viz: that while the first
man, or we may think the first distinct race of men, were
cultivators of the ground, the second were keepers of sheep.
In fact the sheep unquestionably was the first domesticated
animal, and not so much for its flesh, although we soon find
that this was a choice article of food, but for its fleece. In
fact we find in the most ancient remains of the earliest
human races, that wool was used for clothing, first by the
use of .the skins of the sheep, and in time that it was spun
and woven into cloth. And during all the earliest history of
mankind to the present, we find that the sheep has been
accounted, at least, an equal part of the wealth of mankind
with all other animals or possessions. Moreover we are
forced to conclude, as the result of a study of history, that
the ancient shepherds who were wanderers, alternately in-

10 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

habiting the mountains and the plains, following their flocks
wherever they strayed, and taking possession of the best
lauds they met with by force of their numbers and good
fighting qualities, derived doubtless from their early youth-
ful combats with the savage beasts of prey from whose
attacks they successfully protected their flocks. And the
Merino has been, and still is, from that long bygone time,
a wandering sheep; thriving by clkmge of pasture, if only
from one small field to another; for this change, slight as at
is, seems to satisfy its desire for fresh fields and pastures
new.

At that early age the flock supplied the owners with food
and raiment, and notliiug more was wanted to fully fill
all the needs of the early races of mankind. Thus the first
men became shepherds, by the mere force of circumstances;
and it is interesting to note that our own shepherds of the
West are following in the footsteps of the ancient patriarch?,
and still perpetuating the habits and industries of the ear-
liest people of the human race. And if this is so it seems
to be an unavoidable result of the necessary relation of the
sheep to the human race, that the flock, under whatever
conditions both may exist, must always be a profitable pos-
session of mankind, in spite of all the mistakes made by
politicians and political economists, and under whatever
changes in our civilization may occur in the dim future. And
that old saying of one of the oldest writers on practical farm
economy, quoted at the title page, will remain true, as an en-
couragement for the shepherd, as long as the human race
may survive.

While it might be interesting to follow out this subject
of the natural history of the sheep, and give somg account
of the many varieties now existing, we propose to confine
1his work to its practical purpose entirely, leaving those
who rnaj feel interested beyond this limit to study the sub-
ject in the works of the special naturalists.

But it is worthy of note to the intelligent shepherd, as
closely related to his industry and the improvement of his
flocks, that all the different breeds of sheep now existing
must have sprung from this single source, and have been
produced by the art of the breeders who have given their
attention to the improvement of the natural flock. This im-

NATURAL HISTORY. 11

provenient, however, is by 110 means a modern thing. It was
in full progress at the time of the patriarch Jacob, who by a
trick, as it may be termed, worthy of the most experienced
breeder of modern times, got from his father-in-law the best
of the lambs for his share of the Hocks which he tended
finder a sort of contract, quite common uow-a-days, that is,
for a share of the produce. How long before that ancient
time the modern rules of breeding were then in practice wo
have no means of knowing, but it may be well believed that
this art of improvement had been long in vogue, and was
the basis of the high condition of the flocks at that time.

The high condition of intelligence among the leaders of
society ev-en in the days of Moses, and the consideration
given to the flocks as property, together with the large num-
bers of sheep owned by noted individuals as a mere matter
of course, all goes to show that the art of the shepljerd was
even in those early times very highly cultivated and most
highly considered. In fact, as the sheep was one of the
most important sources of wealth, we may be sure the flocks
weie cultivated as carefully as the high degree of intelli-
gence then would lead us to think. And this common knowl-
edge of course became a matter of history, repeated and
handed down by the ancient writers for even our informa-
tion.

And the arts of improving sheep by the best breeding, as
then practiced, may be taken as a guide for us at this time.
Here is what Virgil — that accomplished Roman farmer and
breeder — says in the third book of his Georgics: "There will
be always those in every flock whose forms you will wish
to change, therefore always repair them, and choose out,
from the flock the best offspring yearly. Then after the
birth, the care is transferred to the lambs, and they brand
them with the marks and the names of the race, which they
may wish ta keep for breed for preserving the flock. And if wool
be your care, select white flocks, with soft fleeces. And if,
although the ram himself be white, reject him which has a
black tongue under his moist palate; lest he may stain the
fleeces of the lambs with black spots, and look about for
21 not her in the full field."

Nor were the ancient shepherds at all behind the most
enthusiastic of the modern ones in paying enormous

THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

prices for the desired animals chosen for the improvement
of their sheep. For a shepherd of the time of the Roman
Caesar Tiberius is recorded as giving a sum equivalent to
live hundred dollars for a ram of a noted breed, chosen from
out-.? ol the most noted flocks in the world at that time.

Arid in more modern times we find that the kings and
emperors thought a present of a tine ram and a bunch of

fx

AFRICAN SHEEP.

ewes from their high bred flocks, a worthy present to be
mack1 or received. It was in this way that some of the first
of the Cotswold breed were brought into England as a gift
from the Spanish emperor to the English king several cen-
turies ago. Indeed we may thank the kings of England
very cordially for their enterprise in cultivating tint* breeding
sheep from the finest, by procuring the specimens from every
possible source, and by the strictest laws protecting the
native flocks from deterioration.

Moreover we may take a hint and lesson from this period
of the history of the British sheep. For not only were the
sheep protected in the strictest manner, but so was the trade
in wool. Every art of the economist was invoked for the
protection of the woolen manufacture in England. It
was a felony, punishable by death, to export a sheep, and
the introduction of foreign woolen goods was entirely for-
bidden. At the same time everv skilled artisan who was

ANATOMY. 13

expert in manufacturing woolen goods found a cordial wel-
come in England. In addition to the severest and most
strictly enforced laws for the protection of the wool product
and manufacture, the immigration of foreign experts in the
woolen manufacture was encouraged until at last, after cen-
turies of such protective culture, England monopolized the
Avoolen manufacturing business of the world. It is one of
the sad examples of unwise liberality on the part of
some of our statesmen that these lessons, taken from such
a conspicuous example of history, should be disregarded and
—as most truly said by the ancient writer quoted on the
Title page— ''the most profitable animal a man can have''
should be sacrificed to the mistaken policy of admitting
free of import duty the products of countries whose trade
has been built up and brought to a full growth by the most
severely protective laws known in the history of the world.
Surely it would seem that we should follow this most strik-
ing example of the building up of trade to a condition of self-
support by centuries of favorable legislative protection. This
is a matter the American shepherd should study well for his
guidance.

THE ANATOMY OF THE SHEEP.
None of our domestic animals can be managed success-
fully without an accurate knowledge of its anatomy, and of
the special functions of its parts. The anatomy or physical
structure of any animal controls its constitution, that, is to
say, its subjection to good or evil results in its living and
general management; for while this word in its full sense
means the formation and general disposition of any organ-
ized thing, in the common sense, as applied to animals, it
means as well the principles or general laws by which its
successful existence is secured; its susceptibility to good or
evil. by the conditions of its existence or management; its
ability to resist, misfortunes, and its prosperity under the
skillful management of its intelligent keeper. The constitu-
tion of the domestic sheep in this regard is especially one to
be well studied by the shepherd, for the due preservation
against these accidents and common occurrences by which
it suffers in a greater degree than any other of our domestic
animals.

The sheep belongs to that large family of quadrupeds

14 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

known as the Iluminautia, for the reason that they are all
ruminating animals, having four stomachs, cloven hoofs, anil
incisors only on the lower jaw, the teeth in the upper jaw
being wanting, and replaced by a hard, tough pad against
which the lower teeth impinge when the animal is pasturing,
thus severing the herbage.

Its family is known as Ovis, and is peculiar on account
of having no tear pits, but instead a number of small fol-
licles or bags from which is secreted an oily matter by
which the movements of the eye in its socket and also of the
eyelids are facilitated.

The organs of nutrition are the most important pad:
of the structure of this animal. They consist first of:

The mouth and teeth. The mouth extends from the lips
to the gullet, which is the entrance to the alimentary canal.
The sheep, like the ox, has a set of deciduous or milk teeth,
which in course of time are shed and replaced by a new
and permanent set. It has no canine teeth, otherwise known
as dog teeth. There is a considerable space of the jaw that
is destitute of teeth, that is, between the front or incisor
teeth and the molars or grinders. There are thirty-two teeth
in all, the same number as in the ox tribe. In the lower jaw-
there are eight incisors or cutting teeth. It is curious that
this is the precise number existing in mankind, but the
whole number is placed on the lower jaw of the sheep, and
in man they are divided between the upper and lower jaws.
The sheep has twenty-four grinders or back teeth, wrhich is
four more than mankind possess; but the whole number of
teeth in the sheep is the same as in man.

The number and condition of the sheep's teeth are an
easy indication of its age. There are twenty deciduous
teeth, the first of which appear before or soon after birth.
These consist of the two central incisors, and three of the
molars or double teeth. The whole of the incisors appear at
the age of two or three weeks. The first molars appear be-
fore or soon after birth, three on each side. The last two
incisors, one on each side, appear at six to nine months
after birth. This completes the set of front teeth. The com-
plete set of molars do not appear until the sheep is in its
fifth year, when the last one appears. The following table
will be a guide to the process of dentition.

ANATOMY.

16

The figures here given show the appearance of the mid-
dle pair of the front teeth at the age of IVa years, at which
age the English courts have decided that the lamb becomes
a sheep.

TABLE OF DENTITION OF THE SHEEP.

ERUPTION. REPLACEMENT.

FRONT TEETH OR INCISORS.
Before or soon after birth ...................... 1%, years

The same ....................................... 2yz

14 days ........................ : ................. 31/2

2 to 3 weeks ..................................... 4*4

MOLAR OR DOUBLE TEETH.
Before or a few days after birth ............... \yz

The same ....................................... 2yz

The same ....................................... 3%

6 to 9 months. 2y2 years. 4 to 5 years.

After the fifth year a sheep is
known as to its age by the full
mouth, and as the age increases by
the wearing of the teeth. But this
is not altogether a sure guide, for
a flock pasturing on a poor pasture
or sendy soil will so quickly wear
down its cutting teeth that they will
appear to be so blunt as to indicate
a much greater age. This is to be
taken into account, and the general
appearance, as will be described
hereafter, in other respects must all
be taken into account. This, how-
ever, is not of much account prac-
tically. for except it be some favor-
ite and prolific ewe, it is rarely that
a sheep is kept so long that its age
is any reason for despising it. It is
well, however, that the shepherd
and especially purchasers of sheep
should be able to ascertain the age
up to the point, of maturity. The
author has kept some ewes until the
age of thirteen years, having twins
every year after the second, and
never found any indication of in-
ability to feed as well as a young
sheep. What the full age of a

16 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

sheep may be has never been accurately determined by any
authoritative evidence, but it is very probable that if well
cared for a sheep may be kept with profit until twenty years
old, and the mutton even then may be as tender and good or
better than a four year old sheep that has been ill cared for.

The lips of the sheep are so peculiar as to deserve men-
tion. They are extremely mobile, thin, and take an active
part in the gathering of the food. The upper lip does not
show any mullle, which is the broad patch seen in the ox,
and which is furnished with active excretory apparatus,
seen at times by the conspicuous drops of perspiration ex-
uded by it in warm weather. This is absent in the sheep,
and the upper lip is thin and divided by a fissure so that
each half of the lip may be moved independently of the
other.

The teeth are really a part of the digestive system as
they grind the food along with the secretion of the glands
of the mouth, and which are known as the salivary glands.
These are placed within the lips, under the tongue, and along
the jaws. They secrete apeculiar fluid which has the effect,
of changing the starch of the food into sugar, as well as
aiding in the digestion of it in the stomach. In all the rumi-
nants these glands are large and exude a copious amount
of saliva, especially during the act of rumination, by which
the food, having been coarsely ground at the first, is
macerated in the first stomach and then regurgitated to the
mouth where it is further ground at pleasure and then
passes on to the second and third stomachs where it is again
ground and macerated between the folds of the manyplies,
after which it goes to the true digestive stomach, the fourth
compartment, and having been digested there it is finally
disposed of in the intestines.

THE SHEEP'S STOMACH.

The changes which the food of all the ruminating ani-
mals undergoes are mostly all accomplished after it has
been swallowed, and has been subjected to the action of the
first and second stomachs. After this preparation the food
is formed by a peculiar moulding apparatus into long pellets,
which are forced back into the mouth and are there sub-
jected to the solvent influence of the saliva, copiously se-

ANATOMY. 17

creted by the glands of the mouth. This is the act of rumi-
nation. It is during this process that the saliva is mostly
secreted, for very little of it is concerned in the first chewing
of the food. But the flow of it during mastication in the
ruminating process is very copious, and so much so as to
form with the finely ground food a mere semi-liquid, thus
aiding in the solution of the nutritive matter contained in
the food. It has been thought that this curious process
has been designed especially for this class of animals, in-
offensive, mild and meek and unarmed, and seemingly in-
tended by nature as food for the ravenous, carnivorous,
blood-thirsty beasts of prey. It has thus been provided with
some means of escaping extermination, by its habits of

Fig. 1. Fig. 2.

THE SHEEP'S STOMACH.

a. -Gullet; 6.-Rumen; c.-Reticulum; d.-Omasum; g.-Abomasum;
/.-Duodenum. Fig. 2 shows the interior of the stomach.

secretiveness, feeding at night, or at short intervals during
the days, in which it is able to swallow its hastily gathered
food, and retiring to its coverts there at leisure and in safety
completing its process of remastication and performing the
needed functions of nutrition.

A correct knowledge of the .stomach is therefore not
only interesting to the shepherd, but useful in the manage-
ment of a flock. For it is the case that most of the mishaps
and ordinary diseases of the sheep are originated in the
digestive processes, which not being duly performed lead to
a general disturbance of the system, by which a majority of
the ailments of the sheep are caused.

Taking a general view of this organ we find it to be

18 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

a capacious sack to which are attached minor compart-
ments lying between it and the duodenum or first part of the
bowels, three in number, thus making a quadruple bag, as
it were, through the parts of \vhich the food passes, and in
each of which a distinct process of digestion is performed.
The food passing down ike gullet (a) from the mouth, enters
the rumen or paunch (b) where it remains for a time until,
at leisure, it is forced back to the mouth by a peculiar move-
ment of the gullet. This is composed of rings surrounded
by an elastic membrane, and which are very easily dilated
to a considerable extent. The gullet, also called the esopha-
gus, passes through the entrance of the rumen where it is
connected with the second compartment as well as with the
third, by a canal, or gutter, known as the esophageal canal.
This connects with the rumen by a slit or opening which
is closed except when it is pressed open by the force of the
passing food, or by some function of its connective parts.
This opening is easily forced, doubtless by the will of the
animal, and as the canal is filled with the contents of the
rumen it closes, holding a cud or mass of the food; this
then is forced to the mouth by a successive contraction of
the elastic rings, in precisely the same manner, but in a con-
trary direction to that by which the food is first swallowed.
The cud then being reinasticated and diluted copiously with
the saliva, is again swallowed; and by reason of its soft and
semi-liquid consistency it passes over this opening in the
groove and goes into the third compartment, passing the
orifice of the second stomach on its way. The second
stomach is called the reticulum or honeycomb.

The third stomach is called the omasum, commonly the
manyplies, on account of the large number of leaves lining-
it. These leaves with their attachments to the walls of the
omasum are shown at figure 2. The food is ground and
macerated between these leaves until it becomes sufficiently
disintegrated to be acted upon by the gastric juice of the
fourth stomach, known as the abomasum, which is the true
digestive organ.

To repeat concisely this function of the stomach, we may
say that the rumen is a sac in which the food taken during
the short and rapid feeding time is kept in reserve, and
whence it is carried back to the mouth for the process of

ANATOMY. 19

rumination, after having been more or less softened by the
warmth and moisture of the rumen.

The second stomach, the reticulum, participates in the
functions of the rumeD to which it is mostly a convenient
appendage. But it always contains a large quantity of liquid
and doubtless plays the part of a reservoir much as in the
camel, well known to carry a considerable extra store of
water for immediate use as it may be required.

The esophageal canal carries into the third stomach or
omasum, past the opening of the reticulum, the matter
swallowed after rumination, or even any finely ground or
soft semi-liquid food swallowed the first time, and which
has not solidity and consistence sufficient to force open the
slit or opening in the canal.

The omasum completes the final disintegration of the
food by a process of rubbing or trituratioii between its
leaves.

The abomasum is a true stomach, in which the gastric
juice is secreted, and which finally dissolves the nutrimeii-
tary substance of the food, and renders it fit for the absorp-
tion of it by the villi of the intestines.

THE INTESTINES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS.

The intestines is a long tube doubled upon itself a great
many times, through which the digested food passes and
gives up its nutritive matter to be absorbed and carried into
the blood. The internal coat of this folded tube is covered
by a multitude of minute absorbent vessels called the villi.
It is a network of blood vessels and so-called lacteals, re-
sembling the close pile of velvet.

The villi absorb the nutritious matter of the now com-
pletely digested food and pass it on, as it were, to the great
portal vein by which the dissolved aliment of the animal,
fitted by complete digestion for the enrichment of the blood,
is carried to the heart, and enters the right ventricle, from
which it is passed on to the lungs where it is brought into
contact with the air breathed by the animal, absorbing oxy-
gen from it, and then becoming perfect blood. The blood
then, after this exposure to the oxygen of the air, is forced
into the left ventricle, and from this forced by the con-
traction "of the enormously strong muscular action of the

20

THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

heart through the arteries by which it is poured into the
system of capillaries. These pervade every part of the
body, internally and externally, and are so closely distrib-
uted that no part of the system can be punctured by the

THE INTESTINES AND MESENTARY.

1. The duodenum. 2. The jejunum. 3. The ileum.

4. The coecum, being the anterior prolongation of the colon, or
first large intestine. The ileum opens into this (on the back side as
presented, in the cut), about 12 inches from its extremity, the opening
defended by a valve.

5. The large anterior portion of the colon, retaining its size,
(about three times that of the smaller intestines) for about two feet.

6.6. The colon tending toward the center.

7.7. The returning convolutions of the colon.

8. The rectum or straight gut, communicating with the anus.
9.9. The mesentary, or that portion of the peritoneum which re-
tains the intestines in their places.

10. The portion of the mesentary supporting the colon, &c.
The united length of these intestines is upward of sixty feet.

ANATOMY. 21

finest needle without wounding some of them. From these
the blood having performed its function goes back to th,e
lungs where it is purified by the action of the air breathed
and then to the heart to be again circulated.

This brief description of the nutrition of an animal goes
to show the amazing delicacy of the vital processes, and
considering that the liver, the pancreas, and the spleen, are
all charged with accessory functions in this system of nutri-
tion, it is no matter for surprise that in the alimentation
of an animal we have one of the most profoundly delicate
series of operations, the safe performance of which is one
of the greatest wonders of nature. And yet it goes on oper-
ating constantly— as the pulse of an animal beats— forty-
eight times in a minute, every beat carrying to the center
of life a sufficient supply of aliment by which the whole sys-
tem is supported, and renewed in fact, completely in time,
by this addition to the system of an adequate quantity and
kind of nutriment.

This brief but wholly inadequate review of the method
by which food is made to support life goes, however, to show
what care, attention, and good judgment are necessary for
the welfare of a flock, too often fed without thought of the
delicacy of the vital organs; and the importance of keeping
these in a healthful working condition is that the first qualifi-
cation needed to insure the successful management of a flock
is a due acquaintance with the vital functions of a sheep
and a most careful study of the methods required to main-
tain health by a rigid adherence to the safe and healthful
alimentation of it.

CHAPTER II.

THE VARIETIES AND BREEDS OF SHEEP.

Such a course of culture as has been described, of course,
could uot fail to establish in time a large number of varie-
ties of sheep. Individual tastes and preferences; the varied
practice of individuals; many men being of many minds;
differences of climate, of pasture, of soils even, and other
environments, it may be sure must necessarily lead to the
growth of distinct varieties of sheep. This happened some
centuries ago, and even then the germs of the present exist-
ing breeds became differentiated as local varieties, best
adapted to the conditions in which they were bred, fed, and
reared. For we must take notice that these three elements
of variation in sheep are profoundly effective in fixing types
on the animals concerned. We may take the English breeds
as the leading example of this principle, as to numbers of in-
stances, wrhile the American Merino and that of the French,
the Spanish and the Saxony sheep of this class, not being
missed, but taken as included in our own bright example
of successful breeding, the American Merino. Doubtless we
may not easily think too highly of the Spanish Merino from
which our native breed was first originated, for this breed
may be said, as was said by the great Napoleon of the pyra-
mids of Egypt, "forty centuries look down" upon us, when
we consider the Merino of Spain. But as that unfortunate
nation has gone down in the scale of history, after a glorious
past, which we can never forget, so the Spanish Merino
sheep, greatly useful in its time, has gone out of history,
which has swiftly passed on before it and left it to be for-
gotten as the present factor in the study of the modern
sheep.

THE AMERICAN MERINO.

Let us begin our classification with this remarkable
example of American enterprise and skillful culture, and
the effect of its environments upon this susceptible animal.

24 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

It was in the year 1801, four years now short of a cen-
tury, that Mr. DeLessert, a French banker, owning a farm
near Kingston in the State of New York, imported a single
sheep, one of four- shipped from Spain, ihree of which died
on the passage. Mr. Seth Adams of Massachusetts the same
year with better fortune imported a pair from France, and
probably of pure Spanish extraction and blood, as the French
Merino specially was not then in existence, but about to be-
come so only as a special product of pure Spanish blood
under French culture. The next year two pairs were sent
from France by Mr. Livingston, our Minister to that coun-
try, to his estate on the Hudson river in New York. The
most important importation, however, was made in this same
year by Mr. Humphreys, our Minister to Spain, who brought
home with him two hundred. Seven years later our Minister
to Portugal, Mr. Wm. Jarvis of Vermont, sent home large
flocks, and still more in the two years after. All these sheep
were procured under the most favorable circumstances, and
were the best specimens of the best flocks that could be
selected.

After these other shipments were made but none of
importance. These sheep, soon naturalized, throve exceed-
ingly, the produce soon greatly exceeded the original flocks
in product of wool and general stamina of constitution, and
there are several flocks now existing in the United States in
which the pure blood, unmixed by any other, still flows.

The number of sheep thus imported amounted to 3,850
head and were made up of the finest of the Spanish flocks
that were confiscated by the Spanish Government, as one of
the penalties of political offences by four leading Spanish
noblemen. There could not have been any more favorable
opportunity of thus practically transferring the best blood
of the Spanish flocks to a new country and location; and
this turned out to be by virtue of the favorable soil and cli-
mate, as well as of the energy and enterprise of the New
England and New York breeders; and thus the successful
transplanting of the flocks of Spain was accomplished.
The foundation of the best breed of Merinos in the world
was thus laid on the most favorable soil, and has been built
upon by the native skill and aptitude of the American shep-
herds still further with most satisfactory results.

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26 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

There need be no surprise at the result, which has been
that our American Merino is the best sheep of its class in
the world, and that our breeders have the whole world at
their feet, offering the highest prices for our ranis for the
improvement and support of foreign flocks. It has been a
marked example of the fitness of our soils and climate and
of our fertile pastures for the special industry of the shep-
herd.

A combination of circumstances, however, soon combined
to bring on a disastrous speculation, by which, first, the
prices of wrool advancing on account of the war of 1812, led to
an equivalent advance in the value of these sheep. Wool
sold for $2.50 a pound, and sheep brought a thousand dollars
for ewes, and fifteen hundred for rams. As soon as the war
ended, in 1815, of course the sustaining prop to this specula-
tion gave way, and sheep that had been purchased at these
high prices were unsalable at one dollar a head. This is
only one instance of the many that have occurred of the
injury done to the most intrinsically valuable interests by
senseless speculation, in which the cursed thirst for wealth
leads men to lose their heads, and not only to ruin them-
selves but overwhelm the most valuable and important busi-
ness interests in temporary disaster. This is especially true
of the sheep, which has been all through its civilized history
a sort of foot ball for politicans, sometimes protected unduly,
when it becomes an object for the frantic antics of the spec-
ulator; then after a time of excessive inflation a collapse
comes by reason of its abandonment to the competition of
the rest of the wTorld, in which it is sacrificed with as sense-
less want, of judgment as in the previous instance of its
undue speculative inflation. The history of the Merino is a
most conspicuous instance of this unwise and wholly de-
structive course of public policy. It would seem to be the
wise part to either leave the sheep alone to work out their
own destiny in competition with the world, or to adopt such
a wise policy as would ensure due protection to this impor-
tant source of wealth, and at the same time produce an ade-
quate revenue for the government from imports of wool
and woolens, and adhere to this for a term of twenty-five
or forty years, during which this great interest might have
become so firmly fixed and established, that if it wero

AMERICAN MERINO 27

thought desirable it might gradually be left to support itself.
This has been the course of the British Government, whose
policy heretofore has been the strictest protection of native
industries, not only by tariffs but by the severest laws, even
so far as capital punishment, for transgressors of these
laws. For it is only recently that the English statutes, by
which hanging was made the penalty for stealing a sneep,
and equally severe penalties were inflicted upon those who
violated the statutes made forbidding importations or ex-
portation of the products of the flocks, were modified or re-
pealed. And to show the high consideration in which this
interest of the shepherd was held, the seat of the highest
judicial functionary in England was a woolsack, and even
at the present time the seat of the Lord Chancellor of Great
Britain is called the woolsack. This is only one of the
methods by which the British Empire has attained its vast
power, and its citizens their enormous wealth, by which
their government dominates the world, and the British
flag floats over every prominent location for a fortress; and
as the earth turns in its daily course the sun shines con-
tinuously on it somewhere. Truly, in the infancy of what
is in time to be— if only true wisdom is its guide— the greatest
civilized nation on the face of the earth, the American peo-
ple, should not cast aside the universal experience of the past
during which every great empire has laid the toundation
for its wealth and consequent power by a due policy of pro-
tection of its own interests.

The result of the best breeding of this race of sheep haa
been marked by a continuous improvement. The weight of
the carcass has been increased twenty-five per cent. Its
form has been improved in that way by which the yield of
the fleece has been doubled; the legs have been shortened
and the back broadened at least one-third, the wool pro-
ducing surface thus being increased, while the density of
the wool on the skin is greater. As a wool-bearer this breed
has been greatly improved, while the mutton has been made
more marketable. And as a sire for market lambs the Ameri-
can Merino, crossed on the Southdown or Shropshire ewe,
" has been found to excel all others.

28 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

POINTS OP EXCELLENCE IN A MERINO.

The American Merino should have a round, well filled up
carcass. Evenly proportioned as to length with the plump,
round barrel, and deep chest and flanks. The back is
straight and broad; the neck is short and deep; the head
short and broad on the forehead. The legs are short, widely
placed, strong, with a full forearm and twist. The skin is
of a clear pink in color, mellow to the touch and loosely
held on the body. Paleness of the skin is an indication of
a weak constitution, impurity of blood, or ill health. When
the wool is opened the skin under it should be clear, bright,
clean, and wholly free from scurfiuess. The wrinkles and
folds in it are mostly a matter of taste, they add but little to
the value of the fleece; and the present fashion, and one to
be admired, is to lessen them as much as possible. For the
some-time fashionable deep folds on the neck add nothing
to the real value of the rams, unless it may be for the pur-
pose of improving the lighter bodied native races or the poor
Mexican ewes.

The Merino being a wool sheep before anything else,
its fleece is the principal point of excellence. This should
be close and compact on the skin, having sufficient yolk to
preserve the soft texture, and grease enough to protect it
from the rains. The close top of a Merino fleece is therefore
a protection to the sheep against the weather, and in choos-
ing breeding animals this is a point to be considered in the
rams.

As a special wool grower the Merino should have its
body as completely covered by the fleece as possible. Thus
the whole sheep is enveloped in the fleece down to tlje feet,
and the face is covered except the eyes. Tfoe absence of hair
in the fleece is a chief point in this regard. The curl of the
wool and a wavy appearance of it on opening the fleece is a
point to be regarded with favor. So is the softness and
elasticity of the fleece. There should not be too much yolk
in it; this is a waste so far as there may be an excess over
and above the natural quantity required to prevent matting
of the fleece, and to give it its due protective character for
the comfort and health of the animal.

The eye of a sheep is to be studied as one of the points
by which its condition of health is to be ascertained. A

SUB-BREEDS OP THE MERINO. 29

bright active eye, clear and free from all tinge of yellow,
is an indication of good constitution and health. Any tinge
of yellowness is a fault not sufficiently taken note of in judg-
ing sheep, for unless the sheep is healthy and sound in every
way, whatever excellencies it may possess in other respects
are still worthless to the breeder, if the healthful and sound
constitution is wanting.

SUB-BREEDS OF THE MERINO.

As might be expected, and as has happened with cattle,
there will always arise in the breeding of ainy distinct class
of sheep, by virtue of the variation due to the different sys-
tems, methods, and environments, followed by breeders,
some more or less distinct families which have all the
special characteristics of the breed, but differ in some
special points. The Short-horn breed of cattle— for instance-
when in the hands of those two reuowed breeders, Mr. Bates
and Mr. Booth, soon became differentiated so much as to
form two distinct families, known as the Bates and the
Booth Short-horns. Each of these still possessed the dis-
tinct qualifications of the main breed, but varied as to some
special points. Thus one became the best beef animals and
the other, with this qualification, possessed excellent dairy
qualities. Each breeder it seems, and indeed of necessity,
gave a sort of personality to his own stock, and this was
maintained by those other breeders who strove to preserve,
by similar culture and infusions of new blood of each class,
this distinctive difference in minor points, and so infused
this personality as may be said into each sub-breed.

This has occurred, as mjght have been expected, and
indeed of necessity, with our Merino sheep. And thus it is
that we have some distinct classes or sub-breeds of the
Merino, just as have beem produced in the case of the
Saxony, the Silesia, the Rambouillet, and the American
Merino. These do not necessarily enter into competition
with the special Merino, but fill that place which will always
exist among sheep breeders, and among the sheep fanners
as well, which will always be open^ and is due to individual
preferences. It is well that this is so, for it tends to the
maintenance of such a competition among these classes,
or sub-breeds, as must give rise to the best efforts of all con-

30 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

cerned to maintain the excellence and superiority of the
main class of wbich these may be considered subordinate;
and each of which may possess some special peculiarity
which renders it more satisfactory to the public generally.
Thus wre have the so-called Dickinson Polled Merinos, the
Standard Delaine Merinos, and the Black-Top Merinos.

THE DICKINSON MERINO.

This breed originated in Ohio, by the successful efforts
of Mr. William K. Dickinson of Stubenville. It sprang from
the Humphrey importation, some of which were purchased
by Mr. Kotch of Connecticut who moved to Massilon in Ohio,
and carried with him a selected flock of these sheep. This
was about eighty years ago. Through some unfortunate
financial reverses the flock in part came into the possession
of Mr. Dickinson, through whom they in time passed into
the hands of Mr. James McDowell, who had been the shep-
herd of Mr. Dickinson for many years.

This flock was then the only pure bred descendants of
the original flock, selected at first from the importation of
Mr. Humphrey's. Since 1831 these sheep have been in the
hands of Mr. McDowell who has bred them with absolute
purity, and with such success that at the present time they
are scattered in the hands of over one hundred breeders,
who have formed an association in whose records there are
now six thousand pedigrees, tracing directly to the original
stock.

This breed produces a beautifully-fine standard delaine
wool, from four to five inches long, with a soft and glossy
fiber, clean and well crimped. The breed is hornless and
makes an excellent mutton sheep. It has good size, the
rams weighing from 200 Ibs. in ordinary condition, and up
to 300 whejn fat and full fleshed. The ewes in good breed-
ing condition weigh 150 Ibs. and a finished wether 200 Ibs.
The fleece in the grease weighs, for rams, from 20 up to
40 Ibs. and for ewes 15 to 25 Ibs. This sheep has been bred
distinctly for its carcass of fine mutton, as much as for its
excellent fleece.

THE STANDARD DELAINE.

This breed originated through the desire of a number of
breeders of the Delaine variety of the Merino, to improve

32

THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

the existing sbeep, so as to produce an excellent mutton
animal with an improved fleece. A smooth bodied animal
was desired, well covered with a good fleece of long stapled
fin<3 wool, and having a broad back and deep quarters. The
best milking quality was one of the main objects as well as
to get rid of the deeply wrinkled body. This desire led to
the formation of The Standard Delaine Spanish-Merino As-
sociation, in great part due to the efforts of Mr. S. M.
Cleaver of Washington County, Pa., a locality noted for its
fine sheep and intelligent and enterprising flock owtners, for
many years past. A scale of points was established in which
prominence is given to the fleece, its quantity and quality,
length and strength of staple; and equally to the size and
form of carcass, the mutton qualities of which are estimated
by the deep and rounded quarters, the broad straight back,
and the weight of the rams at not less than 150 Ibs. and of
the ewes not less than 100.

These standards are now considerably surpassed, in fact,
as the rams weigh 170 to 200 Ibs., and the ewes 120 to 150.
This sheep matures early and fattens easily.

DOM PEDRO.

Imported from France by M. Desselert, 1801.

34 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

THE NATIONAL DELAINE.

This is another sub-breed of this class which originated
in Washington County, Pa., in 1880, mainly through the
efforts and influence of Mr. J. C. MeNary. This locality has
a past history in regard to its sheep and its skillful breeders,
common with Vermont, and the outgrowth of it has beeo a
somewhat special class of Merino sheep known as the Wash-
ington County Merino. Nearly thirty years ago rams were
brought from Vermont and crossed on the sheep then known
as the native Merino. This crossing resulted in the form of
sheep now known as the American or National Delaine, a
sheep with a long fleece fit for combing,' and yet retaining its
peculiar fineness and strength of fiber, and as well having a
larger carcass than the original Merino with far better
mutton character. That these different varieties should be
formed in the limit of a single county speaks strongly as
to the skill and intelligence of the sheep breeders, of whom,
those organized in the various parts of the county, each
formed in their minds what kind of sheep they wanted
to meet the demands of the butchers and the wool ma/nu-
facturers together; and going to work made each kind of
sheep they desired. No more evidence of the intelligence of
these breeders can be afforded than these useful sheep to
which their ideas have given form in these local sub-breeds.
They have satisfied every need of the shepherd; a fine heavy
fleeced sheep for the wool manufacturer and a well bodied
one for the butcher.

These examples testify to the correctness of the views of
the author expressed in the chapter on breeding, by which
he shows that variation in breeding is the expression of a
personal idea of fitness and value, and that locality, with
varying conditions, must necessarily lead to variations in
type, just as these instances of these sub-breeds formed by
individual instincts, as might be said of the intelligent
breeders, and the personality of each breeder, is expressed
in his favorite type of animal. That the association of these
intelligent breeders to form scales of points and permanent
distinguishing types of sheep have been duly formed, and
are now in action, is the only means possible of preserving
these types permanently; and while each one can scarcely
be called a distinct breed, the outgrowth of these if well

36 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

cultivated must in time eventuate in permanently estab-
lished breeds, gradually forming distinct characters, and as
valuable as the good sense and business skill of those in-
terested may make possible.

THE IMPROVED DELAINE MERINO.

The Improved Delaine Merino is another branch of the
Delaine family. In 1890, a registry association was formed
in Central Ohio, including the flocks of Messrs. Henry, Long,
Hagenbuck, Bailey, Silvens, Turnbull, Horn, Crittenden,
Newcomer, Swain, Braden and others, the object of the or-
ganization being the preservation of purity in the De-
laine Merino and the encouragement of further development
in the production of a mutton sheep of large size, strong
constitution and compact symmetrical form, with a heavy
fleece of fine Delaine wool. No sheep with other than pure
Delaine blood are permitted to enter the register.

The weight of a mature ewe of this breed should run
from 100 to 120 pounds and her fleece from 9 to 14 pounds of
long, white, well crimped and fine delaine staple, showing
a free flow *of white oil. The mature ram in full fleece
should weigh from 160 to 210 pounds, averaging about 175
or 180 pounds.

The association has grown rapidly and now embraces a
good number of well known flocks scattered throughout the
states and territories, the principal flock centers being Belle-
fontaine, Urbana and Cedarville, Ohio.

THE BLACK TOP SPANISH MERINO,

As a distinct breed, dates back to the formation of the flock of
the late Wm. Berry of Washington County, Pa., in 1821. Mr.
Berry obtained his foundation stock from the famous flock of
the late W. R. Dickinson, of Steubenville, Ohio, and bred his
flock up with great care until late in the 40's, when it was
.divided between his sons William and Matthew Berry, from
whose flocks came the foundations for the later flocks of
William, John M. and C. M. Berry. From these have sprung
a multitude of other flocks now widely scattered over the
United States. The organization of the flock registry asso-
ciation for recording these sheep and maintaining purity of
blood and a high standard of form, fleece and general char-

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38

THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

aeter for them, was perfected in the early 80' s, and the
association is 11Qw one of the leading sub-Merino record
societies in the country, with headquarters in Washington
County, Pa. This excellent breed of sheep is briefly charac-
terized by its chief promoters as follows:

Full grown rams in fleece should weigh not less than 175
Ibs., and mature ewes, in fleece, not less than 120 Ibs. In
normal physical development they should be deep and large
in the breast and through the heart, with broad back, square
quarters, fine pinkish skin, well expanded nostril, bright
eye, clean, healthy countenance, head carried well up, body
symmetrical and of good length, of heavy bone, smooth
joints, well sprung ribs, broad, flat shoulders, strong muscles,
plain body and small dew-laps. Head should be wide with
medium length, medium, well-defined ears, covered with soft
fur. Ewes hornless, but rams should have good, clear, finely
curved horns. The neck medium length and strong, deepen-
ing toward the shoulders. Legs medium length, good bone
and well apart, and the feet medium size, well turned and
firm. The fleece should be even and crimpy, covering the
body and legs to the knees, and the head well covered for-
ward between the eyes, and free from hair. Staple, medium
or fine delaine, not less than three inches long, of uniform
length, and fleece compact with free flowing white oil form-
ing on the exterior a uniform dark coating.

WILD SHEEP OF NORTHERN EUROPE.

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40 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

THE IMPROVED BLACK TOP MERINO.

This strain of the Merino is represented by a class of
sheep of which the prevailing characteristic is the uniform
dark top on the surface of the fleece, due to the even dis-
tribution of the natural oil which lubricates the fleece of all
sheep, but most especially of the various strains of the
Merino. It is a question among breeders of this type of
sheep, whether the oil and yolk are really of any value
to the fleece, at least to the large extent to w-liich it accom-
panies the wool. This matter has been incidentally referred
to in preceding pages and the belief expressed that this oil
and yolk is indispensable to this class of sheep, for the
reason, that as its fiber is so much crimped and wavy, and
inclined to felt, the natural supply of the oily matter of the
fleece is indispensable to the actual value of it. The special
character of the wool of the Merino classes, and its strong
tendency to felt together, render this natural product of the
highest value, and we cannot dispense with it.

In the scale of points of this sub-breed of the Merinos,
the oil in the fleece is rated at six per cent; the staple, not
less than three and a half indies in length, eight; the
condition of the fleece at six, the quality of the wool at seven,
the evenness of the fleece at eight, the body at sixteen, and
the size and constitution at thirty. These figures tell the
story of the aims and ends of the breeders of this class of
the Merino.

The weights run from 180 for rams to 130 Ibs. for ewes,
and the regularity of the make up in general goes to figure
out a fair mutton animal. The breed originated from the
nock of Mr. Dickinson of Ohio, the direct produce of the
Humphrey importations from Spain in 1802. By close but
judicious breeding, this present strain— or breed as it is now
entitled to be called— has become differentiated from the
common American Merinos, and is marked by the special
characteristics set forth in the herd record of the Associa-
tion, Lu which six hundred and sixty animals are entered,
being the aggregate of nine pure bred flocks all going back
to the original Humphrey importation. The flock of the
President of the Association, Mr. Robert Johnson of Wash-
ington County, Fa., was founded in 1844. Since that time
the best rams to be procured have been selected, but for

43 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

thirteen years past the flock has had 110 infusion of outside
blood.

THE SAXONY MERINO.

The sheep is one of the indispensable acquisitions of the
human race, and all the kinds in existence, and those
that may come into existence hereafter, will find a welcome
and a home among the rest of the Hocks. Once on a time
the Merino, and the Saxony Merino especially, was the
highest valued of all the ovine race. That was when the
exquisitely fine fleece was in high demand for the manu-
facture of the best broadcloths used for the clothing of
the wealthy and fashionable people, who dare not appear
at any social gathering or festival except in this finest
of all attire. But this habit, both in respect of manner
and dress, still prevails, and this finest wooled sheep of all
the fine wool class, will possibly ever be in the first place
among the finest wooled sheep.

It is the offspring of the ancient Merino, from which the
Spanish flocks descended, through two thousand years of
the history of a turbulent period, during which our present
civilization was in process of slow growth. In spite of
wars and the dense ignorance of the so-called dark ages,
the Spanish flocks survived, and in time became the progeni-
tors of this race. By reason of the well adapted climate,
and high culture of the farms, as well as of the sheep, this
breed improved in quality, and soon after its firm establish-
ment it became the chief producer of the fine wools for
which Germany has long been noted, and now stands in
the first place among the nations for its fine woolens, especi-
ally for the finest cloths and hosiery. In respect of
climatic adaptation, the United States is first in the whole
world, and a place is, and always will be, found for every
kind of sheep or other domestic animals; and as our cattle
and horses have surpassed in value and excellence their
progenitors in other countries, so the sheep of every kind
may find room and development by the culture of our intelli-
gent shepherds.

The fleece of this sheep has sold for three dollars and
twenty-five cents a pound, and while intense speculation at
times has been disastrous to the breed along with other of

I!

44 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

the Merino class, yet it has survived and its wool known as
Electoral, from the title of the Saxon Prince who fostered
it with much care in its earlier days, always brings, aaid
doubtless always will bring, the highest price of any wool
produced.

Its greatest value, however, is for crossing on the coarser
breeds for the purpose of improving the fleece, and past
experience goes to show that this, the finest wool sheep
existing, has undoubtedly an important place to fill in the
future rearing of a larger bodied animal with a fleece
of equal fineness and strength and brilliance of staple. We
may know what has occurred in this line of improving
sheep, but our dreams, even, may not equal the reality
which may happen in time in this direction. The advance
of every industry in every direction, is a constant denial
of the thought that we have reached perfection in any de-
gree in the breeding and rearing of sheep, or in the product
of wool. And the field for enterprise is wide open, and al-
ways will be for skillful experiment by advanced breeders.
Of late years the carcass of this sheep has been increased
in size, and like that of the larger French Merino varieties,
makes fine mutton, having an excellent flavor. With our
greater advantage here we may well expect to make this
once smallest of its race equal to any others of it, as a
mutton sheep. In its original home it has been considerably
improved in this way, and in the hands of the equally intel-
ligent and skillful American breeders it will have a success-
ful future.

THE RAMBOU1LLET MERINO.

The so-called Rambouillet Merino breed of sheep has be-
come exceedingly popular during a few years past. This is
really the true French Merino, quite as much so deserving
this name as our native bred Merino deserves to be called as
a distinguishing name the American Merino. For it has a
longer history as a distinct family of the Spanish Merino
than the American variety has, for it was first originated
some years before the first importation of the Merino into
the United States.

It was in 1780 that the French Government, with the
intention of founding a special race of sheep fitted for the

• m

46 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

climate and other conditions of the country— then having no
distinct and really valuable breed of sheep within its bor-
ders—purchased, with the friendly help of the Spanish Gov-
ernment, over three hundred of the finest specimens of the
sheep of that country. A suitable farm for the accommoda-
tion of this flock was procured at a place known as llaiii-
bouillet, not far from Paris, and once the residence of the
kings of France. In the beautiful park near the otherwise
unuoteworthy village of this name, this flock was cultivated
with the highest skill by the Government for the advantage
of the citizens. No sheep were sold for many years, nor
until—by selection and breeding— a distinctly new race, in-
deed a well-defined breed, was produced differing in several
important points from the original foundation stock.

It was increased in size, and even more than proportion-
ately to this in the weight of the fleece, the wool of which
was increased in length to fully three inches and even more,
while the exquisite fineness and delicacy of fiber was in no
ways depreciated. The size of the sheep became double
that of the original Spanish flock, full grown ewes weighing
up to two hundred pounds, and the rams up to three hun-
dred, live weight. This improved fleece became the valua-
ble staple for the manufacture of those popular dress goods
known as the French Merino, as well as for mixed fabrics
of cotton warp and weft of this wool, and which were
known as delaines. From this style of exceedingly popular
fabric, which was beautifully printed in the French facto-
ries, this sheep has taken the sometime name of the Delaine
Merino. Here it takes the name commonly, of the place of
Its origin as the Rambouillet breed, and truly it deserves
this popular name in commemoration of the place of its
origin, which will doubtless retain this name, and for years
to come in the future in association with this magnificent
sheep, valued both for its flesh and its wool, when all remem-
brance of the frivolous and vicious occupants of the park
and ancient chateau will have been lost in the then long
past.

The author visited this flock in the year 1848, and was
entertained in the most cordial manner by the superin-
tendent, who prepared a saddle of the mutton, cooked es-
pecially in the American style, as a sample of the excellent

48 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

quality of the meat. The sheep had been fed on the fine
pastures of the park and on beets specially grown for the
Hocks. The meat was distinctly equal to the best of the Eng-
lish mutton of the choicest breed of that country, the South-
down, and showed that the skillful breeding and the really
scientific feeding of the sheep, had transformed the tough,
dry flesh of the original Spanish sheep into one of the
best market meats in the world. This point is one to be well
considered by our breeders of this sheep, for the future pros-
perity of the American shepherds is to come, not from the
wool alone, but still more from the mutton, which is so
rapidly coming into popular favor everywhere; and even in
the Southern States, in which mutton has scarcely ever been
thought of as a food, and good meat of this kind is practi-
cally as unpopular as it is poor and undesirable in quality.

It is one of the good qualities of this sheep that the fleece
is far more profitable for its wreight than our native Merino.
rlhis is due to the absence of the excessive quantity of yolk
and gum in the wool. The result of this of course is to in-
crease the proportion of actual wool in the fleece. Fleeces of
nearly fifty pounds weight— this of course as taken from the
sheep—are by no means surprising; such a weight of course
is the product of full grown rams, but yearlings have given
fifteen pounds for the first shearing; over twenty-seven for
the second; thirty-seven for the third; and forty-eight for the
fourth. These weights are not of unusually long wool but
are due to the actual density of the wool on the skin, which
is one of the common features of this sheep.

There are two other varieties of the Merino, or the most
valuable short fine-wooled sheep. These are the Silesian and
the Saxon Merinos. But as these sheep are small, the fleece
light, and too fine for the now prevalent classes of woolen
goods, they are merely mentioned without going in any way
into a discussion of their special characteristics. It is
scarcely probable that in the present, and doubtless future
progress of our woolen manufactures, we shall ever need to
find the rearing of these special fine-wooled sheep profitable.
It will be the future business of the shepherd to supply
the demand for mutton, a demand that is unquestionably
bound to increase steadily, until we shall approach, if not
overtake and pass, the condition of the sheep industry in

FRENCH BREEDS. 49

Great Britain, where there are no less than 240 sheep to
every square mile, or three to every eight acres, while here
we have but nine sheep to the square mile, or one only to
each seventy acres.

With this view in the not fat distance, it is quite clear
that sheep that are of no value for mutton will never be
able to compete with those which supply our most valuable
manufacturing industries with its raw material, and when
mature for the market, either as a lamb or a mutton, will
supply the ever-increasing demand in this direction. This
view is to be always considered by the American shephevd
as the basis of a successful choice of the flock.

THE FRENCH BREEDS.

It is one of the most conspicuous facts in regard to tue
culture of sheep that the most attention 5s given to breeding
and feeding the flocks in those countries in which mutton
is a favorite and important article of food. The English
people consume more of this meat than any other nation—
indeed doubtless as much as all other nations put together.
And while the English are beef eaters to a large extent,
yet .their mutton furnishes more than a half of their flesh
meat. The result has been that this nation has paid more
attention to the breeding of sheep and have more varieties
than any other nation. So that it is the fact that in furnish-
ing our farms and ranges with flocks we are forced to look
to Great Britain, which is England and Scotland combined,
for our stock, and also for the replenishing of it with new
blood. It may be, and doubtless will be, that in a few years
more American shepherds will have so far acclimated their
sheep and have so successfully bred them, and by the exer-
cise of such skill as many of our foremost shepherds possess
and apply to their special industry, we shall be able to de-
pend wholly on our native flocks for all our breeding stock
as well as have created such special families as will best
suit our climate and conditions. Doubtless our system of
agriculture will iirprcve under the stimulating effect of the
high culture of our flocks, and thus the sheep, as the old
adage goes, will prove to us that it has a golden hoof by the
vast increase in wealth it will secure to our agricultural
interest.

50

THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

It will be of interest, however, to know something of
what is doing in this line of sheep breeding and culture in
other countries, for instance in France, where the Merino has
achieved a world-wide notoriety for its special value as a
wool producer, as well as for a very good mutton sheep.

The Merino stands first in France as it does in Germany
and Spain. But on the whole the rather stolid and careless
system of husbandry in those countries is not well adapted
to enterprise or success in improving the live stock of any
kind. But some of the most intelligent French breeders

LEICESTER-MERINO CROSS.

have recently taken considerable interest in the improve-
ment of their flocks by crossing on them the English breeds,
especially the Leicester and the Southdown. The former
cross with the Merino has produced an excellent sheep with
a good carcass and a valuable fleece, and the produce of this
.cross is the most popular, as it is the most valuable. This
good work has been done in the best cultivated districts as
Champagne, Beauce, and Chattillouais. There the best
farming in France is to be seen, and sheep rearing is one of
the most profitable parts of it. The most common sheep of
these localities, however, is the cross of the old natives by the
French Merino. The produce of these crosses go by the
name of Metis-Merino or half-bred Merino. The Merinos
have been crossed with tue English Leicester with the result

FRENCH BREEDS. 51

of making an excellent mutton sheep, which was received
with much favor as something new to the French people.
This cross, however, for want of sustaining by new blood
has retrograded and fallen into some disrepute, not the fault
of the sheep at all, but for the reason that the French breed-
ers do not possess the art and skill of those of England. It
should be said, however, that as regards the Merino, especi-
ally under the care of the manager of the Rambouillet farm,
this want of skill finds a noted exception.

The French possess some native long-wooled sheep, the
best of which are to be found in the localities of Normandy,
Picardy and the Vendeean. These sheep, however, are
worthless as compared with the English breeds, as they still
retain all the ungaiuliness and ill form of the old races be-
fore any skilled attempt was made for their improvement.
These breeds are noted for their long legs and thin thighs-
all bare of wool, long drooping ears, and coarse thin wool on
their sides. But they have the advantage of easy fattening
when fed for mutton. The American traveler who is en-
tertained with the gigot, as the leg is called, of the native
flocks is ill satisfied with the dry and coarse meat, especially
after having been used to the English Southdown or Lei-
cester leg. One of the picturesque sights on the French
pastures, on the western coast districts, is the shepherds
mounted on high stilts guarding their flocks apt to get out
of their sight behind the low hummocks or in the frequent
hollows of the broad almost uninhabited Llandes, lying be-
tween the considerable cities of Bordeaux and Bayonne. This
almost barren region, a waste of sandy land overgrown by
low bushes and coarse herbage, among which the lean, ill-
conditioned flocks of scraggy-wooled sheep range and feed,
is the locality of wretched hovels inhabited by a stunted race
of shepherds who clothe themselves in the skins of their
sheep, the legs of which furnish coverings for the limbs of
the people, being drawn on when soft and pliable and
yet warm from the stunted sheep, and stay on until they are
worn off, when they are renewed. The skins also furnish
jackets for these picturesque shepherds, possibly such as
kept the flocks of the patriarchs in the old days of Jacob,
who tended doubtless in some such manner the flocks of his
father-in-law, and paid for his wives in the staple currency

52 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

of the time— sheep from his flock. It is an amazing thing to
an American to see such a sight in this advanced age and
compare it with what he sees among the flocks of his own
country or those of England and Scotland.

The famed cheese of Roquefort, however, leads the
traveler in search of information about the sheep of this
country to a somewhat more entertaining sight. This is the
flocks of quite good sheep kept for their milk, of which the
finest cheese in the world is made, and which brings in the
New York stores one dollar a pound. The ewes are regu-
larly milked, and having been bred for this product, yield
quite a considerable quantity of rich milk. The sheep's mUk
is rich in fat, having one half more of it than that of a
cow. This sheep is kept and fed with much care on the
sweet pastures of the limestone soil of this noted locality.
They are a well formed race with good frames, but not noted
for their proclivity for wool bearing.

At the French agricultural exhibitions the imported
English sheep take the first prizes, and the favored breeds
of them are the Southdowns and the Oxfords, certainly prov-
ing that the most advanced of the French shepherds have at
least some faculty for distinguishing good sheep sometimes.

The advanced American shepherd, however, has not
much to learn from the French sheep breeders except so far
as to discover the effects of ages of neglect, as well in a few
instances the advantages of skillful breeding. The though':
occurs, unavoidably, that it is a mark of the high civilization
of a people to find fine flocks of sheep, as it is equally to
find intelligent and skillful breeders in any country.

France has something over twenty-one million of shoop
of which there are 302.481 rams, about thirty ewes for each
ram, nearly 4.000.000 wethers, nearly as many yearling
lambs, and 4,700,000 young lambs, according to the census
of 1895, which is the last one published.

BRITISH BREEDS OF SHEEP.

The Merino, previously described as the American, is the
only breed which we can claim as distinctly a product of
the energy and skill of American breeders. It must be
taken into account that to establish a breed, much time is
required; a century is short enough to establish and firmly

BRITISH BREEDS. 53

fix a type even 011 so ^impressible aii animal as a sheep.
Consequently as, with the exception of the Merino, there has
never been any effort to make a special acclimatatiou and
variation by special treatment and culture, we are still rear-
ing what are essentially the foreign breeds* and of these
those native to Great Britain are the kinds kept on this
continent.

Thus in describing the breeds now in the hands of
American shepherds, wTef have so far nothing by which any
one of them may be differentiated as in any way American
by any variation. The descriptions of the varieties now kept
here, with those of some kinds not yet introduced or esta)>
lished to any extent, which will be given, very closely tally
with those found in the English live stock records, and this
we choose to do because so far we have not here departed
in any conspicuous manner from the real English types, as
indeed these are yet our own standards, and importations
are still making very freely to maintain these types. It is
a question sometimes discussed by the special live stock
journals here, if the time has yet come when we should
stop this continued importation to restore some supposed
failure in quality of the home bred sheep by deterioration
due to our -dryer climate and our different methods of feed-
ing. We do not join in this thought at all, but have the firm-
est possible belief that as with the American Merino so
with the other breeds of foreign sources, the time will come
when our breeders may safely depend on our own flocks for
the sustentatiou of our adopted breeds, and put them on as
excellent a basis as we have put our Merino. This is not,
however, to be done in a day, nor is its work to be lightly
undertaken, but there are skillful and scientific breeders on
this side of the Atlantic who will in time take this work in
hand, and due encouragement should be given to their efforts
to establish true American breeds by the full acclimatation
of our present breeds, and others, whfch it is the intention
to show may be yet added to our stocks. In the meantime
we shall take advantage of the good work of the English
breeders whose best specimens of sheep will yet find an
acceptable market on this side of the ocean, and still further
furnish us material which in time we shall be sending back
across the ocean as welcome contrbutions of American skill

54 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

and enterprise, lor the benefit of the old flocks, as we have
done already in regard to our finest specimens of cattle and
horses.

SHORT-WOOL SHEEP.

The Southdown is the generally accepted type of a mut-
ton and short clothing wool sheep. It is moreover worthy of
the first place in this category, for the reason that it has
been the sire of all other so-called Down breeds, crossed
on various old-fashioned races which had become obsolete,
and indeed unprofitable, in competition with the finer flocks
of the eminent breeders who had brought their sheep to
the highest degree of perfection. It is one of the most beau-
tiful sheep existing; its smooth even body, its round clean
barrel, its short legs, fine head, and broad saddle, with its
sweet, tender, never over-fat meat, make it especially the
ornament of a well kept lawn on any gentleman's country
place as well as the profitable stock of the farmer or special
breeder. Its mutton has long been held in the highest consid-
eration, and although it has some active rivals in general
popularity, it will be very severely missed if it were to fall
into neglect. In breeding it is always necessary for the
maintenance of the desired type to go back to the original
sires at times, to renew or strengthen certain points of ex-
cellence in the cross breed. And as the Southdown has been
the sire of so many of our best breeds, it will always be de-
sirable that this breed should be kept in reserve for future
usefulness. For a farm sheep fed for domestic use and for
the home supply of wool, as well as for its other pleasing
and profitable qualities, this should be well thought of among
other claimants for general favor. The wealthy proprietor
of a farm or country place might always have a flock of
Southdowns on his lawrn for ornament, and as well for the
supply of his hospitable table. If this breed is ever suffered
to become extinct it will be a most serious loss in the future1;
for it has many valuable, profitable points. Its lamb from
a Merino or a common native ewe is the most popular
for the market. The market men recognize its plumpness,
its light offal, its popular black face, and its tenderness,
juiciness, and fatness; all indispensable requirements for the
table. This cross-bred lamb has been sold by the author for

56 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

ten dollars a head for the earliest, and never less than three
dollars when under three mouths old. It is not the
size but the quality of the market lamb which regulates the
price of it to the breeder. We all know how difficult it is to
change a popular taste and start it in a new channel; and %
this old popularity of the black or smutty faces, and their
plump round carcasses, will not be easily altogether done
away with.

A well fed Southdown should weigh 18 Ibs. the quarter
at a year old, which is near the popular margin as to weight;
at two years old a fat wether will easily make 33 to 35 Ibs.
to the quarter, butchers' weight; and yield two-thirds its
live weight in marketable meat.

There is always a market for the wool, which is one of
the standard staples for flannels and clothing fabrics. And it
may be said in favor of this once most common sheep, that
it is one of the most easily kept of all breeds. Its native
home on the thin chalk downs of Southern England, of
which the herbage is thin and short, but very sweet and
nutritious, indicates the kind of lands on which this sheep
will do its best as to profit.

THE SHROPSHIRE.

The Shropshire shares the popularity of its chief progeni-
tor, the Southdown, whose dark face and legs it inherits.
The original type, the Morfe Common sheep, had a dark
spotted face and horns. It was a small sheep, yielding a
fleece of not over two pounds, and making a dressed weight
of eleven to fourteen pounds the quanter. This sheep wras
crossed by Southdown rams which quickly gave an im-
proved quality, but the size was not profitable. The Leices-
ter sire was then introduced which gave the desired size and
weight, and increased the length and quantity of the fleece.
By very skillful breeding the cross has been brought to a
fixed type without any indication of reversion in any way.
It may now be considered as an established breed, and able
to support its present high character as a farmer's sheep,
or for the range flocks. It is one of the hardiest sheep,
except perhaps as to the unusually early lambs which at
times may need some protection when coming in advance of
the season.

w

s

fl

*; £j5

^2 =

Ill
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58 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

Its mutton is excellent, but like that of all other sheep
it is affected by the food, and for its best quality should be '
finished on such succulent food as turnips, or mangels, but
best, of all on sugar beets. It lives well on thin pasture and
is easily fatted for market.

Its fleece is longer and a little coarser than that of the
Southdown, and that of a good ordinary flock of ewes should
weigh seven or eight pounds to the fleece. Its average
dressed weight is twenty to twenty-two pounds to the quar-
ter, when finished in the best manner.

The Shropshire's face is longer and larger than that of
the Southdown, the nose is slightly protuberant (Roman) in
form, the ears a little larger. The face and legs are blackish
brown or sometimes mottled with gray. White spots on these
places are objectionable as considered from the standpoint
of the standard of excellence, and black spots on the body
should be held as a disqualification, especially for breeding
animals. Thin ears are indications of tenderness of consti-
tution, and should be objected to by those who desire to
maintain the stamina of the breed. A somewhat run-down
and neglected flock has been immediately restored by a new
cross of the Southdown. The high character of this breed
is showrn by its appearance all over the U. S. and Canada.

The fleece should be wholly free from black hairs, line
in staple, somewhat longer than that of the Southdown,
and closely set on a clear pinky skin. Breeding for increased
weight of fleece has resulted in producing coarse wool, and
in selecting rams the fineness and close setting of the fleece
are to be considered before mere weight. This breed is
essentially one for the farm flock, while it is duly hardy
and a fit rustler for the ranges. It has a strong constitution,
good feet, and is especially free from the common diseases
of the flocks,

THE HAMPSHIRE DOWN.

This is a cross breed, of which the preponderating charac-
teristic is its early maturity. Sir John B. Lawes, in his most
instructive experiments in feeding, proved that the Hamp-
shire made more weight of carcass from the same quantity
and kind of food, than the hitherto unsurpassed Southdown.
The principal point in favor of this breed is its early matur-

60 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP

ity, and this is of the greatest importance iii these days,
\vheii time for feeding is the inaiii element of profit. As will
be observed later, when the science and art of feeding will
be discussed, it is far cheaper to feed a young animal than
an old one. For every part of the young animal is growing;
tho bone; vital organs; the whole of the carcass, flesh and
fat; all gain by the food; and the system is more amenable
to improvement in a young animal than in a mature one;
less of the food being lost in mere existence, as compared
with growth. Thus a quick growing animal in the early part
of its life is the most cheaply fed, for the cost of the food
and attention are the least for the most increase in weight.

The whole system of breeding this sheep has been to
reach this end, and the exceedingly hardy original stock— a
large horned sheep which ran at large on the open downs of
Central England so far back as the time of the old Romans,
when they occupied the island, and which supplied the
fleeces for the first woolen factory established at Winchester
during the Roman o-ccupation about twenty centuries ago—
was naturally fitted to establish a breed with strong consti-
tution and ability for improvement. This breed has re-
mained one of the old standards since that early time, and
by its survival to within eighty years ago, when improve-
ment first began, proves its fitness to survive in its hardy con-
stitution and its intrinsic value as a wool bearer, for which
it was originally valued.

The first effort made in its improvement was the use of
Southdown rams for crossing on the native Hampshire
ewes. The ancient race had a large bony narrow carcass,
large heads, prominent Roman noses, long curly horns, the
carcass was high at the withers, narrow and sharp ridged
along the back, but it was the largest short wooled sheep in
existence.

To make of this ungainly animal one profitable to the
farmer for its flesh and fleece, was a problem to be solved
by the eminent improvers of live stork of all kinds in those
—now a century old— days. It was solved as others have
been by the use of the short-legged, broad-backed, thick-set,
close-wocled Southdown, a very anti-type of what this old
Hampshire then was. The first crosses were effective to
gain the points the original breeders of the Hampshire

2 6

,_ >

231
2 •« a
B 30

ai

62 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

Downs wanted. The cross was repeated again and again,
the native prepotency of the old race striving bard for pre-
ponderance; but the better bred blood of the improving race
in time prevailed, and after many crosses with the South-
down the horns disappeared, the \vhite face was changed to a
black one, the frame, loose and angular, was brought by
degrees to a compact body, with a broad back, round bar-
rel, short legs, and superior quality of flesh, with a quick
feeding habit, and an ability to make the earliest growth
and the most salable weight, both of carcass and fleece,
for the food consumed. The ancient colossal head with its
bulging nose has been changed, for one of pleasing propor-
tions, yet strong and indicating a vigorous and hardy nerv-
ous constitution. The brain is capacious and the body is
evenly molded, deep and broad on the back, wide between
the forelegs, and full behind, a model carcass for the
but cher, and for the satisfaction of the breeder.

Its hardiness is unquestionable. It is at home on the
Southern old field, on the best cultivated farms of the East
and West, and away on the Northwestern ranges it sustains
itself as a triumph of the breeders' art.

Before the late war between the North and South a lot of
this breed had been imported into Virginia, and were flourish-
ing. The misfortunes of the strife tended to scatter the
flocks which became distributed over the Southern States.
Some black faces found in the N. Carolina mountains were
traced back to these Virginia flocks, and the evidences of
the value of this breed for crossing on the thin, ill-formed,
unprofitable, native sheep, are to be met with in the still
black faces of well farmed thrifty sheep scattered here and
there among the elevated Southern pastures.

This breed is well adapted for improving the small
ligl.it bodied native ewes. It is commonly thought that to
use a large bodied ram on these small light ewes is bad
practice, for the alleged reason that the large size of the re-
sulting lamb will endanger the small ewes, and be bom
with difficulty.

This, as is stated at more length in the chapter on breed-
ing, is not based on scientific principles, or on common sense
and experience. For the male merely contributes the vital
germ of life to its offspring, with it habit of growth and assim-

64 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP

ilation of food after birth; the ewe gives only the life and
its own substance to its offspring, and while the lamb is of
the normal size for the ewe, it has the ability of its sire to
grow and turn more food than its dam ever could do into
growth. There is no good reason therefore why a well ored
Hampshire ram should not be used for the improvement of
the smallest of our common sheep. Its natural history goes
to prove its fitness for this use under certain circumstances,
which make its use desirable for this purpose.

The recognized points of excellence of this breed are its
rather massive head with its prominent Roman nose, and the
absence of horns or rudiments of them, as slugs, snags or
buds. The face and legs are deep black, the fleece is free
from all black spots and is close and fine all over the body.
The skin is pink under the wool. The ears are somewhat
pointed as compared with those of the Southdown, of a
dark mouse color behind, and free from light specks or
mottling. The forequarters are broad and the breadth of
carcass should be maintained down to the rump. As this
is one of the most conspicuous faults of the breed, it is to
be guarded against in choosing rams for the increase of the
pure bred flocks.

THE SUFFOLK.

The Suffolk sheep has only recently come into promi-
nence as a breed. It is only since 1886 that it was given a
class at the Royal Agricultural exhibitions, but since that
time the breeders have formed an association, and by strong
efforts have brought their sheep into notice. This sheep is
similar in many respects to the Hampshire, but is not so com-
pact in form, and the short black hair on the face extends
over the head which is thus devoid of wool. It is as yet in
process of formation as a breed, and has its history to mnko.
It is, as may be seen from the illustration given, a neat, well
formed sheep, with a good carcass and something of the
Hampshire type about it.

THE OXFORD DOWN.

This sheep is a double cross, being made up of the
Hampshire ewe, a distinctly cross bred animal, with the
Cotswold ram. It is the largest of this class of sheep, ex-
celling the Hampshire in si/e at the same age. It is a later

66 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

sheep to briiig lambs, so that generally it suffers undeserved
detraction on account of the lighter weight of the lainbs
at the exhibitions, as compared with the earlier dropped
Hainpshires. The carcass weighs twenty to twenty-four
pounds the quarter at a year or fourteen months old.

This sheep has not so dark a face as the Hampshire, this
being somewhat mottled, nor is the shoulder so broad as
in the Hampshire. It has not the evenness of its close com-
petitor, showing a less well defined type, and thus needing
longer breeding with careful selection of the rams used,
as well as of the ewes. Lambs are bred by the English
farmers by crossing these ewes with a Hampshire ram, for
the purpose of darkening the face, and the reverse cross
is used when the face is satisfactory but the form is not.
Then a Cotswoid ram is used. Sometimes a Shropshire ram
is chosen and the result of this cross is a much improved
carcass, broad along the back, and with better hind quarters.
When well selected rams are used this breed is one of the
most profitable for mutton, and as the fleece is an excellent
worsted wool and weighs seven pounds on an average, it is
a valuable addition to our adopted breeds. It is one of the-
best farm sheep, although it has a good reputation for range
purposes. For this it is not to be thought that it is the pur-
pose of the shepherd to make a flock of this breed; on the
other hand the rams of this and other breeds are procured
to cross on the common native or grade sheep, and thus pro-
duce a high grade wrhose value is easily doubled by this use
of good rams. It is thus a matter for the shepherd to select
the rams he may find the most valuable for this use, and the
Oxford Down is well worthy of regard for this purpose.
The sheep shown in the illustration was the champion of all
breeds in the two shear class at the Oxfordshire show of last
year.

THE DOKSET.

This sheep in its native country goes by the name or
class of the Somerset and Dorset Horned breed. Of late
years this breed has become exceedingly popular on this
continent, mostly however for its special fecundity and -early
breeding habit. Indeed it is so prolific that two lambing sea-
sons in the year are possible under the right management.
It Is a white faced sheep with a close short fleece used

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for flannel goods, and such clothing fabrics as require such
a material. It is thus a useful sheep for its wool alone, of
which the fleece will weigh four or five pounds. It is a
native of the southern part of England in which the mild,
delicious climate permits tender plants such as the fuchsia,
the heliotrope and the geranium to bloom the whole year
round, covering the picturesque cottages with their brilliant
bloom, while the northern parts of the country are covered
with snow.

It is solidly built, having a broad back and short legs;
it has a tuft of wool on its forehead, and ewes are horned
as well as the rams. It is one of the most ancient of the
English breeds, and has been preserved in its original purity
from a remote period. Its breeders claim that it was exist-
ing before the Roman 'invasion, more than two thousand
years ago. But of late it has been carefully improved by the
selection of the best rams and the diligent search for the
most prolific ewes, of whom it is not at all rare that the
breeder may obtain four or even five lambs in the year.
It is larger than the Southdown and although most esteemed
for its prolificacy yet its mutton is above the average of its
class of short-wooled sheep. The wethers, under good feed-
ing, reach a dressed weight of twenty pounds the quarter;
the forequarters however are apt to be light. They are a
hardy sheep and since their introduction here have proved
to be well suited to our cold Winters and warm Summers.
They have also proved to be well adapted to the ranges,
being excellent travelers and rustlers.

Their most prominent characteristic, however, is their
unrivalled fecundity. Taking the ram in May they rear
lambs ready for the market in the holidays, and breeding
again soon after dropping the lambs bring another or other
lambs in March or April, and often bringing twins and some-
times triplets, thus increase very fast, besides making a good
profit for the lambs sold. It is the usual custom to breed tho
ewes to a Southdown or Hampshire ram, by which the mar-
ket lamb has a black face which is generally preferred by
the butchers. No other breed of sheep is so prolific as
this under skillful management.

The breed is sustained by breeding the ewes to one of
their own race for the increase of the flock, and the long

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70 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

experience of the breeders may be taken as a complete
contradiction of the naturalist's belief, to the effect, that
crossing a pure bred animal outside of its own kind is apt
to produce diversion and make the breed impure by the
effect of the cross on the character of the ewe. The long
peculiar history of the Dorset goes to show that, with sheep
certainly, the outcross does in no way vitiate the blood of
the females so bred.

The peculiar system of rearing these market or house
lambs will be especially noticed in another chapter.

The Somerset sheep is somewhat larger than the Dorset
and differs from it in having a pink nose, that of the Dorset
being white. The wool is also a little longer, and the lambs
are heavier. This breed has however the same special pecu-
liarities, being used for rearing early lambs, which are fatted
and often sold with the ewes at the same time.

A smaller variety of the Dorset is the Portland sheep,
reared on the island of Portland, where not more than a
few thousand are kept, principally for their sweet and del'-
cate mutton, which brings a sufficiently high price to pay
for rearing this small sheep, which do not weigh over ten or
twelve pounds the quarter, when fat and fully matured.

THE LONG-WOOL BREEDS.

The Long-wool sheep are without horns, except in some of
the mountain breeds, and one of these is fast losing this un-
necessary appendage, once needed doubtless when this de-
fense against the wolves and foxes was indispensable. The
most conspicuous of this class of sheep is

THE LINCOLN.

Sheep are especially influenced by their environments.
This is clearly proved by the large number of special breeds
existing in the small extent of the British Islands, in which
there are more sheep, and a greater variety of them, than in
any other country in the world as compared with it in area.
The English are a mutton eating people, and enjoy an enor-
mous trade in woolen goods, having the great monopoly, as it
were, of the world's markets for this invaluable product.
This has existed for hundreds of years, nay it is nearly two
thousand years since the first woolen factory was in opera-
tion in that busy country. Consequently we cannot have a

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72 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

better example before us of the desirability of a large
variety of sheep, whether for mutton, of which we are be-
coming large and larger consumers every year, or for wool
of which we are working up more and more continually.

