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Fig. 1. — Physical Features of North America. — (After Tarr).
The Prairie Provinces lie between the Rocky Mountains on the West
ami Cue Hudson's Bay and Groat Lakes on the I

DRY FARMING

IN

WESTERN CANADA

BY

JOHN BRACKEN

President, Manitoba Agricultural College

formerly

Professor of Field Husbandry,

University of Saskatchewan

THE GRAIN GROWERS' GUIDE. LIMITED
WINNIPEG, CANADA
11)21

Copyright, Canada. 1921
By THE GRAIN GROWERS' GUIDE, LIMITED

INTRODUCTION.

It is only a comparatively few years since the vast
plains which now comprise the prairie provinces of
Canada were inhabited by Indians and buffalo. Within
the past generation this country has been settled by over
200,000 farmers. With the exception of those who came
from adjoining districts immediately south of the inter-
national boundary these farmers have had to face con-
ditions that were entirely new to them. The farm prac-
tices to which they were accustomed were altogether
different from those required by the soil and climate of
the western plains. There has been, therefore, a strong
demand for information as to the best kinds of grain
and other crops to grow and the best system of cultiva-
tion under which to grow them.

Among the experimenters and teachers who have done
such splendid work in discovering and making known the
besl farm practices for the Canadian west Professor
Bracken lias taken a place in the front rank. For ten
years before his appointment to the position of President
of the Manitoba Agricultural College he was Professor
of Field Husbandry at the College of Agriculture, Uni-
versity of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon. The plan of the
experimental farm at that institution, one of the most
comprehensive and scientific on the continent, was
devised by him. The results obtained from his own
experiments, and the experiments at other stations both
in Canada and the United States, together with the

v.

vi. INTRODUCTION

■ xperience of successful Great Plains farmers, have been
'', awn upon to furnish the material for Crop Production
in Western Canada, published last year, and Dry Farm-
ing in Western Canada. The two books furnish a reliable
guide to success in the production of field crops under
Great Plains conditions.

The Publishers.
Winnipeg:, January, 1921.,

PREFACE.

When the manuscript for' "Crop Production in West-
ern Canada" was first prepared it included not only the
chapters relating to Crops and Cropping Practices which
appear in it, but also several others dealing with the soil
and its management under Western conditions. When
it was discovered that the whole would make a book con-
taining nearly 800 pages, it was considered inadvisable
to publish it in one volume. Accordingly the material
was divided and that having to do directly with crops
was published in 1919 under the title referred to. The
part which treats of the soil and its management appears
in this volume.

The substance of the different chapters of the book is
drawn from lectures and addresses delivered either at
the University of Saskatchewan or at Agricultural Meet-
ings at different places in Western Canada or the
Western States during the past ten years. For the
contributed portions the author is very greatly indebted
to Professor Hansen of the University of Saskatchewan
for the chapter on "The Soil"; to W. H. Fairfield,
Superintendent of the Experimental Farm, Lethbridge,
Alta., for that on "Irrigation" and to ten of the leading
agronomists of the Great Plains Region of Canada and
the United States for that on "Lessons from Experience".
He is also indebted to the Canadian and United States
Departments of Agriculture, to many State Experiment
Stations, several Dominion Experimental Farms, all of

viii. PREFACE

the Western Provincial Departments of Agriculture and
the Dominion Meteorological Service for date or illustra-
tions used, or for assistance given in the preparation of
aanuscript. To the many private individuals who
in one way or another have been of assistance, his thanks
are also due.

The many imperfections of the book are known full
well to the writer. It is being published not because
it contains the last word on successful farm practice in
the west, bu1 rather because it presents under one cover
a more or less complete statement of our present know-
ledge concerning the methods of producing crops at a
profit under relatively dry conditions. It is hoped that
the book may be found of some value to all farmers and
students who are interested in the agricultural problems
of the Prairie Provinces.

J. B.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER I.

The Development of Dry Farming 1

1. Dry Farming Defined. — 2. History of Dry Farming.
— 3. Where Dry Farming Applies.

CHAPTER II.

The Climate of Western Canada in its Relation to Crop

Production 11

4. Climatic Conditions the Chief Causes of Low Yields. —

5. The Factors of Climate. — 6. Importance of Precipi-
tation.— 7. Amount of Precipitation per Year.— 8.
Geographic Distribution of Precipitation. — 9. Monthly

Distribution of Precipitation 10. The Form in which

the Precipitation Occurs. — 11. Wide Variations from the
Average Precipitation. — 12. Evaporation. — 13. Dry and
Wet Years at Saskatoon. — 14. Temperature Necessary
for Germination and Growth. — 15. The Measure of the
Heat Supply. — lfi. The Temperature Zones of Canada.
— 17. Spring and Fall Frosts in Western Canada. — 18.
Frost Resistance of Different Crops. — 19. The Average
Temperature of the Growing Period. — 20. The Total
Heat Received During the Period of Growth. — 21. Wind
Velocity.— 22. The Chinook Wind.— 23. Humidity of the
Wind. — 24. Wind Direction. — 25. Atmospheric Humid-
ity.— 2<>. Long Hours of Sunlight in the Growing Season.
— 26a. The Effect of Latitude and Altitude on Tempera-
ture.— 2(fb. The Effects of Forests on Climate.

CHAPTER III.

The Soil 37

(/>// Roy Hansen M. >s'. Professor of Soils, University of
Saskatchewan, Saskatoon.). 27. The Role of the Soil.
^History and Physical Properties). — 28. Origin. — 29.
Soil Classification.— 30. Soil Types.- 31. Physical Pro-
perties of Soils.— 32. Dry-Farming and Soil Physics.
(Sail Fertility or Chemistry). — 33. The Food of Plants.

ix.

x. CONTENTS

34. The Essentia] Elements. 35. The Essential Ele-
ments and Saskatchewan Soils. — 36. Average Saskatche-
wan Soil vs. Other Soils. :!7. Organic Matter and Soil
Fertility. — 38. Functions of Organic Matter.^-39. Dosses
of Organic .Matter in the Soil. — 40. The Rothamsted Ex-
periments on Soil-Fertility. — tl. Illinois Experiment. —
12. Soil Acidity and Liming tihe Land. — 43. Crop Rota-
tions and Soil Fertility. (The Soil a Living Mass). H.
Importance of Micro-organisms in the Soil. 45. The
Soil a Living Mass. — 16. Functions of the Bacteria in
the Soil.— 47. Preparation of Available Plant-food.— 48.
The Nitrogen Cycle.— 49. Tin- Mineral Plaid Food Ele-
ments.- 50. Parasitism (disease). -51. Nitrogen Fixa-
tion by Leguminous Plants. (The Factors <•/ Soil Fertil-
ity).—52. The Measure of Fertility.

. CHAPTER IV.

The Moisture Problem 78

53. Storing Moisture in the Soil. 54. Conserving Mois-
ture in the Soil. 55. Keeping Soil Moisture Available. —
56. The Efficient Utilization of Soil Moisture. 57. Soil
Fertility and Soil Moisture.

CHAPTER V.

Dry Farm Crops and Cropping Practices 89

58. Drought Resistant Crops.— 59. Durum Wheat. — 60.
Winter Rye. -61. Spring Rye. 62. Flax 63. L'wo-
Row Barley, fit. Emmer. — 65. Early Oats. iiii. Grasses

for Hay and Pasture. 67. Alfalfa.— US. Millet.— 69.
Sweet (lover. — 70. Rape.— 71. Corn. 72. Sunflowers. —
;:;. Suitable Crop Management Practices. 7 1. The Time
to Sou. ',.',. The Amount to Sow. 7<i. Sow into the
Moisture. 77. Non-Shattering Varieties. 78. Short \ -.
Long Straw.

CHAPTER VI

The Principles of Tillage 104

in. The Chief Functions of Tillage. 80. Objections to
Excessive Tillage. 81. implements of Tillage. 82. The
Function of the Plow. 83. The Disk Plow. 84. Coulters.
(Soil Looseners). 85. Cultivators. — sii. Disk Harrows.
87. Drag or Smoothing Harrows. (Soil Firmers). 88.
Purpose of Soil Firmers. 89. Drills as Tillage Machines.
90. Press Drills.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER VII.

Breaking the Virgin Prairie 121

91. Why We Till Prairie Sod.— 92. How Moisture is
Stored and Conserved in New Land. — 93. Killing the
Native Prairie Plants. — 94. Preparation of the Seed Bed.
— 95. Some Desirable Practices in "Breaking" Prairie
Sod. — 96. Break Early to Obtain Maximum Yields. — 97.
Plow all the Land.— 98. Turn the Furrow Over Flat.—
99. Pack or Plank after Breaking. — 100. Disc Deep Break-
ing as soon as Possible after it can be done without Turn-
ing up Sods. — 101. Cultivate Sufficiently during the
Season to Prevent the Growth of Native Plants. — 102.
To Control Creeping-Rooted Grasses Break Early and
Backset.— 103. Don't Backset if Sod has not Rotted —
104. Land Intended to be Backset Should be Broken
Shallow; that not to be Backset, Deeper. — 105. Harrow
and Pack Backsetting. — 106. "Scrub" Land must be
Treated Somewhat Differently. — 107. Leave Breaking
Uncropped until the Following Season. — 108. The "Break-
ing" up of Cultivated Grass Land.

CHAPTER VIII.

Preparing Park Belt Land for its First Crop - - - - 136

109. Location and Extent. — 110. General Characteristics.
— 111. Climatic Conditions — 112. Character of Vegeta-
tion.— 113. Methods of Removing "Scrub". — 114. Plowing
Scrub Land.— 115. Surface Tillage After Plowing.— 116.
Cost of "Scrubbing" and "Breaking".— 117. The Choice
of the First and Subsequent Crops.— 118. The Best Sys-
tem of Farming.

CHAPTER IX.

The Tillage of Stubble Land 146

119. The Causes of Low Yields.— 120. The Control of
Soil Moisture. — 121. The Control of Weeds, Grasses and
Shrubs.— 122. Securing a Good Seed Bed.— 123. Impor-
tance of "Available" Plant Food.— 124. The Stubble— a
Nuisance, Yet Important. — 125. Subsoil Moisture Must
be kept Available to Plant Roots. — 126. Some Common
Methods of Preparing Stubble Land for a Crop. — 127.
Results of Some Tillage Experiments at the University
of Saskatchewan. — 128. The Necessity for Plowing Grass]
Stubble.— 129. The Desirability of "Working Down"
Plowed Land as soon as Possible after Plowing. — 130.
The Furrow Slice should be Placed Firmly Against the

xii. CONTENTS

Furrow Bottom.— 131. Burning Stubble is Permanently
Wasteful of Soil Fertility, bul often Immediately Profit-
able. 132. Surface Cultivation Sometimes Preferable to
Plowing. 133. Karl\ Fall Preferable to Late Fall Culti-
>n. — 134. Avoid Working Tight (lay Soils when too
Wet. — 135. Harrow the GrowingCrop only when there is
Cause for so Doing. — 13(5. General Observations on Plow-
ing Stubble Land.- 137. The importance of "Net" Re-
turns.

CHAPTER X.

I he Summer Fallow 167

L38. The Function of the Fallow.— 139. The Practices
of Fallowing. — 140. Objections to Fallowing. — 141. De-
fence of Fallowing. — 142. General ((inclusions.

CHAPTER X 1 .

Crop Rotations 182

113. What a Crop Rotation is. 111. The World's BesH
Fvidence on Rotations. L45. Results of Tests at Saska-
toon and Brandon. — I Hi. Advantages of Suitable Crop
Rotations. — 147. Requirements of Rotations in Western
Canada. 148. Difficulties in Establishing Good R
lions in the West. L49. Classes of Crops used in Ro
tations. — 1-50. Planning a Rotation. — 151. Some Well
Known Rotations'. 152. notations now used in the West.
L53. Rotation Tests at Brandon.- lot. Ivpical drain
Fanning Rotations. |.v>. A Well Balanced Rotation. —
4.->fi. The .Most Profitable Rotation at Brandon, i".:.
Rotations without Corn.- 15s. A Rotation for a Dairj >>r
Stock Farm. 159. Observations on Rotation Tests at
Brandon.— 160. Mixed Farming Rotations a1 L/acombe.
161. Criticisms of these Rotations. 162. A Rotation
with iii.ii]} Advantages. 163. Rotations with Sweet
Clover. 164. An Adjustable Rotation. — 165. Crop Ro-
tations for Special Condit ions. 166. The Fffcct of Rota-
tions on Soil Fertility. 167. General Conclusions Re-
garding notations.

CHAPTER XII.

Weeds and Their Control 211

168. Whj Weeds are Harmful. Ki!>. Some Good points

About Weeds. 170. Principles of Weed Control. 171.

identification of Weeds and Weed Seeds. L72. Duration

of the Growth of Weeds. i ?:{. Habits of Rool Growth
and Time of Seeding. L74. How Weeds Spread. 175.
llou to Prevent! Weeds from Developing .Seeds. 176,

CONTEXTS xiii.

How to Kill Perennial Weeds. — 177. How to Prevent
the Introduction of Weeds to the Farm. — 178. Means at
Man's Disposal for Controlling Weeds. — 179. The Con-
trol of Annual Weeds. — 180. The Control of Winter An-
nual and Biennial Weeds. — 181. The Control of Perennial
Weeds. — 182. Poisonous or Otherwise Injurious Weeds.

CHAPTER XIII.

Irrigation Farming in Western Canada 234

(By W. II. Fairfield, Superintendent, Experimental
Farm, Lethbridge, Alberta) — 183. History of Irrigation

in Western Canada. — 184. Methods of Irrigation. — 185.
Wild Flooding.— 186. The Furrow System.— 187. The
Bedding System.— 188. The "Check" System.— 189. The
Border System. — 190. Sub-Irrigation. — 191. Relative
Suitability of Various Crops under Irrigation. — 192. Ir-
rigating Timothy and Native Grasses. — 193. Alfalfa
under Irrigation. — 194. Grain Crops. 195. Potatoes. —

196. Other Crops, Including Trees.

CHAPTER XIV.

The Causes and Control of Low Yields 247

197. The Causes of Low Yields.— 198. Poor Seed.— 199.
Too Early or Too Late Seeding.— 200. Too Much or Too
Little Seed per Acre. — 201. Unsuitable Varieties. — 202.
Shattering. — 203. Late Breaking. — 204. Seeding on Break-
Lag Done the same Season. — 2<)5. Native Perennial
Plants in Stubble Fields.— 206. Plowing When the Soil
is Too Wet or Too Dry. — 207. Plowing Under Heavy
Stubble or Coarse Manure. 208. Too Late Plowing of
the Fallow.— 209. Weeds. —210. Insects.— 21L Plant
Diseases. — 212. Heavy Spring Frosts.— 213. Hail Storms.
—211. Hot Winds. 215. Dry Seasons.— 2 Hi. Fall Frosts.

CHAPTER XV.

The Management of Special Soils 264

( Drift ing Soils). 217. The Damage Caused by. Soil
Drifting'— 218. The Chief Factors Favoring Soil Drift-
ing.—219. The Chief Causes of Soil Drifting.— 220.
The Means Employed to Prevent Excessive Dam-
age.— 221. Increasing the Moisture Content.- 222.
Increasing the Organic Matter Content. 223. Modifying
the Structure of the Soil. 224. Growing Protecting
Crops. — 225. Perennials as Protecting Crops. 226. Win-
ter Rye Lessens Drifting. 227. Late Sown ()ats for
Soil Protection. — 228. Stubble as a Soil Protector.—

xiv. CONTEXTS

229. Corn Stubble Lessens Drifting.— 229a. Artificial
Protection. -230. Miscellaneous Practices and Sugges-
tions.—231. Conclusion. {Alkaline Soils). — 232. Why
Alkali is Harmful. — 233. The Reclamation of Alkali
Soils. — 234. The Use of Alkali-Resistant Crops. {Loose
Top Sails). — 235. How Loose Top Land is Broken.— 236.
The Crops Grown. — 237. Fallowing Loose Top Land
238. The Rotation Used. (-Han,! Out" Soil). 239.
The Management of Burnt Out Soils. — {Poor Soite). —
239a. The Value of Manure -239b. The Place of Com-
mercial Fertilizers. {Cold Soils). — 239c. Some Practices
of Northern Agriculture.

CHAPTER XVI

Lessons from Experience 2J)2

{Dry Farming in the Great Plains Region of tin United
Stales by /•-'. C. Chilcott, United States Department of
./ arii-all are.). -240. Summer Tillage- 241. Corn or Sor-
ghums vs. The Fallow. — 242. When Disking May be
Substituted for Plowing.- 243. The Use of the Lister
in the Fall. 244. How and When to Plow.— 245. The
Purpose of Plowing. — 245a. Green Manuring. 246.
Destruction of Weeds. 217. The Application of the Ca-
pillary Theory to Dry Farming Practices. — 248. Farm
Organization and Crop Rotations. {Dry Farming Prac-
tices in Kansas, by L. E. Call, Professor of Agronomy,
Agricultural College, Manhattan, Kansas). 249. The
Place of Sunimcr Tillage. — 250. Kansas Dry Farm Crops.
— 251. Crops that Mature Early.— 252. The Amount of
Seed to Sow. {Dry Farming in Nebraska, l>a W. W.
Burr, Professor of Agronomy, Agricultural Experiment
Station, Lincoln, Nebraska). 253. Summer Tillage. —
254. Crop Rotation. 255. Crop Adaptation. 256. Cul-
tural Practices. 257. The Farming Unit. 258. Live
Stock. 259. The Possibilities for Dry Farming. {Dry
Farming Practices in Smith Dakota, by Manley Champ-
lin. formerly Associate Professor of Agronomy, Brook-
ings, S.I).). 260. Summerfallowing. 261. Crop Rota-
tion. 262. Drought-Resistattl Crops. -{Dry Farming
Practices in North Dakota, by W. />'. Porter, Superinten-
dent of Demonstration Farms for North Dakota). 263.
Summer Tallage. 264. Stubble Land. 265. Grass Land.
266. Potations.- 267. The Pest Crops. 268. The Rate
of Seeding. 269. Weds. 270. Soil Drifting.— (Drj/
Farming in Montana, by Alfred Atkinson, President Moli-
lalia stati Collegi of Agriculture, formerly Professor of
Agronomy). 271. Limited Supplj of Moisture. 272.

CONTEXTS xv.

Early Maturing Crops. — 273. Light Seeding.. — (F>ry
Farming Practices in the Red River Valley, by T. J. Har-
rison, Professor of Field Husbandry, Manitoba Agricul-
tural Gollegej Winnipeg).- -274. The Place of the Bare
Summerfallow in the lied River Valley. — 275. Methods
of Fallowing. — 276. Substitutes for Summerfallow. — 277.
Preparation of Stubble Land for Crap. — 278. Prepara-
tion of Grass Land for Crop. — 279. Rotations. — 280. Im-
portance of Organic Matter in Soil. — 281. Crops. — 282.
Rate of Seeding. — 283. Dates of Seeding. — 284. Weeds,

Plant Diseases and Insects {Dry Farming in Western

Manitoba, by W. C. McKillican, Superintendent Experi-
mental Farm, Brandon, Man. Summerfallow.) — 285. Im-
portance of the Fallow. — 286. Methods of Fallowing. —
287. Dangers of Fallowing. — 288. Substitutes for Sum-
merfallow. (Rotations). — 289. Rotations now in use.
290. Improvements in Rotations. — 290a. Dry Farming
Crops. — (Dry Fannin;/ Practices in the Park Belt of Al-
berta, by G. H. Sutton, B.S.A.. Superintendent of Agri-
culture and Animal Industry, C.P.R., Calgary).— 291. The
Place of the Summerfalllow. — 292. Suitable Rotation for
the Park Belt.— 293. Corn vs. The Fallow.— 294. The
Preparation of Stubble Land for the Crop Following. —
295. Preparation of Grass Land for the Crop Following.
— 296. Organic Matter, Legumes and Soil. — 297. Best
Dry Farm Crops. — 298. Rates of Seeding in Central Al-
berta.—299. Weeds.— 300. Soil Drifting. — 301. Plowing.
(The Summerfallow in Southern Alberta, l>;i Janus Mur-
ray, B.S.A., Superintendent of Farms, Noble Foundation
Limited, Nobleford, Alberta).— 302. Climate.— 303. A
Fallow Considered Necessary. — 304. Summerfallow to
Control Weeds.— 305. Plow Summerfallow Early.— 306.
Controlling Weeds after Plowing. — 307. Fall Treatment
of Fallow.— 308. Hoe Drill Preferred.— 309. Two Im-
portant Points about Fallowing.

CHAPTER XVII.

The Problem of Crop Production 354

310. The Problem in a Nutshell.— 311. The First Part
of the Problem — that of G rowing Crops. — 312. Light and
Air Essential but of Little Practical Importance. — 313.
Frost Limits the Yield in Northern Climates. — 314. Water
in the Soil Determines the Yield in Dry Climates. !1").
Plant Food Materials, the Limiting Factor on Poor Soils.
— 316. The Importance of Good Seed. — 317. Some Funda-
mental Facts. 318. The Vital Part of the Problem— t ha t
of Profit. 319. Factors Affecting Profit.— 320. The Oosl

xvi. CONTEXTS

of Weeds.— 321. The Cost of Cnsecbs.— 322. The Loss
from Rust.— 323. The Amount Hail Takes from the Pro-
fits.—324. The .Moral. 325. The Cost of Production
and the Selling Price.— 326. The State's Third of the Prob-
lem— that of a Permanent Agriculture. — 327. Factors
that Affect Permanence. — 328. The Means at Man's Dis-
posal for Controlling or Influencing the Factors of
Growth, Profit and Permanence. — 329. The Choice of
Suitable Crops.— 330. Suitable Crop Management Prac-
tices.—331, The Improvement of Crops.- 332. Irriga-
tion and Drainage. — .333. Tillage. — 331. Crop Rotations.
335. Crop Rotations and Live Stock. — 33(5. Business
Farming. — 337. Legumes and Inoculation. 338. The
Use of Manures. 339. In Conclusion.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Page

1. Physical Features of North America Frontispieei

2. Precipitation Zones of the World - - - - 3

3. Map Showing' the Northern Limits of some

crops and trees --------- 7

4. Nature's May of the Prairie Provinces - - 8

5. Precipitation Zones in Canada ----- 14

6. Average Annual Precipitation ----- IT)

7. Monthly Distribution of Precipitation in

Canada ------------ 10

8. Monthly Distribution of Precipitation at

Different Representative Points - - - - 17

9. Precipitation at Swift Current, Sask. - - 18

10. Average Depth of Snowfall in Western

Canada ------------ 19

11. Variations from Normal Precipitation - 22

12. Temperature Zones of Canada ----- 26

13. Average Temperature by Months at Repre-

sentative Points --------- 27

14. Frost Free Period at Different Points - - l>:i

1o. Temperature Zones of Canada 31

Ki. Hours of Possible Sunshine Daily in Summer 3 >

17. Hock Weathering --------- 39

18. Soil Surface Map of Iowa - 42

PL Po1 Cultures - - - - - 47

20. Illinois Fertilizer Experiment 59

xvii.

XV111.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Page

21. Illinois Soil Experiment ------- 60

22. Illinois Soil Experiment ------- (31

23. Rothamstead Experiments ------ 63

24. Soil Bacteria - - - 69

25. Nodules on the Roots of Alfalfa ----- 72

26. Bacteria in Relation to Soil Building - - 74

27. Wheat Under Irrigation Near Strathmore,

Alberta - - 79

28. Hauling Alfalfa Grown Under Irrigation a1

Coaldale, Alberta - - 82

29. Well Tilled Field of Potatoes ----- 85

30. Sugar Beets Growing on Irrigated Land

North of Brooks, Alberta ----- 87

31. A View of a Portion of the Experimental

Farm at Brandon -------- 90

32. Winter Rye at Indian Head. Saskatchewan 92

33. Flax in Bloom in Southern Saskatchewan 94

34. Harvesting Corn at Brandon, Manitoba - 96

35. Cutting Sweel Clover at Saskatoon, Saskatch-

ewan ------------- 98

36. Sudan Grass at the Manitoba Agricultural

College ----------- 100

•'!(i;i. Harvesting Shorl Wheal with a Header in

Southern Alberta -------- 102

37. Types of Bottoms - - - 107

37a. The Disc Plow ---------- 108

37b. Subsoil Attachment on Mouldboard Plow L09

37c. 'Types of Coulters --------- L10

38. The Plow and Plowing - ------- ill

39. Types of Cultivators - 113

40. Types of Disc Harrow - - - 115

41. Types of 1 1 a. tows --------- 1 Hi

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xix.

Page

42. Types of Soil Firmers ------- 117

43. Types of Drills - - - - - 119

44. Breaking with Tractor 122

45. Breaking with Oxen -------- 124

46. June Breaking Pays -------- 125

47. Improper Breaking for Dry Areas - - - 127

48. Improper Breaking After Disking - - - 129

49. In Breaking the Furrow Slice Should be

Turned over Flat -------- 130

50. A Good Job of Breaking on Medium Light

Soil ------------- 132

51. Breaking Scrub Land in Manitoba - - - 133

52. Typical Scene in the Park Belt of Manitoba 137

53. Removing Small Trees with Tractor - - - 138

54. Pulling Trees with Tractor - ----- 139

55. Scrub Cutter ----------- 140

56. Plowing and Disking Burned-over Scrub

Land ------------- 141

57. How Scrub Land Looks After Plowing - - 142

58. Removing Roots and Brush - - - - - - 144

59. Harvesting Wheat near High River, Alberta 147

60. Effect of Disking Stubble Land - - - - 150

61. Effect of Disking Before Plowing - - - - 152

62. Typical Scene at a Plowing Match - - - 154

63. Tractor Plowing on Stubble Land - - - 156

64. Horses Plowing on Stubble Land - - - 159

65. Summary of Tests --------- 164

66. Cultivating Corn, Gladstone, Man. - - - 168

67. Potatoes Under Irrigation North of Brooks,

Alberta ------------ 171

68. Harvesting Mangels in Manitoba - - - - 17:;

69. Sheep Pasturing m Rape - - - - - - 175

ex. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Page

70. ("racks in Heavy Land - - - - - - - 177

71. Summary of Tillage Tests on Fallow Land at.

Saskatoon ----------- 180

72. Wheat After Alfalfa on Brandon Experi-

mental Farm - - - - - 183

73. Summary of Rotation Tests ai Saskatoon 188

74. Oats on Irrigated Alfalfa Sod ----- 192

75. Cattle Wintering Outside, Protected only by

the Trees ----------- 209

7(1. Wild Oats ------------ 214

77. Tumbling .Mustard Piling up agaiusi a Pence 217

78. Blue Burr ------------ 223

7!). Dandelion ------------ 227

80. Quack Grass ----------- 22!)

81. Canadian Thistle --------- 231

82. Float Levelling Land for the Border System

of Irrigation - - - - 235

83. Making Borders fur Border System of Irriga-

tion ------------- 237

84. The "V Ditcher at Work ------ 2:is

85. Irrigator ;it Work --------- 240

86. Irrigating Wheat, Strathmore, Alberta - - 242
s7. Furrow System of Irrigation ----- 244

88. Map Showing Location of Irrigation Projects

Under Way or Projected ----- 245

89. Seeding and Harrowing on a Large Grain

Farm in Manitoba -------- 24!)

90. Manitoba Harvest Scene ------- 2".::

9JL. Threshing Wheal in Manitoba 258

92. Winter Rye Lessens Soil Drifting - - 7 - 270

93. Rotary Rod Cultivator ------- 27:5

!)4. Hauling Manure with a Spreader - - - - 2s |

LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS xxi.

Page

95. Cereal Test Plots at Beaver Lodge, Grande

Prairie District, Northern Alberta - - 280

96. Wheat Field at Fort Vermilion, Peace River 288

97. The Windstorm at its Height - - - - 290
97b. After the "Windstorm -------- 290

98. Harvesting Winter Wheat with a Header in

Kansas -------- ----- 297

99. Black Amber Sorghum in Kansas - - - - 306

100. Disking Behind the Binder to Conserve

Moisture in Nebraska ------- 309

101. Sweet Clover ----------- 314

102. Sunflowers for Silage, Agricultural College,

Winnipeg ------------ 332

103. Cutting Western Rye Crass and Alfalfa at

Brandon Experimental Farm - - - - 338

104. Alsike Clover and Timothy, Lacombe, Alta. 343

105. Banner Oats on the Noble Farms in Southern

Alberta in 1915 --------- 351

105a. Combined Harvester and Thresher - - - 353

106. Cattle on the Range in Northern Saskat-

chewan ------------ 356

107. Bacon Hogs in the Making 360

L08. Manitoba Farm Yard Scene, in Winter - 364

109. Dairy Herd in Bed River ------ 368

110. Precipitation Zones of the three Prairie

Provinces - - - - 380

111. Precipitation Record, Winnipeg, Man. - - 381
111*. Precipitation Record, Qu'Appelle, Sask. - - 382

113. Precipitation Record. Battleford, Sask. - - 383

114. Precipitation Record, Medicine Hat. Alberta 384

115. Precipitation Record, Calgary, Alberta - :'>>">

116. Precipitation Record. Edmonton, Alberta - 386

DRY FARMING

IN

WESTERN CANADA

Dry Farming in Western
Canada

CHAPTER I.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF DRY FARMING

Previous to fifty years ago lands having less than 20
inches of precipitation per year were generally con-
sidered unfit for crop production, except where artifi-
cially watered at great cost by irrigation ditches. "Within
the memory of men now living, the practice of crop
growing in semi-arid regions, — those receiving between
10 and 20 inches of rainfall per year — has developed,
until at present much of the so-called "dry land" of
earlier days is in many countries being successfully crop-
ped as a result of the intelligent application of success-
ful dry farming practices.

One quarter of the earth's surface receives less than 10
inches of precipitation annually. Rather more than one-
quarter receives from 10 to 20 inches. On about one-
fifth of the land area between 20 and 40 inches falls and
on one-fifth between 40 and 80 inches, while the balance,
about 5 per cent, of the total, has a precipitation of over
80 inches per year. The climate of Western Canada falls

l

2 DRY FARMING

in the second class; judged by the rainfall it is, except
for some small areas, "semi-arid".

1. Dry Farming Defined. — Dry farming is a popular
term used to designate the methods of crop and soil
management found to be profitable in areas of light rain-
fall. The specific practices which together comprise the
system are not new, but the organization of them and
their intensive application in areas of low rainfall have
resulted within the last generation in giving to the
system the special name "dry farming". , This system
has accomplished much in the semi-arid regions of North
America, even though its most intelligent practice does
not make crops grow in the absence of rain. Dry farm-
ing is nothing more nor less than the employment of
common-sense methods of meeting the rainfall con-
ditions that exist by practices that have been shown to
result in increased yields or greater profit.

To those who have the inclination to search them out
the secrets of dry farming, if such its principles may be
called, are as an open page ; to others the attempt to farm
in areas having less than 15 inches of precipitation is
not likely to prove an easy road to wealth unless they
are fortunate enough to have successful neighbors whose
methods they may imitate. An understanding of its
principles combined with the will and experience neces-
sary to their application are fundamental necessities to
successful dry farm practice.

The factor that generally controls the yield on the
poor soils of humid climates is plant food; in northern
climates the absence of sufficient heat is frequently the
limiting factor; while in dry areas the thing that limits
the yield more frequently than any other is lack of suf-
ficient moisture. The more important practices of crop

THE DEVELOPMENT OF DRY FARMING 3

4 DRY FARMING

growing in humid regions relate to the maintenance or
increase of the supply of plant food in the soil; in north-
ern climates the chief consideration, at least in the grow-
ing of cereals, is to get them ripe before fall frost comes;
but in dry areas cropping practices are primarily con-
cerned with making the best possible use of the moisture
that falls.

The principles underlying crop production are the
same the world over, but the relative supply of plant
food, heat and moisture under different climatic and
soil conditions determines the relative importance of the
different farm practices that are commonly used in
growing crops. The supply of the factor that generally
limits the yield in any given region largely determines
the general trend of farm practice there, and, as in the
case of the semi-arid regions, sometimes gives to the
practices followed the name by which the system is com-
monly known.