The Lincoln sheep is a growth of many years' culture in
a special district of England known as the Lincolnshire fens,
and the adjoining counties of Norfolk and Cambridgeshire.
In this district agriculture has been carried on under the
highest -system, the growth of roots, and the accompanying
flocks fed on this crop, having advanced the agricultural
methods so conspicuously, that what is known as the Nor-
folk system is held to be the highest type of farming. Hence
it is to be expected that the sheep of this locality should be
something beyond the common line.

For centuries there has been a Lincoln breed of sheep
which surpassed in size all other breeds. Its fleece also
surpassed all others in length of fiber and weight. It was
a great coarse animal, the wool swept the ground on which
it fed, and an average fleece weighed twelve to fifteen
pounds, which a century ago was phenomenal as compared
with other breeds. The carcass was very fat inside, and
made the then highly esteemed chops— having three fingers
of fat on the meat. But, as might be easily thought, this big
coarse animal was not a profitable one after the work of
Bakewell with his improved Leicesters was about complete.
The intelligent breeders of the old Lincolns at once adopted
Bakewell's work, and improved their flocks by crossing the
New Leicesters on them. Thus the Leicesters took the same
place with the Long-wools that was taken by the South-
downs among the Short-wools. This crossing has changed
the old Lincoln from its former condition of a coarse form,
with flat sides and hollow flanks, and big legs and feet,
to one of handsome proportions, with finer wool, having good
luster, and highly estimated for the worsteds class of goods.
Its fleece has long been the material of which the bunting
of the national flags of all countries have been manufactured
on account of its great strength and its ability to withstand
the battle and the breeze. Our own Stars and Stripes have
this kind of wool for the raw material, and it is always
in demand for braids and other manufactures which call for
this special material, long fiber and great strength.

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74 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

The infusion of Leicester blood refilled the great coarse
animal, but still left its produce the largest sheep in exist-
ence, the quarters of which weigh when fully finished for
market thirty-seven pounds, and the fleece often twenty-
four pounds. These weights are of course above the aver-
age, but they go to show what type this sheep is of.

Necessarily such a sheep is fitted for the highest culture
of the laud, in which root crops take the most important
place. In the United States, however, the silo takes the
place of the roots, to a large extent, but yet roots and big
sheep and heavy fleeces will always go together.

But with our vast ranges we have occasion and space
for this grand sheep for crossing on the common natives.
This has been done to some extent in suitable circumstances,
with much advantage, and when the shepherds will abandon
the unwise and wholly wrong belief common among
them, that a big ram is not suitable for crossing on little
ewes on account of the supposed great size of the lamb
thus produced, this breed will be extensively used for this
purpose, producing a valuable mutton carcass and a most
useful cross-bred wool. It is not, however, a part of wisdom
to suppose that this cross, violent as it is, will be the founda-
tion for a new race having the excellencies of the Lincoln-
shire. This subject, however, is too important to be more
than suggested here; it lies at the foundation of the science
of breeding, and must be left for consideration hereafter.

This breed is white faced, and has a conspicuous tuft
on the forehead, which is the most marked indication of the
old blood in it. The head is massive but not coarse, the nose
is somewhat arched (Roman) and bare of wool. The brisket
is full and deep, the body round and well proportioned, arid
while it is a heavy sheep it has no coarseness about it. It
does not come up to its old weights either of carcass or
fleece, but its quality is improved by the refinement it has
undergone through many years of continuous careful breed-
ing, making it a desirable sheep for its mutton and wool,
and for the improvement of the common flocks.

THE ROMNEY MARSH.

It seems at first thought that a marsh sheep should be
a misnomer. But sheep are made for every condition, even

76 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

L

for pasturing on marshes. And thus the Romney Marsh
sheep is a habitant of the extensive salt marshes of South-
eastern England in the County of Kent. Considering that
we have many millions of acres of similar lands on our sea
coasts; this breed is by no means to be omitted in this recapit-
ulation. Indeed it has been acclimated and kept with suc-
cess on the coast lands of New England and New Jersey.
It is supposed that the deadly parasite, the fluke, would for-
bid the keeping of sheep on marsh lands; but this parasite,
the cause of the liver rot of sheep, is never found on salt
marshes, as its common bearer, in which it passes one stage
of its existence, inhabits only fresh wrater. It is related in
form and character to the old Lincoln, being a long WTOO!
sheep with a very closely coated fleece. As with the Lincoln
it has been greatly modified and improved by infusion of
Leicester blood. Like the Lincoln, too, its home is on rich
pastures, and it is not uncommon for seven of these sheep,
with as many wethers, to be kept on each acre of a pasture.
This fact should be well considered by our readers, for fine
sheep and a profitable flock must go with full feed, and the
farm sheep is always a type of the culture of Ilio land on
which it is kept.

By the crossing, it has been reduced in size and improved
in form, wrhile its fleece has been refined. It is a white faced
breed mostly, having a forelock like the Lincoln, which it
much resembles. It is an extremely hairy sheep, being rarely
house-fed in the whiter, pasturing on the marshes and
meadows in all weathers through all the storms of a sea
coast exposure. It is thus one of the breeds which may be
adopted for range flocks, of which hardiness is a. desirable
characteristic. It is a profitable sheep for its fine mutton
and its fleece, valuable for worsted goods.

THE COTSWOLl).

The Cotswold sheep has an interesting history. It is the
oldest breed of sheep of which there is any satisfactory rec-
ord. Its history goes back for at least three centuries, and
beyond that, while it has no written records, yet it has been
known that the long wool yielded by this sheep was in high
favor long before the name of the sheep which produced it
was a matter of notoriety. This long pedigree explains the

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78 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

reason for the great natural prepotency of the raius of this
breed in the production of the various crosses which have
been made by the Cotswold ranis. It is one of the hardiest
of all breeds, having been reared for this long period in a
poor exposed district, and while it changes character when
removed to more favorable surroundings, yet it is one of the
hardiest sheep for the range. It is the next largest sheep to
the Lincoln. It is a good mutton sheep and has a good
fleece of rather coarse wool, valuable for heavy goods. The
flesh is not so fine as that of the Down breeds, but is yet ex-
cellent for the butchers' use when not over fifteen months
old, when it fattens readily and makes twenty-five pounds
to the quarter. Its old size has been somewhat reduced, to
conform to the present demand for lighter carcasses. The
fleece, too, is not so heavy as it used to be, when it often
weighed 12 Ibs. or over of wool. It has> been crossed with
advantage with the Leicester, yielding then better mutton
and a finer staple of lustrous wool, in good demand for
heavy goods, and especially of the coarser kinds of women's
dress fabrics. One of the best of its crosses is with the
smaller Down breeds. It has been used with much success
to cross on the Merino, the lambs of this cross making fine
market stock, being large and fat, and the full grown cross
breeds making fine market mutton and a useful fleece. Sir
J. B. Lawes in his experiments in feeding sheep of various
breeds, proved that these sheep made a more profitable re-
turn in growth for the food consumed than any other breed.
Its hardiness has been proved by its average losses by death
or accident being as low as two and a half per cent under
ordinary circumstances, under a system of open fielding dur-
ing the winter. It has been kept mostly on a system of feed-
ing in the open ground on turnips.

The face of this sheep is mostly white, sometimes with a
grayish mottled marking; the cross with the Downs gives a
black face with a less pronounced Roman nose, which is
however less prominent than in the Lincoln and Leicester.
The forehead has a conspicuous tuft of wool. The belly is
generally well covered with wool, as is also the scrotum.
For crossing on the smaller breeds, especially our common
natives, it is not excelled in point of the hardiness of the
progeny, the increased size and the weight and value of
the fleece.

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80 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

THE WENSLEYDALE.

The Wensleydale breed is the produce of a cross of the
Leicester on a Yorkshire breed somewhat similar to the
Lincoln. By continued selection it has become a standard
breed having special peculiarities, the chief of which is a
bluish tinge in the skin and of the face and ears, sometimes
extending all over the body, and being more marked on the
bare and hairy parts. It is mostly used for its lambs, which
are marketed when a year old and the mutton of which is
of excellent quality. It is used mostly for crossing with the
black-faced breeds, the peculiar tinge of the skin being
thought to throw lambs more like the rams, and being1 larger
and of excellent fattening disposition they are found more

WENSLEYDALE RAM, TEN YEARS OLD.

profitable than the smaller pure, black-faces. It is valued
for its fleece which has a peculiar curl, called pirls, these
being really t\vists of a corkscrew shape, and which in manu-
facturing tend to felt in the goods, giving a very firm and
tough cloth used for the hardest wear. The fleece is rather
open, long in staple, and wastes but little as compared with
the fleece of other sheep in the scouring. This peculiarity of
the fleece is extended over the whole of the body, including
the head and between the eyes and round the ears; the belly
is well covered, as well as the scrotum and down the legs,
with downy wool. There is a conspicuous absence of hair
in the fleece, which is considered as an objectionable feature
by the breeders.

The head is of good size, indicating a strong constitution,
and is carried high on a strong neck, giving the sheep a

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82 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

much favored style and an attractive appearance. The nose
is wide, the back of the head is flat, the ears are large and
prominent. The carcass is noted for its evenness and the
absence of patches of fat, the meat being well mingled with
fat all through rather than on the outside of the carcass.
While it is somewhat slower in maturing and in taking on
fat than the Leicester, it is thought to be hardier in consti-
tution, and in its active disposition, being, as we should say,
a far better rustler, and thus more able to withstand the
ordinary hardships of outdoor winter keeping. It is thus of
value for crossing on the common range flocks as well as for
open grazing on farms.

THE MOUNTAIN BREEDS.

The Cheviot is the principal breed of this class, and the
more interesting to the American shepherd, as it is already
introduced on this side of the Atlantic, and has made a place
for itself in which it has proved to be a valuable breed for
farm use as well as for crossing on our native stock. Wo
have an association of breeders of this sheep who deserve
credit for their enterprise in this direction.

It is named from the Cheviot hills, a range of low moun-
tains on the border of England and Scotland, once, on a time,
the scenes of continued strife between what might have been
called in our parlance border ruffians, who during the old
wars between England and Scotland made these noted hills
the scenes of midnight forays, by what were then called the
cattle lifters. Then every shepherd's house was his castle,
in which- always armed — he was prepared to defend his
herds and flocks from the invaders from both sides. At the
present time these sheep are scattered all over the green
hills of Scotland, and with the Black-faced Highland sheep
make up the great majority of the flocks. The author takes
a deeper interest in this breed, possibly, as he imported some
of them some few years ago for his farm in the mountains
of North Carolina, where they succeeded admirably, and the
cross of this breed on the native sheep of this district is yet
apparent in the larger build, finer mutton character, and the
largely increased fleece of wool, admirably adapted to the
home manufacture of the popular jeans.

The special marks of this breed are the short, hard, pure

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white hair covering the face, extending over the ears and be-
hind the head; rudimentary horns, which are sometimes
loose and mere appendages of the skin, a prominent Roman
nose, black nostrils and bright full black eyes. The wool is
moderately long, straight and free from kemp (or the short
coarse hairs which go by this name), and covers well all
parts of the body, the belly, breast, and legs down to the
hocks. The tail is naturally long and rough, protecting the
udders of the ewes, and not objectionable when the sheep
are kept on pasture and not fed on turnips, rape, or other
laxative food. Thd shoulders are high. The ewes are ex-
cellent milkers and good mothers, losing fewr lambs, even
when unattended by the shepherd. They are docile and not
given to straying, even in the late season when sheep, by
long inherited disposition to wander, are most inclined to
stray.

It is the custom with the Cheviot shepherds to cross the
ewes with Leicester, Lincoln, or Weiisleydale rams; the
produce are knowrn as Leicester or half-bred lambs, and are
popular in the markets at twelve months old when they w'll
weigh sixteen to eighteen pounds to the quarter. The flesh
of these half-breds is not so fat and is better considered by
the butchers than that of the pure Leicester.

This breed is kept in the States of New York, Pennsyl-
vania, Indiana, Iowa and North Carolina, and in these
widely different and distant localities all do well.

The fleece weighs five to seven pounds in the ewes, and
a half more in the rams. The ewes imported by the author
weighed 170 Ibs, and the ram, two years old, 270 Ibs.

THE BLACK-FACED HIGHLAND.

This breed is smaller than the Cheviot, and thrives well
on scant pastures, or the rough herbage of mountains). It
is originally a forest sheep, having been kept in Ettrick For-
est from long time back. It is now the principal sheep of the
Scottish Highlands, where it is kept in large flocks, both for
its mutton and its fleece. The mutton is of the finest quality,
exceeded in this respect by but one other slieep— the small
Welsh mountain breed— which furnishes meat of such fine
texture and flavor as to be kept for sale mostly in the fancy
grocery shops of London and other of the largest English

86 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

cities. Its fleece is coarse and weighs only about four to
five pounds, being of the class known as carpet wools.

The marks of this sheep are black or mottled face and
legs; dun or broiwn patches are considered objectionable as
indication of impure blood and a less hardy constitution.
The nose is strong and prominent, but not so much arched as
that of the Cheviot; the nostrils are black and wide. The
horns of the rams are large and heavy, coming out level
with the top of the head, and not joining each other at the
base. They have one to two spiral turns as the age may be,
the curl being in a forward direction, but not protruding
towards the face. The ewe has small thin flattened horns
not spirally twisted. The ears are short and small. The
back is broad all over from the shoulder to the rump. The
tail is naturally short and is not cut. A wether fat from
pasture and three years old is considered the finest of all
mutton, the quarter weighing 16 to 18 Ibs.

Its constitution is exceedingly hardy while on its moun-
tain pastures, where foot rot never occurs; but one fault
with this breed is that the wearing down of the hoof on its
rocky home has so increased the natural growth of horn that
when the sheep is moved to low land farms the foot becomes
soft and is addicted to foot rot. This fact should be consid-
ered by our shepherds, who might neglect this necessity
for paring the hoofs and so lead to disease in the flock.

A few years ago the author found some of these sheep
on an Illinois farm, where it seemed at first thought to be as
much out of place as a codfish from the ocean. But so far
as could be learned the flock had thrived, and if it could so
far become acclimated to its new surroundings there, it
would certainly be a welcome addition to our stock. On the
mountains there is no question of its success, but the coarse,
light fleece might stand in the way of its profitable herding.
American flocks will scarcely pay to rear for wool alone, un-
less this is of the highest value, but with valuable mutton,
as this breed yields, the cheaper wool might not be any in-
superable objection to it, if the market could be found for
the mutton. The hardiness of the breed, however, makes it
a subject for due consideration as to the value of the breed
for crossing.

,,..

88 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

THE WELSH MOUNTAIN.

This breed is scarcely worthy of notice were it not for its
fine mutton. It is a small, restless, exceedingly active sheep,
white-faced, with a carcass yielding a quarter of twelve
pounds or less, but of such tenderness of flesh and high
agreeable flavor, equal to that of venison, and which brings
in the shops of the English cities as much as a dollar a
pound at the Christmas holidays, and half as much at other
seasons. Its fleece is short but fine, and makes the fine,
highly considered Welsh flannels, of which when dyed
scarlet the Welsh women make their cloaks. A somewhat
ludicrous history is attached to the habit of the Welsh ladies
of wearing this kind of outer dress. When the French fleet,
about a century ago, landed some soldiers to make a raid
on the Welsh coast, the ladies were curious to get a view of
the hostile strangers, and a crowd of them standing on a hill
were seen by the enemy, who thought them a detachment of
soldiers of the English army in their usual red coats. The
enemy at once fled back to their ships and hastened home,
supposing their intended raid had been made known.

This sheep is an example of the very certain fact that
the tenderness and flavor of the food gives the high flavor
to the meat, a fact which is not believed by some, but which
is certainly supported by similar evidence other than this,
and is illustrated in the clearest manner to the expert shep-
herd, who knows how the pastures make the mutton as well
as differentiate the character of the sheep.

THE LEICESTER.

There is somewhat of a misunderstanding to-day as
to what the Leicester breed really is. There was an old Lei-
cester breed existing, which was a large coarse sheep with
a heavy fleece and a fairly good disposition to feed and
fatten, which a noted breeder of the name of Bakewell, who
was interested in breeding the Shorthorn cattle, took up,
and began a course of improvement by which his name has
become famous among sheep breeders. He in course of time
made of it what was known as the Dishley (from the name
of Mr. Bakew ell's home) or the new Leicester breed. The
effect of Mr. Bakewell's efforts in this direction was to pro-
duce the most profitable sheep of the time, a masterpiece of

THE LEICESTER. 89

breeding, and of skill in selection of materials first. The new
breed was marked by early maturity, a great disposition to
fatten, a carcass which, for its reduced size, had greater
value than the previously larger but coarser animal; a cor-
responding diminution of offal; and the largest return for the
food consumed than that of any other existing breed of
sheep.

Mr. Bakewell made a profound secret of his methods of
procedure, and although well watched by those interested
in knowing his secret, so successfully guarded it that to this
day very little is known of it. One thing, going to show the
extent of his experiments, was discovered by one of his com-
petitors in former work in improving the Shorthorn cattle,
which was that Mr. Bakewell had a remarkably fine black-
ram in his stables, which wa,s supposed to have been used in
this improvement of his favorite sheep, and it is to this rani
that is attributed the occasional black spots which are some-
times still found on the best bred Leicesters. Indeed this
mark is thought to be an indication of strict purity in the
sheep that have descended from the original flock of Bake
well.

It was well known that Mr. Bakewell was not particular
as to the means he used so that the result suited his purpose.
It is known that the best specimens of the old breed were
secured as the foundation for his work, and that while the
results were far beyond what might have been expected, yet
they were sufficient to establish a remarkable improvement
in the old breed and make of the new breed the best sheep
then existing.

It had its faults, however. These were want of constitu-
tion, sterility, and inferiority of fleece. These have been
amended by Mr. Bakewell's successors in the same line, by
most careful selection of rams closely bred from the most
satisfactory specimens of the improved flocks. And while,
as the case now stands, there has been no breed of long
wools that has not been improved by a cross of the new
Leicesters, yet this breed with its most excellent qualifica-
tions has nothing to gain outside of itself, and have only
been retained by preserving this breed pure and unmixed.

The special points of the Leicester are as follows:

The head is hornless, long, small, tapering to the muzzle,

90 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

and carried high, projecting forwards horizontally. The
eyes are prominent, with a quiet, docile expression. The ears
are thin, rather long, and directed backwards. The neck is
full and broad at the chest, gradually tapering to the head,
and tine at the junction with the head. The back forms a
horizontal line from the rump to the head. The breast is
broad and full. The shoulders broad and round, without
any uneven or angular formation anywrhere. The forearm
is fleshy down to the knee, the bones are small, the legs
standing far apart, no loose skin is visible on them, and are
mostly bare of wool. The chest is deep, the barrel round,
the ribs spring well arched from the back, and the carcass
diminishes evenly from the rump forwards. The pelt is
thin, soft, and elastic, and covered with a good quantity of
fine white wool, finer in fiber than any other of the long
wool breeds. Every one of these fine points in a sheep of
surpassing excellence, it is known, was a subject of study
by Mr. Bakewell, and was carried through by the choice of
any mate-rial that offered itself to this great master of
breeding.

Later breeders have followed in these lines, with the re-
sult that the modern Leicester is a model sheep, a subject
for the naturalist and artist to admire, and for the shep-
herd to make his money out of. This has been used in the
refinement of almost every other modern breed, but still
something is left for the modern breeder to study over and
endeavor to improve.

These are a certain delicacy of constitution, want of
sufficient hardiness to withstand exposure. Inferior ability to
nurse the lambs. There are, however, many modern breeders
of these sheep who have understood this fact, and their
efforts are constantly directed to improve on these points,
with so far substantial success.

The chief value of the breed doubtless lies in the ability
to improve others on wrhich the rams are crossed, and the
grades of it are quite doubled in value by the first cross.
It is the great value of the pure breeds like this to improve
inferior sheep, and thus the special breeder is able to per-
form an invaluable service in affording the opportunities to
the ordinary shepherd. This indeed applies to every pure
breed of sheep, and on account of the vast labor and the con-

OTHER VARIETIES OF SHEEP. 01

summate skill needed to breed such sheep as this, the shep-
herd will never be able to dispense with the services of the
professional breeder. Of course the grades are the great
source of supply of sheep for market and for wool, and these
depend on the infusion of pure blood supplied by the profes-
sional breeders through their fine rams.

THE BORDER LEICESTER.

We sometimes hear or read of the Border Leicesters, and
some are at a loss to know what kind of sheep this may be.
It is at the present time so closely related and similar to
the Leicester that it is recognized as such, and no distinc-
tion is made as to the special points of each of the two. U
is now a class of this breed which is larger in size, not so
refined in form, has a somewhat longer and not so fine a
fleece. It was formed through a Cotswold cross on the im-
proved Leicesters of Bakewell. It is regarded by some breed-
ers as the finest of this breed, and is preferred for crossing
on the common mixed varieties of the common sheep, when
size and weight of fleece are desired. Of this cross it is com-
mon to rear lambs which make twenty to twenty-five pounds
to the quarter at fifteen months old and after good feeding.

OTHER VARIETIES OF SHEEP.

Spain has about thirty million sheep of which the most
are Merinos. There the ancient fashion of migrating twice a
year from the low pastures in the Spring to the mountain
ranges in the Fall still exists. This habit is controlled by
special laws by which the sheep have a right of way on the
public roads in preference to other travelers, and a right of
free pasture on the roadsides for two hundred feet on each
hand. The herds move under the strict discipline of a leader
known as a mayoral, under whose charge there are ten thou-
sand sheep in the drove. The drove is divided into sections
of one thousand sheep, over which a capitaz takes charge.
A requisite number of shepherds and dogs accompany the
drove and stay with the sheep until the season closes, when
the flocks are returned to their former ranges. The shep-
herds are much like those of the French Llandes, wearing
jackets of raw sheepskin with the wool outside and raw-
hide breeches. The jackets are mere skins without sleeves
and wrapped around the body.

92 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP

Spain exports annually about nine million pounds of
wool. It is a matter of history that countries which export
wool are proportionately deficient in civilization, as may be
easily thought when we realize the fact that we import about
as much as our whole product, and France imports a large
quantity to supply its population with the necessities of a
high civilization.

SHEEP OF THE PYRENEES.

Germany has twenty-eight million sheep, some parts of
it exceeding the average number per square mile existing in
Great Britain, viz., three hundred. It imports a large quantity
of wool for its extensive manufactures. The system of herd-
ing sheep on the poor land only has the effect o<£ seriously cur-
tailing the value of this interest, and the native grown wool is
of the inferior qualities. But many of the rich land owners
possess valuable flocks, especially of the small breeds of
Merinos whose fleeces are exceedingly fine but of light
weight.

Italy still preserves the ancient fashion of migratory
flocks; the sheep so kept are of the Merino variety, of which
the largest number make up a majority of the seven million
possessed by this nation. In the mountains there are a

OTHER VARIETIES OF SHEEP.

large number of sheep having black faces much similar to
the flocks of the Scotch Highlands. In Piedmont a race of
sheep is kept for the milk. These sheep have hanging ears,
a high arched nose, long bare legs, and bodies with scant

GIBRALTER AND EAST INDIAN SHEEP.

fleeces. Darwin considered the pendant ears of these and
other similar races as a mark of long domestication, as it
prevails among the oldest established breeds in those coun-
tries in which no modern improvement has been made. The
illustration here given of a race of East Indian sheep which
is wholly black, and of a pair of sheep from Gibraltar in the

THIBET SHEEP

soutlnvest corner of Spain, shows the prevalence in these
of the drooping ears. The same is shown by the Thibit
sheep.

A curiosity among sheep is the fat-tailed sheep of An-
gola, and some localities in Asia. The tail consists of a curi-
ous lump of fat on an elongated tail containing as many as
twenty vertabrae. The tail being considered as a delicacy, Is

94

THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

generally carefully guarded against injury by being supplied
with a sort of truck which is drawn about by the animal as
it moves. A sheep of this kind bred in Astrachan has black
fine frizzled wool, and the skins are highly valued as a fur
for the ornament of cloaks and especially for the collars,
and a strip down each side of the front and for the cuffs.

The Tunis sheep has been introduced here from its Afri-
can home, and like all other immigrants is standing on its
merits as a valuable acquisition to our varieties. For some
time it strove with its new surroundings, on the quite differ-
ent conditions here from which it had been used to in its
native African home, where it was a habitant of the moun-

FAT TAIL SHEEP.

tain districts of that part of the dark continent lying to the
East of Algeria. Thus Mr. Kandall— generally well in-
formed—made the mistake of asserting that this sheep had
become extinct, the fact being that its hardy constitution
enabled it to overcome difficulties of acclimatation, and it
still remains as one of our adopted races and is especially
now an American sheep.

Its origin is kindly described by Mr. Rountree, of Indi-
ana, who is now the owner of the largest flock in the United
States. Mr. Rountree gives the following particulars of
the American history of this breed:

"It was introduced here by General Eaton, our Consul
at Tunis, who procured a small flock from the Bey and
shipped them to Pennsylvania where they came under the
care of Judge Peters of Belmotnt, near Philadelphia, The

Pi JH

£

« g
OJ »3

5 g

96 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

sole survivors of the voyage — one pair — became the progeni-
tors of a fine flock of pure blood, the last lamb being brought
by a ewe of the age of sixteen years, when the only original
pair fell victims to a prowling cur. Mr. Peters bred these
sheep for twenty years, during which time several flocks
were sent to Virginia, Georgia, and the Carolinas, where
they were bred with much success until the war of 1861.
when, with other fine flocks in the South, these sheep were
practically exterminated, a small remnant only being pre-
served pure. These few sheep, however, increased in num-
ber and specimens of them were exhibited at the World's
Fair at Chicago, in 1893. A Mr. Guilliams, of Indiana, pur-
chased four of them from the breeder at Columbia, S. C.,
and is now breeding them successfully. Mr. Rountree on
seeing these sheep went to South Carolina and found only
twenty-five of them in existence. Of these he procured ten,
and has, as the descendants of these, the largest pure flock in
America.

"These sheep are noted for their early maturity, their pro-
lificacy (rearing two sets of lambs in the year), and yield-
ing a fine and long staple of wool. The cross of the rams on
our mutton breeds yields an improved fleece and excellent
mutton. The mutton of the pure sheep has always been
noted for its fine quality, and thus the cross-bred produce is
valuable on this account, as well as for the fleece.

"The ewes are good mothers, the lambs have been made
to weigh seventy pounds at the age of eighty days. This breed
is hardy and of sound constitution, the rams weigh when ma-
ture two hundred pounds and the ewes up to a hundred and
sixty. The cross of the Tunis and Merino makes an excel-
lent sheep for every purpose. An association of breeders
has been organized, with its headquarters at Fincastle, Ind.,
and a herd book is regularly published."

OTHER WOOL BEARING ANIMALS THAN SHEER

Wool is not the sole product of sheep only. There are
several related species of the genus, whtoh may v^ included
in the list of wool bearers, the fleeces of which coming into
competition with the sheep, are of interest to the shepherd.
Of these related species of this genus of the Camelidae.
there are the Llama, the Vicuna, the Gnanaco, and the Al-
paca, all natives of the high mountain region of South

OTHER WOOL BEARING ANIMALS. 97

America, in Bolivia and Peru mostly; and some of the goats,
especially that known as the Cashmere which is noted for its
exquisitely fine and soft wool, and the Angora equally noted
for its long silky fleece.

The Alpaca became noted some years ago through the
enterprise of Mr. Titus Salt, afterwards made Knight under
the title of Sir Titus, by the Queen of England, in recogni-
tion and reward for his public service in inaugurating a
valuable industry in the manufacture of the hair or wool of
the Alpaca. This gave rise to a considerable manufacturing
town in Yorkshire, England, where the chief manufacturing
industry is based on wool, of which the population at
once sprang to several thousand on the establishment of
Saltaire, as the town of Mr. Salt's creation was well named.

This animal has been introduced into various countries
with the intention to acclimate it, but in every instance these
attempts have failed. A few of them were carried into
Australia, but— as might be easily thought— with disastrous
failure on account of the exceedingly different climate and
general environments. The dry climate of that country being
so different from the elevated locality to which this ani-
mal is naturally suited, it might have been a foregone con-
clusion that the attempt would be a failure. It has been
introduced into France with the same negative result, and
the only specimens living, in any foreign country, are those
kept in collections of wild animals under special care and
culture. Doubtless it might be different in our Pacific coast
districts, and the newer states and territories on the South-
west, where there are elevated ranges and a similar climate
more in accordance with the natural habits of this animal.

This of course applies to the other races of this interest-
ing genus, the only related species existing in the world,
Doubtless there is a profitable field for enterprise in the at-
tempt to naturalize all these members of this race of most
useful animals, valuable as beasts of burden, as is its rela-
tive the camel, well called the ship of the desert. For this
race is used to a dry climate, and has been used for packing
ores from the mines near the tops of the Andes over the
roughest roads, quite impassable for other beasts, and is
able to carry loads of 150 to 200 Ibs. with ease. As well as

98 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

for this use it affords a valuable fleece, and its flesh is a very
desirable addition to our usual bill of fare.

THE GOAT.

Another animal, or rather race of animals, closely allied
to the sheep, is its congener the goat. This tribe is separated
into two distinct classes, the short haired and the long haired.
Like the sheep the goat is valued for its fleece, and for its
flesh and milk. Its milk is the richest of all animals except
the whale (which is not a fish but one of the varieties of
the mammalia, or milk giving animals). The whale's milk
has far more fat in it than that of any other animal, this
being about seventeen to eighteen per cent; the milk of the
goat has five to seven per cent of pure fat in it, and is thus
highly valued for medical purposes, especially as a diet for
consumptives. But it is as a wool bearer that we have to
consider it in these pages. The finest wool in the world is
the under fleece of the Cashmere goat, renowned as the pro-
ducer of that costly staple of which the most highly valued
shawls in the world are made. This animal is a native of
Asia, and is reared mostly in Persia, and especially in the
Province of Cashmere, although most of the highly valued
shawls are not made in that swecial locality. This valuable
part of the fleece is the undergrowth, which is not sheared,
but naturally falls off in the spring and is combed out of the
upper fleece when it is loosening at its annual period. This
wool is exquisitely soft, fine, and silky, having the elasticity
of down. The yearly product is quite small, a full grown
animal yielding only a few ounces of the best quality of the
wool.

So far it has never been thought worthy of culture out-
side of its native locality, and as it is only profitable for the
special purpose of this quite insignificant manufacture, it is
scarcely probable that this goat will be worthy of attention
here.

The Angora goat, however, is of a different character,
and has already been adopted ns one of our wool or fleece
bearing animals. It is a native of one of the Turkish Pro-
vinces, and being the basis of a profitable trade it is jealously
guarded, and its exportation is forbidden except under spe
cial permits by the Government. At one time the demand

100 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

for these goats was so brisk that the market value of a rain
was twelve hundred dollars, and a ewe brought five hundred.
The valuable part of its fleece is the outer coat of fine long
silky hair, generally of a pure white, but sometimes a light
gray. The fleece weighs on an average under eight pounds
but as it has no yolk and loses little in its preparation for
manufacture, this weight, at the ordinary current prices, is
far more profitable than those of the wool of the sheep.
Fifteen pounds is the largest weight of fleece reported, this
being sheared from an aged ram.

The staple has an average length often to twelve inches
for the rams, and eight for the ewes, these bearing a much
finer and more lustrous wool. There has been much mis-
understanding in regard to this and the above named animal,
both being included in the common reports made and pub-
lished a few years ago under the single name of the Cash-
mere, which, as will be readily perceived from the entire dif-
ference between the two, is a distinct misnomer. So that
these reports are entirely untrustworthy as regards the high
value as alleged of the Angora fleece. Some of these reports
stating the value to be six or more dollars a pound for the
raw fleece, and the weight of the fleece ns ten pounds or
more, it is easily perceived how the public may have been
deceived into paying exorbitant prices for these animals,
and explains the costly disappointments which arose from
the deception. These of course at once threw a deep dark
cloud over this really valuable animal, and it soon became
an object of quite undeserved disrespect. Animals that had
been purchased for five hundred dollars were quickly sac-
rificed for a mere trifle, and indeed some were given away,
as the easiest method of ridding the unfortunate owners of
them.

But more correct information being gained, the goat soon
found a place among our wool bearers, and has since that
early time been reared with much profit in large flocks,
especially on our Western borders, mostly in California,
where one of the adjacent islands became a most suitable
home for a large flock. It is to be noted that the sheared
fleece is not the only source of profit, for the skins are largely
used for rugs, for carriages and domestic uses, and are in
constantly good demand for these purposes. The fleece,

THE GOAT 101

however, has so many and so valuable uses, that it is in
permanent demand as the raw material for a great variety
of fabrics, such as shawls, camlets, mohairs, poplins, and
other valued dress goods, the direct product of the fleece;
while the staple is mixed with wool, cotton, silk, and other
materials, imparting a luster and strength to these "which
greatly adds to the value of the goat's fleece.

This animal is more like the sheep than any other of its
tribe, being mostly distinguished from it by its beard, its
lopped ears, and the distinctly different form of the horns.
Its tail is generally carried erect and on the whole the car-
riage of the animal is more upright and vivacious than that
cf the sheep.

Large flocks of this goat are kept in the Southern Eng-
lish settlements in Africa, mostly in the Cape Colony and
in Natal, from whence <many million pounds of wool are
annually exported. It breeds at an early age, often within
the first year, and the males have been known to serve ewes
at the age of seven months, the ewes being similarly pre-
cocious. The ewe frequently bears twins, and quite often
triplets, while the more aged ewes have produced four lambs
at a birth with two births in a year. The common belief
that all these goats have a strong unpleasant scent, is a pop-
ular error— the male only being so distinguished— and this
only at certain times of the year. The kids make excellent
"lamb," and indeed those of all the goat tribe are frequently
sold as lambs in the ordinary markets.

Turkey formerly enjoyed the monopoly of the manufac-
ture of these fleeces, but the inevitably successful competi-
tion of civilized nations has almost exterminated these old
manufactures, and the fleeces are now exported, instead of
the finished product of them.

INFANTADO EWE, OLD STYLE.

SPANISH MERINO RAM, IMPORTED AT COMMENCEMENT 19th CENTURY.

CHAPTER III.

THE SCIENCE AND ART OF BREEDING.

Breeding of any of our domestic animals is an art based
on strictly scientific principles. It may be thought that it
is an art only, and the mere exercise of the results of experi-
ence, without any thought of the principles involved in the
reproduction of the animals under the control of mankind.
But in truth it is the application of experience to any skilled
purpose first studying the reasons why this or that result
should be so, that all scientific knowledge consists. This
word, science, is not generally understood as to its strict
meaning. It is derived from scio (a Latin word), meaning to
know. So that we may say in short, that science is merely
accurate knowledge. It is not in any sense or in fact, sup-
positions or beliefs; but the knowledge of the actual and
accurate reasons why things are thus or so, and this knowl-
edge applied to the common practice of human life and
work, always brings results precisely the same under like
conditions. That the results reached by breeders of the do-
mestic animals, or in the culture of plants, which possess
a strict analogy with animals being sometimes disappointing
and fruitless, so far as expectations go, is by no means any
contradiction of these facts, but simply due to the imperfect
knowledge possessed by breeders of the materials they are
working with. And every mistake, or unexpected result, only
goes to add to the stock of accurate knowledge which is the
essence and fundamental principle of science.

Science is the accumulated results of work, experiment,
and experience. Everything, less or more than this, is
mere theory; and this is one of the materials which the
scientific student works with, in the course of experiment
and practical application of the knowledge gained inch by
inch, a,s it were, until some exact results are reached, and
these then become really scientific principles.

104 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

Understanding this, we are then prepared to study thy
history and the principles, as far as these have been ac-
curately determined, of the breeding of sheep.

What is a breed? Some think it is nothing more or less
than a distinct variety of any of the domesticated animals,
differentiated from all others by certain marks and types,
which are accurately reproduced by the animals so specially
different from all others than their own ancestors aud prog-
eny. In short it is a class of animals which reproduce their
kind with a certain degree of similarity in the most impor-
tant features. Thus, those believing this to be the true
meaning of the term breed, do not include among the breeds
any of the wild animals, and only the domesticated kinds.
Without discussing this questionable point, we only here
remark that our understanding of the matter is, that any
distinct class of animals existing, whether wild or domes-
ticated, that reproduces itself with exactness of form,
color, or habit of life, is a breed. For, where have
we among our domestic animals, any that exhibit the
distinctive habit O'f a breed, better or more strictly
than the wild animals — the buffalo, or the antelope,
or the deer, or the various w7ild birds; or what
race of sheep retains its constant form and habits more
exactly than the wild big-horn, or those other races of undo-
mesticated sheep of which it is the belief of every scientific
naturalist our modern breeds are the progeny. And these
habits and special peculiarities every breeder of sheep con-
siders and understands; and works under this principle of
perpetuating these characteristics in his flocks.

When the first shepherd undertook to reclaim the wild
race, and subject them to his use for the valued skins, or
fleece, or the meat for his food, we may be sure he began
by selecting those which came nearest his idea of the great-
est usefulness. Thus the improvement of the sheep dates
back to the remotest antiquity, long before there are any
historic records, and the first knowledge we have of the re-
sults cf this selection and special variation by breeding,
based on this selection, is gained from the remains of tlm
bones of the domesticated sheep discovered from time to
time in the ancient caves, and the beds of lakes, where
primogenlal mankind lived and died, and left the remains

SCIENCE AND ART OF BREEDING. 105

of their work as a study for us to learn the special habits of
those aboriginal parents of the human race. The facts we
learn in this and other ways all go to prove that the im-
provement of the sheep dates back to unknown centuries,
thousands of years, and since that ancient time we have the
best reasons to know that there have been constant and sue
cessful attempts to improve the race of domesticated sheep,
by selection and breeding the selected animals, so selected
for their better form, more valued fleece, and general im-
proved habits and conditions. And thus we have to-day dis-
tinct types of sheep varying as to locality, climate, and the
kind of people who bred and reared them. And we may be

ROCKY MOUNTAIN SHEEP.

sure that this process of improvement began with the most
ancient races of mankind, and that these ancient, even pre-
historic shepherds, knew something about the art of breeding,
and so necessarily something of the science, as we distin-
guish it, of breeding sheep. We have an example of this
fact in the shrewd conduct of one of the earliest recorded
breeders, Jacob, who kept his father-in-law's flocks in that
great pastoral region known as Midian, who by devices,
doubtless well known to the shepherds of those days, so in-
fluenced the nervous functions of the ewes, as to bring
lambs marked in a peculiar way by which he secured a
questionable advantage over his old father-in-law. We can-
not doubt that these old shepherds knew a good deal about

106 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

breeding sheep, and their acuteness in this way doubtless
advanced the value of the flocks very largely.

Breeding is the art of influencing the character of any
animal by changing the conditions of -life, and regulating th'e
reproduction by selection of individuals, as well as by inten-
sifying by the best methods of feeding all the natural pro-
clivities. Thus there must be an adequate foundation to
begin with; a basis to stand upon; and in selecting this
starting point the natural or acquired ability of the breeder
plays a most important part. Thus we may say that there
are three general principles or laws by which the art of
breeding is made practical. These are heredity, selection
and variability.

Heredity is a special function of all animals, and the
common maxim of the breeder, that, "like produces like,"
is to be taken as the starting point. The reproductive
process is largely influenced by what may be said to be a
nervous force, so far as regards animals whose functions
are all controlled by the nervous system. It is different in
the lower forms of life, as in those species which reproduce
by a simple process of division, or as it is commonly termed,
fission, or separating into two parts, each precisely alike.
This is the principle on which all the lower organisms repro-
duce themselves. A complete organism simply produces a
dividing membrane, which when complete forms one of the
walls of each of the two parts into which it separates, and
the two, then completed forms, again repeat the process,
thus prolonging the life of the race indefinitely. In this in-
stance heredity is perfect and paramount, and each now
form is precisely like the parent of it. It is the same with
those plants that grow from slips or cuttings, or from
tubers, which are in fact a part of the plant itself. And yet
in these there is frequent variation as in the potato, or the
dahlia, which as it is termed, sports and varies from the
original. But in animals, while there is a process extremely
like the fission or duplication of the lower organisms, yet the
action and influences of the nervous forces come in play,
and affect the fetus in its interuterine growth, and thus we
have variations in animal' reproduction which, at the same
time, interfere with or aid the efforts of the breeder, giving
him in the latter instances a new departure which he is often

SCIENCE AND ART OF BREEDING. 107

able to use as the basis of improvement. The foi:ce of in-
heritance, however, is the main point for the breeder to con
sider and turn to his advantage, and it is not to be over-
looked in the study of this important part of this subject. As
has been remarked by Mr.. Darwin: "It is hardly possible,
within moderate bounds, to impress on those who have not
fully studied this subject, the full conviction and impression
of the force of inheritance, which is slowly but surely ac-
quired by rearing animals by the study of the various treat-
ises which have been published on the subject of breeding
of our domestic animals, or by conversation with experi-
enced breeders."

But in thrs regard we must give due force to that pe-
culiarity existing in all animals, \vhich is known as atavism,
or going back, and by which, after all the work of a breeder,
will tend to interfere with his reasonable expectations by the
appearance of long back inherited peculiarities by which
new difficulties are thrown in the way of expected progress.
And not only are forms and dispositions thus inherited from
ancestors, long back removed, but the work of the breeder
is still further complicated by the reappearance of undesira-
ble points which have been thought to have been bred out
And, again, the strangest irregularities are thus produced
not only by inheritance, but by accidental peculiarities which
arise through the action of unexpected events on the nervous
system of the female animal. For as Jacob produced streaked
and spotted progeny from his sheep and goats, by the use
of peeled willowr branches, and as we read the sheep were
streaked and spotted, and had bro\vn faces, in consequence
of the effect of these unusual appearances placed before
them at the coupling time, so similar effects may be pro-
duced by wre know not what accidents, to divert the ex-
pectations and purposes of the breeder. We know the very
great strength of inherited tendency to diseases, and how the
produce of unsound animals, even to the distortion of the
joints and limbs, is likely to be affected in a similar way.
Thus both for good or ill, the breeder must take into account
these natural transmissions of defects or inherited peculiar-
ities, and be prepared to meet them, and suffer disappoint-
ments and delays, unless by the severest scrutiny he avoids
all these risks. Indeed these conditions may be accepted as

108 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

an unavoidable part of the practice of breeding, to be guard-
ed against with the utmost care. This necessarily brings
us to and leads on to the consideration of the second point
under consideration which is that of selection.

If the breeder can always be sure of the full history of
the animals he makes use of for the improvement of his
flock, there would be a more certain element in his work.
This, however, is scarcely possible, unless the standard herd
books used for this purpose were an exact record of the
whole life history of every animal entered therein. This is
not supposable, for as the owner is then to be the historian
of his animals he could not be expected to make any such
possible fatal record againt them. So that after all, the
breeder is to fall back on his own judgment, and take the
chances of success or defeat, partial or complete. And as
he may find the produce of the best selected animals may
vary from his desired standard, he must undo the work
so far and begin again. This illustrates the necessity of the
full acquaintance of the breeder— the special breeder is here
referred to— with the history of the flock from which he
selects his animals and by the exercise of good judgment,
and with a full knowledge of the source of the animals he se-
lects from, take those only which he may be sure will meet
the ends he has in view, as far as possible.

This selection, of course, can only be made by one who
really knows what he wants; the ends he has in view;
the defects of his own stock which he desires to get rid of;
and the special points which he wishes to develop in his
own flock. In fact, it is as in all other business and profes-
sions, one must have a full and accurate knowledge of what
is going on in his special line or pursuit. And after all there
is something more than mere knowledge involved in this.
For we find many of the most successful breeders depend on
an intuition— a natural instinct of the fitness of things on a
first view — often more than on any method for which they
can give a reason. Undoubtedly the breeder has what he
needs fixed in his mind, although he cannot express it in
words, and when the right animal is seen it appeals to this
unspoken and unspeakable sense of fitness; and the selec-
tion so made is generally the best for the purpose required.

But this is not the work of a momentary impulse. Time is

SCIENCE AND ART OF BREEDING. 109

to be taken for thought and comparison before a selection is
made. It may be, however, that one single point is in view.
This simplifies the matter. Mr. Bakewell spent months in
selecting a ram with the kind of head he once wanted. And
although there were undesirable points in other respects
about the ram, yet he got the head, and then went to work
to breed out these by other selections. This takes time, but
the fixing of a type is a work of time. The history of the
breeding of our modern sheep is full of examples of this long
life work, and the best of the old breeders were never able
to preserve strict uniformity in any breed. Two flocks of the
New Leicester were started at the same time by two breed-
ers, and the flocks were kept quite distinct for fifty years.
At the end of this period the two flocks were entirely differ-
ent in type, and each had wholly lost the special characteris-
tics of the original flock. Here is an instance of the effect
of personality in the breeding. The type desired — according
to the fancy of the breeder— had prevailed in each flock;
and each had departed greatly from the type of the original
flock from which the two sprang. Variation must have a
distinct cause. Such a cause exists in the breeding of small
flocks in each of which there has been special methods of
selection of rams for breeding. It is impossible to maintain
an invariable condition or habit of form, among many flocks,
for the personality of the owner must inevitably appear in
each one. Thus it is that breeders of any special class of sheep
should frequently examine what their competitors are do-
ing, so as to avoid any serious loss of uniformity of type in
the breed. In this our herd books, and the annual exhibi-
tions are extremely useful, and it is doubtless by means of
these annual opportunities of exhibiting the skilled work of
the breeders, all working towards a single standard of ex-
cellence, that we shall be freed in a great measure from the
risks and failures of the old breeders, who made their work
a secret and each one of whom was working in ignorance
of what others were doing1.

There cannot be a serious divergence of results when
every skilled breeder is working with a portrait, as it were,
of his desired sheep before his eyes, as is the case with
the standard before him and the actual sheep exhibited at
the fairs. This modern improvement is the greatest security

110 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

for tlia breeders who have the standard in their ruind, and
must — for successful competition for the premiums — work in
strict conformity with its requirements.

Possibly the Germans have reached the high excellence
of their best breeds of sheep by the happy thought of em-
ploying experts for the selection of rams used for breeding.
These expert judges travel through the country and visit the
(locks of the breeders, and especially of the large estates of
the wealthy proprietors. They advise the owners of the
special points to be bred for in their flocks, and select those
rams that are the most desirable to preserve unity of type.
The immense advantage of this is apparent at first thought.
It gives to many the mind of one, and thus uniformity is
gained, and once gained is preserved. This is valuable, to not
only the special breeder, but to the mere wool producer whose
income depends, not so much on the actual weight of his
product, but of any special value it may have for the manu-
facturer. We may come to this in time ourselves, and doubt-
less find the advantage of it in the right selection of the rams
for the wool grower, as well as the mutton producer. As the
great majority of our flocks are low bred, or half bred, or
not bred at all, there is unquestionably a vast improvement
possible in the increase of the value of them, for all their
products, including rams for the use of the ordinary shep-
herd who is unable to breed his own, an unwise thing to do
anyway, as may be exemplified by the example given above
of- the two flocks of pure Leicesters. As it is, there is too
much of the uncertainty, if not ignorance, of the precise
needs of the flockmaster; too much of the carelessness, and
sometimes too much of the willfulness among shepherds:
which may be illustrated by the common adage relating to a
person known as Dr. Fry, who was much disliked by some
one, who gave his reason in this Avay:

"I do not like you, Doctor Pry,

I cannot tell the reason why;

But I clo not like you, Doctor Pry."

For and against the sheep in its variations, many a
shepherd may say the same of those he does not approve of,
'and yet for want of the accurate knowledge, which is noth-
ing more or less than the science of his profession, the shep-

CLIMATIC INFLUENCES. Ill

herd may lose great opportunities of improving his flock by
missing the best medium for so doing.

Among the most effective causes of variations we may
mention the influence of climate, soils, and other influences
growing out of them. It cannot be doubted that the success
of the American Merino has been largely due to the more
suitable climate here, and as well to the soil of the localities
where they have made the greatest success. It is the same
with other localities. For instance, the high-bred horses
nowhere do as well as in Kentucky, where the limestone soil,
the moderate climate, and the blue grass pastures, all com-
bine to give constitution and -stamina, with the endurance
owing to these which are secured no\vhere else to the same
degree in the world. So the Kentucky Shorthorn cattle
have excelled in every way their imported parents, and in re-
gard to sheep, it is found everywhere, that the American
Merino is the first of its class in the world. Wiith the same care
and skill applied to other breeds, we may unfailingly expect
to advance these breeds to a like high point, if only the same
skill and good judgment are exercised in regard to them.

Climate is cne of the most effective influences for good
or evil on the sheep. While the sheep is a cosmopolitan,
and thrives everywhere to the satisfaction of the shepherd,
yet the most favorable influences in any new country must
be secured for the i mined iate success of introduced varieties
of sheep. That the American climate (including Canada
with the United States in this continental application) pos-
sesses a special adaptation to breeding and keeping of sheep
with entire and immediate success, is unquestionable. There
are ample proofs of this in the history of every kind of sheep
that has been imported and bred. The American Merino has
found purchasers at the highest prices in competition with
the sheep of every other country in which the Merino is
bred. The English breeds have prospered equally with our
Merino, and there is no reason why every valuable breed of
sheep, whether adapted to mountain* or valley; the open
range, or cultivated farm; the marshes, even; may not be-
come a means for the profitable investment of capital, and
an occupation for the labor of the shepherd, as well as for
the manufacturing industry and the employment of labor in
disposing of our wool.

112 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

The question of acclimatatioii has beeii settled, and the
favorable iufi Deuces of it on the various breeds of sheep, ex-
isting anywhere, admit of no doubt whatever. It is, how-
ever, a matter for the study of the breeder, lest he may make
mistakes in trying to adopt the different breeds to circum-
stances of locality, climate, soil, and variety of culture that
may not be the most suitable for seme special needs of the
shepherd. Every kind of climate is to be found, from the tem-
perate regions to the semi-tropical; and the sheep has proved
itself at home from the most northerly part of Canada to
the warm Wiuterless regions of the South, for some special
kind which may be best suited for the new home.

But it must be well understood that the fixing
of types suitable to varied conditions, is not the work
of a year or a few years; but is to be the patient
study and experiment of a lifetime. It is not in
a haphazard way, either, , that we can reach success.
The sheep is an impressible animal, but equally apt
to lose its temporary individuality. The whole ex-
perience of a century of breeding has showed that types
are still uncertain. In this regard acclimatation is a slow
process, for it is not always that this, and the animal, may
match immediately. The process of acclimatation goes by
steps; each making a short progress; for the individual life
is too short to wholly change, even a sheep, into a wholly
new animal. History goes to show that this process is only
developed slowly, for the constitution has to be changed to
meet the new environments. And it has shown that the ma-
jority of animals do not submit easily to changes of climate;
some may; those which are readily impressed by their situa-
tion will; but at the same time there are effects of climate
which are not desirable, and these are to be overcome by the
slow process of cultivating the variability of the sheep,
by due mixtures of new blood, which may require many
years to become fully acclimated.

In the breeding of any of the domesticated animals, as
of the domestication of any wild race, climate is to be
seriously considered. Indeed, any violent change of con-
dition is to be avoided, unless by a process of crossing the
new blood on sheep already habituated to their special en-
vironments. Thus it may be wise to cross our native

CLIMATIC INFLUENCES. 113

variety, or even a cross of it by other and improved breeds,
with rams selected from quite different localities; that is,
for the mountain ranges the Lincoln or the Leicester or the
Shropshire rams may be used, but it would not be advisable
to introduce these breeds wholly and suddenly into these
entirely different conditions; and for lowland flocks ^it may
be safe to cross them with the Romney Marsh rams, or with
a sheep, such as the Cheviot, reared in an intermediate local-
ity, neither mountain nor plain. Strong variations are always
to be deprecated, but may be made gradually by the use
of sheep from an intermediate locality, or which have been
acclimatated by one or two years residence. So the Merino,
naturalized by centuries of adaptation to warm dry climates,
to lowland pastures, to mountain ranging, and which has ex-
hibited wonderful endurance and facility in meeting and suc-
cessfully surmounting any supposed difficulties in these
ways, has proved itself a true cosmopolitan, and meets every
expectation of the shepherd in every part of the world.
We find it in the cold, snowy northern New England fields;
in the dry plains of California; in the hot climate of Central
America or Southern Africa, or the rainless ranges of Aus-
tralia; as well as on our Western prairies, and the vast
ranges of our great Northwest. And it should be the busi-
ness of shepherds to study out the natural history of the
sheep and its characteristics, as given in a preceding chap-
ter, and thus make himself acquainted with the special,
natural, or acquired disposition of the sheep he fancies, be-
fore he commits himself to cosily enterprises.

As may be understood, acclimatation is the process of
adaptation by which animals brought from different locali-
ties are rendered by gradual steps able to withstand the coudi-
tdons of their new localities, and to not only survive but
flourish under these strange circumstances in countries re-
mote from their native habitation and under wholly differ-
ent climatic effects. Even with the human race, coloniza-
tion has been attempted disastrously except by slow degrees,
and frequently only by the crossing, by intermarriage, of
Europeans with the native races. The history of British In-
dia affords an example of this difficulty of acclimatating our
race, used to sustain all kinds of hardships, and resist the
most extreme variations of climate. But the effects of the

114 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

Indian climate have been such that after a century of occu-
pation, the British residents in India have been obliged to
return to their native country to somewhat lengthen out
their shortened lives, due to the baneful effects of an ener-
vating and unwholesome climate. It is the fact that the
effects of extreme heat changes the wool of a sheep to hair,
after a few generations, and similar effects occur to change
the character of the fleeces of the English sheep in the first
crosses made under excessive change of climate. Of course,
the opposite effects occur when the new conditions are all
in favor of the sheep, but this can only be secured by ex-
perience; no sufficient certainty can be assured in any other
way than this.

But long experience has shown, that, with but little ex-
ception, full acclimatation is possible with all kinds of ani-
mals except in a few instances, as that, the Newfoundland
dog will not live in India; nor do the Spanish breed of
fowls thrive in any other country than in their own. This
is true with other breeds of fowls, which change their char-
acter, sometimes ruinously, when transferred to a different
climate. This is most marked in the case of wild animals,
which are rarely successfully reared in any other locality
than that native to them. Thus the natural adaptation of
animals to strange and different climates, directly, has very
rarely been successful, and a course of breeding by occa-
sional reversion to the old stock, from its original home,
has been found necessary, as well as some considerable time
that must elapse before acclimatation can be successfully
and permanently assured.

As in all similar changes, acclimatation has been found
more easily successful by taking intermediate stages in the
process. This fact is of great importance to the American
breeders, not only in sheep, but of cattle and horses. Prog-
ress by stages has always been found the most sure and
effective, and the results gained at each step have been
fixed without any apparent reversion or degradation. Thus
the Spanish Merino sheep has not been found satisfactory
in Argentina, or in Australia, or in South Africa. But the
same sheep, after years of training and preparation in the
United States, has been most decidedly so. And this is why
the shrewd breeders of Australia, made expert by a century

CLIMATIC INFLUENCES. 115

%

of practice, are fully satisfied to pay the enormous sum of
five thousand dollars for an outbred Merino rani. We must
not suppose the experienced breeders of that great sheep
rearing country are wanting in common sense, or do not
know precisely what, they want; and when a ram bred in
Tasmania sold for this great price the Australian breeder
was well aware what he was about. The Tasmnnian climate
is intermediate with the dry hot plains of Australia, and this

"VICE-PRESIDENT."

Hon. Jas. Gibson's Grand Champion Merino Ram, sold at Melbourne Ram
Sales for 1,000 guineas ($5,000).

gradual change of climate goes a great way to secure the
most desirable results through the gradual acclimatatiou
of the sheep. The pictures here given of the rams thus pur-
chased show the fullest good sense and business ability
and shrewdness of the buyer. The excess of wrinkles on
the -sheep is precisely what is wanted in breeding on smooth
bodied sheep, and to increase the weight of the fleeces of the
progeny of these rams. But the gradual acclimatation is
worth still more, for it is an indispensable matter with
Australian breeders to preserve the full and hardy constitu-

116 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

tion of their flocks by the use of rams chosen for this pur-
pose from aii intermediate locality.

It is for this reason that our Merino breeders are able to
get the high prices paid for rams in these distant great sheep
ranges. Those breeders know just what they want, and find
the first step in the necessary preparation of the breed has
been made here, and so they come hither to take the best
of our rams to complete the process in their own flocks.

"ROYALIST."

W. H. Gibson's Tasmanian Merino Ram, sold for 1,000 guineas ($5,000) at
the Sydney Ram Sale.

It is for this reason too that our breeders may still
expect to find a constant demand for our best rains or ewes
for nothing more or less than this step in this process of ac-
cliniatation, having been made here, it is so much easier to
complete the process by the use of these intermediately ac-
climatized sheep.

But it does not follow that American breeders are not
themselves forced to go back to the fountain head as regards
some of our breeds not yet as fully acclimatized here. We
ourselves need to sustain and improve every breed we have.

CLIMATIC INFLUENCES. 117

except perhaps our fully Americanized Merino. The French
or Rambouillet, or delaine variety is, we think, hardly to be
included in this full preparation for entering the ram mar-
kets of the world. It will doubtless come in time, and all
the sooner as our breeders will fix on a settled type for this
class of sheep. The nature of the animal, as a scion of the
old best Spanish breed, improved by the culture of the
French breeders, has been improved by the first step in this
process, the second step is being taken here, and it must
go without saying— as a distinct scientific certainty— that
our breeders will soon have the market of the world for
these rams as well as for the true American Merinos, if they
will continue to breed for the type of sheep wanted to per-
fect the flocks of other countries, and to sustain them in this
perfection by the addition of blood acclimatized here. It is
thus seen that this matter of fixing a type in conformity to
the conditions cf an intermediate stage of the breeding, is
one of the most important to be considered by the American
breeder.

The following illustrations of this subject may be offered
just here:

The method of acclimatation suggested in the foregoing
lines should be regulated by several precautionary considera-
tions:

First: It may have no certain great or definite effect in
adapting the constitution of individual animals to a new
climate, and the various differences growing out of it; but at
times may be wholly destructive to it, and wholly change for
the worse all the weakest points of the animal.

Second: It has been shown by sufficient experience that
the offspring of animals vary in their constitutional adapta-
tion to the climate, and therefore this influence must be
controlled and enforced, and increased and kept up by the
effect of inheritance, through a wise course of breeding, and
a careful and skillful selection of the most successful in-
stances of this adaptation.

Third: It has been shown that great and sudden changes
of climate have resulted in serious degeneration in regard
to health, and a considerable check to reproduction. Barren-
ness has resulted in many conspicuous instances, as a result
of wide climatic differences, by which the nervous system

118 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

has been so much weakened that the reproductive functions
have been rendered wholly inoperative.

In order therefore to succeed in the acclimatation of aui-
nials in any strange and dissimilar climate 4o that in which
it has been reared, and in which it is found that it cannot
directly maintain itself or even live — much less increase its
kind — certain plans must be adopted.

An intermediate station must be provided, in which the
differences .of climate and other circumstances growing out
of it, may be made available to partly secure the course of
improvement, and make this permanent during a course
of time, for some years and generations at least. Then
when favorable variations have been secured and made per-
manent, a careful selection of subjects are chosen to breed
from to fix this intermediate type, which is then made the
basis of- another advance. As in fact, an invader making an
attack upon a strong and well defended country, first makes
a permanent station at the scene of some great victory, and
there entrenches himself, fortifying the camp, and in some
cases building and populating a strong city, and from this
point of vantage making new incursions, and so repeating
these advances, until the last stronghold has been captured
and occupied, when the whole region then submits to the
conqueror. So the breeder makes a step in advance, and
there rests until this step is found to be firm and fixed.
Then another advance is made by another cross or selection
of the fixed type reached, and this when fixed is made the
point from which another advance is made. This is the
whole history of the art of breeding in this direction, and
has been the basis of the work and success of all the emi-
nent breeders of history. It is the way in which our various
fixed breeds of sheep have been formed, and the expert of
but moderate knowledge and experience knows this to be
true, as the result of his own work, if he is inclined to take
this as his guide.

Next this intermediate station, or situation, or condition,
having been securely reached and held, the most eminent
members of the flock are selected for another advance, by
whomsoever this advance may be made. The hardiest ex-
amples of the breed, so far acclimatated, are selected;
and these submitted to the most careful culture until the

CLIMATIC INFLUENCES. 119

type is again fixed securely; and so this process goes on
until a satisfactory fixity of type and a general close ad-
herence to it of the individuals, have again been secured.
And then it will be yet advisable to go back to the nearest
fixed type, for the reinforcement of the stock.

It is seen how much time it must take to transfer any
breed with satisfactory success to a wholly different and
distant climate. It is this difficulty which leads the breed-
ers of Australia, South Africa, South America, and other dis-
tant localities, to continue to reinforce their flocks with new
blood from our herds, and to force our own breeders to re-
turn to the original flocks from which their herds have
sprung, for the reinforcement of their constitution and spe-
cially desired excellencies for which at first the flock was
chosen.

It will thus be the wise course of breeders seeking the
improvement of their flocks to find some intermediate source
for the new blood to be infused; and to seek this in some in-
termediate locality if possible. It will not be wise to go back
at any time. This is only starting again from the same
beginning point, whereas the gain made should be the new
point for a new improvement. Thus the American shepherd,
in the reinforcement of his flock, will go to the near-by
breeder, who has made a special success of fixing a good
type of excellence on his stock, and there procure the new
blood for the improvement of his, not yet fully improved and
well developed flock. And thus it is that the professional
breeder must be the go-between for the shepherd and the
original source of the type of sheep kept by the shepherd.
It is in vain for the mere shepherd to maintain the excel-
lence of any flock without occasionally and at short inter-
vals going back to the father flock, for the reinforcement
and improvement of his sheep, until in full time the process
of full acclimatation has been completed and the desired
type secured.

Ataong other conditions by which the reproductive pro-
cess is effected, for good or ill, are those depending on the
feeding of the flock, and the age of the animals. And the
sheep being— as has been already said— one of the most eas-
ily impressable of our domestic races, it may be readily
conceived that these conditions must have a large influence

120 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

over the character of the progeny, as well as the sex of
it. The sex is aii all-important matter to the shepherd whose
flocks are, and have always been, valued by the number of
them. But there is reason to believe, as the result of experi-
ence as well as through special scientific experiments, that
the sex of the produce of a flock depends very much on the
physical condition of the sheep, both as to age and robust-
ness, which is due not only to the natural vigor and hardi-
ness of a race, but to the means of subsistence. Of course
food is the beginning and end of the condition of a flock,
and the abundance of it as well as the nutritive value of it—
which is naturally synonymous with abundance— must have
its effect on the natural vigor of the animals, which too must
be the prevailing influence of the feeding.

The natural law, both for wild and domesticated races,
is that the fittest must survive. The most robust, the young
and ardent, the best conditioned, together with the ample
supply of food by which these conditions are secured, then,
will be the rule on which is based the ratio of multiplica-
tion of a species. The breeder is to take this into account
as one of the most important, we may think, of the rules
by which he must be guided in the pursuit of profit from the
flock.

Naturally in any -herd the younger animals will be the
most active and eager breeders. In the strife for the posses-
sion of the ewes, the hardiest ram will always be the victor.
The older ones — as is the case with our native buffalo, elk,
deer, and wild horses— are driven from the herds, and roam
by themselves in abjective solitude. This is one of the laws
of existence among all kinds of animals. Even savage
races of mankind follow this rule. The same rule prevails in
the human race, by virtue of the selection of the fittest,
even in civilized society; for it is the most attractive per-
sons that mate, and the young are chosen in preference to
the old. This is one of the reasons for the great increase
of population in nations in which the degree of prosperity
is the measure of the increase in numbers. It is the reason
why the American people are increasing more rapidly than
any other in the world, and the same is the reason why the
French people is practically stationary as to numbers. There
being no other nation in the world than ours, in which the

CROSS BREEDING. 121

means of living are so easily obtained, the marriages are
early, and the families are large; and in addition to our na-
tive population, we have a very large recruiting to it an-
nually by young and vigorous immigrants. Of course any
natural law applies to all kinds of animals, and as regards
sheep, most easily increased by prosperity as well as by
misfortune, the law prevails with them to the fullest ex-
tent.

With our domesticated auiinals it is the number of fe-
males, and the vigor of the males, by which the rate of in-
crease is determined and governed; so that the flock which
is coupled with young rams has been found to be more pro-
lific of ewe lambs than that served by old rams. This has
been made a subject for accurate experiment in France, and
the results have been shown directly in the line here pointed
out. For instance, a flock of ewes served by rams less than
eighteen mouths old brought 35 male lambs and 76 females.
Of the produce, that from four year old ewes amounted to
5 males and 21 females. Of two year old ewes the produce
was about two females to one male*. On the other hand,
ewes served by four year old rams brought 54 males and 31
females; of the three year old ewes the produce was about
evenly divided, but of two and four-year-olds the male lambs
were more than twice the number of the females.

This result has been noted in ordinary flocks, and it goes
to show that if this rule is absolute, which we may readily
conclude and admit, as it is based on a. well known natural
law, which is operative under nil circumstances, and founded
on all reasonable probability, the breeder may turn it to
his own special advantage, as may be so fitted and most ap-
plicable to the nature of his pursuit. The breeder of rams
may largely increase the value of his produce by the greater
number of salable stock, while the shepherd desiring num-
ber without regard to anything but permanent increase, mny
guide himself in conformity to this rule.

CROSS BREEDING.

In cross breeding, the shepherd or special breeder as
well, is hn mlling very sharp-edged tools, as the saying goes.
He is entering on the most intricate part of the business.
But as it is safe to use such tools when they are handled

122 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

with skill, so the shepherd desirous of increasing the value
of his Hock for mutton, or fleece, may do so with success
if the crossing is dime judiciously. This is, as has been pre-
viously stated, a common practice among the German shep-
herds who employ experts to choose the rams that are best
fitted for the special use for which they are desired.

The crossing of sheep is a distinctly temporary purpose.
It may be to get early lambs, or black-faced lambs which in
most of the lamb markets a*re most highly valued by the
butchers, and justly so on account of their size, solid, com-
pact form, and early maturing. When extra early lambs,
known as house lambs are the end in view, the cross breed-
ing is indispensable, and it has long been' and still is the pre-
vailing custom in England, from which country the fashion
has been introduced here, to keep Dorset ewes for this pur-
pose, crossing a Southdown or Shropshire ram on these
ewes, so as to bring the lamb about September; when it is
ready for market after having been reared in the house by
the Christmas holidays. As the ewes of this breed will
take the ram at any time of the year, they are bred to one
of their own breed to reinforce the flock. For this use this
breed is the most valuable of all kinds of sheep. It should
be noted that the Somerset ewes bred in the adjoining
county to Dorset, and which has precisely the same mild
Winter climate and agricultural character, are practically,
and all but nominally, of the same habits and breeding as
the Dorsets. The greatest scope, however, for cross breed-
ing is on the native sheep which, although profitable on the
rough, sparse pasture fields of the ordinary farms, but es-
pecially in the Southern States, do not return sufficient
profit for the higher farming elsewhere. Here it is fre-
quently desirable to rear cross bred sheep for both the fleece
and for the carcass. Doubtless it is most desirable in such
cases to procure good rams, of whatever breeds may be
most desired, to cross on the flocks for the purpose of get-
ting lambs which are excellent feeders, and by providing
such food crops as rape or turnips, or even sugar beets, or for
feeding in the vicinity of some sugar factory, on the waste
pulp of the beets, along with the home-grown grain and
coarse fodder.

On the extensive ranges of the West, from South to

CROSS BREEDING. 123

North, this practice may be made extremely profitable, for
the wool so procured; and this is done in localities where it
mjirlit be inconvenient to keep the higher classes of sheep
for the main flocks. In this way, -by the use of a Cotswold,
Shropshire, Leicester, or Lincoln rain— in fact of any of the
special heavy-bodied and fleeced rams— the produce may
be doubled with ease, and more profit, than the mere
doubling of the fleeces, by the heavier carcass. The first
cross so made is rarely disappointing to the flockmaster.
It is the basis of the wool product of those vast sheep ranges
of Australia, Argentina, New Zealand, and South Africa,
from whence a large business in shipping the frozen car-
casses in the cold-storage steamers expressly fitted for this
extensive and constantly increasing trade, is also thus se-
cured.

The scientific process of cross breeding is based on the
well established principle that the first cross is always sat-
isfactory. The natural tendency to go back to the original
coarse or inferior race is not shown in the first cross. And
by judicious selection of this cross bred progeny it is possible
to make in time a settled and acclimated cross breed which
may become sufficiently prominent under a wide course
of selection and breeding during- a few years. But to do
this the ram is to be changed yearly, securing one from an
unrelated herd with the special needed character for the fur-
ther improvement of the flock, by the weeding out of inferior
ewes, and the retention of those which show the most
marked likeness to the parent ram. It is a frequent custom
among the Australian flockmasters to change the ram every
year with neighbors, or when large flocks are kept to divide
them up on the ranges, changing the rams from one to the
other. In this way a valuable cross breed is established in
time, but it is scarcely ever so firmly established on account
of the climatic difficulties in the wray, as have been men-
tioned above in this chapter, as to remove the necessity for
the infusion of new blood at such times as the need for the
renovation may become apparent.

Only a few men are adapted by natural affinity and
shrewdness to succeed as breeders of a mixed flock. Long
years and close study, with a natural aptitude to judge of
needs, and the means of supplying them, are indispensable

124 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

for success in this line. And in such instances as where
extensive flocks are owned by one master, and a special
flock for breeding rains for home use is kept, it is decidedly
desirable to employ, permanently if possible, at least one
shepherd who is capable of taking charge of this ram breed-
ing flock, and of choosing out of it the rams best suited for
the use of the general flocks, as may need to be selected
year by year.

INFLUENCE OF SOILS ON THE HEALTH
OF SHEEP.

It goes without saying that only healthy sheep can be
profitable to the shepherd. It may not be that the death
rate is excessive, the meue weakness of the system, for
want of the vigorous action of the vital functions, is suffi-
cient to cause a low state of health, first to be noticed in the
failure of the fleece, and the subjection of the flock to fre-
quent attacks of illness. Some diseases, such as myelitis,
for instance, which is known by old-fashioned shepherds as
rickets (paralysis of the hind parts, and sometimes of the
brain) of which the most prominent symptom is that com-
monly known as staggers, when the sheep ntn about evi-
dently blind to a varying degree, so that they stumble over
every obstacle in their way, or wander aimlessly about,
finally dying of simple exhaustion, and others of the same
nature due to the disturbance of the functions of the brain,
and all due to want of natural vigor, all those are found to
be most prevalent on certain kinds of soils, and do not exist
on others.

Of course, we understand that the nature of the soil
regulates, and very seriously affects, the actual composition
of the herbage of cultivated crops grown. Thus we know
that clover— for instance— has a largely varying proportion
of lime and potash in its composition, in some cases having
a largely increased quantity of one of these, and in others
a great deficiency. And if so, it must follow that other
kinds of herbage must be affected in the same way. Thus
we know that on some soils the ash of clover has easy fif-
teen per cent of potash in it, while on other soils there is
fifty per cent; while the lime varies in the inverse propor-
tion of from forty to only twenty-five per cent. And it is

INFLUENCE OF SOILS. 125

the fact that on such lands as have this excessive quantity
of potash, and the least of lime, sheep are subject to these
various diseases of the nervous system mentioned above,
and that the quality of the fleece will suffer with the health
of the animal.

Potash in excess is disastrous to all kinds of domestic
animals. It causes a similar disease in pigs to the preva-
lent one in sheep, the symptoms of which most noticeable
are loss of power of the nervous system, with inability to
use the hind limbs. And we cannot neglect this fact when
considering this great influence of the soil on the character
of the growths of it, by which animals feeding on these
products of these lauds are affected. Wool contains a large
quantity of sulphur, and such plants as turnips, rape, clover,
tares, cabbage and alfalfa, in all of which there is a large
proportion of this indispensable element of the fleece, are
well known to be of the greatest value to the shepherd.