2. History of Dry Farming. — Before the present dry
farming movement began, the Chinese on the dry lands
of Western China and the American Indians in the arid
Stales and in parts of Mexico are known to have grown
crops under very dry conditions. It is reported also
that crops were produced in the dry parts of northern
Africa without irrigation. The ancient civilization of
the Orient, the Euphrates Valley, Palestine and Egypt
developed in i\vy climates, but chiefly in areas where
irrigation was practised. It is probable thai many of
the dry Harming practices are very old, bul such meth-
ods as may have been used in early days must have been
largely lost to Americans, mosl of whom came from
humid countries.

The recent development in America does not appear

THE DEVELOPMENT OF DRY FARMING 5

to have been based on any knowledge of ancient methods.
Here the system grew up independently in each of four
different parts of the continent, (1) in the State of
Utah, in the southern part of the inter-mountain region,
(2) in western Kansas and Nebraska, the central part of
the great plains, (3) in Western Canada, in the northern
great plains, and (4) in California and Oregon. In each
of these areas a system of crop growing developed ap-
parently without knowledge of the methods followed in
any of the others, until the popular "dry farming" move-
ment was initiated within the last thirty years.

To the Mormons of Utah belongs the distinction of be-
ing the first civilized people to grow crops on "dry" land
in America. Upon their arrival in Salt Lake City in
1847 only irrigated land was used for crop growing, but
in the sixties it was observed that cultivated land above
the ditch was capable of producing fair crops without
irrigation. In the early eighties dry farming became an
established system in many of the unirrigated portions
of the state.

In California dry land cultivation commenced in the
late sixties. Two decades later the colonization of much
of the dry land of Nebraska and Kansas was attempted
without success, bnt in the late eighties more satisfactory
practices came into vogue and the tide of emigration
commenced to return to the abandoned homesteads of
the earlier era only to be turned eastward again by un-
favorable seasons in the middle nineties. It was about
this time that H. W. Campbell of "Dry Farm" fame
was getting his early experience in the dry pari of South
Dakota. The ideas he developed there and Later in Ne-
braska, where summer tillage frequently gave him Large-
ly increased yields, were organized and published at

6 DRY FARMING

various times during the first few years of the new
century.

In Western Canada the colonization that followed the
building of the Canadian Pacific Railway in the eighties
slowly spread itself westward from the Red River
Valley. The first settlements developed along the North
Dakota boundary, along the main line of the Canadian
Pacific Railway west to Qu'Appelle and Moose Jaw and
to the northwest in the Yorkton and Prince Albert dis-
tricts. It was in the Qu'Appelle Valley that the first
organized effort to introduce the summerfallow into gen-
eral farm practice originated. At the time of the last
Riel rebellion in 1885 most of the settlers hired out their
horses and oxen with the military transport, the financial
allowance being so much more than they hoped to get
from the cultivation of their land. A few remained be-
hind and after putting in what crop they could, com-
menced to plow the land that was still unsown. The fol-
lowing year, 188G, it was observed that the land which
had borne no crop the previous season, but which had
lain fallow, produced a much better crop than the oilier.
This marked the beginning of the summerfallow as a
recognized good farming practice in the central Can-
adian West. The methods of fallowing were later studied
and improved upon by Air. Angus McKay, who. from
1886 to 1917, was Superintendent of the Experimental
Farm at Indian Head.

It is interesting Pi note that while the farmers of
Saskatchewan have been given credit for being the first
to practise the fallow system extensively in Western ('an
ada, the benefits of this practice were not unknown
to the Selkirk settlers, the first while people to take up
land in the Canadian prairies.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF DRY FARMING 7

In "The Beginnings of Agriculture on the Prairies"
Dr. E. H. Oliver, who carefully examined the early re-
cords of the Selkirk settlers, states as follows : "After a
series of trials on the part of the settlers it was found
that fall plowing and fallow yielded the best crops.
Alexander Ross, who could secure only 52 bushels from
10 bushels by the spring plowing of a worn-out field, was
able, out of the second field, left fallow for two consecu-

Fig. 3. — Map Showing the Northern Limits of Some Crops and Trees.

tive years, during which it was plowed three times, to
secure no less than 280 bushels from 8 bushels sown." It
thus appears that while the practice of fallowing was
brought forcibly to the attention of the Saskatchewan
pioneers after the last Riel Rebellion and that it was not
until this time that it became a general practice, yet its
value was not unknown in the West as early as the mid-
dle of the last century.

In recent years the United States Department of Agri-
culture, the different State Experiment Stations, the Ex-

8 DRY FARMING

perimental Farms of the Canadian prairies and the Dry
Farming Congress have each studied the practices of
Dry Farming and each has contributed much towards
putting the system on a permanent basis. How much of
its success is due to the organization and application of
the facts of the science of crop production, and how
much to other factors Mich as the higher prices of the
last twenty years, and the contribution of the implement

Fig. -A — Nature's Map of the Prairie Provinces.
(Arrows indicate the Chinook belt.)

companies in the way of Labor saving machinery, history
alone w ill determine.

3. Where Dry Farming Applies. — One or more of the
established dry farming practices should be used wher-
ever moisture is the limiting factor in the yield of crops.
This condition, of course, obtains chiefly in the areas of
low rainfall, but may be found in other places where

THE DEVELOPMENT OF DRY FARMING 9

excessive evaporation or periods of drought or other
cause results iu moisture becoming the limiting factor.

The precipitation zones of Western Canada are indi-
cated in the following chapter. The boundaries of
these are based upon the limited rainfall and snowfall
data available. They will, no doubt, be modified and
more accurately located as more records bcome avail-
able, but in the meantime they furnish us with the ap-
proximate boundaries of the precipitation zones.

The areas of different evaporation cannot be mapped
owing to lack of data. The Chinook region, is, how-
ever, generally believed to have the greatest evapora-
tion, and the northeastern portion of the Prairie Pro-
vinces to have the least.

Judging from the precipitation records and the data
for spring and fall frosts as well as from the costly ex-
periences of farmers, it would appear that while several
of the practices of dry farming should be applied wher-
ever land is tilled, the extreme practices of this system
should be applied in Western Canada only in the
Chinook belt, in a modified form they should be used
in the prairie area outside the Chinook belt, while in a
still more modified form they may be used in eastern
Manitoba, the park belt and the wooded areas. (See
"Nature's Map of the Prairie Provinces").

It should perhaps be emphasized here that in grow-
ing grain crops in places where fall frosts are more to
be feared than drought, less attention should be given to
moisture storage and more to getting crops ripe. Both
moisture conservation and early maturity may be de-
sirable but where added moisture results in too late
ripening it must be sacrificed in areas where crops are
grown for their seeds. If forage crops only are to be

10 DRY FARMING

grown, or where grain crops are to be grown for hay,
dry farming may be practised even in the far North, be-
cause with these crops maturity is not an essential con-
dition for either a good yield or good quality.

CHAPTER II.

THE CLIMATE OF WESTERN CANADA

In Its Relation To Crop Production.

Under good systems of management three sets of
factors determine the productiveness of crops in any
region :

1st. The climatic conditions.
2nd. The soil conditions, and
3rd. The suitability of the crops grown.

4. Climatic Conditions the Chief Causes of Low Yields. —
In the year 1914 the small amount and the unfavorable
monthly distribution of precipitation caused a crop fail-
ure in the drier parts of Alberta and Saskatchewan. In
1907 and 1911 early fall frosts lowered the net profit
on the western grain crops to perilously near the zero
mark. In 1918 a July frost completely destroyed many
thousands of acres of wheat in the blossom stage in the
northern parts of the Prairie Provinces; while in 1916
a combination of high temperatures, high precipitation
and high atmospheric humidity in the months of June,
July and August provided very favorable conditions
for the development and spread of rust and thus lowered

li

i2 DRY FARMING

the value of the Western Canadian wheat crop between
fifty and one hundred million dollars.

The climatic conditions, at least in the first few years
of land cultivation, are among the chief causes of poor
crops, and unfortunately they are largely beyond man's
power to change. This, however, is but another reason
why our climate should be better understood. If we can-
not change its undesirable features perhaps we can avoid
them; if it has any favorable aspects perhaps we can
take greater advantage of them. A knowledge of the
essential facts concerning our climate should enable as
gradually to choose more suitable crops and to adapt our
rotation and management practices to the climatic condi-
tions that have been fixed for us and that cannot be
altered by us.

5. The Factors of Climate. — The term "climate" means
the sum total of the atmospheric conditions that make
up our "weather". Weal her is "the condition of the
atmosphere at a given time or over a limited period",
while climate is a more general term meaning the average
condition of the weather for the different seasons of the
year.

The chief determiners of climate are latitude, altitude
and relationship to large bodies of water, forests and
mountain ranges. It is sufficient here to say that ours
is a "continental" or inland climate, in a northern lati-
tude, and far removed from the moderating influences
of large bodies of water, but influenced considerably by
our nearness to the Rocky Mountains, and by gradual
variations in altitude raii.irin«j' from less than 1,000 feet
in the east and far north to more than 4,000 feet in the
upper parts of the foothills.

THE CLIMATE OF WESTERN CANADA 13

The chief factors of climate in order of their relative
importance to the agriculture of Western Canada are :

1. Precipitation: (a) amount per year; (b) geo-
graphic distribution; (c) monthly distribution; (d)
form (rain, snow, hail, dew) ; (e) variations from the
average; and (f) evaporation.

2. Temperature: (a) the number of days between
spring and fall frosts; (b) the average monthly tempera-
ture; (c) the range of annual and daily temperature.

3. Wind: (a) velocity; (b) temperature; (c) humid-
ity, and (d) direction.

4. Atmospheric humidity.

5. Light during the growing season.

6. Altitudes and forests.

6. Importance of Precipitation. — Moisture in the soil is
essential to crop production. It is needed both as a plant
food and as a carrier of plant food. Under semi-arid
conditions more than a quarter of a ton of water is taken
in through the roots and passed out through the leaves
in order to carry enough food into the plant to produce
one pound of "dry matter".

One acre inch of water weighs about 113 tons. As-
suming that 700 pounds* is the average requirement for
one pound of dry matter in wheat and, for easy calcula-
tion, that half the dry matter of wheat is in the stems
and leaves, it would take 1,400 pounds of water to pro-

*Recent investigations by Hopkins at Olds, Alberta, indicate that
much less than this amount is required on rich prairie soil in
liifrli latitudes.

14

DRY FARMING

duce one pound of threshed grain, or over one ton to
produce 1J/2 pounds of wheat. At this rate if it were
all conserved and utilized, one acre inch of water would
produce over 2T/2 bushels of wheat and 8 inches would
produce at least 20 bushels per acre.

Our precipitation is about twice 8 inches, or more,
and we crop our land only three times in four years, or

Fig. 5.- — Precipitation Zones in Canada.

Approximate boundaries based on Meteorological Service data. (See

Figure 110 for more recent detailed map).

twice in three years, yet our average yield equals less
than the amount eight inches of moisture might produce.
The loss through "run-off", seepage, evaporation and
transpiration through weeds accounts for this poor
showing.

From these figures it will be apparent that the pre-
cipitation in Western Canada is one of the chief limiting
factors in crop yields ; it suggests the desirability of more
efficient control of the limited amount of moisture that
falls.

EAST MAN
WEST MAN ■
EAST SASK- 5

SWALMRTA CALGARY-
NC ALBERTA lomohtoh.
MONTANA

THE CLIMATE OF WESTERN CANADA 15

7. Amount of Precipitation per Year. — The average
annual precipitation in representative districts in West-
ern Canada for 25 years as compared with that in some
other agricultural regions is indicated by the accompany-
ing chart.

These figures
show : —

(1) That the
precipitation in w&st-sask- a-rowo
Western Can- s.t alberta. «««,
ada is rather
more than in
some countries UTAH
where agricul- C0RN&CLT

ONTARIO, Toronto

LUre IS praCtlS- England. wm««Tr

eu, DUt IS Very pig 6 — Average Annual Precipitation. Points in

little over half wag™ ^"^XStiS? the

as much as in

some of the older agricultural regions from which our
settlers have come.

(2) That nearly the whole of the Canadian west re-
ceives more than 13 inches and less than 20 inches per
year.

(3) That the area of lowest precipitation is in south-
eastern Alberta and southwestern Saskatchewan, and
the supply increases in every direction from this centre.
The increase is greater both east and west than north.

The two chief inferences from the data are, — 1st.
that the storage, conservation and efficient utilization of
moisture are of very great importance, and 2nd, that
extreme practices of "dry farming" woidd seem de-
sirable in the drier areas.

16

DRY FARMING

8. Geographic Distribution of Precipitation. — The fig-
ures reported in the preceding section show that all
parts of Western Canada are not equally favored with
respect to precipitation. The precipitation map shows
the outlines of what may be called the moisture zones in
the three Prairie Provinces. While insufficient data are
available to insure that the boundaries represented are
absolutely correct, yet the map is at least a safe general
guide to the precipitation zones.

9. Monthly Distribution of Precipitation. — The total
precipitation per year is not a satisfactory measure of

Fig. 7. — Monthly Distribution of Precipitation in Canada.
Note relatively heavy rainfall in the summer months in the Prairie Pro-
vinces as compared with low precipitation at Vancouver fur the same
months and tho average distribution throughout the year at Toronto.

the moisture supply available for crops. The propor-
tion that falls in the season the crop is growing is of
far greater importance than the annua] amount. Tho
following table gives the average precipitation per
month for several years at a number of points.

THE CLIMATE OF WESTERN CANADA 17

TOBONTC

__ — | — .

-WINIHIPB3

i

/'

_v .

CALGAB
EDMON1

tY. _

"ON _

■ — A

!^\

=--="

REGINA

T

h)AT— /■

hedjcinc

^\

tPRINCE /

\\

Ik

if

— \^

v\~

— -\

><Sr

F~

PA^\

1 E

1

R\

t~ —

Fig. 8.

-Monthly Distribution of Precipitation at Different Representative
Points.

Table I. — The Average Mean Monthly Precipitation at Represen-
tative Points in the Prairie Provinces*

Jan.
At
.69
.56

.88
.37

.85

Station

Calgary

Edmonton . . .
.Medicine I! at
Prince Albert

Regina

Winnipeg ....

Station

Calgary 2.07

Edmonton 2.05

Medicine Hat 1.52

Prince Albert 2.40

Regina 1.86

Winnipeg 2.45

Aug.

Feb.

.59

.72

.58

.74

.29

.!)()

Sept.

1 .28
1.46

l.oo
1.49
1.19

•_'.o?

Mar.

.74

.73

.<il

.95

.49
1.15

Apr.
.63
.7!)
.61
.83
.73

1.48

May
2.72

1.78
1.78
1.53
1.98
2.35

Oct.
.49

.?•">
.51
.89
.70
1.7:$

Nov
.74
.74
.72

1.04
.48

1.10

June
3.32
3.10
2.67
2.63
3.17
3.58

Dec.

.55

.77
.49
.79
.36
.91

July
2.93
3.05
1.80
2.44
2.19
3.15

Year
17.13
16.63
12.75
16.61
14.11
21.69

* From Canada Year Book reporting Dominion Meteorological Ser-
vice data — Calgary 20 years. Edmonton 25, Prince Albert 20, and
Winnipeg 70 years. Regina data from "The Climate of Western
Canada" by Stupart.

18

DRY FARMING

THE CLIMATE OP WESTERN CANADA 1!)

From the figures in table I. a number of very im-
portant observations may be made. Among these are :

(1) From 50 to 60 per cent, of the total precipitation
falls in the four '•growing" months, May, June, July
and August. In the districts of heaviest precipitation
this is nearly as much as is received in the same period
in Ontario or in the midland counties of England.

p a L

Fig. 10.

-Average Depth of Snowfall in Western Canada.
— From Meteorological Service Reports.

(2) June and early July is the rainy season. This fact
is of considerabale importance in relation to the conserva-
tion of moisture by fallowing. It is the chief factor that
determines the best time to plow the fallow and the
character of the other necessary work that should be
done on it.

3 The spring an 1 autumn seasons are usually quite
dry. The former suggests the necessity of having the

20 DRY FARMING

seed bed in a good moist condition at seeding time,
while the dry autumn results (a) in unusually favor-
able conditions for harvesting, curing and threshing
grain crops, (b) in seriously lessening the amoum of
fall pasturage secured from perennial crops, and (c) in
lessening the value of fall plowing as a means of con-
serving moisture and causing weed seeds to germinate.

It is interesting to note also that, as compared with
either Toronto or Vancouver, (see map), while our total
precipitation is much less, the monthly "distribution"
is very favorable. In fact, with either the Vancouver or
Toronto type of distribution here, we should be unable
to produce crops profitably.

The monthly distribution and average annual snow-
fall at representative points is as follows : —

Tabu: II. — Monthly Distribution of. <<n<l Averagi Annua! Sn<nc-
fall.*

Station Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July

Calgarv 4-.fi" 6.3" 7.1" 3.8" 2,1"

Edmonton (i.O 7.3 6.3 3.5 1,1

.Medicine Hat (i.S 7.7 (i.O 2.5 .<>

Prince Albert 9.0 7.0 8.1 1.1- 1,1

Qu'Appelle 5.8 8.7 8.9 8.0 2.1

Winnipeg 8.7 9.4 8.8 4.3 1.3

Station Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dee. Year

Calgary 2.1" 2.7" 8.2" 6.4" 43.9"

Edmonton 4.2 5.6 6.5 3!).

Medicine Hat 5 1.1 7.(i 5.2 38.4

Prince Albert 1 2.5 8.8 6.7 18.0

Qu'Appelle 1.1 5.5 8.2 6.0 54.3

Winnipeg 1.3 9.8 7.6 51.2

The average depth of snow in the southern parts of all
three prairie provinces is clearly indicated in the snow
fad map. The melting of the snow is more frequent and

* From "The Climate of Canada", by Stupart.

THE CLIMATE OF WESTERN CANADA 21

the evaporation of the resulting moisture is greater in
the prairie areas than in the wooded and semi-wooded
parts, and the most frequent melting and greatest
evaporation occurs in the Chinook belt of southern Al-
berta and southwestern Saskatchewan.

10. The Form in which the Precipitation Occurs. —
Precipitation includes all the moisture that falls from
the clouds to the earth. Rainfall is the most important
but snowfall is also important. Hail and dew are other
forms.

Snowstorms occur earlier than November and later
than March, in fact, flurries may occur after tho crop
is up or before it is threshed. And snow that falls after
March and before November may interfere with farm
operations but it always functions as rain so far as the
farmer is concerned and is generally very much ap-
preciated by him when it comes in the spring.

The snowfall generally ranges between 30 inches and
60 inches per year, although less than 15 inches was re-
ported twice at Battleford and more than 80 indies
twice at Winnipeg. The area of lowest average snow-
fall runs in a northwesterly direction from southeastern
Saskatchewan to northeastern Alberta, including Areola,
Regina, Saskatoon and Battleford. The amount in-
creases rapidly in a northeasterly direction from this
area but less rapidly in a southwesterly direction until
western Alberta is reached. It has already been pointed
out that from 50 to 60 per cent, of the total precipita-
tion falls as rain in the May-August period, am! thai
April. September and October precipitation is chiefly
in the form of rain. In the prairie area any snow that
falls in October usually melts in a few days hut it has
been known to remain on the ground from the early

22

DRY FARMING

days of this month and to occasion considerable loss as
a result of interference with the harvest of potatoes and
roots as well as with the late threshing of cereals. The
possibility of snowfall at this time should also have an
important bearing on the plans of the stockman for
the feeding and management of his animals.

Hail storms
are most fre-
quent between
the middle of
July and the
middle of Au-
gust. They may
occur early in
June or as late
as the last of
September. As
to whether some
districts are
"subject" t J
hail and othei s
not, there is
much discussion
but little reli-
able data. Mos1
hail insurance
companies
charge slightly
higher premiums in some parts of the foothill country
and immediately east of it than in the central and
eastern parts. The possibility of hail suggests the ad-
visability of not putting all one's eggs in a single
basket, in other words of having some source of reve-

CALGARY

3

9

9

H

\

\

A

\

; j

/

.

I

QUAPPELLL

i a*

a

\

/

j

/

\

\

\

1

s

1

\

/

/

1

i

WINNIPEG

»■

e

\

\

1

I

*

e lines showing average precipitation tor s.yks

Fig. 11. — Variations from Normal Precipitation.
The heavy vertical lines indicate the average
precipitation at Calgary, Qu'Appelle and Winni-
peg. The horizontal lines show the actual pre-
cipitation by years. The crooked lines represent
the average precipitation in live-year periods and
illustrate the variations from the normal.

THE CLIMATE OF WESTERN CANADA 23

nue other than a grain crop. We cannot insure
against drought or frost but insurance of grain crops
against hail damage is possible and advisable for all who
cannot afford to lose a crop.

11. Wide Variations from the Average Precipitation.

— Three instances will serve to illustrate the fact that
wide variations from the average precipitation are likeh
to occur. The average at Calgary for 31 years is 16.54
inches but in one year (1892) it was only 7.91 inches
while in another (1902) it was 34.57 inches. The aver-
age for Qu'Appelle is 19.19 inches, but in 1886 it was
30.14 and 1916, 26.54. The average for Winnipeg for 31
years is 20.50, but in 1886 only 14.84 inches fell, while in
1899 the precipitation was 27.19 inches. Even the
five-year averages depart widely from the normal,
the variation appearing to be greatest in western Al-
berta and least in eastern Manitoba. Because of these
wide variations from normal precipitation a more
diversified system of cropping is likely to prove less
risky and therefore in- the long run is to be preferred.

12. Evaporation. — One of the chief reasons why crops
have suffered less from drought in the northern end of
the Great Plains region than in those parts of the south
where the precipitation is the same, is the lower evapor-
ation in this latitude. Higher yields are invariably
secured in the north than from the same precipitation
on equally good soils in more southern latitudes. The
amount of total precipitation is not as satisfactory in-
formation as the amount of the "net" precipitation,
which is the total less the evaporation from the soil. Un-
fortunately data on evaporation is not yet .available for
points in Western Canada.

24 DRY FARMING

13. Dry and Wet Years at Saskatoon. — The monthly
distribution of precipitation at Saskatoon for the two
years 1914 and 1915 and the average for the years 1904-
1914 are as follows :

Table III. — Monthly Distribution of Precipitation of Saskatoon in
1914 and 1915.

Tear Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Novi. Dec. Year

1914 .90 .40 .48 .40 1.65 1.88 .85 .41 1.44 2.60 1.05 .60 12.66

1915 .50 .30 .00 .12 1.31 1.96 2.62 1.23 1.31 .47 .48 .51 10.81
1904

to
1914 .67 .56 .74 .70 1.04 3.45 2.45 2.20 1.25 .77 .66 .68 15.17

The total precipitation while not very different in the
years 1914 and 1915 was rather greater in 1914, yet the
wheat yield was 15 bushels less in 1914 than in 1915.
The former is even yet remembered as the "dry" year,
while the latter was with one exception the best year we
have ever had. The difference in yields was due chiefly
to the unfavorable distribution of moisture in 1914.
Note that the "June" rains were but little more than
half as heavy as the average and that the October
and November rains which came after harvest were
nearly three times as heavy as the average. The heavy
crop in 1915 was probably due in Large measure to the
heavy precipitation in the fall of the preceding year.
This kepi the crop growing well through the early sum-
mer of 1915, and the timely and sufficient showers of
late summer "filled" the heads.

14. Temperature Necessary for Germination and Growth.
— The temperatures in degrees F. at which seeds
germinate and at which crops grow best is indicated by
the following data from Haberlandt: —

THE CLIMATE OP WESTERN CANADA 25

Table IV. — Temperature Necessary for Germination and Growth.*

Crop Germination Growth

Min. Opt. Max. Min. Opt. Mix.

Wheat 41 84 108 32-4.0 77-88 88-98

Barley 41 84 99

Beans 49 93 115 Peas

Corn 49 93 J15 40-51 88-98 98-111

Pumpkins 52 93 115 51-60 98-111 111-122

Melons 60-65 88-98

It will be observed that the grain crops and peas
will germinate and grow at relatively low temper-
atures, while corn demands more heat and truck crops,
like melons, still higher temperatures both for germina-
tion and for growth.

15. The Measure of the Heat Supply. — The chief source
of heat is the sun, although the stars and the interior of
the earth also slightly increase the surface temperatures.
The sun's heat reaches the earth by direct radiation, by
radiation and conduction from the atmosphere, and by
warm rains. The soil temperature is affected also by the
heat given off from decaying plant tissues. The meas-
ure of the heat supply is the temperature, and the
temperature data that chiefly concern the farmer are,
(1) the average and extreme dates of the last spring
and first fall frosts, (2) the average temperature of the
growing season, (3) the extremes of temperature in the
growing season, and (4) the total amount of heat re-
ceived during the growing season. The time and
severity of the last spring and first fall frosts fix the
length of the growing season for cereals and together
with the average temperature of the frost-free season
determine, approximately at least, the total units of

As quoted by Lyon, Pippin <S; Buckman in "Soils, their Proper-
ties and Management."

26

DRY FARMING

heat received from the sun during the growing season.
At the same time the extremes of low temperature with-
in the growing period limit the successful growth of the
warm weather crops such as corn, sorghum, Sudan
grass and certain of the heat-loving vegetables.

16. The Temperature Zones of Canada. — The average
temperatures for the year and for the summer for the
whole of Canada is shown in Pig. 12. From this it will

Fig. 12. — -Temperature Zones of Canada.

The shaded area represents the average summer temperature and the
unshaded portions the average temperature for the year. From Meteoro-
logical Reports.

be observed that southern Alberta and southwestern
Saskatchewan and the southern part of the Red River
Valley are the warmest for both the year and the sum-
mer, and that the temperature decreases in a north-
easterly or a northerly direction, but that in the direc-
tion of northern Alberta and northwestern Saskatch-
ewan the temperature decreases less rapidly than in
northern Manitoba.

THE CLIMATE OF WESTERN CANADA 27

17. Spring and Fall Frosts in Western Canada. — The
number of days between the last spring frost and the
first fall frost and the average date of each is perhaps
the most useful temperature information the grain

MEW 11NE MAT.

E.DMOWTC* 36

FTCHIPEVVYAN

Fig. 13. — Average Temperature by Months at Representative Points.

grower and truck farmer could obtain. The meteoro-
logical records show that southeastern Alberta, south-
western Saskatchewan (and the Red River valley of
Manitoba) have a longer frost-free period than any

28 DRV FARMING

other part of the West and that the number of
days between frosts decreases in all directions from
there but less rapidly in an easterly direction. The
driest part of the West is also the warmest. Too greal
heed cannot be given to these facts. They suggest that
extreme dry farming practices are applicable in the dry
warm area, but that "northern farming" or a system
that will lessen the danger from frost should be prad Lsed
in the more humid parts that have but a short time be-
tween spring and fall frosts.

The records of the Provincial Department of Agri-
culture at Regina for the ten years ending 1917 show
that in the Province of Saskatchewan the soil was suf-
ficiently thawed out by April 18th that the seeding of
wheat became general on that date. During these ten
years the earliest date on which wheat seeding was gen-
eral was April 9th and the latest date. .May 10th. No
reliable records are available to show the average date
at which tillage of the soil is prevented by freezing in
the fall. Generally in the central west plowing may be
continued till the end of October, sometimes till early
December, but in exceptional years the ground has
frozen hard as early as the lirst week of October. When
the ground is dry in the fall low temperatures do not
harden it as they do moist soil, consequently tillage may
he continued much later than when the soil is wet.

The temperature records for Sasckatchewan for the
twelve years 1904 to 1915 report only one duly frost. It
is known, however, that in some low spots in at least
two of these years small patches of wheat were frosted
when the plants were in bloom in July. Tin1 only July
frosi that did serious harm to grain crops over a large
area occurred in 1918, when a considerable percentage

THE CLIMATE OP WESTERN CANADA 29

WINNIPEG

May

16

ESTEVAM

IV

PRINCE ALBERT

24

MAPLE. CREEK

2.

CALGARY

IS

EDMONTON

17

WINNIPEG

May

27

ESTEVAM

June

1.

PRINCE ALBERT

A.

MAPLE CREEK

may

12

CALCARY

2!

EDMONTON

30

of the crop in the northern parts of the Prairie Pro-
vinces (chiefly Alberta and Saskatchewan) was injured
by a heavy frost on the night of July 24th.

The purpose of instancing these facts is to show that
the "average" time of frost is sometimes widely departed
from, both in the favorable and unfavorable directions.
This suggests frosts of- s°

even more forci-
bly than the
short time be-
tween frosts,
the desirability
of ( 1 ) growing
"safer" crops,
and ( 2 ) devel-
oping a more di-
versified agri-
culture, partic-
ularly in the
temperature zones showing the greatest variations from
the average.

18. Frost Resistance of Different Crops. — Cereals will
withstand heavy spring frosts but not fall frosts. Root
crops and rape will withstand heavy fall frosts but
suffer considerably from heavy spring frosts. Corn
and potatoes will withstand neither, although potatoes
will live through frosts that kill corn. Plax and peas
suffer considerably from both spring and fall frosts,
while perennial grasses and Legumes will withstand very
low temperatures ai either season.

19. The Average Temperature of the Growing Period.
— The average temperatures ai representative points for
each month in the year are indicated mi the diagram.

Fig. 14. — Frost-Free Period at Different Points.

Above, length of period between spring and fall

frosts of three degrees. Below, lentrth of

period between frosts. Twelve year

average.

'SO DRY FARMING

and the actual figures are quoted in the table that fol-
lows. These show very favorable temperatures for
growth in summer even at far north points such as Fort
Simpson. The more rapid fall of autumn temperatures
and the lower temperatures in spring, in the northern
latitudes, indicate a shorter growing season. By com-
paring the monthly rainfall and monthly temperature
illustrations it will be seen that the months of highest
temperature follow closely the months of greatest rain-
fall. To this fortunate "accident" of climate is largely
due such success as has attended the efforts of the crop
grower in the Canadian West.

Table V. — The Average Mean Monthly and Annual Temperatures
at Representative Points*

Station Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Yr.

Calgary

12

14

24

40

49

55

61

58

50

42

26

20

38

Edmonton

7

9

22

41

51

57

61

59

50

48

29

19

38

Medicine Hat

11

13

27

45

55

62

68

67

56

46

27

21

42

Prince Albert

4

2

12

37

49

57

62

59

49

38

18

5

32

Regina

4

2

14

37

50

59

64

61

51

39

21

8

33

Winnipeg

5

1

14

37

52

62

66

63

53

40

20

5

34

Dunvegan

12

2

13

34

48

56

60

57

49

35

16

3

29

Ft. Chipewyan

13

10

5

27

44

56

62

58

46

33

12

1

26

Ft. Simpson

18

16

4

26

42

55

59

56

45

24

1

12

21

20. The Total Heat Received During the Period of
Growth. — The total amount of heat received during the
growing season may be determined by multiplying the
number of days of growl li by the difference between the
temperature required for plant growth and the average
daily temperature for the period. The resull is spoken
of as the "accumuhifrd temperatures" which is the sum
of Hie "day degrees" of temperature between the time in

*From Canadian Year Book reporting Dominion Meteorological
Service data— Calgary 20 years, Edmonton 2/> years, Prince
Albert 20 years and Winnipeg 70 years. Data for other places
taken from the "Climate of Canada", by Stupart.

THE CLIMATE OF WESTERN CANADA 31

th? spring when plant growth starts and the time in the
fall when it stops. Unstead worked this ont from the
meagre data that were available with the results
indicated on the map.t In arriving at these re-
sults he arbitrarily took the time in the spring

Fig. 15. — Temperature Zones of Canada.

As determined by the accumulated temperatures between time in the

spring when growth of cereals starts and time in the fall when it

normally ceases. — After Unstead.

when the average daily temperature rises above 5°C.
or 41 °F. and the time in the fall when it de-
scends to lOV. or 50°F., as being the time when
plant growth starts and stops respectively.

In the report of the same investigation he pointed out
that at Ottawa, Red Fife would mature with an ac-
cumulated temperature of 1330 degrees, Ladoga with
1210 degrees and Early Riga with 1030 degrees. With
our longer hours of sunlight here and the very early
varieties that are now available the possibility of grow-

i Reported in "Tin- Geographical Journal", April and May l!U_'.

32 DRY FARMING

ing wheat very far north in Alberta seems promising.
How profitable it may be, the average date of the first
fall frost and the percentage of seasons That are free
from summer frosts will largely determine.

21. Wind Velocity. — The wind velocity averages higher
on the open plains than in the park belt and wooded
areas. In some seasons it does serious injury to tender
plants and shrubs by causing the soil to drift. Accord-
ing to Cross* the average velocity ranges in different
parts of the West from 5.1 to 13.3 miles per hour, while
the average maximum ranges from :>() to 57 miles per
hour.

22. The Chinook Wind. — The temperature of the south-
westerly winds is the highest and that of the north-
easterly the lowest. The Chinook, a warm southwest
wind, is often responsible in wilder for removing the
snow covering very soon after it comes. This is per-
haps favorable for the rancher but not so for the crop
grower. In summer this wind sometimes does serious
injury to crops in soul hern Alberta and southwestern
Saskatchewan, occasionally as far east as Moose .law and
Saskatoon, it is reported thai it is occasionally felt in
milder form as far north as the Peace River Valley and
upper Mackenzie basin.

23. Humidity of the Wind.— Little data is available
concerning the humidity of the atmosphere in these
winds but experience has shown that the SOUthwesI and
west ones are very dry while those from other directions
are generally more humid, especially the easl winds.

In "Climate and Rainfall", by J. F. Cross in "Prairie Provinces
of Canada", Sells I. Id.

THE CLIMATE OF WESTERN CANADA 33

24. Wind Direction. — Mr. J. F. Cross,* Superintendent
of St. John's College Observatory at Winnipeg has this
to say on the general subject of winds in the Prairie
Provinces :

"The typical wind of the prairie section is north-
west, that of the Chinook (southern Alberta and south-
western Saskatchewan) southwest. Modifications of
these arise in several districts owing to local peculiarities,
and velocities also vary considerably. . . . Generally,
however, in Manitoba the direction tends north or south
with almost continuous moderate velocity and a num-
ber of light gales; in Saskatchewan the westerly type
begins to appear, while in northern Alberta the most
prevalent wind is due west. In southern Alberta and
especially in districts adjacent to the Rocky Mountains
the direction is usually southwest and the velocity rarely
exceeds 30 miles an hour. The force of the air move-
ments on the whole is greater in places of low latitude.
Hurricanes are, however, practically non-existent in the
Canadian West, the one notable exception being the
cyclone which visited Regina during the summer of 1912
and caused considerable damage in the business section
of the city."

25. Atmospheric Humidity. — The meteorological data
on the atmospheric humidity of the West is very meagre.
In brief, it indicates that our atmosphere is very dry,
the driest being in the areas of lowest precipitation and
highest temperature, viz., southeastern Alberta and
southwestern Saskatchewan.

A dry atmosphere increases evaporation. This is
noticeable, chiefly in the "Chinook" region where after

In "The Prairie Provinces of Canada"

34 DRY FARMING

melting the snows of winter, the warm dry wind sucks
up the moisture very rapidly. The dry atmosphere is,
however, not always a misfortune. This is one of the
causes of high quality in wheat and also one of the chief
causes of the relatively small damage from rust and
other fungous diseases in the dry parts of the West.
Carleton,* referring to this point, states that "A heavy
stand of wheat in humid districts is favorable to rust.
Under these conditions it should be noted that the
atmospheric humidity is the influencing factor

"In this district (the spring wheat belt of Canada and
the United States) because of the deep black soil and
dry, hot summers, there is grown the highest grade of
common spring wheat in the world excepting the spring
wheats of the middle Volga district of Russia, which are
very similar."

26. Long Hours of Sunlight in the Growing Season. —

Light is essential for plant growth. Without it plants
cannot manufacture their food. Man cannot control the
light except in a negative way by preventing weeds and
other obstacles shading useful plants. Two phases of
this question are, however, very interesting. The first is
the length of the day in summer in northern latitudes,
and the second the relative lack of clouds in this climate.

The number of possible hours of sunshine daily dur-
ing June, July and August at various places is indi-
cated on the sunshine map. The Long days of summer
and the relative lack of cloudiness in Western Canada
encourages rapid growth and makes possible the matur-
ing of crops in much less time than people of southern

In "The Small Grates", by Carleton.

THE CLIMATE OF WESTERN CANADA 35

climates can imagine. These conditions, together with
the favorable monthly distribution of precipitation, are
largely responsible for the measure of success that has
been attained in crop growing in our northern semi-arid
climate.

Fig. 16. — Hours of Possible Sunshine Daily in Summer.

26a. The Effect of Latitude and Altitude on Tempera-
ture.— Where no other factors interfere the average de-
crease in temperature is approximately three degrees for
every 100 miles one goes in a northerly direction. It
is seldom, however, that this ratio is not affected by
changes in altitude or relation to forests or large bodies
of water.

The lowering of temperature as a result of increase
in elevation averages one degree for every 300 feet. The
effect of latitude and altitude is clearly shown by the
height of the permanent snow line above sea level. At
the north pole this line is at sea level. At the southern

36 DRY FARMING

boundary of Canada it may be seen in the Rocky Moun-
tains at an altitude of 6,000 to 8,000 feet and at the
equator it is found only after reaching the height of
16,000 to 18,000 feet.

26b. The Effects of Forests on Climate.— The effect of
forests on climate is to lessen the extremes of precipita-
tion, evaporation, wind velocity and to some extent the
temperature. How much the forests of North-western
Canada affect our climate it is difficult to estimate. In the
practice of farming its greatest influence is probably
found in lessening the wind velocity and thereby the
evaporation and danger from soil erosion. This favor-
able effect is, of course, greatest in the wooded areas and
least in the prairie and Chinook belts.

CHAPTER III.

THE SOIL

By Roy Hansen, M.S., Professor of Soils, University of
Saskatchewan, Saskatoon.

27. The Role of the Soil. — The existence of mankind is
dependent upon three things : the earth, the atmosphere
and the sunshine. Of these, only the earth is subject to
the will of man, to conserve or destroy according to his
knowledge or ignorance. And of the earth, it is with the
shallow surface crust, but a few inches in thickness,
which we designate as "the soil", that we are most con-
cerned. The soil must support the plant world which in
turn supports the animal world, including mankind.
Thus the food we eat, the clothes we wear, and the
timber that provides us shelter come ultimately from the
soil. The soil, therefore, is our greatest resource, the
very foundation of life and prosperity.

The growing plant in its endeavor to reproduce its
kind, the chief function of all life, had need of five
essentials: (1) a place to take root, that it may support
its aerial parts; (2) food, as important to plants as it
is to animals; (3) moisture; (4) heat; (5) light.

With the exception of light the soil is concerned in
each of these essentials. The root system of the plant is

37

:;s DRY FARMING

determined by the texture of the soil. The soil must
furnish the mineral plant food elements and nitrogen. It
absorbs and retains the rainfall to be given up to the
plants as needed. It absorbs and transmits heat upon
which plant life is dependent. These factors we can in
a large measure control by our farm practices. In order
to know the best practices to pursue, it is essential that
we know why and how the soil responds to different
treatment.

History and Physical Properties.

28. Origin. — Geologists tell us that the earth was a1
one time a molten mass cast off with its whirling motion
from the sun. Through many centuries tins mass slowly
cooled, the molten materials forming a crust of solid rock
and the vapors condensing to water to form lakes and
oceans. The rock was broken down to a disintegrated
mass by the grinding action of the glaciers and the
slower process of weathering. Part of this disintegrated
material was carried away and redeposited by the wind
or water, becoming again cemented in stratified form
into rock. Part of it remained in place and formed the
beginning of the soil, accumulating slowly through the
ages by Nature's processes.

The forces of disintegration and transportation have
been at work during all time. The power of freezing
and thawing in crumbling down rock is familiar to all.
The deep crevices in granite rock with the pile of
criiinbled-off material at the base tells the story of
Nature's work. The effects of water with its driving
force as rain, and its dissolving and wearing action in
flowing over rock surface are well evidenced in the

THE SOIL

39

caverns and caves it cuts in stratified sandstone and lime-
stone deposits. The wind picking up particles of sand,
grinds and wears the rocks to powder. The atmosphere
with its moisture and gases aids in this process of
solution and disintegration.

Fig. 17. — Rock Weathering.
A step in soil formation. — Chamberlain & Salisbury, courtesy Henry Holt

& Co.

With the coming of life upon earth, first the bacteria
perhaps and then higher plants and animal life, new
forces of disintegration came into play. The bacteria
were able to feed upon the rock materials, building liv-
ing tissue from the solid minerals which they dissolved
and assimilated. Plants and then animals took part
in the process, exerting in part mechanical or physical
force, in part chemical force and in part biological force.
With the decay of vegetable and animal matter organic
acids were liberated and these assisted in the process.

40 DRY FARMING

Thus the process went on, the rock materials supporting
plant life, and the latter contributing further to soil
building.

The ultimate outcome was the soil, made up as we now
know it, of stones, gravel, sand, silt, clay and organic
matter. These then were the final products, though we
must not think of the process as being finished. Nature
is constantly at work levelling mountains, disintegrat-
ing rocks, and transporting and depositing the ma-
terials without heed to the desires of man, indeed often
contrary to his wishes.

29. Soil Classification. — According to the manner of
formation and deposition and the agencies that played
the leading part, soils are classified as indicated in the
following outline —

(1) Sedentary, formed in place:

(a) Residual, formed in place from disinteg-
ration of rocks.

(b) Cumulose, formed in place by the partial
decay and accumulation of vegetable
matter.

(2) Transported Soils:

(a) Glacial soils, deposited by glaciers.

(b) Loessial soils, deposited by the wind.

(c) Alluvial soils, deposited by the action of
water.

Sedentary Soils. — As the name indicates, these are
formed in place, no appreciable transportation from the
location of the original rock upon which they rest having
taken place. Sedentary soils are further subdivided in-
to (1) residual, soils formed in place from the disinteg
ration of rocks; and (2) cumulose, soils formed in place
by the partial decay and accumulation of vegetable mat-

THE SOIL 41

ter (plant remains). Limestone soils, productive soils
covering extensive areas in the southern and eastern
states of the United States, are examples of residual
soils. Frequently the limestone has completely leached
away, the soil consisting entirely of the impurities of the
original limestone and plant remains. Cumulose soils
are illustrated by mucks and peats which have been
formed under peculiar conditions, (i. e. poor drainage
as in swamp and bog land) allowing the partial decay
and accumulation of plant remains, the growth of moss,
swamp grass, etc., on top exceeding the rate of decom-
position of the old remains, thus resulting in the de-
position of a soil consisting largely of organic matter.

Transported Soi!s. — These are likewise formed by rock
disintegration, but the materials are removed from their
original resting places. Chief among the agencies of
transportation are the wind, the glaciers, and water.

Material picked up and deposited by the wind is
termed loess. Loessial soils occupy a large area in the
prairies of the United States, and in depth they vary
from a few inches to perhaps 200 feet.

The material brought down and deposited by the
glaciers is called glacial till or boulder clay. Soils so
formed are more varied in character, containing fre-
quently rounded stones and gravel along with much silt
and fine sand, the result of the grinding action of these
huge ice sheets, and frequently huge boulders left upon
the open prairies.

Soils deposited through the agency of water, such as
the deltas of rivers, old lake bottoms, etc., are termed
alluvial soils, and these generally rank among our most
fertile soils. The delta of the Nile and the Red River

42 DRY FARMING

Valley of the North arc typical examples, the latter
being at one time the bed of the old Lake Agassiz.

30. Soil Types. — Soils are further divided into tM"'v
depending upon the content of the various soil ma-
terials. Thus we have gravels, sands, silts, clays,
gravelly loam, sandy loam, silt loam, clay loam, muck,
peat and loam. By a loam is meant a soil having a good
balance of the various constituents, that is, not enough
clay to render it plastic, not enough sand to make it too
loose and open, and with a sufficient supply of organic

"a,

€

' ■ .

Fig. 18. — Soil Surface Map of Iowa.

The soils in each county in most of the States are being mapped and
classified and the local agricultural conditions studied in order that intelli-
gent direction may be offered farmers for increasing production. Che
problems of Western Canada need such a systematic study.— Courtesy of
the Iowa Experiment Station.

matter to give a good friable texture. The percentage of
various soil materials determines the physical character
of the soil, i. e. the texture, the ease of cultivation, the

THE SOIL 43

temperature, the water-holding capacity and the porosity
(air-space).

31. Physical Properties of Soils. — The above classifi-
cation depends upon the size of the soil particles and
upon the organic matter content, these factors determin-
ing its physical properties. Sandy soils have large
particles predominating and this results in their loose-
ness and openness, their non-adhesiveness. Water drains
readily through such soils, and less is retained for crops.
Air circulates more freely, the pore spaces are larger
and because of this, and the fact that they hold
less water, sandy soils are "warmer", "earlier", and
therefore best adapted in the humid sections to truck
farming and early vegetable gardening.

Clays, on the other hand, are plastic, difficult to work
when wet. This is due mainly to the extremely small
soil particles and in part to the plastic nature of the
material, kaolin or fire-clay, which makes up a con-
siderable part of such soils. Clays retain more moisture,
the particles being smaller and hence more numerous
per given volume; the water film surrounding the
particles is more extensive in area, hence the ability to
hold more water. Air circulates less freely. The total
air space is greater in clays (porosity is inversely pro-
portional to the size of the particles), but the movement
of air finds greater resistance. A further fact about
clays is that though they retain more moisture, they give
it up with less ease to plants than do sands. Plants
will wilt in a clay soil, whereas in a sand of equal total
moisture content, they would show no signs of lack of
moisture. Thus in general clay soils are "colder",
"later", more retentive of moisture and more difficult to
work.

44 DRY FARMING

Humus, the accumulated residue of the decomposi-
tion of plant remains, plays an important role in the
physical properties of soils. Being somewhat plastic
and spongy in nature, it binds the sand particles to-
gether, giving such soils greater adhesiveness and hence
better tilth. In clay it binds the small particles to-
gether into larger aggregates, thereby lessening the
plasticity and rendering them easier to work. Due to
its porous nature it increases the water-holding
capacity, facilitating the absorption and retention of
water. It increases the pore-space, allowing the air to
circulate more freely in the heavier types of soil, there-
by increasing the warmth, and making the soil "earlier".
The importance of keeping up the humus content from
the standpoint of the physical properties of the soil is,
therefore, important ; the role from the chemical and
biological standpoints will be discussed later.

The capillary rise of water in soils is controlled by the
size and compactness of the soil particles. Although
water rises more rapidly in a sandy soil because of less
resistance, the total height to which it will rise and the
force exerted in the upward rise are greater in the
heavier types. Soil-packing, therefore, results in bet-
ter capillary contact besides assisting in the decay of
vegetable matter by the closer contact with moisture.

32. Dry-Farming and Soil Physics. — Dry-farming puts
into practice our knowledge concerning the physical
properties of soil. For example Ave plow for summer-
fallow before the last of the heavy summer rains come
in order to render the soil more open and retentive of
moisture. The use of the soil packer on fall and spring
plowing is to lessen the air space in the soil and to
aid in bringing the moisture up to where the seed is to

THE SOIL 45

be planted; and the object of surface cultivation, aside
from controlling weeds, is to provide a satisfactory seed
bed containing the right amounts of moisture, heat and
air for germination and growth. Surface cultivation
also provides a mulch which lessens to some extent the
cracking of the soil and thereby checks evaporation.

Soil Fertility or Chemistry.

33. The Food of Plants. — Food is as important a con-
sideration to plants as it is to animals. Animals require
for food vegetable matter, such as starch, sugar, fat,
protein, etc., the highly organized, complex materials
built up by plant life. While animals frequently eat
animal flesh, plant life is the primary source of food.
The nutrition of plants, however, is different. They re-
quire as food the simple, inorganic materials derived
from the solution of rock materials or from the decay
of plant or animal remains. This food is taken up in
water solution, and by the plant is built up into tissue,
i.e. sugar, starch, cellulose, protein, the things for
which we prize plants as food for human or stock con-
sumption.

34. The Essential Elements. — The earth's crust is com-
posed of about 80 elements in varying amounts and
combinations or compounds. Of the 80 elements, 40 are
more or less common, and 15, because of their wide
occurrence in plants, soils, water and in the atmosphere,
are important in soil fertility. Of these 15 elements, 10
are essential for the growth of plants; deprived of any
of them the plant would succumb, or would, at least, be
unable to reproduce its kind. These elements which are

46 DRY FARMING

divided into three groups for the purposes of our dis-
cussion, are as follows : —

Group 1. Group 2. Group 3.

Carbon Calcium Xitrogen

Hydrogen Magnesium Phosphorus

Oxygen Iron Potassium

Sulphur
Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen. — Carbon is derived from
the carbon-dioxide of the air. By means of their
"breathing pores" the leaves of plants take in this gas
and in some way combine it with water to make sugars.
Oxygen is likewise derived from the air, both as carbon-
dioxide and free oxygen gas, and from water, of which
it is a constituent part. Hydrogen is derived from
water. These three elements, carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen make up from 90 to 95% of mature plants and
this fact, together with the fact already- noted that they
are derived from the atmosphere and water, has led to
the error of minimizing the importance of the other seven
essential elements.

Calcium, Magnesium, Iron, Sulphur. — Of the remain-
ing seven essential elements, four, calcium, magnesium,
iron and sulphur, though necessary to plants, occur in
relatively large amounts in the soil in proportion to the
amounts required by plants. Therefore they do not con-
cern us, since they arc not likely to limit our crop yield.
The soil is the source of these elements for plants (some
sulphur comes down with the rain).

Nitrogen, Phorphoms, Potassium, — The elements of
this group, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, are, for
common farm crops, derived from the soil. (Legumes
can take nitrogen from the air, as will be discussed
later). Potassium occurs in liberal amounts in most

THE SOIL

47

soils; in some types, particularly muck and peat, it is
frequently lacking and must therefore be supplied if
maximum yields are to be obtained. In normal soil,
however, it is seldom lacking. Nitrogen and phosphorus
on the other hand are very frequently deficient, and
they are, therefore, among the most common world-wide
soil problems.

35. The Essential Elements in Saskatchewan Soils. —
In the table that follows is given the average content
in Saskatchewan
soils of five es-
sential elements.
The figures re-
ported represent
the averages of
the analyses
made by the
Department of
Chemistry of the
University of
S askatchewan,
of 16 samples of
soil, 8 being vir-
gin prairie soils.
The plowed acre
taken to a depth
of 6, 2/3 inches
is taken to weigh

2,000,000 pounds, the analyses being computed on this
basis.

The second column of figures indicates the amounts
of these elements required to produce 30 bushels of wheat
including both grain and straw. Knowing the soil con-

u

)r 1 €

UsttH «-*Vii ^ acL . ■ lilt «■

atff^&Br £—~L. JB^B

Tig. 19. — Pot Cultures.

Showing the effect of the presence and ab-
sence of plant foods: X. nitrogen; P. phos-
phorus; K. potassium. Note that inoculated
clover grows normally without commercial nitro-
gen, the plants securing their supply from the
air. Without inoculation or commercial nitrogen
the plants fail. — Courtesy Illinois Agricultural
Experimental Station.

4>

DRY FARMING

tent and the amount required for a 30-bushel crop, we
can calculate the numbers of 30-bushel crops that are
theoretically possible (column 3).

Table VI. — "Supply and Demand'' of Essential "Elements in Av-
erage Saskatchewan Soil.

Essential
Elements

Pounds in 2,000,000

Pounds in 30 bus.

No. of 30 bus.

of surface soil from

of Tv-heat includ

crops of wheat

an average of 16 soils

ing straw

possible

Nitrogen

8604

57.6

150

Phosphorus

1830

9.6

191

Potassium

34925

34.8

1004

Calcium

31074

6.3

4932

Magnesium

11738

4.8

2445

While such an average analysis of soils does not repre-
sent the true average for the province and while 16
samples are not enough upon which to base final judg-
ment, the results do have instructive value. It is ap-
parent that nitrogen and phosphorus, of the essential
elements, will first limit crop yields. Undoubtedly the
deficiencies are already felt in the poorer, longer-cropped
soils. This method of computation is subject to several
further qualifications however.

First, the nitrogen supply is subject to additions and
deductions other than cropping (exclusive also of
fertilization and green manuring). Certain free-living
aerobic bacteria (Azotabacter) living in the soil have
the power of extracting nitrogen from the air; certain
amounts of nitrogen are brought down in the rain,
chiefly as ammonia and nitric acid. On the other hand
certain bacteria may cause the loss of soil nitrogen into
the air (denitrification) and what is most important.
great losses of soil nitrogen occur through surface
erosion, and through leaching. The latter is relatively

THE SOIL

49

more important in humid regions. But in general even
under semi-arid conditions the losses from all sources
other than cropping greatly exceed the gains. Thus 150
crops of thirty bushels each (4,300 bus.) is by far too
liberal an estimate from the nitrogen standpoint.

Second, with phosphorus, and this applies equally to
nitrogen, even under otherwise ideal conditions, we
could not' continue to remove 30-bushel crops of wheat
successively until the phosphorus was exhausted. Under
humid conditions phosphorus becomes a serious limit-
ing factor when the supply is below 1,000 pounds. The
yield is determined by the total supply of plant food,
and, as will be discussed later, its ''availability". In gen-
eral the yields will become decreasingly smaller as the
phosphorus or nitrogen (or both) is exhausted.

36. Average Saskatchewan Soil vs. Other Soils. — In the
following table the "average" Saskatchewan soil is com-
pared with some well known fertile soils :

Table VII. — Average Saskatchewan Soil versus Other Soils in
pounds per acre 6 2-3 inches deep — approximately 2,000,000
pounds.

Soil

Nitrogen

Phos-
phorus

Potas-
sium

Kidi, well-balanced normal land ip
the Corn Belt

Average prairie soil of the Red
River Valley in Northwestern
Minnesota*

8604
8000

8200
8300

111)0(1

1830
2000

3340

1518
1949

34925

35000

45100

Fargo black clay soil (North Da-
kota) representative of a large
part of the Red River Valley.

Red River Valley virgin sod ....

* Hopkins' "Soil Fertility and Permanent Agriculture",
f Doneghue, North Dakota Agricultural Experimental Station
Bulletin 126,

50 DRY FARMING

From this table it would appear that our average soil
compares very favorably with some of the well known
fertile soils. But again it should be pointed out that this
"average" soil does not fairly represent the province;
undoubtedly some of our extensive types, as the sandy
loams for example, do not measure up to this standard.
Furthermore, even on the fertile corn belt land, soil
enrichment has been found both practical and profitable.

(See table XIV.).

37. Organic Matter and Soil Fertility — Organic matter
is supplied to the soil in general farm practice in the fol-
lowing ways : —

1. Crop residues;

2. Green manuring;

3. Pasturing ;

4. Applying farm manure.

By crop residues are meant the stubble of cereals,
straws, corn stalks, etc. In the corn belt the corn stalks
in common practice are broken over, disked and plowed
under, and the spreading on the land and plowing under
of straw is not uncommon. While these practices may
not be possible here, ;is much organic matter from these
sources should be returned as is practicable, either by
feeding and returning as manure or bedding down
stock, and thus incorporating the straw with the man-
ure. The burning of straw piles represents not only a
great waste of organic matter and nitrogen, but of other
essential elements as well. This is indicated in table VIII.

THE SOIL

:>i

Table VIII. — Fertility Lost by Burning Straw.

Essential
Elements

Nitrogen

Phosphorus

Potassium

Pounds in 1 ton
wheat straw

10.0

1.6

18.0

Pounds in 1 bu.
wheat, grain only-

Maximum bushels |
wheat possible j
from 1 ton straw

1.4
.24
.26

7.1

6.7

69.2

Thus, if we assume that the fertility elements lost by
burning the straw could be applied to the production of
wheat, we find that in each ton the nitrogen would be
sufficient for 7.1 bushels of wheat, the phosphorus for
6.7 bushels, and the potassium for 69.2 bushels. These
losses, together Avith the loss of other benefits
of organic matter, are the results of burning the straw.
Where straw or manure is spread on the land and then
burned over only the nitrogen and organic matter are
lost. Phosphorus^potassium.'and other mineral elements
are not destroyed by burning. -The. ashes .are -valuable, as-
fertilizer -if. spread -evenly -over -the .land. *

Green manuring is the practice of growing crops for
the express purpose of plowing them under to improve
the soil. In the older countries legumes are most com-
monly used, though buckwheat and rye, the latter used
as a cover crop, are widely used. Since this country will
never be thickly populated with stock and since the
depletion of organic matter in the soils is already be-
coming apparent, green manuring must, of necessity,
come into common practice, if the organic matter in our
soils is to be maintained.

Pasturing, from the standpoint of soil fertility, is the
most economical method of returning immure to the land.
The expense of hauling and spreading is saved, and the
losses by fermentation (fire-fanging) as occur in the
manure pile in the farmyard, are avoided.

52

DRY FARMING

Spreading manure is a time-honored custom, and in
most communities the benefits are fully appreciated.
Table IX. brings out the fertility value of manure from
the standpoint of its content of the essential elements.
The figures are computed on the basis of average barn-
yard manure.

Table IX. — Fertility Value of Barnyard Manure*

Pounds in 1

Pounds in

Pounds in 1

Possible
bu. wheat,
grain only

Possible

Essential

ton average

one bushel

bu. wheat,

bu. wheat,

Elements

barnyard

wheat,

grain and

grain and

manure

10.0

grain only
1.4

straw

straw

Nitrogen

1.92

7.1

5.2

Phosphorus

3.0

.24

.32

12.5

9.4

Potassium

8.0

.20

1.16

30.8

6.9

Thus one ton of average barnyard manure contains
as much nitrogen as 7.1 bushels of wheat, as much
phosphorus as 12.5 bushels, and as much potassium as
30.8 bushels. If we assume no losses, but that the
fertility elements contained in a ton of manure go to
make up grain and straw, the nitrogen would be suf-
ficient for 5.2 bushels, the phosphorus for 9.4 bushels
and the potassium for 6.9 bushels.

In live stock farming the organic matter recovered in
the manure represents less than one-half of that fed.
Further loss occurs in the barnyard, due to fermenta-
tion through the action of bacteria, and through leach-
ing. In this connection Hopkins' "Soil Fertility and
Permanent Agriculture" says: "As an average in live-
stock fanning, the animals retain aboul one-fourth of
the nitrogen and phosphorus and destroy two-thirds of
the organic matter of the food consumed, and large loss
is likely to occur in the manure produced, especially in
nitrogen and organic matter, a loss in one half of these

* Figures from Hopkins' '*S,>il Fertility and Permanent Agri-
culture,"

THE SOIL 53

constituents being easily possible during three or four
months, in part from fermentation, which may occur
even under cover, and in part from leaching where man-
ure is exposed to the weather or where little or no
absorbent bedding is used."

Concerning manure the North Dakota Experiment
Station* finds that, "approximately one-half of the
fertilizing value of manure is lost in rotting, so that it
probably requires 2 tons of fresh manure to make 1 ton
of rotted manure. Considering the cost of extra hand-
ling of rotted manure it would be more profitable to
haul the manure directly from the barn to the field. It
can be applied to best advantage to pasture in the
rotation or plowed under for corn".

38. Functions of Organic Matter. — Organic matter re-
turned to the soil functions in several ways :

1. By improving the physical tilth by increasing the
humus content as already discussed (i.e. increases the
water-holding capacity; increases the pore space, hence
the "warmth" and "earliness"; renders clays easier to
work; gives better adhesiveness to sands, etc.).

2. By supplying the essential elements it contains.

3. By assisting in dissolving the insoluble plant food
elements through the action of the acids produced in the
decay of the organic matter.

The first two items have already been discussed, the
third will be taken up under the action of bacteria in the
soil.

39. losses of Organic Matter in the Soil. — That the
present system of farming which makes no adequate
provision for the return of organic matter is rapidly de-

* Doneghu .", North Dakota Agricultural Experimental Station
Bulletin 126.

54

DRY FARMIXfi

pleting the humus and the nitrogen content has been
shown by Shutt, Dominion Chemist, from the following
figures* :

Table X. — Nitrogen-content of Virgin and Cultivated Soils, Indian
Head, Saskatchewan.

To a depth of 4 inches

To a depth of 8 inches

Per cent.

Lbs per acre

Per cent.

Lbs per acre

Virgin Soil
Cultivated Soil

.409
.259

.150

3,824
2,421

.371
.254

6,936
4,750

Difference or loss due
to removal in crops
and to cultural
methods.

1,403

.117

2,186

Doneghue of the North Dakota Experiment Station
arrived at similar conclusions with the fertile Red River
Valley soil, under a system of continuous wheat-growing,
as indicated in table XI.

Table XI. — Composition of Old Wheat Soil in Comparison with
Virgin Sod.f

Surface Soil, 0-7 inches

Total Nitrogen
pounds per acre

Total Phosphorus
pounds per acre

Virgin sod
Old wheat land

14,000
8,300

1,949
1,518

Losses due to removal in crops and
to cultural methods.

5,700

431

Doneghue concludes that, "The black clay soil of the
Red River Valley has deteriorated in fertility and crop-
producing capacity under a continuous system of single
cropping with wheat. Such land on the Experiment
Station contains approximately one-fourth to one-third

* Western Prairie Soils.

f From North Dakota Experimental Station Bulletin L26.

THE SOIL

less nitrogen and one-fifth less phosphorus than virgin
soil of the same type on this farm. The yield during
the last eight years of the experiment has been 28 per
cent, less than during the first eight years of the 24-year
period."

In Saskatchewan six different soils which had been
under cultivation for a number of years were compared
to six virgin soils of the same type which adjoined or
surrounded the cropped land. This gives six com-
parisons of cropped and virgin land, showing the effect
of the present system of farming under actual field con-
ditions. The analyses reported were made by the De-
partment of Chemistry of the University of Saskatch-
ewan.

Table XII.- — Losses in Plant-food elements in Saskatcltt-icun Soils
through Present Methods of Soil Management. Pounds per
2,000,000 (0-6 2-3 inches.)

Xitrog

en

Phospho
Lbs. per i

"US

Locality

Lbs. per

Loss

Loss

2,000,000
12300

2,000,000
1720

Melfort, virgin

cropped 29 years

11480

820

1520

200

Kinistino, virgin

14420

2300

' ' cropped 34 years

11500

2920

2140

160

Rosthern, virgin

8800

2880

' ' cropped

6360

2440

1620

1260

Yorkton, virgin

10800

2220

" cropped 31 years

9740

1060

1880

340

Regina, virgin

6800

1740

" cropped 12 years

5980

820

1440

300

Indian Head, virgin

9100

2820

cropped 30 years

3960

5140

1680

1140

Average loss through cultivation in

sjx soils

2200

567

Humus, the residual material from the decomposition
of organic matter in the soil, is rapidly dissipated when
humus-forming materials (organic matter) are not sup-
plied. Nitrogen in the soil is contained in the organic
matter and by decomposition of the latter is made avail-

56 DRY FARMING

able to plants. Thus the loss of 2,200 pounds of nitrogen,
the average of the six comparisons, represents the dis-
sipation of a great amount of organic matter. The
practice of summerfallowing especially hastens the de-
composition and dissipation of organic matter, and if
the practice is a necessary evil, provision must at least
be made in the future for supplying the humus-forming
materials. The actual amount of nitrogen removed
by crops is probably less than one-third of the figure
given, the other two-thirds, 1,467 lbs, being lost mainly
through surface washing, soil blowing or drifting, and
perhaps leaching.

The phosphorus loss, 567 pounds, is far greater than
could be explained by removal in crops. Phosphorus
being contained principally in insoluble form in the
soil, is not lost by leaching. Surface-washing and per-
haps soil-blowing or "drifting" are largely responsible
for the losses not accounted for in the crops.

The figures in table XII. are not to be taken at their
absolute value, however. We cannot be certain that a
sample of soil from cropped land had at one time the
same composition as a sample of virgin land adjoining.
However, when repeated comparisons show the same re-
sult, we have a good "indication" of the results of our
farm practices. That a tremendous loss in organic
matter does occur is a matter of common observation,
and the bad effects are plainly evident in working the
land.

40. The Rothamsted Experiments on Soil-Fertility. —
The best information on the value of soil treatment as
opposed to no treatment in good systems of crop rotation
is from the Rothamsted Experiment Station near Lon-
don, England. Two rotations are compared as follows:

THE SOIL

57

Rotation I.

Rotation II.

Turnips Turnips

Barley Barley

Clover (or beans where clover failed) Fallow

Wheat Wheat

The first is termed the legume rotation, the second the
fallow rotation. Both rotations are arranged so that
complete fertilization can be compared to no treatment.
The complete fertilization consists of the addition of
essential plant food elements in the form of common
commercial fertilizers. Nitrogen, phosphorus, potas-
sium, magnesium, sodium and sulphur are included, in
the form of ammonium sulphate, acid phosphate, potas-
sium chloride, etc. The fertilizers are applied once in
four years (for the turnip crop). The experiment has
been carried on for sixty years, the results appearing in
table XIII.