It is equally a fact that those localities in which the best
sheep are reared, such as Vermont, Western New York,
Pennsylvania, Ohio, and generally where limestone prevails,
have been the homes of the finest of the flocks. This is espe-
cially the fact in England and Scotland; and equally that
the old red sandstone, intermingled with a fossiliferous
limestone, have been the homes in which the finest flocks
of our best sheep have been reared.

The Southdown has its home on the chalk lands of Cen-
tral England where the downs, lying on this lime formation,
produce the sweetest and most healthful pasture grasses,
short, but dense, and of the highest nutritive value. The best
of the Yorkshire wools, and the best mutton sheep of that
county, are grown on a magnesiau limestone soil. The Lin-
coln yields its lustrious fleeces on a similar geological forma-
tion, formed by the disintegration of the same kind of rocks,
but covered with a fertile soil in which the herbage con-
tains all the necessary elements for the nutriment of this
fine breed. The mixed lime and sandstone soils of the ad-
joining County of Nottingham produce equally good wools;
and the Lincolns transferred thither maintain their original
excellence. The chalk soil of Kent feeds the Romney Marsh
sheep. The Cheviot excels on its same named hills of which
the soil is trap and granite with an ample proportion of lime,

120 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

and it is a well known fact that the Black-faced Highland
sheep is much improved when it is transferred for final feed-
ing to the same kinds of soil, and the rich pastures of Cen-
tral England. The Cotswold had its home on the limestone
hills of which the rich soil furnished the sweetest and most
nutritious pastures. And generally, it has been found that
the flocks least subject to the many zlls of which the sheep
is pre-eminently heir to, have been fed and reared where
limestone prevails, or where the soil is well drained and
yields the most perfect growth of the best herbage. It is
also to be remarked that on the light lands of Norfolk,
where the turnip and its related fodder crops grow to per-
fection (as witness the invaluable white Norfolk turnip,
there grown for feedings flocks in the fields along with
rape and other crops that are rich in sulphur), there the
sheep bring the most satisfactory results to the feeders,
who go to distant pastures to procure the stock for this feed-
ing by which the farms are enriched. Low lying meadow
lands that are made up of the debris of such geological
formations, but when thoroughly well drained— for the
sheep must have a dry foot— have been found excellently
well adapted to the growth of sheep, aind it is only on these
low lying lands, undrained, that the destructive liver fluke
is found injurious.

These suggestions are made to stimulate the study of
this most important matter, by American shepherds, so that
in selecting farms or range feeding grounds, a proper and
sufficient study of the geological conditions of the locality
may be made.

CHAPTER IV.

THE SCIENCE AND AIIT OF FEEDING.

"The feeding of cattle is the most important part of agri-
culture." These words appear in a work on agriculture by
that renowned writer and 'excellent farmer, Cicero, who
lived two thousand years ago. And we may well believe
that he, who was an extensive owner of sheep of the finest
quality of the then race of which, our invaluable Merino
is a direct descendant, gave due credit to the sheep as being
the most valuable of all domestic animals in regard to the
right and proper feeding of it. It was not only that the
food nourished animals reared on the farm, and so made
a profit from the flesh and the fleece, but that in the due
course of nature the produce of the land being fed to cattle —
in which sheep were, and are always, included as one
kind of the class of domestic animals— not only nourished
the animals fed, but left the greater part of it to return to
the land to fertilize it and so cause it to return still more
crops for feeding more cattle. And if we study carefully
the writings of the many ancient authors, poets and prose
writers, which are extant, we shall discover that what they
did not know of the art and practice of agriculture is of
very little account to-day. What we know, which they did
not, is simply the inner causes of things which they were
well acquainted writh, but not the reasons why they
were so, which is really all there is in the science of the
art and practice. Thus it is that we may learn much that is
valuable from these ancient writers, and get, through the
details of their practice, invaluable illustrations in regard to
the axioms and rules of modern scientific practice in every
department of agriculture.

So important a matter then as the feeding of his flock to
the intelligent shepherd, should be studied scientifically,
first; and then the rules and suggestions to be derived from

128 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

this study, carefully made, will easily form the practice to
be followed.

"Out of nothing, nothing comes," is another ancient piece
of wisdom. We can never get anything out of nothing. We
must feed a sheep before we can expect it to return to us
anything we may expect. The science of this art of feeding,
first teaches us of what an animal is composed, by what its
life— its very breath— is supported; of what its flesh, boue;
wool, and every other part of it, or its products, consists;
what is wranted is the natural functions of the animal, and
thus precisely what food the animal should receive in any
specified time to support it in the manner due to our ex-
pectation of profit from it. In short the figures which the
scientific expert gives us in these respects are like the book
accounts of a business man, in which a person is charged
with what he receives, and credited with what he returns.
And by a great amount of accurate experiment we have got
this matter down to such a fine point, that the shepherd— as
any other feeder of animals — may fix on a certain ration for
his sheep, and so get every advantage he desires for their
welfare and profitable use, at the least possible cost.

To ascertain the character of the food best fitted for sheep
we may begin by considering the actual composition of an
animal, which weighed 154 Ibs,, of which the fleece weighed
ten pounds.

The body is made up of:

LBS. OZ. GRAINS.

Oxygen Ill

Hydrogen 14

Carbon 21

Nitrogen 3 10

Phosphorus 1 2 88

Lime 2

Sulphur — 219

Chlorine - 2 47

Sodium — 2 116

Potasium — 290

Iron '. — 100

Magnesium — — 12

Silica - 2

The ordinary compound materials of the body of the
sheep are given as follows:

LBS. OK.

Water Ill

Gelatin 15

Albumen 4 3

Fibrin 4 4

Fat 12

Ashes 7 9

SCIENCE AND ART OF FEEDING. 129

The composition of the fleece, per cent of its pure dry
wool, is:

Carbon 49.25

Hydrogen 7 57

Nitrogen 15.86

Oxygen 23.66

Sulphur 3.66

Total 100.00

The yolk, or suint, consists of:

Potash, as carbonate 86.78 per cent.

Potash, as chloride 6.18 "

Potash, as sulphate 2.83 "

Other substances 4.21 "

Total 100.00

Besides the yolk, which is soluble in water, there is
seven to ten per cent of grease or oil.

It will be evident that as the sheep is kept for its wool
as well as for its flesh, the fleece is to be considered as a
part of the animal to be provided for in the feeding. But wool
is made up of almost precisely the same elements as skin,
hair, or horn, showing that all these parts of an animal
are really parts of the skin, and a mere change of the form
of it. And the only difference between the flesh of an ani-
mal and the skin, with its natural covering, and its out-
growths, is the somewhat larger proportion of nitrogen in
the latter than in the flesh. This is shown by these
figures:

CARBON. HYDROGEN. NITROGEN. °X7®^*™I>

SUI>FHUK.

Flesh 5183 7.57 15.01 25.60

Skin 50.99 7.07 18.72 23.22

Wool 50.65 7.03 17.71 24.61

Hair 51.53 6.69 17.94 23.84

Horn 51.99 672 1T.23 24.01

A very cursory examination and study of these figures
will go to show the almost perfect similarity between all
these parts of an animal, and how nature may vary the
character of her products in form, but yet preserve the sim-
ilarity of the materials of which they are made up.

Perceiving of what raw materials a sheep is. made
up we must think of what materials the food for the pro-
duction of these parts of the sheep, must consist. But in
passing, let us consider for a moment one fact. We see that
the horn of a Merino sheep, or a Dorset, has some pounds of
precisely the same materials as so much wool contains. Then,

130 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP

as the .horns do not add one cent to the value of an animal,
and has really so many pounds of matter in them that
might, if turned that way, add so much to the weight of the
fleece, it follows that the shepherd may ask himself this
pertinent question, Why waste food in the making of a pair
of seven or eight pound horns, instead of breeding off
these horns and making more wool of the food and nutri-
ment so used to waste?

But this is only one part of the subject of the natural
necessities of the animal. Food supports life, as well as
growth. Life is the first to be considered. And the support
of this calls for a large quantity of nutriment. It may be
said that life is supported by heat. The process of breath-
ing, by which the blood ic purified by every breath drawn,
is a chemical operation which is well worth study. As the
blood circulates through the system it takes up a largo
quantity of waste matter, the product of the muscular move-
ment of the animal, and the action of every vital organ.
The bright red, pure blood, which is forced by the muscular
action of the heart through the arteries, by which it is car-
ried to the capillaries or minute veins just under, and all
through the skin; and these are so exceedingly fine, and are
so closely placed in a dense network that the point of the
finest needle cannot penetrate the skin, anywhere, with-
out wounding one or more of them and drawing
blood; this blood thus passing through these minute
veins supply every part of the body with the nutri-
ment that is derived from the food, and at the
same time wash, as it were, away all the impurities caused
by the constant action of the muscles, and then changing
from the bright crimson of the arterial blood, to a dark, al-
most black, color, returns to the heart, by whose pulsation-
like that of a pump— this dark blood is forced into the lungs
where it is acted upon by the oxygen of the air breathed.
This oxygen consumes these impurities. Some of them are
excreted by the skin in the form of perspiration, which is
always going on, whether in heat or cold, but mostly un-
der the influence of heat. This consumption of this impure
matter by the oxygen of the air breathed into the lungs, is
equivalent to a burning up of these impurities mostly con-
sisting of carbonaceous matters, and by this burning, heat

SCIENCE AND ART OF FEEDING. 131

is formed, by which the aiiimal is kept warm, and this heat
is known as the vital heat of the body, and it is indispeusa-
ble to the continuation of the life of the animal.

Now it is well known that when carbon and oxygen
unite, heat is formed, and this is the same whether it is pro-
duced by the consumption of the carbon in a stove, or in a
fire of any kind, or in the lungs of a sheep or other animal.
So thnt it follows that the carbon in the food is actually
consumed in the animal and produces heat. This carbon of
the food consists of the starch, the sugar — which is pro-
duced from the starch — and as well, of any of the other
carbonaceous matters of the food that are capable of diges-
tion, and these we call the carbo-hydrates of the food, be-
cause they all consist of carbon and water, which is made
up of oxygen and hydrogen. These carbonaceous matters
of the food we call heat formers, for these reasons set forth.
And these make up the larger portion of all food of
animals.

Now just here for a simple illustration of—what we are
approaching— the composition of a typical ration for any
farm animal, as thus:

Standard feeding rations for 100 Ibs. live weight —

For each 100 Ibs. live weight .................. 2l/z pounds

Total dry substance ........................... 2 "

Consisting —

Protein ........................................ H

Carbo-hydrates ................................ 1 % "

Fat ............................................. Ys "

This ration may be taken as a standard for a full-fed
sheep of one hundred pounds live weight, or for any other
farm animal kept for product, as a cow in milk.

There is a waste of other food in the mere living of any
animal. If we take notice we may see the act of breath-
ing and of moving causes some exertion of the muscles. This
is called work, to the extent that the muscular system is in
motion, and every motion of an animal uses up some of the
fleshy muscular matter, which is wasted, and carried off
from the system by the kidneys, which have a most import-
ant function in thus purifying the blood of this waste mat-
ter. So that a sufficient supply of this flesh forming matter
of *he food is to be furnished to make up this waste, as well
as to provide for the growth of the animal. This flesh form-

132 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

ing mutter is called the protein of the food, this word signi-
fying the first necessity of life.

Then we have to supply the fat. This is generally
laid up iti the manner we all know in the animal, through
its flesh, and on the interior of the body; the surplus is de-
posited on the outer part under the skin.

Thus we have the protein, the carbo-hydrates, and the
fat, as the three elements of nutrition of the animal to be
supplied by the food.

Foods of course vary in composition. Some consist of
the carbo-hydrates mostly, as corn; others are richer in pro-
tein, as bran: and some have more fat than others. As a
guide in the choice of the various kinds of foods we have
. some tables of the composition of those in common use,
with what is called the nutritive ratio given in a separate
column. It is a simple matter to choose the most suitable
foods for feeding from the list given, and by noting the
nutritive ratio, attached in the column provided for it, it is
an easy matter for the careful feeder to make up such n
ration as will be at once the best for the feeding effect,
and for the value of it in the markets when any purchased
foods are needed.

Further on we shall return to this part of the subject,
considering at present the matter from its practical point of
view.

The feeding of sheep is the most important part of the
process of improvement. Looking back over the history
of this animal we shall find that the feeding has always been
the first part of the process of improvement. This is rea-
sonable as well as indisputable, and we may take it as the
first and fundamental part of improvement, and the indis-
pensable preliminary to better breeding. For its character-
istics are inherited, as we must believe, then the habit of eating
and digesting the largest quantity of the best food, and turn-
ing this to growth of carcass or fleece, must be the first
weans of approach to an improved condition and standard.
So that the feeding must come first, and this inheritable apti-
tude for the making of growth, or of early maturity, be
made the basis of the improvement desired. Although this
view is stubbornly contested by some of the scientific people,
and breeding is placed first in this category of means of im-

SCIENCE AND ART OF FEEDING. 133

proving our domestic animals, it seems that such a view is
wholly untenable, and quite opposed by the practice and re-
sults of breeding. It is unreasonable as well, for if the breed-
ers' axiom— like produces like— is true and well founded,
then we must first make the parent what we wish, as far
as we can by stimulating the ability to turn good food Into
growth, and then by breeding from these improved feeders
get a progeny upon which we may be able to improve still
further in this direction. Were it otherwise, we should have
no starting point to breed from for the improvement of the
flocks, and it has been shown in the previous chapter that
the art and science of breeding are both founded, as on the
most unmistakable and the most solid basis of perpetuating
by breeding, those animals together, one of whom at least,
but both if possible, have previously undergone a process of
improvement by feeding, and the best feeders have been
invariably chosen by the most successful masters of the art,
as the means of fixing on the progeny their habit and procliv-
ity of turning the most food possible into growth of carcass
of the best form, and into a fleece of the most valuable wool.
If the art of feeding does not come before, and as a prelimi-
nary to that of breeding, all knowledge and experience go for
nothing.

Feeding is the main business of the mutton, producer.
But as has been shown, that the wool is a mere outgrowth
of the flesh and skin, partaking as closely as may be of the
character and substance of the flesh, we cannot improve the
flesh of a sheep without at the same time improving the
fleece. These go together. But so far the art of the feeder
has been employed in the development of a fine carcass of
the best meat, yet at the same time the fleece has been
improved in length and quality of staple. Every expert
knows, and every shepherd should know, that wool is seri-
ously damaged by poor feeding; every set back of the sheep
is marked by a weak spot in the fleece in which the fiber
breaks, and the wool is fit only for the cheapest kinds of
products. The growth is also arrested, and as an example of
the need for good feeding for a good fleece, it may be shown
that as soon as the sheep is shorn, and the new growth of the
fleece calls for adequate nutriment, the appetite of a sheep is
notably increased, and if it is not duly supplied with the

134 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

Quantity and kind of food needed, the sheep becomes thin,
or if the carcass grows the fleece does not.

It has been shown previously in this chapter how the
wool of a sheep is made up, of so much nitrogen, especially.
This is the chief element, as has been said of the protein of
the food. It is the fact, that in the nutrition of an animal,
the elements of the food go first to sustain the vital func-
tions, for an animal will live although it loses flesh and
becomes thin and poor. Thus the needs for life, the vital life,
will be supplied first, and then the secondary product— the
flesh— is provided for, and last of all the fleece. Then fat is
deposited in the tissues, and on the inside first, and the sur-
plus is laid on the carcass under the skin. Thus it is that
the protein of the food is the main element for the full nutri-
tion of the sheep. And in choosing foods those most rich in
this element are first called for.

No animal will fatten except on the surplus nutriment
supplied to it in the food. Fat is laid up in an animal as a
source of subsistence in case of need, to be drawn upon when
the food is not in full supply. This is the well known
case in the hibernating animals, who hide in burrows un-
derground during the Winter, and live without food, as is
the common saying as to bears, who are alleged by some
jocular individuals to live through the Winter by sucking
their paws. While this is not supposable as a process of nu-
trition, yet they are well known to feed voraciously on the
nuts of the woods, and hide in the warmest covert to be
found in the cold weather, coming out in the spring thin and
poor in flesh, and devoid of fat. Thus it is that the surplus
of the late Summer's food is expended in laying fat, on the
inside chiefly, but as well on the outside, for fat is an excel-
lent non-conductor of heat, and thus a,cts as a most useful
blanket around the sleeping animal, which taking no exer-
cise wastes little of its substance, and using up the surplus
fat exists comfortably during its several months of hiber-
nation. Thus the fall months are naturally the best for
the fattening of sheep, who, laying up fat, wi-H. not waste the
surplus food in the production of heat, and in so far as they
are well sheltered from the cold, and the fleece having made
a good growth up to this time, the sheep fatten quickly. But

SCIENCE AND ART OF FEEDING. 135

tbe best foods for this fattening process are those rich in the
protein substances.

An example of this may be given:

A lot of sheep were fed at one of the German experiment
stations. They were divided into four groups, and each lot
were fed differently as to the proportion of the protein. The
first lot were fed a ration made up of 0.220 parts of protein,
1.648 parts of carbo-hydrates, the total food thus being
equivalent to 1.868 Ibs. daily of food actually digested. The
nutritive ratio — that is the proportion of the protein to the
carbo-hydrates — was 1 of the former to T1/^ of the latter.
The actual increase in \veight of this lot was a little less
than two ounces daily. The dressed weight of the carcass
was 48 per cent of the live weight. The last lot of the four
were fed a ration of 0.384 of protein, with 1.538 of carbo-hy-
drates, the total food being equal to 1.922 Ibs. daily. The nu-
tritive ratio was 1 of protein to 4 of the carbo-hydrates. The
increase in weight of this lot was a little over three ounces
a day, and the proportion of dressed weight was 55 per cent
of the live weight.

This experiment was fully corroborated by several others
having similar results. The Canadian farmers and shep-
herds use peas extensively in fattening sheep, as well as pigs.
Indeed it is the main feed for this use. No other sheep
farmers in the world make better results in feeding than
these, and the English sheep feeders following this rule,
feed largely of beans, equally rich in protein. And no better
feeders of mutton or growers of wool exist. Thus science
and practice confirm each other, as is always the case when
facts are in question.

Every well informed shepherd is fully cognizant of what
the French have done in regard to their fine Merinos, what-
ever sub-name they may go by — Rambouillet, Delaines, or
Black-Tops— and how they have more than doubled the car-
cass weight, and the weight of the fleece at the same time,
lessening the waste of yolk and grease in the wool. And we
all know what our own breeders have done with the old
Spanish Merino. These invaluable results are simply the
effects of feeding first and last; of course the breeding has
concentrated these results in the best selected sheep, and this
has made the improvement permanent by inherited tendency.

136 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

These masterpieces of sheep culture, as well as the quite
equal work of a full century of the English breeders, has only
concentrated the excellent feeding qualities of the best sheep,
and fixed the type so that it is inherited with certainty

We cannot ignore the excellent results of feeding upon
the fleece. This, as has been said, is a similar product to
the hair of other animals. Every one acquainted with the
best breeds of cattle knows how the hair is softened, and in-
creased in thickness upon the skin of those animals having
the mellow touch due to the layer of fat immediately under
the skin. This is a similar instance, to be well considered,
for all animals are made of one blood, and amenable to the
same natural laws; and what happens in the feeding of cat-
tle must apply equally to the feeding of sheep.

THE NUTRITIVE RATIO.

We have mentioned the nutritive ratio. This term, how-
ever well understood by scientific people, is not so well so
by others. We therefore explain the meaning of the term
and the method of finding it from the known composition
of the various foods as given in the table on a succeeding
page.

A great many, thousands in fact, of careful experiments
have been made especially by the German chemists at the
scientific stations, of the common food substances. These
bear a comparative value as the composition of each varies.
But as any feeder may desire to select any one or more
of the various foods for his use, moved thereto by various
good reasons, as the cheapness or dearness, or the supply of
different kinds, we have the means of easily determining
what quantity of this or that may be equivalent to others,
We therefore refer to the table of analyses of composition
of the various kinds of foods, and the amount of their diges-
tible nutriments, and by ascertaining the relative character
of each, we may easily compound a suitable ration with
fixed nutritive value, of any of them.

For example: Let us take good meadow hay, and find its
nutritive ratio. Turnin,g to the table of compositions we
find that this kind of hay is made up of these nutrients:

NUTRITIVE RATIO. 137

ACTUAL. DIGESTIBLE.

Water 14.3 per cent. — per cent.

Ash 4 6.2

Protein : 9.7

Fiber 26.3

Starch, etc 41.0

Fat 2.5

100.0

The digestible matter of these is stated in the second col-
umn. Finding the quantity o,f digestible matter in each, we
find this to be:

ProteiT) H.4 per cent.

Fiber 15. " "

Starch, etc 25.8 "

Fat 1.2 " "

We then take these digestible equivalents— for it is only
the digestible parts of the food that count in the feeding of
an animal as will be easily understood— and calculate the
quantities of each.

We then make this comparison:

Digestible protein 5.4

Digestible fiber 15.

Digestible starch, etc 25.8

Digestible fat 3.0

438

The fat is seen to be increased to 3. This is because a
pound of fat, being wholly digestible, and having two and a
half times as much nutritive effect as starch and other carbo-
hydrates, it is worth so much more, as food, as starch is.
Then we find that \Ve have 5.4 parts of protein to 43.8 of the
whole of the carbo-hydrates (the fiber and starch), and the
increased fat. All these are made up of carbon and water,
hence we call them all carbo-hydrates, but keep the fats
distinct. We then find the proportions between these as 5.4
is to 43.8— so is 1 to 8.1.

Then 8.4 is the nutritive ratio between the carbo-hy-
drates and the protein, or one pound of the former exists in
the hay to 8.4 pounds of the others.

This is the best natural nutritive ratio, or proportion, for
the support of any animal for ordinary growth. For fatten-
ing we increase or widen the ratio by adding to the carbo-
hydrates or the fats.

Profit in sheep farming calls for the most generous feed-
ing, carefully carried through with the utmost regularity as

138 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

to the quantity of food and the time of feeding. A sheep is a
restless animal, and it worries if the time of feeding is de-
layed only a short time. Then tine shepherd, thoughtless of this
habit of his flock, hears the impatient bleating, all pf which
means to him the loss of so much food on account of the loss
by nervous excitement and worry of the flock. As a rule we
are not sufficiently careful in this regard, and thus we do
not meet with so much success in this part of our farming
or herding as the English shepherds do. There the sheep is
considered the "rent-payer," that is, it pays the whole cost
of the use or interest on the value of the land. Here it
rarely amounts to half as much as this, for our lands are
much cheaper than those of England.

As has been said, the sheep — under the best methods of
management— pays three profits: the fleece, the lamb and
the carcass. But on farms there is another source of income.
This we may find in returning to the figures given above,
where we find a large part of food not accounted for as
digestible nutriment. What becomes of this? It goes to
make manure which fertilizes the land, increasing the crops,
thus enabling the farmer to keep more sheep, and thus this
goes on increasing constantly. As more manure more crops,
more crops more sheep, and still more manure more crops,
more sheep, and constantly nure profit, through the enrich-
ment of the land.

A well fed flock is the most profitable property a farmer
can own. It is said the dairy is this. But the sheep take
the palm from the cows every time. A cow, if only led for
milk, takes more fertility from the land in a year than ten
sheep, yet it is figured that seven sheep may be kept on one
acre in the best manner. Sheep are fed with profit in Eng-
land, the whole of Great Britain and Ireland may be in-
cluded in this name, a*nd equally in France and Germany,
on land worth, and paying interest or rent on, a value of five
hundred dollars an acre; and the reason for it is the skillful
methods of feeding, of which the growth of root crops is the
chief staple element. This we will say, with the strongest
emphasis, is the key to complete successful keeping of sheep
on farms.

Sir J. B. Lawes— the first agricultural experimenter in
the world— in his most complete reports of his work during

140 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

more than fifty years, proved that sheep may be fed with a
profit of fifty per cent more than cattle. For the food con-
sumed the sheep laid up an increase of live weight of twelve
per cent, while cattle increased only eight per cent. So that
eight and a half pounds of food increased the weight of
sheep as much as twelve and a half pounds of the same
food increased the weight of cattle. The wool is thrown
in as a bonus to the feeder of sheep, and this we may believe
will pay the cost of the feeding. So that the farmer who
feeds a flock of sheep over a Winter will make fifty per cent
more weight of the same food as compared with cattle, and
have the fleece besides. The lamb will offset the calf if it
does not largely exceed the profit in it, for there may be
seven lambs reared for one calf, and this without the labor
of attending to the calves. The lambs feed themselves. Be-
sides the profit from the lambs comes in within a few
months, while the calf takes more time to mature.

FEEDING FOR LAMBS.

One of the most profitable methods of feeding a flock
is to purchase a bunch of ewes in the late Summer, or earlier
if possible. By good feeding, while on the aftermath of a
clover field, with a run on a grain stubble, until the Winter
sets in, and then feeding on clover hay and a small allow-
ance of oats, and a still smaller feed of corn, with a few
chopped roots, and a change of the grain to bran occasion-
ally, making use of a cheap, simple feeding shed, in a dry
yard, a flock of sheep bred to a pure Cotswold rani has made
a profit of one hundred and fifty per cent on the money in-
vested for something less than a year. It was a small ex-
periment made by the author to test this matter of profit to
the farmer made in this easy way. The value of the large
quantity of manure left in the shed when the sheep went on
to a second year clover field, in the Spring, is not counted
in these figures, but it was well worth more than a dollar
a head for the ewes kept. The sheep were common natives,
and had they been a better lot the profit might have
been larger. But it is an easy matter to procure a lot of
picked native sheep from the passing droves, when it would
not be so easy to procure better bred ewes. The better bred
lambs, however, made the most of the profit, and proved the

FEEDING FOR LAMBS. 141

great advantage of crossing such a rani on a flock of the
common natives.

The Winter feeding of a small flock may thus be made
the most profitable part of the farmer's work. There is a
wide scope for it anywhere, and if the lambs thus reared are
kept for a permanent flock, an equal profit might be made
every year. Some of the most successful farmers make a
practice of feeding sheep in this way to consume the rough-
ness of their crops, the straw, the corn fodder, or these made
into ensilage, with a moderate allowance of grain. It has
been found a good practice to cut the green corn stalks taken
from the usual husking and mixing them in a silo with the
straw. The fermentation the mass undergoes makes a large
quantity of the otherwise indigestible food available, and ex-
perience has shown that in this way the cost of the mixed
feed need not be over one dollar a ton, while it is worth
for feeding at least ten dollars. Indeed the silo has solved
for the farmer the question of profitable feeding of sheep;
for if one acre of silage will feed one cow one Winter, it will
feed seven sheep, and this is but one half as much as has
been shown to be easily possible for a dairyman to do with
his cows. Ihis fact may interest thousands of farmers who
are asking if the feeding of sheep on a farm can be made
profitable. There is not a locality in the whole Union, in-
eluding our neighboring enterprising Canadians, in which
this exceedingly profitable business may not be carried on
with entire success. It need only be done with caution,
with those inexperienced, to begin with a small flock and
feel their way to larger enterprise in good time.

This enterprise is well adapted to the restoration of worn
down lands, on the thousands of farms in the Eastern part
of the Union. Any of these farms may be made by moderate
fertilizating, to produce fodder corn, oats, rye, and turnips,
with many of several easily grown green feeding crops,
such as oats and peas, rape or millet. The feeding of those
of these crops best adapted to it by the sheep on the ground
will afford an adequate manuring to yield a good crop of
corn, and double the yield of the first crops grown the first
year. This is a far easier enterprise, and less laborious and
freer from risks than the dairy. It costs less money to start,
and brings its rewards in less time.

142

THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

TABLE OF NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FOODS.

100TH AIR DRY MATTER.— GRASSES GREEN.

Kinds of Fodder.

UJ

£

Protein.

Carbo-Hydrates,
Starch, Sugar, etc.

1

. £

^Nutritive Ratio.

Common Vetch

4.53
7 03

25.14
24-50

35.26
46 06

13 06
11 15

1-1.24
1 20

Clover full bloom

4 38

17 50

47 42

14 55

1 — 30

Alfalfa young

3 88

27 30

38 80

12 00

1 16

Alfalfa in bloom

2 63

15 75

47 94

9Q 78

1 — 3 2

Beans, ripe

1.93

25.09

59 15

3 43

Bean pods and stalks dry
Peas early green

1.36

55

3.50
4 37

58.74
14 48

21.60
1 66

Peas, dry

2 52

19 91

65 98

7 98

Cow peas

4 63

17 19

49 11

California broom grass

2 30

8 50

42 67

22 91

— 5 3

Bermuda grass .

1 83

9 16

46 06

20 16

— 52

Southern crab grass

2 42

8 38

36 59

27 50

— 4 7

Texan Millet

2 12

4 70

47 07

23 16

—10 5

2 43

5 37

56 50

17 87

11 0

Red top

1.97
3 43

9.09
7 50

48.53
48 10

21.01

22 42

— 5 6
6 9

Buffalo grass

2 67

7 35

49 58

19 41

— 71

2 59

6 90

49 87

21 98

— 7 6

Wild oat grass

3 02

6 84

46 80

25 98

— — 7 3

Kentucky blue grass

2 45

9.89

44.96

23.94

— 4 8

Orchard grass, ripe

2 99

7 21

46 92

21 35

— 70

Red top, young

3.50

12.25

50.03

19.47

— 4.4

Red top, early bloom ... .

3 38

11 88

50 84

20 20

— 4 6

Timothy, voung

4.20

11.55

50.05

18.35

— 4.7

Timothy, full bloom.
Orchard grass youn^

3.35
3 88

9.28
15 05

55.22
47 94

20.55
17 68

— 6.3
— 3 4

Orchard grass, full bloom

3.03

8.92

50 32

23 78

1— 6.0

Green leaves of trees in wood^

4 50

15 60

45 61

39 00

Dwarf Essex Rape

3.80

12.86

42.47

18.96

Mixed meadow hay

2 50

9 4

41 00

26 00

— 80

Red Clover

2 20

12 3

38 20

26 00

— 59

Alfalfa

2 56

16 00

31 6

26 00

— 2 8

Vetch

2 35

19 80

28 5

23 40

— 23

Peas and oats in bloom

3 6

14 3

34 2

25 2

— 40

Timothy

3 0

9 7

45 8

22 7

8 1

Wheat straw

1 20

4 6

36 9

40 0

1 — 45 8

Barley straw

1 40

3 3

32 5

43 0

1 40 0

Oat straw
Corn stalks

2.00
1.00

4.0
3.0

36.2
36.7

39.5
40.0

1—29.9
1—34.4

Wheat

1 4

4 3

34 6

36 0

1 — 24 0

Oats .

1 5

4 o

36 2

34 0

1 23 0

Vetch Hulls

2 0

8 5

33 5

33 0

1 — 8 9

Bean Hulls

2.0

10.5

34 0

33.0

1— 7.4

NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FOOD.

143

TABLE OF NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FOODS.— (Continued.)

Roots.

Water.

d

1

Protein.

03

il

11

°w

1

s

Nutritive
Ratio.

Mangels

88 0

0 1

1 i

9 i

0 9

1-93

Sugar beets

81 5

0 1

1.0

15 4

1 3

1—17 0

Ruta-bagas

87 0

0 1

1 3

9 5

1 0

1-83

Turnips

92 0

0 1

1 1

5 3

0 8

1 58

Potatoes
Sweet potatoes

75.0
69.7

0.2
0.3

2.1
1.9

20.7
26.3

1.1
1.7

1—10.6
1—31.9

Grains, Dry Matter.

t/i
1

jj

£

Carbo-
Hydrates.

1

£

Nutritive
Ratio.

Wheat

1 5

13 0

66 4

3 0

1 58

Rye

2 0

11 0

67 4

3 5

1—70

2 5

10 0

63 9

7 1

1 79

Oats

6 0

12 0

55 7

9 3

1— 6 1

Corn

5 5

10 5

57 i

5 5

1 86

Buckwheat

1 5

9 o

58 7

15 0

1—74

Peas

2 0

22 4

52 5

6 4

1 29

Beans

1 6

25 5

45 9

9 4

1—23

1 3

21 6

49 3

4 7

1 27

lyinseed

37 0

20*5

19 6

7~2

Acorns, ripe

2.8

3.5

46 6

7.8

1—17

Sunflower seeds .

23 6

13 0

23 9

28 5

1—72

Chestnuts, fresh

1.6

4.3

41.3

2.0

1-11.50

Apples and pears

0 4

11 8

4 3

1—43 0

Pumpkins

0.6

0.6

6.5

2.7

1—18.4

Squashes

0.2

0.9

9.1

1.0

1—15.8

PRODUCTS PURCHASABLE.

3 5

12 9

59 1

8 1

- 5 6

Pea bran
Pea hulls

1.5

2 5

13 1
8 0

37.8
43 7

31.1

30 5

— 5.3
- 9 2

Sugar beet pulp

0.2

1.8

18.3

6 3

—13 9

Potato starch pulp

0 1

0 8

11 7

2 0

—17 4

Corn starch meal

2 0

3 6

18 8

3 4

1 74

Palm nut cake
Oatmeal refuse

14.8
2 3

13.5
7 1

41.0

57 9

18.8
19 3

1— 7.0
1- 97

Linseed oil meal

2.3

33.2

38.7

8.8

1— 1.4

The preceding table is worthy of special notice and study.
A large number of these substances may often be purchased
very cheaply, and some are especially valuable for fattening
sheep or lambs. Such are, of the grains, oats, in the first
place, which it will be seen is worth more than corn, while
this grain is worth more for the flesh making elements,
the protein than the corn. The various kinds of pulse, peas,
etc., are seen to be especially rich in flesh-making elements,
and thus are valuable for feeding to lambs when growing

144 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

fast, and as well for fattening sheep, as the protein tends
to make a more useful meat than fat, and the tendency now
is to favor meat rather than a load of fat on the carcass.
Turnips and ruta-bagas, among the roots, are seen to be
well balanced food, and being completely digestible without
waste, are not only of superior value for this in itself, but as
well to aid in the digestion of other and less digestible food,
of which it has been already mentioned that less than half
is digestible, in some of them.

It is also worthy of notice that the products of forest
land are especialty valuable for the leaves, as well as for
the young twigs, which are greedily eaten by sheep and
form naturally the bulk of the food in wooded localities.
The author's experience goes to show that the fine brush of
trees, especially of the small growth, may be cut and
stacked with great advantage for the Winter browsing of a
flock, which will feed at a stack of this stuff in preference
to the hay, or even sheaf oats. This fact is of value to
Southern shepherds where so much land is left to grow up
with brush, when throvnu out as old fields for a resting
spell, to slowly recover its lost fertility. The very common
sassafras is especially palatable to sheep, which will browse
down quite large shrubs of it to the roots. The tonic, as well
as nutritive character of the sassafras, is excellent, and
tends to keep the sheep in the best of health. Sheep have
been kept the whole Winter in the South on this kind of
feeding, leaving hay for the small growth of the old fields
and spending the most of the time in the thicker woods
rather than pasture on the open ground, although the grass
may be quite abundant. The sweet potato, too, is eagerly
eaten by sheep, who will eat off the vines when they are
fully grown, thus saving a large quantity of excellent pas-
ture in a season when it comes in very acceptably. South-
ern shepherds, too, may follow the common method in
England, and the European countries, where root crops, cab-
bages, rape and the so-called collards— a kind of cabbage
which grows up to a tall plant — are growrn as the usual Win-
ter feeding MI the open fields. The really drier climate of
the Southern Winter, as compared with that of Europe, too,
adds greatly to the advantage of Southern shepherds who
by growing these crops will be able to furnish their flocks

RULES FOR WINTER FEEDING. 145

with the cheapest and most healthful out-door feeding, and
at the same time improve their lambs without cost and even
at a profit.

The cow-pea is one of the best of these green pasture
plants for the South and middle States, and if gathered
the vines make excellent hay. It may be sown in the
corn or cotton, and pastured as long as it remains green.
The dry grain of it is seen to be equally valuable as the pea
or the bean. The common white bean is another neglected
crop, for a farm flock, as may be suggested by a reference
to the nutritive value of the pulse, as well as all its products.
When made into hay with the grain in it, all the pulse tribe
furnish the richest kind of feed for Winter use, both for a
store flock, as well as for fattening.

Pumpkins and squashes are also not only nutritious
food, but healthful, and if chopped may be fed with much*
advantage. The common impression to the effect that these
gourds are undesirable on account of their undue action on
the kidneys, has no foundation in fact, and the seeds are
especially useful as a vermifuge.

RULES FOR WINTER FEEDING.

It is not altogether the kind of food given to a flock but
quite as much how it is given, that counts to the full benefit
of the shepherd. The sheep is a peculiar animal, not
naturally of a tender character, but due of the hardiest
races. Under domestication there is no other animal that
calls for the most careful management of the owner than
this. It is apt to fret, and soon fall into a poor condition,
unless fed at regular intervals, aaid these so distributed as
to secure the full digestion of the food. Once the sheep
are left unattended to, they become dissatisfied, and food is
wanted to make up for the loss occasioned by the nervous
excitement thus produced. The experiment has been tried
with two flocks, one* fed at six in the morning with strict
regularity, every day, at intervals of four hours, making
the last feed at six in the evening, when the racks are filled
for the night. At the third feeding the grain food is given,
the other three feeds being of coarse fodder, for the first,
and fourth, and hay for the second. This flock made on the
whole fourteen pounds of live weight for the average all

146 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

through, over a flock fed three feeds without any attention
to regularity.

At the first feeding the racks are cleaned out, and the
waste scattered over the floor. The fodder given may be,
as in the case under notice, of fodder corn, sown in drills
three feet apart and the seed six inches apart in the drill,
the variety sown being the Narragansett sweet corn. A
large majority of the stalks had ears on them, and the fod-
der cured in small stacks or shocks was bright and green.
There was no waste in the feeding of this, and the sheep
required no grain during the feeding of this fodder.

At the second feeding, bright oat straw, at times sheaf
oats, was given in the racks, which were well cleaned up by
the sheep. The third feeding as long as the corn fodder
lasted, was given of this, and the racks were filled up with
clover hay for the night. After the appetite of the sheep
had become well measured by experience, there was prac-
tically no waste, and this should be made an important part
of the management, there being much cheaper litter than
good clover hay.

But since the silo has been in use, the feeding of silage
has been found quite as safe and profitable for sheep as for
cows. Indeed its use has been so remarkably successful
that doubtless for the farm sheep, as well as for the flocks
on the ranges, this provision will be the common practice.
The old, but wofully mistaken impression of the tenderfoot
shepherd, that sheep would feed themselves on the open
range, during the Winters, has brought many a flock and
its owners to sudden grief, and this has become so generally
known that £bis sometime practice, not of supporting, but
really of destroying a flock, is now a thing of the past, no
more to be thought of. The ranch sheep must be fed as the
farm flock is, for there is no pro-fit in stopping the growth
of a sheep as well as its fleece, for some months, and it must
be the custom to provide the Winter feeding precisely the
same as for the farm flock. The rustler among sheep is not
a profitable animal, and only the well kept flock will pay a
profit to its master. Consequently there will be fenced fields,
on which such crops as will suit each location and the
climate of it, must be grown for the Winter feeding, and the
silo must be an adjunct to this system.

FEEDING CROPS FOR SHEEP.
FEEDING CROPS FOR SHEEP.

147

Necessarily the crops grown by the shepherd must be
suited to the special climate of each locality. There are loca-
tions in the South and Southwest, in which it may be possible
for the flocks to subsist on the natural growth, but the pre-
diction may be easily hazarded that the culture of feeding
crops will be the rule in spite of the existence of natural
herbage, for the Winter feed of the flocks, not only on the

ALFALFA SEEDLING.

farms but on the ranges. Indeed, where land is cheap or
costs nothing, being yet public property, it will still be the
most profitable method to feed flocks, quite half the year,
on grown crops. Fortunately there is so extensive a list of
crops that will succeed well, some in one locality and some
in others, that there will be no difficulty, and very littl-
cost, in providing the required feed. For one of the mo= i

148 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

valuable fodder crops for sheep, the well known alfalfa
may be grown in a dry climate, where clover — its near rela-
tive—does not succeed. Under good culture alfalfa will
yield several cuttings in the season. In Italy, where it is
known as lucern, it is extensively grown for feeding, and is
cut several times in the Summer, making a growth" of
eighteen inches between the cuttings. This great growth is
procured by irrigation, and the same practice prevails in
Chili, in South America, where it is called alfalfa, the Span-
-ish name of it. The plant has been introduced into Cali-
fornia, where it thrives exceedingly on the tule lands, or the
flat river bottoms, without actual irrigation, and as it is
naturally used to dry, warm climate, it is one of the best
feeding crops for sheep, either for ordinary pasture or for
feeding in racks or in plots, separated by hurdles. This
plant will grow where clover will not, and is one of the most
valuable for the shepherd. The seed is sown on well
plowed land at the rate of fifteen pounds to the acre, pref-
erably in drills, so that the land may be cultivated itn the
early growth of the crop. Oiuce established it lasts twelve
or more years in the ground.

Winter rye is a useful plant for feeding sheep. On good
land it may be made to furnish pasture all the Winter, ex-
cept of course when it is covered by snow, and even then
the sheep will reach it if the snow is not too deep, by paw-
ing off the snow. For this purpose the seed should be
sown thickly, at least three or four bushels to the acre,
and as early as possible to get a good seeding. It will
afford pasture if desired only for this purpose, until the
corn is planted, when the refuse turned under makes an ex-
cellent fertilizer. Where the snow falls lightly, and stays
but a short time, this crop will be found one of the best
for this use, and cheaply grown. It is said that this crop
will continue to grow and make good pasture for two or
three years, .as it will not mature unless it forms seed
heads. But this is stated, not on personal information, but
on current report. It is a common practice on farms to pas-
ture this and some other crops by penning the sheep in
hurdles, or any kind of light portable fences. Hurdles are
made in a simple manner in the way showrn further on, of
split saplings of chestnut or other woods, and the pointed

FEEDING CROPS FOR SHEEP. 149

ends of the stakes are driven into the ground by a mallet,
the ends of the hurdles being tied together by wires twisted
around the stakes. It is a small work to move a lot of these
hurdles, as the ground is eaten off, by a wagon, and setting
them up the desired space ahead. Such a crop as rye, for
instance, is doubled in useful value by the use of this kind
of fence. It has been stated by that renowned scientist,
Liebig, that rye so fed one year will become a biennial as
mentioned above and produce a crop of grain the next sea-
son, all the more productive by the well known manurial
ajid fertilizing effects of pasturing land by sheep. Indeed,
the use of a flock for the improvement of land by this
pasturing is one of the most effective methods of scientific
culture.

The vetch or tares is a valuable pasturing crop. It is a
hardy plant, thriving as far North as Eastern Canada, and
having as wide a range as clover.

There are two varieties of this plant, one is the Win-
ter vetch, the other the Spring vetch. This is a plant of the
pea family, and is quite as hardy as the pea. We have a
large variety of this plant growing wild and in the South-
ern mountain regions, where it is frequently found in the
open woods growing three feet high, and completely cover-
ing the ground. It has been grown as far North as the
neighborhood of Montreal, and as far West as that fertile
tract of territory between Lake Erie and Huron. It ranks
as a fodder plant equally with red clover, but yields quite
twice as much feeding as this plant. It thrives best on a
clay soil, and the soil needs to be thoroughly well worked,
the surface for four or five inches deep being made as fine
as possible to ensure the best growth. Doubtless the
Spring variety will be the better kind for the Northern part
of this continent, but it may be sown with safety South of
Virginia. It may be sown with Winter or Spring rye by
which the vines are upheld, and thus make a more econom-
ical feeding crop than when sown alone, with less waste
by trampling of it by the sheep. But where the lambs are
folded on it within hurdles, there is little waste in this way.
This crop is exceedingly valuable on farms having a some-
what worn soil, the nitrogenous character of the plant tend-
ing to enrich it as riinch as a large quantity of manure would

150 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

do, the droppings of the sheep adding considerably to
this enrichment oi' the soil. When this crop is fed to lambs,
fattening for sale, it is desirable to feed a small ration of
corn to balance the nutritive elements of it, on account of
the large amount of protein in it. The amount of seed is
two bushels per acre, and. the best method of sowing is by
drills twelve inches apart.

Peas and oats sown together, is another excellent forage
crop for feeding on the laud, within hurdles, and it has
also an excellent result in the soil, improving it greatly,
and putting it in fine condition for wheat following it in the
Fall. The quantity of seed to be sown is two bushels of
oats and one and a half of peas. Seeding by the drill is
the best method, but if sown broadcast, which may be done,
the peas should be sown first, and covered by the plow four
inches deep, and the oats then sown and lightly harrowed in.
This crop is one of the best for all purposes, for green fod-
der, as well as for ripening, when it is cut and fed with the
grain, or may be thrashed and the straw fed, while the
grain is fed separately. This feeding is precisely what is
needed for the full feeding of store ewes in lamb, as well as
for fattening with the addition of four ounces of linseed-oil
meal per day to each sheep.

Rape has become exceedingly popular with the most ad-
vanced sheep farmers of late. During the past three or
four years it has been made the subject of many experi-
ments at the various stations where it has been mostly fed
to feeding lambs in preparation for the market. The Min-
nesota Station has given the most thorough attention to this
subject, having fed a large number of lambs for market on
this crop. The Spring variety has been used, the Winter
kind being better adapted to a less rigorous Winter climate.
This variety may be made especially useful in the South,
where it will >vithstand the Winter and furnish early feed-
ing, so that the land may be plowed for cotton or corn, as
a following crop. Like all this class of plants, it needs a
fertile soil, and the best kind of culture. Three to five
pounds of seed to the acre is used, being preferably drilled
in rows fifteen to eighteen inches apart as the land may be
less or more fertile, the wider space being the best for tho
richer soil on account of the heavier growth. Being a deep-

FEEDING CROPS FOR SHEEP. 151

rooted plaiiit it easily recovers after having been fed down,
and the improvement of the laud for a succeeding crop is
well worth all the cost of it. .

On the most fertile soils thirty inches between the rows
has been found the most desirable, the plants meeting in
the rows and completely covering the ground. It requires
the whole ground to itself, the dense growth quite prevent-
ing grass seed from growing. Indeed, on the farm where
sheep are kept for the improvement of the land it is grown
with this second purpose, as well as for the feeding of the
stock. There is no other crop which goes so far in this
way to verify the common adage about the golden foot of
the sheep, for it is most profitable in both ways. It shapes
the land so densely by its thick and rapid growth that
weeds have no chance to survive, and making a weak growth
are smothered in their infancy, as it were, and are
completely exterminated. The culture of the laud as well,
is an excellent preparation for the succeeding crop, and thus
the keeper of sheep, if he will, as the saying goes, kiW two
birds with one stone.

It is rapid in its growth. At two months after sowing it
is ready for feeding down or for cutting. The illustration
here given shows a two months old plant, taken from
nature by the truthful camera. Of course cutting and feed-
ing in racks is the most economical method of feeding,
although somewhat more laborious than to have the lambs
or sheep gather it for themselves, and while the waste
of the crop left after the folding on the land goes to add
a valuable manure to the soil, yet by feeding it off the
ground we get all the waste left by the flock in doubtless a
better and more easily available form, and the return from
the feeding in addition.

The illustration is taken from a bulletin of the Wis-
consin Station, where an experimental crop was grown for
feeding lambs for market. The crop was grown on land in
ordinarily good condition, but the yield made goes to show
the importance and value of this crop to the shepherd of all
branches of his pursuit. A third cutting was made, which
yielded on October 22nd, 2,218 Ibs., the total yield from this
plot amounting to 7,669^ Ibs., on one-tenth of an acre, thus
making over thirty tons to the acre.

152 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

An easy way to make this crop most useful is to grow it
adjoining a grass pasture so that the green stuff may be fed
in racks on the grass, and by moving the racks a little every
day get the whole of the pasture evenly manured by the
droppings. This is far more economical than folding the

TWO MONTHS' OLD RAPE PLANT.

sheep on the rape, by which a good part of it is trampled
down, and goes to waste as feed.

In this experiment the rape was fed to hogs, and steers,
as well as to the lambs, proving it to be equally valuable
for this use as well. Unfortunately it is not adapted for the
silo, at least it has not been thought to be, but as the Ger-
man and French beet growers, for making sugar, ensilo the

FEEDING CROPS FOR SHEEP 153

leaves of the crop, it is scarcely to be doubted that this
might as easily be subjected to this process as well. As
rape is a close relative to the cabbage, which is kept in
good condition through the Winter In pits, as will be de-
scribed in a succeeding page, the experiment might reason-
ably turn out to be successful and this crop saved for Win-
ter feeding. As rape contains nearly one pound of sulphur
in a ton of it, and this is an indispensable ingredient in
wool, in which there is more than three and a half pounds
of it in a hundred pounds of the wool, this is a matter of
great importance in regard to the feeding of sheep for the
lleece, for it is a rule, in both plant and animal growth,
that every element in the composition of any product must
be fully supplied as regards all of them, or the product will
be deficient in quantity or in quality in proportion. The
wool grower thus must see that every element of the
fleece must be supplied or the weight or quality must be
reduced.

This plant has been extensively tried and has been
found valuable and successful everywhere from Minne-
sota and Wisconsin, to Missouri, Kansas, Arizona, in the
Southern States (where the WMnter variety may be grown)
and all through the middle States and Canada. Several
communications to The American Sheep Breeder, from cor-
respondents have been published in that Journal, testifying
to the value of this crop. From these, two are selected as
showing the value of this crop. One from Kansas, says:

"I live 80 south and 60 miles east of Kansas City. On
April 6 I sowed broadcast 10 pounds of Dwarf Essex rape
seed on a little less than two acres of groumd. Notwith-
standing we had a very cold, backward Spring, it came up
and grew rapidly. On May 20, at which time it was fully
knee high, I turfted 96 head of ewes and lambs on it, only
for a short time at first, but afterwards allowing them 1o
eat their fill of it twice a day, when they would be turned
back on grass pasture. At the time I turned the sheep on
it it was very dry, and continued so for two weeks, yet it
has furnished feed for the 96 head for three weeks, and it is
not all eaten up yet. I find that it should be sown on rich
soil, where the surface is free from clay, for good results.
One corner of my patch was a clay soil, and in that corner

154 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP

the rape did practically no good, but where the soil was
rich I never saw anything grow faster or more luxuriant. It
was an experiment with me, as I had never seen any of it
before, but I am satisfied that rape is a success in Southwest
Missouri. Shall sow a twelve-acre cornfield with it next
mouth for fall pasture."

The other is from Ohio, and runs as follows:
"I sowed 22 acres of corn writh rape sown ahead of the cul-
tivators at last cultivating, July 15th, and made an immense
lot of feed. Turned the lambs in the cornfield the latter
part of August, and kept them there most of the time until
after the corn was husked. I next turned in 52 ewes and 12
head of cattle until January 10th. Fed little else excepting
a light hay feed occasionally when the weather was too
rough to turn stock in the field. A year ago 1 advocated, in
the Sheep Breeder, one pound of seed to the acre for the
corn field. My second year's experience justifies my early
judgment. The thorough cultivation of the corn kills the
weeds and leaves the rape an uninterrupted growth in the
protecting shade of the corn where it makes a luxuriant
and bushy growth, much better indeed than when sown alone
in the open field. I think this the cheapest way to secure
a great lot of very valuable feed in the corn belt states. The
22 acres gave me 2,110 bushels of corn in the ear and from
150 to 200 tons of rape, the corn not in the least affected
by its companion crop of rape."

The latter is interesting as showing the value of this
crop grown in the way described, as a catch crop, as it is
termed, that is, one pushed in, as it were, between two
other crops, thus filling a space that would otherwise be un-
occupied, and not only providing, as is told in this plain
story, a valuable lot of feed, but of occupying land that
would otherwise have beeii idle and growing useless weeds.
One of the most important lessons a farmer can learn and
apply to his practice, is, that land should never be idle, but
always growing something of value for feeding to some kind
of stock, to make profit; and thus exemplifying the adage
taken for the motto of thisi work; and as well to show
how easily this double profit may be made, and to prove
another old saying (of Cicero), to the effect that "feeding
animals is the most important part of agriculture," and we

ROOTS. 155

may add that the sheep meets this sentiment more closely
than any other domestic animal.

ROOTS.

Roots of various kinds are one of the most valuable of
the succulent feeding crops for the flock. They are easily
grown, are exceedingly productive, yielding under good cul-
ture from twelve to thirty tons to the acre, and may be kept
when properly stored all the Winter; and some of them as
kite the next year as July. They are the most economical
feed for sheep, for one reason especially, which is that the
matter of them is perfectly digestible and there is no loss
by waste in this respect. They may be cheaply grown under
the right culture, which consists of a fertile soil well
manured, during the Winter, or liberally fertilized in the
Spring. Fall plowing is desirable as the second plowing in
the Spring thoroughly fines the soil, and mixes the decayed
manure— applied previously— with the soil. It is desirable
to give two harrowings, one immediately after the Spring
plowing, and the second in two or three weeks after,
and immediately before the seed is sown, so as to check the
growth of weeds as much as possible, and force a rapid
start of the young plants. This is especially desirable on ac-
count of the tender growth of them, and the slight root hold
taken on the soil, by which too early a disturbance of the
soil is injurious to the crop, if dry weather should occur.

Six pounds of seed is sufficient, but the drill should be
used for the seeding. For extensive culture, double drills
are used by which two rows are sown at once. The rows
should be from sixteen inches (for beets) to twenty-four or
thirty (for turnips or mangels-) apart, giiving ample room
for the use of the cultivator for working the crops. It is es-
pecially necessary that the seed should be fresh, especially
as to the beets and mangels, the capsules in which the seed
is enclosed frequently being eaten into by mice, and the
small seed within them being eaten out. This is frequently
the cause of thin seeding, by .which a large part of the crop
may be lost. The young plants are thinned out to twelve
inches in the rows for all the kinds except sugar beets,
which need but ten inches of space between the plants.
The extra plants are cut out with a sharp hoe, when the

156 THE DOMESTCC SHEEP.

growth is sufficiently strong to prevent the injury of others
to be left, by the disturbance of the soil about them.
For a small crop of an acre or two, the culture may be
made most conveniently by means of hand implements,
seed drill and cultivator, and the thinning of the plants
may be done most easily by running the hand cultivator
across the rows cutting out the plants in the ten inch spaces,
leaving four inches undisturbed with the plants thereon.
This saves much handwork and time otherwise spent. The
land needs to be clean at the start, made so most conven-
iently by taking a crop of corn previously, which sho.uld be
carefully kept free from weeds as a preliminary to this
following crop.

Before the plants meet in the rows, the leaves covering
the intermediate spaces, culture "may cease, and the crop
will take care of itself. When ready for harvesting the crop
is gathered in the following manner: With a sharp hoe,
ground to a fine cutting edge, one goes down a row chopping
off the tops and drawing them into the row in which he is
walking. He returns up the next row cutting the tops in
the same way, thus gathering the tops of two rows into one.

Another goes through the rows following the first one,
and with a blunt, three-pronged hook, draws out the roots
and leaves them in the vacant row next to that in which
the leaves are gathered. Returning as before described, the
workman takes the next row7 leaving the roots with those
in the previous row. Thus there are double rows in the
field, one of the tops and one of the roots. It is best to do
this work when the land is dry, and the roots are clean
and free from excess of soil. The tops are gathered and
may be heaped in the field on high ground, where water will
not lodge, and covered, first with straw and then with soil,
sufficient to preserve them from a possible frost. The roots
are gathered in the same way and so protected until they
may be finally taken to a cellar or put away in pits in the
field. This is done by heaping them in piles of ten or twenty
bushels, and covering them with straw, and then with soil
sufficient to protect them through the Winter. Eight inches
of straw and the same of earth over this will serve to keep
them safely.

Roots improve by keeping in this way through the Win-

ROOTS. 157

ter, losing some of their moisture, and, ripening completely,
become more nutritious as the season advances. In feeding
them they should be sliced or pulped iiu a suitable machine
made for the purpose, and to be procured of the dealers in
farm implements. A very useful machine may be made
by any ordinary mechanic in the way here slicwu. The
frame consists of a receptacle for the roots on. the top; under
this is a wooden roller fitted into a round case; under this
roller is studded with chisel-shapes points of steel, set with
the bevel up and in rows three inches apart. These work in
between the other points set in the curved frame as shown
in the opened end of the machine. The space under the
roller is open to let the roots come in contact with these

ROOT PULPER.

pointed scrapers, which tear the roots into pulp as they are
drawn between the moving and the stationary pointed
chisel-edged scrapers; the pulp falling into the receptacle
beneath, whence it is shoveled into baskets to be carried
to the sheep which are fed in troughs. A crank handle is
of course fitted on the end of the shaft of the cylinder,
which is left exposed in the drawing to show the manner of
fitting the machine. By furnishing both sides of the outer
cylinder with these scraping stationary teeth the machine
may be worked either way. A full grown sheep will eat
twenty pounds of this pulp daily when fully fed.

The most desirable other roots are the common white
globe turnip for the first feeding, the ruta-baga for the
next feeding. Of the mangels, the long red is the most
productive, twenty to thirty tons per acre being easily pro-
duced under good culture. Lane's American sugar beet is
the preference of the author, who has grown as much of it
as of the long red mangels, and roots of twenty pounds each.

158 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

the sugar content of which has averaged twelve per cent,
thus making this root a most valuable one both for quantity
and nutritive value. Under the high culture of the best
English, and indeed some American farmers, the long red
mangel has produced fifty tons to the acre, and considerably
over at times. The yellow globe mangel is preferred by
some, but is not so easily grown as the long red variety,
which has made roots weighing seventy pounds each at
times.

ENSILAGE.

The introductioi of the silo made some twenty-three or
four years ago, and of which the first mention was made
by articles in the American Agriculturist by the author,
has practically revolutionized the Winter feeding of cattle,
and equally may do so for sheep. For as this bulky food is
specially adapted for ruminating animals, the sheep is
equally interested with the cows in this vast improvement
in the fodder supply. This term is fully justified by the fact
that silage will feed one cow per acre of land for a winter
under ensilage crops, at the least, and twice this is possible.
This being so, it follows that one acre of land should be able
to feed twenty-eight sheep a whole winter, taking the average
equalization of seven sheep being fed as easily as one cow.
But on the most reasonable figuring, these results may be
safely calculated upon.

One acre of good corh ensilage will yield fifteen tons,
or 30,000 pounds. Ten pounds a day will make a good ration
for a sheep, so that one acre will afford three thousand ra-
tions. Feeding two hundred days in the year there is a sup-
ply for fifteen sheep for a long Winter. A two hundred
pound sheep will eat one peck of roots a day, which is fifteen
pounds, and twenty pounds a day is heavy root feeding.
But roots have an average of about ninety per cent of
water in them, while ensila.ge has only an average of sixty
to seventy per cent and some times less than this. So that
we may figure on one-fourth less ensilage for a ration than
of roots, and this of course adds to the feeding value of the
ensilage.

The practice of ensilage is based on the fact that any
green fodder, solidly packed into an air tight receptacle, un-

ENSILAGE. 159

dergoes a process of fermentation, by which considerable
heat is produced. That in this development of heat a large
quantity of carbonic acid is formed, by the fermentation
of the moist vegetable matter. That carbonic acid, being
considerably heavier than air, it forces or lifts the air con-
tained in the silo among the fodder, with which it is filled,
quite out of the mass, and thus practically seals it against the
future entrance of air, and thus once the fermentation is com-
pleted the silage is preserved for an indefinite time. When
the author studied this matter of ensilage at one of the great
French sugar beet farms connected with a sugar factory,
the leaves of the beets were then being packed into a silo,
then n mere pit in the ground, as they had consisted of
during more than a century, or several of them, during
which they had been common in parts of Europe, especially
in Hungary, where they were used for preserving green
corn stalks. One of these pits was opened after having been
kept for three years. The leaves of the beets were taken
out and fed to the oxen by which the beets were drawn to
the sugar factory. And they were in the very best condi-
tion of preservation, only having a brown color, as the result
of the heat by which they were partly cooked. These leaves
were eaten with avidity by the cattle, and it was their
staple food for the year round. This ensilage was called
brown hay.

Since then these simple pit-silos were greatly improved
by the European farmers, especially by those of sufficient
means to build expensive stone structures, with cemented
pits at the bottom of them. But the Yankee — always ahead
of the world— soon improved on this process, which made
sour ensilage only, by securing perfect isolation from the at-
mosphere by which the acid of the silage was produced.
We owe the discovery of sweet ensilage to Prof. Miles of
the Michigan Agricultural College, by whom the completely
air tight silo was invented, and this discovery has been of
such importance to our agriculture as to have made the dis-
coverer entitled to the thanks, if not more substantial re-
ward, of the American people.

Since then the silo has been simplified, and made more
useful, the device of the round or tub silo having been the
last addition to the process of ensilage. This silo is by far

160 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

the most economical and sensible. It is a mere circular tank
of any size that may be desired, made of two-inch staves
fitted together as a barrel is, by beveling the joints and bind-
ing the staves tightly together by strong iron hoops provided
with screw bolts by which the bands are drawn together.

It is an easy matter to construct a silo of this kind in
this way, and much better and cheaper than the ordinary
square or oblong one. As the principle of the construction
is the same under all circumstances, only this kind will be
described.

This principle is that the silo must be free from moisture
and entirely air proof. The principle on which the silage
is made is that it should be packed into the silo as tightly as
possible, so that as little air may be included among the
silage as can be avoided. The silage should preferably be
cut into small pieces or shredded, to secure this indispen-
sable compactness. Under whatever circumstances a silo
is made, or used, these indispensable conditions must be
secured.

The round or tub silo is made of narrow staves six inches
wide, and two thick. The edges of these are beveled to
the necessary angle to make an exact fit of the edges of the
staves, precisely as is done in making a tub or barrel.
It will be evident that each side of each stave should have
just such an angle or bevel as will fit tightly and evenly
along the edges. The most convenient size for keeping
the ensilage is fifteen feet diameter, which will make
it forty-five feet in circumference, or as. near this as is
practicable. There will then be ninety staves in the circle,
and as there are three hundred and sixty degrees in a circle
it follows that four degrees must go with each of the ninety
staves. This equally of course makes two degrees of bevel
on each edge of the stave. Any one, even if little skilled in
carpenter work, will be able to lay off this bevel on the edge
of the staves, and1 they are then ready for setting up.

Necessarily the foundation is of the greatest importance,
for this must be water and air tight. It is best made of
cement in the shape here shown. The foundation should be
dug out two feet or so but it must be made in dry ground,
otherwise it is well to lay two rows of drain tile across it
to avoid any burst of water up through the bottom.

ENSILAGE. 161

The bottom and the side of it are then cemented with
water lime, and three parts of sharp, cleaai sand, laid at
least three inches thick and up the edge and under the sill,
which should be safely bedded in the cement, or well mixed
mortar of lime and sand, with an equal quantity of the

cement with the lime. The
sill may be eight inches wide
and three thick, with a second
one laid on this four inches
narrower. To secure the foun-
dation a bolt is built in the
concrete or cement, as shown,
with a broad washer on the
bottom of it, and this bolt
g=3===gs=5£~>^. y should pass through both the
timbers of the sills, as shown,

FOUNDATION FOR A ROUND th(J gills be}ng gcrewed dowQ

by the nut on the top of the
upper one.

The staves made of dry, sound, 3x4 inch pine, are then
set up. They are supported at first by stays in the inside,
and outside as well, besides being bolted to the upper part
of the sill. The sills are of course cut in rounded sections,
to make the circle desired.

When the staves are set up and secured against falling,
a hoop of two-inch iron, half an inch thick, and bent to the
curve in a tire setter, as for a tire, is fitted on three feet
from the ground supported in any convenient manner in
their place, until they are drawn together by bolts and
flanges made at each end of each strip. As soon as the first
is fitted the next is put in place, four feet above the first
one, and secured in the same manner. This is done to the
top where the last one is placed four inches from it.

As the staves are set up, those where the doors will come
for emptying or tilling the silo are cut out of each stave in
such a way that, being held together by strong bands, they
will fit in and may be taken out as may be needed. Or
they may be hinged if desired in any convenient way,
but opening inside.

The doors should come between the bands, so that they
do not interfere with them in any way. Of course the

162 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

doors must be carefully fitted so as to preserve the condi-
tions required in the silo.

A conical roof is put on, and the thing is complete. It
Is a desirable plan to build this silo in the corner of the barn
or feeding shed, so that the silage may be thrown ouf, and
two rows of doors, one outside for filling, and one i/uside for
taking out, may be put in for convenience of use. The roof
must of course be rain and snow proof. The outside should
be painted two coats of the iron paint.

FILLING THE SILO.

Corn grown, as mentioned previously, that is iln rows
three feet apart and spaced in the rows eight inches apart,
is the best crop for ensilage. It may be cut when the grains
are glazed or left to fully ripen, and if they are partly dry
it is in no way hurtful. If they have been nipped by a frost
or are too dry for the full degree of heating and fermenta-
tion, they should be wetted freely when they are put into the
silo, and trampled down as firmly as possible, especially
around the edge of the silo so as to force out as much of the
air as possible. It will be a saving of the top of the silage
if it is covered for a foot or two with dry chaff or cut
straw. This will absorb the dampness escaping as the
silage heats, and ferments, and save the top for a few inches
which would otherwise mold by the action of the escaping
heat and dampness.

Any green crop may be ensiloed. And it is a good way
to use surplus straw to cut it and pack it in with the green
stuff, either mixed or" in layers. Dr. Voelcker, in his experi-
ments made for the Royal Agricultural Society of England,
found that this mixture of straw, even in a barn mow, with
quite green clover or other similar stuff, in layers of a foot
of each, has been so favorably acted upon by the moist heat
that the whole has cured perfectly, and increased the straw
in feeding value to an equality with the clover. Thus by
this method, a commonly wasted product may be utilized
by the silo -with much economy. In taking out the silage
for use it is not necessary to cover the fresh surface, as this
has been cured so thoroughly by the heat of the silo as to
keep in good condition until it can be used for the feeding.

Sheep must not have sour food; but the little acidity

FEEDING LAMBS 163

occurring in a silo, even only moderately well managed,
is not injurious to them. The common ration of ten pounds
a day for a full grown sheep would be equal to seventy
pounds a day for a thousand pound steer or cow, so that
about six pounds a day for an average sheep will be gen-
eraly sufficient along with such dry food as hay or oat straw,
or any of the dry fodders. Too much silage is apt, as roots
will, tokeepthe sheep dirty on account of the looseness always
due to succulent food. Silage thus made, will havegrainenough
to make a full ration, without other grain food, except a
handful of bran to counteract any possible looseness of the
bowels.

FEEDING LAMBS.

The following letter from the facile pen of Jos. E. Wing
of Ohio, tells a pleasant and "ow*er true story" on this sub-
ject of feeding lambs. It appeared in the columns of the
American Sheep Breeder, quite recently, and doubtless
it will b^ read with interest and profit to all concerned:

"Apples of gold in pitchers of silver!" That is the pleas-
ing characterization of "words fitly spoken" made by one
Mr. Solomon some years ago. When is a word more fitly
spoken than when one man tells another that his honest
efforts are appreciated and his good intuitions recognized?
Thanks, kind friends, for your generous esteem, and thanks,
genial editors, for your rather unprofessional way of letting
one reader say kind things of another.

Let me see, "where was I at?" Well, when last I wrote
we could not turn in any direction on Woodland Farm
without seeing sheep and lambs, Mojntanas in the big barn,
ewes at the little barn and white-fleeced lambs playing in
the alley ways and munching their corn meal and bran in
their feeder.

Now they have all gone to Buffalo, the drafts have all
come back and gone to bank, and it is time to take account
of profits. For there are profits, this year, as nearly every
year, while we have not grown suddenly rich the balance
is on the right side of the ledger. We like to tell of the best
things. Our best was a small matter, little considered,
and given little time or attention and from which little was
expected. Its outcome was a surprise to us,

164 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

Here are the details:

21 lambs, weight 1280 Ibs, price $5.75 173.60

22 ewes, weight 2480 Ibs, price $3 60 89.28

24 fleeces 24.00

Expense— 24 ewes at $3 $72.00

5 tons hay 20.00

100 bushels corn 25.00

1 ton wheat bran 12.00

129.00

Balance profit

Two of these ewes died and I kept at home some of the
ewe lambs, so that the real profits are greater than these
figures, but these are the actual sales thus far, and there is
no guess work, as the ewes actually went with their lambs
to market, only I have guessed a little as to the amount of
hay and grain consumed, as they were fed along with the
other ewes that have not been sold, but I think that I have
allowed very liberally for the amount of food eaten.

Now it is literally true that this lot of stuff did not re-
ceive twenty minutes a day of attention. A self-feeder was
kept tilled with corn meal and wheatbranand to this the lambs
went at will, and the ewes were mainly fed 011 clover and
oat hay attid ear corn thrown to them in their hay mangers,
which are the ones that have troughs in combination. A
little oil meal was given the lambs and I think that it was
a decided benefit, and have not charged it to them, because
I am confident that I have charged them with too much of
other things, and I do not know just what amount of it they
ate. These lambs were dropped in March from common
ewes with a dash of Shrop blood in some of them and were
sired by our Dorset ram, Alan. They have made us
more money than the earlier lambs dressed at home and
sent by express to New York, when the trouble of dressing
and shipipng is taken into account.

If these profits are much less than sometimes reported,
let us remember that days of great profits on small trans-
actions are, perhaps, about over in this world.

I am sure that the fertility left on the farm by these
sheep, as by all our sheep, much more than paid for the
trouble of caring for them.

When the last of the fat lambs was on the car and be-
fore the draft could get back to vex us we threw our cares

FEEDING LAMBS. 165

and old overalls in the corner of the woodshed, gathered up
our fishing-tackle, blankets and "tarpaulin," raided the
wife's stores for a few loaves of bread, a hunk o' bacon, not
forgetting frying pan and coffee pot, and away for the rush-
ing stream and a few days of the dear old carnp life.

What a delight it all was! We felt like boys out of
school; the miles of lovely Ohio fields flew past, and before
nightfall our little tent was pitched by a great rock under
the green lindens, and across tLe tiny meadow of the glen
the river gurgled and splashed with constant soothing. What
a rest it was. How the tense and ragged nerves relaxed,
and the spirit ceased to chafe the flesh or reproach it for
lack of energy. What a sense of peace pervaded the rock-
walled glen. To lean against the cliff inspired one with
calm. Here was something changeless, something that one
could bet on, not up to-day and down to-morrow, like a con-
founded market. How we clambered up and down the
rocky trails wondering with the old wonder at the
deep pools of green water, at the fallen rocks
crowned with green shmbs and sturdy hemlocks. How we
caressed the clinging ferns, anchored each one in its rift of
stone. How we threw flies in the deep pools, each one hold-
ing a prodigy of a bass if only we could have "luck." How
we caught, at least some of them, and how we made the
dear old-fashioned camp fire and fried the bacon and fish
as in our younger days, and then the dear, weak, smoky,
old-fashioned coffee without cream, drank steaming hot from
tin cups, and the lying on our blankets under the stars,
the camp fire burning low, and the old memories of happier
days when the blood of youth coursed swiftly through our
veins. The jokes we told! The songs we tried to sing (with
voices cracked, some from calling sheep), and how we lay
in our tent awake long hours of the night listening to the
murmuring river and wondering why Mother Earth was so
much more solid-meated than she used to be, or our bones
so much nearer the surface, and then in the early dawn
how the little wrens called to each other along the cliffs and
the vireos and warblers and all the rest of the woods' crew
told their pleased expectations, and how we arose at sun-
rise and felt refreshed and glad that we were alive and that
we were on this dear, dewy, delicious green old earth! Oh,

166 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

brother shepherd, I assure you it will pay you to get away
from your work and your cares 11,0 w and then. Don t go to
the cities, either, reeking with bacteria and stale beer,
pervaded with avarice and bunco men. Why, I got home
yesterday, and am at least three years younger than I was
last week.