Table XIII. — Rothamsted Experiments, Agdell Field.

Turnips

Barley

Clover (7 crops) . .
Beans* (8 crops) .
Wheat

Unfertilized

Legume
Rotation
2651 lbs.

24.7 bu.
2094 lbs.

13.0 bu.

25.0 bu.

Fallow
Rotation
3785 lbs.
25.2 bu.

27.1 bu.

Fertilized with
Minerals and Nitrogen

Legume

Rotation

34,906 lbs.

38.9 bu.

5,379 lbs.

22.3 bu.

34.6 bu.

Fallow-
Rotation
36,695 lbs.
36.2 bu.

31.8 bu.

This is perhaps the world's best evidence on the food
requirements of plants. On the unfertilized fields the
crop yields steadily decreased. On the fertilized fields
the yields have been maintained at a high average, the
turnips averaging during the last 20 years of the 60-

* Beans grown when clover failed.

58

DRY FARMING

year period more than double what the unfertilized land
was capable of at the beginning. The rotations alone,
therefore, would not maintain yields without fertiliza-
tion. Plants as well as animals require food.

41. Illinois Experiment. — The Illinois Agricultural Ex-
periment Station is conducting an experiment on the
typical brown silt loam prairie land of the Corn Belt.
Five fields are under cultivation, "wheat, corn, oats and
clover being rotated for five years on four fields, while
alfalfa occupies the fifth field, which is then brought
under the four-crop system to make place for alfalfa
on one of the other fields for another five-year period,
and so on*". Sixteen years' results have been publishedt,
the averages appearing in table XIV.

Table XIV. — Illinois Experiment: Urbana Field.
loam prairie: Early Wisconsin Glaciation.

Brown silt

Serial

Soil treatment

Average Annual Yields — bushels or (tons)

plot

applied

per acre

No.

Corn

Wheat

Clover

Soy- 1 Al-

|Beans J falfa

19

17

7

8 1 4 f 6

crops

crops

ere] is

crops | crops | crops

1.

None

56.6

47.6

21.9

(2.10)

(1.60)](2.33)

2.

Residues

56.8

49.1

26.3

1.34

21.3 1(2.14)

3.

Manure

64.6

54.0

24.6

(2.31)

(1.68) (2.10)

4.

Residues, lime

59.8

50.9

28.3

1.60

20.7 |(2 32)

5.

Manure, Lime

66.8

56.2

30.6

(2.74)

(1.72)1(2.76)

6.

Residue, lime, phosp.

75.4

64.2

42.5

2.16

22.6 (3.56)

7.

Manure, lime, phosp.

72.6

63.5

40.1 1(3.62)

(1.92)1(3.58)

1. Figures in parenthesis represent tons of hay.

2. Soy-beans planted when clover failed.

By comparing plots 2, 4, and 6 with 3, 5, and 7 re-
spectively, we have direct comparisons between two

* Hopkins, et al, Soil Report No. 18 Champaign County Soils.

f Hopkins, et al, Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin
219. Illinois crop yields from Soil Experiment Fields.

THE SOIL

59

Cor

Oats

systems of farming,— grain farming and live-stock farm
ing. Hopkins* explains this method as follows :

"Under the
live stock sys-
tem of manage-
ment the nitro-
gen and organic
matter of the
soil are main-
tained by apply-
ing as mnch
manure as can
be made from
the produce
grown upon the
land. On this
basis no more
manure is ap-
plied to a plot
than can be
made from the
produce of that
plot. For every

ton of produce grown, an equivalent amount of average
farm manure is returned during the rotation. Under a
good system of live stock farming it has been found that
about one ton of average manure can be made from one
ton of feed and bedding. A large amount of the grain
produced is fed, in the live stock system, the legumes har-
vested as hay, and the hay, straw and stover used for
feeding and bedding purposes/'

0 56.6 bu. .

RX;Pv75 + bti.

M.L.P 72.6 bu.

0 +76 bu. 1

R.L P, 64- Z bu/

M.L.P 63-5 bu.

ECH bu

R.L.R *2-5. bu

M.L.P 4-01 bu

Wheat

Fig. 20.— Illinois Fertilizer Experiment.

0. Untreated land ; R. Residues ; M. Manure ap-
plied; L. Limestone; P. Phosphorus. Showing in-
creased yields by rational soil treatment. Note
that the grain system of farming (R.L. P.) is in
every case slightly ahead of the live stock sys-
tem (M.L.P.).

Ibid.

60

DRY FARMING

"In the grain system of farming, no manure is ap-
plied to the land. The nitrogen and organic matter of

Fig. 21. — Illinois Soil Experiment.

Farm manure applied. Average yield 34.2 bushels per acre. — Courtesy

Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station.

the soil are maintained by plowing under all crop
residues (straws, corn stalks, all of the legume crops
from which the seed has been removed, and also cover
crops of legumes). The regular legume crops are so
managed that a seed crop is secured if possible, and all

resulting residues are returned to the soil

AVhen alfalfa is included in the rotation it is harvested

THE SOIL

61

for hay in both systems The residues from grain

and legume crops may be plowed under directly, or they

Fig. 22. — Illinois Soil Experiment.
Farm manure and rock phosphate applied. Average yield 51.8 bushels per
acre. Phosphorus increased the yield 17.6 bushels per acre. The lessons
taught are being put into practice by Illinois farmers. Figures 21 and 22
illustrate the result of scientific investigation, and though it should
not be inferred that these results will accrue from the same treatment in
Western Canada, the need for work of a similar nature is apparent.
— Courtesy Illinois Experiment Station.

may be used as a top-dressing for the protection of winter
crops and eventually turned under."

The methods of soil enrichment illustrated by this ex-
periment have come into common practice in Illinois and
several of the adjoining states. Thus nitrogen and

62 DRY FARMING

organic matter are supplied by manure and crop resi-
dues (including legumes used as green manure, etc.).
Commercial nitrogen, such as sodium nitrate, does
not par under extensive systems of farming. When the
land is acid (sour) ground natural limestone, made from
crushing limestone found in natural deposits, is most
effectual and economical. To supply phosphorus, finely
ground, natural raw rock phosphate is applied, being
the cheapest form, and, under humid conditions when
applied with actively decaying organic matter, being as
effective as the more readily available but more expensive
acid phosphate.

The practices of the more humid Corn Belt will not
apply in full to Western Canadian conditions. Under
semi-arid conditions, our soils cannot handle the amounts
of crop residues or manure that are turned under in the
humid regions. However, with the depletion of organic
matter and nitrogen our system must be changed. Mixed
farming is undoubtedly becoming more general and the
manure should be carefully conserved. But this will
never entirely supply the soil needs for organic matter
and nitrogen. The use of leguminous crops in the rota-
tion will be a big step in advance.

It is interesting to note in the Illinois Experiment
that where the needs of the soil are fully provided for
(plots 6 and 7) the grain system is equal, if not slightly
superior, to the live stock system of farming. Thus, it
is possible in the Corn Belt to farm entirely without
live stock. The Canadian prairies may always be de-
voted chiefly to grain farming, and if our agriculture is
to be permanent and profitable, we must plan our sys-
tems for conditions as they actually exist. Only by long-
continued, carefully conducted experiments such as the

THE' SOIL

63

Rothamsted and Illinois experiments can our problems
be solved.

42. Soil Acidity and Liming the Land. — Soil acidity
(sourness in soil) is a common problem in the humid
climates, especially in the older agricultural regions such
as England, the continent of Europe, and eastern
United States. Where soils are acid, finely ground
natural limestone rock has been found to be the cheapest
and most effective. It is applied at the rate of one to two
tons per acre, depending upon the degree of acidity in
the soil. The
soils of the arid
and semi-arid
regions are more
likely to be alka-
line than acid
(alkaline is the
opposite of
acid) due to the
fact that alka-

25.0

12.9

25.;

247

!4.8

Fallow Legume Onr Crop
Rotation Rotation Sj
WHEAT

Fallow Legume One Crop

Rotation Rotation System

BARLEY

Fig. 23. — Rothamsted Experiments.

Chart showing yields of wheat and barley
(bushels) in good systems of crop rotation, and
in one-crop systems. Figures represent 60-year
averages in rotation systems, and 55-year aver-
ages in one-crop systems.

line salts and

limestone are

not leached

away as in

humid sections.

Limestone i s

present in sufficienl quantity in most Western Canadian

soils, so thai Hi is question need give us no concern.

43. Crop Rotations and Soil Fertility. — From Table
XIII. we see thai barley grown at Rothamsted, England,
Agdell field), in a rotation withoul fertilization pro-
duced as an average of 60 years, 24,7 bushels in the

64 DRY FARMING

legume system and 25. 2 bushels in the fallow system. In
this same rotation wheat produced 25.0 and 27.1 bushels
respectively.

In another field (Broadbalk Field) wheat has been
grown continuously for 55 years unfertilized, the aver-
age yield being 12.9 bushels. In still another field (Hoos
Field), barley has been grown continuously for 55 years,
unfertilized, the average yield beeing 14.8 bushels. This
is positive proof of the benefit of crop rotation over a
one-crop system. It was pointed out, however, from
table XIII., that crop rotation without fertilization
would not maintain the crop yields. The matter of crop
rotations is discussed fully elsewhere and it is intended
here only to emphasize the fact that whereas a rotation
is much superior to a one-crop system, provision should
be made in the rotation for the return of organic mat-
ter and nitrogen and the mineral plant-food elements,
especially phosphorus, if deficient. Crop rotation with
no return of plant food is only a more efficient way of
robbing the soil; it makes possible greater crops, which
means the withdrawal of greater amounts of plant food,
and therefore more rapid depletion of the soil's fertility.

The Soil a Living Mash.

44. Importance of Microorganisms in the Soil. — We
have seen that animals are dependent upon the higher
plants. In turn the higher plants are dependent upon
microorganisms. If the action of the latter were stop-
ped for anj^ considerable length of time, life would be-
come impossible upon the earth; our very existence de-
pends upon them.

The question might well be asked: What would be
the condition of the earth, if, through the many ages, the

THE SOIL 65

dead bodies of animals and plants had simply remained
upon the surface of the earth and had not decayed into
an unrecognizable, powdery mass in the soil? The Layer
of trash would soon become so deep that seedlings upon
the ground would find it impossible to push their way
up into the sunlight ; there would be no room for animal
life; the earth would become uninhabitable. The lower
organisms perform a great service in reducing the re-
mains of plant and animal life to the black residue in the
soil which we call 'Tiumus". The humus represents but
a small portion of the great bulk, the greater part being
released into the air in the form of gases and water
vapor, through the action of our infinitely small friends.
But this does not tell the whole story. We have shown
that plants require food as well as animals, and that this
food is derived from the soil, air and water. The ma-
terials from these sources would have long since be
come exhausted if it were not possible to use them over
and over again. Tims we speak of the "cycles" of the
plant-food elements, and in these the lower organisms
play the leading part. In the decay of plant and animal
matter, carbon dioxide gas is given off, and this carbon-
dioxide can again be used by living plants as before ex-
plained. In a similar manner nitrogen may be used
over and over again, and likewise phosphorus, though
instead of a gas these substances are converted into
nitrates and phosphates, in which form they become
available to plants. The cycle is not always so simple.
It is the business of the microorganisms to prepare the
food for the higher plants, and the plants and animals
in turn furnish the food and energy through which
microorganisms can do their work. The one depends
upon the other.

66 DRY FARMING

People have become accustomed to thinking of the
bacteria and fungi wholly as enemies; we think only of
the ravages of disease. The science of bacteriology has
developed more along this line. In our farm practices
i.e. plowing, cultivation, manuring, etc., we give little
heed to the consideration of the effects of these opera-
tions on the bacterial activities of the soil. It is fortun-
ate indeed that the practices which favor the production
of crops from the plant standpoint are also favorable to
the activity of the beneficial bacteria.

45. The Soil a Living Mass. — The soil is inhabited by
five kinds of microorganisms, bacteria, fungi, algae,
yeasts and protozoa. The first four are vegetable or
plant forms of life, the last, protozoa, are miscroscopic
animals. Of the five groups the bacteria and fungi are
most important. It is with the bacteria that we are
mainly concerned, though the fungi take part in many of
the useful activities in the soil.

The numbers of the bacteria in soils vary with the
type of soil, season of the year, moisture present, etc.
The number may vary from several million per gram in
a thin, poor soil, to a thousand million per gram in sew-
age farmed land. If, on ordinary soil, Ave assume a con-
tent of 60,000,000 per gram, 27,216,000,000 per pound of
soil, not at all an unreasonable or unusual number, we
find that the surface 6 2 73 inches of soil over an acre
(2,000,000 pounds) would contain a live weight of
bacteria equal to 250 pounds. This would represent a
volume of about 3.8 cubic feet. These figures bring out
the very great numbers of the bacteria and their ex-
tremely sin all size. Due to the very great numbers ever
present, the soil has frequently been spoken of as a
"living mass",

THE SOIL 67

In general, light sandy soils have fewer numbers than
the heavier, richer, types. The amount of food (organic
matter) has an important bearing on the number of
bacteria. Also virgin soils have lower counts than
cultivated soils, due in part at least to the fact that
cultivation, especially deep plowing, increases the depth
of their operations by giving better access to air
(oxygen). The greatest numbers occur between the
fourth and sixth inch levels in average soils. This, of
course, varies greatly. Soils may be sterile at three feet
if impervious in nature, and are not infrequently sterile
at a depth of eight or ten feet. As would be expected
the highest numbers are found in the spring and fall.
Owing to the heat and lack of moisture, the numbers are
reduced in midsummer. In winter many of the
vegetative forms are killed and great numbers go into a
spore or resting stage to await more favorable condi-
tions.

46. Functions of the Bacteria in the Soil. — The func-
tions of the bacteria in the soil may be classed under four
heads :

1. Destruction or decay of dead matter.

2. Preparation of available plant food for plants.

3. Parasitism (disease).

4. Symbiosis.

The activity of the bacteria in bringing about the de-
cay of plant and animal remains has already been al-
luded to. In farm practice this accounts for the decay
and incorporation with the soil of the stubble, straws,
corn stalks, manure, etc., that are plowed under. These
sul (stances under the action of the bacteria are decom-
posed, part becoming dissipated into the air as gases

68 DRY FARMING

and water vapor, the residue, humus, becoming a part
of the soil mass.

47. Preparation of Available Plant-food. — The grow-
ing plant has need of an ever-present supply of plant
food that is soluble and may be taken up readily by the
roots. The bacteria are always at work preparing this
food, and should their activity be stopped for any con-
siderable period of time, the plant would suffer and die
of starvation. Though concerned in the liberation of
all plant-food elements, the relations of the bacteria to
nitrogen are especially important.

48. The Nitrogen Cycle. — Farm crops depend upon
the soil for their nitrogen, and this nitrogen must be in
the form of nitrates to be utilized by plants. (Legumes
are an exception and when inoculated, they may draw
upon the nitrogen gas of the air). Chile salt-peter
(sodium nitrate), a common fertilizer, represents such
a form which is available to plants. The nitrate is ab-
sorbed by the roots and is built up into protein in the
plant. The latter may be eaten by an animal, the pro-
tein then becoming a part of the animal body or may be
voided in the manure. The original bit of nitrate may,
therefore, exist in altered form as a part of the prairie
sod, of the wheat stubble, or of the animal flesh or man-
ure. If returned to the soil and plowed under, before it
can again be used by plants, it must go through a pre-
paratory process. First the plant or animal remains
must undergo decay or decomposition, the nitrogen be-
ing converted into ammonia. A great many kinds of
bacteria in the soil may take pari in this process, the
end product in every case being ammonia. Certain
bacteria in the soil (the nitrous acid bacteria) seize upon
this ammonia and convert it into nitrite, a nitrogen com-

THE SOIL

li!)

■>

J

• « r»- v -•• . ••

v>

7

- T ^

Fig. 24. — Soil Bacteria Magnified Over 1000 Diameters.

I Micrococcus ureae, produces ammonia from urea; 2. Bacillus flores-
cens, produces ammonia in soil; 3. Bacillus subtilis, produces ammonia
in soil; 4. Nitrosomonas (after Winogradsky), changes ammonia to
nitrite; 5. Nitrobacter (after Winogradsky), changes nitrite to nitrate;
6. Clostridium pastorianum, showing spores, free-living nitrogen-fixing
organism; 7. Azotobacter chroococcum, free-living nitrogen-gathering
bacteria; S. Nodule bacteria from vetch, showing characteristic branched
forms; 9. Nodule bacteria, from soy-bean, showing flagella.

70 DRY FARMING

pound containing oxygen. Another species of bacteria
(the nitric acid bacteria) then converts this nitrite into
nitrate, through the further addition of oxygen to the
nitrogen. As nitrate,, the nitrogen may then be used
again by plants.

Certain losses of nitrogen through bacterial action are
likely to occur, especially in the manure pile. "Firing"
or "fire-fanging", due to the rapid decomposition of the
manure, results in the escape of nitrogen to the air in
gaseous form. The process is called denitrification and
is due to bacterial action. A similar process occurs in
soils, especially when water-logged, but the losses from
this source in well-tilled soils are not appreciable.

On the other hand, additions to the soil's supply of
nitrogen may occur in several ways. Small amounts are
brought down from the atmosphere by the rain and
snow, chiefly as ammonia and nitric acid. In the soil
certain bacteria (Azotobacter) living upon the carbon-
aceous material in the soil, have the ability to extracl
free nitrogen gas from the air and build it up into their
bodies. These sources, however, are- not of great
magnitude. A third source, the fixation of nitrogen by
leguminous plants, will receive due consideration.

49. The Mineral Plant Food Elements.- — In the decay
of organic matter, carbonic acid and many other organic
acids are formed. In the nitrification process nitrous
and nitric acid are formed, not as free acids but united
with the basic substances, among them the essential
plant food elements as calcium, magnesium and potas-
sium. These substances, occurring in the soil in in-
soluble compounds, are rendered soluble by this process.
Phosphorus occurring chiefly in t lie soil as the insoluble
tricalcinm phosphate becomes soluble and available to

THE SOIL 71

plants through the solvent action of the organic acids.
By the nitrification process it is converted from the
insoluble form to the soluble acid phosphate in which
form it may be used by plants.

These principles find application in practical agri-
culture. The results of the Ohio and Illinois stations
have shown that the crushed raw rock phosphate ap-
plied with liberal amounts of farm manure (or crop
residues) gives yields that are equal to the acid phos-
phate, and at considerably less expense. The failures to
secure results upon soils deficient in phosphorus by
the use of raw rock phosphate have been due to the fail-
ure to provide decaying organic matter. Nature has
wisely locked up the phosphorus in the soil in insoluble
form so that it will not be wasted, but has beneficently
provided a means whereby it may become available to
plants. The "why" in agricultural practice is as im-
portant as the "how" ; it is the safest guide to a perman-
ent and profitable system.

50. Parasitism (disease). — That the soil harbors many
disease-producing microorganisms is now a matter of
common knowledge. Among the bacterial plant dis-
eases crown gall, pear blight, black leg and soft rot of
potatoes, are typical examples, and among the fungous
diseases flax wilt, wheat rust, and the smuts. These
organisms, however, are not related to the fertility of
the soil.

51. Nitrogen-fixation by Leguminous Plants. — Three-
fourths of the atmosphere by weight is nitrogen gas; over
one acre of land there are 70 million pounds of nitrogen,
enough for nearly a million bushels of wheal if it were
available to that crop. I>u1 wheal cannot utilize di-
rectly the free nitrogen gas of the air.

72

DRY FAWMIXc

Certain plants, the legumes, have the ability when
inoculated to draw upon the air for nitrogen. Red
clover, sweet clover, alfalfa, peas, beans, and vetch are
examples of leguminous plants. These plants do not have
the power in themselves to take up free nitrogen gas.
It is through certain bacteria, the nodule bacteris, which
live in the soil that this is made possible. These bacteria

Fig. 25. — Nodules en the Roots of Alfalfa.

These nodules arc the homes of millions of alfalfa bacteria which gather

nitrogen fror.1 the air and turn it over to the plant. — Courtesy Wisconsin

Agricultural Experiment station.

attack the root-hairs of the legume plant, causing the
formation of gall-like structures called nodules upon
the roots. In these nodules the bacteria Live and mul-
tiply, extracting from the plants the sugars and

THE SOIL 73

other materials necessary for their life processes. In
return they absorb the nitrogen gas from the air, which
circulates through the soil, and turn it over to the plant
in a form that the plant can utilize. Without the pres-
ence of bacteria and without the presence of the nodules
this process would not go on. The legume plants would
behave like ordinary crops, using only the nitrate-
nitrogen found in the soil.

This process is termed symbiosis. whi< h means that
the two organisms, the bacteria and the plant, live to-
gether to their mutual benefit. Thus the bacteria are
provided with a home (the nodule) and food (sugar),
and in turn they supply the plant with an inexhaustible
nitrogen supply. Neither is injured by the union, but
en the other hand both are greatly benefited.

if legumes are grown in soil which contains no nitro-
gen but are inoculated and given all the essentials for
growth except nitrogen, the plants will live and'thrive
normally, extracting in this case, through the aid of the
bacteria, their entire nitrcgen supply from the air. If,
on the other hand, the soil contains nitrogen, it will draw
in part upon this and in part from the air. According-
ly as the soil is richer in nitrogen, especially as nitrate,
the plants will draw more heavily upon the soil and less
upon the air for their nitrogen. Hopkins has figured
that upon normal soil of average fertility, red clover
when inoculated secures about 2/3 of its nitrogen from
the air and 1/3 from the soil. When cut for hay the
part removed contains 2/3 of the nitrogen present in the
entire plant, the roots and stubble containing 1/3. Tims
when the hay is removed, as much nitrogen is removed
as was obtained from the air. The stubble and roots
turned under do not produce any gain for the soil, the

74

DRY FARMING

same amount being turned under as came originally
from the soil. This, however, is a great advantage over
other hay crops where every pound of nitrogen removed
represents a loss to the soil. But every ton of clover
tops contains forty pounds of nitrogen, so that every

Fig. 26. — Bacteria in Relation to Soil Building.

i,i ) Two piles of pure white sand, (b) The pile of sand on the left on
which four crops of uninoculated legumes have been grown and to
which nothing has been added is still white infertile sand. The pile on
the right on which four crops of legumes and legume bacteria have been
grown and to which nothing else has been added is well on the way to
become a fertile soil as is shown by its dark color.

ton of clover turned under for the purpose of soil en-
richment represents a gain to the soil of forty pounds of
nitrogen.

Sweet clover tops contain on the average 40 to 50
pounds of nitrogen per ton, so that every ton of sweel
clover tops turned under for soil enrichment is worth

THE SOIL 75

four to five tons of manure from the standpoint of
nitrogen (manure contains 10 lbs. of nitrogen per ton).
This together with the tonnage that it produces, ex-
plains why sweet clover is becoming so widely grown for
improving the soil in the humid sections. The suc-
culence of the plant renders it easily and quickly decom-
posed by the bacteria, making possible the turning
under of very great amounts. This then furnishes a
large amount of organic matter, and the nitrogen
through bacterial action becomes available to succeed-
ing crops. The result is that the corn or wheat crops
following are frequently doubled, and the effect is not
limited to the one year following, but is apparent for
several years through increased yields. Such practice
must come into vogue in the Prairie Provinces when the
organic matter and nitrogen supply need replenishing.

It should again be emphasized that in order to secure
nitrogen from the air the legumes must he inoculated.
The bacteria may already be present in some soils and
if so they will make their presence known by forming
nodules on the roots of the young plants. If the nodules
are not formed, it is positive proof that the bacteria are
not present, and upon such soils artificial inoculation,
either applied as a culture to the seed or applied by
spreading and disking in some well-infected soil from
a field known to be inoculated must be resorted to.

In applying inoculation to the seed different kinds of
nodule bacteria must be used for certain legumes. Al-
falfa and sweet clover require one kind, peas and vetch
take another, while the true clovers, red clover, mam-
moth clover, white clover, alsike clover, require still
another. The bacteria which produce nodules on the
roots of alfalfa and sweet clover will not produce

76 DRY FARMING

nodules on the roots of peas, vetch or the true clovers.
The groups are absolutely distinct.

The Factors of Soil Fertility.

52. The Measure of Fertility. — The measure of the
fertility of the soil is the crop it produces or can be made
to produce. This is not the result of any one factor, but
of a combination of factors.

The physical make-up of the soil determines in part at
least the extensiveness and effectiveness of the root-
system of the plant. It is concerned with the ability of
the soil to absorb and retain moisture. It affects the
tilth, the air supply and the warmth of the soil.

The chemical composition of the soil determines its
potential possibilities. Since we know the kinds and
amounts of plant-food elements that our crops require,
and since chemical analyses will tell us the total amounts
present in any particular soil, we have an index to the
fertility of that soil. We have a means of discovering the
deficiencies, and when confirmed by actual field tests,
this is the safest guide to good practice.

The bacteria are concerned with the liberation (mak-
ing available) of plant food. This is brought about
through the organic matter supplied. The value of
organic matter is therefore apparent. It furnishes the
food and energy for the bacteria which when thus sup-
plied make plant food available (soluble) for the plant.
In addition the actively decaying organic matter is the
source of humus in the soil.

Permanency in agriculture depends upon the control
by man, in so far as is possible, of the factors essential
to the production of crops. The stock of materials in the

THE SOIL 77

soil when diminished to the point that crop yields are
limited, must be replenished. By making provision for
the return of organic matter we provide for the needs
of the plant for available plant food. It should be the
business of every progressive farmer to give as much
thought to the soil he is working as he does to his farm
machinery or animals. Just as his farm animals and
machinery fail to give good returns from bad treatment,
so the soil will likewise fail to produce profitably under
irrational treatment.

CHAPTER IV.
THE MOISTURE PROBLEM

Water is required in large amounts by growing plants
and the source of all moisture for crops, except under
irrigation, is the clouds. The average precipitation is
a general guide to the amount that is likely to fall in any
year. Areas having more than 30 inches precipitation
are spoken of as humid ; those having between 20 and 30,
sub-humid; between 10 and 20 inches, semi-arid; while
those having less than 10 are called arid. Most of West-
ern Canada is semi-arid; our average precipitation is
low and the water requirements of growing crops is
high ; the chief cause of low yields is lack of moisture.

The moisture problem briefly stated consists of (1)
storing as much moisture as possible in the soil, (2)
conserving it as well as we can, (3) keeping it available
to the seed and plant roots, and (4) making the most
efficient use of it.

53. Storing Moisture in the Soil. — When moisture falls
upon the land in the form of rain it is either absorbed
by the soil or it finds its way to ditches, ravines or
sloughs. The problem of storing moisture is one of pre-
venting the "run off" which occurs chiefly at two sea-
sons, one during the heavy midsummer rains and the
oilier when the snow melts in the spring. The amount

7S

THE MOISTURE PROBLEM 79

of "run off" is largely determined by (1) the topography
of the land, and (2) the openness or receptivity of the
soil.

The topography cannot be altered but some loss of
water may be prevented by tilling crosswise of the main
slopes. The more open the soil is at the time of the
heavy rains or when the snow is melting the more

Fig. 27. — Wheat Under Irrigation near Strathmore, Alberta.

moisture it will take in and the less "run-off ' there will
be.

The storage of moisture in "old" land is accom-
plished by:

1. (a) Fallowing the land once in two, three, four or

five years, depending upon the average pre-
cipitation and evaporation,
(b) Plowing or otherwise cultivating the fallow
early to lessen the possible "run-off" after
heavy rains.

2. Using such intertilled crops as may not require all
the water, thus permitting of the storage of some;

3. Using crops that may be harvested early, thus per-

80 DRY FARMING

mitting the land to lie . fallow and accumulate
moisture for a longer time in the fall ;

4. Increasing the organic matter content of light soil
types so as to increase their moisture-holding power
and decrease the loss of moisture by percolation.

The storage of moisture in new or prairie land or sod
land is accomplished by

1. Breaking and leaving idle for a year (less in some
areas) in order to make the land receptive for 1 lie
summer rains;

2. Breaking early in order that the loss of moisture
through the growth of native vegetation may be
prevented ;

The storage of moisture in stubble land is accom-
plished by

1. Leaving a long stubble to hold snow which on melt-
ing adds water to the soil; or

2. Cultivating with discs or even by shallow plowing
early in the fall so that the soil may be put in a
condition to absorb more of the water from melting
snows. (Note that (1) and (2) are not possible on
the same area).

54. Conserving Moisture in the Soil. — Moisture that has
been stored in the soil may be lost in one or more of only
three ways :

(1) by seepage or drainage through the soil,

(2) by evaporation from the surface into the atmos-
phere,

(3) by passing out through the stems and leaves of
growing plants in the natural processes of growth.

The loss through seepage or drainage is very little
in dry climates except on light or coarse grained soils
or soils having a subsoil that is sandy or gravelly. On

THE MOISTURE PROBLEM 81

such soils the lessening of seepage can only be brought
about by increasing the organic matter content a
practice which is seldom profitable except on the better
grades of these types of soil. The dry farmer should
avoid soils that are so light and loose that loss by seep-
age is probable.

The loss of moisture by evaporation from the soil
into the atmosphere is very great. No data giving the
actual amount of loss from a soil surface in this climate
are available, but when it is realized that from 60 to 100
inches of water evaporates from a water surface in a
year in the southern portion of the Great Plains, the
extent of the evaporation from a soil surface may be
imagined. The very great loss by evaporation may be
lessened (1) by the use of a mulch on the surface of the
land, and (2) by increasing the moisture-holding power
of the soil by maintaining or increasing its supply of
humus or partially decomposed organic matter. While
it is a fact that a soil mulch lessens the amount of water
that leaves the soil by evaporation in humid climates,
there is some question as to its effectiveness in dry clim-
ates and also as to how much expense a farmer is justified
in assuming in order to make a relatively small
saving. (See "The Application of the Capillary Theory
to Dry Farming Practices" in Chapter XVI.)

The loss of moisture through its use by growing plants
is very great. As little as 250 pounds of water and as
much as 1,000 pounds have been found to be taken into
the roots of plants and transpired into the atmosphere
through the leaves in the process of taking in food ma-
terials sufficient to make one pound of dry matter. So
long as the plants using it are useful to man this larg&
amount of water is not a loss, even though it may hay*

82

I)HY FARM IXC

disappeared from the soil. Bui when useless plants or

weeds use up the moist lire it is a serious economic waste.
Ueeeiit investigations in soil moisture conservation
emphasize the belief that under normal soil conditions
weeds are not the secondary but the chief means by
which moisture is lost from the soil. They also indicate
that tillage for moisture conservation should have as its
practical aim (1) the control of weed growth, and 2)
the prevention of soil era king or soil baking, or the

I.JBBMBBH>

Fig. 28. — Hauling Alfalfa Grown Under Irrigati

ildalc. Alberta.

drying out of the furrow slice. If these aims are Cully
attained it seems probable that any extra tillage will
not result in a sufficiently increased return to pay for
the e\t ra Work.

The practices by which the moisture stored in the
fallow can he conserved are :

1. Early harrowing or packing after plowing in order
to lessen excessive evaporation from the furrow

slice.

THE MOISTURE PROBLEM 83

2. Sufficient surface cultivation to kill weeds, grass
and volunteer grains, which use up water in the
process of growth.

3. Sufficient surface cultivation to prevent the soil
from cracking, and thereby increasing the evaporat-
ing surface.

The conservation of moisture "stored" in breaking is
accomplished by :

1. Packing or "planking" immediately after breaking
— so as to lessen the loss of moisture from the fur-
row slice and the subsoil by the drying winds.

2. Disking and harrowing as necessary to control
weeds and grass.

The conservation of the limited moisture supply in
stubble land can be effected by:

1. Fall plowing of grassy land to kill the grass and
thus save the water the grass demands for growth, —
a practice which may be neutralized in the very
dry parts by increased evaporation from the over-
turned furrow slice.

2. Early harrowing or [tacking of all spring-plowed
land in order to protect the furrow slice and sub-
soil from the drying effect of the winds.

3. Harrowing early in the spring before sowing, or
harrowing such crops as cereals, corn and potatoes
after they are up in order to control weed growth
or prevent the soil cracking. This practice cannot
be followed indiscriminately on all soils, as <>n some
it will result in increasing the danger of soil drift-
ing.