And, now what? Why, we will do it all over again, of
course, and try to do better. Already we have our first
loads of alfalfa hay in the barn and are planning to get 150
or more after it. And it shall be -cut early and the leaves
shall all be on it, and it shall be nicely cured and smell sweet
enough to scent niy lady's handkerchief. And the corn, too.
it has been dressed with many a load of manure from the
sheds, and when summer days come we shall keep the
ground loose and the weeds out and it will, I am sure,
grow and yield the big piles of white and yellow ears, and
every one of them almost shall slip down some lamb's
throat. For lamb feeding is our chosen profession, and no
tales of profits to be had from the feeding of cattle or swine
shall tempt us to "try our luck" at one thing or another.
No, the man wrho jumps after the departing train, is apt to
fall in the ditch rather than into the velvet-lined seat that
he desires. Lamb feeding may not be more profitable than
other branches of stock feeding, but it is not, on the whole,
less profitable and it is a science that is learned, generally,
at the cost of some dear experience. Nowr that I am a shoe-
maker, I shall stick to my last.

Lapt year, dating our year as we do from the day the
last lamb is sold, w?e fed 625 sheep and lambs for mutton
and kept besides something like 100 ewes of good blood with
their lambs. Besides this stock we had some 12 cows and
10 horses, and perhaps on the average 15 head of swine.
Except some summer pasture hired, Woodland Farm of 200
acres has fed all this stock and carried over this year some
40 tons of hay and 600 bushels of corn. Wre bought a few
tons of clover hay, but sold more than as much of other
hay. The careful saving and applying of manure did it.
Also each year we find the farm producing more of this
manure, and for all that I can see this increase will be con-
stant from year to year. That is, the more the farm is fed
the more it will produce, and the more sheep it will feed,

FEEDING LAMBS. 167

and the more we will have to feed the farm with, to feed
more sheep, to feed more acres of land, to grow more to
feed the sheep, and so on, to end — where? I care not how
far the process goes on. I get a small margin of profit from
each mouth that the farm and I fill.

What do we grow for stock food? Corn, clover, alfalfa
and oat hay.

What do we like best for a forage crop? Alfalfa. Our
land is not all dry enough or fertile enough to grow it. Next
and everywhere available comes red clover. Oat hay, if cut
when in bloom, is very good indeed amd will make milk
in ewes or fatten lambs. We seed our clover and alfalfa
with oats and mow for hay, and thus far have not failed
to get a good stand. We use no grain but corn for fattening,
but like oats for thoroughbred lambs or ewes.

The intensely practical character of Mr. Wing is in no
way clouded by his love of a pleasant rest, and it savors of
ancient times, when the shepherds rested under the shade
of a spreading beech, and sang songs and made love to the
shepherdesses, whose hands carried the crook, and whose
care for the tender lambs is set forth so picturesquely and
pleasantly in the old school book of the Latin poets, which
every shepherd boy should study, not only for the accurate
pictures of ancient shepherd life, but as well for the valua-
ble details of the good management of a flock. It may not
be out of place in these more serious and essentially prac-
tical pages, to recommend every shepherd, old or young,
to procure and study these ways of the old Roman shep-
herds, who certainly are able to tell us much of present in-
terest on the subject of the shepherd's pleasant ajid profita-
ble occupation. It brings us into love with a sheep.

It will be noticed that the figures given by Mr. WTing
include the original cost of the ewes in the account, and this
cost is of course to be added to the profit The experience
of the author in feeding lambs, goes to show that this state-
ment is really under the possible figures of profit, and it is
to be considered that to a farmer, the considerable quantity
of the best kind of manure made is quite sufficient to pay
well for the time and care spent in the keeping of a flock.

168 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

FEEDING LAMBS IN A CORN FIELD.

There are many wastes on a farm that may be gathered
up by a flock of sheep. All these count then to account of
profit. One of these wastes that is worth many dollars, not
only for the feed gained, but for the comfort and shade iin
the latter days of the Summer, when the sun's burning rays
bear hard on the wooly coats, is the sprouts from the roots
of the corn, the suckers as they are commonly termed.
These are eagerly gathered up by the lambs, newly de-
prived of the company of their dams, and being weaned.
These lambs wander in the comfortable shade, nipping here
and there, and feeding well on this agreeable and sweetly
succulent food. It is well to bell a few of the lambs, for
the old rule of the shepherd, careful against accident, to
"count your sheep at least once a day, and every time you
see them," and this soon becomes such a fixed habit that
one spontaneously complies with it without thinking of it, is
to be followed constantly. For one lamb or two may be-
come loose behind and the flies may blow them, and this is
so almost hopeless a case if neglected, that the lamb, or the
ewe either, may perish miserably before it is suspected,
becoming a living prey to those devouring pests. Lambs
on this account should invariably be docked when two
weeks old. This is done with the greatest ease, as well as
their emasculation at the same time, by the use of a pair
of sharp shears. The lamb is taken under the left arm and
held so that the skin, being drawn back, the tail may be
clipped off at one cut. Then the lamb being taken between
the knees and the scrotum being held conveniently is wholly
clipped off, the rather rough cut being a preventive of bleed-
ing. A pinch of blue-stone, finely powdered, carried in a
pouch at the shepherd's side applied to keep off the flies, and
stop any bleeding, and heal the wound, completes the opera-
tion, which is done several times in the time the lines are
written.

If the lambs bite one of the lowest ears of the conn it
will do no harm to it, and the owner will never miss it,

REARING HOUSE LAMBS.

Of late years a large market has been made in the large
cities for early lambs. Formerly these were not able to be

REARING HOUSE LAMBS. 169

produced before late in February or March, when at the
beginning of the business, it was easy to get ten dollars for
a forty pound lamb live weight. The demand for the
Easter festival first brought on this industry. The forward
ewes were highly fed at the end of Summer and coupled
in September, which is quite possible by high feeding, both
ewes and the rams, for both must be forced. The demand
has grown to considerable proportions of late years, and has
led to the use of Dorset ewes, as the lamb bearers; these
sheep having a habit of taking the ram at any time of the
year. The high prices paid will return the cost of the ewe
up to the time of selling the lamb, and for her feeding, atnd
a hundred per cent profit besides. This is well worth the
attention of all concerned, within two hundred miles of a
city, or indeed within twenty four hours of the market, as
the weather permits of this time for shipment and delivery.
So that nearly the whole of the Northern States, a large part
of Canada, and as much of the South, may be included in
the region in which this business may be carried on. The
Southern States may be especially favored, in this respect,
for lambs may be had in the open field, and fed and pre-
pared for market with far less cost than in any other part
of this continent, while in the colder North the more expen-
sive method of house rearing, sometimes with artificial
warmth, may be needed for the growing of the lambs.

It goes without saying that there is more profit in selling
a lamb at eight weeks old, than one at as many months.
And this is the most prominent fact in this case. The
method practiced is to breed the ewes (the Dorsets come
first in this choice of ewes) at the required time, and keep
them and the lambs in suitable houses, well provided as to
convenience and healthfulness, feeding them— forcing them
in fact— to the highest milk product by rich food, and if
needed by artificial warmth so that the lambs make a rapid
growth, and become fat for sale at the opening of the
market, when of course the first offered bring the highest
prices. The market opens a short time before Christmas,
when the first demand occurs among those who can wrell
afford all the luxuries of life. It is a fact to be considered
as indisputable, that it pays best to cater for this class of
purchasers, who spend their money without counting it,

170

THE DOMESTIC SHEEP

on the principle that "easy comes, easy goes." And of late
a good many flocks have been started to supply this increas-
ing demand, in all the large cities.

The kind of house required is one of good size divided
into a number of pens, in which the lambs are kept. It is
a lamb house in fact, for them alone, the lambs being put
in it with the ewes for a short time until the ewes are well
acquainted with their business, when they may be fed in
another house, or if not too costly a matter the ewes and
lambs may be confined in the same house. The pens are
arranged in rows, with broad alley between them. Here
the ewes are fed while the lambs are kept in the pens. The

drawing given shows a lamb house in which two hundred
lambs may be kept. The building is eighty by forty feet,
with an additional shed in the front, half the width, of the
main shed. It is scarcely to be recommended to undertake the
hot house system, with artificial heating, unless one is sure
of such a market for the lambs as will justify the cost of the
building, and heating apparatus, wrhich should be supplied
by steam rather than by any other method, on account of
the safety of it. The cost, however, is too great for the
ordinary lamb grower, whose products will sell later at a
less price, but with a far less cost and more profit. This
house will be found amply suitable for a Southern location,
where the temperature is never too severe for the safe rear-
ing of lambs coming even in December, or so much earlier
as to be sent to market in this month. A lamb is really a

REARING HOUSE LAMBS. 171

hardy animal, and if sheltered from the cold winds and rain
it will withstand a low temperature keeping warm and com-
forable by nestling together in their woolly coats.

In the house shown, there are two rows of pens for
lambs at one end, and a long pen for ewes with new-born
lambs which should stay with the dams a few days, until
fully hardened to the separation. This ewe pen is forty by
twenty feet, and has a hay rack around three sides. It will
hold a hundred ewes without crowding, by the use of the
adjacent space which is divided off from the rest of the
house by hurdles. This easy kind of fencing is shown by
illustration, and it may be moved about without difficulty and
set up by wiring the ends together by a loop. If set in
s-traight rows the lower ends of the stakes are pointed and
driven down int& holes made by an iron bar in the earth

floor. They may be set as
. fl TT p ( shown in one place in dou-

_JJ jj ^^^ ble rows, thus forming an

|| excellent feeding rack for
i hay. The shepherd will
II very soon find ways to

LK- • H n~~^ adapt the principle on

HURDLE. which this house is con-

structed to his special needs

and vary the arrangements to suit these. By providing feed
racks in the addition to the house, in the manner of a shed,
with a low sloping roof, a considerable addition may be
made to the capacity of the house.

At times it is necessary to hold the ewes for the lambs to
suck, and while it is generally the case that the shepherd
knows his sheep— by their complexion as one once paid— yet it
is desirable to mark them in some easy way. This is done
by numbering the ewes and their lambs with a red stamp
on the right ear, so that in case of need the ewe ajnd her
lamb may be recognized. The instinct of a ewe is so acute,
however, that she will easily find the lamb by the scent
of it. It is quite frequently the case, however, that a ewe
will be quite neglectful of the lamb, and to insure the due
attention to the lambs, is by far the most important part of
the shepherd's business. Ccaistant attention is the secret of
rearing early lambs if profit is expected.

172

THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

FEEDING G It ASS LAMBS.

When the lambs are weaned they must not be neglected.
Anything neglected brings all concerned to shame, as the
proverb says very truly. And a newly weaned lamb will be
a sorry object if treated with neglect. It is desirable to feed
the lambs before they are weaned, and while pasturing with
the ewes. Some little grain food, as chopped oats with as
much bran, should be given them in a creep in which a
shallow trough is kept with a moderate allowance of the

grain food. The creep is
a useful contrivance by
which the lambs may
squeeze themselves
through bars held by
springs, and on which
rollers are put to avoid
tearing the fleeces. The
rollers a r e arranged
with springs, and a slot
in which the ends slide,
so that they open under
the pressure of the
lambs, and close when they have passed through. Constant
watchfulness is needed to avoid the possible occurrence of
looseness of the bowels, which is an indication of indigestion,
and waste of food, but still more of a rapid loss of condition,
by which the growth may be set back a month or more,
thus destroying the profit of the feeding. A lamb must be
kept continually growing. It is this steady advance that
counts. Fits and starts, and frequent stoppage, must not
be permitted, and it need not be if due care is given.

An instructive record of the feeding of a large lot of
lambs is given by Mr. John E. Law of Colorado. He writes:
"Last winter I made something of a comparative test with
three classes of lambs— a good sample lot of- Mexican lambs,
a lot of native Colorado Shropshire lambs (bred by my
neighbor, J. A. Slayton), and my owrn native bred Colorado
Delaine Merinos. On Dec. 3d the whole number was
weighed up and put in pens of about 500 each :

A LAMB CREEP.

FEEDING GKASS LAMBS. 173

502 Mexicans, averaging 54V£ Ibs.

498 Second Merinos, averaging 43

499 Top Shrops, averaging 58

500 Top Merinos, averaging 52 1-5

WHICH LEFT A MIXED LOT OP

175 Mexicans, averaging 47 8-10

71 Merinos, averaging 32

242 Shrops, averaging 44

From this time on all the lambs had all the alfalfa hay
they could eat; and commending with a very light feed of
grain, the grain feed was gradually increased, so that by
January the three pens of large lambs were eating 4-5ths of
a pound per head per day, with the smaller lambs fed not
quite so much. By Feb. 1st the grain ration had been
increased, to about an average per day per head of 1 3-10
Ibs. for the top Shrops, 1 2-10 Ibs. for top Merinos and Mexi-
cans, and 1 1-10 Ibs. for each of the two lots of smaller
lambs. And by March, the feed was raised to 1 6-10 Ibs. for
top Shrops, 1 3-10 Ibs. for top Merinos and Mexicans, and
1 2-10 Ibs. for each of the smaller lots. This last amount of
grain was the ration fed until the lambs were marketed.
Through the whole feeding they had their grain three times
per day; and the grain was coi'n morning and evening, with
oats at noon, until Feb. llth, after which it was corn three
times per day.

From Dec. 3d to Jan. 4th, the Mexicans gained an aver-
age of 8 1-10 Ibs., the top Merinos 8 5-10, the Shrops 8 8-10,
and the second Merinos and mixed lot each 7 1-10 Ibs. The
gain from this date to Feb. 2d, was: Mexicans, 8 2-10 Ibs.;
top Merinos, 7 6-10; top Shrops, 9 6-10; 2d Merinos, 8; and
mixed lot, 9 Ibs. Feb. 2 to March 3d the gain was: Top
Mexicans, 7 5-10 Ibs.; top Merinos, 9 3-10; top Shrops, 13
9-10; 2d Merinos, 8 8-10; and mixed lot, 9 1-10 Ibs. The next
weighing was April 1st, which was just following several
days of stormy, wet, bad weather, and shows a less gain:
Top Mexicans, 7 7-10 Ibs.; top Merinos, 7 6-10; top Shrops,
8 3-10; 2d Merinos, 7 5-10; and mixed lot, 7 2-10 Ibs. This marie
a gain of from 32 4-10 for the second Merinos to 40 6-10 for the
top Shrops from Dec. 3d to April 1st— an average net gain,
for the whole lot fed, of 33 4-10 Ibs. Of the Shrops, 558
were sold in Chicago, April 14th, 421 of which aver-
aged 97 Ibs. and sold at $6.10, while 137 averaged 86
Ibs. and sold at $6— this being 15 cents above the price paid

174 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

for any Mexicans that day. The mixed lot was sold ill Chi-
cago April 26th, when the balance of the Shrops and the
small end of the Mexicans were sold separately, both bring-
ing ten cents below the top price paid for Mexican lambs
that day, while the extreme small end of the Merinos sold
very considerably below. April 27th, the second Merinos
were sold at 20 cents below the top price for lambs that day.

The top Mexicans and top Merinos were fed until May
15th, to which date from the first of April both lots made
an average net gain per head of 2-10 Ib. per day. The Meri-
nos were sold in South Omaha, April 17th, weighing there an
average of 89 Ibs., and bringing a higher price than had
been paid for lambs in that market before that day. The
Mexicans were taken on to Chicago, but would have sold
in South Omaha at 10 cents higher than the Merinos did the
same day. The Mexicans were sold in Chicago, May 20th,
averaging 89 Ibs., bringing 22 J/L> cents below the extreme
top price of the day, principally on account of their heavy
weight.

The average shrink of whole lot marketed from home
weights was a trifle under six pounds. In my experiment,
the Shrops made the greatest gain of all, while the Delaine
Merinos kept fully up to the Mexicans, with, as near as it
was possible, the same feed and care."

One point of interest in this record should not be missed.
This is that these lambs were cross-breds, and as a rule it
has been found that by making the right cross a considerable
gain may be made over that usual in the ewes used for the
cross. The choice of the rams for the crossing on the ewes
is therefore of the greatest importance in the feeding of
lambs.

EXPERIMENTS IN FEEDING LAMBS.

Some interesting experiments made in England in feed-
ing lambs may be noticed. Eight lambs were put in each of
eleven lots, and fed as here described, making the gain set
against each lot.

Lot 1. Consumed 231/* Ibs. of turnips per day, and
gained in fifteen weeks 251/{> Ibs. each.

Lot 2. Put on grass and fed Ibs. of turnips a day,
gained in the same time 26% Ibs. each.

POSSIBLE GAIN IN A YEAR'S GROWTH. 175

Lot. 3. Put by side of lot 2, and were shut up at night.
Fed half a pound of mixed linseed oil-meal and peas, daily,
ate in addition 201/L> Ibs. of turnips. Gain 33% Ibs. each.

Lot 4. Put on grass and fed one pound of mixed oats,
barley, and beans daily. In ten weeks ate 20 Ibs. of turnips
daily, and gained 2ti1/> Ibs. average.

Lot 5. Put in a sheltered paddock (a small grass lot)
and shut up in a shed 18 hours in the 24. Fed I1/! Ibs.
of the mixed grain a day, with 18% Ibs. of turnips daily.
Gain in ten weeks, 33% Ibs. each.

Lot 6. The same number of lambs were put in an open
grass lot, fed one pound of the mixed grain daily, with 24
Ibs. of Swede turnips. (Tain in eight weeks. 21% Ibs. each.

Lot 8. The same number of lambs put in a similar pad-
dock, witli an open shed in it, and were shut up at night.
Fed the same feed of grain with lot 7, ate 20% Ibs. of
turnips. Gain in eight weeks, 24 Ibs. each.

The principal item of interest in these tests i~ the
effect of shelter on the lambs. This goes to prove the state-
ment made in a ^previous chapter, to the effect that warmth
saves food, or its equivalent that the same food, or even less,
will make more gain in weight.

POSSIBLE GAIN IN A YEAR'S GROWTH.

An essay contributed to the volume of the proceedings
of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, gives the fol-
lowing statement of the growth of lambs during a series of
years in the months of a whole year from the w^eaning of
the lambs.

AVERAGE GROWTH FOR EACH LAMB.

April 9 pounds.

May 16

June 18

July 15

August 12

September 12

October 12

November 8

December 6

January 5

February 7

March 10

Total gain for the year 130 Ibs. live weight, for the aver-
age of the flock.

It is a fact that lambs in confinement, and restless under
the restraint, never make as much growth as those that are

176 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

contented. Thus it is always desirable to this end to have
a few dry ewes run with the lambs for company, when feed-
ing, the more so, as the time of separation from their dams
is short.

Other experiments in feeding lambs go to show that the
selection of foods is a most important point. As for instance,
an equal number of ewes and lambs were selected as of
even weights, and quality, at the start. One lot was folded
on clover, the latter part of May, and given in addition cut
mangels and a small quantity of cut clover hay with the
cut roots. The lambs had the run of a good clover field
which they reached through the hurdles by which the ewes
were fenced off. The second lot ran at large on a white
clover pasture and their lambs run on good red clover. All
the lambs had a handful of peas once a day. In 28 days
the lambs of the ewes fed on the mangels gained 21 Ibs.;
the other lot gained 18 Ibs. This gain of 21 pounds in 28
days is a remarkable instance of successful feeding, and a
great recommendation of the root feeding. Mangels contain
a large proportion of sugar, and are very productive of milk
in both ewes and cows.

When confinement appears irksome, something should
be done to alleviate the dissatisfaction of sheep, whether
young or old. Here is an instance of the result of dis-
liked confinement. An equal number of good lambs were
put into a field of turnips, and ifnclosed in movable hur-
dles. The same number of lambs of equal weight amd
age were put into a yard with warm shed attached to it,
and fed with roots from the field, and a liberal quantity
of grain. In eight weeks the lambs were weighed and the
lot outside in the field had gained an average of 13 Ibs.; the
other lot gained only 3 Ibs. each. This flock was conspicu-
ously restless, jumping the fence at every opportunity.
It is an example of the adage "a contented mind i^ a con-
tinual feast," and the shepherd, knowing how it is himself,
will take care to apply it to his flock. If the sheep desire
to stay out of a protecting shed, and are happy in their
choice, it is wise in the shepherd to let them have their
way, unless it is clearly against the safety of the sheep.
These— sometimes called— foolish animals know generally
enough to get in out of the rain when they so desire.

WINTER FEEDING FOR WOOL. • 177

In feeding roots to sheep, in any ease, it is wise in our
estimation, to stop at ten pounds a day, for a lainb under
seventy pounds live weight, and less in proportion as the
age is less. It must be remembered the English lambs
are to the manor born, as regards the feeding of roots,
and inheritance unquestionably determines the nature of a
lamb in this, as in other respects. So that the American
shepherd who thinks of introducing root feeding on the
English system (and this should only be in the absence
of freezing weather), will be wise to go slow at first, feed-
ing his way to the safe end, which is only reached by ex-
perience. This is always applicable to special circumstances,
which, we have learned, alter cases. As a rule the Ger-
man and French experiments in feeding sheep from a
scientific standpoint, as from results gained at the experi-
ment stations, have never been so successful as the prac-
tical feeding on the common farm practices, existing for
many years, and learned by long personal experience, and
the rules laid down by the most successful feeders and scien-
tific experimenters. Something of this may be reasonably
attributed to the moister climate of England, by which the
nutritive character of the grass and other feeding crops is
improved, over and above those of the drier climate of Con-
tinental Europe. The same difference will doubtless be
found applicable on our side of the Atlantic.

WINTER FEEDING FOR WOOL.

This is pre-eminently the age of science. In every part
of the work of the human race, among whom products are
cultivated under the present high degree of competition and
consequent necessary cheapness, the science of every art
is made the basis of practical work. This applies in a special
way to the feeding of animals for their valuable products
as it is applied to the culture of every farm crop. The pre-
cise composition of every product is studied out by the
chemists, and their directions are made the basis of all
kinds of work, in every department of human industry.
This has now become the rule and it is indispensable
that all concerned should live up to it, or the work
cannot be made profitable. This is so for the
simple reason that economy must be studied, and it

178 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

is essential to economy that no more material
should be used to get the desired product of it, than is
actually needed for it. Otherwise there is waste, and this
is just so much loss. The result of all this is that in the
feeding of our domestic animals, our horses, cows, pigs,
and most of all, sheep, the modern principles of scientific
feeding is the rule or must be so if the most profit is to be
made.

In feeding sheep there are three things to consider. First,
the animal itself is to be fed on the best kinds of food, those
by which the animal may grow in the best, most healthful
and cheapest manner; second, those by which the best
lamb is produced; aaid third, by which the most and the
best fleece is insured. Let us consider the last item at this
time.

Every product of nature is made up of certain elementary
substances, and these are to be considered as the basis and
materials for the special product. If the farmer wants to
grow wheat or potatoes, or other crops, he studies the kind
of materials which the soil must contain for the best product
of each crop. If he is feeding caws, he uses the best foods
for making the most and richest milk. If he is feeding
beef cattle, he uses the most nutritious foods for the product
of flesh and fat; and if he is feeding sheep, he makes use
of the foods that make the most growth of flesh and wool,
for wool is as much a desirable and profitable product as
the mutton is.

Now wool is a specially constituted product, and its
special character is to be considered in the feeding of the
sheep. It is made up of much the same elements as flesh
or skin is. But at this time it is only necessary to notice
two of these special elements, and these are the nitrogen
and sulphur which wool contains. These are nearly sixteen
per cent, or one-sixth, of nitrogen; and nearly four per cent
of sulphur. In burning wool or hair we experience a spe-
cially strong and acrid odor. This is the result of the com-
bustion of the sulphur, and the strength of the odor shows
the considerable quantity of this element in the
wool. There is no appreciable difference between the
wool of a sheep and the hair of an amimal; both are a kind
of hair. But the sheep yields a much greater quantity of

WINTER FEEDING FOR WOOL. 179

wool than any other animal does of hair. Of course this
greater product makes it necessary that the sheep be sup-
plied with a larger allowance of these food elements than
other animals, just in proportion as the fleece is greater
in weight. But there is another thing to be thought of, this
is the fact that the wool is naturally supplied with a greasy
or waxy substance which is known as the yolk. This is in-
dispensable to prevent matting and entangling or felting of
the wool on the sheep's back, \vhich would completely de-
stroy the value of the fleece. So that this yolk is to be pro-
vided for, and this soapy material contains a large quantity
of oil and potash which really go to make a sort of soap.
We learn this fact when we wash a sheep before shearing
it. And of course these materials for this large quantity
of yolk must be supplied in the food.

Then we have three important substances to supply in
the sheep's food that are not required in the food of other
animals. It follows that sheep need special feeding if we
should have the-most profit from the flock. And without
going into further particulars on this point we may say that
the foods best suited for the flock are those in which these
special elements are supplied. These foods are clover hay,
rape, turnips, cabbages (all of these are rich in sulphur),
and of grains, oats, peas, beans, bran, linseed oil-meal and.
corn; pea and bean straw may be included in the rough fod-
ders. Alfalfa will take the place of clover, but the common
grasses are all deficient in the needed special elements of
the sheep's food. Thus it is necessary for the shepherd to
feed a due proportion of these special foods in regard to
their effect as to cheapness as compared with the common
grasses, of which the worst of all for a flock is timothy.
Orchard grass makes one of the best pastures after clover,
but clover is pre-eminently the main food for a flock. So are
the roots mentioned, and the secret of success in feeding
sheep by English, French and German shepherds, lies es-
pecially in the roots grown for this purpose. This is a most
important point to consider by every American shepherd.
The repetition of this remark may be excused as coming
from many years' experience, and the profound conviction
of its positive necessity for full success with a flock..

180 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENTS IN FEEDING LAMBS
FOR MARKET.

The experiment stations nave exhibited considerable
enterprise in originating subjects for experiment, and care-
ful and accurate study. In due accordance with the
newly awakened interest in the rearing and feeding
of sheep some of the stations have instituted a careful series
of experiments in feeding sheep for market, as a test, not
only of the value of the various breeds, but of the various
foods and general management during a lengthened period
of fattening. Of these we feel chiefly interested in those
undertaken at the Iowa Station under the direction and per-
sonal charge of Prof. Curtiss, and those made at the Wis-
consin Station by Prof. Craig.

At the outset of his report Prof. Curtiss calls attention to
the alleged widely established but erroneous belief that
sheep are only good for eating weeds, on poor worn out
lands, and that for this use they may be made profitable;
while it is equally— and we may say consequently— thought
that they are not fitted at all for feeding on the fertile farms
on which, in fact and truth, they are really the most profita-
ble stock that the best and most enterprising farmers can
keep for making their well cultivated fields more and more
productive. It may be said that this — let us say distinctly
foolish and .ignorant— idea has never been encouraged by
those persons who know anything whatever about sheep,
and the special requirements of them for the very best
possible keeping in every way; but by a few writers who
have harped on this. subject until, as the proverb goes, "a lie
often told is apt to be taken for the truth." It is quite true
that any competent farmer, or shepherd, well acquainted
and experienced with sheep, may take a poor farm and in
a short time, by the aid of a flock, bring the land into a
greatly improved condition, and in due time make it profita-
ble so that it will yield satisfactory crops of grain or grass,
and this at very little cost, and sometimes without loss
from the start. But the belief that any man may keep
a flock profitably on weeds, or on fields bare of good grass,
should be discouraged by all concerned in advancing the in-
terests of the flocks.

SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENTS IN FEEDING. 181

Doubtless some of the failures that have beeii made —
and which have led the disappointed persons to feel, as it is
said the noted Mr. Randolph of Virginia did, when he said
that he would go a long way to kick a sheep— have had their
origin in attempts made to keep sheep that have been
originated and. encouraged by this common assertion as to
the special adaptability of poor impoverished lands to the
.business of rearing sheep, but have failed disastrously.

In this experiment the lambs were procured from the
very best sources, and while the Canadian breeders are to
be complimented on the fact that their flocks were chiefly
selected as the best sources from which to procure entirely
satisfactory lambs for the tests, yet it should be thought
by the breeders of the United States, as somewhat of a re-
flection on their enterprise and business test, that a sufficient
•number of good lambs could not be procured to supply ma-
terial for such an important scientific experiment as this.
The best specimens of each breed were very carefully se-
lected, and as soon as the lambs arrived they were dipped,
and during the month of August they pastured in a large
meadow of timothy and blue grass, having a good after-
math.

As a preliminary the lambs were treated with turpentine
and worm powders- in the usual manner, not so much as a
remedy for any existing disease, but as a preventive and to
insure the absence of anything that might interfere with the
successful issue of the experiments. It is well to know that
every needed preliminary precaution to insure success was
taken, so that the comparative results given may be received
with certainty. It is unnecessary to give in full detail the
whole of the arrangements made for the feeding of the
lambs, it will be sufficient to say that every precaution
was taken to prepare the lambs in the best manner for the
tests, and to carry these out with true scientific exactness.
The lambs were gradually led up to the full feeding with
every caution, during a preliminary period of two months.
It is to be considered in such an experiment as this, 'in
which the lambs were frequently weighed and subjected
to disturbances that must necessarily interfere with the
growth— for no other animal is so easily disturbed in this
way as a sheep— that there will be some allowance to be

182

THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

made, which otherwise would have added somewhat to the
credit of the animals subjected to these experiments. So
that this must be taken into account as actually going to
lessen the results of the experiments and leaving something,
at least, to be really added to the credit of the lambs.

The figures relating to the final result of the experiments
are given as follows, each breed being noted separately:

SOUTHDOWNS.

1st Expt. 3d Expt

Average age of lambs 374 days 280 days

Average weight (March 31, shorn). . .125 Ibs. (Jan. 1) 102.4 Ibs

Average gain per day during the experiment. . . .45 Ibs. .35 Ibs

Average dry matter per pound of gain 7.381bs. 989 Ibs

Average cost of feed per pound of gain 2.93 cts. 3. 12 cts

Selling price on Chicago market $4.75 $5.75

A verage per cent of dressed mutton 55.4 55.26

Average weight of fleece 6.75 Ibs 4.59 Ibs

Average age of fleece 366 days 289 days

Average value of fleece 75 cts. 64 cts

Average yearly weight of fleece 6.75 Ibs. 5.79 Ibs

Average yearly value of fleece 75 cts. 81 cts

Value of wool per pound in natural condition. 11*4 cts. 14 cts

Average shrinkage in scouring 54ftf per cent

Value of wool per pound in scoured condition . 26 cts.

1st Expt. 2d Expt

Average age of lambs 371 days 279 days

Average weight (March 31, shorn ) . . 135 Ibs. (Jan. 1) 126 Ibs

Average gain per day during the experiment. . . .48 Ibs. .36 Ibs

Average dry matter per pound of gain 7. 18 Ibs. 10.26 Ibs

Average C9st of feed per pound of gain 2.88 cts. 3.21 cts

Selling price on Chicago market $4.62 $5.60

Average per cent of dressed mutton 56.3 52.88

Average weight of fleece 8. 75 Ibs. 7.83 Ibs

Average age of fleece 366 days 279 days

Average value of fleece 98 cts. $1.10

Average yearly weight of fleece 8.75 Ibs. 10.22 Ibs

Average yearly value of fleece 98 cts. $1.44

Value of wool per pound in natural condition.. 11 cts. 14 cts

Average shrinkage in scouring 56J4 per cent

Value of wool per pound in scoured condition. 25 cts.

OXFORDS.

1st Expt. 2d Expt

Average age of lambs 374 days 279 days

Average weight (March 31, shorn) . . . 155 Ibs. (Jan. 1) 136.7 Ibs

Average gain per day during the experiment . . . .52 Ibs. .40 Ibs

Average dry matter per pound gain 7.40 Ibs. 10.31 Ibs

A verage cost of feed per pound of gain 3.03 cts. 3.22 cts

Selling price on Chicago market $4.50 $5.40

Average per cent of dressed mutton 55.2 50.08

Average weight of fleece 10.95 Ibs. 8.03 Ibs

Average age of fleece 365 days 279 days

Average value of fleece $1.44 $1.16

Average yearly weight of fleece 10.C51bs. 9.38 Ibs

Average yearly value of fleece $1 .44 $1.51

Value of wool per pound in natural condition. 12% cts. Ul/2 cts

Average shrinkage in scouring 47 per cent

Value of wool pev pound in scoured condition . 24 cts.

SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENTS IN FEEDING. 183

SUFFOLKS.

1st Expt. 2d Expt

Average age of lambs 394 days 285 days

Average weight (March 31, shorn) ... 159 Ibs. (Jan. 1) 134.4 Ibs

Average gain per day during the experiment ... .55 Ibs. .40 Ibs

Average dry matter per pound of gain 7.40 Ibs. 10.36 Ibs

Average cost of feed per pound of gain 2.95 cts. 3.44 cts

Selling price on Chicago market $4.25 $5.00

Average per cent of dressed mutton 53.6 52.54

Average weight of fleece 7.65 Ibs. 5.20 Ibs

Average age of fleece 383 days 285 days

Average value of fleece $0.86 $0.75

Average yearly weight of fleece 7.29 Ibs. 6.64 ibs

A verage > early value of fleece $0.82 $0.95

Value of 'wool per pound in natural condition.. 11 cts 14% cts

Average shrinkage in scouring 54^ per cent

Value of wool per pound in scoured condition. . 24 cts.

LINCOLNS.

Average age of lambs 345 days 291 days

Average weight (March 31 shorn) ... 158 Ibs. (Jan. 1) 143.5 Ibs

Average gain per day during the experiment. . . .55 Ibs. .46 Ibs

Average dry matter per pound of gain 7.29 Ibs. 9.1 Ibs

Average cost of feed per pound of gain 2.89 cts. 2.86 cts

Selling price on the Chicago market $4.50 $5.25

Average per cent of dressed mutton 55.7 5i .08

Average weight of fleece ....- 12.85 Ibs. 10.4 Ibs

Average age of fleece 332 days 291 days

Average value of fleece $1.79 $1.56

Average yearly weight of fleece 14.13 Ibs. 13.03 Ibs

Average yearly value of fleece $1.96 $1.95

Value of wool per pound in natural condition.. 13% cts. 15 cts

Average shrinkage in scouring 40 per cent

Value of wool per pound in scoured condition. . 23 cts.

LEICESTEBS.

Average age of lambs 347 days 268 days

Average weight (March 31 , shorn) ... 161 Ibs. (Jan. 1) 138.4 Ibs

Average gain per day during the experiment. . . .62 Ibs. .50 Ibs

Average dry matter per pound of gain 6.53 Ibs. 8.48 Ibs

Average cost of feed per pound of gain 2.60 cts. 2.65 cts

Selling price on Chicago market $4.50 cts. $5.25 cts

Average per cent of dressed mutton 54.9 53.57

Average weight of fleece 12.65 Ibs. 9.8 Ibs

Average age of fleece 334 days 268 days

Average value of fleece $1.66 $1.46

Average yearly weight of fleece 13.82 Ibs. 13.32 Ibs

Average yearly value of fleece $1.81 $1.98

Value of wool per pound in natural condition. . 13 cts. 15 cts

Average'shrinkage in scouring 43^ per cent

Value of wool per pound in scoured condition. . 23 cts.

COTSWOLDS.

Average age of lambs 362 days 277 days

Average weight (March 31, shorn). ..167 Ibs. (Jan. 1) 133 Ibs

Average gain per day during the experiment. .. .52 Ib. .44 Ib

Average dry matter per pound of gain 7.49 Ibs. 9.34 Ibs

Average cost of feed per pound of gain 2.93 cts. 2.93 cts

Selling price on Chicago market $4.50 cts. $5.25 cts

Average per cent of dressed mutton 57.8 51.87

Average weight of fleece 11.55 Ibs. 8.9 Ibs

Average age of fleece 348 days 277 days

Average value of fleece $1.76 $1.33

Average yearly weight of fleece 12.11 Ibs. 11.71 Ibs

Average yearly Value of fleece $1.85 $1.71

Value of wool per pound in natural condition. . 14% cts. 15 cts

Average shrinkage in scouring 3S1A per cent

Value of wool per pound in scoured condition. . 24 cts.

184

THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

DOR8ET8.

1st Kxpt. 2d Expt

Average age of lambs 367 days 277 days

Average weight (March 31, shorn) .. .138 Ibs. (Jan. 1) 1:28.8 11 >s

Average gain per day during the experiment. . . .48 Ib. .43 Ib

Average dry matter per pound of gain 7.85 Ibs. 9.89 Ibs

Average cost of feed per pound of gain 3.05 cts. 3.04 cts

Selling price on Chicago market $3.75 $5.50

Average per cent dressed mutton 52.6 54.11

Average weight of fleece 6.83 Ibs. 5.97 Ibs

Average age of fleece 355 days 277 days

Average value of fleece $0.77 $0.83

A verage yearly weight of fleece 7.2 Ibs. 7.84 Ibs

Average yearly value of fleece $0.79 $1.09

Value of wool per pound in natural condition. . 10% cts. 14 cts

Average shrinkage in scouring 55 per cent

Value of wool per pound in scoured condition. . 24 cts.

BAMBOUILLETS.

Average age of lambs 362 days 255 days

Average weight (March 31, shorn) ... 99 Ibs. (Jan. 1) 113.3 Ibs

Average gain per day during the experiment. . . .29 Ib. .37 Ib

Average dry matter per pound of gain 9.35 Ibs. 10.29 Ibs

Average cost of feed per pound gain 3.78 cts. 2.91 cts

Selling price on Chicago market $4.25 $5.00

Average per cent of dressed mutton 51.8 49.57

Average weight of fleece 9.9 Ibs. 6.60 Ibs

Average age of fleece 359 days 255 days

Average value of fleece $1.00 $0.73

Average yearly weight of fleece 10.07 Ibs. 9.42 Ibs

Average yearly value of fleece $1.02 $1.04

Value of wocfcl per pound in natural condition. . 9% cts. 11 cts

Average shrinkage in scouring 67*4 per cent

Value of wool per pound in scoured condition. . 30 cts.

These figures deserve careful study, as an example of the
results of good feeding, and the profit of it when done under
the best methods. The feeds given to these lambs were as
follows. For the first fifteen days the ration was made
up of:

50 Ibs. bran Cost, 40 cents per 100 Ibs.

100 Ibs. oats " 40 " "

100 Ibs. shelled corn " 28.5."

After this time the following ration was fed:

25 Ibs. of oil meal Cost, 90 cents per 100 Ibs. •

50 Ibs. of bran " 40 "

200 Ibs. of oats " 40 " "

200 Ibs. of shelled corn " 20 "

Towards the close of the feeding period, ten pounds more
of oil meal was added to the ration, and continued to the
end. Each lamb was fed as much as it would eat, and some
roots and hay in addition. The hay cost 28 cents per 100
Ibs. and the roots 5 cents.

The whole number of lambs, 109 in the first experiment
and 91 in the second, not including the ewes, made a total
gain of 8,24G pounds from 69,134 pounds (dry matter) of
feed— a rate of one pound of gain for 8.38 pounds of dry

186

THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

matter in the feed consumed and an average of .448 pounds
per head daily for the entire lot. The total gain of 8,246
pounds was made at a cost of $245.69 for feed consumed,
or an average cost of 2.97 cents per pound for the mutton
produced in both experiments. This calculation makes no
allowance for the value of the fleece, except as it entered
into the gain, nor does it take into account the value of the
manure or expense of labor in feeding.

The marketing of these lambs is a matter of interest as it
goes to show what sort of figure the most profitable kind of
sheep should possess, and gives a very good idea of what
should be the aim of the breeder in the improvement of his
flock, and the kind of rams — the form of them especially —

DRESSED CARCASS OF LAMB.

to be chosen for this purpose. The above drawing shows
the carcass of one of these lambs denuded only of the head.
The next table below gives the market values of each of
these parts of the carcass to the butcher.

Two pair legs
Two ri^s

BLOCK TEST.

80UTHDOWNS.

Weight. Per cent. Price. ,
40 29.85 10
34 25 37 9

\mount.
$ 4 00
3 06

25 1866 9

2 ?5

Two chucks

35 26.12 2

70

Total of two lambs. . .134

100.

8HROPSHIRE8.

Two pair legs ........... 32 29.56

Two ribs ............... 26 2385

Two loins .............. 21 19.26

Two chucks ............ 30 27.33

10 01

3 20

234

1 89

60

Total of two lambs. . . 109

100.

Two pair legs ........... 51 31.87

Two ribs ............... 37 23.12

Two loins .............. 30 18.75

Two chucks ............ 42 26.26

Total of two lambs. . . 160 100.

459
296
2 40

84

10 79

SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENTS IN FEEDING. 187

Weight. Percent. Price. Amount.

Two pair legs 47 29.19 9 $423

Two ribs 37 22.98 8 2 96

Two loins 33 20.50 8 264

Two chucks 44 27.33 2 88

Total of two lambs. . . 161 100. 10 71

LINCOLNS.

Two pair legs 45 30.61 9 4 05

Two ribs 35 23.81 8 280

Two chucks 39 26.54 2 78

Two loins 28 19.04 8 2 24

Total of fwo lambs. . . 147 100. 9 87

LEICE8TER8.

Two pair legs 48 29.09 9 4 32

Two ribs 38 23.03 8 3 04

Two loins 35 21.21 8 2 80

Two chucks 44 26.67 2 88

Total of two lambs. . . 165 100. 11 04

COT8WOLDS.

Two pair legs 48 30.19 9 432

Two ribs 38 23.90 8 3 04

Two loins 30 18.87 8 240

Two chucks 43 27.04 2 86

Total of two lambs. . .159 100. 10 62

DOKSETS.

Two pair legs 41 30.15 8 328

Two ribs 33 24.26 7^ 2 47

Two loins 25 18.38 7J4 188

Two chucks 37 27.21 2 74

Total of two lambs. . . 136 100. 8 37

Two pair legs 30 29.41 9 270

Two ribs 22 21.57 8 176

Two loins 22 21.57 8 1 76

Two Chucks 28 27.45 2 56

Total of two lambs. . . 102 100. 6 78

The form and figure of any animal to be fed for profit
have always been a matter of primary importance to the
feeder. We are always to think of the ancient wise man's
remark that the feeding of animals is the most important
part of agriculture. It is so in two ways. First the profit
to be made from the feeding, and second, the manure left
by which the exhaustion of the soil, in producing the crops
by which the animals are fed, is repaired. And so it is
that the feeder of sheep must study the form of the

188 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

most profitable animals in the way of feeding for profit.
A careful study of the figures above given will help very much
in the choice of the stock the feeder thinks of expending his
fodder and grain upon. It is equally a matter for study by
the breeder, who works for the feeder, and of course must
supply him with such animals as will have the most profit
in them for him. The waste parts of an animal of course
go for nothing, but yet they consume as much food, pound
for pound of live weight, as the most valuable, and so it is
that the carcass which has the most weight of the most
valuable parts to the consumer, wrill be the most profitable
to feed. In the sheep, we want the broad back with the
full loins, the full ribs and deep shoulders; but the short
neck and legs, which only give weight of the least useful
and valuable parts of a carcass. So too we want the least
possible offal inside.

Thus the figure of the carcass of the lamb given before
will furnish excellent hints to the breeder for the production
of the right kind of a carcass needed by the feeders, and
these will learn from it how to choose those animals of
which they may make the most profit by feeding for valua-
ble meat, and not for mere bone and undesirable flesh. So,
too, the table following, in which is given the several
proportions of the meat and the offal of the carcass of each
of the breeds named, will furnish very profitable material
from the point of view mentioned, viz., the profit of the
feeder, and through him, that of the breeder, who must ^f or
his own advantage consult the interests of his clients— the
purchasers. This separation of interests is unavoidable;
for there are two distinct purposes in pursuits; the one pro-
viding for the other; and beJng dependent upon him, and the
other looking to the breeder for the material which he needs
to make his own products more valuable. We think this separa-
tion in one sense, and union in another, of the two interests,
are best for both, giving a better opportunity for two heaxls
to work together, each devoting his special talents and op-
portunities to the single end in view.

The butcher's block is the final test of all and is the
measure of value of the product of the skill of the breeder
and the feeder as well. The following figures afford mate-
rial for painstaking and intelligent study:

H- l_n_»OS^- OS N) OS

K- *- —i OS >-» rf>. OS OS

h*^t^)S m>— £ en >— *. os«oos osoo

i_i N_I os i-1 into os

tOOS«O?D

^oso

10 Southdown

Lambs.

10 Shropshire

Lambs.

10 Oxford Lambs

10 Suffolk Lambs.

10 Lincoln Lambs,

10 Cotswold

Lambs.

I_L I_L C0>- 0503 OS

''' 'i'

9 Leicester Lambs.

10 Crossbred

Lambs.

i— H- (—*.!— OS 10

>-"-'tO— OS JO *. tOOS

10 Range Lambs.

5 Shropshire

Yearlings.

190 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

FEEDING LAMBS AT THE WISCONSIN EXPERIMENT STATION.

By the courtesy of the Director of the Wisconsin Experi-
ment Station, Prof. W. A. Henry, we have the opportunity
of studying the interesting question, whether or not it is
profitable to feed lambs as soon after birth, and while
running with the ewes, as may be possible, with a suitable
grain ration. From the experience of the author in this line,
he has been well able to decide this matter for himself in
the affirmative, and very positively so. And it has been his
practice to begin feeding the lambs as soon as they could be
induced to take the least, mca-sel of suitable grain food
from the hand. And right at this point it is very desirable
to affirm very positively, that the gentle and confiding dispo-
sition of the lambs, and their gentleness and confidence in
the feeder, are to be cultivated and encouraged, if the best
results from any kind of feeding that may be adopted are
to be desired. In fact, the gentle shepherd who carried the
lambs in his bosom, is to be the pattern, rather than the
one who roughly treats them, and who is feared and
avoided by them. In fact we feel decidedly free
to say that the gentle shepherd only will be able to
make the best profit from the feeding of lambs or sheep
of any age. So that to begin feeding with the young lambs,
when they will eat a little bran or meat from the shepherd's
hand, and troop after him in the liveliest fashion for the
sweet morsel, is one O'f the first requisites to the profitable
feeding during the period of nursing on their dams.

The whole story of the feeding is too long for our space,
.but it will suffice to give the results of each of three care-
fully conducted experiments. There were three periods dur-
ing which these trials were made. The first from the first
ability to eat the food after birth; the second after weaning;
and the third after the lambs were finally fed for fattening
for market.

The result of the first test was that thirty lambs Avere
fed 1,353 Ibs. of grain food, consisting of corn meal, bran,
oil meal (each of these latter two about one-half in amount
of the corn meal), and a small quantity of oats too small
to notice in any way. The result wras that one pound of live
weight was made for a very small trifle over one pound of
food eaten, or from 1,353 Ibs. of food 1,226 Ibs. of live weight

SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENTS IN FEEDING. 191

was made. After having been weaned this lot of lanibs
made from 2,270 Ibs. of grain food 667 Ibs. of 'live weight, or
one pound from three pounds of grain eaten, counting good
blue grass pasture in. During the final feeding of these
lambs for market, an average of 4 Ibs. of grain, 2.75 Ibs. of
hay and one pound of roots were required to make one
pound of live weight. Of course it is to be considered that
through the first period the lambs were getting the ewes
milk which accounts for the small amount of grain food
needed for each pound of live weight, but it was found that
the effect of this early growth was to considerably increase
the product of growrth in the later periods, In proportion to
the grain food consumed. There was this advantage as
well, which was, that being used to the grain ration the in-
crease of this during the fattening period was not accom-
panied by any of those drawbacks which commonly hap-
pen when lambs unused to eating grain, are put on grain
feeding. The lambs continued growth, without any draw-
back, thus repaid in this way to some extent for the early
feeding of the grain. This experiment continued for nine
months. At the end of it, it was found that the lambs fed
from the first on the grain ration wrere fit for sale, and had
made the same weight, about seven weeks before others
not so fed were fit for market. Thus the feeding for these
weeks was really saved by the early feeding.

In estimating the results at the final disposal of these
lambs, it was found that those that were fed a grain ration
from birth not only made seventeen pounds per head for the
same age, more than the others, but that they also dressed
a slightly higher per cent in weight.

As to the fleeces of these lambs, the results showed that
the lot fed from birth yielded an average of one pound more
wool per fleece than the other lambs, but this advantage
did not obtain after the wool was thoroughly washed, so as
to completely remove all yolk and grease, on account of the
greater shrinkage in the washing. This of course tends to
the advantage of the seller of the wcol in the grease. The
final test of the butcher's block showed that the early fed
lambs were worth about one cent a pound more than the
others, and on selling the three lots the first brought $5.69
per 100 Ibs., the second and third lots, $4.74 per hundred.

192 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

The most profit, however, was made from these lambs
by selling at weaning, when they made a profit of 68
cents per head over that made from those which did not
receive any grain. There is also a profit made by this
early feeding when tha lambs are sold all together in the
Fall, as shown by these figures:

Lot 1. Lot 2. Lot 3.

Value per head $4.76 $3.78 $3.14

Cost per head 1.12 .42

Profit per head 3.64 336 2.14

Thus the lambs having grain food from birth made a
profit over those fed only from weaning of 28 cents, and
over those fed only while fattening of 52 cents per head;
while those fed from weaning made a profit of 23 cents
over those fed grain only after weaning and when fed for
fattening. It was not found that the previous condition of the
lambs fed from birth, had any result good or bad on the
final fattening of themselves, over the others, except so far
as above suggested that they took to the grain food, as in-
creased for the fattening, without any delay or wraste of
time.

VALUE OF DIFFERENT GRAINS FOR FATTENING.

Another experiment made to test the difference in the
value of farm grown grains for fattening lambs, is recorded
in the same report. The intention of these experiments was
to show if any difference in cost might exist in the use
of the grain foods tested, which were corn, corn and oats,
corn and peas, and corn, peas and oats. It is a common
belief that a mixed ration may be fed more profitably than
any single one of the grains. This is not proved, however,
by these results.

THE CONCLUSIONS TO BE DRAWN

From these experiments may be summed up as follows:
First— The highest rate of gain for any period was made

when the lambs were fed grain before weaning.

Second — The rate of gain in the second period — that is

after weaning— was the lowest of all three periods in the

trial, though the cost of the gain was less than in the third

or fattening period.

Third— The unlimited supply of grain after weaning

caused the lambs to consume less pasture. A half pound of

SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENTS IN FEEDING, 193

grain per day per bead is the largest allowance consistent
with profit at this period.

Fourth— The feeding of oats, bran, or oil meal (linseed
is doubtless referred to) mixed with corn meal, as used in
these tests, before and after weaning, did not exert any
influence upon the rate or cost of gain made during the three
months of Winter fattening when the lambs were feeding
for the early Spring market (except as we might add, in
regard to the earlier maturity mentioned).

Fifth— The continuous grain feeding from birth, until
the lambs were ten months old, did not produce any notable
difference in the carcasses in regard to the proportions of
fat and lean, or the distribution of the fat.

Sixth— The continuous grain feeding produced some-
what better fleshed carcasses, as was shown by the fact
that they made somewhat higher per cents of dressed weight
as compared with the lambs which received no grain before
the period of feeding for fattening.

Seventh— The continuously grain fed lambs from birth,
until ten months old, sheared a heavier fleece than those not
receiving any grain until fed for final fattening.

Eighth— This increased weight of fleece, however, was
due more to the large propc<rtion of yolk and oil, than in the
fleeces of those lambs not fed grain, until the third or fat-
tening period.

Ninth— The continuous grain feeding materially in-
fluenced the early maturity of the lambs to the extent of
seven weeks in three of the trials and four wreeks in the
other two trials.

Tenth— The results show that it pays to feed grain to
lambs before weaning, when they are intended for sale at,
or soon after, weaning.

Eleventh— It pays to feed lambs intended to be sold when
seven months old in November, with grain bo-th before and
after weaning.

Twelfth— When lambs are to be sold at the age of ten
months, after two or three months fattening, during the
Winter, grain feeding, before feeding for fattening, does not
seem to have any sensible effect on the profit made (except
so far as maturity is hastened).

Thirteenth— Lambs fed continuously from birth with

194 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

grain, are fit for sale at any time; so that advantage may
be taken of any favorable condition of the market that
might occur.

Fourteenth — The result of five years experimenting in
this line, shows that the best time to market lambs is pre-
vious to, or at weaning time, and to fit them in the best
manner for this disposal as to weight and condition, they
should be fed grain from the earliest possible period.

VALUE OF FARM GRAINS FOR FATTENING LAMBS.

An experiment as to the value of farm grown grain
crops for fattening lambs was conducted by Mr. J. A. Craig,
the Professor of Animal Husbandry at the Station, with the
following results. A hundred lambs were purchased from the
northwest part of Wisconsin. They were a ragged and poor
lot then — lousy, ticky and ornamented with burrs. Thirty-two
were not docked. These were docked by tying a string around
the tail just above the joint to be severed, and the tail was
cut at the selected joint. As soon as the wound had dried,
the string was removed, and no trouble occurred. The lambs
were dipped to rid them of ticks and lice. It certainly turned
out that this treatment was conducive to the profit made in
the feeding, otherwise the result would have been different.
The first trial was four lots; No 1 fed with corn; No. 2
with corn, and oats; No. 3 with corn and peas; and No. 4
with corn, oats, and peas. The results were as follows:
Time Dec. 26 to Feb. 20:

No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4.

Weight before trial 86.3 89. 1 85. 6 86.2 Ibs.

Weight after trial 107.2 110.3 110.8 110.3 "

Gain in 8 weeks 20.9 21.4 25.2 24.1 "

Cost of food per head... $0.68 $0.81 $0.84 $0.86

Cost of 100 Ibs. gain 3.26 3.81 3.35 3.57

SECOND TBIAL— 25 LAMBS IN EACH LOT.

No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4.

Average weight 75.7 75.6 75.5 75.3 Ibs.

Weight at end of trial. .. 90.9 89.7 93.7 90.5 "

Gain in 8 weeks, average 15.2 14.1 18.2 15.2 "

Gain per head 1.9 1.76 2.27 1.9 "

Cost of food per head... $0.66 $0.72 $0.83 $0.80

Cost of 100 Ibs. gain 4.37 5.15 4.58 5.35

AVERAGE OF TWO TRIALS, 1895-1896.

No. 1 . No. 2. No. 3. No. 4.

Average gain per week. . 2.02 1.82 2.41 2.08 Ibs.
Cost of 100 Ibs. gain' $4.12 $4.89 $4.31 $4.86

The figures show the results very plainly, and as the
profit from the feeding is the object for which lambs are

SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENTS IN FEEDING. 195

fed, the results need no further remark than that the con-
dition of the lambs is an important element to be consid-
ered.

INFLUENCE OF BREEDING ON THE FEEDING.

From what has been said on the subject of breeding,
in a previous chapter, it will be easily gathered, that as
the feeding is one of the most important elements of im-
provement of all animals through the perpetuation by breed-
ing of the advantages gained by skillful feeding, feeding
really comes first. The improvement of animals by feeding,
of course, and necessarily must come first; for if like
produces like, the breeding can only perpetuate the elements
already existing. The skillful breeder selects the best speci-
mens he is able to secure, and by coupling these he obtains
a progeny like the parents, and having the inherited ability
to be still further improved by a still further aptitude to
feed and digest food, and thus not only fix what has been
gained and make it a permanent inheritance, but perpetuate
the disposition to feed and turn the food to the best use.
The talk of the old breeders, as it is of the modern ones,
\vas always of the feeding ability of their stock, whether it
were cattle or sheep. And as we inherit the results of a
century of good feeding, we must still maint in the condi-
tion of our stock by the same means as it has been originally
gained.

Hence when we discuss the influence of breeding on the
feeding quality of lambs we are simply gathering the ex-
pected fruits of the inherited ability of the lambs to hold the
position which they derived from their parents. And what-
ever facts are derived from the results of experiments made
in this line, we may take as a foregone conclusion that
may be applied to encourage the constant improvement of
the flocks by higher breeding, for the sake of the profit this
insures, when we come to feed these improved sheep.

The experiment here to be described was made by the
Wisconsin Station as a sort of final test of the influence of
-good breeding on profitable feeding. A lot of the station
lambs were selected and fed in comparison with a lot of
common lambs procured from the northern part of the state.
They wrere of the common stock, bred promiscuously, and

196 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

from inferior ewes and rams. The station lambs were
Shropshire grades mostly, and having been bred under the
care of Professor Craig were, we may be sure, excellent
of their kind. Twenty five of the common lambs were fed
along with twelve of the station lambs. The following-
table shows the results of the test.

Northern Lambs. Station Lambs.
Average weight at the beginning.. 75.5 Ibs. 115.9 Ibs.

Average weight at end of trial 93.7

Gain in eight weeks 18.2

Weekly gain 2.27

Food eaten—

Corn fodder 102.7 ia5.

Corn 48.8 71.

Peas 48.8 71.

Cost of feed $0.83 $1.17

Cost of 100 Ibs. gain 4.58 4.08

Each of the station lambs gained 1.3 Ibs. more than the
other lambs per \veek, and while they consumed more food,
the excess of food is not as large in proportion as the gain
made. This ability to eat and profitably dispose of good
food, is one of the most prominent features of better breed-
ing, indeed it is the very fundamental principle involved in
breeding, and thus, it goes without saying, that the better
bred the stock is the better feeding it demands, and in return
for this just compliance with the demands of the improved
sheep, these make a generous return with sufficient profit to
compensate the feeder for his just compliance with the de-
mands of his flock. This is never to be forgotten by those
concerned, who are anxious to get all the profit that may be
from their improved stock.

An instance that may be pertinent, and that tells the
story in an emphatic manner, may be given. There was a
noted breeder of Jersey cows, who sold a high bred calf to a
farmer at a distance. This man was one of those who, very
mistakenly, think high breeding will give the ability to an
animal to live on less food than a common scrub, as it is
called; and that the high price paid for an animal of this
kind will be returned in the cheaper feeding of it. The calf
under this kind of management soon became an object for the
pity of any humane person, and of reproach to its owner.
The owner became exceedingly wroth against the breeder
of the calf, and as an example had the poor animal put on
exhibition at. a popular state fair, and on his card mentioned
the name of the breeder of whom the calf had boon bought.

SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENTS IN FEEDING. 197

This second foolish act of the man of course told severely
against him in the minds of well-informed visitors, but it
procured him sympathy from those who were not better in-
formed than himself. The calf was purchased for a small
price, and under the right treatment, became a noted cow
whose progeny sold for the highest prices current for Jersey
stock.

Of course the same applies to sheep as to other animals,
and purchasers of high bred breeding stock, whether ewes
or rams, should take this essential fact into consideration,
and make it a rule of management to treat the animals
with every possible liberality, of course, in a judicious way,
and keep in mind this fundamental principle, that breeding,
being a natural result of the precise condition of the animals
bred, the progeny must have the same liberal treatment,
and we may be sure it will be as liberally returned with in-
terest, as it is liberally afforded.

The result of the foregoing experiment in feeding the
lambs may be given as follows.

Difference of profit between the two lots:

25 Northern Lambs. 12 Station Lambs.

Cost, at 3 cents a pound $56.68 $41.73

Final value 93.70 69.50

Cost of food 20.75 14.14

Profit per head 0.65 1.13

CONDITION, AND ITS EFFECT ON VALUE.

The professional seller of live stock has certain elements
of value to guide him in the pursuit of his business. One
of these, if not the principal one, is what is termed condition,
or sometimes quality. It is this special characteristic of the
animal which gives final value to the meat to the con-
sumer, who of course chooses the meat which has the least
waste, and is of the most promising appearance for econom-
ical domestic use. This quality necessarily has its special
value, and where sheep or lambs are offered for sale, as in-
deed cattle as well, the buyer will take pains to ascertain
the condition of the animals he is proposing to buy. Neces-
sarily the producer must be well informed of the nature
of this condition, so that he may send only those best fitted
for market, if he thinks of getting the top price. There are
numerous instances in which the commission man will tell
his client, you should have kept these lambs or wethers a

198 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

moiitli or two more, to get them into better condition. This
suggestion means to the owner a loss of money on his con-
signment, perhaps a dollar a hundred pounds, which might
have been saved by two or three weeks longer feeding, by
which not only the value would have been increased in pro-
portion to the condition, but as to the increased weight as
well. It is to get this condition that many farmers buy
stock in the markets that are as yet only feeders, and not
finished for the butcher, and get such animals at such a less
price, that it pays the purchasers to take them home and
feed them, adding to the weight by which a good profit
is made, and getting as a bonus the enhanced value due to
the improved condition.

The first test of condition is smoothness of the carcass.
The bones are well covered, and the body is round and well
filled up. Some animals are better shaped for this than
others, and these the professional feeder calls "good feed-
ers." That is, their bones are not so prominent, the back-
bone does not form a ridge along the back, the sides are
deep, the ribs are well arched, the neck is short, the head
fine, and small, and the legs well spread apart. You cannot
build a broad house on a narrow foundation, and an animal
must have the right shape before it may be profitably put
into really good condition. The figure will in no part be
regular or thin, but round and full, with soft flesh which
covers the bones, and to which the skin is loosely attached.
The outside is a key to the condition of the inside, and we
are to judge by the outer form and feeling, what, the actual
condition will be when the carcass is exposed to view in the
butcher's stall. It is a good plan for those concerned in
feeding sheep for market, to visit a great city and stroll
through the markets there, and talk with the market men.
Many valuable hints may thus be procured which will be
useful in the rearing of market animals.

Generally it is the larger animals which are defective
in condition. Size is of no account unless the condition is
satisfactory. A lamb may match the si/e most desired, but
it, is not weight alone which gives value. Another may be
ten or twenty pounds over the average weight desired, and
yet may bring a better price for the reason that its condition
is better than that of a smaller animal. It is to be thought

200 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

of that the end of all is the meat, and the quality of it
This is the only useful part to the consumer. The more meal
there is in a twenty pound quarter, and the less bone, the
better the animal is; for whatever less of actual meat there
may be, the more there is in proportion of bone and worth-
less stuff. And to secure this desired condition too it is better
to feed a longer time, than to rush the feeding through by too
liberal rations. The fat made now is not wanted in the
meat, and not laid all on it on the outside of the carcass.
The actual appearance of the carcasses, as shown by the
photograph on the previous page, of the first and third lots
of lambs, the first being fed grain from birth, and the
third only three months before marketing, goes to show the
inside appearance of what good condition is, and how it se-
cures that economy in the final use of the meat, which justi-
fies the butcher in giving a higher price for the best car-
casses, as well as in exacting a higher price from the house-
keeper who is quite willing to pay it as a simple matter
of domestic economy. The feeder will work with more light
and better success, who understands fully what this term,
condition, signifies.

In the previous illustration we may readily select the
best conditioned lamb by the rounder back; the more even
distribution of the fat with the lean, and the larger volume
of the lean as it is surrounded by the loin fat. This is the
result of the smooth, broader back taken as one of the
tests of condition of the sheep. We may readily perceive
that this is one of the results of breeding as well as of feed-
ing, and is as much due to the rams used as to the good
feeding of the ewes while carrying their lambs, and the
skillful feeding of the lambs.

CHAPTER V.

BARNS AND STABLES.

The best arrangement of buildings for a sheep farm is a
matter of economy, for whatever is mos-t convenient for use
saves time and avoids waste of feed. A great waste of fod-
der may occur unless the feed racks are made on the best
plan to prevent it, and with a mere trough for the grain the
strongest sheep will push its way along, monopolizing the
most of it, and driving the rest of the flock before it deprive
them of a due share. This is a waste, and an injury to the
greedier feeder, while the weaklings of the flock are starved.
The structure of the whole building too is to be well studied
out, so thai it may be arranged on the most useful system.

A few remarks on the general theory of sheep shelters
may be useful at the outset. There is no necessity for
heavy, costly barns or stables. Light structures with ample
floor space are the best in every way. And we are not
studying style at present, but simply the ways in which the
shepherd may use the money to the best advantage, and
with the utmost economy of time and labor in the general
care and attention given to the flock.

The most space is contained in a square building, at
least as compared with longer and narrower ones. There is
most space for the length of outer wall in a round building;
and the octagon and hexagon, with their eight or six sides,
come next to the full square. The octagonal style of build-
ing is coming into favor for farm structures, and many are
adopting the round form for all kinds' of storage barns
and the accommodation of the live stock. The accompany-
ing sketch is of an octagonal building 29 feet in diameter,
of which the floor space gives 696 square feet. A square build-
ing with the wall 96 feet in length will give only 576 square
feet of space, and will be tAventy-four feet only in diameter.
A round barn of the same length of wall will give 732 feet

202

THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

OCTAGONAL BARN.

of floor. It is easier, however, to build an octagonal barn
than a round one, for the timbers are much more easily
put together, and the structure is much stronger; each corner
binding the whole in an equally solid manner; in truth,
more so, than in the round one or the square. The plan
here given is one of 96 feet of wall, that is, twelve feet on

each side, by which there is
room for nine places for feed-
ing on each side, thus giving
accommodation for a large
flock if several feeding racks
are scattered about between
the middle rack and the outer
ones. It is well adapted
to lamb rearing, on account
of the number of small pens
which may be made large
enough for a ewe and its lamb
or for two or three lambs, the
middle space being used for
feeding the lambs by turning them out when the ewes are
brought in to suckle them. A barn built on this plan may
have two floors, by which the capacity is doubled at a very
small increased cost, the main, floor being three feet below
the surface and the upper one four feet above, and being
reached by a plank walk at each door. It is to be noted that
the capacity of such a barn as this is increased four times
by doubling the diameter, and one-half increase in this, that
is, from twenty-nine or thirty feet to forty-five, will make it
two and a half times as capacious.

The method of building such a barn is much cheaper
than that of the square or oblong form. The floor should
be of cement concrete, and it is best to have the foundation
for the sills of the same material, but it need not be over
six inches thick, merely to raise the timbers from the ground.
The sills may not be over four inches thick, and eight wide
is sufficient. The corners are merely halved together and
bolted with a one-inch iron bolt. The scantling for the
walls for the two floors should be six by two inches, and a
row of these is placed in the middle of the building and
rest on posts six inches square. There is a central shoot

BARNS AND STABLES.

203

in the middle made of two inch plank for taking down the
fodder, and the inner row of beams rest on this; the beams
being for the size of building mentioned, eight inches wide
and two thick. It is well to support these beams in a sutii-
eient number of places by braces at each alternate post.

The plates are eight by two or three inches, halved to-
gether as the floor sills are, and secured by bolts held by
screw ends and nuts. The upper part has the usual pudine
plates over the rows of posts below, and these are well bolted
together. The rafters are in two parts, the lower set hav-
ing a high slope so as to afford as much storage space as
possible above. There is a hay shoot in the center, down
which the fodder is sent from the hay floor on the top,
and shoots are made in convenient places to send down the
grain, which is distributed through the feed troughs below
by means of spouts made of common bagging cloth, placed
at convenient distances, by which the grain from the bins
above is shot down into the feed troughs on either floor,
being guided by an assistant below who leads the spout
from place to place as he may desire.

This kind of barn has been found very convenient and
cheap to build, two men having fully completed one of the
size mentioned in a week, the roof being quickly and well
made by the use of the
metallic roofing plates, simply
nailed to the rafters without
any sheeting under it, unless
this is desired. But as the
roof is quite steep it may be
made of the plain weather
boarding, lapped two inches
and painted. The top should
be covered for two feet or so
by a cap of sheet zinc or gal-
vanized iron. The cut shows
the arrangement of the hay
spouts and the feed racks.

Figure 2 is that of a cheap frame building of light
materials put together in the strongest manner by means
of the bracing shown. It has a clear floor above, and it may
be made of three stories, two floors being occupied by sheep,

FEED RACKS AND SPOUTS.

204

THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

find the top floor by fodder. It will make a most desirable
house for rearing lambs, as there may be six rows of peiis
on the main floor, double planked, if two floors are used,
in the upper part, to keep the lower one dry. Or the upper
floor may be occupied by the lambs and the lower one by the
ewes. The braces bolted to the other parts of the frame
give great stiffness as well as a clear space at very little
cost of labor in the building. A barn on this plan, 180 feet

PIG. 2.— CHEAPLY BUILT SHEEP BARN.

by 40 has beou found to cost less than half that of a square
barn writh the same floor room, which is 7,200 square feet, a
little less than one-sixth of an acre, or a third if two floors
are used. It will accommodate 700 sheep, giving one and a
half feet of rack length to each sheep, which is ample; or if
for lambs there may be room made for 400 ewes, as well as
the same number of lambs, which will be kept in pens in the
middle space.

It has been contended by some sheep breeders that en-
closed stables are not desirable, and that mere open sheds
are sufficient. This is opposed to scientific rules, which go
to prove most emphatically, that exposure of any animal to
cold causes a waste of food \vhich is required to maintain
the animal heat indispensable for health and comfort, both
of which terms are equivalent; for discomfort, as we know-
in our own experience, is merely a condition whiich leads to
disease, and a diseased sheep will first show its conditio-u
by the dropping of the wool or a serious loss of flesh. So
that the belief of every well informed shepherd is that sheep
need good comfortable shelter, as well as other animals do.

BARNS AND STABLES. 205

There is 110 necessity for expensive buildings, all that is re-
quired is shelter from the snow and rains of the Winter.
This is so important that the Scotch, and some of the Eng-
lish, shepherds take every precaution to protect the sheep
by the use of oiled jackets to shed the rain from the sheep's
back, which is the most vulnerable part of the body, as the
spinal nerve which runs along this part of the body may be
easily chilled, and this causes sucih serious disorders of this
nervous center of the body, as to produce the most fatal
diseases. It will be useful to refer to the chapter on diseases,
in which this most sensitive part of the sheep's anatomy is
fully described, and the effects of injury to this great
nervous center are particularly discussed. Besides this pre-
caution, these shepherds grease the fleece so that it will shed
the rain and prevent it from penetrating to the skin, and
thus by the severe chilling effects cause these spinal diseases.
These precautions are needed when sheep are fed out in the
fields, gathering for themselves the common root crops on
which the chief Winter feeding of the flocks consist, nnd es-
pecially in a climate where rain is so almost constantly
drizzling as in England and Scotland.

There are serious difficulties in the way of our adoption
of this method of feeding our flocks, and thus we are obliged
to provide ample protection by means of sheds, or com-
pletely finished barns or enclosed stables. The mere shel-
ter is all that is needed, but provided in such a way that the
necessary conditions for health are secured.

An excellent shed suitable for sheep may be built for
the small cost of fifty cents a foot in length, and length is
more important than width, for a wide building must have
stiff and heavy timber in the frame, while one of twrenty
feet in width may be made wholly of the lightest framing
stuff. Indeed there need be no framing about it; the stuff
is put together with nails only, and with a double row of
studding in the center, where the feed racks are placed, will
serve to hold up the fodder stored above. The author has
built a substantial shed twenty feet wide and a hundred feet
long for fifty cents a running foot: and with extra fittings
and everything done in the best manner, the cost has been
under a dollar a foot for a well furnished lamb house, sepa-
rate pens and feed arrangements all included.

206 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

Twenty feet is quite sufficient width for any sheep
house. This permits four feed racks, a double one in the
center, and one at each side, or a row of lamb pens on one
side if desired. If the ground is dry, and not in a hollow,
so that the rain flows off from the eaves on each side into
gutters provided to carry off the water, no floor will be needed.
The whole front may be made of sliding doors hung on rol-
lers, the doors being pushed open in tine weather, and closed
in storms. The upper half of each door is provided with
shutters that may be opened when needed or closed for full
protection. These shutters are hinged so that they may be
turned down, and bars are placed inside, as a protection for
the sheep in such localities as where prowling dogs are too
numerous or wild animals may attack the flock at night.

For range flocks shelters may be made very cheaply.
The author, when keeping a flock in Western Kansas, built
a range of sheds in this manner. The outer Avail was of
sods laid up in the manner of a sod house, then a common
method of construction on the op<en range and distant from
the railroad, and especially wrheu the capital in hand could
be much more proiKably employed in buying and feeding
sheep, than in costly buildings. The main building was a
shed five hundred feet long, the outer wall made of sods
cut with a sharp steel plow, and chopped with a broad-ax
into lengths of six feet. The sods were eighteen inches
wide a,ud four inches thick. They were laid up into a wall
six feet high. The front of the shed was of posts eight feet
above the ground level, of cottonwood cut on the banks of
the river which ran through the range. The plates in front
and the rafters were of the same kind of timber, and the
roof was of thatch made of the abundant grass and sedge
in the wet bottom lands, which supplied very good hay when
cut in good time.

Six similar sheds were made from this main one, half
the length. These were double, having a row of posts in the
center and one at each side. The roofs were all of thatch
as the main shed roof was. The outside sheds had the outer
walls of sods, and the shepherd's house was wholly of sods,
with a thatched roof. This thatch is made of bunches of
grass laid first on the eaves, and tied dowm to split laths
tied to the rafters, writh tarred twine sufficiently strong for

BARNS AND STABLES.

207

the purpose. As a row of the thatch was laid another was
laid on it, and fastened down with the twine. As each row
of thatch was laid it was beaten down with a light mallet
to flatten it. The top of the roof was tied in a similar way
by winding the twine in and through the grass so as to
secure it firmly. The roof so made was perfectly water-
tight, and after being clipped with shears made a smooth,
neat appearance.

The front was made of wire fence seven feet high,
and the strands three 'inches apart for four feet up, and
seven inches for the rest. Sufficient gates, made of split
stakes, were put in the front. There were five separate
yards, each eighty feet wide, and the Winter stock of fodder
was stacked in these yards to which the sheep had free ac-

£- 0 o 24-

.— i* <£=~.

**? <~-

•^~* 4=*^,

PLAN OF SHEEP SHEDS.

cess. Corn was fed on the ground, and this without any
waste; the sheep eating it clean from the ground; and each
getting its due share better than whe/u fed in troughs. The
whole enclosure was about three acres. The sheep fed out
on the range most of the time, and were brought into the
shelter only when storms threatened. A barometer, of the
kind known as aneroid (a perfect portable instrument) was
daily consulted and at every considerable fall the flocks
were brought up. This is a good practice to follow oai
the range, as in every instance the prediction of the barome-
ter was verified, and many sheep were saved that would
surely have been lost without these warnings. A plan of
the sheds is given, the gates are seen to open inwards, a con-
venient precaution for safety.

208

THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

A few years' experience showed that the use of fodder
racks for feeding under similar circumstances, is not profita-
ble. The racks cost something, especially where lumber is
worth a high pi-ice, and generally is not to be obtained. The
loss of hay, costing something less than a dollar a ton
stacked in the yards, and the entire absence of waste in feed-
ing corn on the ground, by exercising a little care in scatter-

a, Slats 2x1^ inches, sloping in,
nailed to scantlings 2x2 at top. c,
Sliding boards. 2,2, Grain troughs 8
inches wide. Bars are nailed across
the grain rack of every third slat to
prevent sheep from crowding.

DOUBLE HAY RACKS AND TROUGHS.

ing it from a wagon before the sheep have been let out and
have scattered, render this method of feeding the most
economical under the circumstances. If a hay and grain
rack is thought desirable this one is recommended.

Another form of feed rack and grain trough is shown in
figure below. When lambs are running in the sheds with the
ewes it will be safe to close in the ends of the feed racks,

and indeed to carefully close
every space or hole in which
they can enter, as it will be
sure to happen that these mis-
chievous little things will
crawl in somewhere and get
fast and only be discovered
when too late, and they are
lost.

SOILING SHEEP.
On farms where the past-
urage is not sufficient, and
green crops for feeding may
be grown at a small cost, feed-
ing these in yards in which
there is convenient shed for

HAY BACK AND GRAIN BOX.

Grain box has cross cleats to
keep feed in place for each sheep.

shelter at night or in stormy weather in the Winter, will be
found a cheap a,nd very desirable practice.

A barn or shed placed in a central part of the space
to be allotted for this use will be required. A plan of such

BARNS AND STABLES.

20'J

a shed is here given. It is designed for a flock of sixty or
seventy, with room for the lambs included. It is made with
a low roof projecting well over the walls, so as to afford pro-

SHED FOR SOILING SHEEP,

tection from sweeping rains or snows. The window places
are open but protected by wire netting as a precaution
against dogs, where this danger may exist.

The floor plan is shown at figure. The feed racks run
around three sides and partly in the front, writh one in the
center giving the usual rack space of a foot and a half for
each of about seventy sheep.

The upper part of the front
door slides on rollers, and is
made of slate so as to give
ample ventilation along with
the large open window spaces.

The' lot. appropriated for
the sheep is fenced into con-
venient plots, into -each of
which the lower gate opens so
that the flock may be turned
out to feed on the remains of
the crops after the cutting has
been completed. Indeed it is
a part of this system that the
sheep may be fed out of doors,
in any of the separate plots by
cutting the crop in an adjoin- FLOOR PLAN OF SHED.

210

THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

•€>

ing lot, and giving it in suitable racks. A large quantity of
dry fodder may be saved in this way for Winter use, for as
fast as one plot is fed off, the land is immediately sown or
planted with another; and it is this succession which makes
this method of feeding so cheap and profitable. It is used
in dairies for feeding cows, and under this system one
square rod of ground feeds a cow one day, thus making one
acre and one crop feed 160 days. This is equivalent to seven
sheep. By good management, as by having crops come in
succession, two and even three may be grown on the same
laud in the Summer.

The chief crop is sweet
corn, the earliest of which
planted in this way, three
times as thickly as for a grain
crop, may mature in sixty
days. This may be followed
as soon as cut by another
planting. Indeed, the cutting
and planting go on simulta-
neously, for as fast as a strip
of ground is cleared, the plow
is put in and this land planted
or sown at once.

The most suitable crops for this system of feedijng are
sweet corn, mixed oats and peas. Sorghum (which may be
cut three times), rape, and one plot of orchard grass, which
affords constant pasture if well distributed through the
whole season, from April until the snow flies. Turnips or
rape may be sown on the last corn, to add to the feeding
season. Suggestions in this way only need to be given, the
intelligent reader will suit himself according to his circum-
stances, only following the general plan of always having
something growing, and no land idle a single day during the
growing season.. In this way every farmer may find it
easy, and exceedingly profitable, to feed a flock that may
bring in five or six dollars a head every year, and at the
same time add considerably to the products of the land
by its enrichment through the manure made. This is most
important for every farmer to consider.

*PLAS 0V BHEEP-TARD.

BARNS AND STABLES. 211

HANDLING SHEEP.

The handling of sheep is a science to be studied. You
cannot drive them without some method of controlling
them. Where one leads all will follow. There is an old, but
doubtless true, story told of a flock going to market, and
there came in the way a small huckster's cart loaded with
truck. There was ample rqom for the sheep to pass, but
one sprightly ram took a notion to jump over the cart, which
he did in the best style; every other sheep followed the lead,
and made a flying leap over the cart, and the bewildered
driver of it. Sheep have this way of "following my leader"
just as the boys do in their games, and it must be pre-
pared for by some reason of controlling them and forcing
them to go in the way they should. The stock yards afford
a lesson to the shepherd, for on some of the large ranches
there are equally easy means of handling sheep in a large
flock. Mr. J. E. Wing of Ohio gives us a story of the man-
agement of sheep at one of the stock yards in Chicago, and
his pleasantly told tale interests all concerned, shippers of
flocks for sale, and especially buyers for feeding.

SEEN AT THE CHICAGO STOCK YARDS.

The stock yards is an admirable place to study the
American sfeeep industry. I could spend weeks in the sheep
sheds with pleasure and profit. Let's look through together.

Here is a load— some 250 head of Montana wethers.
They are great tall, big-framed, lusty fellows, mostly
smooth-headed, but a few have horns. They are fat and
the killers want them. The buyers look them over ajnd bid
-I1/*. That means about $5 each for the lot, and a happy
rancher somewhere on the slopes of the Rockies.

Here is a lot in thinner flesh that will go out to the
country to be fed. They will cost about $3.60, or better,
and as they are good shearers, will no doubt be money
makers this year of cheap feed. The evenness of size and
appearance of these westerners is much in their favor. This
is mainly the result of correct breeding, but proper sorting
has done a good deal toward it.

Here we see a bunch of newly arrived sheep being "put
through the mill." The man with the sharp eye and trained

212

THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

judgment, stands and shifts the gate, shunting the ewes
and thin sheep into one pen, theprime muttons into another.
This sorting pen is so useful a thing that 1 think best to
show a sketch of it here. Most sheep farmers need one.

The lane must be narrow enough to compel single file,
as the sheep go in, sixteen inches is about right, and the
lane should be ten feet long at the least, twenty feet is bet-
ter, and the gate closed or opened switches the approaching
sheep into either apartment as desired.

SORTING PEN.

This pen of western lambs interests us. They have the
tell-tale smutty faces indicating the Shrop cross. We would
like them to feed, so healthy and lively and growthy they
seem, but Swift's buyer bids above the nickle and we leave
them to him.

Here is a small lot of native lambs. They seem nearly
full-blooded Shrops. Note the shrunken fleece, lack-lustre
eyes and languid movements. These mean that parasites
have struck them. Everywhere I go the evidence piles up
before me that the parasite has the eastern shipman in his
grip. What are we going to do about it? We will do some-
thing, depend upon it.

Here are some native ewes, good ones, nearly pure-
blooded Shrops. They, too, are infested, as is plain to be

BARNS AND STABLES. 213

seen. A farmer has bought them to take back to the coun-
try. I pity him his experience of the next year or two.

Here is another pen of natives, and what queer sheep
they are! Long in the leg, thin in the fleece, thin in the
chest, with pendulous bellies, like Indian famine sufferers;
it is a mystery to us that such sheep should exist in America
and good rams so cheap. There is a vast difference in the
quality of the westerns. Some one-half Cotswolds from
Utah tempt us, but Swift wants them and we let him have
them.

Monday morning sees a big "run" of 25,000 head in the
pens, and for once the feeder has a chance after the killers
have supplied themselves. We fall in love with some one-
half and three-quarter blood Shrops from Wyoming and the
salesman makes a quarter concession to us and soon 600
lambs are rolling toward Woodland Farm feed yards. We
have paid a long price, to be sure, but they are only 56 Ibs.,
and are all so even, so healthy and so free from "tail" that
we view them again and again with delight. We have
never had such feeders, aoid visions of fat 100 pounders next
March appear to us. First to the dipping vat they must go,
and the 600 go through it in less than an hour. There is no
scab on them and we feel very sure there will never be
any now, and shall not dip again. The charge is but 3c.
each and we are grateful to Secretary Wilson for having
made this dipping compulsory and thus feasible.

Homeward we rumble across Illinois prairies and Indiana
fields, burned to a crisp by the long drouth, the yellow corn
standing in great fields on either hand. Riding much on the
car roofs we study the farms on either side. Few sheep
are seen; none that would indicate even an- attempt at
systematic sheep husbandry. We think long of the future—
and what it has in store for us. Are we to learn how to
keep sheep in this central country, or are wre to continue to
lease it to the western brothers? Is it a safe business to
buy feeders in Chicago and compete with killers to rum
prices up— up?

A method followed on one of the Large Texan Ranches is
here shown. A and B >are two large lots into which the sheep
are gathered for dipping, marking or sorting. A round, cen-
tral pen (C) into which the sheep may be driven from either

214

THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

of the others, by means of the three-fold gate at the end
of the circular driveway, or alley. The sheep are gathered
in the lot B, and driven round inside of the curved fence
to the dipping vat, and the dripping vats at F and (J. The
circular fence is two hundred feet in diameter and will hold
two thousand sheep. It is easy to handle the sheep in any
way, by the gates in the alley, which is three and a half feet
wide. The alley is closed in the places marked, by a sliding

SLIDING GATE.

A TEXAS CATCH PEN FOR SORTING
AND DIPPING.

gate, shown at small figure, and will hold 200 head or more.
By dropping the sliding gates this lot may be divided into
four lots, each of which may be handled with ease for any
purpose desired, marking, dipping, sorting, or examining.
By using hurdles the part of the circular pen below the
curved fence may be closed in and the gate at either en-
trance may be closed at will. As soon as one pen is emptied
it is filled again from the next one, by lifting the gate by a
cord running over a pulley, and as fast as one lot is done
with, the next comes to hand without trouble or delay.
The rear pen D is used for drying the sheep after dipping
them in the vats and passing them through to draining floor

BARNS AND STABLES. 215

F and G. The shearing floor and the shepherd's house are
in this pen D, near the dipping vat.

A MANITOBA SHEEP HOUSE.

A Manitoba farmer has solved the problem of how to
dispose of the refuse of his large wheat and oat crop, and
preserve the fertility of his land with profit. He, as other
wise farmers have been doing for ages past and are doing
to-day, keeps sheep to consume the wastes of his grain
crops; the straw and chaff, and the screenings of the wheat
cleaned for sale together with ample crops of oats and peas
grown together, and harvested when the grain is merely
formed, and then ensiloed. This feed is well adapted to
feeding sheep and no other is required either for mainte-
nance of the flocks or for fattening those drafted out for
sale.

He has also solved the problem of the housing of the
sheep, when this is necessary or even desirable for the wel-
fare of the flocks. His houses are constructed in the sim-
plest manner. They are 200 feet long and 50 wide, having
a feed trough on the rear side, and cross feeding racks by
which the house is divided into pens 25x20 feet. A passage
runs the whole length of the house, and is eight feet wide.
The entrance gates to this passage are made to open out-
wards, but only half way, so that they form an entrance
with sloping sides by which the sheep entering cannot choke
the way or injure themselves by crowding in the sharp
entrance. The passage way is provided with gates which
are hung by cords which go over pulleys on the center posts;
and weights being attached to the cords so as to partly bal-
ance the gates, they are lifted with ease by a mere touch

n n I n n I n n I n n

JL6 o I*'

PIG. 3.— FRONT OF THE HOUSE.
For a Grain Farm, Oat and Pea Silage, with grain for feed.

of the hand, and remain suspended until drawn down again.

By this device each department of the house may be

closed and each space of fifty by twenty-five feet turned

into a separate pen, having a door to the outside where a

216

THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

large yard is enclosed by hurdles, which may bo moved
with ease, or one of which being loosened forms a rotary
gate. There is room for a thousand sheep in this house,
without crowding at the feed racks. Fig. 3 shows the front

\J/

2.0 /& Xo-^
FIG. 5.— SLIDING GATE.

FIG. 4.— FLOOR PLAN WITH FEED RACK.

of the house; fig. 4 is the floor plan; and fig. 5 shows tho
section through the house with the framing and the passage
way, with the feed racks on each side.

This passage is wide enough to per-
mit a wagon or sled to go through with
a load of fodder, which is distributed
easily among the feed racks with the
least amount of labor.

This house is built of posts set in the ground. The
framing is all of rough timber, and the roof and whole en-
closure consists of the common steel sheet roofing. It is fur-
nished with tight gates, so that in the heaviest cold storms
it may be entirely closed in, ample ventilation being pro-
vided for by the long narrowr openings in the front of each
gable, and others at the back. The feed troughs are made
of the steel sheeting, nailed to common post timber, hewed
into the proper form. This resource was made necessary
by the difficulty of getting sawred timber, a<nd the hewing
was cheaper than the sawring with whip saws.

The fundamental rules for success in housing and hand-
ling sheep may be repeated here for full consideration; so
that each one concerned, knowing his own necessities aim!
conditions, may apply these suggestions to his own indi-
vidual case. It was once remarked by one of the most pro-
found and successful teachers of mathematics as a rule for
his pupils (of whom the author was one) that whenever
there was any doubt, one should immediately revert to the
principle involved in the question. Everything in the whole

BARNS AND STABLES. 217

conduct of human affairs has its dilemmas, and times, in
which this going back to the principles involved is the secret
of success. So that we may suggest these rules for general
guidance \vhen one is in doubt of what is best to be dome
in any circumstances. Then any man, with a little thought,
may adapt his conduct to the conditions by which he is con-
fronted.

Rule 1.— Sheep require to be led, rather thato driven.
They are to be controlled by such means that they cannot
help but follow in the way they should go.

Rule 2.— Although naturally hardy they are the weakest
of animals when misfortune overtakes them, and their
natural stupidity, or— as might doubtless be more correctly
said— their inborn disposition to depend on their masters,
renders them an easy prey to any unfavorable conditions.
This is the inevitable result of their domestication from the
earliest ages.

Rule 3.— Sheep are fretful under disappointment. No
other animal is so much disturbed or suffers by irregularity
of management. Hence in all their management, in feeding
especially, th«e utmost regularity is to be observed.

Rule 4. — Although it might be thought that their woolly
coat is a sure protection against cold, it is only so in regard
to dry cold. Exposure to wet, by which the fleece is satu-
rated, chills them severely; and this on the most susceptible
part, the spine. Hence the flock is to be protected in ac-
cordance.

Rule 5.— Sheep are as easily chilled inside as outside.
Hence the water supplied to them should be pure, and never
so cold as to chill the stomach.

Rule 6.— The sheep's fleece is of such a nature that ex-
posure to wet and warmth, or pressure, causes it to felt.
Hence a wet fleece is to be avoided, or, if it must be so,
the sheep must not be crowded together.

Rule 7.--A sheep is subject to a greater number of para-
sites thaoi any other animal and suffers more than others
from them. This calls for suitable precautions to avoid this
exposure.

Rule 8.— The inborn dependence of sheep upon mankind
calls for the constant thought of the shepherd to study the
necessities of the flock and to provide in advance for them.

218

THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

Rule 9.— This last rule is to be understood to apply
not only to number, but to every other condition of the
flock. "Whenever the shepherd sees his sheep let him count
them." This includes a close examination of the condition
as well as to the numbers.

MR. J. E. WING'S BARN.

Economy is always in order, and a cheap and com-
modious barn for a small breeding flock, designed by Mr.
Wing is here described and illustrated. It is a noteworthy
commendation of this design that it has been adopted by
the Ohio Experiment Station.

Fig. 6. Fig. 7.

The posts, AA. are 8 feet tall, and in my bam will very
probably be round white oak posts, set in the ground. They
will not rot off in iny timf , and when they do my boy can
saw them off and set them on stones.

The posts, BB, are ten feet high above ground. This differ-
ence in height is made to allow a driveway through the
building. This is not necessary in all cases, and it may be
that J. R. D. will prefer to take in his hay at the end of the
barn, and have his mow floor level, in which case the posts
will all be of the same height.

The plates, C C D, are of joist, 2x8, and are double, that
is. one is notched in on each side of the post as shown at
Fig. 6. These notches are cut just deep enough to leave
4 inches of wood and of space between the joists; the
braces then pass up between the double plates and are
firmly spiked to them. At the foot of the braces the post

BARNS AND STABLES 219

is flattened and slightly notched, and the braces spiked
there. The plates on which rest the rafters are made of two
pieces of 2x8, spiked on as shown at fig. 7. This makes a
very strong and stiff plate, and is really better than the
old fashioned mortised plate and many times easier put on.

The rafters are in two pieces, splicing in the center, a
lap-splice spiking together. They are supported in the cen-
ter by a purlin plate, F, which is 3x10, and supported by the
purlin posts, E E. In putting this up temporary braces will
be used until the rafters are spiked in place, when no fur-
ther bracing Is needed. This purlin does not receive the
thrust of the rafters but merely supports the weight, the
thrust being held at the plate below7.

At G there should be a track for a hay carrier. I prefer
the wooden tracks of 4x4 and the sling carriers. The mow
•will hold about 12 tons of hay. The floor is supported by
2x8 joists spaced 2 feet apart over the center and 3 feet
over the side bents.

For roof.ug I shall use the best shingles that I can get.
We have now a good deal of iron roofing and it is not satis-
factory. It requires paint too often.

Siding may be of oak or pine. Pine is better, unless
the oak has been seasoned without warping or twisting; it
should be well nailed if used and battened. Plenty of doors
should be used, each in two halves, the lower half swinging
ajnd the upper half raising like an awning, hung by hinges
at upper edge. Thus the sheep may have sun and air,
and yet be kept in by the closed lower door.

Here is a bill of lumber and approximate cost of same.
I charge but $5 per thousand for the oak, as that is all it
will cost in cash to one having the timber:

8 posts, 8x8 (or round), 10 feet 427ft.

8 posts, 8x8 (or round), 12 feet 512 ft.

8 posts, 4x8, 8 feet (purlin) 192ft.

69 joists, 2x8, 12 feet 1,104 ft.

6 purlin plates, 3x10, 12 feet 180 ft.

34 4x4 girts, 12 feet 544 ft.

1,120 1 x4 sheeting 1,120 ft.

1,276 feet flooring 1,276 ft.

76 rafters, 2x5x16 .1,013 ft.

Total oak 6,368 ft.

Cost of 6,368 feet oak at $5 per M $31.84

1,800 feet pine siding 36.00

18,000 shingles 46.80

Nails 5.00

Labor, help about raising, etc 15.00

Total cash outlay needed $134.64

220

THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

hatchet" carpenter. It is really nothing but a strong hay
scaffold covered by a roof. Yet, if well braced as shown,
it will be amply strong and will last as long as any kind of
frame, and it can be built by any man able to own a hun-
dred sheep. There is no doubt that it pays to shelter all
sheep from storms east of the Missouri Itiver, and one can-
not afford to own sheep that he cannot shelter.

As to the arrangement of the interior, I mean to devote
the central division to the little iambs, giving them access

o\

\\\<t

\o
ound

Vamb

V\OM

rcfrcVa

to it through a creep. Lambs are timid things, and will not
thrive when obliged to struggle for their rations with older
sheep. They also need a clean, dry place in which to romp
and play and lie and sleep. The only profitable lamb is the
happy one.

One side is devoted to the ewes that have not yet lambed,
requiring different food and care from those suckling their
lambs, the other to the mothers. It will be well if possible
to give each flock access to a dry grass-lot for exercise. If
but one lot at hand, the ewes that have lambed will get their
exorcise in caring for their lambs. After a large part of the
ewes have lambed, a part of the vacant side may be parti-
tioned off and ewes and lambs put therein.

Water ought to be in each part.

BARNS AND STABLES.

221

There is not one mortise or tenon in this frame nor any
feature that cannot be readily understood by any "saw and

Pig. 8 is an after thought, and
shows that by making the outer
posts also ten feet high the roof
will be raised two feet, and the stor-
age capacity of the mow increased
over five tons, giving about 17 tons
about right for a flock of 100 ewes of
the mutton breeds. The labor of Fig. 8.

building'with the additional height will be the same, and the
extra cost of 288 feet of siding.

MR. VESTAL'S BARN.

Mr. W. B. Vestal of Indiana gives us this ground plan
of his barn which has some excellent points:

The building is 02x48 feet, fronts south, is twelve feet
at the eaves and is 27 feet to the hay carrier, which extends

.<«••••. ,•**""•*

LI/ ' ^>± ' .* / ' Iv

4Sf

H

\

the whole length of the building. Hay is unloaded from cen-
ter driveway; both drives are 14 ft. wide. The center drive
is open to the roof and cupola to afford ventilation. The
mows are 8 ft. high. The west drive has floor over the
center, leaving a space of 14 ft. at each end open to the roof.

222 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

Ample ventilation, without draughts, is greatly to be de-
sired in a sheep barn.

The hay racks, A, are built with flat bottom troughs in
front, to catch scraps of hay and to feed grain in bad
weather. B, water trough. C, well. D, dipping tub. E,
shearing table. F, hospital. G, nursery. H, feeding place
for lambs, entered by creeps. K, closet, large enough to hold
all the tools and instruments required about a sheep barn, so
that they may be found when wanted. If ear tabs, worm
powders, cordial, and some sheep dip are constantly kept
in stock, it wrill save both time and sheep. The distance all
being the same, a 14 ft. gate, which will lift off the hinges.
may be placed at any desired point, to divide the flock into
as many lots as may be desired, and a great many combina-
tions may be had with a couple of light gates and a little
thought. A gate placed in middle of center drive, or at post
opposite hospital door, and one midway the water trough,
will divide the room about equally and allow both access to
water. The top half of the doors are on rollers, the lower on
hinges. The doors may be fastened open and the gate hung
in doorway. This barn will accommodate 125 breeding
ewes, and hay enough to see them through. If more storage
room is needed for hay, build it higher and it will look
better.

SHEPHERD DOGS.

The Collie dogs are remarkable for great intelligence,
an" instinct which seems sometimes to surpass reason; won-
derful endurance, and activity. Without these dogs, sheep-
keeping in many districts, useful for no other branch of
agriculture, would be impossible. The home of this breed is
the Scotch highlands, a locality of rocks and hills, inter-
spersed with grassy valleys; elevated tablelands bearing
scanty herbage, and "moors," or level or slightly undulating
tracts covered with gorse, heather, low bushes, boggy places,
and scattered rocks. Upon these hills sheep are kept in large
flocks, exposed from day to day to all the vicissitudes of
storms, mists, rains, and snows, with no other shelter than is
afforded by the lee side of abrupt precipices, overhanging
rocks, stone walls, or in rough sheds of poles and heather.
Without, his dogs the shepherd would be helpless to manage
his flock in this rough country. In countries where arable

224 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

land bears a very high price, only such land as cannot be
plowed is given up to sheep pastures, and here the dog is in-
valuable; and not only here, for he is made useful upon the
more civilized, hillsides of the Scotch lowlands; upon the
grassy downs of England, the rich farms where sheep-keep-
ing is only incident to high culture, and upon our own
Western plains. Everywhere, where sheep are kept, a sheep
dog of some kind is found useful; and of all the different
varieties the Collie is considered the most valuable. He pos-
sesses a rare instinct for his work, which comes as a second
nature to him. He often knows the ways of sheep better
than his master, and understands the signals of the shep-
herd when far out of hearing, with great precision. Cases
have been known in which the dog has discovered the ab-
sence of some laggards of the flock which his master had not
missed, and has returned to the pasture for them unbidden.
He can range his flock upon one side of a road, when meet-
ing other sheep, and thus keep them from intermingling with
the strangers. He will discover by his acute sense of smell
sheep that have been overwhelmed in snow-drifts, and will
conduct the shepherd to the place. If no help is available,
he has been known to dig into the drift and release impris-
oned sheep, and to warm chilled lambs by huddling close to
them. He is valiant in their defence, and will give battle to
a wolf without hesitation. No vagrant dog will be per-
mitted to approach a flock of which he has charge. He will
bring back stragglers when upon the march, and will return
to find sore-footed ones that have lingered by the way. For
a farm dog he is of special value, as he can easily be trained
to manage with gentleness any kind of live-stock. He is do-
mestic in his habits. While kind and affectionate to his
owner, and his herds, he is watchful and suspicious of stran-
gers and strange animals. His good disposition gives him
great influence over his charge, and causes them to have
confidence in him. When a flock is afraid of the shepherd's
dog, it shows wrong management on the part of the shep-
herd, and that the dog has been badly trained. The Collie
has long and woolly hair; a bright mild eye; a sharp nose;
an intelligent aspect; a long bushy tail, curling upwards,
with the end clear of the ground; and in color is usually
black and tan, variegated with a little white. Not the least

SHEPHERD DOGS. 225

wonderful or useful characteristic of the dog is his tenacious
memory, by which he is able to remember all the turning
points in a journey of hundreds of miles, and to recognize
at sight every member of the flock to which he has become
attached. With all his good qualifications, however, he
sometimes lapses from virtue; and no other dog is so de-
structive in the fold as a sheep dog become demoralized
by bad companions. The Scotch and English shepherds
set great store by their dogs, and trials of his sagacity and
special training, made at the numerous fairs are a matter
for amazement by those not fully acquainted with his skill
in managing the wildest sheep. These competitions are excit-
ing as well as amusing. We have seen him engaged in driv-
ing into a small pen, a bunch of the wildest sheep known,
doubtless, the small agile Welsh mountain breed whose
jumping abilities are amazing. The test of the dog's in-
genuity and natural acuteness is made by giving him half
a dozen of these nimble and willful animals, in an open field,
to drive into a pen with but one narrow opening. The dog
is always the victor in these matches, between the two most
sagacious of all animals. The patient skill of the intelligent
animal in penning the sheep, in spite of their unwillingness,
is worth crossing the ocean to see.

Unfortunately for him, he is subject to one of the worst
of diseases by which he is made a natural enemy of the
sheep he watches over so well. This is the tapeworm of sev-
eral species, which he harbors in his intestines, and which
by one of the most curious of natural transformations and
transmigrations, pass from the dog to the sheep. But it is
no difficult matter to relieve him of this parasite. This is to
give him at stated intervals, as is mentioned in the chapter
on diseases of the sheep, regular doses of worm medicine,
keeping him shut in during the operation of it, so that the
worms he discharges may be effectually destroyed.

The shepherd's dog is indispensable to the shepherd, but
in procuring an animal it is necessary to get one well bred,
and trained if necessary, or the expected assistant may turn
out to be the worst enemy the flock may encounter. The
pure breed only should be procured, for a cross bred dog
may be really a damage to the flock instead of its friend and
protector.

CHAPTER VI.

WOOL: ITS HISTORY, USES, NATURE,
CULTURE AND DISEASE.

Wool is a modified form of hair. It is distinguished from
hair, however, by certain special and prominent character-
istics, while retaining to some extent other properties which
are common to the natural covering of all animals. It has
precisely the same chemical composition a.s skin, hair, and
the feathers of birds, having as these have about 16 per cent
of nitrogen and 4 per cent of sulphur. It is distinctly a
growth from the ski!n, being rooted in it, and drawing its
nutriment from it, and partaking with it in precise sympa-
thy its prosperity and adversity; growing luxuriantly, and in
its best form, in health; but equally suffering with it in
sickness and disease.

FIG. 1.

«, Epidermis, or surface skin, b, Dermis, or true skin.
c, Fiber of wool, with its follicles. d, d, Nutritive glands.
e, e, Capillary blood vessels. /,/, Masses of fatty tissue.
(Magnified 500 diameters.)

Its manner of grqwth is peculiar. Its root is a bulb
which is inserted in what is called a follicle of the skin,
as shown in figure 1. It is not deeply planted, and is thus
subject to serious injury under what might be thought quite

HISTORY OF WOOL. 227

immaterial circumstances. Indeed, its sympathetic action
is so closely concerned with the condition of the skin, that it
might be said truthfully that it keeps a constant periodical
record of the daily changes in the health or welfare of the
sheep. Every failure in the sheep's condition is marked by
a weak spot in the fiber of the fleece, and when this is at
all serious, these weak spots are so considerably developed
as to weaken the fibers and cause them to break easily,
and thus greatly lessen the value of the wool for manu-
factures.

As with many other things, modern science disproves the
old belief that wool, as well as hair, has the form of a tube.
This was always stated in the old works on the sheep, and
its care and management; but now relegated, by more exact
knowledge, to that heap, or waste pile of errors, which grad-
ually accumulates as we learn more of 'the nature of things
through our more exact scientific instruments. The modern
process of dividing objects for examination by improved
microscopes, and by which we can cut sections or objects to
a thinness of the thousandth part of an inch or less, and
magnify them a million times with our better knowledge of
the effects of light, has proved to us that hair and wool are
solid and not tubular, but that they have a central core, as it
were, which is covered by a distinct epidermis or outer cov-
ering, smooth and brilliant in hair, but in wool serrated and
covered with scales having sharp entangling points or
hooks, by which the fibers, under certain conditions, become
closely intertwined and entangled, forming a tough, elastic
fabric which we know as felt; the common material for
making hats. This fact is not only interesting to the shep-
herd to know, but useful, as furnishing admonition to him
to avoid these conditions which are very easy to occur in
the care of a flock, by which the wool undergoes this very
injurious process and is thus seriously reduced in value
to the manufacturer.

But wool, while it retains these normal relations, and
peculiarities, of form, yet varies very much in the different
breeds of wool bearers. Indeed, this variation is so con-
siderable, that it is an indispensable necessity for the sur-
vival of an enormous industry in manufacturing wool frr
various kinds of clothing, that the culture of it, as a special

228 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

product, has become— if indeed it has not been so even from
pre-historic times — the chief object of the shepherd. And
this objective necessity of the shepherd has made it indis-
pensable that the professional breeder— if he himself is not
an expert in this line of his business— must give much
thought and study to the nature and product of the flocks,
as well as the changing fashions in clothing fabrics needing
wool. And the breeder must so develop needed changes in
the sheep as to meet all the demands of the manufacturer,
who only reflects the tastes and fashions of the general pub-
lic who consume the goods he makes. The shepherd then
and thus is not in precise control of the world, but he is the
servant and purveyor for it iii this regard, and he must
keep in the front as the procession passes by, as may be said,
and conform his movements to those of the irresistible mass
of the public.

There was a time when the Merino was the only kind of
civilised domestic sheep. It furnished the fine wools which
were spun and woven by the noble women of the most an-
cient times. For in one of the earliest written books, in
which we have the history of Job, we find the excellent
mistress of a noble household providing in this way for
her dependants. So the noble ladies of Rome spun and wove
the luxuriant woolen robes, and dyed them for their hus-
bands and fathers and brothers in the costly Syrian pur-
ple. And this custom gave origin to our common term for
unmarried women, viz., spinsters. And to this day the
Merino— then the only domesticated sheep — holds the front
place among the wool bearers of the world, counting more
than five-sevenths of the whole number of sheep now exist-
ing. But since these ancient days the constant progress
in civilization, and practical comfort growing out of it,
has greatly varied the demand for woolen goods; and for
some centuries past breeders have given their attention to
the development of breeds of coarser wooled sheep. Thus
the Cotswold— originated from a Spanish coarse-wooled
variety— and the native English sheep, were improved grad-
ually, until the beautiful Southdown was" developed and per*
fected, and became the progenitor of most of our excellent
short and middle wool sheep of what are commonly known
ns the Down breeds. And so this constantly improved cul-

HISTORY OF WOOL. 229

ture of the sheep continued with the result of giving us the
comparatively large variety now in the hands of breeders,
with the constantly increasing number of Hocks in the hands
of shepherds.

It should be noted right here, that the chief object of the
American shepherd, as also that of every other civilized
country, except England, has been the production of wool;
while that of the English shepherd has been the mutton.
It has happened, however, that in the pursuit of the best
mutton in the world the English shepherds have brought
into existence an invaluable class of wool sheep, now more
than ever to be considered because the coarser and longer
staple has been generally adopted as the material for cloth-
ing. And the American shepherd, once a wool grower only,
has now to meet the rapidly increasing demand of the
most populous civilized nation in the world for choice mut-
ton, the most nutritious and pleasant flesh food existing,
besides catering in the same line for the foreign consumers.
So that we here have two objects to pursue, each of which
will tend to the profit of American breeders and shepherds.
And let us here once more remark, as a very important
fact, that in this industry, based on the sheep as a source of
profit, there must be two distinct interests; that is to say,
the shepherd as a producer of the final products of the sheep;
and the breeder as the source from which must be procured
the materials for the shepherd to work with. For there
must be a higher and more cultivated designer to prepare
the materials for the actual worker, which the shepherd is
and always must be. And his materials must be the cheap
sheep to supply the mutton aoid the wool, crossed with the
high-bred and cultivated, imlproved rams, of pure blood,
constantly improved and varied as the needs of the markets,
and also of the shepherds— who cater for the markets-
may call for. For breeding is an exact science, to be studied
by experts, and a costly business which is above the limit of
the ability of the shepherd. In time we shall doubtless
adopt the methods of the German breeders, who employ ex-
perts to advise them and help them choose the materials
for reinforcing their flecks, In regard to the maitateinance
of a necessary high standard of excellence in form, size,
quality of flesh, and value of fleece; not neglecting the neces-

230 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

sary constitution requisite for a breeder. And while the
breeder studies very carefully the form and constitution of
his favorite breed, he will not act wisely if he neglects the
influence of breeding upon the quality of the wool. For this
result of cross breeding for variety of wool has been found
exceedingly effective in modifying the character of the
fleece and adding to its value for the manufacture of impor-
tant varieties of fabrics.

We cannot follow down the ages the full history of wool.
It may be sufficient to merely show how it thrived in the
most a.ncient times from the very beginning of human life
on the face of the earth, accompanying the savage man
whose home was in caves, and gradually advancing
with him as he approached civilization, until the first writ-
ten history of our race originated. Then we find the an-
cient sheep-skin wras changed for clothing of wool, aaid the
fleeces were a large part of the early merchandise of the
world. Then wealth was estimated by the numbers of the
flocks, while the sheep became the most valuable offering
that could be made as the sacrifice to the highest objects of
worship.

As this ancient civilization advanced, the sheep— we may
be sure — was brought under most careful cultivation, and
wealthy nobles of the nations were noted for the number of
their flocks. This advance, however, was lost to a great
extent during that time of anarchy and slaughter which we
kno\v as the dark ages, in which, however, the sheep and its
wool nevertheless continued as a valuable possession and
necessity of life; for the heavy ransoms of captives made in
those continuous wars were frequently made in sheep and
wool, and such merchandise as then existed consisted largely
of bales of wool.

Indeed, at that period of our race, we know that the shep-
herds seemed to control such governments as could exist dur-
ing such turbulent times; and the Shepherd Kings, with
their shepherd followers, led the world for a considerable
time during which a sort of nomadic life prevailed. And as
the dark ages passed the sheep survived, and when some
sort of settled life became possible, it remained as one of
the most valued possessions of our race. Thus in course of
ages the sheep survived, in time to become the leading pur-

NATURE OF WOOL. 231

suit of such permanent nations as were formed out of the
remnants of governments which escaped extermination, and
an indispensable accompaniment of the gradually improving
civilized agriculture.

It may be easily thought that the most powerful com-
munities settled as permanent nations, gradually improve.!
their flocks until in more recent times friendly governments
—as an indication of good will— presented selected flocks
to others, who received these gifts with avidity and exer-
cised great care to distribute them among the leading own-
ers of the cultivated lands. It was in this way that the best
sheep of Spain, where it seems that the flocks had been
most carefully preserved and improved, were distributed
and became the progeinitors of such breeds as our present
improved Merinos, Cotswolds and Southdowns, which are
really the original ancestors of all our present existing varie-
ties.

Still wool was the main object of solicitude, and leading
breeders gave the closest attention to the improvement of
sheep as wool producers. The rest is a matter of modern
history, and after all we are still at work in the same line,
and shall doubtless always be so, for we cannot realize any
such thought that the world can ever exist as the home
of civilized communities without the sheep as one, if not the
first of agricultural pursuits.

These being the facts before us, it is necessarily the busi-
ness of the shepherd to give his attention to the best man-
agement of his flocks for the wool product, to the practical
understanding of the character of this staple, and the best
means of preserving its quality amd increasing its value
by the most judicious culture of the sheep.

THE NATURE OF WOOL.

The chief value of wool depends on its peculiar char-
acter, and its adaptation to the various processes of manu-
facture; for its usefulness in this respect depends on its
peculiar structure.

A fiber of wool, when examined under a powerful micro-
scope, is seen to consist of three parts: first, a central core
consisting of what is termed medullary substance. This is
a sort of fatty matter akin to (he marrow of a bone, and

232 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

having the property of giving a softness and elasticity to
the fiber which is one of the distinguishing features of
wool. Over this central core is the second layer called the
corticle substance. This is the fibrous part of the fiber, to
which its strength is due. It contains the coloring matter.
It is really a fibrous thread and is striped lengthwise. This
fiber grows from the root which is seated in the nutritive
follicle in the lower skin. It has such a formation as gives
to it the waved and spiral character, and causes it .to twist
easily and become matted together under certain processes
known as felting. It also enables it to sustain and preserve
the twist which is given to it in the process of spinning.
But the most remarkable and special feature of wool is its
outer covering.

This outer covering consists of pointed scales, the ex-
tremities of which are sharp. These are arranged around
the fiber in spirals.

PIG. 3. FIG. 4. FIG. 5.

Fig. 2, Fiber of Merino wool.

Fig. 3, Cross section through a fiber of Merino wool.
Fig. 4, Single fiber of Merino wool. • Fig. 5, Lock of Merino wool.

Fig. 2. The sharp points are more distinctly shown at
fig. 3, which represents a fiber of wool cut down the
center. But all kinds of wool are not precisely alike in this
respect. Fine wools as that of any one of the Merinos, are
more liberally furnished with these serrations than other
kinds. In the finest Saxony wool these number as many
as 2,800 to the single inch. Wool of the finest Southdown
has about 2,000; and of the Leicester about 1,800. The fins
wool, too, has a much more wavy disposition, as is shown at
figures 4 and 5. This selection of illustrations has been
made for the purpose of explaining the peculiar property

NATURE OF WOOL. 283

possessed by wools oi' this class, known as felting, or adher-
ing- together in a mass, by the interlacing of the libers when
passed through a special process. It also goes to illus-
trate the facility with which wool on the sheep's back may
undergo this adherent process when it is damp, and by rea-
son of its elasticity, and the pressure due to the sheep hud-
dling together, and chafing the wool as well as by the in-
fluence of the dissolved yolk— all these being accessory— the
fleece felts, or as we sayv becomes cotted. This of course is
a serious damage; for in the carding of such wool it is torn
into shreds; even into dust when it is in bad condition; and
is worthless for any but the lowest qualities of goods.

But yet this peculiar character and structure of wool
is of the utmost importance in its manufacture. For when
it is carded and torn into innumerable short lengths, these in-
tertwine, and when the wool is spun it becomes aggregated
into a thread of great strength and elasticity. It is to this
natural peculiarity of fine wool, in excess of other kinds,
that it is more highly valued for the finer class of goods
which are known as broad cloths.

Moreover it is to this peculiar nature of wool that it may
be spun into such fine threads, that one pound of the fin-
est reaches a length of very nearly one hundred miles. This
all goes to show the necessity for every wool grower to
study the final uses of his products that he may secure the
greatest profit in the higher prices he may obtain for the
finest of them. It is also of interest to know precisely what
the fulling process is that is applied to the finishing of the
fine cloths made from the best qualities of Merino fleeces.

This process consists of oiling the wool, and then spinning
and weaving it into the cloth. The cloth is then freed from
the oil by steeping it in a mixture of a fine sort of alkaline
clay, known as fuller's earth. This Is followed by pressing the
cloth, which of course brings the fibers into close proximity,
and causes them to mat together by their sharp hooked
scales, thus forming a firm, dense fabric. Afterwards being
torn on the surface by a set of teasels fitted in a frame, a
fine velvety nap is raised on the cloth, which retains the
glossy texture of the wool. Only the finest of the Merino
wools are thus treated. This result of moisture, grease, and
pressure, with some considerable warmth, is sometimes ex-

234 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

perienced on the sheep, which are permitted to crowd in
close pens after the fleeces have been soaked with rain.
The lieece then mats in spots to the serious injury of it for
the manufacturer's use.

The different breeds vary very much in regard to the
character of the fleece. The length varies from one inch
in some parts of the finest Saxony and French Merinos, to
eight or more inches in the Lincolns. The fineness varies
as has been mentioned above. The luster also differs, that
of the Lincoln wool and the best of the Leicester, being
much brighter than the short wools or the fine Merino
fleeces. The curl also varies considerably; that»of the Merino
being the most conspicuous. The serrations are much more
numerous in the finest wools while they are far less promi-
nent and inferior iin number in the long and more lustrous
varieties. Thus it is that each kind of wool has its special
uses in manufacturing, and as the demands of the manufac-
turers, to meet the necessities of the markets for their
products are constantly changing, as the fashions change,
there is a concurrent demand for varieties of wools that can
only be met by cross breeding, skillfully managed by intelli-
gent and experienced wool growers. This necessity for
increased varieties thus opens up a wide field for the wool
grower in the direction of breeding for some special variety
of wool, and thus has to be met by intelligent crossing of
such breeds of sheep as will meet the necessities of each
case.

CROSS BREEDING I^OR WOOL.

As may be well thought from the remarks in a preceding
chapter on breeding of sheep, and especially on cross breed-
ing, the special breeding for variety of fleece must be under-
taken only by experts, to whom the whole subject is
familiar. That is, those having a full general acquaintance
with not only the history of the breeding of sheep but also of
the nature and varieties of wool, and as well as of the pre-
potent anility cf the- various breeds in regard to the perpetua-
tion in this line of their individual characteristics. One cf the
old breeders in his day very truly remarked, that the sheep
breeder works with sharp-edged tools, with which he may
very easily destroy his whole work by a slip of the hand,

CROSS BREEDING FOR WOOL. 235

as it were. This is essentially true, as has been shown by
the numerous failures made by inexperienced breeders of
this most easily impressed animal, whether for good or ill.
And if this be true, as regards the sheep as a mere mutton
maker, it must be still more so in regard to it as a wool
producer. And yet by following strictly along the right line
of the skillful and experienced breeder, there is a most im-
portant work to be done in the variation and improvement
of the fleece. We know what has been accomplished by the
skill of the breeders in improving the carcass of the various
sheep, and in developing new breeds by mixture of the new
breeds with the old and inferior ones; and it is not to be
doubted that equal improvement and variety in the fleece
may be accomplished in a similar way by crossing for the
product of new staples of wool for the demands of the manu-
facturers. The following remarks on this- important sub-
ject were published a short time ago in the columns of the
Country Gentleman— the leading agricultural journal in the
world— the editor of which has very kindly and courteously
given permission for the reproduction of the articles in this
volume:*

"The future of the wool industry, including both the
growth of the staple and the manufacture of it, must be"
large and continuous. The progress of civilization among
the hitherto savage human races will undoubtedly be much
more rapid in the future than ever before, and the dark ages
of these unfortunate people are in course of rapid removal
by means of commerce, and the competition of powerful
nations for spheres of influence in the newly opened regions
of the dark continent. Of the whole of our race, only one-
third are really clothed, one-third go completely naked, and
the other third wear only the modest breech clout. But of
the third who are considered as clothed, fully three-fourths
are only insufficiently supplied with clothing, and luxury to
them in this respect is a thing unknown and undreamed of.
So that an enormous growth of the wool industry is in cer-
tain sight, and all the resources of the shepherd will soon be
taxed to supply these certain demands. History repeats it-
self, and as the dark ages of Europe and Asia have gone,
and comfort and luxury, the growth of peace and civilized
industry, have taken the place of bloody anarchy and pov-
*These articles were contributed to the Country Gentleman by the author.

236 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

erty, so the condition of now savage races will be in time
changed for one of comparative civilization in which man-
kind become purchasers of manufactured articles, and good
clothing is the second necessity of life.

NY hut does the impending change mean to the owners
of flocks and the manufacturers .of woolen goods? Nothing less
than a steadily increasing demand for wools, and that of
many grades suited for all demands of necessity or fashion.
We must produce more wool, and a greater variety of it,
and this means an increase of flocks, and an intelligent
study of the nature of the sheep's fleece, and the possibility
of variation of it by judicious crossing, and possibly of the
establishment of new breeds for this purpose.

Wool is now differentiated by breed, and by the parts of
the sheep's body. It must not be supposed that the whole
body of a sheep bears the same kind and quality of wool.
This would be a wholly mistaken idea, and one that
would stand prominently in the way of any intelligent con-
sideration of this subject. And this is one of the most
important things for the wool grower to study when he is
thinking of improving his wool-bearers. The diagram here
given will represent the difference in the quality of the wool
of any one of the Down breeds, and approximately of that in
a Merino. For the quality of the fleece is yet dependent to a
large extent on the form of the frame even of the most
highly bred Merinos, and it will be centuries, perhaps, before
the most skillful breeder will be able, if ever, to overcome
the tendency to this local variation in wool. Hence the
wool-sorter's occupation will still remain, until by successful
crossing and long continued breeding the whole carcass
may bear wool of a high value if this were desirable. That
it will be desirable to the wool-grower seems to be certain,
although there is a necessity for many grades for the manu-
facturer.

The wool from the center
of the sides, marked 1 in the

illustration is of the finest \. ^ ' ,.../ j

quality. At 2 and 3 the fleece
becomes coarser and shorter,
and as the breech is ap-

CROSS BREEDING FOR WOOL. 237

preached, at 4, this coarseness, and length, too, are increased.
The most inferior part of the fleece is 011 the belly and brisket,
as at 5 and 6, that on the legs being almost like hair. Every
Merino breeder will know how much has been done with
that breed in bringing the fleece to a more even sameness
of quality, for in some of the Merinos the belly wool is
much better than in the Down breeds, and the leg wool is
wool down to the hoofs. This exemplifies the possibility
that exists in the improvement of sheep by successful cross-
ing. The wool buyer takes note of this difference, and it is
this, which he recognizes by feeling when he handles the
fleece, that causes him to give a better price for the fleeces
of one flock than he will give for others. This is one of
the essential points to be considered in choosing the rams
to be used in crossing as well as in selecting the flock of
ewes.

That cross-bred sheep must be the main dependence of
the wool grower is as certain as an axiom. There is not a
sufficient supply of pure bred sheep to produce all the wool
required, and there never will be any sufficient uniformity
in the pure bred sheep to keep the staple of even quality.
Many breeders make many breeds; even of one race. We
cannot keep twenty flocks of any breed all started alike,
and from the same origin, all alike and without sensible
change for ten years, but in that short time these flocks
will exhibit surprising differences. This is very well known
to breeders, who must exercise the most rigid selection
to keep their standard of excellence intact. Thus the
slaughter-house is one of the absolute necessities of the suc-
cessful breeder, and as there are weeds in flocks as in fields,
the weeding of the breeder is as necessary for his success
as is that of the farmer or gardener to them. But, divide a
flock into twenty, and put these divisions into separate
hands, and all skilled to some extent, and there will be as
many different flocks in ten years. Thus the breeder's occu-
pation will remain, as indispensable to the integrity of any
breed, and the wool grower will improve his wool by cross-
ing native sheep or grades, gradually getting nearer to the
pure bred fleece, but never up to it, by the use of pure
bred rams selected judiciously to mate his ewes.

These facts will show the importance of the wool grower

238 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

Laving an ideal. And also of having such an acquaintance
with sheep as will enable him to reach his objective point
most readily. The majority of wool growers will not bo
breeders, that is, working skillfully for the creation of some
new breed or strain, that will become fixed in time; and
this for the reason that we have now as many breeds as will
supply all demands for wool, and if any new evolution
shall ever occur in the wool trade, this will be so gradual that
it may doubtless be met by a parallel change in the product.
It is evident to any one who is in touch with both these
depaitments of the wool business, that we need to produce
more of that class of wool that comes from high grade
Merinos crossed upon other and coarser wooled sheep, and
this for the purpose of getting the finest of the Merino, with
the heavier fleece from the heavier carcasses of sheep, that
will supply mutton. And for the too numerous natives, wo
want the improvement by the Merinos for the supply of
these grades. And the wool grower who has mastered all
the intricacies of his business will purchase his grades and
the rams, and thus furnish a market for the first hand sheep
—the improved natives. And this should bring us to the
English system of great sheep markets, where a hundred
thousand head or more may be found at the right time
for the purposes of the purchaser in each locality where this
business is carried on. We have needed these markets, and
the want of them is an obstacle in the way of making wool
growing as popular as it should be. It cannot be doubted
that America is soon to become the greatest sheep and wool
producing country of the world, and with this product of tbe
raw material, there must be a corresponding enlargement
of manufacturing. This consummation will make necessary
two classes of shepherds — the breeders of high grade sheep,
and those of pure-bred rams for one; and for the second the
breeders for wool and mutton by crossing.

Sir Walter Scott, in his story of the Black Dwarf, rep-
resents no doubt an actual occurrence in the conversation
between two Scotch shepherds of his day, in which both
agreed that "it was the woo' that paid the rent." By which
it may be understood that it was the clear profit of the
flock, the cost being paid by the mutton. And the same may
be said to-day.

CROSS BREEDING FOR WOOL. 239

This is consistent with reason, if we had not the experi-
ence of 2,000 years to support this common belief. Wool is
a product of human ingenuity and skill. The sheep is a gift
of nature as the wild fruits are, but the fleece is the result
of culture, as are the sweet and luscious fruits- produced
by the art of the grower. And it is all the more easy to
effect whatever pu^>ose may be desired in this way because
of the plastic nature of this most easily influenced animal.
One of the most prominent sheep-breeders of England once
said: "You may chalk out upon a wall a perfect form of a
sheep and then go to work and give it existence by means
of breeding and culture." The same is equally applicable
to the fleece as to the mere animal frame. Every existing
breed of sheep has been differentiated from the wild races
by human agency. More than 2,000 years ago the fine fleece
of the Merino was evolved by the painstaking culture of the
wealthy Roman proprietors of 'Spanish lands", from a native
race theretofore unheard of. But the demands of wealth
and luxury gave the impetus, to which the products of the
Ilcman matron's distaff and looms soon became accessory,
by which the luxurious imperial robes and soft attire of the
Roman ladies were derived from the ancient Merinos of
conquered Spain. And from that day to this the plastic na-
ture of the sheep has enabled the breeders from their chalked-
G-ut patterns to bring into existence the Electoral race
of Germany; the Naz sheep of France with their exquisitely
fine fleeces only 24 ounces in weight, and an inch or less in
length of fiber; as wrell as the largest of its kind— the French
Rambouillet— with its 30-lb. fleece of wool 5 inches long.
And between these comes the American Merino, the best sheep
of its kind in the world, as the product of the best mind and
skill in the world, for in this no other country surpasses ours,
and this sheep has gene wherever Merinos are bred for the
improvement of other related races.

Thus I hazard the statement, the result of long experi-
ence, and study of the sheep, and from the laws of breeding
that are accepted by all breeders, that the Merino must take
the first place in the crossing of all inferior breeds for the
production of the best wools for the staple manufactures
that come between the long coarse, and the short fine,
fleeces, and for which the demand is now greater than ever

240 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

and promises so to continue. The more than 2,000 years
of successive breeding gives to this sheep the greatest pre-
potency, and thus the males have always been found to
exert the most conspicuous effect upon other sheep bred to
them. The wool, too, is so firmly established in its char-
acter that the produce of a cross has from the first a close
resemblance to the wool of the sire, an^after two or three
crosses it becomes to all purposes a Merino wool. But for
the improvement of the coarser-wooled sheep the selection
of the rams is the most important matter to consider. We
must here revert to the principle involved for a rule oi' prac-
tice. It is really a scientific, almost a mathematical problem,
as thus: given a certain value to be decreased in quantity
by division or subtraction, then the larger the value of this
quantity and the less that of the other to be taken from it
the greater the value of the remainder. The Merino ram has
greatest natural force, due to its long inheritance, while the
ewes chosen have less but a greater natural susceptibility.
For instance in all improved breeding of whatever animals
we do not put a thoroughbred dam to a scrub sire, but the
reverse, and in six such crosses we think we have a progeny
in all material respects equal, except for breeding, to the
sires. It is the progeny of the pure bull and the common
cow that makes the valuable grade for the dairy or the
butcher, but no one thinks of reversing this method except
when the breeder of sheep, wanting to refine the fleece, does
this, and makes the coarse wool the top cross and makes a
certain failure. For in most of the efforts to make a cross-
bred sheep the larger coarse-wooled ram has been put to
the Merino instead of reversing this, and getting the prepo-
tent effect just in the line desired.

The Merino has the fine fleece, and the weight of it. It
has the extreme hardiness; rams of this breed have lived
and served in the flock to the age of 26 years. The writer
had one 13 years, when it fell a victim to the wandering cur.
And it had the potency of its lineage. Hence for the im-
provement of wool with any kind of ewes it may be the first
choice. Doubtless the cause of most of the failures in at-
tempts at crossing with this breed has been the mistake of
making this strong breed the under cross. Such a failure
was made by a French breeder with the Merino crossed by

CROSS BREEDING FOR WOOL. 241

the Leicester, but the error was quickly discovered and rec-
tified. The produce was an animal as small as the Merino,
and having a light, open fleece, short like the dam's.
It was wrong both ways, as might have been expected.
The small dam brought a small lamb, and the loose fleece of
the ram only lightened without lengthening that of the cross.
But on reversing the method an excellent cross was pro-
cured, having a 10-lb. fleece as fine as that of the sire, and
a lamb that at two years old made a,s much weight as the
Merino at three years.

The cross of the mutton breeds on the Merino has been
productive of weakness in the offspring. Its effect is to
lengthen the staple without increasing its density, and the
want of constitution spoiled the sheep itself. But the re-
verse cross has been all the other way. This will be better
shown in the next article when illustrations of cross-bred
wool will be given. Density in the fleece is necessary for
protection from stress of weather, and from excess of dirt;
it also gives the weight desired. The Merino also confers
the yolkiness upon the fleece, which is one valuable agent
for the protection of the wool in every way. Thus it has
been found that the most wrinkly and yolky of the large
Merinos make the best cross on the Downs and the long-
wools. And this is the more reasonable because these
wrinkled sheep are the possessors of the naturally strong
constitution of the race, and have not been bred down to
secure a change of natural character.

The large Merino then is also the ram for improving the
common native ewe. It may be quite possible that a first
cross of the smaller Merino might be better as a start for
this purpose, but so far, excellent results have been gained
by this cross. This cross will then be continued, for there is
nothjng in the dam worth perpetuating, and the high grade
will be kept as a permanent flock, but always with a pure
ram for its leader.

In all the pursuits of life, whether intellectual, mechan-
ical or industrial, each person must have an ideal which is to
be the ultimate object in view, and for the attainment of
which the nature and variations of this ideal are to be
clearly understood. Thus the sheep breeder, whether his
object may be the carcass for mutton, or the fleece for wool,

242

THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

must chalk out, so to speak, the ideal before him, and then
devote every effort to attain this end. The wool grower
must then know something about the nature of his product,
its special character, its differentiations under varying cir-
cumstances, and as well the needs of the manufacturer of
his staple, and the results upon the quality of it of mistakes
or accidents in the management of the flocks.

Heretofore the precise nature of wool has been only
superficially or erroneously described in the books that have
been taken as authorities. It is only necessary to examine
the various illustrations given in such pretentious works
as the encyclopedias, to perceive how little has been known,

FIG. 6.— Outer scales
of wool.

through what might be called popular science, of the char-
acter of wool; and as far as the possibility of a breeder
of sheep or a wool grower getting any fair notion of what
wool is, the student might as well examine the structure of a
rope or a chain cable, to get an idea of that of a silk ribbon.
The regular and methodically-placed imbrications upon the
fiber, alternating equally like shingles on a roof, are mere
creations of the imagination, due to imperfect study of the
fiber under an inferior microscope, that is inexcusable in
any modern work. Instead of this regularity of position
and consistency of form in these imbrications, there is a
great variation in both respects, as may be seen in the

CROSS BREEDING FOR WOOL.

243

accompanying drawings, of which fig. 6 represents the
scales on the outside of the fiber, fig. 7 the cross section
of the fiber, fig. 8 the greatly magnified cross section of the
interior fibers with the outer scales; fig. 9 a fiber of Merino,
and fig. 10 one of Cotswold wool.

The epithelial scales (fig. 6) are seen to be exceedingly
irregular in shape, and being laid around the wool, they
give the appearance to it as shown at figs. 9 and 10. In
the drawing of Merino wool, the longitudinal fibers which
are seen endwise in figs. 7 and 8 are to be seen, and in
fig. 10 is shown the dark pigmentary matter that is a
special mark of the Cotswold fleece, and which will be more
particularly mentioned hereafter as having a special refer-
ence to the detection of Cotswold blood in various cross-bred
sheep having more or less of this blood in them.

FIG. 7.— Cross FIG. 8.— Cross sec-
section of fibers, tion magnified.

Fio. 9.— Fiber of
Merino wool.

FIG. 10.

The character of wools of different breeds varies greatly
—so much so that by a careful study of them, and some prac-
tical experience, the breeder may gather much information
as to the purity of his flock, and with what breed it may
have been mixed. And this special characteristic of the fiber
is easily seen to be a most important element in this study
of cross-breeding, for the quality of the fleece is everything
to the manufacturer, and equally so to the wool grower who
sells his fleeces to him for what they are worth as a staple
for the goods made, and as well, it may be said, as to the
healthful and perfect growth of the staple. This is also very
important. At fig. 6 is shown a fiber of Southdown wool that
is imperfect by reason of some defect in the condition of the

244 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

sheep. Wool grows from the skin. Every day the tip of the
fiber is pushed higher from its base by the daily growth. Its
substance is derived directly from the skin, certain secre-
tions from it supplying the bulb or root of the fiber, that is
imbedded in what are known as the hair (and of course
wool) follicles (see fig. 1). The precise nature of wool
may be learned from these figures:

, Composition of ,

Skin. Wool. Hair Horn.

Carbon ....5099 50.65 51.53 51.99

Hydrogen 707 7.03 6.69 6.72

Nitrogen 18.72 17.71 17.94 17.28

Oxygen and sulphur 23.22 24.61 23.84 24.01

As nothing comes of nothing, and everything in the
' world is made up of elements that must be supplied to it for
its growth, so with wool. If any part of its elements are
wanting in the food, or is diverted by reason of some special
disorder of the sheep from the nutrition of the skin, and
from this, of the wool, there is a weak spot. The fiber is
thin and defective in strength. If the food is in excess at
any time, and production of blood is increased, the opposite
condition prevails— for a time only, for excitement from
whatever cause is sure to be followed by a corresponding
relapse, and in such a case we find first a thickened fiber,
followed by a thin and weak one. This may be for a short
time only, as is seen in that part of the fiber on the left,
while on the right there is an indication of some lengthened
disturbance of the condition.

Wool is differentiated more especially by its serrated c.r
imbricated surface, its length and fineness; and in the Merino
by its peculiar waviness or crimp. And in these respects the
different breeds vary so considerably that the expert shepherd
or wool grower, as well as the wool-sorter and manufacturer,
may be able with ease to distinguish the fleece of each breed.
The biologist may even trace the mixture of blood far away
back by these special peculiarities, and thus it is most im-
portant for the breeder to study this matter with care,
and examine samples from his flock under some good micro-
scope. It is even possible 'to distinguish in the wool of any
pure-bred sheep the marks of any ancestor that might have
had some special individual characteristic in this respect.
This part of this interesting subject will be more fully dis-

CROSS BREEDING FOR WOOL. 245

cussed and illustrated in the next and concluding articles of
this series.

Here we want to consider what the wool is, chiefly. The
scales of which the outer part of the wool is made up,
may be compared to those of a fish in the general manner
of their position on the fiber. They all lie in one direction
from the root of the fiber upwards, as the scales lie from
the head to the tail of the fish; so that if one draws a lock
of wool through the fingers, from the root end upward, the
fibers slip smoothly through them. But if the wool is drawn
from the tip to the root, the harshness and roughness is quite
perceptible. These serrations are exceedingly small. In the
finest Merino ^Saxony) they number 2,800 to an inch; in the
Leicester— as we shall see in time, it most closely resembles
the Merino in the character of its fleece— these serrations are
about 1,800 to the inch. These numbers refer to the points
presented by the scales all around the fiber, and not to the
margins of the individual scales, as shown in these illustra-
tions, in which only the bordering lines are really shown.
The coarser wools may have no more than 500 serrations to
the inch.

The diameter of the finest Saxony fiber is from 1,500 to
1,800 to an inch. An average Merino fleece will be one
750th of an inch in diameter. Coarse carpet wool is about one
250th of an inch. This special fineness of the fiber, its ser-
rated edge and crimp, are easily seen to have much to do with
its value to the manufacturer, who may make of it the finest,
softest and lightest goods. And as the Merino fleece may be
taken as the basis of computation of value and fitness for
use of all other wools, it may be readily perceived how the
peculiarity of its wool may be graded down by judicious
crossing so as to meet every need of the manufacturer for
the largest variety of staples.

Had the manufacturer of the finest or the coarsest cloth-
ing fabrics, with all the experience, skill and ingenuity that
the most accomplished could possess, set himself to invent a
fiber just suited to his needs, he could scarcely have pro-
cured one that meets every want so well as wool, with all
its points of adaptability, excellence and variability. And
the wool-grower must perceive all this and guide himself
in accordance with his knowledge in the pursuit of his indns-

24G THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

try as a purveyor and producer to the manufacturer, so as to
make available all these necessary points, of adaptability
for the varied uses of his product.

o
oo

0 0 ©

FIG. 11.— Southdown. Merino. FIG. 12.— Leicester

Wool is generally of two classes — fine, short and carding
wool, and long, coarse and combing wool. This distinction
used to be more strict some years ago when Merino wools
could not be combed, as some are now by improvements in
machinery. But it still prevails, only the longer-wooled De-
laine or French Merino is classed with the combing wools
because of its longer fiber. The Merino and the Southdown
represent the short-wool class, while the Leicester, Cots-
wold and Lincoln are types of the long wools, and the
Shropshire, Hampshire and Oxford come between these two
as middle wools.

Each of these breeds has its special peculiarity to be
studied for its own uses and value, and also for its udapta-

FIG. 13.— Lincoln. Cotswold. Oxford.

bility for crossing. It is a maxim among breeders that easy
steps are more satisfactory than jumps in the union of
breeds, and the more nearly the two varieties approach each
other in character the better they "nick" together. Violent
crosses are rarely satisfactory. In studying the three groups

CROSS BREEDING FOR WOOL. 247

of wools by their cross sections, as shown in figs. 11, 12 and
13, it will be seen that there is a nearer approach between
11 and 12 than between those in group 13, and that the Lei-
cester and Southdown yary but little in the fiber from the
Merino. It may be said here that in cross breeding these
more closely related breeds have been mixed with far greater
advantage than the more unlike breeds. And the Merino-
Leicester alike in fineness of fiber and nearly approaching in
other respects, has made the best of all the crosses that have
been attempted between the short and loug-wooled sheep.

So, too, it may be pointed out at this time, lest it may not
be fully regarded hereafter, that the effect of the Cotswold
on those other breeds upon which it has been crossed for
some special object other than the fleece, has left its most dis-
tinguishing mark upon the other breeds, by its "dash of
blood," as it is termed in the conspicuous central pigment
cells that were originally a distinct mark of this most potent-
blooded breed, and which to-day is so special a peculiarity
of its fleece, as to mark the trace of its blood in all the
breeds with which it has been mixed, and as a detector of
impurity in their blood.

For the purpose of this discussion we may assume that
there are only four really pure breeds of sheep concerned
in the production of our present varieties. These are the
Merino, which merits the distinction of being the oldest
race in existence; the Cotswold, which comes next; the
Southdown and the old Hampshire. These are all worthy
of distinction because they have been the origin of all our
present breeds. Perhaps we may leave out of this category
the Merino, which stands alone as a special breed that has
held a singular place in the world as the most valuable wool
producer at any age, and is destined so to remain, except as
in the future we may find it to be of the greatest value in
the improvement of other sheep for the production of what
may come to be called cross-bred wools.

Then we shall have the above mentioned three breeds,
and possibly the old Lincoln (as the origin of the Leicester)
might be thought to deserve a place and make out an even
four, excluding the Merino. Every one of these has under-
gone such a course of improvement as to be wholly remod-
eled. This change has been due to mixture of new blood

248

THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

to some extent, but mostly to the most skillful selection
by the old breeders, who built up our finest races of cattle
as well as these sheep. And the prepotency of these original
breeds is shown by the comparison of the wool, and by trac-
ing how the peculiar character of the fleeces has survived
in the improved races. This evidence will show how it is by
the fleece that may be traced the lineage of the newer
breeds, and also give reason to believe that quite as great
victories in this pursuit may yet remain to be achieved.

Attention is directed to the drawings of the wools named.
The fibers have been magnified 310 diameters. The size of
each is the average— some fibers may vary as much as 25
per cent either way. They may thus average about l-650th
to l-800th of an inch in diameter. They come under the
category of coarse wools. We may trace in these first the
effect of the Southdown upon the old Hampshire, and per-
ceive distinctly how the smoothness of the scales has modi-

FIG. 14.
Old Hampshire.

FIG. 20.

Southdown.

FIG. 21. FIG. 15.— New FIG. 16.
Cotswold. Hampshire. Oxford.

fied the uneven and ill-formed epithelium of the old Hamp-
shire, which we know was a large, bony, big-headed, coarse-
wooled sheep that was fed by the Romans in Britain twenty
centuries ago, and whose wool supplied the first factory
erected by them, and worked on English soil. Looking at
the fiber we can easily imagine what kind of a sheep this
was; that it was not fed as well as the modern sheep, and
thus the fiber was uneven in diameter, and rough and harsh
and crowded in length.

In the study of the effects of crossing sheep for variety
of wool we may take as the most prominent examples these
two modem breeds, the Hampshire and the Oxford, two
kinds of sheep classed among the so-called Down breeds.
The former originated in a cross of a native white-faced,
horned sheep kept in the district around the county of Hamp-
shire in the south of England by a pure Southdown. This

CROSS BREEDING FOR WOOL. 249

cross is an example of what has been previously mentioned
in a former article, viz., the prepotency of the pure and
standard bred ram upon the ewe, for in this cross breed
we find the white face and the thin fleece and the horns,
as well as the ewe, changed for the black face, the close
fleece, and the bare forehead of the improved race, nowr, by
close breeding, having these points fixed and making a per-
manent characteristic of this breed, the new Hampshire.
The drawings of the wools of the three breeds from which
these two have been produced will show very clearly, as
clear in fact as the form and appearance of the animals
themselves do, how the iniiuence of the ram has been exerted
upon the fleece.

If we study the make-up of the pure Southdown wool
and then that of the old Hampshire sheep, whose fleece was
coarse and uneven in its fiber, and compare these with
that of the new Hampshire, we can trace easily the mixture
of the two bloods in the variation of the fiber; how it has be-
come even, finer, and how it shows the half-way appearance
of the imbrications between the two. Then comparing the
last two, the Cotswold and the Oxford, we find distinctly
the Oxford fleece to be equally affected by the influence of
the more vigorous blood of the older breed in the same half-
way appearance of the imbrications on the fiber and in the
fineness of it. And in every instance we find these same re-
sults when the older and prepotent breed, because of its
longer line of breeding, has been crossed on any other one.
At the same time the under cross has always given its
greater weight of fleece to the half-bred progeny.

Thus it is that this cross breeding is no haphazard busi-
ness, but is a truly scientific operation, needing two or more
elements in it, each of which is to be chosen advisedly, and
with a distinct purpose, as indeed all breeding must be to be
successful. One may as well expect to hit a mark with a
rifle with his eyes shut as to try to effect any useful purpose
in whatever line of breeding he may undertake without he
first takes the pains to fix the purpose of the breeding, and
then selects the materials with some well-defined view of
what he is attempting to produce. Even then there may be
disappointment, for it is not every animal in any specified
breed that is sure to meet the hopes and expectations of the

250 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

breeder, and thus it is that there must be many failures to
be disposed of and continual study and comparison of results
before a satisfactory result may be attained. It is a life-
work rather than a chance, and the assistance of the manu-
facturer who needs the wool for his special purpose should
always be given in the work. The wool grower and the
manufacturer should therefore be in close communication,
and this not only in the distinct line of cross breeding, but
•as well in originating and carrying into execution the union
of breeds, or individuals of the breeds chosen as the instru-
ments of the breeder.

In the illustrations we have first the two elements of
the new Hampshire, the old Hampshire and the Southdown,
making an improved breed both for wool and mutton; a
solid carcass, with the size of the one and the fineness of
wool of the other. Then we have the new Hampshire and
the Cotswold, a new and an old breed, united to make the
Oxford having a coarser wool than the ewe, but a finer fiber
than the ram, and in these changes it is as easy to trace the
different bloods as if colors had been mingled.

At fig. 15 we see the effect of the prepotent Southdown
blood in refining 'this wool, giving its cup-form scale, upon
which its softness, pliability, elasticity and less aptitude to
felt in manufacturing depends. By careful comparison we
may trace the infusion of the Southdown influence in the
improved sheep, which was, however, bred not for wool
but for mutton, and yet the wool we may see has been made
more valuable than that of the old race. It was also double
in weight of fleece by the larger carcass of the improved ani-
mal. And the fiber has been just so much changed as to be
adapted to a wider class of woolen goods than that of the
Southdown.

Then wre study fig. 16, the Oxford Down, a large sheep
of the Cotswold type, but as we see modified as to the fleece
by the influence of the Hampshire (the Southdown indi-
rectly) and the old Lincoln through the Leicester. The re-
sult of these crosses has been to make of the rougher
worsted Cotswold, a softer, finer fiber, suited for the finer
woolens used for man's softer clothing, shawls and knitted
underwear, for which the long, less adherent Cotswold fleece
is not fitted.

CROSS BREEDING FOR WOOL.