55. Keeping Soil Moisture Available. — Making the best
possible use of the moisture stored and conserved in the

84 DRY FARMING

soil is not the least important of the problems of the dry
farmer. It may be considered under two heads : —

1. How to keep a supply of it continuously available
to the seeds in the soil or to plant roots, and

2. How to make it serve its purpose most efficiently.
Of the three forms in which moisture occurs in the

soil, viz., free water, capillary water and hygroscopic
water, only that in the capillary form is of immediate
value to growing plants. The small portion known as
hygroscopic moisture, which is present about the soil
particles when they are air dry is held so firmly that
plants cannot extract it. The free water, that portion
found filling the spaces between the particles of a soil
which is flooded, is of very great value as a source of
supply even though it cannot be drawn upon directly
and is sometimes harmful to plants. Free water when
present in the subsoil may be changed to capillary or
film water, in which form it may move up or down or
in any other direction or be held by the soil even against
gravity. It is in the capillary form only that water may
be drawn upon by plants.

In the practice of crop growing it frequently hap-
pens that something is done which either lessens the
chance of the plant getting at the moisture in the soil or
what is of equally serious concern, makes it difficull or
impossible for the moisture in the subsoil to move to
where the seeds or plant roots are. Thus when coarse
manure or long stubble are plowed under in fall or
spring in preparing for a crop the next season, loose
open spaces are created between the seed bed and the
subsoil and the availability of even tic capillary moist-
ure is interfered with. Similarly when coarse clods are
plowed under, or the plowing left in rolls, or the fur-

THE MOISTURE PROBLEM

85

row left on its edge, or the land plowed when it is too
dry, or allowed to bake after being plowed when too wet,
open air spaces
are created be-
low the furrow
slice which ser-
iously lessens
not only the
moisture move-
ment from the
subsoil to the
seed or to plant
roots but also
the ability of
the roots to
reach out after
moisture. Mois-
ture cannot rise
through large,
loose, open
spaces in the
bottom of the
furrow slice, nor
can plant roots
g r o w do w n
through them
sat isf actorily.
Obviously, these
practices, unless
modified, are un-
stated to dry
farm conditions.
The chief means by which the moisture stored and

Fig. 29. — A Well Tilled Field of Potatoes.

Three stages of development in the growth of a
field of potatoes. — Courtesy Dr. Seager Wheeler.

86 DRV PAEMLNG

conserved in the soil is kept available or at Least not
rendered unavailable, arc:

(1) By not plowing under thick layers of dense grass
or other rubbish, unless time sufficient for its de-
cay is allowed before s Ling the next crop.

(2) By not plowing under a heavy stubble in fall or
spring unless the land is to be thoroughly com-
pacted so that the moisture in the subsoil may
rise into the furrow slice to meet the needs of the
crop.

(3) By seeing that in all fall or spring plowing the
overturned furrow is brought firmly in contact
with the subsoil, so that there may be the least
possible interference with the free movement of
moisture upwards from the subsoil.

(4) When applying manure, to put it on thinly and
firm the soil about it before crops are sown, so
that it will quickly decay and not interfere with
the movement of soil moisture. Coa"rse, strawy
manure and stubble are often worse than useless
until they have decayed, after which time they
exerl a very beneficial effecl on the moisture-ab-
sorbing and moisture-holding capacity of the soil.

(5) By leaving the soil in such condition thai the
seed can get the necessary moisture for germina-
tion without having to be sown too deeply.

(6) By preventing the formation of a •"hard-pan"
below the furrow or by remedying it if it is al-
ready t here.

56 The Efficient Utilization of Soil Moisture.— -The soil
moisture will be utilized most efficiently if three things
are done: (1 | the supply of available plant food kept
up. (2) drought-resistanl crops grown, and (3) suit-

THE MOISTURE PROBLEM

87

able crop management practices followed. The first of
these is discussed in the next section and the other two
in the chapter that follows.

57. Soil Fertility and Soil Moisture.— One of the chief
functions of the water stored in the soil is to dissolve
plaid food substances and carry them through the root

■ LMSmL . -. 4 ^ „

^a%>;^ ■■ ^>.h;4'w.-?lr^

- % ■■■■• ' k ♦ V ■

Fig. 30. — Sugar Beets Growing en Irrigated Land North cf Brooks, Alta.

hairs into the plant. The more of such material a unit
of water can carry into the plant the more bushels per
acre the limited supply of water may produce. It has
been found thai when equal amounts of water are sup-
plied to rich and poor soils the former produces the
larger yield. Widtsoe* states I 1 i thai on a naturally
fertile Utah soil 908 pounds of water were required to
produce each pound of dry mallei- iu corn. (2) thai

From "Dry Farming" l>\ Widltsoe.

88 DRY FARMING

when this soil was manured only 613 pounds were re*
quired, and (3) that when commercial fertilizers were
applied only 585 pounds of water were necessary to pro-
duce a pound of dry matter. Similarly he found that
"on sandy loam, not cultivated, G03 pounds of water
were transpired to produce one pound of dry matter in
corn ; on the same soil, cultivated, only 252 pounds were
required. On a clay loam, not cultivated, 535 pounds
of water were transpired for each pound of dry matter,
whereas on the cultivated soil only 428 pounds were
necessary. On a clay soil, not cultivated, 753 pounds of
water were transpired for each pound of dry matter;
on cultivated soil, only 582 pounds."

While our soils are new and rich an average rainfall
will generally produce a fair yield. As soon as they be-
come less "fertile" the same amount of rain is likely to
produce a smaller crop. The results of theses investi-
gations clearly show that the more fertile a soil is, the
greater yield it will produce from a given supply of
moisture. This is one reason why dry farmers should
strive to maintain the "fertility" of their soils.

CHAPTER V.

DRY FARM CROPS AND CROPPING PRACTICES

The chief crops that have been grown in the past in
the three Prairie Provinces and the approximate acreage
of each is shown by the following table : : —

Table XV. — Acreage devoted to different crops in Manitoba,
Saskatchewan and, Alberta in the year 1916.*

Manitoba Saskatchewan Alberta.

Wheat— Winter 3,829 15,258 18,177

" — Springi 2,721,896 9,016,851 2,586,798

Oats2 1,443,599 3,791,807 2,124,981

Barleys 687 503 367,207 336,586

Rye* 30',050 22,759 17,975

Flax 15,684 542.034- 95,063

Peas 1,600 650

Mixed Grains 1,400 14,150 4,550

Hay and Clover* 77,642 26,154 173,461

Potatoes 31,989 46,989 29.216

Turnips, Mangels, etc 3,118 1,621 1,700

Fodder Corn 9,830 2 253 675

Alfalfa 4,422 3)086 20,612

i Chiefly hard red spring, practically no Durum.
2Chiefly late maturing sorts.

3 Chiefly Six-rowed bearded hulled.

4 Both spring and winter.

5 Mostly native prairie — considerable Western Rve — Brome and

Timothy.

The above table is included here in order that the
reader may note the relative importance attached by the
present generation of farmers to the different crops now

* From Canada Year Book, 1916-17.

89

90

DRY FARMING

r. a

gpH

W 2

n

DRY FARM CROPPING PRACTICES 91

grown. What we are about to say in this chapter should
not be interpreted as suggesting that radical changes
should be made in the crops now used in those portions
of the West that enjoy a rainfall of sixteen inches or
more, or that are outside the prairie area. The sug-
gestions that follow are mean! rather as a guide to those
men in the dry belt who have found that the commonly
grown crops have not given satisfactory returns.

58. Drought Resistant Crops. — The dry farmer should
keep in mind that some plants are better able to with-
stand drought than others. The factors that constitute
drought resistance are not all well understood but sev-
eral are now quite well appreciated by dry farming in-
vestigators. For instance, it is now well known (1) that
different crops require different amounts of moisture to
produce a unit of dry matter, (2) that certain types of
crops are able to withstand more drought than others.
(3) that the growth of some classes of crops so parallels
the monthly distribution of rainfall that they produce
larger yields than others, the growth habits of which are
different — in other words they avoid drought — and (4)
thai crops which permit of intertillage may develop bet-
ter under similar precipitation than those nol adapted
to this method of culture.

Recent investigations have shown thai among our
commonly grown crops millet, sorghum and corn re-
quire the leasi moisture per unit of dry matter produced ;
thai the Legume crops, Like alfalfa, pens and clovers re-
quire the most and thai the grain crops— wheat, oats,
barley and rye and flax are intermediate in moisture
requirements.

92

DRY FARMING

Carefully conducted experiments have also shown
that some crops will withstand drought better than
others. For instance, brome grass and Western rye
grass for some reason withstand more drought than any
of the other commonly used grasses. Alfalfa will witli-

ng. 32. — Winter Rye at Indian Head, Saskatchewan.

Although lower in price than wheat winter rye is a promising crop for
the drier areas.

stand more drought than clovers, Durum wheat more
than common wheat, and Emmer more than oats or
barley.

It is well appreciated by western fanners that annual
crops yield much more than perennial ones, ami that
those crops which can be sown early and that reach
their greatest growth during the late stages of the rainy
season, and that ripen before the dry autumn months
are the most satisfactory to grow. This is why oats, an
annual crop, is more generally used as hay than the
grasses which are perennial. It explains why sweet
clover yields more on dry land than alfalfa and it is the

DRY FARM CROPPING PRACTICES 93

reason the grain crops are the ones best suited to our
climate.

The value of intertilled crops, particularly those that
are harvested early, as a preparation for grain crops,
has long been appreciated by farmers in dry climates.
Very large yields after corn and fair returns after po-
tatoes are of common occurrence. The difficulty has
been to grow these or similar crops profitably in a large
way at the present time. The economic conditions now
existing favor extensive rather than intensive methods
for the average farmer in the West, although as laud
becomes higher in price and labor and equipment
relatively cheaper, more intensive methods will probably
pay better than extensive ones.

The drought resistant or drought avoiding crops that
are little grown but that promise much for the dry farm-
ing districts of "Western Canada and that warrant very
careful trial are :

Grain crops for sale— Durum wheat.

Rye — Winter and Spring.
Flax.
Grain crops for feed — Two-row barley.

Rye — Winter and Spring.
Emmer — (Value not deter-
mined.)
Early Maturing Oats — (Value

not determined).
Corn — (Value not determined).
Forage crops for permanent pasture — Western rye

grass and brome grass.
Forage crops for hay — Western rye grass, brome

grass, oats, rye and sweet clove*.
Forage crops for soiling — Alfalfa in rows and corn,

94

DRY FARMING

Forage crops for summer pasture- Sweel clover.
Fj?rage crops for fall pasture — Rape and winter rye.
Forage crops for winter fodder — Corn and the straw

of cereals.
Forage crops for succulent winter feed — Corn, oats

and sunflowers.
59. Durum Wheat. — This is a bearded wheat. Long and
stiff in the straw, non- battering and rust and droughl

Fig. 33. — Flax in Bloom in Southern Saskatchewan.
As a ftrsl crop after breaking, particularly on heavy land, ila\ is verj

popular.

resistant. Ii is, however, a macaroni wheal and lias qo1
as ye1 been grown to any extenl as the markel demand
lias been for the common wheats. Ii lias done exception-
ally well in western North and South Dakota ami eastern
Montana and has averaged slightly moiv per acre than
the common spring wheat at Saskatoon. The price is
generally slightly lower than lor hard red ■- p i ■ i i i l; . This
wheal is deserving of careful trial. Kubanka is at pres
ent the besl variety of this elas^. .if wheat.

DRY FARM CROPPING PRACTICES 95

60. Winter Rye. — This is a promising crop for grain,
hay and pasture The relatively low price of rye grain
prevents it competing successfully with wheat where the
hitler can be grown satisfactorily. On some types of
soil and in some seasons, however, the larger yield of
rye is more than sufficient to offset this disadvantage.

61. Spring Rye. — This crop is earlier, hardier and
more drought resistant than -wheat, but like winter rye
the price is relatively low as compared with that of
wheat. On some of the lighter soil types in the dry
areas this crop deserves more extensive use.

62. Flax. — As a dry land crop flax deserves greater
consideration than it has received in the past, particu-
larly on breaking or sod land, and on heavy land that
does not blow. Care should be taken to secure clean
seed, free from disease and to sow thinly on firm soil.

63. — Two-Row Barley. — Most agronomists have hereto-
fore recommended only six-row barleys for Western
Canada. The results of careful tests at Saskatoon and
at points in western North Dakota and Montana indi-
cate, however, that some of the two-row sorts are prob-
ably to be preferred in the southern parts of western
Saskatchewan and eastern Alberta. Hannchen, a two-
row but short-strawed variety, has averaged over fifteen
per cent, more than the highest yielding six-row variety
at Saskatoon. White Smyrna, a two-row, short-strawed
variety is highly recommended in Montana.

64. Emmer. — This is a wheat the seed of winch retains
the hull when threshed. It is used in the dry parts of
some of the states for horse feed but has not so far been
grown much in Western Canada. Its usefulness is.
therefore, still in doubt. Where oats do not do well on
account of dry weather it should he carefully tested. At

96

DRY FARMING

DRY FARM CROPPING PRACTICES 97

present oats is the commonly used grain for horse feed
and where it will produce a larger yield than Bmmer is
to be preferred.

65. Early Oats. — In most parts of Western Canada late
oats are much more productive than early oats. Is this
true in the driest areas? We do not know. The early
oats are more productive in some of the states south of
us. There is perhaps not much promise in early oats but
it is possible that they may avoid the droughts and hot
spells in August and yield as well as late oats. Banner
and Victory are our best late oats, Gold Rain and
Ligowo, the best medium late ones, and Daubeney, one
of the best early ones.

66. Grasses for Hay and Pasture. — The most drought
resistant grasses for the West are Western Rye Grass
and Brome Grass. The latter is the best pasture grass,
but on account of its creeping underground stems is,
like quack grass, somewhat difficult to eradicate. While
these are the best grasses for the dry parts, it does not
follow that they are always profitable ones to grow.
Economic and soil conditions will determine this point.
Nevertheless, wherever perennial grasses are required
for hay, pasture or soil improvement purposes one or
other of these two will be Bound best. Brome has proven
to be more drought resistant than Western Rye Grass.

67. Alfalfa. — This is the best perennial legume for all
parts of the western provinces. It does not yield well
under dry conditions and only the hardiest varieties.
such as '•Grimm'\ will withstand our winters. Under
dry conditions it yields more when sown thinly in rows
and cultivated than when sown broadcast but, of course,

the tillage increases the cost. This crop has not 1 n

\t'\-y extensively grown where the precipitation is less

98 DRY FARMING

than sixteen inches, but a small acreage sown in rows
for soiling dairy cattle or other stock -will be found to
be very satisfactory even in the driest parts.

68. Millet. — The millets are grown only on a very
small acreage. Their chief use is as "catch crops" in
seasons when the hay crop promises partial failure. They
do best in v^arm, moist seasons. In early spring they
make but little headway, and they suffer injury from
the first fall frost. They promise most as catch crops in
the dry belt and do best when sown earlv in June.

Fig. 35. — Cutting Sweet Clover at Saskatoon, Saskatchewan.

Sweet clover is probably Die best biennial legume forage plant for r
having less than sixteen inches of precipitation.

Where oats can lie grown satisfactorily Eor hay it is
questionable whether it pays to grow millet.

69. Sweet Clover. — This crop has been little grown
as yet by western farmers. 1 1 is. however, the most suit-
able biennial legume for the dry parts, in spite of its
coarseness and bitterness. In those arras where the
grasses do not yield well, and particularly where the
soil is lacking in organic mailer or for any reason is in
poor tilth, lids crop promises much as a forage and a
soil improver. Only northern grown strains should be

DRY FARM CROPPING PRACTICES 99

used, the tenderer ones from the South often failing to
Live through our severe winters.

70. Rape. — As late summer and fall pasturage for beef
cattle, sheep and swine, rape sown in rows two to three
feet part and cultivated has proven an excellent crop.

71. Corn. — The future of corn in the dry belt is quite
promising. The yield of grain is low and the value of the
forage in the very dry parts is not high in relation to
its cost, yet the crop leaves the soil in such a favorable
condition for subsequent grain crops that its more gen-
eral utilization for fodder, silage, pasture or grain seems
almost essential on the lighter, warmer soils ii1 th" drier
sections of the southern prairies. It is altogethru i,n <>!.»-
able that corn will to a limited extent be used in such
areas as a partial substitute for the fallow. Corn
ground that has been kept clean has yielded practically
as much grain as the fallow at several stations in the
semi-arid belt of Canada as well as in the United States.

72. Sunflowers. — This crop has averaged nearly twice
as large a yield as corn at Saskatoon during the past six
years. Until the last two or three seasons it has not
been considered of any value as fodder, but recent trials
in Montana, and at Saskatoon as well, indicate that it
can be quite satisfactorily ensiled and that the cattle
eat it apparently with relish and do well upon it. The
sunflower is so productive and so hardy that if it proves
as good a silage crop as the early trials indicate, it will
be a safe and probably a profitable crop to grow.

73. Suitable Crop Management Practices.— The crop
management practices the farmer in the dry portions of
the Canadian West should avoid are Late seeding, thick
seeding, shallow seeding, late harvesting and the use
of varieties that shatter easily or that are too short in the

100

DRY FARMING

straw. Each of these in dry seasons and in dry areas is
likely to result in lessening the yield.

74. The Time to Sow. — The chief factors in determin-
ing' the best time to sow are the temperature and moist-
ure conditions
of the soil and
the danger from
spring and fall
frosts. If crops
are sown too
early they may
be injured by
late spring
frosts or the
seeds may die
hi' fore the seed-
lings get above
ground. Aside
from this dan-
ger the seeding
of our hardy
•ovals — wheat,
rye, oats and

Fig. 36. — Sudan Grass at the Manitoba Agricul- barley should

tural College. , , .

This grass is very productive in warm moist ClOllt iail\.

climates, but does not do particularly well in Tf 4.1, (1 cpprlrna

Western Canada, except in very warm, moist aeeuiug

seasons. ,..,„ ])e done

early enough the moisture from the melting snows
will germinate the seed, otherwise in fall or spring
plowing the germination may be seriously retarded
owing to lack of moisture in the furrow slice. Climatic
and soil conditions vary greatly from season to season
and thus influence greatly the time to put in a crop. As

■

B**H

"fi '$'■ Till: ftfllSH

BtfjflHSfrjj^fr^

ffijSy \j5fj5

*

&m\

DRY FARM CROPPING PRACTICES 1 01

a general rule, however, the following dates of seeding
and planting will be found satisfactory : —

April— loth to 30th— Wheat.

April— 25th to May 10th— Peas.

May — 1st 10 days — Oats and Carrots.

May — 1st 3 weeks — Barley and Spring Rye

May— 10th to 30th— Flax, Potatoes, Mangels and
Swedes.

May— 20th to June 10th — Corn, Sunflowers.
June — 1st 3 weeks — Grasses, Clovers, Alfalfa (Grasses
and clovers may be sown with nurse crops at
an earlier date).

75. The Amount to Sow. — Thin seeding is a recognized
dry farm practice. The drier the district the less seed
need be used while the more humid the district and the
shorter the growing season the greater the quantity that
should be sown. Campbell recommends as little as 18
to 20 pounds of winter wheat, 22 to 25 pounds of spring
wheat, 20 to 25 pounds of oats, and 35 to 40 pounds of
barley per acre in the dry parts of the Western stales.
The United States Department of Agriculture recom-
mends the following rates for Montana : Wheat, 1 bushel ;
oats, 1 to 134 bushels; barley, 1 to 1% bushels; flax, 15
to 20 pounds. For the dry parts of Western Canada
rather heavier seedings than those recommended for
Montana should be used. Of course, in the more hum id
sections of the West considerably heavier seedings are
necessary since a thinly seeded crop lakes rather Longer
to mature and therefore runs a greater risk of injury
from fall frost or rust than one sown with more seed.
The amounts that have proven best in the average of

many tests at Saskatoon which is on il Ige of the

driest part are as follows: — Wheat, 1 to 1 ' _■ bushels;

102 DRY FARMING

oats, 2 to V/z bushels; barley, 1!4 to 1^4 bushels; and
iiax, 20 to 30 pounds.

76. Sow Into the Moisture. — In dry areas the limiting
factor in germination is usually moist hit. In this
climate very little rain falls in the early spring and if
germination is to be assured seeding into the moisture
is necessary. Man's pari is to prepare the laud in such
a way that the top of the moist soil is not at too great a
depth from the surface. .

77. Non-Shattering Varieties. — Very greal losses fre-
quently occur through the shelling of over-ripe or easily

Fig. 36a. — Harvesting Short Wheat with a Header in Southern Alberta.

This method of harvesting has not come into general use in tin west, but
with short crops in areas of lowest rainfall it has some advantages over
the ordinary method of harvesting.

shattered heads as a result of heavy winds a1 harvesl
time. In order to lessen this danger two practices may
be followed, 1st, use crops that do not shatter readily.
I) nd 2nd, cut before the crop is dead ripe. Among the
wheal varieties that shatter Leasl are the Durum I
and Marquis. Kubanka seldom shatters even under the
worsl conditions while Marquis is known to lie more non-
shattering than any other of our commonly grown
varieties

78. Short vs. Long Straw. — In Avy areas and particu-

DRY FARM CROPPING PRACTICES 103

larly in dry seasons the short-strawed varieties of crops
are often found to yield less than longer-strawed ones.
It is possible that the actual production may not be Less
but the amount harvested and threshed frequently is.
This is probably due to the inefficiency of our harvesting-
machinery; the result however is the same. The longer
and heavier-st rawed varieties probably as a rub' use
more moisture in manufacturing- straw than do the
others ; nevertheless, it is a fact that in some seasons and
on some soils varieties like Red Fife which have a long
straw are preferred to varieties like Marquis which
have a short straw.

CHAPTER VI.
THE PRINCIPLES OF TILLAGE

Tillage is the manipulation of the soil by means of
implements for the purpose of making a mote favorable
environment for the growth of useful plants.

79. The Chief Functions of Tillage. — During the long
ages in which our besl crops have been developed by
man as he sought plants to supply Hood f< v himself or
his domestic animals, the ability possessed by the original
wild forms to rustle for themselves has largely been lost.
None of our cultivated plants can compete with the wild
forms and continue to exist without the aid of man. The
first function of tillage is to furnish the protection these
highly developed plants require from the aggressive
competition of wild and useless forms.

The first home of the human race was where food
plants grew wild and furnished sustenance for man with-
out his ea re. As population increased and food became
scarcer these plants were fostered by growing them
under more favorable environment. The ancient civil-
ization of Egypl grew up where the Nile overflowed its
hanks and watered the thirsty fields, while that of the
Orient developed around the coastal plains above which
the mountain streams were harnessed and made to water
the tilled fields. In the recent history n\' the race men
have grown crops on lands that could not lie watered r\-

104

THE PRINCIPLES OF TILLAGE 105

cept directly from the clouds in the form of precipita-
tion. And in very recent times we have even ventured
to grow crops in areas where the rainfall is so light that
crop failures sometimes occur. In such areas the stor-
age and conservation of moisture in the soil is essential
to crop production, and tillage is the chief means at
man's disposal for accomplishing it. This constitutes
the second function of tillage.

In our cropping and soil management practices we
sometimes create in the soil an artificial condition un-
suitable to the growth of plant roots. If these practices
result in the loss of organic matter, the soil becomes hard
and "bakes" easily or blows with the wind. Under such
conditions tillage has a third function, viz., to improve
the tilth or physical condition of the land as by the
pulverizing action of the plow, or the firming action of
the packer or the loosening effect of the cultivator.

In growing crops all portions of the plants are not
always removed from the land. The stubble at least.
generally remains and must be disposed of. Where
strawy manure is applied in an endeavor to maintain
the organic matter of the soil or for other purposes il
too musi be gotten out of the way of seeding machinery.
Tlie fourth function of tillage is the disposal of this
stubble and manure by plowing it under where it will
decay.

The last important function of tillage is t<> prepare
a satisfactory s 1 bed or place for the seed t<> germin-
ate. It is necessary to leave the surface soil in such con-
dition that when seed is placed in the ground by the
seeding implements used, it will find in sufficient
quantities the factors necessary for germination, viz.,
moisture, heat and air.

106 DRY FARMING

ft *

80. — Objections to Excessive Tillage. — Of all the means

at man's disposal for improving- soil conditions and
fostering the growth of useful plants, tillage is the most
expensive, the most practised, usually the most im-
portant, and generally the least understood. In this as
in other soil management practices the causes of lower
returns must first be determined and then the best means
of counteracting them put into practice.

To till the ground when it accomplishes no good pur-
pose is useless and expensive and may be harmful. In-
tensive tillage to control weeds sometimes fails of its
purpose because it keeps the surface layer of soil too dry
for germination, while the same practice carried to ex-
cess in an effort to conserve moisture often defeats the
larger purpose of producing high yields, by putting the
soil into a condition in which it will blow. Jethro T nil's
teaching that "tillage is manure" is true only up to a
certain point. Excessive tillage is not only not manure,
but it is often useless, always expensive and generally
economically unsound.

Since society has developed into groups of people,
some doing one class of work and some another, crop
growing has become a business and crop production, in-
cluding tillage, has a business or a cost side to be con
sidered. Tillage costs money; up to a certain point
suitable and timely tillage always pays; beyond that
point it is not good business. It need hardly be pointed
out that the common error is not in excessive tillage, but
in its being untimely, unsuitable or inefficient. The
problem of tillage is one of timeliness, suitability for the
purpose intended and efficiency of the operation.

81. Implements of Tillage. — The implements used in
tillage are of three general classes, (1) plows, (2), soil

THE PRINCIPLES OP TILLAGE

107

looseners (including weed cutters), and (3) soil tinners.
The value of any of the three classes is determined by
(1) its efficiency in performing the work desired, (2) its
draft, (3) its cost, and (4) its durability. It is not our
purpose to discuss the draft or cost or durability of the
different types, although these are very important
phases of the subject, but to consider very briefly the
functions of the different classes of tillage implements
and their relative suitability for specific purposes.

Plows.

82. The Function of the Plow. — The function of the
plow is to cut off all the roots of plants, to turn the fur-

Stubble Bottom

General Purpose

Black Land

Rod Breaker

Fig. 37. — Types of Bottoms.

row upside down and completely cover all vegetation and
Litter, to pulverize the soil, to break up a hard subsoil,
to leave the surface as smooth as possible ' in this
climate i after the operation and to do any or all of
these at the lowest possible cost, in plowing, plants are
killed by cutting off the roots below the crowns and by

108

DRY FARMING

turning their vegetative parts under the furrow slier.
The roots are cut by the sharp share and the vegetation
is turned under by the upward sloping, outward curv-

37a. — The Disc Plow.

ing mouldboard (Fig 37). The covering is facilitated
by having a straight-edged furrow which the coulter
(Fig. 37C) makes. The effectiveness of the covering may
be increased by the jointer or skim coulter, or by drag
chains. The surface litter, of whatever form, is disposed
of by thorough covering.

The soil is pulverized least by a long sloping mould-
hoard (breaker bottom) and most by an abrupt mould-
hoard (stubble bottom). The former is used in sod
plowing because it turns a sod furrow better and the
draft is lighter. The Latter is used in stubble land be-
cause it turns the stubble furrow belter and pulverizes
more. (Fig. 37.).

When it IS desired to loosen lip heavy subsoil deep
plowing may be practised or a subsoil plow or subsoil
attachment (Fig. 37B) may follow in the furrow of the
ordinary plow.

Kinds of Plows. — There are mouldboard and disc
plows; and among the mouldboard types there are sod

THE PRINCIPLES OF TILLAGE

109

and stubble plows of many patterns. Each of these
may be fitted with coulters, jointers and weed rods or
drag chains, and the coulters may be "rolling", "knife"

Fig. 37b. — Subsoil Attachment on Mouldboard Plow.

or ''fin". But all are plows and all have the same
functions.

The Pulverizing Action of the Mouldboard Plow.—
.lust how the mouldboard plow pulverizes the soil is
well illustrated by King (Fig. 38 A). If one takes a
paper-covered book and bends it abruptly as when
about to scan its pages rapidly, it will give him some
idea of what happens to the soil as it passes up over the
mouldboard of a stubble plow. The relative change in
position of the particles in the furrow slice is shown
by comparing the line 3-3 before the soil is pulverized
with the line 1-1 after it has passed the slope of the
mouldboard.

110

DRY FARMINC

The ideal soil condition for plowing varies with the
kind of soil and its moisture content. Soil that is too
wvl or too dry does not pulverize well, particularly if
it is of a heavy type. Such soil is out of "condil ion" and
as a result gives less favorable returns. In autumn in

Fig. 37c. — Types of Coulters.
1. Blade coulter; 2. Revolving coulter and skimmer; 3. Revolving coulter;

4. Fin coulter.

the dry parts of Western Canada some of our soils are
not in good condition for plowing. In spring and sum-
mer a better condition usually obtains.

The type of mouldboard to use should be governed by
(1) the kind of soil, (2) whether it is in sod or stubble,
and (3) its normal moisture content. There is a type
of mouldboard suitable for almost every soil. The more
abrupt the slope the better the scouring quality, but, of
course, the greater the draft on account of tin' extra
pulverization that is accomplished. The common types
are the sod bottom (including rods for heavy gumbo),
the stubble bottom (including slats for hard scouring
soil) and the general purpose bottoms. These different
bottoms are generally interchangeable with each other
on the same make and size of plow.

THE PRINCIPLES OP TILLAGE

111

112 DRY FARMING

In. some sticky soils the ordinary mouldboard plow
will not "clean", and in breaking the prairie, plows hav-
ing- rods (Fig. 37) instead of sheet mouldboards are
used. These clean better and result in less friction and
therefore lighter draft than the .sheet mouldboard type
and are the best to use in breaking "loose top" and some
other sticky soils.

83. The Disc Plow. — On stubble fields in heavy land
where the mouldboard plow will not clean, the disc plow
(Fig. 37A) is used. This does not cut grass roots nor
cover weeds, nor pulverize the soil as well as a mould-
board plow where the latter will clean. Where a mould-
board plow will not clean it is not satisfactory for any
of these purposes. It requires more frequent sharpen-
ing than the disc, and it pulls harder-; but where it can
be used at all satisfactorily the mouldboard type is gen-
erally to be preferred over a disc plow.

84. Coulters. — Coulters are used on mouldboard plows
1<> cut the edge of the furrow, thus at once lessening the
draft and making it possible to do a better job of cutting
roots and covering rubbish. There are different kinds of
coulters such as "fin", "knife", "rolling coulter" and
"skim coulter" or "jointer". The rolling coulter is
mostly used in the West. It should be set about half
;ui inch outside the line of the landside and should cu1
at least one-third the depth of the Eurrow. In trash}
ground it should be set well forward to give more clear-
ance, while in stony ground it should be set well down
as well as ahead. The skim coulter does good work under
some conditions in helping to cover weeds. Combination
skim and rolling coulters are very common as are also
those of the fin and knife type. (Fig. :'.7< '

THE PRINCIPLES OF TILLAGE

113

Soil Looseners.

Among the soil looseners — and these include inter-
tilling machines — are those having discs, cutting blades
or stirring points. Those having revolving discs are
known as disc harrows, while most of those having stir-
ring points are called drag harrows. Those having
cutting blades may have spring teeth, "duck" feet, or
long slanting knives and are generally spoken 6f as

Fig. 39. — Types of Cultivators,
(a) Wide-bladed or duck-foot cultivator; (b) Spring-tooth cultivator;
(c) Narrow- bladed two-row intertillage cultivator; (d) Alfalfa renovator

at work.

cultivators. But all are soil looseners and their chief
functions are to control weed growth and to loosen
llie surface soil in order to kill weeds or make a soil
mulch or admit air.

85. Cultivators. — The cultivators have cutting points
of various widths and designs. The wide bladed or
'•duck footed" types ( Pig. 39A) arc chiefly used to cut

114 DRY FARMING

off weeds below the surface and the narrow bladed types
(Figs. 39B, 39D) to loosen up hard ground or to dig
out the creeping roots of such plants as quack grass.

A type of cultivator developed for stirring the soil
and cutting weeds between rows of plants like potatoes
and corn and known as an intertillage cultivator, differs
from the others in form of carriage but not in function
nor in mode of action. (Fig. 39 C).