251

Then we go on to the new Leicester, bred from the mam-
moth coarse- woolecl Lincoln. Fig. 17 shows the character of
this wool, which measured 14 to 16 inches in length, and
had so little tendency to the felting quality as to be made
into the loosest kinds of fabrics, such as fringes, braids and
bindings. This monstrous sheep was out of date 100
years ago, when Mr. Bakewell had progressed somewhat in
building up his favorite sheep, known at that time as the
Bakewell, but afterwards as the improved Leicester, and.
considered as the very acme of skillful breeding. This suc-
cessful breeder told few of his secrets, but it is known that
he started with the Lincoln and used the Southdown as the
sire, to remodel the coarse ewe into a smooth, silky-fleeced
sheep that should make the finest mutton in the world;
a quick feeder, having a good, smooth carcass, much fat,
and as it happened as the result of this special character of
the animal, a producer of fine, soft, silky wool, of which
the best fabrics could be manufactured. It should be no-
ticed that every improvement in the carcass and in aptitude
for feeding and for early maturity told equally on the wool,
and by study of the Leicester fiber (fig. 18) we see the result
— a wool almost of the Merino character, but 8 or 10 inches
long, suitable for the fleeciest fabrics, as the soft nubias,
and especially dear to the patriotic heart, as the material

FIG. 18.— Leicester. FIG. 17.— Lincoln. FIG. 19.— Shropshire,
of the emblem of freedom that waves over the American
capitol. This wool is the material of which the dress bunt-
ings are made and the soft head dresses of the farmer's
wives and daughters, when they make their evening visits.

252 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

It is wholly of the Merino class, except for its length and
want of curl, and makes a most excellent cross with the
Merino.

We pass on to the most useful cross-bred sheep we have,
the Shropshire, and there we find perhaps the most remarka-
ble of all the results of cross-breeding upon the fleece. This
sheep has been little thought of as a wool-bearer, but to the
wool student it has a special fitness as an example of what
has been done by crossing, for future use in this direction.
Fig. 19 shows a wool that is unmistakably made up of the
Southdown, fig. 20, Leicester, fig. 18, and Cots wold, fig. 21.
The mingled features of these three fibers are as plain to be
seen as the three primary colors in the rainbow. The cupped
form of the Leicester, modified by the closer imbrication
of the Southdown, and the more uneven outline of the Cots-
wold, are all plainly to be found in this drawing; and the
wool of this most popular sheep, next to the Merino, finds
its place in the manufactory in special uses for which the
sorter puts it on one side.

All these specimens are of the coarser clothing wools.
They enable the manufacturer greatly to extend his classes
of goods and find variety to please the wearer. That this
opening for variety is filled, we cannot believe. In fact we
must believe the very contrary, for if there is any one thing
the world is pining for at this time, it is variety in every
way. And thus the wool grower may well exercise his in-
genuity, or tempt fortune, in attempts to strike something
new that may be valuable and increase the demand for
wools of all kinds. The opening is enormous. Twenty years
ago we boasted of an annual product of nearly 70 million
pounds of wool; now we think 300 million pounds a small
affair, to be increased as may be possible. In this vast in-
crease, we have surpassed all prognostications of experts.
How mueh more we may progress in the future, who
can tell? We are using nearly as much foreign wool as we
produce, and much of this we may grow at home. But we
may look for changes such as have occurred in late years
in the greater use for long Merino wool, arid we cannot doubt
there are many special qualities that will come into exten-
sive use as soon as they appear on the sheep's back. And
this must grow out of crossing the breeds we have rather

CROSS BREEDING FOR WOOL. 253

than out of new breeds. We have abundant material for
this work, and in it the Merino, I feel convinced, will take
the first place.

As an instance of the result of special necessities in the
production of wool I would recall a passage in a most able
and exhaustive address, made by Dr. Hayes, the President
of the National Association of Wool Manufacturers a few
years ago, in which he mentioned the fact, that the great
popularity of the Cotswold sheep during the years of the
civil war, grew7 out of the requirements of the trade for a
coarse wool for the manufacture of warlike materials, such
as buntings, saddle-girths, epaulets, trimmings, coarse blan-
kets and overcoats. When the war ended this demand
ceased, and the Cotswold suddenly became as unpopular
as it had been otherwise before. Now, said Dr. Hayes,
the demand is for a finer combing wool, as that of the Leices-
ter, which furnishes the material for a large variety of
dress goods, and is so highly valued for its silkiness, fineness,
and lustre. This kind of wool is mostly imported from Eng-
land, for the reason principally that American farmers
will not take the pains to grow the roots which this class
of sheep— or any other for that matter— must have to pro-
duce the best wool. This fresh, succulent food is indispen-
sable for the best condition of sheep during the long, dry
feeding season of winter, and until our wool-growers
will adopt this manner of feeding we cannot hope to do the
best we may, in the production of the best wools, and es-
pecially of those lustrous combing wools of long, fine staple,
such as that of the Leicester, the French Merino, and the
crosses of these -which have been found so desirable in
France for the manufacture of the excellent dress goods
which we pay so highly for.

In this production, the Merino, and especially the Ram-
bouillet variety, must hold the most important place. It
seems probable that this long-Avool, large-bodied sheep, is to
take the first place as a wool producer, and that the short-
wool sheep must follow the yet shorter Silesia into compara-
tive insignificance, for the reason that the fashion of cloth-
ing has changed of late years, as it did fifty years ago, when
the fine nap broad-cloths went out of demand, and the more
varied napless cloth came into use. And as there is still

254

THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

some demand for even the finest and shortest wool, so there
will be for the medium Merino fleece. But it is clear that the-
tendency is to the use of longer wools and somewhat coarser
fiber. This will be supplied by the Rambouillet Merino,
with its crosses and varieties known by various names: Me-

FIG. 22.
Ram — M eri no — Ewe.

rino, fig. 22; Cotswold, fig. 21; Southdown, fig. 20; Shrop-
shire, fig. 19; and Leicester, fig. 18; and those of our com-
mon American Merino, which has hitherto been of such
enormous value to American breeders. The illustrations
here given will go to show how great a variety of wools
may be produced in this way, and that with the natural
increase in the consumption and demand for various kinds of
wools, the Merino will not find its occupation gone, but

FIG. 23.
yz Merino and Southdown.

FIG. 24.
Merino. M Southdown.

greatly increased, as the progenitor of rams for cross-breed-
ing, and in addition to its own special use as a wool-bearer,
for the supply of numerous fabrics that will never go out of
fashion.

In all these samples we may perceive the effect of the

CROSS BREEDING FOR WOOL.

255

strong blood, and in some the result of both sides, as if there
were a struggle for the preponderance. The five drawings
are of the parents of the crosses which follow. When we
study these cross-bred wools we are impressed by the fact
that the first two crosses vary considerably, showing the in-
fluence of both parents, and as these are both of the strong-
est blood, the two oldest breeds in existence, this is not an
unexpected result. But in the third cross the two most un-

FIG. 25. FIG. 26. FIG. 27. FIG. 28. FIG. 29.

Fig. 25, % Merino and Southdown.

Fig. 26, 15-16 Merino and Southdown

Fig. 27, % Merino, H Shropshire, and ya Southdown.

Fig. 28, yz Merino and Leicester.

Fig. 29, % Merino and % Leicester.

like samples are still so nearly of the same character as to
show that by this cross a decided change has been effected
and a true cross-bred wool has been produced.

Fig. 27 shows distinctly the influence of the Shropshire
rani on the % Merino, and % Southdown ewe. The fiber has
a decided Shropshire character, with enough of the other
mixed blood with it, to make a distinct class of wool.

Pigs. 28 and 29 show a distinct variation due to both par-
ents. The cross has been found most
desirable among the French and the
Leicester is in demand to supply this
kind of wool as well as to produce the
finest kind of mutton, a larger carcass
of meat, and a larger fleece with the
lustre and smoothness of the Leicester,
and the fineness and softness of the
Merino.

Figure 78 is a fiber of wool taken FIG. so.

from a Cotswold-Merino ram bred by H Cotswold and Merino

256 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

the late Joseph Harris and given to the writer by him.
This sample shows how two strong' natural tendencies are
combined in almost equal proportions, as may be easily
perceived by comparing tigs. 21 and 22 together. The fiber
of wool of this cross was seven inches long, when stretched,
had considerable crimp, the yolkiness of the ewe, and none
of the looseness of the ram's fleece. To my mind this was
the most successful cross for wool that I have seen, as it wras
a most satisfactory cross for market lambs to the breeder.

This is a subject for much consideration and experiment.
It is suggested in this line. The evidence goes to show
that there is a wide field for enterprise and careful study
in this cross-breeding. And if sheep-breeders can succeed
in producing a flock that will yield any more desirable fleece
than we now have for any special purpose, and at the same
time yield good mutton by the use of the large-bodied Me-
rino on any of our other breeds, and especially upon the na-
tive sheep, now the least profitable of all kinds, much good
Will be done to all concerned. I offer no further suggestion
to intelligent readers, but simply present the evidence which
I have gathered."

THE CULTURE OF WOOL.

"The wool grower," is a very fit term to apply to the
shepherd. The wool is indeed grown, and this only by
quite as much skill and attention to every detail and neces-
sity as the ordinary farmer applies to the growth of his
crops. For these must be fed, or they fail to produce the
quantity or quality of the desired product; so the wool
grower must feed his flocks for this very same purpose — the
crop of wool which he gathers from his sheep annually.
Wool, we know, is an outgrowth of the skin, produced by
the proper aliment by which the flesh and its coverings,
the skin and its fleece, are nourished. All through the his-
tory of the sheep we find that the feeding and general cul-
ture of the animal have been the means by which the ends
desired and worked for, have been attained and secured.
and made a permanent acquisition of the sheep thus im-
proved. We are too often told that it is breeding which has
produced these improvements in the domestic animals. If
this is true, then we have gained something from nothing,

THE CULTURE OF WOOL. 257

for as we have seen iu a previous chapter, it is a natural
law that "like should produce like," and at the best we caii-
not gain anything more than the mere likeness of the original
animals we are breeding, and we shall do well if we gain
only this, and nothing more.

This palpable fallacy is mischievous and misleading; and
tends, not to the advancement of any object in view, but the
distinct contrary. In all the instances which have been
given in the preceding pages, we have seen that every im-
proved breed has been made through the selection of the
best animals to be procured, and that the methods by which
these have been made superior to the common stock, even of
the same breed, has been by the most generous and skillful
culture. So that we may fully accept the fundamental law
laid down for use by all the scientific breeders and philo-
sophical students in this line, and make it the rule for the
management of our flocks for the purpose of getting the full
profit from them, that the feeding must be a special accom-
paniment to the breeding and an indispensable part of the
culture of improved animals.

Experience all through the history of the sheep goes to
show, that to sustain excellence in them the feeding must be
fully maintained. The English breeders from whom we
have procured our best animals have had a certain system
through which they gained the high position held by their
flocks, and if this is so, as cannot be gainsaid, we must fol-
low in their steps, if we would hold our own, not to say
make any advance on their high position.

It is alleged that the English shepherds depend mostly on
the mutton for their profit, and that the wool is a mere inci-
dent in their business, and not any serious object of pursuit.
We must not be misled by this fallacy which is contradicted
by all the past history of English agriculture, and the main
part of it as is accepted by all concerned. For the sheep has
been, and still is, considered as the very basis of successful
agriculture in Great Britain, and indeed in every leading
agricultural nation of Europe. The very foundation of the
successful agriculture on the high priced lands of Europe
is the feeding of sheep, just a,s it was alleged to be in ancient
times. It is true the mutton is an important incident in
the shepherd's pursuit, but this is the growth of flesh. And it

258 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

happens that in making this high condition of the sheep
the fleece cannot help but take its share of it. We all know
that a poor sheep yields poor wool, inferior in quantity and
in quality as well. The condition of the fleece is a certain
key to the condition of the bearer of it. We have seen that
the flesh and the fleece consist both cf the very same ele-
ments, and the oil and yolk of the wool, which are
a certain indication of quality of it, are equally supplied
through the very same aliment by which the body of the
sheep is supported. We cannot divert the aliment of any one
part of an animal from one product of it, and make it wholly
contributory to another, and a different one. Nature has its
laws which are inviolable, and cannot be transgressed with-
out disaster. So that we may be sure we cannot feed a flock
to make an excellent and fully healthy carcass, without
gaining similar results in every part of it, the covering of it
as well as the body itself.

Again. Every fact in the experience of feeders of sheep
goes to show' that any failure in the regular feeding of a
sheep is marked by a weak spot in the fiber of the fleece.
If the failure is serious the W7ool is so weak and inelastic
that it breaks in the mere handling, and with the slightest ten-
sion. Let us refer back to the illustration of this fact given
at figure 6, in which is seen very distinctly the effects of a
fault in feeding, and in the nutrition of the sheep from which
the sample of wool was taken. It is a rule in the alimenta-
' tion of all animals, that the most important parts and func-
tions are first provided for by the disposal of the nutriment,
and the remainder goes to the support of the least necessary
parts. So that every other part of the sheep must be sup-
plied in excess of its wants before the least necessary parts
are supplied. Then it must follow, that unless there is a
surplus of proper aliment after the mere body has been fully
supplied, the fleece will be the first to suffer. Consequently
the feeding of the sheep for the growth of the fleece is to
be made as much of in the management of a flock as for the
support of the life itself. Generosity in this regard is a para-
mount necessity for the product of good wool. 4

We have said that the English feeders excel in regard
to the mutton of their sheep. Their way of feeding is espe-
cially adapted to this end. Their mutton is fat and the fat

THE CULTURE OF WOOL. 259

is now not so much laid on the cart-ass just under the skin as
it used to be, when the four-year-old wether was the prime
market sheep. Now it goes to market at half the age, and
really before it is fully grown. This naturally changes the
old style of mutton sheep which had two inches of fat on the
outside of the carcass. As the animal was then fully grown
and was not making flesh, the fat could only be disposed of
in this way. But the scarcely maturely grown wether of the
present fashion is made up of quickly grown flesh, in which
the fat is intimately intermingled all through. And this is
made by the same process of feeding from the birth of the
lamb as was formerly applied to the full grown animal only.
So that it cannot be otherwise than that the fat in the ani-
mals is evenly distributed all through the young flesh, weigh-
ing half as much as the former aged one.

The result of such generous feeding from birth cannot
be doubted. The body is fully supplied, and there is a sur-
plus cf nutriment which goes— where? Necessarily to the
fleece. And thus, whether the English feeder of sheep in-
tends it or not, he is a wool grower quite as much as the
shepherds in Argentina or Australia or Africa who shear
their sheep as long as there is wool enough to pay, and then
boil down the carcass of the old sheep for the tallow.

And just as wrong feeding tends to disease of the sheep,
so it is productive of disease in the fleece. Why it should
not be put in this plain and simple way there is no reason,
for if the animal may be diseased in any part of it, in the
skin even, why not attach this same distinction to the wool?
It puts the matter in a more forcible position to the wool
growrer possibl3T, and will give him a better idea of the im-
perative necessity for avoiding all errors of management
by which the wool is injured. And the first of these is in-
sufficient feeding; the next is undue exposure to sudden
changes of weather. It is not so much the kind of weather
the sheep are exposed to as frequent and serious changes,
without anj7 reasonable shelter. The sheep is easily suited
in every way, but while it may be thought its fleece is a
protection against changes, it is quite otherwise in fact.
It is a protection against cold, if this is continued, but sudden
changes from warm to severely cold weather are as seri-
ously felt as if the sheep had only its bare skin. It is so in

260 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

all concerning this easily susceptible animal. Any kind of
steady, unchanging conditions it will withstand, but changes
are as trying to a sheep as to a person who is wrapped in
a heavy overcoat every day in the year.

The most common disease in wool is that commonly
called break. It cannot be perceived by the naked eye, but
is very easily discovered by stretching a small lock of wool.
Then any weak spot in it breaks, and this if examined under
a microscope shows this kind of defect (fig. 32) in the fiber.
This sample was taken from the fleece of a sheep which had
died through exposure and starvation, on the range, and the
severity .of its sufferings may be understood by comparing
a fiber from a sheep well cared for through the same Winter

FIG. 31. FIG. 32.

Healthy liber of wool. Break in wool— A diseased fiber

in the same locality with it (fig. 31). These samples were
taken from the common native sheep which have a small
infusion of Southdown blood in them, somewhat far back,
but sti'll show it in their occasional smutty faces and legs.

This defect is equivalent to a diary, or nearly so, of the
sheep's condition. When the first failing occurs the weak
spot is of course at the skin, but as the fleece grows this
weak spot is carried up, and although the fault may not hap-
pen again this evidence of it remains in the wool. If it is
repeated, the same failing is marked on the record, and so on,
until the sheep is shorn, when the fleece is worthless if it is
badly defective, and lessened in value proportionately with
the amount of defect in it. It is really the most common
defect in wool.

Another disease is that commonly known as stripy wool.
This affects the fleece in the most valuable part of it,

THE CULTURE OF WOOL. 261

that is on the side near the shoulder. This kind of wool
is without elasticity, harsh, and without the curl or wavy
fiber of the best wool. It is most distinct in the Merino and
the curly long wools, as that of the Lincoln. Such wool is
dead and lifeless, without elasticity, and may be pressed
by the hand into a ball, as so much cotton fiber might. Of
course its value to the manufacturer is depreciated, for it
can only be used in inferior goods, as to mix with, shoddy,
to hold the stuff together.

Another defect is known as toppiness, which is a sort
of felting of the fibers at the top of the fleece, by which it
causes waste in the carding. This is a result of uneven
growth due to a continued period of good feeding or condi-
tion of health, followed as it might be by hardship in the
Winter, on exposed ranges for instance, or by want of shel-
ter in the smaller farm flocks. In the lamb it may be only
a temporary condition, but in an old sheep it is a drawback
to its use as a lamb bearer, for this, as all other defects in
the fleece, are inheritable. It is one of the points to be
thought of when stock is selected for breeding.

Felted wool is a decided disease, arising from a constitu-
tional or a temporary impairment of constitution. The wool
is naturally weak and devoid of sufficient yolk to lubricate
it, so that it does not move smoothly but chafes in the mo-
tions of the animal. Then when wet weather happens, and
the wool becomes wet to the skin the fibers adhere, and in
time becomes matted together in bunches, causing a
serious loss in the combing or carding of it. This fault
is most common in the rather harsher wools of the Downs
varieties, under such inferior conditions as do not provide
sufficient nutriment to sustain the best growth of the fleece.
When this felting is less apparent and occurs only at the bot-
tom next the skin as the results of damage later in the
growing season, or to inherited tendency to the fault, it is
known as clouding, and appears as a flossy condition of the
fleece near the skin. This is easily removed when it exists
to long wool, that is combed, because the combing removes
this soft fiber, but it causes waste and a loss even in this way.
In short wools it is not so objectionable as the carding mixes
it with the other wool, and it has no unfavorable effect
in the succeeding processes. But in examining animals for

262 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

breeding this defect is one to be considered as objectionable,
and considerably reducing the value. In every addition to
the flock, of a father for the lambs, the highest excellence
only should be the main consideration. For as these defects
are constitutional one knows not what others may be hid-
den in the animal to appear in time in his progeny.

Broad topped wool is that kind which splits at. the top
and down some way into the fiber. The surface of the fleece
may appear all right, but when the wool is parted it is found
that the fibers are adhering together some way down, thus
dividing the fleece into masses which cannot be parted with-
out tearing the wool apart with some force. This matted
fiber is dead wool, and is a total loss in the manufacture of
the finest goods. This is an inherited defect, and to be con-
sidered in the choice of a breeding animal \vhether ram or
ewe. It may be pardoned to some extent in the ewre, for ob-
vious reasons, when extra good quality otherwise causes this
to be overlooked; but it is unpardonable in a ram because
the fault may effect the whole produce of the flock.

A kempy sheep should be discarded on sight. This disease
is entirely constitutional. In breeding stock it is a fatal ob-
jection. Wherever it exists it is to be found all over the
sheep. It is a residue of the old lineage from the wild ani-
mal, and that it is still existing goes to show the force of
the inheritable tendency to go back to a distant ancester. In
this case it means some thousands of years, since which it
has been continuing in the blood. It is recognized by the
short, coarse hairs mostly found on those parts of the sheep
where the wool is the lightest, and the shortest; as on the
face, upper part of the legs, inside the flank, and on the
scrotum. When any sheep is found to be thus affected, the
same hairs may be found on examination all through the
fleece, and as these harsh hairs do not take the dye as the
wool does, this kemp is a serious objection to the manufac-
turer of any kind of fine goods. This of course reduces the
value of such wool and the bearers of it. It thus lessens the
value of the fleece one-half, and it is not possible for the
wool sorter to separate it from the actual wool. It is some-
times found in the wrinkles of the very heavily fleeced Me-
rinos, and may thus be sorted out at the expenditure of a lit-
tle extra labor and waste of wool, but it should be the ob-

THE CULTURE OF WOOL. 263

ject of every advanced breeder to exterminate tins worthless
part of the fleece, by selecting out as much as possible all
the kempy sheep from his flock. There is no reason why this
should not and may not be done. Breeders have covered
the Merino, and indeed other breeds of sheep, over with
good wool down to the hoofs, and other breeds have been
improved in a similar way, thus adding very much to the
product of a flock. It needs only the efforts of all concerned,
and possibly such suggestions as this to the advanced breed-
ers, to rid all kinds of sheep of every defect, and as far as
each may in his allotted time, do everything in his power
to leave the world in this respect somewhat better than he
found it. No one has any use for keinp, and it should be
obliterated from every flock, just as we may say of tlje
horns, which to a large extent have been got rid of except in
the Merino, and why not in this breed, which might doubt-
less be brought to put the matter thus wasted, and which is
precisely the same matter as that of wool, into the fleece?
This remark also applies to certain other diseases of the
fleece, indirectly, and directly diseases of the skin, through
which the wool is affected; such as scab, the most costly of
all this class.of diseases, with other parasites, by which the
shepherd is troubled, and which might easily be eradicated
by the destruction of these creatures in a sure and certain
way, as has been shown by the effective measures taken in
Australia for the destruction of the scab mite. This result,
although not yet completely effective, has been so far at-
tained as to prove the possibility of this end in the course of
a short time, when all concerned shall have adopted the
measures by which a large number of flocks have been com-
pletely freed from the disease. There are several diseases
of this class due to the action of parasites, chiefly vegeta-
ble, and varieties of fungi of a low order, which directly at-
tack the wool and feeding upon the fibers cause these to split
and become entangled in a mass. These diseases also affect
hair in a similar manner. In general it may be said that
these and in fact every disease of the skin, and some consti-
tutional disorders, are in effect diseases of the fleece, but
these will be noticed fully in the last chapter, which is de-
voted to diseases of the sheep particularly.

264 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

UNIFORMITY IN WOOL.

A serious defect in wool may not be strictly a disease,
but it may be a result of a poor condition of the sheep due
to some mistake or neglect in the management. The best
and finest wool is found on the shoulders, and this is made
the standard of the whole quality of the fleece. If, as com-
pared with this, the wool on the sides, thigh, rump, and
breech, approaches it in quality, the better the fleece will be
all through. An equality in fineness of these parts of the
fleece makes the fleece even as to the fineness of the wool.
A general regularity of length of wool on these parts of the
body, makes the fleece even in this respect of length of
staple. The density of the fleece is tested by closing the
hand upon the wool of a part of the loin, and on the rump,
and if it is found that the fleece is as thick and close on
these parts as on the other portions of the sheep, the density
of the wool is even. The perfect fleece is nearly equal in
fineness of staple from the shoulder to the thigh; and if the
wool is nearly equal in length at the shoulder, the ribs, thigh,
and on the back, the density is equal on the shoulder and
across the loins, and there are no defects, due to the diseases
above mentioned, the wool is uniform. A perfect fleece
is really a certificate of perfect health in the sheep and of
the good management of the flock by the shepherd. The
even growth and quality go to prove the evenness and regu-
larity of the general management and the concurrent thrifti-
ness of the flock.

WASHING SHEEP.

Wool necessarily becomes charged with many impurities
during the season of its growth. Dust adheres to it by rea-
son of the oiliness and viscous nature of the yolk. The se-
cretions of the skin gather in it, as well as the filth of the
sheep. There is an excessive perspiration exuding from the
skin, more or less as the season excites it. All these foreign
matters add much to the weight of the fleece, and reduce its
general value to the buyer, who usually deducts one-third
from the current prices as compensation for these Jmpurities.
As a rule some variations occur in this regard by reason of
the quantity of impurities existing in the wool. This is due
to the manner in which the sheep have been kept, the kind of

WASHING SHEEP. 265

pasture on which they have fed, and other obvious circum-
stances. So that any undeviating rule for this deduction
must be a manifest injustice to the owner of the flock: There
may be a full half difference in this respect in the fleeces
of different flocks. So that the custom of brook-washing, as
it is commonly termed, is resorted to for the purpose of
cleansing the fleeces from the greater part of these impuri-
ties. This semi-barbarous process is not only far from
effective, but it is seriously hazardous to the health of both
the shepherd and his sheep. Unless the water is pure, and
the bed of the stream is free from mud or sand, the wool
comes from the operation at times more heavily charged with
impurity than before it was washed. On the whole this
process is justly becoming obsolete, and if the wool is to be
washed on the sheep's back the operation should be per-
formed under the most convenient and effective arrange-
ments.

Such an arrangement consists of a suitable enclosure for
the sheep on a green clean sward, and in which a catch pen
as described on page 214 is arranged. A suitable boiler is
used by which the water may be kept at an average heat of
eighty degrees, in the \vashing tank. This is reached by a
sloping platform, enclosed at the sides, along which the
sheep is led by an assistant. As soon as one is washed in
the tank at the end of this platform it is discharged through
a passage way into a clean, grassy plot, and the next one is
taken in hand. As it is required the water in the tank is
renewed, and it is an excellent way to help the washing to
clip off the most filthy tag locks behind the sheep and have
these washed separately after the sheep have been finished.

No soap is required in this process, the yolk of the wool
being a natural soap. It consists of a little less than one-half
water, and more than one-half fatty matter akin to a com-
mon potash soap. The potash in the yolk is so abundant
that in large establishments it is recovered from the waste
water and sold. Besides the soapy yolk there is about eight
to ten per cent of oil in the fleece, but this is not generally
removed by the washing, some being left in the wool. It is
not desirable to carry the washing so far as to rid the fleece
of its oil; the result of this is to make the fiber harsh to
the hand, and to that extent render it unsatisfactory to the

£66 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

buyer. This, however, is avoided by adding a moderate
quantity of some non-drying oil to the fleece the day after
the washing is done, thus restoring the softness and elasticity
to the fiber. If two weeks are permitted to elapse before
the shearing, and the sheep are kept in a dry, clean grass
field, the wool will have regained its natural softness.

It is a question among experts whether excess of yolk
is a desirable quality of a fleece. The old authorities in this
regard favored the largest quantity of yolk. The leading old
writer on sheep, Mr. Youatt, was of the belief that no
amount of yolk might be thought excessive. But the old
beliefs have generally been discarded in the majority of in-
stances, in all kinds of scientific matters, for the reason that
these things were only very partially understood half a cen-
tury ago, and we have a far better knowledge of the reasons
for things now than were then possible. Mr. Randall, one
of the highest early authors on sheep, thought— as most
of his successors do to-day— that excessive yolk was a waste
of material for no use, and the matter of it might be more
economically disposed of some other way. As nothing comes
from nothing, we may be sure that the shepherd must pay
in some way for the yolk in the wool, just the same as the
wool itself costs an equivalent of money spent in feed, of
which it is a product. But yolk is an absolute necessity for
the well growing of the fleece, and an abundant supply of it
is a great safeguard against some of the diseases of wool
above described. But this matter may be left to work
itself out as every other of the same sort is doing, and will
do, by the good sense of the intelligent leaders of this great
interest.

SHEEP DIPS AND DIPPING SHEEP.

One of the most important parts of the management of
sheep, next to the feeding, is the occasional dipping of the
flock. This is essentially a process of cleansing the skin,
and. avoiding the diseases of it, and the fleece together,
that may be reached in this way. This process is essential
to the welfare of every flock. Generally it is gone through
once a year. But experience and a considerable reduction in
the cost of the process, have tended to encourage the practice
of dipping twice and even three times in the year. Twice
in the year is really indispensable for the health and comfort

DIPS AND DIPPING. 267

of the flock, consequent upon the improved condition of the
skin, the removal of the injurious and tormenting parasites,
and the resulting improved growth of the fleece. In general,
this process is thought to be merely necessary for the cure or
escape from that pestilent disease, the scab; but really
this is only one incident in the question as to how many
times in the year we ought to dip the sheep.

Upon reflection, as to the nature of wool, and its com-
plete relationship to the skin, we may well be assured that
whatever conduces to a healthful condition of the skin is
equally conducive to the welfare of the fleece, and the gen-
eral experience of those large sheep owners who have prac-
ticed a biennial dipping of their flocks, goes to prove be-
yond question that it has more than paid the whole cost
in the increased yield of the fleece, as well as the improved
condition of it, by which its market value has been increased
sufficiently to return every dollar expended in the process,
besides insuring such comfort to the flock as has greatly aided
in their feeding for market; in the ability of the ewes to
bear and feed better lambs; in the growth of the lambs;
and in the important saving in labor consequent upon this
betterment of the flocks. The comfort of mind of the shep-
herd is also something to be thought of in this connection;
for when the flock is known to be free from all the discom-
forts and diseases incident to a diseased skin, and the per-
secution by bloodthirsty parasites, the shepherd may be
happy by day and by night, and enjoy the sweet sleep which
is the perquisite of the just and industrious and thoughtful
and successful man.

There are a great many kinds of dips, and of all that we
are acquainted with, there is only one which is not useful
and effective for the purpose, and what is of the greatest
importance safe for the sheep, and fatal to the parasite for
the destruction of which the dipping is practiced. But more
than this, every one of these dips are really antiseptics; that
is, while they destroy injurious parasites— the scab-mite,
the bloodthirsty tick, the lice and the fungoid parasites of
the wool, as well as of the skin— they cleanse the skin from
the accumulated gathering of its secretions; they open the
pores to a healthful function; and thus free the sheep's
system from the dangerous probability of the absorption of

268 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP

unwholesome matter in the blood, by which diseases of
various kinds are sure to happen, and which give vast trou-
ble and anxiety to the shepherd, as well as inflict upon him
heavy losses. It is always best and cheapest to avoid
troubles of any and every kind, and this process of dipping
the sheep tends to avoid many difficulties, some uuthouglit
of by the owner of a flock. •

The one reserved dip above suggested is that sulphur and
lime mixture which has been so highly extolled and recom-
mended by some of the amateur shepherds, whose field of
labor is at Washington, the seat of our paternal and watch-
ful Government. This dip is one of the most injurious that
could have been suggested or invented. It will doubtless kill
the scab insect and the ticks, too, and most effectively, for
it will destroy the fleece and the sheep as well, and it is a
plain fact that where there are no sheep and no fleeces there
will be no parasites to annoy the shepherd. And this will
be the inevitable result of the use of this most offensive and
acrid stuff.

Lime, we all know, is used by the wool pullers to loosen
the fiber from the sheep skins. It is one of the most effective
depilatories, and must be used with the utmost caution. By
its combination with sulphur it does not lose this destructive
action on the skin, and when used for a dip for sheep this
excessive caution is something impossible, except for some
professional veterinary to exercise during the use of the dan-
gerous stuff. Even then, were it the only thing in existence
for this use it would be open to the most serious objections
and would in many instances destroy flocks to which it
might be applied without due caution.

The objections to this wholly injurious and unsafe dip
are increased in force by the fact that there are many
excellent preparations for dipping sheep that are safe, effect-
ive, and cheap; even better in all these respects than any
home made dip; such as that of tobacco and sulphur. And
these are obtainable on demand always of the same strength
and effectiveness, and most easily applied to their specinl
uses. We may mention just here, that for use when acciden-
tal infection of the flock by ticks may happen, that the use
of sour buttermilk poured along the back, and led down the
sides of the sheep by skillful use of the hands will rid the

DIPS AND DIPPING. 269

sheep or the lambs of the pests. This devise may be useful
in case the regular dipping may not have had its complete
desired effect, or the sheep may have picked up a fresh
stock of the ticks in any way.

A word should be said as to the arsenical dips-. These are
very effective in use, and safe, except as to one circumstance,
which is possible danger to the lambs if they are permitted
to join the ewes until the wool has completely drained off.
The same may be said in regard to the tobacco dip.

This, however, is given only as a hint to the owners
cf small flocks; it cannot take the place of the regular dip-
ping apparatus, or the regular dipping preparations in the
market. It may also be of interest to all concerned in re-
gard to the lime and sulphur, or sulphide of lime, to mention
the fact that the actual experience of a well known wool
scouring establishment, in which some wool from sheep
dipped in this highly caustic mixture was scoured, and after
the finishing was found to be so much injured as to bring less
money than the wool of sheep dipped with the other prepara-
tions in the market. This is to be expected from the known
character of this caustic compound. For whatever will de-
stroy the skin, must have a similar result on the fiber, which
grows from the skin. This is no new remedy for scab,
as it is called, either. It was recommended by a California
chemist twenty or thirty years .ago, and was mentioned in
the U. S. Agricultural Report of 1876 as a cheap preparation.
It is cheap certainly, as to its cost, but experience in Cali-
fornia goes to show that in practice it was a very dear-
thing.

Sheep are dipped in troughs arranged in many ways, as
the fancy or convenience of those concerned may dictate.
For a small flock a trough twelve feet long, eight inches
wide at the bottom, and thirty inches at the top, with a suf-
ficient depth to cover the sheep except its head, which is
held up as it is passed through the trough, the body being sub-
merged sufficiently to enable the assistants to thoroughly
wash the animal and reach every part of the skin. The dip-
ping liquid is kept at a temperature of something over a hun-
dred degrees, up to a hundred and ten or twelve, by frequent
additions of hot liquid from a heater adjacent to the dipping
trough. It is diluted to the right degree in strict accordance

270 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

with the directions given by the makers of whatever dip is
used. These directions should be followed strictly, as they
are based on accurate experiments and long practical ex-
perience.

After having passed through the dipping liquid the sheep
are kept in a pen adjacent to it and having a tight floor
sloping back to the dipping trough, into which the excess
of the dipping liquid drains. After sufficient draining, the
sheep are let into a lot where the fleece may dry. But ewes
with lambs are to be kept apart from the lambs until the
fleece is completely drained.

It is no harm if some struggling sheep should take some
of the dip into its nostrils. Indeed some of it may reach
the hiding places of the annoying bot-fly, and in the violent
sneezing of the sheep from the effects of the dip, these pests
may be ejected to the great relief of the sheep. That the
sheep in this process may be subject to such accidents as this
is a good reason why injuriously caustic preparations, as the
exceedingly corrosive sulphur and lime mixture, should be
avoided. The regular dips in the market are all, not only
effective as a sanitary wash for the skin, but used after the
shearing they are healing in their effects on any cuts that
may be made in the shearing. Immediately after the shear-
ing is a good time for the dipping. There is no waste of the
dipping liquid, and the process is very much simplified and
eased as compared with the dipping previous to the shearing.
It is an indispensable precaution to be taken, not for the
cure of the scab disease only, but for its prevention; and
every reasonable flock owner— we think— would favor a na-
tional law by Congress making dipping obligatory as not
only a cure for diseased sheep, but as an effective means
of totally eradicating this pestilence.

SWIMMING DIP TANK.

The following plan is used with success:

The swimming tank should be from fourteen to fifty feet
long and five feet deep, eighteen inches wide at the top and
not over six inches wide at the bottom. The tank should be
made of two inch tongued and grooved boards, closely fitted
together so as to avoid leakage. At one end the tank
should be tapped with holes for heating coil. This coil

DIPS AND DIPPING.

271

should be run to a stove or fire conveniently located, and
constructed on the same principle as any ordinary kitchen
hot-water boiler, and having at the same time, kettles close
by in which hot liquid and hot water can be obtained for re-
plenishing the dipping tank; or if you have no coil with
stove, have kettles and heating apparatus sufficiently large

to keep the tank well supplied with hot liquid at the degree
required, namely, one hundred to one hundred and twenty
degrees, according to the kind of dip used.

At one end of the tank should be constructed a chute,
just wide enough to admit one sheep at a time, say eighteen
inches. On the other end draining pens should be arranged

272 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

large enough to hold about thirty sheep, so they can stand,
and the surplus ooze drip off and be returned to the dipping
vat. These draining pens will be found quite an economy
when large flecks 'are handled. The end of the tank
nearest the draining pens should have considerable slope,
and cleats be nailed across for the sheep to walk up on.

A CHEAP, PORTABLE DIPPING VAT.

The accompanying cut shows a handy and inexpensive
dipping vat, which can be constructed with the appliances on
most every farm. It is made of one and a quarter inch

tongued and grooved boards, put together at the joints with
pitch, and is furnished with handles, by which it can be
moved from place to place. It may be six feet long, three
feet wide and three feet deep. The sloping ends have cleats
nailed across them on the inside, by which the sheep are as-
sisted to get out of the vat, upon a draining floor placed to
receive them.

SMALL AND LARGE TANKS USED ON THE RANGE.

A Utah wool grower gives the following excellent plan
for both hand and swimming tanks:

For a herd of 2,500 head I would recommend the small
tanks as cheaper, easier made, and having less dip remaining
after the herd is dipped, and easier cleaned out during the
process of dipping as more or less mud will accumulate in
the bottom which must be cleaned out every day or two.

The annexed diagram explains itself.

"A," platform of boards nailed to 2x4 inch scantling
which are laid on the ground.

"B," dipping tank, 30 inches deep, 48 inches long, 24
inches top measurement, 10 inches on bottom.

"C," sloping platform, which drains into tank "D."

These are placed in the shearing pen, or in a pen contigu-
ous (at the option of the shepherd), the sheep is grasped by

DIPS AND DIPPING.

278

the hind leg, thrown on platform "A," one man grasps the
hind legs, another the front, and the sheep is gently lifted
into tank "B." (which is two-thirds full of dip) with his
back down, and is held in that position for two minutes; he
is then lifted on the platform ,

"C." the excess of dip squeez-
ed out by one hand, turned
over and the other side served
the same way, the dip run-
ning into the draining tank
"D." The dip can from time
to time be returned to tank
"B." While in that position
the sheep can be examined
for age, feet trimmed if neces-
sary, and branded by the
paint pot in the end of the
tank. And here let me im-
press upon sheep owners the
necessity of branding as well
as ear marking; it saves an
endless amount of trouble and

BRAND FOR MARKING
SHEEP.

ill feeling should your sheep

mix with others, which is

often the case. One man can

brand 3.000 sheep M'heu run

into the shoot. Once tried

you will always continue the practice. With this tank four

men can dip, mark and brand 500 sheep .in ten or twelve

hours, and at the same time prepare the dip and sack the

wrool, relieving each other at the tank; if more capacity is

required another platform and tank can be placed so as to

274 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

?ilso drain into tank "D." Some sheep men let go the sheep
in the tank, when lie will quickly turn himself, ami if scabby
some "special" (i. e. stronger) dip be applied.

I used these tanks for several years and was well
pleased with them, but for larger herds an entirely different
tank is required wherein sheep can be handled more expedi-
tion sly.

The tank here described is now universally in use:

"A" is the shoot for large corral; "B" is a sloping board
over which the sheep in attempting to pass to decoy pen '"C"
slide into tank "D" which is generally twenty feet long, four
feet six inches deep, and sixteen feet at the bottom, thus giv-
ing it a slope at the outlet of four feet, two feet wide at the
top, and eight inches at bottom, thus compelling the sheep
to swim in the middle of the tank. "E" is a board fastened in
the tank with cleats on it to enable the sheep to obtain
a foothold in walking out. "P F" are draining pens (water
tight) and sloping to sluice box in center which carries the
dip again into tank "D. " "C" is a decoy pen containing a
few sheep to entice the sheep into the shoot. "H" is a pen
to dodge into any sheep not required to be dipped. "L"
is the dodge gate. This tank can be made of one-inch pine
boards, and lined with galvanized iron (No. 20 will do), which
makes it water tight, and gives no footing to the sheep.
"K K" are pieces of 2x6, twelve feet long, bolted lengthwise
of the tank and four feet from each end, and six inches
from top of tank, leaving a twelve inch space through which
the sheep must put their heads, and preventing those in rear
from riding those in front and thereby drowning them, at the
same time keeping their backs under the dip. While in the
tank the scab can be broken up, teeth looked at, and as they
pass out, branded. The draining pens "F F" are regulated
by a gate whereby the sheep escape from the draining floors,
and can then be combed.

Many dispense with the sloping board "B" and use pen
"H," particularly when the ewes are heavy with lamb the
sheep are dropped carefully into the tank rump first. A boy
is often placed behind sloping board "B" with a short stick
to push the sheep in as- they pass over it. One or two men
stand at the tank to regulate the passage of the sheep, ex-
amine teeth, break scab, brand, etc.; 2,000 is a usual day's

THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

work and that number can easily be passed through this
tank in ten hours.

A KANSAS SWIMMING TANK.

Our friend, David Fox. gives the following plan for a
swimming tank :

My working utensils con-
sist of one dipping vat (fig. 1),
two boilers (fig. 2 2), one dip-
ping floor (fig. 3 3), divided in-
to two departments, one sheep
yard (fig. 8) with a small three-
corner pen (fig. 9) next to the
dipping vat, which is of great
convenience for catching
sheep; all of which are shown
in diagram. The vat is made
of two-inch clear lumber, well
braced and bolted together so
that it is perfectly water tight,
sixteen feet long at top, twelve
feet long at bottom, which
gives four feet slope, with
slats on the inside for the
sheep to walk out of the vat
into the dripping floor, six
inches wide at the bottom on
the inside, sixteen inches wide
on top, four feet and a half
in depth. Three and a half
feet of dip is plenty to work
with,' but the vat should be
deep enough to allow one foot
above the dip to catch the
splashing dip caused by the
sheep struggling while in the
vat. There should be two cross bars across the vat,
at equal distances, dividing it into three equal parts
at the level of the dip. At each division should be
a good trusty man. His duties I give below. The
vat is set in the ground two feet and a half leaving

-

DIPS AND DIPPING. 277

two feet above the ground. If the ground is conveniently
located to lay an escape pipe to the bottom of the vat it
would be a great convenience for cleaning out the vat after
dipping. This apparatus requires to be located where water
is plenty. Figure "2 2" are the boilers, which are one OD
each side about six feet from the vat. They are made of
one and a half inch lumber for sides. I bought fourteen foot
planks, sawed them in two in the middle and then cut a cir-
cle on each end, then took sheet iron thirty inches wide and
eight feet long and nailed it solid to the plank, which makes the
bottom of the boiler. Across the top nail three pieces of 1x4
lumber, at equal distances, to keep it from spreading. These
boilers should be set on a furnace built up two feet from the
ground with brick or stone. The space between the two sides
of the furnace should be eight inches narrower thantheboiler,
giving four inches on each side for the boiler to rest on. The
furnace should be open at each end and a flue made of
sheet iron seven feet long, and one made to fit either end of
the furnace, so that it can be easily clrariged from one end to
the other to correspond with the direction of tlm wind. This
flue being seven feet high will conduct the smoke out of the
way of men and sheep. Fig. "7 7" is a pipe running from boil-
ers to vat to conduct the dip from boilers into the vat. One
end of the pipe should be set into the side of the boiler even
with the bottom; the other end let in the side of the vat, by
means of a notch cut two inches deep. The pipe should be
just, even with the inside of the vat so as to be out of the
way of the men and sheep. The bottom of the boiler being
just the same height as the top of the vat, the two-inch notch
cut in the vat will give fall enough for the pipe to empty th«
boiler. There can be a faucet put in the pipe next the boiler
or anywhere between the boiler and vat, to turn on and shut
off the dip. Fig. "3 3" is the dipping floor which is sixteen
feet square, made of flooring well braced underneath with
joists, and set up on a foundation high enough for the bottom
of the dripper to rest on the vat. The foundation around
the outside of the dripper should be built about three inches
higher than the supports under the center so as to spring
the floor enough to make the dip run toward the center,
with a. strip across the two corners next to the vat, to con-
duct the drippings from tlie sheep into the vat. This drip-

278 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

ping floor should be inclosed by fence. Fig. "5" is a panel
fence fourteen feet long placed across the center of the drip-
ping floor. Two of the bottom boards of the fence of the drip-
per on the side next to the vat should be cut out the width
of the vat, and a small gate (fig. 6) fastened to the division
panel so that it can be swung to either side of the vat, that
when one part of the dripper is filled with sheep this gate-
can be swung around, closing the pen that the sheep are in
and leaving the other side open for the sheep to go in. By

HERDWICK RAM.

the time this last half of the dripper is filled with sheep
the first lot will be ready to go out, and continue in like man-
ner until dripping is finished. Fig. "44" are gates to let
the sheep out of the dripper. Fig. "8" is the yard for the
sheep before the dipping is commenced. It should be
built so as to make a small, three-cornered pen (fig. 9) next
to the vat, large enough to hold fifty or seventy-five sheep
which would be handy to the vat and easy to catch. This
yard should be made penitentiary tight and strong so that
it is impossible for any sheep to escape undipped. Should a
single sheep get out and get with those already dipped,
unnoticed, that had a single living female acarus on it, it
would in a short time infect the whole flock: hence the im-
portance of thoroughness from beginning to end. Now,
with the above arrangements and the dip hot, you are ready

DIPS AND DIPPING. 279

for work. If desired to be run to the full capacity, which is
about one thousand sheep per day, six good, strong men. will
be needed, one to attend the tire and foresee the work and
see that every man does his duty. This overseer should be
the owner of the sheep or the one most interested. If the
sheep are very scabby two men should be stationed in the
sheep pen with a currycomb or stiff brush to thoroughly
scratch and break up every scabby patch on the sheep,
then put it in the vat head first. Now, the man who stands
at the first division of the vat takes charge of the sheep
and thoroughly rubs all the scabby spots, and moves it easily
up and down in the dip in order that the dip can penetrate
all wrinkles and folds. This man should occupy fully one
minute with each sheep, then pass it under the crossbar to
the next man who handles it in the same manner and the
same length of time, then passes it to the third man
who does likewise. There is room for two sheep in each
department of the vat at the same time, and one man can at-
tend two nearly as well as one. It will be found very impor-
tant to have those crossbars in the vat, or the sheep will
all rush to the other end of the vat and will climb on each
other, and it would be very hard for the men to hold them
back and thoroughly soak them. If only dipping for a
preventive for ticks or lice, one man in the sheep pen will
put them in the vat fast enough; also one man can attend
them along the vat and one dipping will be sufficient, but for
scab it requires two dippings from eight to ten days apart.
If these directions are carried out I am positive it will cure
the worst case of scab, as I have cured thousands for myself
and neighbors in precisely the same manner as here de-
scribed. This apparatus, if well taken care of, will last for
years and would serve a number of flockmasters. If the
flock is small this apparatus can be built on a smaller scale,
or larger to suit the number of sheep that are to be dipped.

A HAND DIPPING TANK.

After an exciting contest for the one-hundred-dollar ster-
ling silver cup offered, some months ago, by Mr. Cooper for
the best farm dipping-plant, the prize was won by Mr. W. B.
Vestal, of Plainfield, Ind. The following are the plans and
specifications given by Mr. Vestal:

280

THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

We have a dipping outfit which I made ami which any
farmer can make at small cost, and it answers the purpose.
Two men, one on each side of the vat and our little nine-
year-old Willie to keep the sheep massed in the chute, will
handle them at the rate of about one sheep every four or
five minutes, and that will allow the sheep to remain in the

dip two minutes, "by the watch," and should not be
guessed at.

To make the dipping-vat use 2x4 stuff; cut eight pieces
4 feet 2 inches long, and four pieces 20 inches long, and
frame by halving together, as shown in Figs. 1 and 2. Now
take the four frames and set them on a level floor, and nail
temporary strip on the outside to keep them in position. Use

DIPS AND DIPPING. 281

first-class flooring for sides and ends; paint tongues and
groove as you put them on; commence at the bottom, grooved
side down (plain the groove off the first boards), and build
up, letting the ends extend past the posts at each end so
that they may be sawed off afterwards to insure a good joint
at the corners. The bottom should be l%xG inches, with the
edges beveled to correspond with the flare of the sides.
Draw down with % bolts and nail the side planks to the edge
of bottom board, and you will have a water-tight joint.
Now after sawing the side planks flush with the outside of
end posts, seal up ends on outside o-f posts. Paint the inside
thoroughly, and you will have a water-tight box. You can
nail quarter-round- in the corners ; ' necessary, but ours has
none, and does not leak, and has been in use for three years.
I like the dipping-vat 8 feet lomz, so as to allow an incline
for sheep to walk out on. They will climb out with little
assistance if so arranged. We have a small tackle hung
near the exit end of the vat, so that in handling very heavy
sheep we have a, saddle girth, with ring on each end, which
^we put under the sheep behind the forelegs; hook the tackle
into the rings, and one man will. easily lift a 300-pound sheep;
but we seldom use the tackle, as the sheep naturally walk
out with little assistance (and 300-pound sheep are very
scarce with us; we have not succeeded in raising many of
that kind). We let the vat into the ground 2 feet, so the top
stands 2 feet above the surface. Bore an inch hole in bottom
to drain oft' liquid when done (1 inch, so that it may be
stopped with a corn cob); bury an old box or barrel a short
distance from the vat, and make a drain from the hole in
vat to it, and there will be no danger of chickens or other
stock drinking it.

In Fig. 3 I have tried to give an inside view of the vat,
and in Fig. 4 a side elevation before being let into the ground
or floor. From the exit end of the vat extends the draining-
table, which should be about 4 feet wide and of any desired
length, with the outer end elevated so as to drain back iinu
the vat with a strainer to catch any filth that might accumu-
late on the table.

I will endeavor to illustrate in Figs. 5 and 6 how to build
the draining-table. Use for sills 2x0 inch at intervals of 2
feet to nail the floor to. Say you make the first section 14

282 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP-

feet; you can let the next lap on the first and extend as fai-
ns you desire. Shape the sills as shown in Fig. 5, and regu-
late the pitch by the length of the legs as shown in Fig. 0.
Set the sills in line,- nail temporary strips on ends to hold
in position and proceed to floor, taking care to paint well
the tongues and grooves, and when done give two good coats
of paint to prevent shrinking and swelling. The legs may
extend upward for post to nail planks' to prevent the sheep

1 M I y Ml U I U— i |>»siaa— 1 M I

y f •"••• i J]

•l

It-'

F16- ?•

jumping off. A small gate or bar at the end to let them out
when they cease to drip completes the drainiug-table. Fig.
7 shows draining surface of the table. We find 14 feet of
'Training-table is sufficient for our use. We do not consider
it any great job to dip our little flock of 100 to 150 sheep.

SHEARING.

This harvesting of the wool crop, as it may be termed,
is one of the important parts of the shepherd's industry.
It is really his harvest time, and 'it goes very naturally
that in the advance of mechanical methods, the machine now

284 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

in use for gathering this harvest, is made on precisely the
same principle as the mower and the harvester. That is,
that the reciprocating cutting blade, is of the same form
and has the same action as those machines. It is somewhat
of a reproach to the enterprise of American shepherds, that
although a machine for shearing on this principle was in-
vented and made over twenty years ago, when the author
used it, and probably sheared the first sheep by machine,
in this or any other country, it has been in long use in
Australia, and is only recently in use on our American sheep
ranches. But it has come, and come to stay, and as but little
power is needed to run it, and it does the work quickly and
with perfect safety to the sheep, it may be profitably used
even on comparatively small sheep farms. This same ma-
chine has been in use for clipping horses, and even in the
barber shops of our large cities, while it has been neglected
until now by our sheep men. The now perfected machine
will be a considerable saving of expense, and unquestiona-
bly will be utilized much in the same way as the peripatetic
thrashing machine is, that is, carried from farm to farm to
do the work where it will not be profitable to keep the outfit
especially for one's own use.

The method of shearing on a large sheep ranch is shown
in detail at fig. 34. The cost of this special operation is about
three cents per head for the shearing only. The work done
includes the shearing, tagging, rolling the fleece, and pack-
ing them into sacks, when they are weighed and ready for
shipment. The sheep in this case are sheared unwashed,
and on the whole this plan, which is the same as that adopt-
ed on the great sheep runs in Australia, is the most economi-
cal. The picture sufficiently explains the whole business,
from the penning of the sheep to the sacking of the wool for
shipment.

SHEARING Bl HAND.

The beginner wrill be more interested in this method of
hand shearing as it is best adapted for small flocks. The
sheep are penned in any convenient way near the shearing
floor, which— by the way— must be kept clean by sweeping
up the refuse, the tags being gathered by a boy along Avith
the sweepings, and afterwards hand-washed. The sheep is

I

286 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

first set up on its rump, when the shearer cuts the wool
down the belly to the sides, around the throat, and to the
neck. The sheep is then quietly held on its side, and the
wool loosened to the back bone and a little over it, as seen
where the stooping shearer is at work. The sheep is then

FIG. 33.— Hand Shearing.

.turned over, and the fleece cut on the other side. In this
sort of shearing one must carefully avoid under cutting,
that is, cutting the wool above the skin by taking too deep
a cut, or holding the shears with the points too high. This
either leaves ridges in the wool left on the sheep, or double
cuts it, making a waste.

A convenient tagging bench is shown at figure 35. This
is used to hold the sheep while the tag locks are removed.
The sheep is then passed over to the shearing bench on which
it lies more comfortably and easy, and is consequently less

SHEARING.

287

restless than on a flat floor. It is also more under the con-
trol of the s'hearer, who by slipping a strap over the neck

holds the sheep better and
without struggling, as it may
otherwise. When the fleeces
are removed from the sheep
they are folded by turning
over the sides and rolling them
into a compact bundle (fig. 37)
which is tied at each end
with soft wool twine. They are
then ready for storing or for
selling. If stored they should
not be kept in too dry a place.

FIG. 35.— Tagging Bench.

or they will have a harsh feeling when the buyer comes
around, or they are sent for sale. A shaded shed is a good
place to keep them in, in which they will not dry out too
much. A moderate degree of dampness is requisite to pre-
serve the softness of the wool, and its elasticity and strength
of fiber. It has been found, that by over dryness, wool will

FIG. 36.— Shearing Bench.

lose one-fourth of its strength, just as a sliver of elastic woo;l
will become hard and brittle by overdrying. The moisture
natural to the wool is to be preserved while it is in storage.

A few words might be said just here in regard to a rep-
rehensible practice of shearing, the intention of which is to
disguise the form of the sheep and give to it false and de-
ceptive appearance by which judges at the exhibitions may be
induced to estimate the animals so disguised above their real
character. It consists in leaving the fleece, at the shearing

288

THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

longer in some parts of the body than in others, so as
to increase the value of special points of excellence in the
form, as well as to add to the length of the staple. This
nefarious trick is common in the English exhibitions, and is
winked at by the judges, so that the most skillful adept in
this distortion of the form secures the prizes and leaves
the honest exhibitor in an undeserved low position. It has
been known too that exhibitors have descended to the low
trick of washing their show sheep, and coloring the fleece
with yellow ocher and oil, so as to give a false appearance

FIG. 37.— Tying Fleeces.

and feel to the wool. It is well that judges at exhibitions
should be cautious to inspect the stock and be about in good
season, and at times when these tricks may be practiced
by the shepherds in charge of the sheep in the various pens.
And while this deception may not be frequently practiced,
yet it is well that all concerned should be on the lookout
for it, and insist on the disqualification of the animals so
distorted, and levy a substantial fine on the delinquents.
This is simply a matter of justice to all honest exhibitors.
The author is free to say, and happy to testify, that this
practice is by no means common at our exhibitions, but still

SORTING WOOL.

289

it has been known to have been effective in misleading
judges who have been careless in giving thorough examina-
tion to the sheep in the pens. At the same time exhibitors
should take all honest means to put their sheep in the best
condition for the examination by the judges; for it some-
times happens that the best may lose position for want of
being duly prepared for the competition.

SORTING WOOL.

There are several qualities of wool in a sheep's fleece. The
character of the fiber varies the least in the Merino breeds,
more in the coarse wools, but most in the common natives.
But in all there is a difference. This is best seen in the
illustration, fig. 38, of what is known as a skirted fleece.
This is an Australian fleece, and it is to this method of sort-
ing the wool of a fleece that our tariff is applied. The skirted

Vool

2: 3

2 | 3 )

.—•--•*

FIG. 38.— A Skirted Fleece.

1, Firsts, neck and skirts; 2, Second pieces : 3, Third pieces; 4, Stained
wool; 5, Belly wool; 6, Broken wool; 7, Skirted wool.

wool being the best part of the fleece, is subject to the
highest import duty, on account of the higher value of it.
The fleece being laid on the \vool-sorter' s table, this expert
individual tears it to pieces, separating the various qualities,
as if by instinct, into the different grades. These are men-
tioned under the engraving.

This example is an object lesson to the breeder whose
ambition and business it. is to improve his flock. For it is
evident, the more tho fleece mav contain of the No. 7

290 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

wool, as it is here numbered, the higher the value of it will
be. And the more of the coarser wool in the fleece the less its
value, and of course of the sheep, as well as of its wool.
*the Merino sheep, in all its several varieties, is an interest-
ing example of the skill of the breeders by which these sheep
are clothed from the tip of the nose to the hoofs, with valua-
ble wool. There is thus a great difference between a pure
Merino and a grade. But by breeding up of the flock by the
use of the best selected sheep, chosen for this high grade of
fleece, it is evident that the special wool grower may in a
few years so grade up his flock as to largely increase the
value of it by the better wool grown. It will be a useful
study for the intelligent shepherd to examine carefully this
diagram of the skirted fleece, and apply the hints it will
afford to his culture of his flock.

PULLED WOOL.

A large quantity of what is known as pulled wool is al-
ways on the market. This is taken from the skins of
slaughtered sheep, and— sad to say— from the thousands of
sheep that are lost every year by the neglect of their owners.
The wool is loosened by the application to the back of the
skin of thin lime paste. This is one of the examples of the
detrimental effect of lime to the skin of a living animal, as
well as its usefulness in this special instance. The wool is
also loosened from the skins by laying them when wet in
heaps- one on another. The pelts of course sweat and
partly decompose as to the epidermis, which as has been
explained previously in this chapter, is the part in which
the wool fibers are rooted. The sweating of the skins in this
process causes the wool to loosen, so that it may be easily
removed, without seriously affecting the value of it. Thus
the market value of pulled wool may vary considerably with
the skillfulness or otherwise of this process of separation.
The wool of a sheep, dead of any disease, is materially re-
duced in value, and the more so as tho kind of disease may
happen to be. Sheep dying of any contagious disease, such
as anthrax especially, is frequently the cause of the infection
of the handlers of the skins or wool. The almost invariably
wool-sorter's disease, as it is called, is precisely this same
disease of which the sheep died, and is one of the most

CARE OF THE SHEARED SHEEP. 291

dreadful of all causes of death. It is accompanied by blood
poisoning, of which the results are most painful boils and
carbuncles appearing all over the body, and which produce
such severe shock to the sufferer, that death is almost cer-
tain. Recovery is rare, and the sufferings of the unfortunate
victim of the ignorant or thoughtless owner of the dead
sheep, are so severe as to be a caution to all concerned, never
'to touch a sheep dead of this disease except with a long pole,
as the saying is, to turn it into a deep hole dug on the spot
where it is buried safely. But all contact of the hands with
the carcass is to be most carefully avoided.

CAKE OF THE SHEARED SHEEP.

As our shearing time occurs in a favorable season of the
year, but little need be said as to the care of the newly-shorn
flock. Necessarily some thought is to be given to this, in the
way of protection against unfavorable weather. Warm rain
is not hurtful, but rather the opposite. Cold rain is to be
avoided, and if it happens, the sheep should be sheltered
for a short time until they have become used to their
thin Summer clothing. The English shepherds smear the
sheep with some kind of cheap grease, mostly the waste but-
ter purchased at a low price from the dealers. We might
say with some sort of truth that there is an abundant supply
of this article to be procured here, as well as in other coun-
tries, and if such waste stuff might be thought desirable to
shed the rain from the bared sheep, it would not cost much
to procure and use it. Cuts that have been made should be
treated with some antiseptic ointment, or tar, either will be
advisable, as a protection against the flies, which might
blow the sheep and cause serious trouble. The application
will tend to the quick -healing of any wounds that may
have been given in the shearing.

CHAPTER VII.
MINOR BRITISH BREEDS OF SHEEP.

THE HERUWICK

in M hardy, active, resolute and self-helpful race of sheep,
pure bred, highly prized aud most common in the beautiful
lake and hill country of Cumberland and Westmoreland
counties where tradition says they were first introduced by
the escape of some forty sheep from the wreck of Spanish
galleons on the Cumberland coast in 1588, since which period
they have been assiduously cultivated by the northern hill
farmers. The characteristics of the breed are well outlined
by Mr. Jas. Bowstead, a very competent authority, as fol-
lows: "The essential points of a Herdwick are a heavy fleece
of fairly strong wool disposed to be hairy on the top of the
shoulder, growing well down to the knees and hocks, pole
and belly well covered, a broad, bushy tail, aud a, well de-
fined topping broad head, nose arched, or Roman, nostrils
aud mouth wide, teeth broad and short, jaws deep, showing
strength of constitution and determination, eye prominent
and lively, and in the male, defiant; ears white, fine, erect
and always moving, as has been said like a butterfly's wing.
The color or markings of the face and legs is very important.
There should be no spots or speckles, nor any token of
brown, as these are considered sure tokens of a cross. When
the lambs are born their legs and heads should be perfectly
black, with the exception of a little white on the tips of the
ears, and perhaps a few white hairs round the feet. These
white hairs gradually increase, so that at six months old,
one-third or one-half the ear will be hoar-frosted, and there
will be distinct bands of the same round the feet, shading
off to the black of the leg, and by this time also about
an inch of the muzzle will have become frosted too. This
change of color goes on until some, at the age of three years,
are perfectly white, while others remain a kind of steel

294 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

gray. Horns in the ram are desirable, but not essential,
and undoubtedly add much to tli<;: appearance, but other-
wise are not much valued. White hoofs are much preferred.
***** There are many yeomen in the dales of Cum-
berland and Westmoreland whose flocks have been handed
down from father to son for generations without a blot or
stain on their pedigrees, and he would bo a degenerate son
who would dare to try a cross." The Herdwick, like most
of the mountain sheep, is distinctively a mutton sheep,
much prized for the fine flavor of its flesh.

THE RYELAND SHEEP

The old Ryeland was well scattered over Staffordshire,
Shropshire, Monmouthshire, Herefordshire and Gloucester-
shire a century and more ago, and as early as 1800 num-
bered 500,000 in Herefordshire alone, but for some reason
fell into disfavor and decline almost to the point of extinc-
tion. It was medium sized, ruining from 12 to 15 Ibs.
to the quarter in the wether, and 10 to 12 Ibs. in the ewe,
was white-faced and polled, with small clean legs, light
bone, compact, round body, a 2 Ib. fleece of very fine wool,
had great powers of endurance, and so much favored the
Merino in appearance, character and habit, as to suggest
a possible foreign origin.

THE NEW RYELAND,

while holding some of the better characteristics of its less
showy and less pretentious ancestor, has greater size, sym-
metry and weight of fleece, lambs under 12 months yielding
as high as 18 Ibs. per quarter, and yearlings 20 to 24 Ibs. to
the quarter, the fleece, though not so fine as in the older breed,
ranging from 6 to 8 Ibs. The New Ryeland, which doubtless
owes much of its fine size and style to early Leicester
crosses, is still hornless and white-faced, with short, close,
even wool, and is clearly a distinct breed, quite unlike any
other. It fattens with remarkable facility, matures quickly,
yields an excellent quality of flesh and is fast coming into
favor for its inherent value, as a wool and mutton sheep,
and especially for crossing on other breeds. Mr. Frank
Shepherd, who has had a life-long association with the breed,
says: "The Ryeland is one of the oldest of British breeds of
sheep, and to my mind is one of the best all-round breeds

RYELA^D RAM.

LONK HAM.

296 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

we have, producing mutton and wool of the finest quality,
with great constitution, invaluable for crossing purposes.
It is a common saying in Hereford market that 'no sheep will
get fat lambs like a Ryeland ram.' The Ryeland of to-day
is a much heavier sheep than was the case thirty or forty
years ago and arrives earlier at maturity — compact in form,
straight back, sides and underline, on short, well-set, white
legs, a white face, thick scrag, and head well covered with
wool. No better wool is grown on any sheep. As a hardy,
farmer's rent-paying sheep, I have no hesitation in giving
the preference to the Ryeland." Such is a brief outline
of the history and characteristics of a breed of sheep des-
tined to hold a conspicuous place in the world's future sheep
farming.

Among the minor English breeds, which have in recent
years been honored with a class at the Royal and other
shows, is

THE LONK,

of which the following mention is made by Mr. Dixon in the
Royal Agricultural Society's Journal: "The hill ranges of
Yorkshire and Lancashire are believed to be the earliest home
of the Lonks. We find them extending north from Clitheroe,
over the forest of Bowland towards Lancaster, east of Colne
and Skipton as far as Keighley and Ben Rhydding, and
south along the 'back-bone of England' by Pendle Hill, Burn-
ley, Todmorden and Bacup, almost to Blackstone Edge. The
Penistone breed, a shorter and thicker description of Lonk.
there hold the hills. Derbyshire also has Lonks on most of
its hills and peaks, and its flockmasters often go over to
report progress at the Craven Show." Youatt undoubtedly
refers to the Lonks in the following note: "In the West Rid-
ing of Yorkshire and on the border of Lancashire, a breed of
short-wooled sheep has existed from time immemorial. They
are horned, with mottled faces and legs; some of them, how-
ever, are white-faced. It has been crossed more toward the
south of the Riding with the Cheviot and Leicester, both of
which have improved it. Towards the north it has been
oftener crossed with the Heath sheep, and then the legs and
faces are black, gray or spotted." Prof. Wrightson
says of the breed: "The Lonks are a distinct breed, and are
most valued on low-lying, damp and mossy land. They are

298 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

like the Heath sheep, black and white faced, horned in
both sexes, carrying a superior fleece of fine, moderately long
wool, which is closer in texture, more springy and elastic
than the wool of the Scotch Black-faces. The breed is
peculiar for resisting the effects of a damp soil. The Lonk is
a larger, thicker made, and better wooled sheep than the
Scotch Black-faced, and was well represented at the show of
the Royal at Chester in 1893."

THE ROSCOMMON

of to-day is a comparatively recent and very great improve-
ment on the old, large, raw-boned, ungainly native sheep of
Connaught, the chief sheep raising province of Ireland. The
earliest modification of the ugly old Connaughters, both in
form and fleece, was effected by Leicester rams skillfully
mated with native ewes by the most intelligent breeders
of Roscommon County. Later improvement came by careful
selection, resulting in a stately, massive sheep of command-
ing presence, noble, if not handsome. Yearling grass fed
wethers yield 25 and 30 Ibs. and older ewes from 30 to 40
Ibs. to the quarter of superior mutton. Early maturity, too,
seems characteristic of these sheep which carry 7 to 10
Ib. fleeces of soft, pliable, lustrous long staple wool. Not
alone to favoring crosses and selection are due the stately
and massive form and rich fleece of the modern Roscommon.
Environments — salt sea breezes, with their favoring humidity,
the rich herbage and browse, the soils, geology and topog-
raphy of Connaught— have had much to do with the develop-
ment of this breed of sheep into its noble proportions. The
Roscommon is rather large for the present English mutton
fashion, but fashion may change to suit the noble Roscom-
mon, or the Roscommcn may change to suit the fashion.
This is an age of marvels in sheep evolution and changes
follow each other thick and fast.

THE RADNOR

is a native of Radnor, Merioneth, Montgomery and Breck-
nock Counties, Wales, and one of the old mountain breeds,
originally very small, but now bred up to medium size and
good form through Leicester and Shropshire crosses, until
at maturity (three or four years old) the well bred and well
fed wether turns a twelve to fifteen Ib. quarter and the ewe

300 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

a nine to twelve Ib. dressed quarter. The ewes are prolific,
good milkers and mothers and are much sought after by
feeders in the near English counties for raising mutton
lambs. Like all the Welsh sheep of the mountains, the llod-
.nor, though not a ready feeder, is a producer of high quality
mutton. The old native Radnor carried a veiy large heavily
wooled tail and was hairy at breach and breast,' but his mod-
ern descendent carries a 4 or 5 Ib. fleece of tine quality
wool, horns in the ram, ewes polled, but sometimes with rudi-
mental horns, ablack face, vary ing to tan, gray and even white,
and a light fore-quarter, and is a very hardy, active, self-
reliant sheep, and though favored with recognition at some
of the great shows, is a provincialist, best suited to his
bleak native habitat and never likely to take a prominent
place in British husbandry.

THE SHEEP OF SOUTH WALES

are characterized by Mr. Morgan Evans as "principally
wrhite-faced, though some have rusty brown, others speckled
and others gray faces. The males are horned, the ewes gen-
erally hornless, though sometimes with very short horns and
occasionally with horns .equal in size to those of the ram.
The head is small and carried well up, the neck long, poll
high, shoulders low, chest narrow, girth small, ribs flat,
rump high and tail long. Average weight of ewes 7 Ibs. per
quarter. Three year old wethers, 9 to 10 Ibs. per quarter,
and the mutton famous for its delicacy. The average clip
of wool is about 5 Ibs. per fleece of fine quality, but in some
districts it is mixed with long hairs about the neck and
back." All attempts at improvement of these little mountain
sheep have ended in failure. They are the natural product
of the bleak, semi-barren Welsh hills, the heather, a rigorous
winter climate and generally hard conditions, modified by
the salt sea winds, and in their best estate, are likely, though
diminutive in size, to long: remain the unapproachable,
superlative mutton sheep of the hill country.

THE EXMOOU,

like the Dartmoor, are native to the North Devon and neigh-
boring mountains, and in their original estate bore noticeable
resemblance to the Dorsets, of which they were near neigh-
bors. They were naturally wild and nomadic, carried light

302 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

fleeces of coarse wool, were homed in both sexes, and like
most of the mountain breeds that ranged in the heather
a lid subsisted on browse and the scanty herbage of the
higher moorlands yielded tine flavored mutton. The Ex-
moor, which has been greatly improved in the last half cen-
tury by Leicester crosses, is relatively, a medium sized, white
faced, white wooled, white legged and very hardy sheep,
with prettily turned horns, long round barrels, broad loins,
short legs, drooping shoulders, rather faulty neck and mod-
erate shoulder girth, and carries a fleece of about five Ibs.
of wool. Where well bred and fed, the mature Exmoor
dresses from ten to eighteen Ibs. to the quarter. Tins breed
of sheep, like the Dorset, matures early and the ewe is a
prolific lamb bearer, very frequently presenting twins and
triplets. The breed is noteworthy, too, for its unusual
longevity, and in the quality of its mutton has few equals.

THE LIMESTONE OR CRAG SHEEP,

which have found ready recognition and a good representa-
tion at the Royal and other shows, are mainly confined to the
rugged moorlands of West Yorkshire and East Lancashire
where they are near neighbors of the Lonks. Youatt speaks
of them in this wise: "Towards the borders of Westmoreland
the Limestone breed of sheep are found. They are natives
of that part of the country and singularly confined to il.
It is a horned breed, with white face and legs, depasturing
on a rocky limestone land." Prof. Wrightson describes them
as follows: ''Both sexes horned, face and legs white, wool
firm, intermediate in length, and inclining to the character
of short rather than long wool. Wethers 18 to 22 Ibs. per
quarter at twenty months old. Females very prolific. Out
of fifty-four ewes in a given flock, thirteen produced triplets,
and the entire fifty-four brought up ninety-six lambs to
weaning time." The Crag sheep, he says, are "well adapted
for the dry and high lying moors of the mountain limestone
nnd are able to subsist almost without water."

THE DEVON LONG WOOL.

a native of Devonshire, comes down through the centuries
from the old Bampton, a large, swarthy, strong boned, heav-
ily fleeced, white faced and hornless breed of sheep, that
got their great size and bone from the rich Bampton pas-

804 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

lures, ages before some of the present popular breeds of Brit-
ish sheep were born. The Devon Longwool of to-day is a
reproduction of the stalwart old breed under the refining
influence of Leicester and Lincoln blood, numerous crosses
of which are apparent in its present bodily symmetry, fine
fleece and well established type. It has found favor at the
Royal and other leading shows and is unquestionably a most
valuable member of the long-wool tribes.

THE DARTMOOR

of the present time, as the cut shows, is a long-wool sheep
of large size, good form, long, heavy fleece and general char-
acter much on the order of the Cotswold and Lincoln, and
quite unlike the raw-boned, angular and ugly native sheep
of the mountains described by Youatt and other early writers.
He is strong boned, white faced, white legged and horn-
less, with long white staple, is very hardy and as now
constituted, the result of a cross of the Leicester and Lin-
coln on the native Dartmoor mountain sheep. The Dartmoor
has been received with much favor at the Royal show and is
really one of the valuable long-wool breeds of England.

THE GLAMORGANSHIRE SHEEP,

of South Wales, are small, with very little claim to sym-
metry of form or inviting features. They are white faced,
white legged, generally hornless and carry a fairly dense
fleece of short wool, not altogether free from hair, occasional
tan colored legs are noted among them and are considered
tokens of constitutional vigor. The mature fat wether
dresses thirty to forty Ibs., and the ewe from twenty to
thirty Ibs., or about six or seven Ibs. per quarter. Like
other tribes of Welsh sheep, they yield superb mutton, and
so far, have not shown marked improvement when crossed
with larger breeds from other parts of the kingdom.

THE CLUN FOREST SHEEP

are natives of the Chin Forest and Radnor Forest hills on
the border between Wales and Shropshire, and were once a
white faced, light fleeced sheep, but Shropshire and Ryeland
crosses have improved them in size, form and fleece. The
face colorings ranges from white to black with intermediate
shadings of fawn, gray, brown or mottled. Wool and mutton
of excellent quality, sheep and lambs mature early, general
style good, but fixedness of type still wanting. A valuable
sheep with more than average possibilities.

CHAPTER VIII.

THE DISEASES OF SHEEP. - THEIR PREVENTION AND
TREATMENT.

Prevention is better than cure. The modern methods and
practice of medicine, both of the physician and the veterinary,
are to prevent diseases first as far as possible, and under the care-
ful and skillful use of every hygienic precaution, 'this system has
had the good, result of lessening the death rate of the cities to
nearly one-half of the proportion of only a few years ago. The en-
forced cleanliness, the ample supply of pure water, the better ven-
tilation of dwellings, the greater personal cleanliness of individuals,
due to the copious water service of towns and cities, with
the assistance of popular education in this respect, have all had
this excellent result. So far this better manner of life has not
been adopted in regard to our domestic animals, each owner
of which is free to do, or to neglect to do, those things which are
requisite for the welfare of his stock. But this matter must soon
be brought under the same rule of action by the farmer, the shep-
herd, the dairyman, the horse owner, and all others interested in
the pursuit of that branch of agriculture, which consists of the
rearing and feeding of our domestic animals.

Fortunately the general study of the hygiene of animal life,
and the enforcement of ordinary economy, have had the result
of bringing this matter before the attention of our legislatures,
and special hygienic laws have been made and enforced througli
which this saving of life, and money as well, have been effected.
Laws for the destruction of contagious diseases both of animals and
the common farm crops, by the destruction of the contagious germs
to which they are due, are now beginning to bear fruit; and those
deadly diseases by which flocks and herds have been decimated,
and uncounted millions of dollars have been wasted, are yearly
getting under control through the enforced precautions by which
contagion and infection are avoided. ' The scab disease of sheep,
for instance, by virtue of such laws rigorously enforced, no longer
exists to the dread of the shepherd, but has already been brought
under control in some countries, and it is the paramount dutv of
American shepherds to see that the same regulations should be
made and enforced here, so that sheep may not be infected in
their transport by rail from place to place, and the buyer of
healthy animals may have either the assurance of safety, or satis-
factory means of recompense for losses sustained through the neg-
lect or carelessness of those who are the causes of loss in this way.

306 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

There is no good reason why in the course of two years at
least every contagious and infectious disease of sheep might not be
put an end to, and safety for the future insured. This would put,
millions of dollars into the pockets of shepherds and sheep breed-
ers, and it is as easy to be done as that the yellow fever or the
deadly cholera may be prevented from gaining entrance through
our seaports. So far as may be required for this end, all con-
cerned in saving our flocks from decimation should waste no
time in calling for adequate legislation, and at the same time
themselves practice every necessary precaution in the management
of their own flocks. Next to this all concerned should study those
most effective rules by which diseases, due to neglects of manage-
ment and to parasites, may be avoided by the general destruction
of these deadly enemies of the flocks. One kind of intestinal
worms, for instance, is responsible for more than half the deaths
of sheep. The favtal fluke worm has at times destroyed one-tenth of
all the sheep in Australia, and thousands are lost here simply by the
neglect to avoid the use of infected water drank Jby the sheep
at ponds and sluggish streams, bordered by wet banks, on which
this parasite is bred in its common host, an abundant snail. So
with the equally injurious tape worms, which are taken into the
sheep in their embryo forms, as they are voided by dogs and other
carnivorous animals, as wolves and coyotes. There is no reason
why by a simple method every dog may not be freed from the
parasites, and rendered innoxious to the flocks.

And so it goes with other diseases, which — as Ave shall describe
them — may be prevented by the drainage of low pasture lands, or
the avoiding of certain geologically derived soils, the effect of
which is injurious to the flocks, and others still Avhich are due to
faults of feeding, and the inadequate nutrition of the sheep.
Others too may be due to irregularities of feeding, or to exposure
to the severity of the weather, as to heat or cold, or to the want
of needed dryness or cleanliness in the housing of the flocks, or to
injurious plants which may easily be eradicated from the pas-
tures. All these remarks are intended to put the shepherds on
their guard, and by full information as to these common risks, lead
to the avoidance of them and insure the safety of the flocks.

For the fuller information of the reader we shall give every
name by which the common diseases are known; the common
ones in 'use, as well as those best known to science; so that each
may be easily recognized, and treated with understanding. Atten-
tion is called to the list of symptoms which indicate the special
disease, so that every reader may as far as possible recognize the
ailment by which his sheep may be affected, and thus more mte h-
gently seek out the means of treatment. A list of remedies will also
be found which may be used in accordance with the prescriptions
given These will be rated for animals fully grown, and are to be
decreased in proportion to the age and weight of each one, halt
for a yearling, and a fourth for one six months old. As very
young 'lambs rarely call for treatment except through the dams,
in such cases the judgment of each reader must be exercised as to

DISEASES OF SHEEP. 307

the proportion of each case. As some diseases affect only young
lambs, it is to be understood that the quantities are for them
specifically, when they only are mentioned.

The list of diseases are taken up alphabetically, which will be
the most convenient arrangement. If the list of symptoms is
first referred to, the disease indicated will then be found in its
place, with the needed treatment described.

Before entering into the list of diseases it may be well to dis-
cuss that most important of the medical management of the ewes,
which applies to the birth of lambs. The scientific name of this
natural function is parturition.

PARTURITION OF THE SHEEP.

Ordinarily the ewes give birth to the lambs in the Spring.
This is the most convenient time of the year in general, but in
some instances, now, the lambs are desired much earlier, and in-
deed with the Dorsets, they are expected late in the Fall or early
in the Winter. As a rule it is most profitable to have the lambs
early, that is from the New Year on, until the early Spring. This
is a convenient time, for the lambs are weaned in good season for
the early fattening of the ewes, expected to be sold, and the lambs
may be ready for market two months earlier than later ones,
while they may be made to wreigh ten or fifteen pounds more
without any greater cost of feeding when the usual time of dispos-
ing of them arrives, towards the end of the season.

A weak ewe is always in more or less trouble at this time
than those that have been duly prepared for the occasion by
good care and feeding. The birth of a lamb is always easy when
the ewes are strong, and there is ample milk for rearing the
young things, which are really hardy; and once on their legs and
having a drink of milk, are then about past all risk if due shelter
is given them in severe weather. The absence of this shelter ia
a very costly instance of want of thrift on the part of the shep-
herd. A lamb is a small thing, but as he who takes care of his
cents saves his dollars, so this old true proverb applies to this;
and every lamb lost is just so much money out of pocket.

As the time for the appearance of the lambs approaches,
and this is to be known by reference to the record to be kept
by every shepherd, the most forward ewes should be separated
into yards with pens attached, and a close watch kept over them.
The indications of approaching lambing are the filling of the udder,
and later the deeper color and swollen condition of the vulva.
When these conditions are perceived the ewes should be brought
into the enclosures around the pens, and watched if the weather
is at all severe, and especially if it is raining; for a cold rain wi'l
kill a new born lamb that will easily withstand a temperature half
way to zero, if it is dry.

Sheep are willful and obstinate, and unless controlled in some
way they cannot help, they will give trouble. So that every pro-
vision should be made to have things so arranged that they cannot
help but do precisely what is wanted of them. It is a rare thing

THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

that any help is needed at the birth of the lamb, and quietness,
and the absence of all disturbances by other sheep, and a watchful
attention until the lamb is on its feet and trying to get its milk,
are generally quite sufficient. What the shepherd wants to know
is that things are going on right, and then to let the sheep and
the lamb get on in their own way.

If a lamb is chilled, a hot bath is the best thing for it, and
then to be wrapped in a flannel around its body. A teaspoonful of
hot gin and water, a little sweetened, is the common panacea of
the Highland shepherds for the restoration of a weak or chilled
lamb; and it is certainly effective. Even on those exposed moun-
tain pastures, it is rare that the losses of lambs reach over seven
per cent, even in the worst of seasons, and when the shep-
herd's hut is almost buried in snow.

If a ewe refuses to care for her lamb, she should be put into a
small pen, in which she cannot get away from the lamb's impor-
tunities, and generally it will be sufficient to hold the lamb to the
teat and let it get a few mouthfuls of milk, after which it will
take care of itself, and the ewe will submit to its importunate calls
for nutriment. This care is more needed when twin lambs art-
dropped, and by due attention the majority of these will be suc-
cessfully reared in this way without artificial feeding. Otherwise
it will be wise to have a fresh cow handy, and feed the lambs that
need it from a nursing bottle. It has been known that more
thian three hundred pairs of twins have been reared in a flock
of six hundred ewes, through the good care and management of a
skillful foreman who looked attentively to this part of his
business.

If a ewe is weak, there is nothing better for her than a
drink of warm oatmeal gruel given from a long-necked bottle, if
she will not drink it without this help. This may be given four
times a day, and in a large flock a supply of this nourishing food
should be kept on hand and warm all the time. It will be a
great help to have the weak ewes culled out before the lambing
time is due, and by a little extra care to get up their strength by
good nursing.

One of the worst things that may happen to a ewe, heavy in
lamb, is to be chased by dogs. This is to be carefully prevented,
and the shepherd's dog itself is to be watched at this time lest he
might be too rough with some forward ewe.

Unnecessary interference with a ewe in labor is unwise. Let
nature have its way until it is evident that help is needed, and
then the careful use of the forceps, or a small hand, may liberate
the lamb and afford a safe delivery. If the ewe is weak and
prostrated, a dose of the ordinary cordial used by shepherds will
act as a useful stimulant, after which some light liquid nutritious
food will restore the strength.

There are occasions of such a presentation of the lamb that it
is impossible to save it, and it may be a question whether the
lamb or the ewe may be the most desirable to sacrifice. If the
lamb is likely to be of more value than the ewe, it may be saved

DISEASES OF SHEEP. 309

by taking it from the mother by what is known as the Cesarian
operation. This consists of the opening of the ewe and taking
the lamb from her. This is a serious operation, but it has been
performed safely, and both ewe and lamb saved. Or if the ewe
must be sacrificed, and is in a hopeless condition of exhaustion,
she may be treated with chloroform so as to make her insensible,
and the lamb then extracted and reared by hand, or put on an-
other ewe.

This operation is performed in this way. The wool is clipped
from the right flank, and an incision is made large enough to insert
the hand previously oiled or greased with carbolated vaseline. Five
inches is about right. The uterus (the womb) is then brought
into view, taking the utmost care to keep the intestines out of
danger, for it is quite possible to save both ewe and lamb by
skillful operation. The uterus is then opened, the membranes
removed and opened, and the lamb taken, cutting the cord and
tying it to prevent bleeding. The incisions are then closed by
sutures, using every precaution to sterilize the parts by a spray
of warm solution of carbolic acid or permanganate of potash. The
lamb is fed with fresh cow's milk, or put to a newly-lambed ewe.
The ewe is kept quiet and comfortable, and if the operation
has not been delayed too long, it has an equal chance for recovery.
Reports of thirty-four cases of this kind have been recorded, in
which fourteen were successful, both ewe and lamb having been
saved; in nine the ewe was saved, but the results as to the lamb
are not given. The ewe alone was saved in five instances, in six
the ewe died but the lambs were saved, and in only six both ewe
and lamb died. St. Cyr, a noted veterinarian, says in his work,
that this operation is decidedly dangerous for the parent, but
may be made with success as to the lamb; but the mother may
often be saved, if the due antiseptic precautions are taken and
the body is carefully bandaged to support the wounded parts.
If the mother's life is not the main object, by taking a sufficiently
early time for the operation, the lamb may be saved in a large
majority of cases.

The incision in the flank need not be more than five inches
in length, and the intestines are ±o be carefully protected, and
sprayed by the antiseptic preparation. The most effective stimu-
lant for the ewe is a decoction of gentian, of which half a pint may
be given after the operation is completed. As to other animals,
especially cows, this operation has been generally successful.

RETENTION OF THE AFTER-BIRTH.

This is not at all common in the sheep as it is with, the
larger animals. The cause of this accident is weakness in the
ewe, or the spasmodic action of the os-uteri, or passage from
the uterus. The former is treated by giving stimulants to the
ewe, such as infusion of laurel berries, with aniseed, infused
in warm water as follows:

Laurel berries 2 ounces.

Aniseed 1 "

Carbonate of soda .. ...2 "

310 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

Infuse in two quarts of water and give half a pint, repeated
in six hours. This has been found almost universally successful,
except where the latter cause has been in operation. In this
case the application of belladonna ointment to the neck of the
womb, and to give half a dram of the belladonna extract to the
ewe in some warm gruel, have been found effective. In gen-
eral this is not any serious matter, as in time the membranes will
gradually pass away without any but a temporary inconvenience.
This inconvenience is generally avoided by due care in the feed-
ing of the ewes while carrying their lambs. A strong ewe will
rarely be troubled in this way.

BLEEDING FROM THE WOMB.

Bleeding or flooding, after the birth of the lamb, is mostly
due to the rupture of some blood vessel in the separation of
the membrane from the walls of the womb. The treatment
called for in this case is the injection of cold water, by means
of a suitable syringe, into the womb, and a sponge dipped in solu-
tion of perchloride of iron should be placed in the vagina. At the
same time half-dram doses of the perchloride should be given by
the mouth, in solution, at intervals of three hours. It will be a
help to rub other parts of the body, as the legs and neck, with any
of the common stimulating liniments to produce a revulsion of the
circulation to these parts of the body, thus relieving the seat of
the disorder. This is an infrequent trouble with sheep, and is
due mostly to some undue muscular exertion of the animal during
the birth of the lamb.

INVERSION OF THE WOMB.

Sometimes after the birth of the lamb the womb, a red bladder-
like substance, may be seen ejecting from the vulva. This is
due to some weakness of the ewe by which the attachments of the
womb are loosened, and through the failure of the passage to
close, normally, the accident occurs. This disease has been known
and described from time immemorial. It was mentioned by the
old Roman veterinarian, Vegetius, who quite wisely — we think —
recommended the use of an inflated pig's bladder as a passary,
or compress, to be placed in the vagina. The bladder is inserted
while collapsed, and is then inflated by blowing into it with a
quill, when the neck is tied. This accident is quite frequent in the
ewe, coming next to the cow in regard to it. It is most apt to
happen through the retention of the after-birth, when the whole
organ is averted with its contents. If this is the case these must
be carefully separated at each attachment of the cotyledons, so as
not to cause bleeding by forcible separation. If the union is not
easily separated the membranes may be severed near the attach-
ments, but with great care to avoid bleeding. The uterus is then
washed with warm water, having a little alum, or extract of bark
in it. It is then carefully replaced using a probe having a soft
sponge ti-ed to the end, and covered with a clean linen rag. This
is dipped in carbolated vaseline, and by it the uterus is gently

DISEASES OF SHEEP. 311

replaced. The small bladder is then used as above mentioned.
The ewe should have immediately a strong dose of whisky or gin,
to allay muscular or nervous excitement. A small quantity of
diluted tincture of opium may be injected into the uterus, at the
same time. Necessarily the ewe should be kept very quiet for a
time, and not be permitted to run with the flock until recovery is
made.

If repeated eversion is threatened after this, the application
of a padded bandage with an opening in the center, or a patch of soft
leather should be fastened on. the part by a suitable bandage,
placed up over the back on each side of the tail, and under the
belly, and fastened to a strap around the body.

INFLAMMATION OF THE VAGINA.

This is sometimes a sequel of a difficult birth, especially after
the use of any of the preceding operations. The lips of the part
are swollen, and of a dark color, and subject to irritation which
causes the ewe to rub, and at times to lacerate, the part. The
treatment should be simple washing of the part with warm water
and carbolic soap, injecting as well two ounces of warm water in
which half a dram of hyposulphite of soda is dissolved. Circum-
stances, such as the spread of this disease, among other ewes,
have led to the belief that this disorder is contagious. It is cer-
tainly so to the ram at the serving season, and lest it might be-
come chronic, it should be treated without delay. The treatment,
when the disease is persistent, is to wash and inject the part with
the hyposulphite solution, and to give half a dram of the sulphite
dissolved in water, daily for a week, by the mouth.

GARGET OR INFLAMMATION OF THE UDDER.

This disease is rare with the ewe, except when she is deprived
of her lamb too suddenly at the weaning time. It rarely occurs at
the birth of the lamb, but yet may do so by reason of exposure
to cold, especially wet cold, as of heavy Spring rains, soon after,
or at the birth of the lamb. It soon yields to emollient treat-
ment, such as bathing with warm — almost hot — water with a little
alcohol in it. After bathing, the udder is rubbed gently by the
hand, and vaseline applied. Two drams of Epsom salts may be
given, and the feed should be only hay or grass. This disorder is
apt to happen if the ewes are fed too liberally soon after lambing,
with such exciting food as the oil cakes. A warm mash of oatmeal
with one-fourth as much linseed meal may be given twice a day.
If the milk is thick, inject a small quantity of solution of common
baking soda, or saleratus, into the udder, and after a few minutes
milk it out.

ABORTION.

When a pregnant animal expels the fetus before it has become
sufficiently developed to live outside and separated from the
parent, abortion (partus immaturus, or immature birth) is said to
occur. When the birth occurs before the due period, but with its

312 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

organs sufficiently matured for the perfect operation of the vital
functions, it is partus prematurus, or premature birth. The
former occurrence is a disease, the latter simply an accidental
shortening of the normal period of the inter-uterial growth and
existence of the fetus. In practice these two conditions differ only
in the result. Abortion is the birth of an immature fetus which is
dead, or too weak and ill-formed to live. A premature birth re-
sults in a weak animal which may live and thrive or succumb
and peris1!], in a short time. It is frequently the case that an
animal prematurely born may by good management survive and
become as profitable as one that has passed its full time.

The sheep, and the goat — a closely-related species — are most
liable to this accident of all the smaller domestic animals; but
not nearly so as the cow. The cow averages 20 per cent of abor-
tions, the sheep, among nearly 6,000 recorded births, suffered
26 abortions or about 4 per cent only.

Abortion occurs in the sheep and goat generally twenty days
or more before the due period, or the 140th day after fecundation.
The nearer this limit the more serious the risk of the dam is.

Abortion is sporadic, that is, occurs here or there over a wide
extent; or it is epizootic, and occurs numerously in any special
and distinct locality.

The former occurrence may be due to an unfavorable season
in which the ewes suffer unusual hardships, mostly deficiency of
food or sudden unfavorable conditions of the weather. Dry cold
is not so mischievous as wet, cold weather; and frosty nights fol-
lowing warm days, or perhaps more accurately the reverse, is the
most frequent of all accidents. Pasturing on the frosty herbage
in such a condition of weather so chills the womb by contact
with the cold stomach, as to produce this disorder more frequently
than any other cause. As prevention is the only remedy for this
disease, it is the business of the shepherd to exercise caution in
this regard. Another frequent cause of abortion is overloading the
stomach with coarse, innutritions, indigestible fodder; in fact
the stomach is so closely connected with the uterus, that a sym-
pathy between these two organs exists which is to be well consid-
ered by the shepherd, and the feeding is to be so managed that
.indigestion, and especially bloating of the stomach, is to be
avoided. It also goes without saying that the food of a pregnant
ewe is to* be sufficiently nutritious and well balanced to supply all
the needs of the ewe and the fetus within her.

Certain foods, too, are to be avoided. These are the coarse
sedges and weeds growing on low lands; the aromatic ragweed
and" allied plants which contain a similar essential oil to which
the strong odor is due; the leaves of turnips in a frozen condition,
and the leaves of the beet in any condition are all liable to cause
abortion, or so alleged by several noteworthy authorities.

Dogs ars the most serious cause of this disease by chasing
or injuring the ewes during the latter part of the pregnancy.
Fright, probably by its injurious action on the nervous system,
as well a.s the violent physical exertion, conspire to produce this

DISEASES OF SHEEP. 318

result. All these instances go to suggest such precautions as will
insure immunity from this form of the disease.

One special instance should not be omitted, which is the effect
of some natural influence or defect of the ram. For instance,
over use, having too many ewes to serve; too early an age and
consequent inability; and a defective constitution; all go to
produce essential weakness of the fetus; which, as it approaches
the end of the fetal period, has not sufficient strength to mature,
and thus dies and is ejected.

There are no premonitory symptoms in this form of the
disease. Abortion may occur suddenly and usually does, so that
the fetus is lost without the knowledge of the shepherd. It hap-
pens mostly in the night, and the appearance of the aborted fetus
in the pasture or the pens, is the only indication to the shepherd
that some ewe has gone wrong, but which he will probably never
discover. The results on the ewe are rarely noticeable and of
course any treatment Avhatever is out of the question, unless the
ewe may be found suffering from bleeding or prostration through
sympathetic action of the nervous system. In this case a dose of
two drams of laudanum may be given with good results.

Epizootic abortion is due to contagion. It may appear suddenly
in one flock and in a short time be active in many others at the
same time throughout an extensive locality. In this 'form the
disease is always due to the presence of a certain g.erm allied to
the common molds — Pencillium glaucum — the common green mold
or mildew, possibly originating in the field. This germ spreads
from the ejected matter of one animal to the related parts of
others, and thus disease spreads rapidly through a flock and from
one to another in various ways. The treatment is to carefully
disinfect the ewes by injecting one or two ounces solution of car-
bolic acid, twenty drops of the acid to the ounce of water, twice
in the day. Two ounces of infusion of black hair (viturnum
prompolium) in hot water, may be given when cooled down to the
ewes which gives indications of aborting, or to all of them in the
flock as a safe precaution.

As a preventive, the condition of the ewes is to be maintained
during pregnancy by good food, carefully avoiding ergotted grain
or hay, or smutty corn or oats, together with straw or fodder
from crops that have been infected by smut. Pure water, free
from all marshy drainage, only should be given to the flock.

COMMON DISEASES OF SHEEP.
ANEMIA— PAPER SKIN -THROAT THREAD WORMS.

This disease affects lambs mostly, and is recognized by the
white and bloodless appearance of the skin; the general weakness
of the young animals, and cough which has a rattling sound, in con-
sequence of which the weakened lambs are able to breathe only
with difficulty. The disease is due to the presence in the throat,
and air passages of the lungs, of a small white worm, slender and

314

THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

FIG. 1.— Lung Worm.

almost invisible in the mass of frothy mucus in which they are
gathered in clusters. This worm is known as Strongylus Filaria.

The disease is immediately rec-
ognized by severe cougliing fits of
the infested animals, mostly lambs
under a year old. The difficulty in
breathing necessarily prevents the
due aeration and purification of the
blood as it passes through the capil-
laries of the lungs, to be refreshed
by the pure air breathed. The red
corpuscles of the blood are greatly
decreased in number, and as these
are necessary to the full develop-
ment of the body the affected lamb
languishes, becomes weak, the blood
is reduced to a yellow serum with-
out vitality, arid all the visib'e
membranes are pale, and the skin
has the appearance of paper. Hence
the common name of this disease.
The treatment depends on the destruction of the parasite.
This is most easily affected by the use of turpentine, continued un-
til the system is saturated with it and the fumes escape through the
lungs and throat. Here the volatile oil comes in contact with the
parasite and kills it, thus relieving the suffering animal most ef-
fectively. As soon as relief is afforded in this way, the most easily
digested and nutritious food, as linseed meal, with oatmeal and
bran, is to be given daily, in moderate quantities to insure full di-
gestion. The turpentine is most easily given in sweet miik, the two
shaken together to form an emulsion. The quantity is one tea-
spoonful given in the morning before eating, and repeated daily
for a week.

These worms are believed to gain access to the lambs with
the grass of the pastures, and it is believed — doubt'ess with amr^e
reason — that, as the old sheep are equally affected by this parasi;e,
this is ejected by them either by coughing or through the bowels,
and failing on the grass they, or the eggs of them, are taken up
by the lambs feeding with the ewes. To avoid this infection,
lambs should never be permitted to pasture with the ewes, and
the meadows should be liberally dressed with fresh air slaked
lime ever^7 Spring or Fall.

As a help to restore the condition of the lambs give each one
a half teaspoonful of a mixture of gentian, ginger and sulphate of
iron, a most useful tonic mixture, which will hereafter in this
chapter be termed the tonic mixture. These ingredients are finely
powdered and mixed, and one teaspoonful is a dose for a full-
grown sheep. It is easily given in some ground feed or with mo-
lasses spread on the back of the tongue.

DISEASES OF SHEEP. 315

TAPE WORMS.

This class ot animal parasites are all of the greatest interest
to the scientific student on Account of the peculiarity of their
habits. They doubtless cause more ailments of all kinds, some
quite unsuspected as the results of the special cause, than any other
similar cause of diseases. The sheep is unusually exposed to this
class of parasites and on account of the curious life history of
them while passing through the sheep the sheep suffer more from
them than from any other cause of disease.

TENIA MARGIN ATA.

Tenia marginata is the name of one of the most common
of these parasites. This name, derived from the Latin, means in
plain English, the margined or bordered ribbon worm. This indi-
cates the figure of the mature worm, which as seen in the illus-
tration, is a long slender ribbon-formed thing, with a corrugated
border or margin. It reaches a length when mature of no less
than eight feet and a width of nearly half an inch. In this form
it inhabits the intestines of the dog. Thus at the start we find
that the dog or some other animal related to it, is necessary +o
the perfection of the life history of this creature. The illustra-
tion given shows the general figure of this worm in its adult stage.
The slender part, (a) is the head, shown enlarged at (b, b,) the
body increasing in size and in length of section or segments to
the end (d, d,) from which the segments are shed as they mature
(c, c and d,) filled with eggs. These segments are voided by the dog
or other bearer and if on the grass of a pasture, or near water, it
is a foregone conclusion that the sheep must some time or other,
in the list of chances, pick up some of these eggs, when the infec-
tion begins.

In the sheep, the egg soon transforms into a young worm
which is enclosed in a cyst or bladder, the end of the neck of
which is the head of the worm. The cysts mostly inhabit the
liver of the sheep, but have been found in the heart, lungs, and
muscles. To reach these resting places the minute eggs or em-
bryos must penetrate the wall of the sheep's stomach, and enter
the minute capillary veins from which they easily pass through
the larger veins into the liver or other resting places, where they
remain until they either kill the host, or die for want of the
means of development. In the former case the sheep perishes of
the disease set up in the liver by the irritating presence of the
parasite, or the disease may exist in the abdomen in the form of
peritonitis. When the dead sheep is in the course of nature made
a prey to the dog, the wolf or the coyote, the cysts containing the
eggs are swalloAved, and at once begin their final development
into the mature worm.

It is readily seen that this disease due to this parasite must
be deadly to the sheep, which is the common result; or the para-
site is no longer troublesome except so far as regards the perma-
nent encystment of the living or dead embryo in the muscles,

0

DISEASES OF SHEEP.

317

or whatever internal organ the cyst may have lodged in. If this
occurs the remains of the parasite will be marked by a limy deposit
at the spot where it perished. But there exists this danger. If
the embryos become encysted in the muscles of any animal whose
flesh is used as food, and the embryos are still living, those per-
sons who may eat the meat of such animals, and which has not
been sufficiently cooked, will become infected; as is so frequently
the case among persons who consume their food half cooked,
or not cooked at all. This does actually occur to an enormous
extent among half civilized peoples. Dry mutton hams may thus
infect persons who eat them. In this cystic form the parasite is
known as Cysticercus terini-collis, or the slender-necked, round
cysted worm.

If the worm is to be attacked at all it should be in the dog.
This is an easy method, for by administering the proper antidote
at regular intervals of two months, the worms may be destroyed
and the sheep delivered from the danger so far. As another tape
worm of the sheep inhabits the dog and its term is nearly a month,
the safe way would be to give the medicine every twenty days,
thus covering the intervals of each of these parasites. Areca
nut is the most effective remedy for this use. The freshly ground
powder, in quantity equal to two grains for each pound of live
weight of the dog, may be given with butter or in any other
convenient and simple way. The dog should go unfed from noon
the previous day and until a few hours after the medicine is
given. Two hours after giving the medicine, give one ounce of
caster oil. Keep the dog tied up until the medicine has operated,
and the dead worms have been passed. Any other effective sub-
stitute may be used if the desired effect is gained.

TENIA COENURUS.— GID OR STAGGERS IN SHEEP.

This species of tape worm is the cause of that well known •
and frequent disease of sheep called Gid, Turnsick or Staggers.

FIG. 3.— Adult, Natural Size.

It is so named because the animal under the influence of the
disease becomes giddy and is compelled by a well known function
of the brain, to turn to this or the other side, as it moves,impelled
thereto by the influence of the pressure on either half of the brain
as the case may be. It is well known that each half of the brain
exercises its function on that special side of the animal, and thus
the pressure of the watery bladders, in which the embryos of this

318

THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

worm are contained, on the substance of the brain, causes this
special result. The sheep turns round and round in small circles,
staggers, trembles, stops eating and drinking, is convulsed and
finally dies of paralysis or exhaustion. If the head is examined

there will be found these cysts,
drawings of which are taken from
Cobbold's Treatise on Internal
Parasites. These may contain
many of the immature worms,
scores or hundreds, attached to
the inner surface of the bladder.
It is the pressure of these watery
bladders, on the substance of the
brain, by which the abnormal
movements of the sheep are caused.
Sheep become infected
through the pasture on which
they feed, and on which the eggs
"of the worm inlay have been
dropped by dogs in their dung, or
Fig. 4. TUpper Surface of the Brain, from water in which the eggs may
showing at (a) the Coenui us cere , , . . , .

bralis cyst. have been washed or deposited in

any of the many ways possible.

These egge are taken of course into the sheep's stomach, and
there hatching, they make their way by migration into several
parts of the body, the eggs doubtless gaining access to the veins
are thus distributed, but perish wherever deposited, except in the
brain. Once there, the worms begin a migratory expedition in
search of a resting place, making galleries through the brain
substance, until they grow too large, when they form a large
cyst or bladder in which they remain as above mentioned. In.
time, the sheep so infested dies, or is slaughtered, when the head,
thrown to the dogs, is eaten and these embryos ar swallowed.
The history of the worms described in the preceding pages is
then repeated, and the segment or eggs of them mature in the in-
testines of the dog until they are discharged and are taken once
more into the sheep.

In this larval stage the worm is known as Coenurus cere-
bralie. After its first introduction into the brain of its host, it
is about as large as a mustard seed, and the disease becomes
manifest in five or six weeks after its introduction. It then
grows for some months, during which its effects are constantly
increasing in virulence until the final symptoms appear and the
death of the sheep follows.

The first symptoms of the disease noticed are dullness, feeble-
ness, "heat in the head, redness of the eyes, and hastened circula-
tion. The head suffers visibly, being stretched out, turned back,
or carried drooping. Then follow spasmodic convulsions or par-
alysis. During these manifestations of pain and distress, the
sheep makes those typical movements, turning in circles towards
the side of the head affected most, or if the parasite is in the cen-

DISEASES OF SHEEP. 319

ter of the brain, going forwards, pressing the head against a wail
or gate or fence, and standing stupidly. Death may then occur
in a few days or the sheep may appear to recover for a few
months when a different attack will occur. Two per cent is the
average of recoveries from these attacks. It has happened that
this worm selects, or is forced so to do, the spinal cord for its
resting place. Then the sheep walk with a staggering gait, and in-
flammation along the spine with all the symptoms of myelitis
occurs. There is little hope for cure by any of the alleged opera-
tions that have been reported, such as piercing the skuil with a
sharp-pointed syringe, and drawing off the serum from the blad-"
ders, when the worms will die, and the offending matter will
be absorbed without serious results. These alleged successful
operations are doubtless the vain stories of shepherds, who were
not sure of the disease ever existing. The skull may be
punctured and the brain operated on, and water may exist in the
cavity of the skull with some such manifestations as in this
peculiar disease. And this is doubtless the explanation of these
alleged cures of this complaint.

The only cure is prevention by ridding the dogs of the tape
worms, by slaughtering the affected sheep at the early stage of
the disease, and carefully destroying the head and its contents.
A sheep in good condition may be used for food without risk
when thus disposed of.

TAENIA ECHINOCOCCUS HYDATIDS.

This worm is known as the many headed tape worm. As it
is not existing in this part of the world, it is merely mentioned so
far as -to say that its seat is in the liver and the lungs, and its
history and the methods of prevention are the same as those
described in the two above sections. The same applies to

TENIA TENALLA, THE MUTTON MEASLE.

This worm exists in the loin muscles of the sheep, forming
white spots as large as flaxseed in the meat. It is only noticed to
any considerable extent in Eastern Europe.

TENIA FIMBRIATA.-THE GALL-DUCT TAPE WORM.
FRINGED TAPE WORM.

This worm is distinctly an American pest. Its alleged native
home was in Brazil. Its common name is the fringed tape worm.
It reaches about one foot in length, and about a quarter of an
inch in width. It is found in the duodenum, the large bowel next
to the stomach, and also in the gall ducts. A large number of
them have been found at one examination in the duodenum,
sometimes amounting to a hundred. Usually from' two to thirty
are found. When found in a flock nearly every sheep will be in-
fested. It exists so abundantly on the Western plains as to cause
greater losses than from any other parasites. It has been found
in flocks in Utah, Colorado, Nebraska and westward to the

320 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

Pacific. It has been found in deer killed in many parts of these
Western localities, and the author has identified it in several
specimens sent to him mostly from Arizona and New Mexico,
from both deer and sheep.

FIG. 5.— Adult, Natural Size.

Segments
near Head.

The illustrations, fig. 5, show the special character of this
tape worm, with the fringed edges, of the segments. Its form is
lanceolate in its contracted state, but linear when extended.
When contracted, the fringes being drawn closely together appeal-
like plush. The shedding of the fertile segments begins early in
life and continues until death. The head is provided with four
cup-like suckers.

These worms are found in sheep during the whole year, but
none in lambs under ten months old. It seems that the breeding
locality is the duodenum, as worms less than one-tenth of an inch
in length have been found in it, when the gall ducts were en-
tirely filled. The manner of reproduction is by the separation of
the final segments as in other tape worms. At two months age
the worms are about half an inch in length, in four months the
worm has grown to five inches in length, at which time they be-
gin, to affect the condition of the infected sheep. This effect is to
stop, or dwarf, the growth; reduce fat lambs to skeletons, thin,
hidebound, and dwarfed, with little wool, and that weak and ten-
der in the fiber.

The lambs show the first indications of the disease by their
gradual loss of condition. A desire to eat coarse, indigestible food,
a depraved appetite in fact, is one of the first evidences of in-
fection. Thus the sheep have been found to eat large quantities
of the so-called loco or crazy weeds of the plains, but more cor-
rectly the two plants known by this name, but correctly as As
traloagus mollismus, and a closely related other plant, a species
of Oxytropis. These are well known to the stockmen of the
Western plains, as being injurious to horses and cattle and as wel.l
to sheep.

DISEASES OF SHEEP. 321

The disturbance of the digestive functions by this interference
with the circulation and distribution of the bile is general in its
effect. The digestive process is incomplete, and the food does not
nourish. Hence the result is starvation to such a degree as these
functions are impaired. All the symptoms, the staggering gait,
loss of fat and leanness, the watery effusions, and the foolish con-
duct noted, are attributable to this defective nourishment of the
animal, and the weakening of the functions of the brain. So far
all professional treatment has been at fault, unless it may. be
said that the proprietary vermifuges and tonics in use have been
found most useful. The manner of life of this parasite should in-
dicate to the veterinary the use of such diffusive remedies as tur-
pentine podophyllin, taraxacum, and sulphate of iron, or other
remedies having special action on the functions of the liver, and
that are absorbed into the blood, and so pass through the liver
in a most effective condition. It is all the more reasonable that
the professional practitioner should adopt some of the methods
of the specific compounders, and not think of these as quacks
as long as their remedies succeed, while they themselves fail disas-
trously to cope with this deadly tribe of parasites.

As with all parasitic diseases it is the weak that go to the
wall. To sustain the strength, to get the lambs past the fatal
stage, is to be the effort of the shepherd. Thus good feeding from
the start, pure water infallibly supplied, to avoid a season of Win-
ter starvation, to provide shelter in bad weather, in fact for the
shepherd to do as he would wish to be done by, were he to
change places with his flock, should be the rule. If it costs a
little more to save a .sheep than to let it die miserably in the
Spring, after having been fed for the whole Winter, the cost is
returned with some profit, while a dead sheep is a profitless
property.

THE BROAD TAPE WORM OF SHEEP— TENIA
EXPANSA.

This is the most conspicuous of all the tape worms on ac-
count of its comparatively enormous size. Its length reaches about
16 feet, and European writers allege that it has been found con-
siderably exceeding this, even up to scores of feet; the maximum of
the fertile imagination of some alleged observers mounting up to
90 or 100 feet. These writers, it may be observed, are natives of
the country of the noted story teller, the Baron Muncbausen,
whose observations, as narrated by him, certainly tax the wildest
credulity. We may reasonably rest on our own observations,
and on the comparatively gigantic size of our own worms, and
stop at the moderate length of five yards or about one-third of the
length of the whole of the intestinal canal of the sheep. It is
flat and thin, being about one-tenth of an inch in thickness, and
in width from one-twenty-fifth of an inch at the head to three-
fourths of an inch at the other end, from which the fertile seg-
ments separate as in other tape worms. The head is larger than
the smallest part of the neck, and about as large as the head of

THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

the smallest pin. Its body is made up of very short but wide
joints, increasing in width from the head to the other extremity,
at which, as with other tape worms, the mature segments sep-
arate and pass out of the intestines.

These worms have no alimentary canal, but absorb their
nutriment through the surface of the segments. The em-
bryos exist in the mature segments. They are too small
to be apparent to the sight. Each of them is provided
with, hooks by which they attach themselves to the coats of the
intestines. The worms are found all over the United States, and
are at work in every month in the year. In the Spring and Fail,
Summer and Winter, they have been found in the intestines of
lambs slaughtered at the abattoirs. They are more abundant in
some localities than in others, and in the Summer than in the
Winter. Overfed and bare pastures are'the most prolific sources
of infection, by which it is apparent that the segments ejected
from the bowels, and falling on the ground, are in some way
picked up by the lambs and become matured in their intestines.
There is no intermediate bearer of this parasite.

The growth of the young worms is very rapid. They have been
found two to five yards long in lambs two to four months old,
which is equivalent to a foot to two feet of growth in a week. All the
knowledge possessed by careful investigators goes to prove be-
yond question that this worm does not pass any stage of its exis-
tence in the bodies of any other animals of any kind than the
sheep, and its life history is thus simple and devoid of the interest
in this regard attaching to other tape worms.

The existence of the worms becomes evident by the appear-
ance of the white segments attached to the small balls of dung
voided by the sheep, or by these adhering to the wool about the
top of the tail. This, however, only happens after the lamb has*
been infested some time and the segments of the tape worms
have become matured. The worst results to the sheep by the
presence of these worms seem to be due to the intestinal irrita-
tion set up by them, and the reflex action of this on the nervous
system. But the worms obstruct the intestines as well by their
large size, irritate it by their movements, produce excessive intes-
tinal secretions, non-assimilation of food, and as well abstract
nutritious matter from their victims for their own growth. The
results are necessarily the wasting of the lambs which become
poor, unthrifty, and hidebound, and frequently pot bellied by
distension from gas in the bowels, or shrunken and gaunt for
want of sufficient support.

The symptoms in addition to these are pale membranes
(paper skin), dry, harsh fleece without yolk or oil, a tottering gait,
and the lambs eat and drink more than with their natural appe-
tite, but at the same time fail to digest their food or thrive upon
it. Finally diarrhea becomes more and more severe and death
occurs by actual starvation and exhaustion.

If, however, the lambs can be safely carried over until the
worms are all ejected as segments, and no fresh infection occurs,
recovery is rapid and the lambs soon become fat and thrifty.

5.1

p- £

(*% 3

— o

324 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

As these worms are readily expelled and always within reach
by effective antidotes, treatment is always hopeful. The popular
remedies in the market prepared by experts and well endorsed
by known persons, may generally be relied upon; and by following
directions have been found effective. Outside of these the use
of turpentine, in half ounce doses on the empty stomach for a few
days; the roots of the male fern powdered in two ounce doses;
or the etheric oil of the root in one dram doses, given in two to
four ounces of castor oil for a full grown sheep have all been
found more or less effective. Tansy in two to six dram doses has
been recommended as a preventative, arid is a useful ingredient in
some of the proprietary worm powders. Regular use of salt with
the standard tonic mixture given on page 314 of this chapter has
been found a valuable element of safety in the way of prevention
against this pest.

THE STOMACH ROUND WORMS— STRONdYLUS CON-
TORTUS— THE TWISTED STRONGYLE.

The twisted strongyle inhabits the fourth stomach of the
sheep and the goat. It is by no means a serious pest except in the
flocks that are neglected and in poor condition, and unable to
resist misfortune. It is from five to ten inches in length (the male
is one-third shorter), has a reddish-colored body, and the female
is marked with a spiral double line entwining the whole length
of it. It is also found twisted in loops, whence the name contor-
tus. They live their whole life in the fourth stomach, in which
they set up serious irritation, besides greatly interfering with the
nutrition of the sheep and the abstraction of blood from the
coats of the stomach. Their red color is supposed to be due to
the blood thus drawn. The symptoms arising from the presence
of this parasite in the stomach are weakness, paleness of the
skin and membranes, some fever, diarrhea, and wasting of the
body generally.

This stomach worm, like the common throat and lung
strongyle, has no other host than the sheep, passing its life in the
stomach, its eggs or mature body filled with eggs being ejected
with the dung of the old sheep which are able to resist its effects
better than the weaker lambs, and these eggs are taken up with
the grass of pastures by the lambs. It is quite possible that
the young lambs may be infested directly by the sheep, whose tag
locks on the hind parts— smeared with dung— may have many of
the eggs of these worms on them, and these being sometimes
sucked by the young lambs hunting ignorantly for the teats, be-
come means of infection. That sucking lambs are infested by
these worms can hardly be explained otherwise.

The presence of these worms in the lambs cannot be surely
known except by examination after death^aUhough the symptoms
are fairly well sufficient for a diagnosis by the veterinarian. The
most successful treatment known to the author has been by
small, frequent doses of turpentine in milk, in the proportion of
one part of the former to eight or ten of the latter, and two ounces

DISEASES OF SHEEP. 325

or tablespoonfuls being a dose for a lamb half grown. A standard
preparation for this disease is made up as follows: Three pounds
of salt and half a pound of saltpeter, are dissolved in three gallons
of warm water, and half a pound of ground ginger is then well
infused in the liquid, kept warm for a few hours. When it has
cooled to milk warm, 24 ounces of turpentine is added, and the
whole well shaken. Two ounces is a dose for one lamb. Along
with this medicine, given on an empty stomach early in the morn-
ing, the standard tonic mixture should be given alternate'y. As with
all diseases of this kind the most nutritious and easily digestible
food is required, as linseed and oatmeal mashes, the best hay and
some sliced carrots or parsnips for the winter feeding, and good
clover pasture in the Summer.

INTESTINAL ROUND WORMS.

American sheep harbor at least six species of round worms,
all of them imported from Europe, and one which is native to this
continent. These various species are:

Strongylus Filicollis, Strongylus Ventricousus, found in the
duodenum; Dochmius cornus, Ascaris lumbricoides, found in the
small intestine; Tricocephalus affinis, found in the caecum or
blind gut; Sclorostoma hypostomum, found in the large intestine;
Oesophagostoma Columbianum, found in the large intestine.

None of these are of any serious importance except the last,
which is widely spread, and causes such a conspicuous injury to
the intestines as to have been given a special name, knotty guts,
by the butchers.

The symptoms produced by all or any of these worms are gen-
eral debility, indigestion, and resulting emaciation. These are the
results of absence of nutrition due to the interference with the
digestive functions, by reason of the constant irritation of the
bowels. It is mostly the case that a sheep or lamb is infected by
more than one of these parasites at once, and in many instances
it has been found that several of them are harbored by the sheep
together. It seems as if every sheep is infested less or more,
and even those in the best condition and the fattest that come
into the butchers' hands, have a few of these parasites, and some so
many that it is a matter of surprise that the sheep could maintain
their high condition.

As a matter of interest these parasites are described, but
treatment is so difficult arid there are so many other causes by
which the special symptoms may be produced, that it is better
for all concerned to study the means of prevention rather than
those of improbable cures.

It is known that sheep may become infected with at least one
of this kind of worms through the swine with whom they may be
pastured. Thus the large, round worm, Ascaris Lumbricoides, has
bean found in sheep although it is a specific parasite for swine.
It is also known that pastures become seriously infected by sev-
eral kinds of worms that are found in sheep, and the investiga-
tions of the scientific students have shown conclusively that it is

326 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

in this way that the majority of sheep and lambs become diseased.
To dress the pastures with fresh, air-slaked lime in the season
when the flocks are not pasturing is an excellent preventive
against all this class of parasites, and the regular culture of the
land, the plowing and the growing of crops in the regular rota-
tion; the completion of which is the seeding of the land with
grass and clover, will both be a help to the farmer who keeps
sheep, but of course of no avail to those who range their sheep.
These must depend on those medicinal preparations made for this
special purpose of avoiding these parasites, or tonic mixtures by
which the natural strength and vitality of the sheep may be
maintained, for it is the feeble and the ill-nourished that fall as
an easy prey to these parasites.

OESOPHAGOSTOMA COLUMBIANUM-NODULAR DISEASE
OF THE INTESTINES— KNOTTY GUTS.

It ia only in recent years that this parasite has been known
as the cause of the disease commonly named above. Less than

Fie. 7.— a, a, Male and female, natural size; b, b, Male and female,
enlarged. (After Raines.)

ten years ago it was discovered in some investigations as to the
nature of the knots or small tumors with which the intestines
of the sheep were more or less covered. This investigation curi-
ously enough arose from the connection of the sheep's intestines
with sausages. These sausage casings, of course should be perfect,
and above suspicion, however open to this the contents of them
might be. The common nodules by which these skins were more or
less unfitted for this use, made them unsalable, and a loss to the
butchers. And thus the matter became a subject of investigation
with the result of discovering that the disease was due to a hith-
erto unknown parasite of the sheep.

The cause of this disease is a round worm, and one entirely
distinct from any other known species. The male is about half an
inch in length, the female a little longer. The head of it is bent
into somewhat the form of a hook. In the sheep the adult worms
live in the large intestine, the young ones are found in all parts
of the bowels encysted in small tumors, at first no larger than the
head of a pin, filled with a sort of cheesy matter. How the para-
site enters the sheep there has been no satisfactory information
gained so far; so that we have to deal with these facts. First
these nodular swellings or tumors are found on the inner walls
of the intestines. Of course as the walls of the intestines are
the absorbent organs by which the digested food is taken into the

DISEASES OF SHEEP. 327

circulation to be completely fitted for the support of life, what-
ever interferes with this function is a cause of serious disease,
tending to deprive the animal of its due support, and thus produc-
ing general want of nutrition and resulting weakness. This is
precisely the result of this parasite and is so far operative as its
effect on the bowels may be.

The symptoms of this disease are signs of general weakness,
paleness of the lips and eyes, thin pale skin, loss of flesh, dry,
harsh fleece, and more or less diarrhea which soon produces
marked emaciation. These results are very gradual and slow in
their course, the sheep or lamb seems to be not doing well, but
the advance of the disease and the continuous change for the
worse occurs so gradually that the shepherd scarcely realizes the
extent of the injury until the more serious symptoms occur. A
persistent diarrhea is the most marked characteristic of Ihe
disease.

The tumors increase in size as the worm within grows. In
time the worms escape and remain loose in the intestines, there
becoming full grown and reproducing their kind. Not all the
young worms are thus encysted in these tumors, but only as it
were a sufficient number to insure the continuance of the race,
should by some accident the worms at large be destroyed. Con-
sidering this fact on the general knowledge and experience with
other parasites it might be well supposed and believed that this
encystment of a portion of the race should be one of the means
by which nature provided for the continuance of life, of what-
ever form it may be, and that in case the sheep died from the
effects of the parasite, there should be a remnant left — as we say —
for seed; and by the intervention of some intermediate bearer
the parasite might have its life insured, so to say, that the race
might not be completely extinguished.

Treatment in such conditions as these is evidently a difficult
matter to suggest. For the worms that are loose in the bowels
the common antidotes might be useful, such as turpentine, given
in the usual manner, or other medicines destructive to these
creatures. These combined with tonics and with general good
care and feeding, with pure water, may tide over the period of
life of the race or make the animal an uninviting place for the
parasite to live. As to the encysted worms, these are beyond
reach unless it may be of such easily absorbed remedies as tur-
pentine, which passes through the blood and thus reaches every
part of the system.

It is clear that such methods of prevention as may be found
effective will be the most useful. And one of the most effective
of these is a rotation of crops, and short feeding intervals be-
tween the crops not exceeding one season at the most. If one
might be able to start with a flock of completely unaffected sheep,
and then by a wise and thoroughly managed continuous quaran-
tine, so to speak, by which infection may be averted, then the
land may be completely freed from this obnoxious parasite, and if
this method were generally followed, and no fresh stock be intro-

828 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

duced until it be known to be sound and free from infection,
then, and then only, will this parasite be brought under con-
trol. As it is, by the how-not-to-do-it method, this as all other
of the parasites of the sheep are visibly increasing in vast num-
bers, and thus as we may say we are but at the beginning of a

FIG. 8.— CESOPHAGOSTOMA COLUMBIAN UM.

Caecum showing wall filled with Nodules as seen at a and b. About

one-half natural size. (Original.)

crisis of what the end may be no one can think, or assert,
but every one may consider it as a serious matter for thought
and then due action. The importance of this great and most an-
cient industry of our race cannot surely be seriously threatened in
these days of intelligence and of scientific adaptation of means
to ends through all the affairs of mankind. We must always think
of that truly scientific maxim, an axiom truly, that is an self-evi-
dent truth, that the fittest only will survive. And the American
shepherd must make himself fit by study of his flocks, knowing
their full needs, and in all the ways that circumstances may indi-
cate and suggest, adapt everything to this one end, viz., to make
himself thoroughly conversant with the" needs of his flocks, and
then apply himself with every possible effort to meet these most
effectively.

THE FLUKE DISEASES OF SHEEP.

Among other deadly parasites of sheep the so-called fluke
worms, known as Fasciola hepatica and Distoma lanceolatum are
the deadliest. They have been, known to destroy two million
sheep in England in a single year, and several years ago the same

DISEASES OF SHEEP.

329

parasites destroyed several .times as many in Australia. Unfor-
tunately we have it with us, but not nearly to the same extent;
probably Because of the muca smaller proportion of sheep to our
vastly greater territory. The history of -this parasite is quite simi-
lar to that of other injurious enemies of the sheep — as the tape
worms for instance — in that it needs an intermediate bearer in

FIG. 9.— Mature Fluke.

which to pass the first stage of its existence. This is a mollusk, a
species of snail, which inhabits fresh water marshes. The curious
history of this parasite is of great interest to the American shep-
herd, because we have the bearer of it here and the creature itself.
It is comparatively abundant in the marshes of the Northwest
and has been found in the States of New York and Pennsylvania.
In the former locality it has been found in the livers of deer and
rabbits; and in rabbits in Pennsylvania. It has also been found

FIG. 10. FIG. 11. FIG. 12.

The Fluke Egg. Egg with Embryo. The Embryo.

FIG. 13.
Snail Enlarged.

in the flock of Southdowns owned by the late Royal Phelps, on
Long Island, N. Y.; but in this case the parasite was unquestion-
ably imported in the sheep, which were Southdowns presented to
Mr. Phelps by an English friend. This introduction of the pest
was doubtless successful in establishing it in that locality; as three
years had elapsed since the sheep had been imported.

The mollusk in which the fluke passes its larval stage is a
snail, but it is not that the sheep devour the snails, and so take
up the parasite, but the young of the fluke are taken up by the
sheep as they drink at stagnant ponds or water holes in marshy
ground, where in an intermediate stage they pass a portion of their
existence. Then, finding their way from the stomach, to the liver,

330

THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

they enter the gall bladder and its connected ducts, where they
create such a serious functional disturbance as to cause an over-
flow of the bile into the blood, by which parts of the body —
the eyes, skin and fat — become yellow, and a yellow serum col-
lects in the abdomen, causing the diseased sheep to appear "pot-

Fio. 14.
A Sporocyst.

PIG. 15.
A Mature and Dividing Sporocyst.

bellied." At first the sheep appear to thrive better than
usual and rapidly make fat, which, however, is yellowish in color.
Very soon 'the characteristic dropsy appears, a bag of fluid forms
'under the jaws, severe diarrhea occurs, and the animal soon
becomes emaciated and perishes miserably by a slow wasting until
completely exhausted.

As the fluke does not inhabit salt water, salt marshes are safe
pasture grounds; but it does not follow that salt given to the
sheep is any sort of preventive or remedy. In fact, cure of the

FIG. 17.— Young and Mature Redia.

disease is very rare, and only by the aid of accidental causes, so
that this disease, is a true pestilence, killing nearly every sh.eep
attacked, and it is only by due means of prevention that it is
possible to avoid it. These are the drainage of wet pastures, the
use of pure water from wells, and to put imported sheep through
a sufficient course of quarantine; carefully burning all the manure
made by them so as to destroy any possible source of infesting the
land.

DISEASES OF SHEEP 331

ILLUSTRATIONS DESCRIBED IN DETAIL.

Fig. 9. — Mature fluke — flesh color, one inch to one and one-
third inches long- Circle at top is sucker that attaches to diseased
part. Mature fluke produces as many as 7,000,000 eggs. Fig. 10 is
fluke's egg, oval with transparent shell. An embryo forms in two
weeks when temperature is 80 degrees. Fig- 11, egg with embryo
formed. Fig. 12, embryo hatched. The broad end is directed for-
ward in swimming, in its center is a peg-like projection used in
boring. If embryo finds the Limnoeus truncatulus (fig. 13) it com-
mences to bore. It bores until it strikes the snail's lung where
the embryo fluke develops. The form of embryo changes to fig.
14 — the 1st generation in the snail termed sporocyst — a bag of
germs. This sporocyst develops an offspring, their 2nd generation
called the redia. Fig. 15 is a matured sporocyst containing a num-
ber of redia. The largest one at lower end is well developed and
ready to force through the walls of the parent — the wound heals
up and germs remaining continue to grow. The redia go from
the lung to the other organs of the snail. Fig. 16 is a full grown
redia with a mouth and intestine and produces the 3rd generation.
The offspring of the redia (fig. 17) are tad-pole shaped and called
cercaria. This 3rd generation of the snail enters the sheep and
produces the liver fluke. The cercaria leaves the snail and becomes
attached to and encysted to grass stalks. These cysts remain dor-
mant until swallowed by the sheep. The number of cercaria de-
scended from a single fluke egg is from 200 to 1,000 or more —
thus a single fluke may through the changes described above pro-
duce more than 100,000,000 descendants in a single season. About
six weeks elapse from the swallowing of the tad-pole before the
fluke is matured and begins to produce eggs in the liver of the
sheep.

THE SHEEP EOT FLY-OESTRUS OVIS.

Doubtless most of the diseases of the sheep that are least
understood, even by scientific students, at the present time,
are those due to the presence of internal parasites, of which there
are at least over twenty in number, that are well known and de-
scribed. The majority of these are tape worms or thread worms,
one only is a fly. We will close the list with the last, as it is
well known to all concerned, and the most common of this class
of the enemies of the sheep.

This disagreeable pest is a sort of connecting link between
the two classes of parasites, external and internal ones. As a
fly, it much resembles a bee, and as it buzzes about the sheeps'
heads these animals evince great alarm, lowering their noses to the
ground and stamping violently with their fore feet. The fly darts
to the sheep's head at every opportunity and deposits an egg
on the nostril, while still on the wing. It is the work of an
instant, and the mischief is done in the twinkling of an eye.

The "egg" thus deposited is a living creature, a minute white
grub, scarcely differing from that of the common flesh fly which

832

THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

we may see deposited in clusters on meat, much to the disgust
of the annoyed housewife. The author ^has spent some hours
in watching this habit of the fly, using a hampered sheep as the
subject, and has collected several specimens of the maggot. The
maggot very soon begins to move in a wriggling manner, drawing

FIG. 18 (a).

FIG. 19 (6).

FIG. 20 (c).

Fig. 18.— Adult Female Gad- Fly— slightly enlarged.
Fig. 19.— Full-grown Grub— natural size.

Fig. 20.— Head of full-grown Grub— highly magnified— showing hooks
by which the Grub attaches itself to the mucous membrane.

itself into the nostril and disappearing in the nasal passage. In
one day— nearly all spent in observing this single sheep — eighteen
of these larva were deposited on its nostrils, and it appeared
that but one fly was engaged in the business that day. The
rest of thv flock had hidden near a fallen tree in the pasture,
thrusting their noses close to the space between the tree and the
soil, or were lying in fence corners with their noses under the
lowest rail, or huddled together with their noses buried in each
other's fleeces. This is the method by which the fly deposits
its living eggs, or newly born living young, upon its host, the un-
happy sheep. The fly is shown al, fig. 18 (a); its larva fully
grown at (b), the hooks by which the grub draws itself up the
nostril and attaches itself to the membrane lining the cavity of
the skull are shown at (c), and at fig. 21 is shown the part of the
skull in which the grub passes fully three-fourths of the year,
emerging when fully grown and falling to the ground into which
it burrows a little space, and remains until the warm weather,
when it begins active business in reproducing its race. Doubtless
the greater number of these grubs peinsh in the interval between
emerging from the sheep and completing the final transformation
into the fly, falling a prey to moles, birds, and carnivorous
beetles; but sufficient number escape to continue the race and
make the sheep's summer life, otherwise happy, a miserable one.
The parasite seems to do little real harm to the sheep except
to torment it, unless they are quite numerous, when the irritation
seems to cause so much restlessness that the sheep do not thrive,
but remain poor. The effect of numbers of the grubs is to inflame
the membrane, to cause much irritation, and at times to cause

DISEASES OF SHEEP.

333

bleeding, the blood trickling down the nasfl passages and
streaking the copious mucus which is snorted out by the sheep
with violent efforts. Sometimes the grubs are thus ejected by the
violence of these efforts.

There seems to be no practicable remedy even by prevention,
better than in common use, which is to apply a soft, sticky,
offensive substance to the sheep's nose by which the eggs
are destroyed, or the flies driven away. A mixture of common
tar softened somewhat by some offensive oil, is frequently used
with good effects. This tar is a wholesome thing for the sheep as
an excellent tonic and antiseptic, so that two good uses are made
of this application.

When -the danger has been greater on account of the larger
number of the flies attacking the flock, the sheeps' noses need to

FIG 21.— Sheep's head; sinuses invaded by Grub.

be continually protected by this device, and a mixture of the tar
with the strongest smelling fish oil may be used, by smearing the
sheeps' noses writh it daily, or every second or third day.

In cases where the sheep have been seriously attacked by
the fly, and numerous grubs have lodged in the nasal sinuses on
each side of the head and just above the eyes as shown at fig.
21, an effective remedy is to inject a mixture of linseed oil and
turpentine, in equal parts, by means of a suitable syringe made
for this purpose. This instrument has a long, slender nozzle, by
which the sinus may be reached, and it should be made with three
or four openings at the end so that the liquid may be discharged
in a sort of spray, 01 diffused stream, and so reach the grubs.
Another plan borrowed from the Scotch shepherds, who have the
advantage of inheriting a large amount of old fashioned lore from

334 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

their fathers and grandfathers, through numerous generations, is
to first apply tobacco smoke in the way mentioned, and the re-
laxing efi'ect of this causes the grubs to loosen their hold on the
membrane, when an immediate dose of fine Scotch snuff, blown
into the sinus through the nozzle of the syringe, or any suitable
tube, starts so violent a fit of sneezing that the grubs are ejected
with considerable force.

When a valuable animal is thus distressed, and it is desired
to relieve it when serious danger threatens, it is no difficult mat-
ter to remove the grubs by the operation known as trepanning.
This is to open the skull by removing a portion of the bone by an
instrument specially prepared for the purpose, and — which operat-
ing in a circular way in the manner of a carpenter's bit — cuts a
round piece of bone from the skull, the flap of skin having been
first cut loose on three sides and laid back. The grubs are then
removed by forceps. The flap of skin which is someAvhat larger
than the opening made, is replaced and held by surgeon's rubber
plaster, to be protected by a suitable bandage. The wound heals
at once, and although the s'heep will have a soft spot in its
head, as we say, yet it will not at all interfere wi'th its ordinary
conduct or health.

To find the precise spot required for the operation this plan
is suggested. Shave the wool or hair from the part to be operated
on. Then draw a line across the head from the point of the mid-
dle of each eyebrow, divide this line by another passing from the
tip of the nose in the exact middle to the middle of the forehead.
The diagram here given will help to choose the precise spot for
the operation, which is in each angle between the lines.

The means of prevention con-
sist in the immediate burning of
all heads of dead sheep, and this
not only on account of this
pest but for the infinitely more
serious object of doing away
with the larvae of the tape
worms which harbor in the brain,
and do great damage to the flocks,
as previously ' commented on in
FIG. 22. -Diagram for Trepanning, this chapter. If the Heads of

sheep are thrown out, the larvae

of the fly, or of the worm, may be given a very effective means
of surviving, for the future annoyance and loss of the shepherd.

ALBUMIN ART A.

This disease consists of inflammation of the kidneys. It is
accompanied by conspicuous symptoms as a straddling, awkward
gait, and tenderness of the loins which give way when pressed.
The urine is thick and ropy, and in rams there is a collection
of matter at the orifice of the sheath. The disease soon develops
into dropsy, when the belly becomes filled with yellow serum
and is conspicuously enlarged. The treatment of this disease is

DISEASES OF SHEEP. 335

more in variation of food than in medicine. The bowels should
be kept free by warm bran mashes, and if necessary by the use
of saline laxatives as Epsom salts in two ounce doses, given daily.
If the kidneys fail to act do not give diuretics, but foment the
loins with hot water and mustard. If this is not effective apply
fomentations of a strong decoction of digitalis to the loins. The
tonic mixture will be of great value in restoring the action of the
stomach and bowels.

ANTHRAX— BLACK QUARTER— BLACK LEG— BRAXY.

This disease, called braxy by the English and Scotch shep-
herds, is rapidly fatal, and the first information of its appearance
in a flock is usually the dead sheep lying in the pasture in the early
morning. It is a special form of the disease of cattle commonly
known as splenic fever, or Texan fever; but differs from the com-
mon disease in several ways. It is not believed to be contagious to
other animals, hence it is due, when prevalent, to some unwhole-
some condition of the feed or water, or continued indigestion by
which the blood becomes loaded with impure matter.

The symptoms are red blood-shot eyes, an excited and alarmed
expression of the sick animals, a full, rapid pulse, quick breathing,
hot, dry mouth, the limbs and body — especially the belly — are hot
and the skin is red, the urine is dark colored and scanty, the
bowels are costive, the dung is slimy, and the animal staggers
about as if to fall. It generally stands near a fence or a building,
with the head doAvn and unable to notice anything.

The later symptoms are harshness of the wool, which, if
pulled, comes off in handfuls; the animal becomes insensible, falls,
struggles a little and dies; all this occurring in a few hours.

Treatment is of no use. The only thing to be done is to un-
derstand the causes of the diseas£, and prevent or avoid them.
After death the body is found already far advanced in putridity.
The flesh under the skin, where handling causes a sort of crackling
sound, especially on the shoulder and the loins, is found to be
filled with gas and much swollen, the blood is thick and black,
whence the name of the disease — anthrax, which means black.
The belly is filled with a red liquid, the omasum — the third stom-
ach or maniplies — is impacted and filled between the leaves with
hard, dry, undigested food; the heart is filled with black blood,
and the lungs very red.

Escape from this disease is a matter only of prevention. There
is no time for this to be treated in any way. The causes are to be
avoided. As it is riot contagious in this form, except through
poisoning by the dead carcass, it is easily managed after the first
appearance of it in a flocK.

Exposure to sudden changes of the weather is to be avoided.
Excessive warmth, suddenly changing to cold rain and winds,
by chilling the body, is one of the most frequent causes. Over-
feeding on rich young grass or luxuriant green crops, too sud-
denly begun; the use of those foods, as the oil -cakes which are
rich in protein, and thus unusually stimulating; and equally the

336 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

feeding late in the year or early Spring on dead innutritious herb-
age, are all to be avoided; and it will be very useful at those
times of the year when the food is either too innutritious, or too
rich and stimulating, to give Epsom salts in two ounce doses, alter-
nately Avith chlorate of potash in thirty grain doses, daily for three
days. The chlorate may be continued after this by itself every
second day for a week with advantage.

ANASARCA— NAVEL DISEASE OF LAMBS.

This disease is a form of dropsy, and due to poisoning of the
blood by any sudden check to the secretions of the skin by which
injurious matter is thrown back into the circulation. In its mani-
festations, it somewhat resembles the disease described under the
head of Anthrax, or Braxy, but differs in the absence of any inflam-
matory condition of the animal. It appears in the form of swellings
on various parts of the body, but mostly on the belly and about
the navel, whence its common name among English shepherds,
"navel ill." It is accompanied by great prostration, dull and
blood-shot eyes and a red and congested mouth. The animal lies
and pants, and has no inclination to move. Generally the head
is thrown back on the shoulder. The characteristic eymptom,
however, is the dropsical condition on the belly, under the throat
and jaws, where the swollen parts contain a yellow fluid. Finally
the limbs swell, the nostrils are swollen until closed and breath-
ing is difficult. The scanty urine is thick and brick-red in color
and has a strong odor.

The causes are sudden changes of the weather; exposure to
chilling rains; close confinement in ill-ventilated pens; and the
prevalence of these conditions in our northern climate tends to
aggravate the tendency to this disease among the lambs.

The treatment is to give a gentle laxative, as two ounces of raw
linseed oil, after which one teaspoonful of turpentine may be
given in sweet milk. Ten grain doses twice daily of chlorate of
potash are useful. The swellings should be bathed with slightly
warm solution of one dram of carbolic acid in a quart of water.
The food should be warm oatmeal gruel sweetened with sugar.
Small doses of turpentine are given to stimulate the kidneys,
at intervals of three hours. This increased action of the kidneys
tends to reduce the dropsical tendency of the disease.

BRONCHITIS— INFLAMMATION OF THE LARGE AIR
TUBES IN THE LUNGS.

This disease is an extension downwards of a common sore
throat, or nasal catarrh. It is a frequent result of exposure
to cold rains after warm weather. It is also caused by the irrita-
tion of parasitic worms in these air tubes, when it is called
verminous, or wormy, bronchitis. It has two forms, one is mild
and soon passes off under naturally improved conditions in a few
days. In this form the sheep is dull and stands about without eat-
ing, coughing with a hard sound, but soon becoming soft and rat-
tling as the discharge from the nose becomes copious. In such

DISEASES OF SHEEP. 337

cases the sheep recover without any special treatment beyond a
warm linseed mash given a few times. In severe cases the sheep
loses appetite, the mouth is hot and dry, the head is hot, and the
muzzle is dry and turned up at the corners, as. is seen especially
in sheep when seriously diseased and suffering. The cough soon
becomes hard, dry, and like barking of a dog. The sick animal
hangs its head and seems to be drowsy, or lies with the head on
its flank, as if asleep.

The treatment should be to give five drops of tincture of
aconite for a full grown sheep, half as much to a yearling, three
times in a day. The sheep should be kept in a shaded, clean, airy
building, and given warm linseed gruel, or sloppy bran mashes.
Four drams of sweet spirits of niter have been found useful, given
every three or four hours. When a white discharge from the nose
occurs, and the heat of the body subsides, the tonic mixture
should be given twice daily, until the appetite returns; when
soft mashes and the best clover hay with a few sliced roots will
be advisable for the food. Overfeeding is to be avoided, and mod-
erate quantities only of the best kinds are to be fed. The drink
may be thin gruel with a little salt added.

CARBUNCULAR ERYSIPELAS.

This disease much resembles anthrax, and frequently goes by
one of its common names as black leg, or black quarter. It dif-
fers, however, in some important points, especially in its conta-
gious character and its communicability to mankind. It, as also
does that form of anthrax already described, attacks the finest
lambs in the flock, and these die suddenly without notice of the
shepherd. A few hours is the common time in which death hap-
pens, but some patients linger for two days. The first symptom is
lameness in one leg, fore or hind. If the animal is examined
the limb on this quarter will be found swollen, and red, and in-
flamed. On pressure of the flesh the crackling sound of the gas
escaping from the already putrid flesh, and gathered in the tis-
sues, is heard. Indeed the same appearances seen in anthrax are
conspicuous in this disease, the only difference being in the deadly
contagiousness of this disease, which is often communicated to
those persons who may handle the carcass of a dead sheep, or the
wool stripped from the body of one. This is the deadly disease
known as the wool-sorters' disease, which infects those persons
who handle the wool stripped from infected carcasses.

The first symptom noticed is the shivering of the sick sheep.
The blood in this form is charged with uncountable numbers
of deadly germs, to which the malignantly contagious nature of
the disease is due, and is in much the same condition as in an-
thrax; thick, tarry, and black. Blackened tumors appear on the
bare parts of the body and the belly is distended with diffused
serum, which surrounds the intestines, and in places escapes
through the skin as a yellow liquid. Breathing is heavy and
labored, and a fetid discharge escapes from the nose.

Treatment is unavailing. The sick animals will be worthless

338 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

if they should recover, which sometimes happens, if the poison
escapes outwardly by effusion; but it leaves them disabled, and
weak and useless to the shepherd.

As the disease is contagious it is best to kill and bury the sick
animal immediately, out of reach of dogs, which may spread the
poison by dying by its ^effects, arid leaving their dead bodies on
the range or pasture. Then preventive measures should be under-
taken. Rich, wet pastures should be drained; overflowed lands
should be avoided; pure water only used for the flock; and the
rank young pastures of the Spring should be used for an hour or
two only in the day until the excessive succulence of it disappears.
In the same way coarse, innutritions herbage in the Fall should
be avoided, as also pasturing on sAvampy lands, at that time of
the year.

DIARRHEA-WHITE SCOUR OF LAMBS.

This disease is rather an indication of a malady than a disease
itself. It is the manifestation of a condition of the digestive
organs by which the food is not digested, and is discharged in an
offensive condition, which is the result of the irritation it exerts
ori the bowels. It is also one of the symptoms of disorder of the
liver. But it exists mostly as the effect of the food on the system.
Inferior and indigestible food, as well as those kinds that are too
rich in one special element — unbalanced it is termed — and which
are thrown off in this abnormal manner, are the most frequent
causes.