86. Disc Harrows.— The disc harrow (Fig. 40 A. & B.)
is used chiefly to loosen up the surface of soddy ground
like breaking, or to cultivate the surface of stubble fields
to conserve moisture or kill weeds, or to form a seed bed
on stubble or plowed land. In view of its peculiar
structure it ridges the land if "lapping half" is not
practised or a double disc used. The alfalfa renovator
(Fig. 40D) is especially designed (1) to dig the fibrous
rooted grasses out of alfalfa and (2) to loosen up the
surface of alfalfa fields without too serious injury to
the plant roots.

On account of its rolling action the disc harrow can
be used under many conditions. In the "West its chief
function has been working down the virgin prairie sod.
The standard disc harrow has either full round discs or
cutaway blades usually 16 inches in diameter, sixteen in
number and spaced six inches apart, This is the four-
horse size. The sixteen-inch discs rotate at greater speed
than the larger ones and thus pulverize the ground more ;
they have less bearing surface on their edges and there-
fore more penetration.

Single disc harrows should have one lever Bor each
gang. When "lapping over", i.e., allowing the disc to
extend half way over the work of the previous round, is
practised the ground is left level and not ridged. The

THE PRINCIPLES OF TILLAGE

Hi

gang working on the once disked ground finds a dif-
ferent resistance from the one working on the un-
disked ground, hence does not "balance". By setting
tile gang on the loose soil at a different angle the imple-

Fig. -40. — Types of Disc Harrow.

(a) Pull bladed disc; (b) Double disc; (c) Spade harrow; (d) Spiked
disc or alfalfa renovator.

incut may be made to pull straight and thus do better
work. In hillside work the machine has a tendency to
crowd downhill. This can be overcome when levers are
provided for adjusting each gang separately.

The full bladed and cutaway discs are the two most
common types. The former does better work although
excellent results have been obtained from a double disc
with full blades on the front and cutaway blades on the
rear.

In recent years a disc attachment for seeders has been
largely used. The "single disc'' drill (Pig. 43C) is a
disc harrow which cultivates the soil to some extent as
well as sows the seed. The double bse on the other hand

116

DRY FARMING

is not a harrow or cultivator but only a seeder.
(Fig. 43D).

87. Drag" or Smoothing1 Harrows. — The purpose of the
drag or smoothing harrow is to prepare a level and uni-
form surface after other kinds of tillage, or to destroy
young weeds by exposing their roots to the sun and air,
or to form a mulch on the surface to conserve moisture
or to aid in covering the seed after sowing. The drag
harrow may be heavy or light, have wooden or steel
frames and the teeth may be stationary (Fig. 41 A) or

effiw;?"

Fig. 41. — Types of Harrows.

(a) Steel harrow; (b) Adjustable harrow; (c) Spring tooth harrow
(d) Acme harrow.

adjustable (Fig. 41B). The light lever harrow with
teeth sloping slightly backward is frequently used in
the growing crop of grain, corn or potatoes for killing
small weeds.

The spring tooth harrow I Fig. 410) has the same
function as the spring tooth cultivator. II is lighter in
draft but less efficient.

The acme harrow (Fig. 41D) smooths the surface, cuts
small weeds and forms a mulch, but it is not well
adapted 1u general use under average farm conditions.

THE PRINCIPLES OP TILLAGE
Soil Firmers.

117

Among the implements that firm the soil and thus
crush lumps or lessen the air spaces, or pack the soil
about the seed, are the home-made planker or scrubber
and the press attachment for drills. All of these are
soil firmers or clod crushers of different degrees of ef-
ficiency and of vastly different cost. One may fit certain
specific soil conditions better than another. Each has a
place in the economy of some particular farm and most

Fig. 42. — Types of Soil Firmers.

(a) Surface packer or pulverizer; (b) Subsurface packer: (c) Culti-
packer; (d) Smooth roller; (e) Float and planker.

of them when used intelligently will prove a profitable
investment. Yet no one is absolutely essential on any
farm. The work of firming the soil can be accomplished

118 DRY FARMING

with other implements though generally not so efficient-
ly as with the machines designed for that purpose.

There are six more or less distinct types of soil firni-
ers, (1) the surface packers, ''pulverizers" or clod
crushers (Fig. 42 A), (2) the sub-surface packers (Fig.
42B), (3) the so-called "eulti-packer" (Fig. 42C), (4)
the smooth roller (Fig. 42D), (5) floats and plankers
(Fig. 42E) and (6) the press attachments for grain
drills. (Fig. 43 A).

88. The Purpose of Soil Firmers. — The chief function
of all six types of soil firmers is to aid in facilitating
the movement of moisture from the subsoil to the furrow
slice or in bringing the moisture of the soil into closer
contact with the seed or roots of plants. On ••breaking",
any one of the first four types may be used to press the
furrow slice against the subsoil; the surface and sub-
surface packers are generally considered best but the
home-made float or planker requires less power and is
cheaper. After stubble plowing one or other of the
packers is usually preferred. In the drier parts the
subsurface packer is commonly used and in oilier areas
on late plowed fallows and on fall and spring plowing
it is preferred by some. It is, however, less of a general
purpose packer, and is in reality less used in the West
than the surface or corrugated packer. The •viilli-
packer" is an excellent implement to pack the soil about
the seed after seeding, but for any other purpose it is
not considered to be superior to the surface packer.

The plankers are chiefly used as levellers, but on
breaking their value is in flattening out the plowed fur-
rows. They are sometimes used on stubble fields after
seeding where some additional soil over the seed is de-

THE PRINCIPLES OF TILLAGE

no

sirable and where, owing to the stubble, harrows do not
work satisfactorily.

The smooth roller is but little used in the West. Its
function is similar to that of the surface packer but it
is less desirable than the latter since it leaves the surface
too fine and with too little mulch and in a condition
favorable to blowing. The surface packer leaves a
granular mulch and a surface that is not so likely to
blow.

89. Drills as Tillage Machines. — The chief function of a
seed drill is to place the seed in the soil where it will get

Fig. 43. — Types of Drills.

(a) Hoe drill with press attachment; (h) Shoe drill; (c) Single disc
drill; (d) Double disc drill.

the moisture, heat and air conditions necessary for
growth. Its efficiency as a seeder, aside from its me-
chanical faults or virtues is determined by the depth it
will place the seed and the firmness of the soil about the
seed after the operation. There are four chief types of

120 DRY FARMING

drills, the "shoe" drill, the "hoe" drill, the "single disc"
and the "double disc". (Fig. 43).

The shoe drill (Fig. 43B) can hardly be called a till-
age implement. The hoe drill (Fig. 43 A) is to a slight
degree a cultivator of the narrow tooth type. The single
disc drill (Fig. 43C) is not only a drill but a disc harrow
as well, of rather low efficiency, while the double disc is a
drill only. (Fig. 43D).

Where some cultivation is needed, such as on some un-
plowed stubble fields, the single disc is perhaps best. ( hi
soils that are well prepared and not too hard and where
drifting is feared the old hoe or the shoe drill are quite
satisfactory, particularly on light soils. Where soils are
well prepared, yet quite firm, the double disc is probably
the best to use.

The shoe and hoe drills pull easier and generally re-
quire less repairs than the discs but on all except light
soil or well prepared land they are not at present as
popular as the discs.

90. Press Drills. — The press attachment is a packer and
perhaps the most efficient one from the point of view of
the seed. It packs the ground where it needs packing at
the time it needs it, and leaves unpacked the portion
that is best left loose. But the press drill as at present
constructed is costly, heavy to pull, somewhat dif-
ficult to operate, particularly in sticky soil, and is likely,
as a rule, to require more repairs than mosl other types
of drill. It is coming into quite general use on soils that
drift and is often found on medium type soils in the dry
belt. (Fig. 43B).

CHAPTER VII.
BREAKING THE VIRGIN PRAIRIE

"Breaking" is the western term for the first plowing
of the native prairie land. It is the first tillage opera-
tion undertaken by the settler in order to make the raw
prairie sod suitable for the growing of cultivated crops.
The breaking is usually followed by more or less tillage
the same season and may include a second plowing,
which is spoken of as "backsetting". When this second
plowing is not given the surface tillage usually consists
of packing or "planking", disking and harrowing. If
the intention is to backset, the breaking is done shallow,
but if not, it is the custom to break more deeply.

When the breaking is done in the spring, it is some-
times sown to grain the same year. In the dry districts
this practice frequently results in partial or complete
failure but in wet years or in the more humid parts fair
yields are sometimes secured. The plan usually follow-
ed is to leave the land without a crop until the next
season.

In the early days, when the tillage of prairie sod was
not so well understood, new breaking was not expected
to give a good crop. Even now new settlers frequently
fail to get good returns from their first efforts. There is,
however, no good reason why the first crop should not be
an excellent one in the average year.

121

122

DRY FARMING

91. Why We Till Prairie Sod.— The function of tilling
prairie sod in semi-arid climates is threefold : —

1. To store and conserve moisture in the soil.

2. To kill the native vegetation, and

3. To prepare a suitable seed bed.

92. How Moisture is Stored and Conserved in New Land.
— The storage and conservation of moisture is necessarv

Fig. ii. — Breaking with Tractor.

No skips or misses but land too dry for a smooth job. — Courtesy
Dominion Experimental Farms.

before profitable crops can be raised on new land. This
is accomplished by (1) killing the native vegetation
early in the growing season, (2) by preventing the "run-
off", and (3) by preventing the excessive drying out of
the furrow slice.

All prairie land is covered with a growth of grass and
other plants native to the district. These use up moist-
ure in just as large quantities as weeds or domestic
crops. (See Sec. 168). Most of them make their greatest

BREAKING THE VIRGIN PRAIRIE 123

growth early in the season, hence the sooner the plowing
is done the greater the amount of water conserved.

Native prairie does not readily take in all the water
that falls upon it especially if the land is rolling or hilly.
Plowed land on the other hand absorbs water more
readily than unplowed land. Breaking early in the
rainy season gives, therefore, greater opportunity for
the soil to absorb moisture and breaking crosswise of
the slopes, if possible and practicable, facilitates the
absorption of a greater part of the run-off from melting
snow the next spring.

The loss of moisture by evaporation from the furrow
slice and from the subsoil of a freshly broken field is very
great for the reason that, not only the top of the furrow,
but generally its sides and often its bottom, and the fur-
row bottom as well, are exposed to the drying influence of
the wind. This loss of moisture is lessened by (1) turn-
ing the furrow perfectly flat, (2) bringing it against
the subsoil with a packer or planker, and (3) disking
to fill in the cracks between the furrows as soon as the
latter are sufficiently decayed to permit of this being done
without turning up unrotted sods.

Plowing the prairie sod results in partial or complete
killing of the native plants and in making the soil re-
ceptive to rains, thus at once preventing loss by trans-
piration and by run-off. Then, by packing and disking
the loss of moisture by evaporation is lessened and more
is conserved for the use of the subsequent crop. The
longer the disking is left undone after breaking the bet-
ter the land will "work up" but the sooner the loose
layer can be created on the surface the more moisture
there will be saved.

124

DRY FARMING

93. Killing the Native Prairie Plants. — The native
vegetation consists chiefly of grasses and various shrubs,
such as rose bushes and wolf willow. Some of these
plants are fibrous-rooted while others, such as native

Fig. 45. — Breaking with Oxen.
Not an unfamiliar sight in the early days of land settlement in the west.

quack and the rose bushes have underground stems or
"creeping roots". These plants can be killed only by
plowing. Fibrous-rooted plants can be killed by once
plowing if followed by reasonable surface cultivation.
I 'ivt'ping-rooted ones are less easily disposed of, and in
order to completeley eradicate them it is necessary either
to break and backset or to break in a dry time and let
the furrow slice dry out before it is surface-cultivated.
It is obvious, therefore, that on land that is to be
plowed only once, the best practice for conserving
moisture is not the most efficient for killing the creep-

BREAKING THE VIRGIN PRAIRIE 125

ing-rooted grasses; plowing once will be successful in
the latter respect only in proportion to the dryness of
the season. In other words if the season is a wet one,
the perennial plants are not likely to be eradicated by
plowing once. It is apparent, therefore, that the
specific practices to be followed must be determined by
the local and seasonal conditions of soil and climate.

It is, however, always a good policy to plan to get rid
of creeping-rooted plants the year the breaking is done

f^\

30 bu
22 lbs

n

Z7bu.
38.lte

r*S

^S

IT'S

15. bu.

Fig. 46. — June Breaking Pays in the Dry Belt.

This chart illustrates the average yield secured on breaking done during

June, July, August and September and the following spring on a clay loam

soil in West Central Saskatchewan.

if at all practicable, otherwise they will be a drain on
the productiveness of the land and in any case will have
to be eradicated later at probably an added cost. As a
rule if creeping-rooted plants are present and known to
be difficult to eradicate, breaking and backsetting is to
be recommended; if they are not present or are found in
such small numbers thai they are not difficult to control,

126 DRY FARMING

deep breaking with adequate cultivation "will prove a
somewhat less expensive method of preparing sod land,
and in many places, especially in dry areas, equally
effective.

Plowing late in June or early in July, rather than at
an earlier date, favors the eradication of all creeping-
rooted plants for the double reason that subsequent to
these dates the rainfall is generally less and the vitality
of the plants lower than before.

For the same reason plowing once is more likely to
be adequate in dry areas than in wet ones, and plowing
twice more advisable in moist areas than in dry. If a
long breaking season is contemplated a practice very
much to be commended is to break shallow up to the 15th
or 20th of June (in the dry parts) and after thai date
break deeply. The early shallow breaking may then be
backset after the sod decays, and the later deeper break-
ing may be prepared by disking. Land carrying a tail
or dense growth of scrub cannot be satisfactorily plowed
a second time in the same season.

94. Preparation of the Seed Bed. — After killing the
native plants of the prairie and storing a supply of
moisture for the crop, it is important that the soil be
left :.n such condition that the requirements of germina-
tion and future growth may be easily and abundantly
supplied to the seeds and roots of the crop. To insure
that these requirements be met it is necessary (1) thai
the furrow slice be firmly in contact with the subsoil so
that the subsoil moisture may not be prevented from
moving to the seed and roots of the crop; (2) thai the
soil be prepared in sueh a manner thai sufficient moist-
ure for germination will be within one to three inches of
the surface so thai too deep seeding may not be neceg-

BREAKING THE VIRGIN PRAIRIE 127

sary, and (3) that a mellow layer of soil be formed on
the surface to function efficiently as a seed covering after
the passage of the drill. The use of the packer, disc and
harrow in the order mentioned and at the right time is
the best way to accomplish the desired results. Ordin-
arily, the land is firmed down by a packer or pi anker
scon after plowing, disked as soon as the sod has partial-
ly rotted and then harrowed to prepare a uniform ana
lev^l si 11 face.

95. Some Desirable Practices in "Breaking" Prairie Sod.
— Most of the practices to be discussed under this head-
ing might easily be inferred from what has already been

Tig. 47.- — Improper Breaking for Dry Areas.
The furrow slice instead of lying on the corner of its neighbor should

lie flat.

said. In discussing them it should be kept in mind that
a practice that is best in one district may not be good in
another. Each so-called "desirable" practice should
therefore be considered in its relation to the needs of the
situation, the presence of creeping-rooted plants and the
average rainfall being the chief determining factor.

96. Break Early to Obtain Maximum Yields. — The de-
crease in yield of wheal on breaking done after the
tenth of June at Saskatoon has been found to average one
bushel per acre per week. In more humid districts the
decrease will probably be less and in drier districts
greater than this figure. The following table gives the

128 DRY FARMING

average acre yield of different crops on breaking done
at different periods throughout the year.

Table XVI. — Showing the influence of time of breaking on the
yield of different crops in Saskatoon — average of three years
test in crop seasons of 1915, '16 and '17.

Wheat Barley Flax Potatoes Corn
Date of breaking bus. lbs. bus. lbs. bus. lbs. bus. lbs. lbs.

June 10 30 -22 39 - 33_ 19 - 27 215 - 26 30819

July 10 27-38 36-30 18-24 210-16 30239

August 10 22-12 26-29 13-20 157 - 22 22608

September 10 17-27 22-13 13-20 155 - 38 20727

Early Spring* 15-23 19-44 13-43 143-28 18780

There are two fundamental reasons why early break-
ing increases the yield, the first being an increase in the
soil moisture content and the second, a better state of soil
tilth. The increase in soil moisture is due chiefly to the
fact that native plants have been prevented from using
it up and also to the greater facility with which the
cultivated land is able to absorb moisture and prevent
its evaporation. The better soil tilth is due to the faet
that land that is broken early has a much better chance
to disintegrate since it has the necessary moisture to
promote decay and is exposed to the action of the weath-
er for a greater length of time.

97. Plow all the Land. — Good plowing when breaking
prairie sod is probably more importanl than any other
phase of the breaking operations. Poorly plowed break-
ing does not kill all the grass with the result thai no
crop is produced where the "skips" occur, and in the
second and often in subsequent crops this grass increases
and seriously lessens the yield. Poor breaking is the
chief reason for grass in stubble fields which in turn is
one of the chief causes of low yields on such land.

■ Refers to season the crop is sown. The other dales refer to
the previous year.

BREAKING THE VIRGIN PRAIRIE 129

98. Turn the Furrow Over Flat. — The furrow slice
should be turned over flat on the furrow bottom, other-
wise the sod does not rot satisfactorily and the furrow
slice itself dries out too much. It has been observed

Fig 48. — Improper Breaking — after Discing.

Showing the loose, open spaces under the furrow slice which are so

undesirable in dry areas.

that where good plowing is done and the furrow slice
turned down flat, rather than on edge, the sod rots bet-
ter and larger returns are secured.

99. Pack or Plank after Breaking. — For the same rea-
son that sod or prairie land should be turned over flat, it
should also be pressed firmly against the subsurface soil.
For this purpose the land packer or the home-made
planker give excellent results. In the dry summers of
1914 and 1917 the only breaking on which the sod thor-
oughly rotted was that which had been well packed. In
a wet season the necessity for packing is not so great.

On land that contains some creeping-rooted grasses
but which it is not considered necessary to backset the
same season, and in low-lying areas particularly, it is
sometimes advisable to leave the breaking unpacked for
a few days to permit the furrow slice to dry out and thus
aid in killing the grass.

100. Disk Deep Breaking as soon as Possible after it can
be done without Turning up Sods. — -Moisture evaporates
rapidly from the smooth surface and sides and from the

130

DRY FAiniIX(i

bottom of the sod furrow. As soon as disking: can con-
veniently be done without turning up unrotted sods, it
should not be delayed. On some soils it can be done very
soon after breaking, but on others this operation often
Las to be left until the sod is at least partially decayed.
In practice it is usually found advisable to break while

Fig. 49. — In Breaking the Furrow Slice Should be Turned over Flat.

the soil is moist and the land can be easily and quickly
plowed, and to do the disking later when it is difficult
or impossible to plow.

101. Cultivate Sufficiently during the Season to Prevent
the Growth of Native Plants. — If prairie land is broken
and the surface left uncultivated a considerable amount
of moisture is lost as a result of the drying effect of the
wind. At the same time if any of the native plants still
persist they not only establish themselves in the soil hut
they pump out very Large quantities of water. The use
of the discs and harrows often enough to prevent the

BREAKING THE VIRGIN PRAIRIE 131

growth of these plants and to keep the soil from drying
out is essential after the sod has decayed sufficiently to
permit these implements to do good work.

102. To Control Creeping-Rooted Grasses Break Early
and Backset. — It has been pointed out that the primary
object of tilling prairie land is to kill the native vegeta-
tion and increase the moisture content of the soil. Un-
fortunately, the same practices do not always result in
accomplishing both purposes, since the drying out of the
furrow slice is the most effectual way to kill creeping-
rooted grasses. Under most conditions and in most years
both of these objects can be attained by breaking and
backsetting. Single plowing can be depended upon to
eradicate creeping-rooted grasses only if the district is
dry or if it is a dry year in a more moist area, or if it is
done late.

The first crop after breaking and backsetting is often
not much larger than the first crop after deep breaking
that has been surface cultivated, but the second and
later crops are invariably better from the twice-plowed
land. In the year 1913, the second crop of wheat on land
that was broken and backset yielded 14 bushels, 36
pounds of wheat per acre, while the second crop on ad-
joining land that had been broken deep and surface
cultivated was but 4 bushels, 11 pounds per acre. The
difference was due altogether to the presence of native
quack grass in the once-plowed breaking. Single break-
ing and disking is less expensive than breaking and back-
set ting, and when done in good time on soils free from
quack and sweet grass often gives as good results. Back-
Setting in our opinion is advisable only in areas or on
soils where once-plowing does not ordinarily kill the
grass.

132

DRY FARMING

103. Don't Backset if Sod has not Rotted. — In very dry
summers it is more difficult to backset and less difficult
to kill the prairie grasses than in wet summers. In 1914,
as in some other dry years, it was physically impossible

Fig. 50. — A Good Job of Breaking on Medium Light Soil.

in many areas to backset any breaking except that which
had been done early and well packed down. In addition
to this difficulty, it was noticed that even where back-
setting was done the unrotted sod produced a very un-
suitable seed bed and one thai required an unreasonable
amount of surface tillage before it was considered satis
factory.

104. Land Intended to be Backset Should be Broken Shal-
low; that not to be Backset, Deeper. — Deep breaking con-
trols native plan's better than shallow breaking bu1 it
cannol be backsel satisfactorily. If it is the intention
to backset, it is therefore advisable to break shallow. En
some parts it is a fixed practice to plow shallow in the

BREAKING THE VIRGIN PRAIRIE

133

early part of the breaking season and deeper at the lat-
ter end. The early breaking can then be backset after
the breaking season is over. "Shallow" and "deep" are
used here as relative terms. A depth of two to four
inches is generally considered shallow breaking and four
to six inches deep breaking. "Backsetting" should
usually be about two inches deeper than "breaking".

105. Harrow and Pack Backsetting. — The moisture
stored in the subsoil of plowed land must be kept avail-
able to the seed and plant roots. In order that this
condition may obtain, firming the loose soil after back-
setting is advisable. The general practice in the early
days was to harrow such land thoroughly. It is now

51. — Breaking Scrub Land in Manitoba.

generally considered advisable to pack it after smoothing
down with the harrow. If this is done in the fall, the
last tillage operation in the fall should be harrowing or
cult ivating.

134 DRY FARMING

106. "Scrub" Land must be Treated Somewhat Differ-
ently.— On land that carries a growth of bushes and
small wood, backsetting is seldom practicable for the
reason that the growth plowed under does not decay in
time to permit it to be backset. Under these conditions
very deep plowing followed by packing and thorough
surface cultivation is the best procedure.

Early breaking on "scrub" land has all the advantages
of early breaking on prairie land, but because of the fact
that most of our "scrub" land is in the more humid
parts of the country or in areas of low evaporation, it
is not essential that the plowing be done as early as in
the prairie sections. At the same time it is well to keep
in mind that the earlier the work is done the more moist-
ure there will be conserved and the earlier the rubbish
is plowed under the quicker it will decay and leave the
soil in good physical condition.

107. Leave Breaking Uncropped until the Following
Season. — In nearly all cases it will be found more profit-
able to leave the plowed prairie land uncropped until the
following year rather than to sow it the year il is broken.
If a man is beginning farming operations with Little
capital and must have some cash return or grow feed
for stock in the first season it may be good business to
sow some crops on new breaking. This, however,
should seldom be practised in the eastern Chinook
region. It gives best results in the park bell and east-
ern portion of the prairie area. In any case the work
should be done early and well. The practice is risky
but occasionally results satisfactorily. It is not one to be
recommended in the drier districts because it fails too
frequently, and whether it fails or not, leaves the land in
poor condition for the next crop.

BREAKING THE VIRGIN PRAIRIE 135

Flax has proven the best cash crop for spring break-
ing in the prairie area, and oats the best feed crop in all
parts. Corn does very well on spring breaking and has
the advantage of leaving the soil in good condition for
another crop. Potatoes are sometimes planted under the
sod with fair results in favorable seasons.

108. The "Breaking" up of Cultivated Grass Land. —
In general the practices found advisable in breaking
prairie sod apply also to the plowing up of cultivated
grass land. The drier the district the greater the neces-
sity of June breaking. In parts of Manitoba, northern
Saskatchewan and northern Alberta plowing immediate-
ly after the hay crop is removed in July is found to give
very satisfactory results except in abnormally dry years.
Packing or planking after breaking is advisable. Back-
setting is never necessary if the grass is western rye or
timothy or mixtures of either of these with clover. But
if brome grass or Kentucky blue grass is grown backset-
ting will be necessary to control it. The former is much
more persistent than the latter, but even the Kentucky
blue grass is difficult to kill with only one plowing. We
have also found that the hardy alfalfas cannot be satis-
factorily killed by once-plowing. A shallow plowing
early in the season followed by packing, and then back-
setting after the ground has well settled and before the
growth of un killed plants becomes too strong, is a good
procedure with this crop. Where backsetting is not
necessary the general practice is to pack the land, double
disc it as soon as convenient, and harrow to give it a uni-
form and level surface for seeding.

CHAPTER VIII.
PREPARING PARK REIT LAND FOR ITS FIRST CROP

The southern part of each of the Prairie Provinces is
an open plain, for the most part free from trees. On
the northern border of this treeless region the character
of the vegetation changes until an intermixture of trees,
shrubs and open prairie is found which gives to the
landscape an added beauty and suggests the name by
which it is commonly known, the park belt.

109. Location and Extent/ — The southern edge of this
belt touches the international boundary line near the
eastern boundary of Manitoba and passes generally in a
northwesterly direction, reaching its most northerly
point in the western part of central Saskatchewan, from
which point it turns gradually southward until
it touches the foot hills of the Rocky Mount-
ains in southern Alberta. No clearly marked boundary
between the prairie and park belt exists. In some of the
prairie area there are places where "scrub" and even
small "bluffs" may be found. Likewise in the park belt
there are frequently found large areas of open prairie. To
the north of the park belt very little open prairie is
found, the vegetation is more dense and the trees are as
a rule larger than in the park belt. The width of this
intermediate /one or park belt varies from a few to many
miles. ■•

136

PREPARING LAND FOR FIRST CROP 137

110. General Characteristics. — -Within the boundaries
of the park belt may be found as many different .soil
types and almost as great a variety of climatic "on-
ditions as exists on the prairie to the south of it. In

jfig. 52. — Typical Scene in the Park Belt of Manitoba.

some respects, however, all parts of this region are com-
parable; they present the same problems to the settler;
the growing season is generally shorter and the evapor-
ation less than in the prairie areas adjoining; hay and
pasture crops as a rule do better than in the open plains
immediately to the south ; the production of coarse
grains, mostly oats, is the general but not exclusive
practice, the early ripening varieties of wheat and some
barley also being grown ; and the practice of mixed
farming is the general rule.

111. Climatic Conditions. — The precipitation is gener-
ally thought to be higher than in the open plains, al-
though the meteorological records do not make this very
evident. The evaporation of moisture from the soil is
probably less owing to the lower average temperature

138

DRY FARMING

and lower wind velocity. The frost-free season is short-
er than on the prairies and the danger from early fall
frosts and summer frost is greater.

112. Character of Vegetation. - In addition to the
grasses and leguminous plants which usually occupy
the open spaces many species of shrubs and trees are to

be found. From
the point of
view of the set-
tler the latter
may all be
elassed as either
brush, or trees
of different size.
By brush is gen-
erally meant the
small s h r u b s
that may be cul
with a scythe, a
scrub hook or a
mowing ma-
chine, or which
may be plowed
under with a
heavy plow. The small trees are those that after being
cut with an axe or burned off leave a root which is
not too large to prevent plowing. The larger trees vary
from four inches to a foot or more in diameter and un-
less burning is practised these have cither (1) Id be
chopped down and the roots grubbed out, {'2) to be
pulled over by horses or engine power and the roots re-
moved from the soil, or (3) In be cu1 down by brush

Fig. 53. — Removing Small Trees with Tractor.

PREPARING LAND FOR FIRST CROP 139

cutters or by hand labor and the ground then plowed
by using specially built scrub plows, after which the
roots are removed.

113. Methods of Removing "Scrub".— Where labor is
cheap the best and most satisfactory way is to have the
scrub grubbed out by hand, using grub hoes and axes.
In a few dis-
tricts cheap
labor may yet be
secured ; where
contracts have
been let to half-
breed workmen,
the results have
been very satis-
factory.

When cheap
labor cannot be
obtained scrub
may be pulled
with a team of
horses. A strong
chain or steel
cable is put
around a tree or
clump of small
trees at a height of six or eight feet; these trees are then
drawn out. The roots below the stump are forced out of
tbe ground when the tree is drawn over, and if Lhey are
too heavy for the horses to pull clear of the soil they are
chopped off below the stump. When this method is em-
ployed, a good teamster is needed if one does not wish
his horses spoiled for steady drawing.

Fig. 54. — Pulling Trees with Tractor.
Showing method of attaching chain.

140

DRY FARMING

A plan similar to the above but in which tractor

power rather than horse power is used is coming into
more general use. This has proven a very satisfactory
method, and when labor is high priced, has been found
quite economical. By this method quite large trees with
their stumps are pulled out, the land being then broken
easily with a scrub-breaking plow.

Another method is to cut the brush off level with the
ground either with the axe or a brush cutter and then to

plow the land
with a scrub
breaking plow
which will plow
right through
the stumps, and
turn them over
leaving them on
top to be picked
up later and
carted away.

In each of the
methods so far
referred to, the
brush and roots
are piled and
then burned.

Fig. 55. — Scrub Cutter.

Sometimes used for removing trees in Tark Belt
land.

Another method frequently followed is to burn over
a piece of land for several springs in succession in order
to clear it of all the trees and underbrush, and then
break the land with a brush breaker hauled either by
horses or tractor power. This is a good way when one

PREPARING LAND FOR FIRST CROP 141

is not ready to break the land the first year it is burned
over.

114. Plowing Scrub Land. — The common practice in
breaking scrub land is to plow about five inches deep,
but if the roots are large deeper breaking is necessary.
The best depth to plow depends on the size of the roots
in the ground, it being necessary to plow that depth

Fig. 56. — Plowing and Disking Burned-over Scrub Land.

which will enable the implement to turn a good furrow.
Under some conditions a furrow ten inches deep and
two feet wide is turned.

The plowing is usually done in June and July. The
drier the district the earlier the land should be broken
and the more moist the district the longer it may be de-
layed. In the more favored parts and in favorable sea-
sons elsewhere the land is sometimes broken early and
after being well worked down is sown to oats for feed.
Where the soil is rich and the rainfall sufficient this is
a good practice. In fact in some places it is considered

142 DRY FARMING

the best plan, as otherwise the fi\rst crop following is
heavy and weak in the straw and more subject to lodg-
ing or fall frosts. In the drier districts no crop the first
year is the general rule.

Backsetting scrub land is not generally practised until
one or more crops have been grown. It is seldom neces-
sary and it is usually difficult or impossible. When all
roots and brush are removed either before or after, or at
the time of the first plowing, backsetting is possible and is
occasionally practised.

115. Surface Tillage After Plowing. — After scrub land
is plowed any loose brush and exposed roots should be
removed and the land worked down to a level surface

1 ">

>*

Fig. 57. — How Scrub Land Looks After Plowing.

This area did not contain many stumps of trees over five indies

in diameter.

with a packer or heavy planker followed by discs and
harrows. The sooner this can be done the easier the
vegetation may be killed and the less the land will dry
out. Scrub-breaking usually requires considerable disking
before the surface is Level enough to make a satisfactory
seed bed. Aside from getting the land levelled down.

PREPARING LAND FOR FIRST CROP 143

it should be tilled sufficiently to keep down all vegetation
and to leave the seed Bed in good condition for spring
seeding.

116. Cost of "Scrubbing" and "Breaking".— The cost of
scrubbing, breaking and getting scrub land ready for a
crop varies widely, depending chiefly upon (1) the per-
centage of open land, (2) the size, kind and condition of
the scrub, (3) the cost of labor, (4) the method followed,
and (5) the type of soil. Ordinarily it ranges from
$5.00 per acre to $20.00 per acre more than the cost of
breaking and preparing prairie land. Heavily timbered
land with no open areas costs much more than these
figures. Very little of such land has yet been brought
under cultivation.

117. The Choice of the First and Subsequent Crops. —
When spring breaking is cropped the year it is clone the
crop used is invariably oats. It is usually put in for
"sheaf feed", but in occasional years the crop matures
and yields enough to be well worth threshing.

When not cropped until the following year both wheat
and oats are commonly used. Where there is but little
danger of fall frost before the crop is ripe, wheat, pre-
ferably an early variety, should be chosen. If there is
fear of damage from fall frosts oats are to be preferred.
Among wheats Marquis is quite commonly used. Some
of the earlier and lighter yielding varieties, such as
Prelude and Red Bobs, are also grown to some extent.
In addition to the varieties of oats commonly used in the
open plains— Banner, Victory and Gold Rain — Abund-
ance is grown to a considerable extent in the park belt.
LigOAVO, an earlier, lighter-yielding oat, is also grown to
some extent. Daubeney and Alaska, very early but in-
ferior yielding oats, are also used. Where the season is

144 DRY FARMING

not too short the Gold Rain variety has much to recom-
mend it.

Although too few tests of barley varieties have been
made to warrant any conclusive statement, it appears
that the six-row varieties are likely to be best for tins
region. Manchurian and 0. A. C. No. 21 are the stand-

Fig. 58. — Removing Roots and Brush.

On the more heavily wooded Park Belt land the removal of roots and

brush after plowing and disking is a necessary operation.

ard sorts, although a true six-row sort known as "Cali-
fornia" barley offers much promise. The best of the
very early, bul lower-yielding and shorter-strawed
barleys, is the Early Six.

Spring and winter rye arc also grown on a small
acreage of the park belt. Prolific is a promising sort of
spring rye. while N. D. No. 959 is probably the best
\\ inter variety.

Among peas the early varieties are to be preferred.
Arthur has been commonly recommended in the past.
Early White is recommended for Saskatchewan condi-
tions and Alberta Blue is spoken of very highly in Al-
berta.

PREPARING LAND FOR FIRST CROP 14")

The best grasses for the central part of the park belt
are Western Rye and Brome. In the western and the
eastern ends of this area Timothy is used to a consider-
able extent. Where pasture is desired and Brome grass
is not popular Kentucky Blue grass is frequently used.

Red Clover is coming into use in a small way in the
park belt areas where Timothy is recommended, while
Sweet Clover is likely to prove more satisfactory in the
drier parts.

Roots and potatoes find a very favorable environ-
ment in the park belt, particularly, in those parts having
more than fifteen inches precipitation.

118. The Best System of Farming. — The best system of
farming in the park belt is coarse grains and stock, or
mixed farming. Except for some local areas like the
Dauphin district of Manitoba, the park belt district is not
as well suited to wheat growing as the open prairie, and
it is far superior to the latter for the growing of oats, bar-
ley and forage crops. It is also better protected from the
winds of winter and better watered, thus making it more
favorable for stock growing than the open plains.

It seems clear that this region is eventually destined to
be among the safest farming districts of the West. In
the early days of settlement the returns are slower in
coming than on a prairie farm, but once a park belt
farm is improved and a good system of farming es-
tablished, it immediately becomes a safer business pro-
position than the average farm of the open plains.

CHAPTER IX.
THE TILLAGE OF STUBBLE LAND

Land that has borne one or more crops of wheat, oats,
barley, rye or flax is commonly spoken of as stubble
land. The control of the yield of crops on such fields
is one of the most pressing problems in production now
facing the grain grower of the open plains. In view of
the fact that at least two-thirds of the present cropped
acreage of this area is stubble, it would seem that the
preparation of this portion of our cultivated land should
receive very much greater consideration than it has ever
been given before.

The surplus moisture stored in fallowed land is at
least a partial insurance against failure of the next
season's crop as a result of drought. The same is true, in
a lesser degree, of prairie or sod land that has been
"broken" and left unsown till the following year; but
on land that has produced one or more crops the soil
moisture is largely exhausted, and the next succeeding
crop is almost wholly dependent upon the amount that
falls as rain or snow after harvest time. Because of this
it is probably true that we shall never, on the average,
get as good returns from the stubble crop as from that
sown on fallow or "breaking" or after fehoed" crops.
Nevertheless, much can be done to increase the pro-
ductive power of such land.

146

THE TILLAGE OF STUBBLE LAND 147

119. The Causes of Low Yields. — The causes of low
yields on stubble fields are usually few in number. The
most common ones are : —

1. The low moisture content of the soil.

2. The presence of grass, shrubs and weeds.

3. A poor seed bed.

4. Insufficient "available" plant food.

5. The stubble itself.

6 : Unavailable soil moisture.
The first is the most general, but any one or all of the
others may be contributing causes of poor crops. A few

Fig. 59. — Harvesting Wheat near High River, Alberta.
On the left may be observed a fairly typical surface covering of wheat

stubble.

of these cannot be controlled absolutely, but all can be
materially influenced by man and some are entirely
within his control. Each is affected by tillage, but, un-
fortunately, the tillage operation which produces a favor-
able condition in one often produces an unfavorable
condition with respect to another. Hence no fixed pro-

148 DRY FARMING

cedure can with profit be followed on -all fields. The
actual causes of low yield on a given field must first be
determined and then the cultural treatment that is likely
to control these particular causes must be given, if the
largest net advantage to the farmer is to be derived.

120. The Control of Soil Moisture. — The low moisture
content of the soil is the principal cause of low yields on
stubble land. "A dry season", "too little rain", "hot
winds" are generally given as causes of partial failure.
So far as this portion of the general problem of manag-
ing stubble fields is concerned only two things can be
done — (1) endeavor to prevent the moisture already in
the soil from escaping, and (2) try to get more in.

The moistutre in stubble land escapes in only two
ways — by evaporating directly into the air and by
being transpired by weeds or other volunteer plants
growing on the land. The loss by evaporation from
most stubble fields in dry climates is very little, prob-
ably not sufficient to warrant any but the cheapest form
of tillage or mulch making, if for this purpose only. The
loss of moisture through the growth of weeds is very
great and this can and should be controlled by killing
the weeds when they are small.

Getting additional moisture into stubble fields in fall
and spring is a more difficult problem in this climate
than keeping in what may be already there. Our
autumn, winter and spring seasons are dry. In the
seven months from September to March, inclusive, only
about one-third of the year's precipitation falls, and a
large portion of this is in the form of snow and. there-
fore, not easily controlled. To prevent the "run off" in
spring, plowing is preferable to surface cultivation or
no cultivation, and fall plowing is better than spring

THE TILLAGE OF STUBBLE LAND 149

plowing. But "fall plowing dries out" and if left un-
plowed "the stubble holds snow/' If in plowing in the
fall. to store moisture which seldom falls we prevent
the accumulation of snow in the stubble and also lose
some moisture that is already in the soil, what is the net
result ?

121. The Control of Weeds, Grasses and Shrubs.— The
surface of stubble fields is often infested in the fall with
weed seeds of various kinds. They seldom germinate
until the following spring when they make their appear-
ance in the growing crop, using up tons of moisture,
lessening the yield and increasing the cost of cutting,
stooking, threshing and marketing the crop. As a rule
such plants mature and drop their seed either before or
at harvest time, making the problem of coping with
them still more difficult.

In the control of annual weeds in stubble fields that
are to be cropped again the object should be to get as
many as possible of the weed seeds germinated in the
fall, as most of them will die when subjected to the low
temperatures of winter. Some form of cultivation will
best accomplish this result, while thorough late fall
cultivation or fall plowing will completely control the
biennial weeds which make the early part of their
growth in the late summer or fall. If, because of dry
weather, fall cultivation does not prove effective in start-
ing the weed seeds to grow, it will in any case induce
early spring germination and enable .one to kill the
young plants by subsequent cultivation. This is of great
importance on land that is to be fallowed. Apart from
destroying the weeds themselves, anything that can be
done to insure a uniform and vigorous stand of grain in

150

DRY FARMING

the spring will be of great value in crowding out weeds
in the stubble crop.

The perennial plants, among which the native quack,
sweet grass and prairie rose are the most common, are
serious pests in many stubble fields. They spread not only

Fig. 60. — Effect of Disking Stubble Land.

Diagram showing on the left uncultivated stubble, and on the right

double disked stubble. Note the absence of cracks in the subsoil of the

cultivated land.

by seeds but by underground creeping stems. These
weeds cannot be controlled by burning or disking or
other surface cultivation. Plowing, preferably in the
dry season, when the roots can be exposed to the hoi
sun and drying wind, is the only remedy for those
legacies of poor breaking. Other plants of a similar
nature art1 brome grass, Canada thistle and sow thistle.
122. Securing a Good Seed Bed. — A good seed bed is one
that provides the conditions necessary for germination —
heat, air and moisture — in optimum amount, at the right
depth, at the time the seed is sown. Too often the sur-
face of our stubble fields is too hard to get the seed into,
or too dry to cause germination, or covered with disked
stubble through which the drill cannot satisfactorily

THE TILLAGE OF STUBBLE LAND 151

force the seed, or the surface soil is in such condition
that it does not cover the seed satisfactorily after seed-
ing. The surface soil can be made more mellow by
surface cultivation or by plowing ; the moisture content
can be more or less controlled by the same means; the
stubble, if too long, may be either burned or plowed
under or left uncultivated and the condition of the sur-
face or seed bed can be improved by suitable tillage if
necessary.

123. Importance of "Available" Plant Food. — All of
the plant food in a soil cannot be drawn upon by the
growing crop. Since plants "drink" their food it is clear
that only that portion of the fertilizing constituents that
becomes soluble or available can be used by them.

The agencies causing the breaking down of plant food
constituents in soil are more or less dormant during
the dry autumn and long winter with the result that the
amount of available plant food in stubble fields is
relatively small. By far the most important of these
agencies is moisture in the soil. In stubble fields the
amount of moisture is very low at best and the supply
cannot be materially increased; but any form of tillage
that results in getting more moisture into the land or in
preventing weeds or evaporation drawing upon what is
already there, will tend to increase the total amount of
"available" plant food for the use of the stubble crop.

124. The Stubble— A Nuisance, Yet Important.— The
stubble of cereal crops is made up of elements derived
by the plant from soil and air. If the stubble is burned
the most valuable fertilizing element secured from the
soil, viz., nitrogen, passes off into the air. The burning
of stubble also dissipates "organic matter," the con-
stituent that helps to keep soils from blowing, the one

152

DRY FARMING

that increases the water-holding capacity of the soil and
at the same time makes it easier to work. The amount of
this constituent in decayed form in a soil is the greatest
single index to its "fertility".

But the stubble lessens the efficiency of tillage and
seeding operations, and long stubble if plowed under
may seriously interfere with the upward movement of
soil moisture from the subsoil and with the downward
penetration of the roots, thus lessening the yield. Ex-
cept on drifting soils or on heavy, tight clay, stubble is

Fig. 61. — Effect of Disking Before Plowing.

Diagram showing on the left, land plowed and then harrowed ; on the

right, land disked, then plowed and then harrowed. Note the air spaces

in the former which result in the drying out of the furrow slice, unless

the land is firmly packed.

a nuisance until it decays. It decays rapidly in humid
but very slowly in dry climates. In tlie West we need
to maintain the organic matter content of our soil, but
we hesitate to fill it with too much undecayed stubble,
except in the fallow year.

125. Subsoil Moisture Must be kept Available to Plant
Roots. — Moisture and "plant food" arc both necessary for
crop growl b. Tbe former is often found in relatively

THE TILLAGE OF STUBBLE LAXD 153

large quantities in the subsoil, from which area it may
rise to the plant roots by "capillarity". But frequently
in our tillage operations we create a condition where the
subsoil moisture does not rise fast enough to meet the
needs of the crop above, in which case lower yields re-
sult. Such a condition is produced when the furrow
slice of plowed land is not pressed firmly against the
subsoil. Moisture will not rise satisfactorily through a
layer of lumpy or loose soil, or worse still, through an
air space. The chief reason why more fall and spring
plowing is not practised in the dry parts of Western
Canada is because plowed land has too often been left
in a loose condition with stubble and air spaces under
the furrow slice, thus largely cutting off the supply of
subsoil moisture, with the inevitable result of decreased
yields.

126. Some Common Methods of Preparing Stubble Land
for a Crop. — Among the methods followed in the different
parts of the "West for preparing stubble land for a crop
are the following : —

1. Seeding on the unfilled stubble without previous or
subsequent tillage.

2. Seeding as above followed by "floating" or "plank-
ing".

3. Disking or cultivating in fall followed by harrow-
ing.

4. Disking or cultivating in spring followed by har-
rowing.

5. Burning the stubble in spring and seeding either
with or without disking or cultivating.

6. Fall plowing left rough "to hold snow", then har-
rowed down in spring before seeding.

154

DRY FARMING

7. Fall plowing, harrowing, packing and harrowing in
faU.

8. Spring plowing and harrowing.

9. Spring plowing, harrowing and packing.

10. Spring plowing, packing and planking.

The usual treatment after seeding is to pack or har-
row or both.

127. Results of Some Tillage Experiments at the Uni-
versity of Saskatchewan. — On the investigation field at

Fig. 62. — Typical Scene at a Plowing Match.

the University of Saskatchewan wheat stubble was tilled
in from sixteen to fifty different ways during each of
five years and the average yields ranged from 11^ to
23^ bushels. In some seasons the range between the
lowest and highest yield was 30 bushels per acre.

As a result of carefully observing the climate and soil
conditions and of keeping an accurate record of the be-
havior and yield of the crops in seasons of different
character during a period of nine years, we have learned
that many unfavorable conditions in stubble fields can

THE TILLAGE OF STUBBLE LAND 155

be diagnosed and both the yield and net profit increased
by suitable tillage. No hard and fast rules can be laid
down for other soil and other climatic conditions but a
few general principles that are of wide application may
be drawn from the work. In the discussion that fol-
lows some of these are pointed out.

128. The Necessity for Plowing Grassy Stubble. — The
average yield of wheat for five years on untilled grassy
stubble was 8 bus. 9 lbs. less than on untilled stubble that
was free from grass. There are times when it may not
be best to plow clean stubble fields ; but there is never a
time or condition that makes it advisable to leave grassy
stubble unplowed.

In 1914 grassy stubble surface cultivated in the fall,
produced 3 bus. 45 lbs. less wheat and 13 bus. 5 lbs. less
oats per acre than fall plowed land that was surface
cultivated ; and spring plowing produced rather more
satisfactory results than fall plowing in that year. On
another piece of untilled grassy stubble the average yield
of wheat in 1914 was 5 bushels per acre. Adjoining land
in the same grassy condition was plowed shallow, double
disked, packed and harrowed in the fall of 1913 and as a
result yielded 13 bus. 30 lbs. in 1914.

It was observed that in all cases where grassy stubble
was plowed the yield was increased and the grass was
cither totally killed or very much lessened. When the
same land was left unplowed, in many instances it be-
came overrun with native quack or, in low placess, with
sweet grass, and the cost of redeeming it was thus ma-
terially increased.

Cereal crops cannot compete successsfully for moisture
and plant food with established perennial plants.
Neither burning nor surface cultivation will kill the

156

DRY FARMING

latter, and when they are present in any quantity in
stubble fields plowing for the succeeding crop either
in fall or spring becomes a necessity.

129. The Desirability of "Working Down" Plowed Land
as soon as Possible after Plowing. — The farmer in humid
regions wants air in his soil in the fall. In order to pre-
vent the furrow settling down and becoming hard and
more or less baked, he leaves the fall-plowed land loose
and untilled. Dry farm soils, however, usually do not
suffer for want of air. The dry land farmer is more con-
cerned about saving moisture than about getting more

Fig. 63. — Tractor Plowing on Stubble Land.

air into the land. The dry parts of Western Canada do
not enjoy a humid climate, and unharrowed or unpacked
fall or spring plowing instead of settling down and bak-
ing usually dries out.

On a new soil that did not blow the increase in yield
from one operation of the heavy harrows or two of the

THE TILLAGE OF STUBBLE LAND 157

light lever harrows the same day the plowing was done,
was 1 bus. 57 lbs. in the average of a large number of
tests over a period of several years. It is evi-
dent that on soils that blow as well as on those that
run together and bake readily in the spring similar re-
sults would seldom obtain. On normal soils, however,
and particularly on spring plowing either harrowing or
packing as soon as possible after plowing is a very im-
portant and necessary operation.

Various methods are followed to try to prevent the
drying out of the plowed furrow. The simplest is har-
rowing as soon as the plowing is done; another is to
harrow at once, then pack and then harrow ; a third, to
pack with a packer attachment to the plow, then follow
with a plank drag or scrubber and then the harrow. On
fall plowing that has been well worked down ridging
with a cultivator is sometimes practised.

The practical man must, however, keep in mind that
while normally the more intelligent tillage that is ap-
plied the greater the yield is likely to be, yet a paying
increase in yield from the excessive tillage of stubble
land in dry areas is not by any means assured, while the
extra cost cannot by any chance be evaded. The ques-
tion is not one of yield alone, but one of net return.
There yet remains much work to be done before the most
efficient combination of tillage practices and sequence of
operations can be definitely stated for all soil types in all
climatic zones of the West.

130. The Furrow Slice Should be Placed Firmly Against
the Furrow Bottom. — In humid climates the practice of
turning the furrow over flat is not considered advisable
for the reason that the soil is likely to run together and
become too hard. In semi-arid regions, except on a few

158 DRY FARMING

types of heavy clay, the danger is not in its running to-
gether too much but in its not running together enough.
In addition to turning the furrow as flat as possible it is
important that it be placed firmly in contact with the
subsurface soil. This can be done by using a land packer
or by thorough surface cultivation, or, if the plowing is
done early enough, the rains accomplish the same end
and at no cost.

A summary of all our work with the "surface" land
packer on fall and spring plowing shows that packing
deep plowing increased the yield of wheat 2 bus. and
6 lbs. per acre, and packing shallow plowing, 40 lbs. per
acre, while packing unplowed stubble land decreased the
yield three years out of four. It was observed that where
packing was done the crop was invariably more uniform
and earlier. It is generally considered advisable, except
on soils inclined to drift, to follow the packer with the
harrow, particularly if the packing is done after seeding.

131. Burning Stubble is Permanently Wasteful of Soil
Fertility, but Often Immediately Profitable. — The five-year
average yield of all stubble land that was surface culti-
vated in any way was 22 bus. 25 lbs. of wheat, while the
average for the same length of time on land that was
burned and then surface cultivated was 22 bus. 49 lbs.
per acre.

A very much greater increase from burning has been
reported from the Qu'Appelle Valley and the Regina
Plains, where the soil is heavier, and where the stubble
grpws longer and holds more snow. It would seem that on
heavy, rich soils, where the straw grows tall, burning in
the spring after the long stubble has been left to gather
snow, is a practice that, for immediate profits on new
land, is conducive to good net returns. On the other

THE TILLAGE OF STUBBLE LAND 159

160 DRY FARMING

hand, this method docs not g'ive opportunity for con-
trolling the spread of annual and biennial weeds. In
regions where spring burning has been followed for any
length of time these are very abundant.

In some older districts where weeds are prevalent, and
where the soil blows so badly that the drift covers stubble
fields and renders spring burning impracticable, fall
burning and surface cultivation is sometimes practised.
A good burn cannot always lie obtained in the fall, and
in addition this practice is generally more dangerous to
property. Fall burning offers better opportunity to kill
weeds, but less to hold snow and accumulate moisture.

The chief faults of stubble burning — and they are very
serious faults — are the great waste of organic matter
and nitrogen and the lack of opportunity spring burn-
ing offers for the control of weeds. The figures quoted
above and the apparently favorable increase in the re-
sults from burning stubble are to a considerabale degree
misleading. There are no long time records of the yield
on land burned off from year to year as compared with
similar land that has not been burned off. All avail-
able records of such tests in Western Canada have the
fundamental fault that they are not taken from con-
tinuously burned versus continually unburned fields, but
rather from plots that have been similarly treated until
the spring the crop is planted. This is obviously not a
fair comparison of the residual effects of stubble versus
the ash of stubble.

The experience of the Northern States in burning
stubble and of the corn belt States in burning corn stalks
is to the effect that while there is apparently a slight
immediate advantage in burning, tins is more apparent
than real, and the subsequent effects are such as to con-

THE TILLAGE OF STUBBLE LAND 161

demn the practice wherever found. The best evidence
indicates that the sooner we can find a substitute for
burning stubble the better it will be for the land, as well
as for the people who occupy the land after us.

132. Surface Cultivation Sometimes Preferable to Plow-
ing.— In the year 1912 on rich friable land that was
free from weeds and grass, as large returns were secured
in a second crop after a good fallow from sowing wheat
on untilled ground, as was secured from the most in-
tensively cultivated field. The practice of plowing for a
second crop is not so necessary in a dry climate on soils
in good physical condition as those of us who come from
a more humid area are likely to suppose. In the absence
of grass and in the presence of short stubble, soils of
good physical condition often produce as large net re-
turns with cereal crops when thoroughly double disked
early in the fall or in the spring immediately before
seeding as when fall-plowed. This is particularly true
in the drier parts of the prairies on land that is well
fallowed every third year. Disking fields that have a
long stubble is objectionable since it places the stubbles
in a horizontal rather than an upright position and there-
by lessens the efficiency of the seeder. Under such con-
ditions the stubble is often, in practice, either burned off
or the field left uncultivated. "Stubbling in" either on
cultivated or uncultivated stubble is not advisable, ex-
cept on clean land in a good state of tilth. On old land
plowing is generally advisable Call plowing being pre-
i'emble in the humid regions and in wet autumns, and
spring plowing in the dry regions and following dry
autumns. »

The average yield of wheat on surface cultivated stub-
ble at Saskatoon on clean land has been 22 bus. 25 lbs.

162 DRY FARMING

and on plowed stubble, 23 bus. 16 lbs. On older and
more weedy land the increase from plowing is very much
greater although on new clean land the second crop after
fallowing is sometimes more profitable if left unplowed.

133. Early Fall Preferable to Late Fall Cultivation.
—In the 1911 wheat crop early fall plowing increased
the yield 1 bus. 36 lbs. over fall plowing done three
weeks later. In 1913 the increase due to the earlier work
was 1 bus. 12y2 lbs., while in 1914 it was 3 bus. 4 lbs. per
acre. The increase from early double disking was 1 bus.
10 lbs. per acre. It is often impossible to plow land
early after harvest on account of its hard, dry condition.
It is sometimes impossible to get time to disc it, but if it
is planned to carry out either of these practices the
sooner it can be done the better the results are likely
to be.

134. Avoid Working Tight Clay Soils when too Wet.—
In the spring of 1913 some sticky cla\ portions of our
investigation field were plowed when the soil was too
wet, with the result that they "baked", and the yield was
cut down to less than half that secured on other lighter
soils worked at the same time. Light soils are not likely
to be hurt by working them too soon after heavy rains,
but medium soils may be, and some heavy soils are in-
variably injured by this practice. The chief objection to
plowing tin- heavy soil in the Red River Valley in the
spring is that it is likely to bake and as a result give a
very unsatisfactory germination and early growth.

135. Harrow the Growing Crop only when there is Cause
for so Doing.— Weeds growing in a crop decrease the
yield." Moisture that evaporates produces no wheat.
After a crop is up many weeds may be killed, and
evaporation from a too firm soil may he Lessened by

THE TILLAGE OF STUBBLE LAND 163

harrowing. If weeds are present and the surface soil
quite firm it is generally advisable to harrow. If weeds
are not present and the soil contains sufficient moisture to
produce a good crop, harrowing is not advisable except
as a preventive measure against weeds in potatoes or
corn. Neither is harrowing advisable where there is any
tendency of the soil to drift.

Harrowing a growing crop is a practice in which judg-
ment must be used. A thin stand means later maturity.
Harrowing invariably pulls out some of the plants, thus
leaving a thinner stand. This is particularly true on
light, loose soils, or on fields carrying considerable rub-
bish in the form of stubble. On fields in this condition,
harrowing, if done at all, must be practised with care.
A light lever harrow with the teeth tilted slightly back-
wards is often to be preferred for this work.

136. General Observations on Plowing Stubble Land. —
The best time to plow, whether in fall or spring, and the
best depth to plow, whether deep or shallow, varies con-
siderably under different conditions. It has been point-
ed out that each of these four practices has in different
seasons produced the largest yields. The plowing that
proved best generally was that done at the time the soil
was in the best condition.

Early shallow fall plowing, well worked down, has
given at Saskatoon slightly larger average yields than
spring plowing of any depth; but spring plowing lias
given us larger average yields than late fall plowing.
The data at present available do not favor the teaching
often advanced that deep fall plowing is always best for
the second or third crop after fallow in climates such
as ours where dry autumn, winter and spring seasons
arc the rule. At the same time, when plowing is done

16-4

DRY FARMING

in the fall it does not have to be done in the spring. It
is well to keep in mind that until spring plowing is
finished it is not read}' for a crop and may not be ready
until it is too late for good results. Fall plowing is quite
generally practised in the more humid parts of the
West, but in the drier areas it is not considered a de-
sirable practice unless the soil is in good condition at the
time of plowing.

Deep fall plowing gave us good returns when the soil
was in condition, and when the autumn was moist and
the winter snowfall heavy. Verv favorable yields -were

II bu
36 lbs

rzbu.

59 lbs

r^

22 bu
,255 ltd

f^

22.bu
9. lbs

f\

22bu

J53£lte

ry

Zb bu
175. lbs

^S

Zb bu
18 lbs

L

f^\

23 bu
37.1b

NO COLT NO CULT SURFACE. BURNED 5.

CRASSY CLEAN CULT SURTACE.

STUBBLE. STUCfcLfe cult.

PU3MNC PLOWING PLOWIKO PLOWINC

Fig. 65. — Summary of Tests.
Different methods of cultivating stubble land at Saskatoon.

also obtained from deep fall plowing on land that was
infested with quack grass and native shrubs, and also
where long stubble could not be burned, providing in
each case the land was well worked down afterwards;
but it gave US poor results when the fall and winter fol-
low Lng were dry. as most of our fall and winter seasons
are, and very poor results when a heavy stubble was
plowed under and the land not worked down after
plowing.

'J HE TILLAGE OF STUBBLE LAND 105

Deep fall plowing as a general rule, is likely to pro-
duce less favorable yields in our climate than in a humid
one, and less in the dry parts of the West than in either
the eastern or northern parts. It would also seem from
the point of view of weed control that deep fall plowing
before weed seeds have germinated should be dis-
couraged.

Spring plowing permits of the stubble holding snow
when there is any to hold and gives less opportunity for
the plowed soil to dry out. In other respects what has
been said of fall plowing applies in a general way to
spring plowing. It has been observed, however, that
spring plowing for oats gives more favorable results
than the same cultivation does with wheat, and in-
variably it produces more of any cereal than fall plowed
land that is left unfilled and allowed to dry out. Favor-
able results from spring plowing for barley have been
reported by many different farmers.

It might here be emphasized again that in the drier
parts both fall and spring plowing should be firmed and
well harrowed down, otherwise very disappointing yields
may often result.

137. The Importance of "Net" Returns. — From what
lias been said it is apparent that fair yields can be pro-
duced on stubble fields. Our aim, however, must be to
produce "net" profits rather than "gross" returns. A
Large yield is not always the most profitable. On the
other hand a poor yield, even though no cultivation has
been given, may not pay the interest and maintenance
charges on the necessary investment in land, buildings,
machinery, fences and stock.

As long as land is cheap and labor and equipment are
high in price intensive methods on stubble land are not

166 DRY FARMING

likely to prove as profitable as carefully thought out and
intelligently practised extensive ones. Nevertheless, if
overhead charges against the investment are to be met
the conditions that cause poor crops must be controlled.
At the present time in Western Canada intelligent, time-
ly and sufficient tillage is the greatest means at our dis-
posal for controlling, not only the factors that limit the
yield, but the net revenue as well.

CHAPTER X.
THE SUMMER FALLOW

Summerfallow is the name given to that portion of the
farm which is left uncropped for a season and the soil
managed in such a way that a surplus supply of moist-
ure may be stored in it. Whatever the future of this
practice may be, summer fallowing is at the present
time at least the most fundamental practice of dry farm-
ing in the northern great plains area. Nor are its ad-
vantages limited to the storage and conservation of soil
moisture. The fallow may be used to kill weeds and
cause the decay of stubble and manure when plowed
under ; it results in the development of available plant
food; and on the pioneer grain farm it is at the present
time practically an economic necessity since without the
fallow it would be impossible to satisfactorily prepare
all the land for a crop in our short autumn and spring
seasons.

The summerfallow is at present an established practice
in all the drier parts of the Prairie Provinces. The
objections to it are many and they will no doubt force
a readjustment of our present system but until some
modification of it is found to be profitable every grain
grower in that portion of the open plains having less
than sixteen inches of precipitation should plan to fallow
a half, a third or a fourth of his land every year.

167

108

DRY FARMING

138. The Function of the Fallow. — The chief and per-
haps most legitimate function of the fallow is the storage
and conservation in the soil of a portion of one year's
moisture as a partial insurance against failure of the
next year's crop as a result of drought. In some places
such as the Red River Valley of Manitoba the fallow is

Fig. 66. — Cultivating Corn, Gladstone. Man.
The corn crop is replacing a part of the fallow on some farms.

made to serve the purpose of weed destruction, hi others
it is used largely because it enables the farmer to make
a more economical distribution of the season's activities.
Whatever its purpose in the mind of the man planning
it. the results of fallowing, when properly carried out,
are that (1) the field contains more moisture than other-
wise, (2) many weeds have been killed. (3) a large
amount of availdbh plant food has been accumulated,
(4) the decay of rubbish and stubble is accomplished,
and (5) the land is ready for seeding whenever spring
opens up.

139. The Practices of Fallowing. — The two chief prac-
tices of fallowing are (1 I plowing in June or early July
(later in the most humid parts) so as to make
the soil receptive for the heavy rains of the rainy

THE SUMMER FALLOW 169

season, (it plows easiest, time and power are avail-
able and the land is in the best ■'condition" at this
time), and (2) surface cultivating the land to prevent
the loss of moisture through weed and other volunteer
growth. Other additional practices sometimes followed
consist of disking or skim plowing either in the fall or
early in the spring before the usual plowing, and of
packing the land some time after the plowing has been
done. An occasional farmer now fallows without plow-
ing, using only the disc, cultivator and harrows.

From the point of view of moisture conservation, the
essential things about a fallow are (1) to plow reason-
ably early in the rainy season, (2) to kill weeds as soon
as practicable after germination. (3) to surface cultivate
enough to prevent the soil cracking.

Where weed control is more important than moisture
conservation early fall cultivation such as disking, culti-
vating or skim plowing is desirable to start weed seeds
growing. Spring cultivation after the first crop of
weeds starts in the spring is equally important, and
plowing shortly after the second crop is up is advisable.
The subsequent cultivation should be such as will en-
courage weed seeds to grow and the young plants to be
killed as soon as possible after germination.

As to whether a particular practice of fallowing will
pay depends wholly upon the circumstances under which
it is to be used. No code of rules for fallowing are
applicable to all soils in all climates. The needs of the
specific field must first be known, and then such remedies
applied ;is will best suit the conditions that exist.

Disking in fall before fallowing will start some seeds
to germinate if the soil is moist, and make the next plow-
ing easier, but it cosls money.

170 DRY FARMING

Plowing the fallow early results in the storage of more
moisture and encourages weed growth but necessitates
added surface cultivation to kill weeds and thus adds
to the cost.

Plowing deep takes more time and money than plow-
ing shallow. It kills grass better than shallow plowing
and has some other minor advantages, but it does not
always give better returns than plowing a medium depth.
On deep soils deep plowing in the fallow year is com-
monly practised but on shallow soils that have a light
subsoil it is objectionable in the dry parts because it
encourages soil drifting.

Subsoiling is seldom practised. In several tests on
normal soils it has not paid its way. It is possible that
on some "hard-pan" subsoils it might be worth while, but
this has not yet been demonstrated.

Plowing twice is advisable only where grass is pre-
valent or where weeds have gotten ahead of the surface
tillage machines. Skim plowing in the fall followed by
the regular plowing in late June and by subsequent
cultivation is recommended for the Red River Valley
where the control of sow thistle and wild oats is impor-
tant and for all other areas where quack grass or sweel
grass are prevalent in the land to be fallowed. Harrow-
ing immediately behind the plow lessens the loss of moist-
ure by evaporation from the furrow slice, and results in
the formation of a better seed bed but it may make the
soil too fine and dry and thus encourage drifting.