It happens also as a result of parasites in the intestines, in-
cluding the liver in this category. Also as a result of the over
rich and indigestible character of the milk of a highly fed ewe. In-
deed in the ewes any injurious element of the food or diseased
product of the system is carried off by the milk, and thus this
scour of lambs is really an indication of something wrong with
the ewe. It is also a symptom of several special diseases. Thus,
its treatment depends on a full acquaintance with the special cir-
cumstances of each case. The symptoms are too well known to
need repetition. The worst cases are those in lambs through
whom the ewe's milk passes almost unchanged, for this implies
starvation, and an early death, unless the disease is checked imme-
diately.

In this case the ewe is to be treated, for it is the milk of the
ewes which irritates the bowels of the lambs. It is not desirable
to give astringent medicines, as the saying is, to dry up the in-
valid. This makes matters worse, often. A soft, emollient, soot'h-
ing laxative given to the lamb, to act on the inflamed intestines,
and an altreative given to the ewe will be the most effective
treatment. Astringents are to be avoided. Mild healing laxa-
tives and tonics are indicated, such as the following:

Epsom salt? 2 ounces.

Carbonate of soda 3 drams.

Ground ginger 2 drams.

Warm thin gruel Vz a pint.

DISEASES OF SHEEP. 339

It may be well to add two teaspoonfuls of whisky to this
medicine, given twice in twenty-four hours. For the lamb one-ha'f
of this is sufficient.

A cordial mixture as the following is excellent for a ewe, if
none of those ready prepared are on hand:

Tincture of rhubarb 1 ounce.

'i iuciure of caruoruoms 1 ounce.

Carbonate of soda 1 dram.

Hot water or gruel 2 ounces.

Add one teaspoonful of glycerine.

CATARRH-SIMPLE AND MALIGNANT.

No other animal is so subject to inflammation of the nasal mem-
branes and those of the throat and bronchial tubes, as the sheep.
The discharge from the nose prevails in every flock more or less,
and while it is a symptom of several diseases, yet it is a special
disorder of the mucous membranes, which at times is serious,
as leading to more troublesome disorders.

Simple catarrh appears as a inore or less copious discharge
from the nostrils, which are inflamed, either as a result of a cold
due to exposure to rains or chilling winds, or from any inflamma-
tory state of the system. It is often a prelude to inflammation
of the lungs or influenza, and unless treated without delay it is
apt to lead to these more troublesome disorders. It is therefore
wise to take immediate measures to put a stop to it while it is
easy to do so.

The symptoms are sneezing, redness of the eyes, and weeping;
at first the nose is dry and rather hot, but soon a thin, watery
fluid escapes, which gradually becomes thick and adherent, form-
ing scales on the edges of the nasal passages.. This later discharge
is yellowish white and has a purulent appearance.

The treatment is as follows: In ordinary and mild cases
shelter in a dry, clean, airy shed with a few meals of warm bran
and linseed mash, for a few days, together with the application
of this powder blown into the nostrils several times a day will
usually afford complete relief: Take equal parts of finely pow-
dered sub-nitrate of bismuth, and gum Arabic, and mix them.
As much of this powder as will lie on a dime is blown into the
nostrils twice a day through a quill. Also give the tonic mixture
in the mash mentioned.

If neglected this disorder may be apt to result in the epi-
zootic form, which is much more serious. This disease consists
of a purulent inflammation of the lining membrane of the nasal
passages, and throat, sometimes passing into the stomach and
bowels, ending in inflammation of these organs. If the cause of
this disease is known, it is" under only the most certain circum-
stances, for it is apt to occur in the best regulated flocks under
certain conditions of the weather. It is certain that its extensive
appearance is due to some prevailing general sudden change from
warm to cold, or the reverse; to chilling winds, and in flocks that
are unsheltered, or confined in ill-ventilated barns; whether the

840 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

ventilation be in excess or insufficient the result may be the
same. Mr. Randall, in his time, alleged— doubtless then very
truly— that this disorder was more fatal to the flocks than all
other maladies combined. But we have improved since that day
in our general better care of the sheep; and we cannot now say
that this disease ever destroys forty or fifty per cent of the
flocks, as in Mr. Randall's time, forty years ago.

The symptoms are, first, a thin, watery, acrid discharge from
the nostrils. This alone is sufficient to account for the following
inflammatory developments; for this discharge soon causes severe
soreness of the skin, leading to the following inflammation which
supervenes. With this discharge there is weeping of the eyes,
and redness and evident sorenesss. The animal droops and is dis-
inclined to move, but stands listlessly about, neither eating nor
drinking. There is no cough, but evident increasing weakness,
while the discharge, at first thin, becomes thick and glutinous,
and at times is tinged with blood. These symptoms increase
in severity until the sheep becomes greatly prostrated and
emaciated. The eyes then are partly closed and the lids adhere
in consequence of the glutinous discharge. The breathing is
labored and difficult. Sheep in good condition are not disturbed
as to the action of the bowels, but those that are poor suffer
greatly from dysentery. The dung is mixed with blood and is
voided with much pain. In ten days the sufferer dies. After
death the lining membranes of the nose and nasal cavities of the
head are found to be highly inflamed and often ulcerated.

Treatment is always unsatisfactory. Either the patient dies,
or slowly recovers, greatly depressed; and next to worthless for
the future. The most satisfactory treatment consists of giving
concentrated food of the most nourishing and easily digestible
kinds; such as gruels, mashes, and thin mucilaginous drinks,
with the tonic mixture added in the proportions given. No bleed-
ing, or weakening purgatives, are to be used. Dry and warm,
but unchanging temperature is indispensable. To maintain the
strength of the patient in this way is the only hopeful treatment.
Mr. Randall advises the following medicine which he
found entirely satisfactory when taken in the early stage of the
disease :

Corrosive sublimate 8 grains.

Rhubarb 1 ounce.

Ground ginger and gentian each 2 ounces.

Simmer the three last in one quart of water, for fifteen min-
utes; strain and add the first. Give two tablespoonfuls twice a
day. The experience of the author has been t^at the most careful
nursing to sustain the strength is the most effective, with the use
of the tonic mixture.

COLIC OR BELLY ACHE.

This disease is due to the fermentation of food in the stom-
ach. It exists in the first stomach, the rumen. It is akin to the
well known bloating of cattle. It is due to the over eating of sue-

DISEASES OF SHEEP. 341

culent green fodder, especially when it is wet or covered with
frost. Musty dry food is another frequent cause of it. Sometimes
it occurs through a constitutional or accidental difficulty of diges-
tion.

The symptoms are a swelling of the belly on the left side,
occurring soon after eating. The breathing is oppressed by reason
of the pressure of the distended stomach on the lungs. The bowels
are inactive and the eyes have a wild expression, due to the
severe pain, and the sheep moans at every movement.

The only effective treatment is to relieve the pressure on the
stomach by puncturing the wall of it with t~e trochar, thus let-
ting the accumulated gas escape. If it is possible for the animal
to swallow, a dose of one-half ounce of carbonate of ammonia
will afford relief in cases when the trochar is not at hand.
But it is quite safe to puncture the stomach on the left side
at a point at the center of a triangle of equal sides about four
inches each way from the hip bone, in a line below the kidneys,
and to a point below it where the sides of the triangle will meet.
A small pen knife will be a safe instrument to use. A quill tied
around with a cord at one end, to prevent it from slipping in
the wound, is inserted to keep the wound open while the gas is
escaping.

Relief is often found in the use of the following medicine
given by the mouth:

Ground mustard y<, teaspoonf ul.

Whisky 1 ounce.

Mix and give in a small quantity of warm water. Repeat
when needed.

FOOT ROT.

This disease of the sheep's foot is mostly prevalent on wet,
marshy lands, by which the horn of the foot is softened and the
skin between the toes is chafed and worn, until the lamina of the
foot — which connect the horn to the fleshy interior and the
vascular sensitive tissue, through which the veins and arteries
run — become inflamed, and exude purulent matter. These lamina
being inoculated with fungoid germs existing in the infected soil,
are decomposed by the action of these germs, and the interior of
the foot rots away; after which the horn separates and decays.
The decaying horn produces a peculiar fetid odor by which this
disease may be recognized at some distance from where a diseased
flock is pasturing.

The sheep's foot is provided with a self-lubricating apparatus
placed in the cleft of the hoof, known as the interungulate gland;
and a canal which leads from it to the outer surface between the
toes. This gland secrets a lubricating fluid which softens the
skin, and prevents chafing. It is readily perceived how the stop-
page of this canal should induce chafing by the grinding action
of the wet mud, or sand and gravel, on this soft skin between the
toes. And equally how soon the inner parts of the foot may
become raw and inflamed, and offer the most favorable oppor-

342

THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

tunity for infection by the special germ existing in the decaying
soil. This is the history of this disease which is exceedingly
troublesome once it makes a start on a pasture and in a flock.

Prevention is obvious. Drain wet pastures. Avoid feeding
sheep on wet, muddy lands. And carefully inspect the feet, at
short intervals, paring the under curved walls which turn under

FIG. 23.— Early Stage of Foot-Rot. FIG. 24.— Advanced Foot-Rot.

the sole, and gather the offending matter. When the disease
occurs, carefully dress the sores with any prepared hoof ointment,
after washing them in a solution of one pound of sulphate of cop-
per in 5 gallons of water, and in the same proportion as one
ounce to 1^ quarts of water. An excellent ointment for the feet so
diseased is made in this way: Melt four parts of Burgundy pitch,
add one part of vaseline, one part of turpentine, and one part of
acetate of copper finely powdered, and stir until cool. Apply this
to the pores. Keep the sheep on clean pasture until recovery.

It will be obvious that this treatment is wholly inadmissible
in large flocks. Some more convenient method is used in these
cases. A suitable arrangement is made by which the flock may
be passed through the curative antiseptic preparation placed in a
trough of suitable size, in much the same manner in which sheep
are dipped as a preventive and cure for the scab, as will be de-
scribed hereafter under the appropriate heading. The trough should
have sufficient length to thoroughly introduce the disinfecting
liquid, which is two inches deep in the trough. The flock is first
driven up or down a stream of clear water, or the feet are pre-
pared by paring off the diseased horn so that the disinfecting
fluid may penetrate to every part of the feet. This operation is
most conveniently performed at the shearing time, and is then in-

DISEASES OF SHEEP. 343

dispensable for safety if the least evidence of the disease is noticed
in the flock. And as each sheep is shorn it is immediately passed
through the disinfecting liquid in the manner mentioned. Indeed
this is the time when the sheep should be dipped for the scab
disease, and all three operations are thus easily and cheaply per-
formed by any suitable arrangement by which the flocks may be
passed through each in succession.

As this disease is extremely virulent, a close watch should be
kept for its appearance, and any sheep going on its knees should
be immediately caught and operated on. Prevention, as in the
equally serious disorder of the scab, is imperative, as the cheapest
and only practicable means of avoiding enormous trouble in a
large flock of sheep. It is also a wise precaution to closely exam-
ine the feet of any purchased sheep, especially those which have
been transported on the railroads, in the common sheep cars,
before they are turned out into a flock. There is no more danger-
ous possibility of infection than this, and as to be safe is better
than to be sorry, the importance of this precaution cannot be
overestimated.

There are- several kinds of preparations in use for this pur-
pose, but the sulphate of copper solution is ganerally esteemed
to be the most effective. This may be prepared as follows: Five
pounds of the sulphate of copper are dissolved in five gallons of
water, six pounds of fresh lime are slaked in four gallons of water,
the two liquids are strained into a cask and diluted to twenty
gallons. This is not so caustic as the sulphate alone, but is
equally effective.

IMPACTION OF THE STOMACH.

Sheep are not so subject to this disease as cattle are, but at
times they will overgorge themselves, as on fresh clover, covered
with early frost, and by the chilling of the stomach digestion
is prevented and fermentation occurs. This causes a large quan-
tity of carbonic acid gas to form in the stomach and the pres-
sure of it, closing the openings of the stomach at both its ex-
tremities, great suffering ensues. This occurrence obviously inter-
feres with the giving of any relief by medicine, and the only
recourse is to an operation by which the stomach is pierced and
the collected gas is let out. The right spot for this opening
is at the center of a triangle the base of which is about four
inches long in a sheep, and runs along the body sufficiently low
to avoid the kidneys, and the other two sides meet at a point
directly below the middle of the base. The puncture is made
by means of a sharp-pointed instrument called a trochar, fitting in
a tube called a canula. The part of the body indicated is pierced
with this instrument, which is then drawn out leaving the canuTa
or tube in the opening. The gas thus escapes, and the needed
medicine is poured into the stomach (the rumen) through the
tube, which is furnished with a cup-like top for this purpose.
This medicine consists of one dram of aromatic spirits of am-
monia, followed in one hour by two ounces of raw linseed oil.

344 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

After recovery, careful feeding is necessary, the tonic mixture
previously mentioned at the outset of this chapter being given
The wound made heals quickly, but it is well to shave off the
hair and apply a tar plaster over it and keep it on for a few
days.

INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN.

Of this serious disease there are two forms. One is inflamma-
tion of the covering membrane of the brain—the meninges—
(whence the common name of this disease meningitis), and the
other is inflammation of the substance of the brain itself. There
is a special difference between these two forms of the disease.
The former is characterized by more violent symptoms as delirium,
violent movements, pawing, champing of the mouth, and general
convulsions. In the latter the animal is dull and stupid, and in-
able to move the limbs. In both cases there is trembling of the
body, high temperature, increased and hard pulse, quick breath-
ing, red eyes, glaring as by nervous excitement. The sick animal
bores its head against some obstacle, or lies on the haunches, or
rests against any support that may be 'convenient-. The sheep
bleats during the period of excitement, at other times resting
in a condition of stupor. The causes are mostly sudden and seri-
ous changes of temperature; exposure to severe weather, heat or
cold equally; over exertion; indigestion of some standing, or sud-
den over-loading of the stomach with rich food. Feeding on
smutty or ergotted grain or fodder produces this disease by the
effect of the special poisonous principle known as ergotine, which
has an injurious effect on the nervous system in this way.

The treatment consists of the application of ice-cold water
to the head and neck; injections of turpentine, two drams of it
mixed with sweet oil, also a strong purgative, as four ounces of
Epsom salts, with six drops of croton oil added to the solution,
and shaken up with it. This is followed in a few hours by half
dram doses of bromide of potassium given every three hours.
The patient is kept in an airy stable free from all disturbance,
as this leads to renewed excitement. This treatment applies to
both forms of the disease. After recovery the patient is to be
well fed, but with only the most easily digestible food, given in
small quantities, at short intervals until full recovery.

INFLAMMATION OF THE SPINAL CORD— MYELITIS.

This disease also has two forms, the ordinary sporadic kind,
which is due to distinct and special local causes; and the enzootic
form, which at times prevails extensively over a large terri-
toiy, being due to causes which are generally prevalent. It is
known as myelitis, and consists of inflammation of the covering
of the great nerve known as the spinal cord, this outer covering
being known as is that of the brain, as meninges; whence is de-
rived the full name of the disease — spinal meningitis.

It also goes by the name of myelitis, and is extremely fre-
quent in certain localities in which some special conditions exist

DISEASES OF SHEEP. 345

that are not well understood, but are believed to consist of some
unfavorable qualities of the water and the herbage. It is known
by English and Scotch shepherds as the louping ill, or hydro-
rachitis; from which is derived the common term rickets- applied
to young animals affected by weakness of the hind limbs See
fig. 25.

The common form is similar to inflammation of the brain
in its etfects on the animal, and similar symptoms are perceived
These are paroxysms of convulsed movements; a high temper-
turea; a rapid pulse and breathing. These finally end in paralysis

of the hind parts, so tiiat the
young animals, which are mostly
subject to this disorder, drag their
hind limbs along without ability
to move them. There is a great
tenderness, along the spine, and
the animal shrinks when the
spine is pressed. If the patient
is able to stand is is only in a
staggering way, and it rests its
FIG. 23.— Myelitis. head against any support within

reach.

These symptoms are greatly increased in the enzootic form.
Lambs are frequently born diseased, and are paralyzed from their
birth. Others are attacked later, and after a time up to a year
and a half old. The old sheep are rarely subject to the disease.
The lamb in some instances has the head and neck drawn to one
side, others exhibit spasmodic movements by which they seem to
be endeavoring to leap, using, however, only their forelegs. From
this symptom the local name of louping or leaping ill or disease is
given. Hut mostly the lamb lies half reclining on the ground and
drags its hind parts along as shown in the illustration, fig. 25.

The' causes seem to include among others generally applicable
to this class of diseases, a certain distinct unwholesome quality
in the herbage, thought to be due to the geological character of
the soil, by which excessive succulence is given to it, leading
to chronic indigestion and mal-nutrition. This is believed to be
the case, for the reason that the disease may prevail extensively
and severely in some locality which may be distinctly separated
from adjoining lands of a different geological origin. It is well
known that a limestone soil is productive of increased fertility
and luxuriance of the pastures, or of grown feeding crops, and we
know that any seriously unbalanced character of the food does
affect the nervous system more or less disastrously.

This is all the more to be considered as being well founded,
although we have no satisfactory certainty of it, by the special
accompanying symptoms which are noticed at the outset of the
disease. As for instance, there is a depraved appetite, and a vora-
cious desire for coarse innutritions food; and stones, sand, de-
composed matters, rotten wood, and such like substances are
greedily devoured and swallowed. The grass is not bitten,

346 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

but torn eagerly from the ground, and the roots with adhering
soil is swallowed with avidity. But when the disease is ad-
vanced, appetite fails; the eyes stare wildly; the temperature is
lower than that of a healthy animal, pointing to want of sup-
port to the vital functions; and this reacting on the brain and the
principal nerve proceeding from it, produces all the symptoms
^ hich mark this disease.

This being the case, the treatment calls for prevention rather
than curative measures. The causes mentioned are to be avoided,
and the ewes must be duly nourished with the best and most
digestible food before the lambs are about to be dropped; indeed
from the period of conception. This is to be thought of in all
these localities where the disease has prevailed previously; and
with the drainage of wet pastures, and the dressing of the lands
under feeding crops with rich stimulating manures, changed for
the use of such special fertilizers as will tend to the growth of
wholesome feed. Superphosphate of lime is especially useful in
this respect, and a dressing of the feeding crops or pastures with
salt has been found useful in clearing the land of this tendency
to this disease.

Treatment in all cases calls for the use of nerve sedatives
as well as cooling laxatives. Epsom salts are to be given in full
doses, one to two ounces for a lamb, and twice as much for a ewe.
Turpentine in two dram doses acts favorably o-n the kidneys, and
as an anti-spasmodic. After these 'have been given, bromide of po-
tassium is to be given in one dram doses for a yearling, and less
in proportion for a lamb as its age may call for. Good nursing
is efficacious in support of the weakened system, and after recov-
ery the tonic mixture will be useful in aiding digestion, and the
due assimilation of the food.

PLEURISY-INFLAMMATION OF THE LINING
MEMBRANE OF THE CHEST.

This disease is most common in cold, windy, exposed locali-
ties, and chiefly among flocks on the range and without shelter.
It frequently accompanies an attack of rheumatism in which
the joints are involved, and severe lameness is the prevailing
symptom.

The symptoms are shivering, uneasy movements, pawing the
ground, turning the head to the flank, general uneasiness— the
sheep lying down and rising alternately with frequent intermis-
sion. The pulse is rapid and the breathing hurried, with short
inspirations suddenly checked, while the inspiration is slow and
prolonged. At every breath the abdomen moves and the head is
held down, the eyes are half closed, and a hacking cough occurs.
. Appetite and rumination are both suspended and the nose is dry.
Lameness and stiffness of the ioints due to the accompanying
rheumatism are prominent. This disease terminates in hydro-
thorax, or the effusion of serum in the chest. These symptoms
continue for about four or five days, when they gradually change
to those resulting from the accumulated serum in the chest

DISEASES OF SHEEP. . 347

Then the belly becomes swollen, and a peculiar drawing in of the
nostrils occurs. In this condition of the disease the manner of
breathing is reversed; the inspirations being long and irregular,
while the expiration is checked and occurs with difficulty. The
animal now stands with legs wide apart, the head is extended,
and the neck is held low; the eyes are staring; the pulse is im-
perceptible; the limbs, nose and ears are cold; a rattling sound
accompanies the breathing; the animal totters and falls back-
wards, if the head is raised, but headlong otherwise, and dies
.struggling.

On opening the body the chest is found filled with serum,
the substance of the lungs is hard and red, and the tissue is
dull in color and sinks in water.

The treatment to be taken as soon as the rattling sound is
heard in the breathing, is to give the following:

Saltpetre 1 dram.

Camphor yz dram.

Nitric ether ys ounce.

Dissolve the camphor in the ether, and add half a pint of
oatmeal gruel strained. Then powder the saltpeter, and add it
to the gruel. The chest should be well rubbed with mustard
made into a thin paste with hot water, and a skin saturated
with hot water should be tied around the body immediately back
of the fore legs. When the presence of the serum in the cavity
of the chest is certainly known by the occurrence of the symptoms
mentioned, give the following in a drench of warm gruel:

Powdered digitalis 10 grains.

Saltpeter 1 dram.

N itric ether 2 drams.

Mix; add to the gruel; and give it three times a day.

Two drams of turpentine are given alternately with the above,
all of which should be continued for two days. As soon as the
kidneys respond to this treatment, give the following:

Sulphate of iron Vz dram.

Alum Vz dram.

Infusion of quassia 1 ounce.

To tap the chest Avith the trochar previously described and
drawing off the liquid through the canula, will be of great service.
As soon as recovery has begun give the tonic mixture.

INFLAMMATION OF THE UDDER-MAMMITIS-GARGET.

This disease is frequent in well fed flocks, and among ewes
in high condition. It also at times occurs by reason of the excite-
ment of the circulation incident to the birth of the lamb, leading
to inflammation of the weakened glands. It is frequently the
case that the first milk by reason of its glutinous character may
close the duct of the teats, thus producing a. congested condition
by which inflammation is caused. Of course this trouble means
the death of the newly born lamb for want of its due nourish-
ment.

It is a disease to be prevented by timely attention, for an

348 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

attack of inflammation necessarily means stoppage of the milk,
and if for only a short time the lamb is starved, or much labor
is thrown on the shepherd. And this occuring at the busiest time
of the year is a serious disturbance of the ordinary routine in a
flock at the lambing season.

The ewes should be examined as soon as the lamb is dropped
and the condition of the udder and the teats known. It is a
small matter as compared with the result, which is not only the
saving of a lamb but the welfare or future value of the ewe.
For once the udder is in this condition of inflammation, it is an
even chance if the ewe can be restored to usefulness for the
future. There is no danger if the milk will appear on pressure
of the teats. If not, the opening of each teat is to be carefully
cleaned from accumulated gluey matter by washing with warm
water, a.nd the insertion of the point of a small syringe by which
a few drops of warm solution of saleratus or carbonate of soda
may be injected. This dissolves any hardened milk, and leaves
a free course for the milk for the lamb at its first effort to suck.
If this is not sufficient, and the teat appears to need it, a smootli
whalebone probe, well oiled, should be inserted with care and
gentleness to open the milk duct. If the udder appears to be at
all inflamed, it will be advisable to inject a little more of the
soda solution, adding a little glycerine: The udder should be
rubbed gently with vaseline to which is added one fourth part of
camphorated spirit, and the same of ammonia, at least twice
a day.

PNEUMONIA— INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS.

This disease differs from pleurisy in being seated in the sub-
nee of the lungs. The difference may be more fully explained
in this way. The cavity of the body within the short ribs, is
commonly called the chest. It contains the lungs and the heart,
and is separated from the abdomen by a tough strong fibrous
membrane known as the diaphragm. This is elastic, and as the
lungs are inflated by the inspiration of the breath it gives way,
returning to its original position on the expiration of the breath-
The whole interior of this cavity is lined Avith a serous mem
brane, covering the walls of it up to the entrance into it of the
wind pipe and the esophagus, closing these in into the space of
the chest, and covering them as well, and also the lungs. This
membrane is called the pleura, and is the seat of the disease
known as pleurisy. This membrane — the pleura — is in fact like
a sac doubled into itself and enclosing those vital organs which
are seated in the cavity of the chest. Inflammation of this mem-
brane is called pleurisy; that of the lungs itself, its substance in
fact, is called pneumonia. This disease has the same common
cause as bronchitis and pleurisy; but it is more common than these,
and has greater tendency to relapse and terminate fatally by the
hardening and solidifying of the tissue, so that expansion neces-
sary to the inflation of the lungs in the air breathed, and the
emptying of them of the air expired by contraction, can no

DISEASES OP SHEEP. 349

longer go on, and of course the animal dies for want of air and
the purifying of the blood by it, as is explained in the chapter
devoted to the anatomy of the sheep.

The symptoms of this disease are sufficiently well marked to
afford certain indications of its existence and to distinguish it
from pleurisy. They are dullness, stiffness, a rough, harsh fleece,
and a fit of severe shivering. The skin soon becomes dry, hot
and shrunken on the body; the eyes, lips, and inside of the ears
are red; the nostrils are drawn in, and there is a short cough,
suppressed by effort to avoid the severe pain caused by the action
of the lungs thus induced. The mouth is hot and clammy, there
is a sticky discharge from the nose, the head is protruded, the
breath is short and quick — 40 or more per minute — while the
effort to breathe is made by the muscles of the abdomen shown by
the heaving flanks. The pulse is rapid, reaching 70 or 8J per min-
ute. The bowels are constipated; urine is small and dark in color;
the sheep is averse to move and lies still.

On placing the ear to the side of. the chest the usual move-
ment of the breathing is absent wherever the tissue is solidified,
and so far it is possible to trace the extent of the disease. When
these symptoms lessen in degree recovery is in progress, and with
good care the imminent relapse may be avoided. But it is only
by the best care that this happens, when the disease is checked,
and convalescence is complete in about fifteen days. Otherwise
death takes place from the fifth to the twelfth day.

Treatment is the same as for bronchitis (to which refer). If
the bowels are constipated two ounces of Epsom "salts will be
useful: It is best given dissolved in warm oatmeal gruel or lin-
seed tea. This disease is not to be confounded with the epizootic
and contagious form of pleuro-pneumonia, a disease which occa-
sionly attacks sheep, but only in its sporatic form, which is not
contagious, and consists of both pleurisy and pneumonia combined.
For this combined disease the treatment is similar to that indi-
cated for simple pneumonia or for pleurisy.

HERPES-IXFLAMMATION OF THE SKIN WITH
BLISTERS.

This inflammatory condition of the skin is accompanied by
small vesicles, or blisters, containing serum. These may burst
and thus form extended sores, the exudation from which mats
the fleece, and has much the same appearance as the very much
more serious disease known as the scab. It is indeed frequently
thought to be this di&Fn«e, and much unnecessary concern may
arise in consequence. It is caused by over stimulating food,
especially over rich in the protein elements, such as cotton seed
meal, or the linseed oil meals. Exposure to continued wet
weather after shearing, is productive of this condition of the skin.

The treatment is to give four ounces of Epsom salts, repeated
the second day after. If crusts have formed these may be
broken and removed by washing with warm water and carbolic
soap, but care is to be taken not to injure the tender skin under

350 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

these crusts so as to cause bleeding. It is well to soak the scabs
with 0:1 before washing; and to repeat the Avashing until the
crusts may be removed without leaving a sore. If the skin itches,
so that the sheep bites itself, the inflamed patches may be washed
with water slightly acidulated by sulphuric acid; a few drops to
^ quart of water is sufficient.

DISEASES OF THE PENIS.

The ram is subject to diseases of the penis which may easily
destroy its value for service in the flock. These are first:

Inflammation of this organ which may 1)3 simple or cancerous.
The former is treated by a few doses of four ounces of Epsom salts
and injection into the sheath of solution of chlorate of potash.
This may be injected by means of a syringe or a glass tube with
a rubber cap on the end by compression, of which when the tube
is inserted in the solution, the release causes the fluid to be drawn
up, and pressure on the cap or bulb, of course ejects the fluid
with considerable force. It may be well before applying this
solution to wash the passage with warm water with a few drops
of carbolic acid in it, or with carbolic soap to dissolve and remove
the coating of pus on the diseased parts. If the disease is can-
cerous the animal should be turned on its back and the organ
withdrawn and the diseased spots touched with solution of nitrate
of silver. This destroys the fungous growths after which the
chlorate of potash solution will complete the cure.

Sometimes the ram by hard service contracts this cancerous
form of the disease which he communicates to the ewes and these
suffer from a similar inflammation of the vaginal passage. This is to
be treated in a similar way but using a slender elastic rod of whale-
bone with a soft sponge fastened securely to one end. This is
dipped into the solution of chlorate of potash and after washing
out the part with warm water and carbolic soap, it is passed into
the vaginal passage until the diseased membrane is well washed
with the solution.

PARTURITION FEVER IN EWES.

Ewes are sometimes liable to a serious disease of the blood,
consequent on the disturbance of the circulation due to the sep-
aration of the lamb from the dam. It is to be considered that in
its fetal life the lamb is supplied with blood for its life and
growth from the dam. After birth this leaves an excess of blood
to circulate in the ewe, and if she is in a plethoric condition this
increased circulation is a source of danger to her, and may be
productive of what is known as parturition fever. This is all
the more likely to happen with full fed ewes, especially if they
are on a rich young pasture.

The symptoms occur on or about the second or third day after
the birth of the lamb. They consist of enlarged flank; a staring
wild appearance of the eyes; constipation; and deficient urine,
which has a deep color and an unusually strong sharp odor.
The ewe pants, strains, and the hind parts appear inflamed,
swollen and red, and are hot to the hand.

DISEASES OF SHEEP. 351

Afterwards they become deep red, then purple, and finally
black in color. As the disease advances, unless improvement
occurs, the ewe becomes exhausted and dies in a comatose con-
dition, due to the excessive pressure of blood on the brain.

The womb is found on examination to be inflamed, patchy,
and even gangrened, and black and decomposed. The whole
system is congested and full of blood, the heart especially so.
The womb is highly inflamed and the veins often contain pus
instead of blood. As this disease is apt to affect other ewes
in the flock, the first one dead should be examined for cer-
tainty as to the disorder, so that preventive measures may be
taken if required to save others. These are to give a copious
laxative (Epsom salts) to the ewe; four ounces will not be too
much. Following this, give tincture of aconite in doses of five
drops repeated every six hours. Copious bleeding from the vein
on the face just below the eye is useful to relieve the congestion.
Injections of warm soapy water are desirable to relieve the bowels.
After these remedies are used for 24 hours give the tonic mixture
in warm gruel three times a day.

POISONING.

A sheep is a foolish animal, and is as apt to eat injurious
stuff as to choose good food. And as there are many poisonous
plants that sheep come in the way of, and will eat readily, cau-
tion is to be observed to destroy them or keep the sheep from
them, and it is well to be prepared to take the right means, and
have in readiness the right remedies, to prevent losses in tnis way.
The most prevalent and deadly plant of this kind is that member
of the heath family known as the narrow leaved kalmia (Kalmia
Angustifolia) or commonly "sheeps laurel," and "lamb kill."
Indeed there are several plants of this heath family that are
poisonous. The rhododendron is equally virulent with the laurels,
of which the broad-leaved species (Kalmia latifolia) is a danger-
ous as the narrow leaved species. Some of the huckleberry
tribe are fatal, as well as several others. Indeed it is quite prob-
able that all this family of plants are alike in this respect. The
so-called cow-parsnip and some other plants of the Umbellifera
family, to which this wild parsnip belongs, are even more deadly
than the heaths. Some plants, really not poisonous, are injurious,
if not fatal, in their effects, not on account of any poisonous
character, but only because of their indigestibility. Such are the
leaves of the mangel or field beet, when grown on rich soil; the
common holyhock, and the common marsh mallow; so with oak
leaves and acorns, for these are all without any ill effects except-
ing when eaten in large quantities; and the symptoms are then all
those of acute indigestion. Acorns and other mast are really
valuable food, and thousands of sheep fatten on these fruits of
forest trees late in the year, and during the early winter months
without any ill effects being reserved.

In the far West, and as far as California, the so-called loco-
weed (Astragalus mollismus) also known as crazyweed and some

352 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

other plants are poisonous to sheep, as well as other animals,
but not deadly in effect, merely producing narcotic results, and
acting on the brain to produce actual temporary insanity.

The worst of all these are the various members of the heath
tribe above referred to. These affect the brain in such a way as
to cause loss of sight, inability to swallow, and consequent pro-

FIG. 26.— Loco Weed.

fuse salivation. Animals dying after eating largely of these
leaves and twigs are found to have the brain extensively con-
gested, the heart is filled with venous blood, and all Jthe symp-
toms of ordinary apoplexy are seen. The author in an experiment
made to test the precise action of the leaves of the narrow laurel,
eat a few of them. In a few minutes considerable nausea, giddi-
ness, clouded vision occurred; the eyes being at times unaffected
by light, and the limbs were greatly disturbed and stiff in their
movements. Strong coffee relieved the nervous disorder in a
short time; while a liberal dose of castor oil relieved the stomach
and bowels. This treatment has been effective in every case for
the sheep when taken in time, and since then there has not been
a fatal case of poisoning where this treatment has been adopted.

DISEASES OF SHEEP. 353

From the nature of the alkaloid existing in the crazyweed of the
Western plains, it is we think beyond question that this same
treatment will be useful as an antidote to the effects of this
weed.

The leaves of the yew tree are exceedingly deadly in their
effects, and while we have none of this kind among our native
trees, yet in other countries, where it is cultivated or grown in
hedges, or indeed for hedges, sheep should not be permitted to
browse on them or eat the clippings of the limbs.

Cases of poisoning sometimes occur by giving too large doses
of drugs, the action of which is virulent. Thus the use of salt-
peter (nitrate of potash in excess; in truth it is rarely called
for) is apt to do serious injury. So aconite, a deadly poison in
too large doses, but a useful remedy in many diseases as a seda-
tive and diaphoretic, allaying nervous excitement and inducing
perspiration, may be given to excess, carelessly, on account of the
very small doses required, for a sheep, no more than 3 to 5 drops.
In such cases immediate ridding to the system of the poison, by
copious liquid purgatives, is the simplest means of avoiding loss.
After recovery the tonic mixture should be used, with soft
mashes or gruels of linseed or oatmeal, or both. When any
poison is accidentally taken by sheep it will be useful to drench
the animal with mucilaginous liquid by which the stomach may be
washed out, and immediately after a dose of castor oil or raw lin-
seed oil may be given to empty the stomach and bowels.

PORCUPINE GRASS.

This grass is quite common on the plains and has been found
exceedingly injurious to sheep. It is a tall grass with a bunch of
sharp pointed, speared awns in the head. These have a very
peculiar character. They are twisted when dry like a corkscrew
and as they become damp the screw unwinds, becoming more sp' -1!
as the weather dries them again. The sharp points penetrate the
wool and as this spiral unwinds and winds again these points are
literally screwed into the sheep's skin, penetrating into the flesh
and even passing into the inside where of course these spears
do serious mischief, frequently killing the sheep with all the symp-
toms of a slow, wasting disease, which is rarely recognized. This
of course calls for a corresponding watchfulness on the part of
the shepherd to keep the flocks away from those localities where
it abounds. When the grass is in flower it is much like an ostrich
feather with its soft, silky plumes, under which these awns are to
be found.

RED WATER-HAEMATURIA.

This is a disease distinctly of marshes and wood lands, of
which the herbage is often acrid and indigestible. There are
certain weeds by which this disorder is produced, but in general,
either the whole herbage is innutritions or unwholesome, or the
poiso>nous emanations from the sodden soil makes the blood im-
pure at the very source— the lungs— where it should naturally be

354 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

purified and vitalized. It also has one of its causes in the too
succulent and innutritions crops grown on over-rich damp lands,
and turnips especially grown on soils of this character — deep black
vegetable soil — are frequently the cause of attacks of this disease
of flocks fed on the crops. 80 the natural growth of wood land
tends to encourage this disorder, and hence it is commonly known
as the "woods evil-" The disease is especially virulent in the
early Spring for the reason that the sheep are hungry for fresh
fodder, and eat too heartily of the indigestible or too laxative
foods. It seems in its manifestations to be akin to the common
anthrax, a disease often due to similar causes. The blood is dark,
there are dullness, weakness, trembling, cold skin, dry mouth,
loss of appetite, thirst, strong action of the heart; the bowels
are costive after a period of looseness, the urine is passed with
suffering, and is dark colored. This color is not due to the mix-
ture of blood but to failure of the liver to act. Unless improve-
ment occurs in a few days the animal dies in a condition of deli-
rium and severe prostration.

This is a disease to be prevented by avoiding the cause of it.
By keeping the sheep off from the over-grown herbage of un-
wholesome lands, and refraining from feeding, even hay cut on
such land. The drainage of the wet soil will remove this objec-
tion to it, and render the crops harmless.

Treatment should consist of the use of active purgatives;
any of the oils are preferable in this case to saline medicine.
Olive oil is the best and most effective, after this raw linseed oil
may be chosen. A quarter of a pint will be a sufficient dose for
a full grown sheep. It should be repeated in six hours if it does
not operate before that time. Twenty grain doses of chlorate of
potash may be given in gruel three times a day.^ The standard
tonic mixture should then be given twice a day. The food should
be of the best and most easily digested kinds. Decoctions of lin-
seed or of slippery elm bark; bran mashes, and boiled oats, will
be desirable.

REDNESS OF THE EYES— OPHTHALMIA.

This disease should be treated on the first appearance of it
qr the sight may easily be lost beyond recovery. This indeed is
not of much account in a sheep, if it is in good condition, for it
will always make mutton unless it is affected by some wasting
disease, by which its condition is impaired. But all sheep are
not necessarily immediate mutton, and a valuable breeding animal
is not to be considered from this point of view. Redness of the
eyes is not to be neglected. Treatment should be immediate.
The disease is also apt to become epidemic in the flock, for the
purulent matter flowing from a diseased eye is very apt to con-
vey the infection to other sheep.

The cause of the disease should be investigated. There may
be a chaff or beard or some minute foreign matter causing the
trouble. If so it is to be removed; and a small pinch of burned
alum blown into the eye through a quill will quickly restore the

DISEASES OF SHEEP. 355

eye to comfort and use. If the inflammation has been severe
two ounces of Epsom salts should be given in gruel and the animal
kept in the dark for a few days. Frequent bathing of the eyes
with cold water with a small pinch of sulphate of zinc dissolved
in it., will be useful.

SMALL POX OF SHEEP-VARIOLA OVINA.

This deadly'disease, so closely akin to the same disease of
mankind as to be communicable to those coming in contact with
diseased sheep, so far has no>t been known on this side of the
Atlantic Ocean. But in the importation of sheep for breeding
from European countries, where it exists to a dangerous extent,
it is always liable to be introduced into our flocks. A description
of the disease is therefore of interest. It is only known as a
virulently contagious disease, having a period of incubation of four
or five days in Summer, and ten to fifteen in the Winter.

The symptoms are loss of appetite, dullness, isolation of the
sick sheep, and stiffness of the hind part of the body. Trembling
follows; the bowels become costive; the eyes are red and weep
copiously; a discharge comes from the nose; and the naked parts
of the body have red patches. These may appear on the belly
or inside the legs. If they become united — confluent — the result
will likely be serious. Otherwise the disease passes through the
usual stages as in cow-pox; that is the eruption exudes a lymph
which in a short time becomes purulent, then dries, and forms
crusts which loosen and fall off, at the end of three weeks or a
month. In this mild form the loss of life may not be over five
to seven per cent, but when the disease takes on its virulent
form it destroys at times almost the whole flock. There are
other serious results even to the mild form of this disease. Ewes
are prone to abort and lose their lambs; the wool drops off; blind-
ness occurs; hoofs rot off; and the sheep which survive are fre-
quently wrecks not worth saving. The treatment is hardly to
be recommended. Immediate slaughter and deep burial of the
diseased carcasses — in short unlimited stamping out of the pestil-
ence, which being communicable to persons, is and should be the
only treatment thought of.

Prevention of it should be the business of the general Govern-
ment, but as private enterprise should lead to caution in running
risks of introducing this disease, all concerned should pass all
imported sheep through a sufficient quarantine before mixing
them with the flock. Inoculation is not to be thought of as long
as the disease is not existing here.

RETENTION OF THE DUNG IN LAMBS.

Sometimes it may happen that by the first glutinous dis-
charge from the bowels of a new born lamb, the anus becomes
closed, and the dung is no longer passed, but collects in the lower
gut. This becomes distended, and if relief is not afforded the
young animals droops and soon dies. The ewes, inclined thereto
by natural instinct, will sometimes afford relief by rubbing the

356 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

part with the nose and licking it. But in some cases this is not
effective, and the shepherd should not fail to inspect the young
things for the first few days after birth, and if necessary break
this crust and open the passage. A little vaseline or sweet oil
applied will prevent a recurrence of this trouble.

INFLAMMATION OF TESTICLE.

This disorder is by no means uncommon. It is most common
in the breeding season, when the ram may be overworked, and
it is frequently the result of accident.

The symptoms are quite apparent, being a swelling of the
glands so that the animal moves with a straddling gait, the tes-
ticle, or both of them, is enlarged and tender to the touch, and
is frequently drawn up and let down again.

The treatment is to give cooling purgatives, as Epsom salts,
in four ounce doses; to foment the scrotum with hot water;
then applying extract of belladonna or laudanum. If the disease
occurs in the breeding times of course the ram is to be separated
from the flock and should not be used again the same season.

CASTRATION OF TESTICLES.

The castration of the young rams intended for wethers, is
sometimes apt to lead to serious results and even the loss of the
animal operated upon. All risk of this is avoided by performing
this necessary operation while the lamb is young, and at about
two or four weeks old. At this time the organs are undeveloped,
and the operation is a simple one without risk of complications
by inflammation of the cord, or difficulty of healing of the wound.

For a lamb of this age, all that is needed is to take the
animal under the left arm, holding the scrotum with the left hand,
between the fore finger and the thumb, then with a pair of sharp
shears cut off the scrotum with its contents. Apply a little finely
powdered bluestone (sulphate of copper) or a little fine sugar,
and the business is concluded in less time that this line is written.

With older animals more care is to be exercised, as the organ
is developed to a far greater extent. With three or four month
old lambs intended for wethers the operation is thus performed.
An assistant holds the animal firmly in any convenient position,
preferably on a bench about three feet high. The assistant holds
the hind legs firmly, drawing them forward. The operator then
with the left hand gathers the loose skin at the bottom of the scro-
tum by the fingers and with a round-edged, bladed castrating knife,
cuts off the whole bottom of the bag at one cut. The testicles
are, then pressed out at this free opening, and the cords are separ-
ated by scraping them apart close to the body, so that when the
ends are released they will be drawn into the body. It is of great
importance that the hands should be clean, having been washed
with carbolic soap before beginning the operation, and they
should be dipped in a sterilizing solution of bi-chloride of mer-
cury after each operation, thus avoiding probable resulting in-
flammation after the operation, and this is the only source of

DISEASES OF SHEEP. 357

danger. The wound is then sprayed with any sterilizing solution,
or dusted with sulphate of iron finely powdered, or witii common
sugar, and the animal is set free in a clean floored barn for two
days, until all danger of secondary inflammation may have
passed. Generally it is quite safe to release the animals in a clean
field, if it is not a season when flies would gather on the wounds
and blow them.

At the same time when the young lambs are emasculated they
should be docked, if this operation is thought necessary. It is
hardly to be considered unless as a safeguard against the possible
infection of the wounds by the blow flies, and when the lambs
are to be fed on succulent green fodder crops, as rape or turnips,
and fouling behind is to be provided for. But if to be docked,
the lambs are operated on at the time of emasculating them, and
in this simple manner. As they are held under the arm as above
described the tail is taken by the left hand fingers, and the skin
slipped up to the rump, the tail is then clipped off at the intended
spot by the shears, the wound covered with powdered bluestone
and the wool drawn over it.

PARASITES "OF THE SHEEP.— SCAB.

It has been the experience of all shepherds, from time im-
memorial, that sheep were, and are, "an unhappy flock." This
remark was made by one who possessed several thousand sheep,
and in whose writings — consisting of poems which will never be
neglected or forgotten, while the human race endures, and given
to the world two thousand years ago — he simply expressed what
has been the universal result of knowledge in the care of sheep.
And doubtless while the causes of the numerous diseases due to
attacks by parasites without, and within the sheep, were un-
known, the diseases thus produced were as wetl known as tjhey
are to-day, that is, in regard to the effects of them, although
the special causes of most of them were not understood as we
now know them. What "can be more emphatic than this quota-
tion rendered from Virgil's third Georgics, in regard to a disease
which is even now the, bane and the constant thought of the
shepherd, and which causes him untold apprehension and labor
to evade: "I command that the sheep be supplied with grass
(hay) in soft stables until the leafy summer is restored, and to
spread the hard floor with much straw and bundles of fern under
them, lest the cold ice may injure the gentle flocks and produce
the scab and filthy sores." Moreover those ancient shepherds
well understood the practice of smearing the sheep as a preven-
tive or cure of~this worst of all the parasites of the flock, al-
though the true nature of it was then unknown. Indeed as
late as the last century it was not known, but the best informed
of the shepherds of that day thought the disease was due to
"'suppressed perspiration, and bad keep, dogging and exposure to
cold and wet." The scab insect then was declared to be of spon-
taneous origin, and the existence of the pestiferous insect was
never understood as we now know it.

358 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

Recent exact knowledge now goes to help us greatly in strug-
gling with this and all other parasites of our flocks, but the
evil is so widespread and virulent, and there are so many who
keep sheep who will not take the pains needed to exterminate
all the pests of the flock, that it is hopeless to expect full deliv-
erance from them. And the shepherd must still be watchful, ex-
pert, and industrious, to avert the risks as far as may be possible.

These parasites are external or internal, the former are few
in number, but the latter abound, and the variety of them is as-
tounding to those who study the matter in its full bearings.
Of the external enemies of this class which trouble the flock by
far the worst are:

THE SCAB MITE.

These are insects of the family known as Acari, in which is
included the common itch mite, which infests mankind. It also
includes three species which affect sheep. These are known as
the Sarcoptes scabici, which infests the head of the sheep; Psorop-

FIG. 27.— Scabby Sheep— Taken from Photograph.

tes communis, which infests the body, and Chorioptes communis,
which affects the feet. The life history of these insects is similar
in each ppecies. They attack the skin and bite it, and these
wounds so made form scabs, under which the pests lay their
eggs. Each female produces an average of ten young, which ma-
ture in fifteen days, thus in the short season of three months

DISEASES OF SHEEP. 359

the progeny of a single mite may number a full million. Figures
fail to convey the desperate condition of an unfortunate sheep
on which only a few of these mites are existing at the outset of
a Summer. The picture of a scabby sheep here given, affords
some approximate idea of the condition of the animal unless re-
lieved of the millions of these insects which are burrowing under
the diseased skin, covered by these filthy sores, as described in
the above quotation.

If any inquiring reader will take a piece of this dry scab from
one of these sores, and lay it on a piece of white paper under a
common magnifying glass, the insects may be seen moving like
so much dust on the sheet. When more highly magnified the
insect appears much like a spider, to which it is somewhat re-
lated, as may be seen in the engraving below which shows the
mature insect.

THE HEAD SCAB MITE— AN ADULT FEMALE.
SARCOPTES SCABICI, VARIETY OV1S.

The head mites infest the skin of the sheep's head, beginning
at the lips, near the nostrils, and eyelids and ears. From these

points they spread over the face
and even down to the fore legs,
under the belly and back of the
knees, where the wool is short.
These pests go into the long wool,
or the coarse fine oily kinds, but
prefer the short, dry fleece to
work in.

The first indication is the rub-
bing of the head by the sheep,
FIG. 28.-Highly Magnified. and the extent of the invasion is

to be judged by the efforts of

the sheep to rid itself of its tormentors. At first there are slight
elevations of the skin with soft centers, which break of them-
selves, and discharge a thin fluid which dries and forms hard
scabs, which adhere to the skin and the hairs. In these shelters
the insects feed, produce their young, and increase in number.
As this increase makes it necessary these spots spread until the
skin is covered with scabs, which increase in size and thickness,
forming white, hard masses. In time they cover the face, lips,
and forehead, and as the sheep rub themselves these scabs are
broken and bleed. In time the wounds heal and scars are formed.
At times the eyes are completely covered by the scabs, and the
sheep becomes blind and helpless.

Infection occurs from sheep to sheep, thus spreading through
the flock. There is no other way by which these insects propa-
gate or originate, but the ordinary process of generation from
parents to offspring and so on through succeeding generations.
Thus the only way to find relief is to destroy the insects, thus
cutting off the parents and stopping the increase. There are
necessarily several ways of this infection spreading. The insects

360 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

drop from the diseased sheep on to the ground, where other
sheep may lie, and others lying on the same ground, will of
course become infected. They are rubbed off as the sheep
scratch themselves in the vain effort to get relief, on
fences, walls, and other places, and the infection easily spreads
from these. As a flock passes on the road, another following will
easily pick up the contagion. Sheep cars are notorious sources
of infection obviously, and one scabby animal may infect thou-
sands on a range which may follow in its track.

This form of the disease is specially different from the other
two, and cannot be mistaken for either of the others. It is indis-
pensable, considering the enormous increase in the numbers
of it, that instant measures be taken for its destruction and the
saving of the flock. Fortunately the location of the pest makes
its first appearance so prominent that no mistake can be made
in distinguishing it, and then the remedy is easy. This is to wash
the parts affected in any of the dips to be procured in the mar-
ket, or of any of the ointments made for this purpose, or to apply
any kind of sweet thin oil rubbing it well into the scabs after
washing with carbolic or tar soap, and repeating the treatment
until it is certain that it has been effective.

THE COMMON SCAB MITE-PSOROPTES COMMUNIS.

This is the most to be feared by the shepherds of all the ex-
ternal parasites of the flock. It is a much larger insect than the
head mite, and is visible to the unaided eye if gathered on some

FIG. 29.— Male and Female Scab Insects-
white surface. It has been so neglected, as seems to be the
rule, left for some one else to attend to, that it has gained an
almost impregnable footing through the whole world. It has thus
become the subject of legislation in many countries, but this as

DISEASES OF SHEEP. 361

a rule is based on the same principle, "let others do it." But if
all concerned were actuated— let us say— by common sound sense,
this disease might be exterminated utterly in a few years; the
greatesj; difficulty being experienced in the first three from the
beginning. After that the work would be easy and more and
more effective, as the numbers of the pests became reduced. But
under present circumstances, in which the rule seems to be how not
to do it, the pestilence yearly becomes more and more extended,
and relief fades into the uncertain distance. Thus the shepherd is
under the necessity of dipping his sheep twice a year and still
with only negative results.

The habits of this insect are similar to those of the previously
described one. The first symptoms of its presence are that the
sheep are seen to be biting themselves, apparently nibbling the
wool. This of itself is bad, for the wool is apt to be swallowed
and gathers in the intestines where it forms balls, which by ac-
cumulation of mucus and more wool, finally obstruct the intes-
tines and cause trouble which is most likely to end fatally. This
is one of the results of this infection which otherwise would not
happen. The fleece of a scabby sheep soon becomes rough, ragged,
and matted in patches, these spreading until in time they meet,
when the animal exhibits the wretched appearance showed at fig.
27. At this stage of the disease, the crusts have greatly increased
in thickness, and are more firmly adherent to the body. These
crusts, in the same manner as some of the vegetable growths
like ringworm, spread from the outer edge, and thus continually
grow larger, while the centers heal, but leave the bare skin.
If the inflammation has penetrated to the wool follicles of the
skin, in which the fibers are rooted, these spots will remain per-
manently bare, rough, and unsightly.

In those places in which the fleece still exists, it is stuck to-
gether in rough masses, tangled and matted, felted in fact, and
and thus the sheep in its efforts to relieve itself from the intolera-
ble irritation, tears off the wool, leaving bare spots, not as yet
so far been diseased, but only as to form scabs, but yet so far as to
loosen the wool. This species is most inclined to the thickest
and longest wool, and hence it does the most damage to the
flock owner. The disease begins on the back, spreading to the
rump and down the flanks. The scabs are at first separated ; as
the disease spreads from the centers first infected; but in time
these spots run together leaving between the active centers bare
patches in thickened skin. At the edges of these patches the in-
sects are found in the greatest numbers, and entirely cover the
skin. They may there be seen moving in large clusters, and if
picked up and placed on the hand their motions are easily visible.
Old and young of each sex, in the act of propagating, and the
eggs, may all be gathered in this way for observation by the
curicus.

The disease is at its worst in the Fall and Winter. As may be
thought the poorly nourished and exposed flocks suffer the mo«t
because of their want of ability to resist, and the disease will

362 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP

make a slower progress as the flock is more able to resist the ad-
vances of the parasites.

"The fittest survive." This is one of the organic laws of the
universe, and in addition to all the precautions by which these
pests are destroyed, as by the semi-annual dipping, and by every
precaution against infection, by dipping thoroughly every exposed
animal brought into a flock, we must secure exemption from this
worst of all ailments of the sheep. The old sheep, too, should be
dipped in time to secure the lambs against infection, and what-
ever sheep are found to be suffering from the parasite should
be most carefully isolated until treatment can be used to disin-
fect them. In using any dip it will be found desirable to prepare
the sheep by a previous application, by which the scabs may be
softened and to break these up at the same time by some rough
means, as by a bundle of corn cobs so arranged as to effect this
purpose in a thorough manner. For it will be obvious that unless
the crusts are broken into, so that the dip will reach the insects,
much of the effect of the dipping will be thrown away .uselessly.
In short, in this, as in all similar operations of the shepherd,
that valuable quality known as gumption is to be made use of in.
a thorough manner.

We prefer to say nothing as to the dips, except to guard our
readers against the far too acrid sulphur-and-lime mixture, on ac-
count of its bad effect on the fleeces of sheep dipped in a precau-
tionary manner, and as a preventive of the disease. There are
so many good and safe dips in the market that it will be found
best to depend on those which are made under accurate methods,
as to quantities and qualities, and follow the expert advice in
their application, and so avoid misuse or ineffective work,
and also the certain injury to the fleece which is one sure
result of this too acrid dip referred to. For it is a matter of ex-
perience that the saving of this loss will not only insure success
in the work, but wijl pay the whole expense of it.

THE MAGGOT.

The maggot is a larvae of the common flesh fly (sarcophaga
carnaria), the blue-bottle fly (musca Caesar), and the meat fly
(musca vomitoria), all of which deposit eggs on decaying animal

matter. These eggs or larvae are
deposited in vast numbers in
sores or wounds or where sheep
become filthy when troubled with
diarrhea. A single Sarcophagus
sometimes contains twenty thou-

FIG. 3Q.-Maggot Fly. sand eggs. The maggot attacks

the skin, causing extreme irrita-
tion and finally a serous fluid; the skin is pierced and the flesh
supperates and wastes away, being literally eaten up by the
multitudes of maggots crawling over it. Wet seasons are particu-
larly bad for this pest. It is necessary to remove the wool from
about the infected parts and apply any of the sheep dips or com-

DISEASES OF SHEEP.

mon crude petroleum which are repulsive and fatal to the fly and
maggot. When the fly "strikes" a sheep it will often wander
away, and unless found and treated will be literally eaten up.
Watch the ewes at weaning time for this pest as the udder may
become caked, and the fly will strike.

THE SHEEP LOUSE-TRICHODECTES
SPHAEROCEPHALUS.

The mere exposure of sheep to any disturbing influence is
disastrous. Thus the louse, by which the sheep is annoyed, is
sufficiently worth notice in this regard to cause the shepherd
to tixKe the due precautions to secure the sheep from the annoy-
ance of it.

The red-headed Sheep Louse (Frichodectes Sphaerocephalus)
was almost unknown in this country until recent years. It is now

FIG. 31.
Eggs on Wool Fibers.

FIG. 32.
Sheep Louise; Highly Magnified.

becoming very abundant in some sections, and the damage it does
to young lambs and sheep is of sufficient importance to engage
the attention of every flockmaster.

The true sheep louse rarely exceeds one-twenty-fifth of an
inch in length. The female is slightly longer and larger than the
male. Its head occupies about one-fourth its length and is of a
pale reddish color. The adults lay their eggs at the base of the
wool fibers and a glutinous substance sticks them there. The lice
are generally found on the bare spots between the legs and body,
just under the shoulder. In young lambs and open-wool sheep
they may frequently be found in large numbers on the back of
the neck.

The injury wrought by these parasites is very considerable.
They live on the blood of the host, and in biting through the skin
they cause an intense itching sensation and leave a wound. They
give great discomfort to the sheep and the wool becomes gnarly
and worthless wherever these pests attack the skin.

In New Zealand dipping for these parasites has been made
compulsory by the government. Sheep lice rarely ever attack
the fine wool or Merino sheep. One dipping in any standard
dip. will be sufficient to not only kill the live lice, but also destroy
all the eggs of these parasites.

364 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

THE SHEEP TICK— MELOPHAGUS OVINUS.

Some writers on sheep and their numerous troubles, have
said that this insect seldom causes much damage to the sheep
in any way. Experienced shepherds will differ in this. They are well

aware that this insect does very
serious injury to the sheep as
being both the direct and indirect
cause of not only inconvenience,
but disturbance of the health and
prosperity of both the sheep and
the lambs. They interfere with
the growth of the lambs by
crowding on to them as soon as
the ewes are shorn, and then
begins a mostly unsuspected
drainage of the life blood of

the hope of the flock, as the ancient writer well called the lambs.
The lambs, suffering seriously from these blood suckers, one hun-
dred of which on a lamb will easily drain it dry of blood in a few
days, cannot prosper, and soon become emaciated and weak,
and never after recover the loss of vitality thus inflicted on
them.

This insect is a degraded fly in every sense of the word, hav-
ing no wings, but six legs only. The species differs from the true
ticks, which belong to the spider family, while the sheep tick is a
member of the diptera or two-winged insects, which have only six
legs,the spider families having eight legs. Like many other flies,
as the deer fly, the horse fly, and the mosquito, the sheep tick is a
blood sucker and an exceedingly hungry one. Sixty drops are the
usual measure of one liquid ounce, and an inch tick will easily
draw several drops of blood from a lamb in twenty-four hours,
always having its pump in operation, day and night, and it is by
no means rare that a hundred of these pests may feed on one
lamb, it is easy to figure out the problem, how long will so many
ticks drain a lamb dry of blood.

When the ewes are shorn, the ticks migrate immediately on to
the lambs, burying themselves in the thick, short wool and im-
mediately begin active business. This serious view of the case
of the ticks against the sheep, is not sufficiently considered; and
it should be made a practice when the sheep are shorn, to pro
ceed at once to dip the lambs and so relieve them of these
persecutors for good and all, and of course save the sheep in the
future. As to this, the tick should be classed next to the scab
mite, and treated accordingly.

This fly has a unique interest to the scientific student, inas-
much as it brings forth its young, not in the form of eggs or liv-
ing larvae, but in an advanced stage as pupae. These are the
almost round, red bodies, seen attached to the wool on ticky ani-
mals. They are to be got rid of most industriously. The author
has had experience in clearing the lambs and sheep both in a

DISEASES OF SHEEP. 365

unique Avay probably. This is by keeping a flock of fowls in the
sheepyard at the lambing season, and indeed at all times. Feed-
ing them when the sheep are fed, for the mere purpose of ob-
serving how they will most industriously pick the ticks out of the
wool of both ewes and lambs. This the fowls do most effectively
in the warm days when the ticks come to the surface of the fleece
to cool themselves and get the fresh air. These insects cannot
live apart from the sheep over a few days, and thus their voracity
is well accounted for. It is not only the loss of blood that weak-
ens the sheep and much more the lambs, but the intolerable
pain caused by their bites. Like the mosquito they inject into
the wounds they make some poison, which liquidates the blood,
and this produces a more annoying irritation than the mosquito
does. The poison causes swelling of the skin, which lasts— as Dr.
Curtis states in his work on the Animal Parasites of the Sheep —
for over a week, and is accompanied by a worse itching than that
of mosquito bites. Those concerned who have experienced the
severe pain of the bites of the mosquito, will surely sympathize
with the sheep, "always an unhappy flock," according to the old
writer, and all modern experience.

Treatment for this parasite consists mostly of dipping, in the
same way, and at the same time, as for the scab. Indeed, it is
the best way to dip the flock expressly for this purpose at the
shearing time, which is also advisable — indeed it may be
said indispensable — as a means of avoiding infection by the scab,
or curing insipient infection already accomplished, by exposure to
the disease. Thus we accomplish two valuable ends at one opera-
tion. The ticks that remain in the wool wrapped in the folded
fleeces will starve in a few days. If this operation is neglected,
the seed will be sown for the coming years the next Summer.

866 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

PROMINENT SYMPTOMS OF COMMON DISEASES.

Appetite, Depraved, Ravenous. — Worms in the intestines. Indi-
gestion.
'Want of. — Over feeding. Any serious disorders of the

system.

Biting the hind legs. — Myelitis.
Bleating. — Indigestion. Irnpaotion of the rumen (the first

stomach.
Bowels, Constipated. — Impaction of the fourth or the third

stomach. Rheumatism. Indigestion.
Looseness of.— Disease of the liver. Fluke diseases. Chronic

Indigestion. Intestinal worms.

Breathing, Rapid- — Anthrax. With dry, hot mouth, fevers.
Gasping.— Impaction of stomach.
Long and short alternately. Inflammation of the lungs.

Pleurisy. Pleuro-pneumonia.
Rattling and .loose. Pleuro-pneumonia.
Cough, Frequent and short. — Indigestion. Catarrh.
Husky. — Thread worms in the throat.
Deep and rattling.— Bronchitis. Pleurisy.

Discharge, from Nose.— Thin. Catarrh. Bronchitis (changing to
thick and dry, about the nostrils.) Grubs in the
head. (Mixed with blood.) Influenza (greenish or
creamy) .

From the vulva. — White, thin, Leucorrhea (inflamma-
tion of the womb). Yellowish, purulent, approach
of abortion.

From the eyes.— Ophthalmia. Injury by stubble, or alka-
line dust on the range. From the penis of rams.
Gonnorhea. Gleet. (This is contagious to the
ewes.)

Eyes. — Cloudiness- — Inflammation of cornea. Bluish film. Ophthal-
mia.

Redness. — Inflammation of the interior of the eye.
Thick film over cornea. — Cataract.

Redness, with weeping. — Anthrax. (Black leg or black quar-
ter). One of the first symptoms.

Weeping. — Catarrh. Injury V chaff or alkaline dust.
Fleece, Harsh, dry. — Disease of the liver. Worms in intestines.
Loosening. — Congestion of skin. Indigestion. Result of a

general low condition.

Giddiness. — Disease of the brain. Impaction of the stomach.
With turning around. Cysts of tapeworm (Tenia Coenurus)
in the brain. This disorder is often called Gid-
Head held up. — Tapeworm cysts in the brain. Myelitis.
Jaws, swelling under. — Soft, watery. Disease of the liver.

Flukes. Tape worms.

Harder. — Disease of the thyroid gland (Goitre).
General weakness of the system and im-
poverished blood. Dropsy. General low
condition.

DISEASES OF SHEEP 367

Lameness. — Going on the knees. — Foot rot. Sore feet.

In the hind limbs.— Paralysis, due to brain disease.
Leaping motions- — Louping ill. Myelitis. Congestion of the brain.
Lips sore.— Aphtha, injury by stubble pasturing. Fevers. Effects

of Porcupine grass. (Stipa Spartea.) Fevers.
Loco.— Insanity from eating crazy weed (Astragalus Mollismus-or

Oxytropis Lambert!) .
Liver, spotted. — Congestion. Inflammation. Flukes and other

worms, in gall bladder and ducts.

Milt, soft, black and swollen. — Anthrax, Splenic fever.
Moving in circles or straight ahead with head up. — Cysts of the

bladder — tape worm (Coenurus cerebralis).
Neck stiff. — Myelitis. Rheumatism.

Paralysis. — Disease of the brain. Myelitis. Injury to spinal cord.
Loco weeds. Ergot from smutty grass, corn fodder, or
grain. Indigestion. Exposure to cold rain. In young lambs
inherited.

Pawing. — Indigestion. Impaction of stomach.
Scours, white in lambs. — Indigestion. Effects of diseases of the

bowels or liver in ewes.

Shivering. — Fevers. Anthrax. Splenic fever.
Skin, Pale. — Thread worms in throat.

Red. — Congestion. First indication of scab.

Yellow. — Disease of liver. Fluke disease. Disease of liver by

tape worms.
Slobbering. — Indigestion. Sore mouth. Diseased teeth. Poisoning

by laurel or loco weeds.

Sneezing. — Grubs in head. Influenza: Catari'h.
Snorting. — Grub in head-

Spasmodic motions. — Meningitis. Hydatids in brain.
Stiffness of limbs and neck. — Rheumatism. Myelitis.
Staggering. — Inflammation of the brain. Poisoning by laurel and

loco weeds. Cysts of tape worms in the brain.
Stomach bloated. — Hoven or bloating. Indigestion. Poisoning.
Stupor. — Disease of brain — the last and hopeless stage. Epi-
zootic influenza. Last stage of diseases of the lungs and
pleuro-pneumonia.

Teeth grating. — Indigestion. Fluke disease. Poisoning.
Throat glands swollen. — Dropsy. Disease of the thyroid gland, es-
pecially prevalent in lambs.
Soft swelling. — Liver disease. Dropsy. Tape and other

worms producing general debility. Fluke disease-
Trembling. — Disease of the brain. Myelitis. Poisoning, especially

by laurel.

Urine, red. — Disease of the bladder, by gravel or stone, or inflam-
mation.

Disease of the liver a result of indigestion.
Disease of the kidneys.
Dark red. — Anthrax. Splenic fever.
Vulva, red. — Indication of heat in ewes.

Red and swollen. — Premonitory of abortion.

368 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

Wool, falling.— Scab. Congestion of the skin. Law condition of
the system.

Harsh and dry. — Disease of the skin. Fevers.

Biting of, by sheep. — Ticks, lice, irritation of skin by indi-
gestion. Effects of various worms.

- It is not a safe way to treat a sheep from any one of these
symptoms alone. There are several of them associated with every
disease mentioned. It is therefore indispensable that every indica-
tion is to be carefully noted, and when the several symptoms agree
together the disease may then be safely diagnosed, and treated ac-
cordingly. The prognosis of any disease — that is, the expectation
of its course and end — may be gathered from the urgency of the
various symptoms and the association of them in each special
case. It is to be always considered that sheep are the lowest or-
ganized of all the domestic animals- This is doubtless due to the
fact that from the very first association of this animal with man-
kind, and its consequent dependence on the shepherd for its
safety and care, it has become so weakened in constitution as to
be the least of all the domesticated animals to resist misfortune.
And hence the most watchful care of the shepherd is called for
to avoid misfortune, and to watch carefully for the first indica-
tion of it, and then treat without delay and while treatment may
be effective.

LIST OF REMEDIES AND USES, SPECIALLY FOR SHEEP.

Aconite, Tincture of. — Sedative for inflammations. Sheep 3 to 5

drops.
Ammonia, Carbonate. — Stimulant, anti-spasmodic, indigestion.

i to 1 dram.

Areca nut, vermifuge.— For worms in dogs. | to 1 dram.
Belladonna, extract- — Anti-spasmodic. For spasmodic affections.

Myelitis. Paraplegia. ^ dram.

Bismuth, sub-nitrate.— Soothes irritation of stomach. Catarrh.
Bromide Potassium. — Nerve sedative. Myelitis. Inflammation of

brain. J dram.
Camphor. — Sedative. — Anti-spasmodic. Myelitis. Impaction of

stomach. Diarrhea. Dysentery. 1 scruple.
Castor oil. — Purgative. — Worms. 3 to 4 ounces.
Copper sulphate. — Astringent. Wounds, sores, cuts. In solution

or powder.
Digitalis. — Dandelion extract. — Diuretic. Sedative. Fevers. 10

grains.
Gentian.— Tonic. Want of appetite. Weakness. Worms. 1 to 2

drams.

Ginger. — Stimulant. Tonic. Indisrestion. (With gentian) | ounce.
Iodine. — Alterative. Diuretic. Diseases of kidneys.
Iodide of Potassium. — Alterative. Diuretic. 3 scruples.
Iron sulphate. — Astrinerent. Tonic. Checks bleeding. Wounds.

Indigestion. With gentian.

DISEASES OF SHEEP. 369

Laudanum. — Sedative. Anti-spasmodic. Myelitis. 2 drams.

Linseed oil. — Purgative. \ pint- Checks dysentery. 2 ounces.

Magnesia sulphate. — Epsom salts. — Purgative. Cooling. Indiges-
tion. Fevers. Constipation. 4 ounces. For diarrhea \ dose.

Nux vomica. — Nerve stimulant. Hydro-Rachitis. Myelitis. Par-
alysis. 5 to 10 grains.

Podophyllin. — Mandrake. — Puigative. Diorders of liver. 15 grains.

Potassa chlorate. --Stimulant. Anti-septic. Cooling. Fevers.
Black leg. 30 grains.

Soda chloride. — Salt- — Tonic. Vermifuge. Indigestion. \ ounce.

Soda, Hyposulphite. — Alterative. Disinfectant. Black leg. 4
drams.

San ton ine. — Vermifuge. Stomach worms. 2 to 4 drams.

Spanish fly. — Cantharides. — Stimulant. Diuretic. Stimulant for
ewes in season. 1 to 2 grains.

Sulphur.— Promotes perspiration. Laxative. 1 to 2 ounces.

Tar. — Anti-septic. Tonic. For wounds. \ ounce.

Turpentine. — Anti-spasmodic. Diuretic. Myelitis. Bloating. C ;ld*.
1 to 2 drams.

Turpentine. — Vermifuge. Stomach, lung and other worms. 4
drams.

It is to be carefully noted that the sheep is the lowest organ-
ized of all domestic animals as to its nervous system. No other
animal so soon submits to misfortune and fails to rally from a
depressed condition. It is therefore necessary to study carefully
the various symptoms present in any case of disease, and consider
whether a sedative or stimulant is called for. The latter is re-
quired when great weakness and prostration call for it. and in
oases in which, otherwise sedatives are injurious. Generally treat-
ment is needed at intervals of six hours, to be repeated if not
then effective. For lambs from 6 months to a year old the doses
.should be reduced to one-half those required by a full grown sheep.
Sedatives allay and lessen excitement, in which the action of th«
nervous system is excessive. This class of remedies depress, stimu-
lants excite, nervous action. Tonics strengthen the vital functions

ERRATA.

Page 76, fifteenth line from bottom, read hardy for hairy.
134, fourth line from bottom, read only for easy.
174, second line from bottom, read fed 19 lb*.

;i70 THE DOMESTIC SHEEP.

PLAN OF SHEEP BARN, YARDS AND SHEDS,
ADAPTED TO THE SOUTH.

Our illustration pictures a range of buildings and yards-
well adapted to the climate of the South for sheltering
and feeding large flocks of sheep. The main barn, A, is

drawn to scale representing it one hundred and fifty feel
long and twenty-five wide. The posts are sixteen feet high,
giving ample space above the basement shed for the storage
of fodder. At the end of this barn, cellars, D, are con-
structed for the storage of roots. The sheds, B B. are

CANADIAN SHEEPFOLD.

37]

one hundred feet long and Lave only eight foot posts,
with no storage room above. At the ends of these
sheds are hospitals, C C, with yards indicated by the
amine teeth,bre ak scab, brand, etc.; 2,000 is a usual day's
light lines in front. The outside fence, E E, is made
very high and strong to withstand heavy winds, and
boarded tight. An evergreen screen should be planted
on the outside of this. The interior fences are of
light paling, and are intended merely to divide the flocks.

Water troughs are placed iu the
line of interior fences, so as'
to be accessible from all the
yards. There are four yards
in the enclosure besides those
attached to the hospitals, and
by opening a twelve foot gate
at the entrance a flock may J»e
directed into any one. An es-
tablishment 'of these dimen-
sions is supposed to be suffi-
cient to accommodate a flock
of twelve hundred, in a mild
climate, and can be con-
structed at a comparatively
small cost.

CANADIAN SHEEPFOLD.

Our illustration shows a
convenient and easily con-
tructed sheepfold, suitable for
small flocks. It is in use iu
Canada and the construction
can readily be seen by refer-
ence to the engraving. The
hurdles are of white pine 4x4
and l^xl1/^ inches. The rape
which the sheep fed off (3V->
acres) kept thirty-five sheep
seven weeks, with a pint of
oats per head per diem.

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