Packing the fallow is often a desirable practice
but it may not be essential except on land (1) that is
plowed late, (2) that plows up in rough condition, (3)
that grows a late crop, or (-4) where firming the soil over
the seed is desirable.

THE SUMMER FALLOW 171

Under the last mentioned condition packing is de-
sirable on soils that are (1) too loose to insure rapid
germination, (2) too loose to prevent excessive drying
around the plant roots in a season of drought, and (3)
not firm enough to aid in the rise of moisture from the
subsoil. Packing is to be preferred on late plowed fal-

Fig. 67. — Potatoes Under Irrigation North of Brooks, Alberta.
Inter-tilled crops make fallowing unnecessary on irrigated land.

lows and in dry years. It is most objectionable when
practised on soils that bake. A fallow that is plowed
early may become sufficiently firm as a result of neces-
sary surface tillage to make packing unnecessary.

The surface cultivation of the fallow may be by
harrows, discs or cultivators. The more soddy the lancf
is the more the discs will be needed; the more grass
there is and the greater the development of annual
weeds, particularly on soils that drift, the more desirable
the cultivator is, while on land that seldom or never
blows the harrows will prove the more efficient imple-

172 DRY FARMING

merit if used in time. Generally harrowing and either
disking or cultivating should alternate each other. As
the tendency of the soil to drift increases, harrowing
should be practised less frequently, and the cultivator
should gradually replace the disc.

As to the condition in which the fallow should be left
in the fall the type of soil is the determining factor. A
fallow left loose and more or less rough on top, or ridged
as after a cultivator will not run together so much and
is to be preferred on very heavy clay soils that bake.
Those soils that slake down in good condition in the
spring may be left in small ridges. These will hold
some snow, will facilitate nralch making witli the har-
rows in the spring and, if harrowed at the right time,
will result in a better seed bed and no more blowing than
the level surface. The chief objection to the smooth sur-
face is that it frequently holds very little if any snow and
there is therefore a very small accumulation of moisture
from this source.

140. Objections to Fallowing. — But someone says. "1
summerfallowed and my crop did not ripen — it got
touched with the frost because it was late in maturing",
another, "I don't believe in letting one-third of my land
worth $40 or $60 an acre lie idle — it isn't good business."
Another one says, "The fallow is wasteful of fertility —
nitrogen and organic matter — and should be discon-
tinued", another ""Will not hay crops or hoed crops ac-
complish all these things churned for the fallow.'", and
another, "I did all these things people advise and in the

Spring after the seed was sown and jusl as the Crop was
coming up, the wind rose and the surface Soil, because
it was so fine, 'drifted' away and the resulting crop was
'patchy', uneven and unsatisfactory", and another, "1

THE SUMMER FALLOW

173

can't get the weed seeds germinated before the early
part of June in dry seasons and object to plowing them
under because they will live and grow when plowed up
again", and yet another, "I summerfallowed and my crop
was so heavy and rank that it 'lodged', was poor in qual-

Fig. 68. — Harvesting Mangels in Manitoba.

ity as a consequence and cost me double what it should
have to harvest it", and still another, "I plowed my
fallow early in June and it kept my teams busy all
summer cultivating it to keep down the weeds; I prefer
to do it later because the weeds don't grow so much and
it takes less horse power and time to keep it back — I re-
duce the cost of fallowing by doing it later", and an-
other, "The maintenance of a mulch as a means of lessen
ing evaporation does not pay unless there are weeds
to be killed a1 the same time/'

141. Defense of Fallowing. — One or more of the objec-
tions mentioned may become serious faults of fallowing

174 DRY FARMING

in some areas and on some soil types in occasional years.
The fallow either in an extreme or modified form may,
however, be defended in spite of its numerous short-
comings.

If frost cuts down the yield or quality of the crop, the
cause of the low yield is not the shortage of water but
the shortage of heat, in which case the practices of
•'northern farming", those that promote early maturity,
should be given first consideration, and not the practices
of dry farming which are primarily concerned with con-
trolling the moisture supply. Among the methods of
northern farming may be mentioned: the use of early
classes of grain, early maturing varieties within the
class, early seeding, thick seeding, packing the land, less
frequent fallowing, later and shallower plowing of the
fallow, and the use of frost resistant crops.

If it isn't 'good business' to let the fallow field be
'idle' then it should be cropped. But one should first
be sure it is not good business. It frequently does- not
pay on heavy, moist lands and on some soils that blow,
but under present economic conditions it is good business
in the warmer seel ions of the dry parts of the Wes1
that are not subject to early fall frosts. When land
becomes more expensive and capital, equipment and
labor less costly some substitute such as corn or a pasture
fallow may be used where it can be grown and utilized
satisfactorily. It is possible that in some sections the
time for a change has come.

If the fallow dissipates organic matter and nitrogen —
and it does to a very serious degree then we shall have
to dissipate organic matter and nitrogen until we find
a better way. because we must have water in the soil and
the fallow is the lies! way to gel it there. As soon as

THE SUMMER FALLOW 175

organic matter and nitrogen and not water commence to
limit the yield of crops, we shall have to restore them
to the soil. Most men recognize this serious objection
to fallowing, but before dispensing with the fallow they
want to be shown a better way. It is to be hoped there-
fore that on all soil types careful tests of organic
fertilizers (such as manure) and the use of legume crops
(nitrogen gatherers) may be conducted from time to
time in order that we may know, for each of the dif-
ferent types of soil, whether the use of any or all of
these means of improvement will pay.

If crops require 250 to 1,000 pounds of water per
pound of dry matter produced, and if the function of

Fig. 69. — Sheep Pasturing in Rape.

the fallow is to store and conserve water, then neither
grass nor even hoed crops will replace the fallow, even
though crops be rotated ; but both, and particularly the
hoed crops, will lessen the frequency of the fallow. The
yield of wheat on corn ground at many different points
has equalled the yield on fallow. Wherever lliis is true.
and wherever the corn can be grown at no loss, or even

17(3 DRY FARMING

at a loss smaller than the cost of the fallow, it will event-
ually supersede the fallow. In the meantime towo factors
must be determined for each part of the country, (1) the
relative yield on fallow and corn ground, and (2) the
relation of loss or gain on the corn to the cost of fallow-
ing. The method thai gives the greatest net return should
eventually enter into general farm practice.

If drifting soil interferes with the development of the
crop, then the drifting soil needs greater attention than
the fallow. Excessive harrowing should be lessened or
dispensed with altogether and "organic matter', 'humus',
'root fiber', the substances that were in the land when it
did nol blow, should be put back. To lessen blowing it
may be found advisable to grow a thin cover crop or
pasture crop on the fallow, to grow winter rye. or in ex-
treme cases, to seed the land down to hay. But after
any or all of these it will still be necessary to practise
summerfallowing or a modification of it occasionally on
our drier soils.

The plowing under of ungerminated weed seed should
never be practised. Every effort should be made to
cause the early germination of weed seeds. Early fall
disking or shallow plowing will help to do this, but if in
very dry seasons the seeds do not start it would be wis.'
to delay plowing the fallow a short time in order to give
them opportunity to do so. If on account of the presence
of ungerminated seeds the plowing of the fallow be de-
layed, it should be disked and then plowed at a later
time.

If the crop on fallow grows too rank and lodges' of
too late and suffers from frost, then one should con-
sider whether he should not fallow less frequently or
plow shallower or later, or whether the pastured fallow

THE SUMMER FALLOW 177

would not be best. The practices recommended are for
extremely dry conditions and not for all areas irre-
spective t)f climatic conditions.

If weeds grow more luxuriantly on an early fallow
and the cost of keeping them down is thereby increased —
it is but nature's evidence that such a fallow is achieving

if

f - \

S

' .

\ ^ i *T

. '

. >

h;- ' ' i "'

. ■ -■«

!

- v -

m

1 1

i %

Jr <fc "a. •

Fig. 70. — Cracks in Heavy Land.
These increase the evaporating surface (if the soil.

its legitimate function — the storage and conserve ion of
soil moisture. The cost of the added cultivation is. of
course, an extra charge againsl the fallow. When this
is necessarily excessive and particularly on soils that are
Inclined to blow it is often advisable to delay the plow-
ing. If this is done, however, steps should be taken to
prevent an excessive weed growth which wastes moist lire,
and to keep the soil loose on top and receptive to rains.
There is sonic evidence that if such steps are taken.

178 DRY FARMING

early plowing is not essential. Under other conditions
where the moisture supply limits the yield of crops it
has yet to be demonstrated that early fallowing, even
at a greater cost, does not pay.

There is but little doubt that under humid conditions
soil mulches lessen evaporation. Whether it pays under
dry conditions to harrow or cultivate in the absence of
weeds is another question. Many farmers as well as in-
vestigators believe in intensive methods for the conserva-
tion of soil moisture, but some recent investigations go
to show that if sufficient cultivation is given to prevent
weed growth and to prevent the soil from baking or
cracking, additional tillage to save moisture by mulching
is not likely to conserve enough to pay for the extra
work.

142. General Conclusions. — In conclusion, then, the dry
lands of earlier days are producing crops because men
have found out how to get moisture into the land and
keep it there at not too great a cost. They "store" it
(1) by letting the soil lie idle one year in two or three,
or four or five, as necessary, and (2) by putting it, early
in the rainy season, in such a condition that it will
absorb the rains that fall and not let them "run off" the
surface. This is done by plowing, usually in June or
early July. The moisture is conserved after it has been
"stored" by controlling weed growth, and by lessening
"evaporation", the two things which dissipate moisture
from the soil. Weed growth is controlled by timely
and suitable tillage with harrows, discs and cultivators.
If this tillage for weed control does not also control
evaporation sufficiently it is questionable whether extra
work with this object in view will pay except on soils
that bake, or where land has been freshly plowed.

THE SUMMER FALLOW 179

To be most effective a fallow should be surface culti-
vated the fall before, plowed in June or early July in
the drier parts and as late as early August in the Red
River Valley; on some soils it should be harrowed im-
mediately after plowing, and surface cultivated as
necessary (1) to control weeds, (2) to prevent the soil
from baking or cracking, and (3) to have the soil firm
to within two or three inches of the surface. In regions
where the rainfall is greater and where fall frosts are
likely to do damage, such extreme practices as result in
later maturity of seed crops should be modified in order
to meet the more humid and colder conditions found. On
soils that drift the surface tillage must be such as will
conserve moisture and kill weeds without making the
surface too fine and dusty. On heavy soils where the
crop frequently lodges later plowing of the fallow or
the use of a pasture crop on it is desirable. On fields
containing much quack or other creeping-rooted grasses
twice plowing may be desirable — once shallow in the fall
and then deeper the next season, or once early in June
and again later in the summer.

The frequency of the fallow may be lessened by the
use of intertilled crops, the practice of suitable rotations,
the maintenance of the humus content of soils and by a
more intensive agriculture, but these are not likely to
replace it or a modification of it in the drier parts of the
prairies until land is more expensive and labor, capital
and equipment cheaper.

At present the fallow or corn is absolutely essential
in southwestern Saskatchewan and southern Alberta;
a fallow is to be desired occasionally in all the prairie
region west of central Manitoba; but it need be less
frequent in the park belt and only very occasionally

180

DRY FARMING

practised in the wooded areas and in eastern Manitoba.
Indeed, on some of the richer soils in the more humid
sections it may, under good management, be practically
dispensed with.

The fact that the fallow dissipates the two most valu-
able constituents of fertile soil, viz.. organic matter and

Fig. 71. — Summary of Tillage Tests on Fallow Land at Saskatoon.

nitrogen is a matter of serious concern. It means that
subsequently these will have to be maintained in the soil
by the return of manure or fertilizers or by plowing
under legume crops.

There is little doubt but that as time goes on modifi-
cations of the present system will be found that will suit
many conditions in the Canadian West better than the
presenl general practice. Sorghums are more or less
completely replacing the tallow in the drier States and
com in the northern States. Even in parts of Mani-
toba corn is now being used as a substitute for the fal-
low, and on some soils in the very dry parts of Mberta
and Saskatchewan this crop offers considerable promise
for the future. The use of such a hoed crop carries with

THE SUMMER FALLOW 181

it most of the advantages of a fallow since it makes pos-
sible the storing of moisture, the killing of weeds, and
the developing of available plant food. Other practices
that offer some promise as partial substitutes for the fal-
low are (1) sunflowers planted in wide rows, (2) potatoes
and roots, (3) the early breaking of grass land, and (4;
the plowing in late summer or early fall of land sown
to cereals and cut early for hay or other purpose.

The advantages gained in the better hay and pasture
areas by the early breaking" of .grass lands, or by the
later summer plowing of land sown to early maturing
feed crops make these practices fairly comparable in
effect to the fallow at least in the more humid parts;
while the introduction and use of intertilled crops, such
as corn, where it does well, of grain crops such as
Western Rye, Brome and Timothy, and of legume crops
like Alfalfa and Sweet Clover, offers some promise of
enabling us to develop a system that will have the chief
advantages of the fallow without at the same time dis-
sipating organic matter and nitrogen so rapidly.

CHAPTER XI.
CROP ROTATIONS

143. What a Crop Rotation is. — A crop rotation is a
more or less regular succession of crops of differenl
kinds on a given field or farm, designed to result in a
larger net return or some improvement of the soil.

In the older agricultural areas the crop rotations
always make liberal use of leguminous crops. In fact,
no rotation is considered rational that does not include
them. The ancient Romans appreciated the value of
legumes for the effect upon the soil and succeeding crops.
Writing in the first century A. D., Columella said,
"Where no kind of manure is to be had — the cultivation
of lupines (legume plants) will be found the readiest
and best substitute." At an earlier date Saserna wrote3
"Some of the leguminous plants manure the soil and
make it fruitful, whilst other crops exhaust it and make
it barren."

144. The World's Best Evidence on Rotations. — The best
information the modern world affords of the value of
suitable crop rotations is to be found in (a) the results
of the long and accurately conducted tests at Rotham-
sted in England and at different places in America,
and (b) the practice of crop rotations in all the old
agricultural regions of the world.

182

CROP ROTATIONS

183

Wheat grown continuously at Rothamsted, England,
for sixty years lias produced an average yield of 14 bus.
per acre. On adjoining land in a rotation of turnips,
barley, clover and wheat, the wheat produced an aver-
age yield during the same time o'l 25 bus. In the same
rotation barley yielded almost 25 bus. per acre while on
a continuously cropped plot it yielded only a fraction

Fig. 72. — Wheat After Alfalfa on Brandon Experimental Farm.

over 14 bus. During the last 20 years of the sixty-year
period wheat in the rotation averaged 24 bus. while on
the continuously cropped land it averaged only 12 bus.
This is probably the best information the world affords
on the relative values of a good crop rotation and con-
tinuous cropping.

Corn grown continuously at Urbana, 111., for 29 years
produced an average yield of 27 bus. On adjoining
land in a rotation of corn and oats it gave an average
of 4G bus., while in a rotation of corn, oats and clover

184 DRY FARMING

the average yield of corn was 58 bus. per acre. This is
the oldest experiment of this kind on the continent of
America and the evidence it provides as to the value of
a suitable crop rotation may well be taken to heart by
all students interested in the development of a perman-
ent and profitable agriculture.

The average yield from wheat grown continuously for
13 years on the rich Red River Valley soil of North
Dakota at Fargo was 13 bus. 8 lbs. per acre, while the
average yield of the same crop in all the different rota-
tions under test for the same length of time and under
the same conditions was 19 bus. 8 lbs. This is the nearesl
to Western Canada of any rotation test that has been
conducted for more than a few years. The soil and
climatic conditions at Fargo are not very different from
those in the Red River Valley of Manitoba. The data
secured at Fargo emphasize the fact that even on our
relatively new soils continuous cropping for a few years
results in a considerable decrease in the productive
power of the soil, and the result should not be disre-
garded by the students of Western Canadian agri-
culture.

In China and Japan where the land has been cropped
longer probably than in any other part of the world a
rotation is always practised, and it always includes a
Legume crop, generally the soy bean. In Italy, where
agriculture is very intensive, a crop rotation including
legume crops has been practised for many centuries. In
England. Germany and Prance and all of the other agri-
cultural regions of Europe more or less systematic rota-
tions are the rule. In the corn bell of America the one-
crop system is fast giving way to a rotation including an
intertilled crop, a grain crop and n Legume crop (clover

CROP ROTATIONS 185

and soy beans or cow peas.) In Ontario the continuous
growing of hay in some parts and wheat in others has
practically disappeared until now a hoed crop, a grain
crop, a hay crop and a pasture crop follow one another
in the order named on nearly every farm.

The above data are among the best available on the
value of succession cropping as compared with the con-
tinuous use of one crop on the same land. The brief
summary is not fair to the continuous method since in
the succession plan the crops other than wheat are not
necessarily as valuable as wheat. Yet the relative yields
are so vastly different that none will attempt to say the
practices that produced the larger ones are not by far
the better for the countries where the tests were made.

145. Results of Tests at Saskatoon and Brandon. — The
influence of the preceding crop on the yield at Saskatoon
was studied during the years 1915, 1916 and 1917 with
the following results : —

Table XVII. — Showing results of three years' tests at Saskatoon
of the influence of preceding crop on the yield.

Av.yield Av. yield Av. yield Av. yield Av. yield Av. yield

wheat oats barley rye flax peas

bus. lbs. bus. lbs. bus. lbs. bus. lbs. bus. lbs. bus. lbs.

After Wheat... 20 — 51 64 — 24 35 — 47 22 — 14 15 — 31 17 — 11

Flax .... 23 — 22 62 — 18 38 — 31 24 — 06 14 — 09 20 — 33

Peas ... 28 — 30 68 — 21 41—12 24 — 18 17 — 36 20 — 17
Turnips and

Potatoes* 29 — 40 66 — 05 40 — 36 24 — 16 16 — 04 17 — 46

Corn J 5 — 57 71 — 23 4S — 38 26 — 35 12=42 22 — 14

Fallow .. 33 — 02 77 — 07 39 — 33 2,7-— 42 14 — 55f 23 — 35

The test has been under way only three years and the
data are not therefore conclusive. Nevertheless it

* In the early years of the project half of this plot was planted
■to turnips and swedes and half to potatoes. In 1917 and 1918
one plot was provided and the yield of all crops was very much
higher on the potato ground than on the turnip ground.

t Flax did not mature satisfactorily on fallow in 1915 hence the
low average yield.

186 DRY FARMING

emphasizes the value of intertilled crops such as corn
and potatoes, and such leguminous crops as peas. The
effect of perennial legume and grass crops was studied
only in the year 1917 when the yield of every crop was
greater after these than after an}- annual crop or on
fallow. In this test the alfalfa land yielded slightly more
than the grass land.

The following yields are reported from trials made
with wheat at the Brandon Experimental Farm in
1915 : — After alfalfa 61 bus. 10 lbs. ; after red clover 58
bus. 30 lbs. ; after alsike clover 57 bus. 40 lbs. ; after
western rye grass 49 bus. 40 lbs. ; after red top 47 bus.
20 lbs. ; after timothy 43 bus. 60 lbs. ; after Kentucky
blue 38 bus. ; after brome grass 29 bus. 20 lbs.

146. Advantages of Suitable Crop Rotations. — (1) A
rotation including different crops reduces the risk of a
complete failure. In this climate where drought, frost
or hail occasionally causes a partial or complete loss of
the grain crop a greater diversification of crops is less
likely to result in serious loss than where only one class
of crops is grown. This is particularly true where
forage crops are used and where live stock is kept.

(2) A good rotation aids in fighting weeds. When
grain crops only are grown, certain weeds, such as wild
oats and mustard, that ripen earlier than the grain,
spread rapidly. When hay crops only are grown certain
perennial weeds, such as thistles and daisies, have op-
portunity to spread. If grass and cereals are alternated,
and particularly if a fallow or an intertilled crop is
added, all of these weeds can be more easily controlled.
The use of perennial grasses for hay has in many parts
proven a very efficient means of controlling wild oats.

CHOP ROTATIONS 187

(3) Some crops increase the organic matter of the
soil. The roots of grass crops are much more extensive,
at least in the surface soil, than those of the grain crops.
The grass forms a '"sod", the grain crops, a stubble.
Brome grass has some disadvantages, but it adds more
root fiber to a soil than any of our other crops. "Western
rye grass and timothy add root fiber also, but much less
than brome.

(4) Some crops increase the nitrogen as well as the
organic matter of the soil. Legume crops such as alfalfa,
sweet clover, red clover and peas, if inoculated, may
leave the soil richer in nitrogen than before they were
grown. Crops with large fleshy roots like alfalfa and
sweet clover also add much organic matter to the soil. If
a quarter of the land is occupied by one of these crops,
and the stubble and roots plowed under, and if an oc-
casional catch crop of some similar legume is plowed
under, it is possible to maintain the nitrogen and
organic matter content of the soil.

(5) Changing crops lessens plant diseases. Certain
diseases such as flax wilt, potato scab and clover sickness
are carried over in the soil. These diseases may cause a
partial failure in the crops upon which they prey, but
have no effect upon other classes of crops. By practising
a rotation all may be grown upon the same farm with
little danger from this cause.

(6) Suitable rotations may lessen soil drifting (1) by
having the ground covered with a growing crop at the
season when drifting occurs or (2) by increasing the
cohesive power of the soil. Soil drifting is usually most
serious here in May. If the ground is covered with grass
or other hay crops, or even winter rye, it will be pro-
tected. If the soil is rich in organic matter, as after a

Is*

DRY FAEMING

grass crop, the particles will be so held together by the
"root fiber" that little or no blowing will take place.

(7) Different plants draw nourishment from dif-
ferent depths of soil. The grasses and cereals are con-
sidered to be shallow feeding crops. Alfalfa, sweet
clover and turnips are deep feeders. The use of both

S\

33 bu

02. lb.

r^

29 bu

«40lbj

L*^J LJ *^ 4

n

28bl

2>OlU

25. bu.
22 lbs

U

20. bu
51 Its.

WHEAT" WHEAT otfer-

AFTtR- ROOTS o^ J

fallow RcrrATOEi

WHEAT WHtAT

APTC.P? AFTER

PEAS FLAX

WHEAT
AFTER
WHCAT

Fig. 73. — Summary of Rotation Tests at Saskatoon.

types of crops increases the feeding ground and makes
possible the utilization of the soil to better advantage.

(8) A good crop rotation systematizes the farm work.
In a good rotation the fields are approximately the same
size,* the amount of each kind of work is about the same
each year, and each season of the year; and the labor
ami power requirements do no1 vary from season to
season and can be more easily and accurately estimated
and provided for beforehand.

* On more or less broken land fields of uniform size and good
shape may be imposible to arrange. This, of course, is n<>t an
essential, although a very desirable condition when practicable.

CROP ROTATIONS 189

(9) A well planned rotation may result in a better
distribution of labor. At present our labor require-
ments at harvest time are large and at other seasons of
the year small. Until some modification of our present
system of cropping is made, this difficulty will increase
rather than diminish. The use of more crops might dis-
tribute the harvest season from the last week in June
to October whereas now the grain crop harvest is practi
cally confined to the six weeks between August loth and
the end of September. If biennial or perennial crops are
grown instead of some of the annuals, the acreage to be
prepared each year is less, the seed may often be sown
with a grain crop, the period of harvesting is pro-
longed, and the stock may aid in harvesting, thus lessen-
ing the labor required. Some provision for winter work
in us! also be made if this problem is not to be a perman-
ent one. What work will ultimately be provided is not
clear, but some form of live stock enterprise seems the
most promising.

(10) Continuous cropping is* reported to result in
the development of poisonous substances in the soil.
Recent investigations have been interpreted as showing
that when one crop is grown continuously on a piece of
land, the soil becomes toxic or more or less poisonous to
that particular crop. It is offered in explanation that
the roots give off substances which are poisonous to the
plants. It is staled that these substances are not poison-
ous to other kinds of crops and that by changing from
one crop to another the ill effects are nol found.

147. Requirements of Rotations in Western Canada.—
Under our present system of farming not only is the ri^l<
of partial failure very greal but the organic matter of
the soil is decreasing, soil drifting is increasing, plant

190 DRY FARMING

food materials are being dissipated, weeds and insect
pests are becoming more prevalent, and on all except
the very richest and deepest types of soil the productive
power of the land is going down.

These results of continuous cropping are not peculiar
to Western Canada. One or more of them have been
observed in every old agricultural region where the con-
tinuous use of one crop or one class of crop has proceed-
ed for any length of time. Its ill effects may be seen
to-day in the hay fields of old Ontario, in the tobacco
fields of Virginia, in the cotton region of the South, in
the corn belt of the central States and in the wheat
areas of the northwestern States. In the early history of
each of these regions the one crop that did best was
grown to the exclusion of all others because it gave bet-
ter returns. In the end the evils of the system came to
oui weigh its advantages and a change to suitable rota-
tions had to come about. In the pioneering stage of de-
velopment in the prairie and park belt region of the
West, grain growing is perhaps a necessary and a profit-
able practice, even though in some places and in some
seasons it is attended by considerable risk. When set-
tlers come with little capital they must first make more
capital before they can get the equipment necessary to
practise a better system. This capital under present
economic conditions must come very largely from selling
the stored fertility of our cheap land. To this extent the
practice of continuous grain growing is justifiable, but
after the capital is available for buildings, fences, a
water supply and stock, some provision for establishing a
less wasteful system should he made.

148. Difficulties in Establishing Good Rotations in the
West. — (1) The chief immediate difficulty is the cosl of

CROP ROTATIONS 191

the necessary fences, buildings and stock: As a rule
most pioneers are not capitalists, and until they can
make some money they cannot undertake the improve-
ments they would like to make. This, of course, is only
a temporary objection, but under some unfavorable soil
or climatic conditions might become permanent, in which
case state co-operation in the way of cheap loans for
necessary permanent improvements might well be con-
sidered.

The practice of loaning money to farmers for develop-
ment purposes for a long period of years at a low rate of
interest on the amortization plan has some objectionable
features, but as a means of developing and at the same
time conserving our soil resources it is one of the most
statesmanlike measures that has ever been taken by any
of our local legislatures. In this way the state may aid in
conserving its own resources, and unless it does this and
more, the state rather than the settler must be held re-
sponsible for such uneconomic practices as the individual
farmer may find himself forced to pursue.

(2) Delayed returns is another difficulty. The grain
grower waits only a year for his cash crop. The mixed
farmer waits a year for a portion of his crop, then per-
haps feeds it to live stock, sometimes waiting two years
or more before selling. The delayed returns enforce
economy and result in greater savings, but in some cases
at least, the savings are too dearly bought. The delayed
return is not a serious objection to rotation practice but
is a considerable difficulty with the pioneer or the man
who is deepty in debt.

(3) The low yield of hay oik lor prairie conditions
does not encourage its use. The favorable effect of hay
crops on the maintenance of organic matter and the con-

192

DRY FARMING

trol of weeds, suggests the need for them in any good
rotation. Unfortunately, under dry conditions these
crops are often so low in yield that in the drier prairie
areas men will not grow them until forced to do. so by
drifting soil or by weeds.

(4) The lack of a suitable legume is a hindrance to
good rotations in many parts. Alfalfas hardy enough to

Fig. 74. — Oats on Irrigated Alfalfa Sod.
— Courtesy Department of Interior.

withstand the prairie winter are now available for all
except the higher altitudes. Bui the crop is so expensive
to get under way. and yields so little in dry years and is
so difficult to break up thai it is not a good rotation
crop. Peas do well in the more moist regions bu1 suf-
fer from drought in the dry hell and from fall frosts in
the north. Red clover is not hardy enough for com-
mercial use, exeept in favored areas and in mixtures of
grass. Sweet clover seems now to offer the greatesl
promise as a rotation legume for the prairies. Hardy
strains of red clover may be found satisfactory in the

CROP ROTATIONS 193

park belt, but this has not yet been conclusively demon-
strated. Alfalfa promises much under irrigation, and
alsike clover also seems to offer some possibilities there.
(5) The lack of an intertilled crop suited to all con-
ditions is another difficulty. The hoed crop of Ontario,
the corn belt, and the northern States is corn, that of
England is turnips. In the warmer parts of the West
on warm soils eorr. promises much as a forage crop, but
in the higher altitudes and northern latitudes, par-
ticularly on the heavy soils, its future is not promising.
Turnips and other root crops can be grown where corn
is unsuited, but the labor cost under present conditions
is too high to make a large acreage a commercial suc-
cess. There is now no doubt but that corn will have a
permanent place in the cropping system of the southern
parts of Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta, but unless
economic conditions change, the acreage of roots will
never become large enough to make this type of plant an
important factor as a rotation crop. The same is largely
true of potatoes. Rape has been grown in cultivated
rows for pasture in a very large way bj- some farmers,
but this practice has not developed to any extent. With
dense population and cheaper labor these crops, and sun-
flowers as well, may find a larger place in Western
rotations.

149. Classes of Crops used in Rotations. — The crops used
in all good rotations may be divided into four classes:
(1) cash crops, (2) intertilled crops or hoed crops, (3)
legume crops or nitrogen gatherers and (4) grass crops.

The chief cash crops of Ibis country are the grain
crops wheal, oats, barley, and rye — and flax, although
ha\ and potatoes are also grown as money crops in some
places. The mosl important intertilled crops an rn,

194 DRY FARMING

potatoes and roots. The most suitable Legume crops are
alfalfa, sweet clover (red clover in sonic areas) and peas,
while Western rye grass, brome grass and timothy arc
the best grasses.

The grain crops lessen plant food and organic matter,
return nothing to the soil and permit annual weeds to
flourish. The intertilled crops remove plant food and
very greatly lessen organicjnatter but the intertillage
they require conserves moisture, develops available plant
food and aids in weed control. The legume crops feed
heavily upon mineral plant food elements but will main-
tain or increase the nitrogen supply if grown frequently
enough. The grass crops use up plant food but increase
the root fiber or organic matter in the soil, ami by oc-
cupying it for a year or more tend to smother out
annual weeds.

150. Planning a Rotation. — The establishing of suit-
able rotations in all new agricultural countries has been
a slow process. So many different factors enter into the
problem that the conservative farmer prefers to let some
one else do the testing, at least so long as his presenl
methods are profitable. Chief among the factors that
must be considered when one is planning a rotation
are : —

1. The need that exists for improving one's own soil
conditions and controlling weeds.

2. The future requirements of the soil from the fer-
tility standpoint.

3. The particular effect of different classes of crops on
the land.

4. The relative suitability of different classes of crops
to the climatic ;ii|d soil com! il ions that obtain in
the district,

CROP ROTATIONS 195

5. The economic distribution of labor throughout the

year.
G. The extent to which financial considerations make

necessary the growing of cash crops.

7. The availability and Cost of capital.

8. The extent to which the rotation is likely to lessen
the risk of farming and insure commensurate re-
turns for the extra investment required.

151. Some Well Known Rotations. — The most common
rotation in England is turnips, grain, clover and grain ;
the .old Norfolk rotation of Rothamsted is turnips, barley,
clover and wheat.

The most common rotation of Ontario and the mixed
farming districts of the northeastern States is hoed crop,
grain, hay and pasture, although many modifications of
this are practised. Corn, oats, hay (timothy and red
clover) and pasture is the chief rotation of the stock-
growing and dairying districts.

In the corn belt of the United States, corn often
alternates with oats, but the best rotation from the point
of view of soil productiveness is one or two crops of
corn followed by oats and then clover.

In the spring wheat regions of the Great Plains Region
of America the pioneer rotation is fallow followed by
grain for two or three years. In the northwestern States
this is generally giving way to corn followed by two or
three grain crops. In the Southern Great Plains Region
the sorghums are gradually replacing the fallow, while in
the Prairie Provinces of Canada no improvement in the
original fallow and grain rotation has yet established
itself, although several modifications of it are in a fair
way to do so in some parts.

196 DKV FARMING

152. Rotations now used in the West. — The cropping
systems now followed in the Canadian West vary in dif-
ferent parts. The following are some of the most
common : —

1. Fallow, wheat, and wheat or oats. This rotation
is used in the drier parts of the prairie area. In the ex-
tremely dry areas a few men fallow the land every sec-
ond year.

2. Fallow, wheat, wheat, and oats or barley — used in
the more moist parts of the prairies.

3. Fallow, oats, wheat, oats, and barley — used in the
higher altitudes or northern areas of prairie or park belt
where the frost-free period is somewhat shorter than in
the southern part of the prairie belt.

4. Oats and barley for hay, wheat, wheat, oats or
barley — used in the more humid short season parts where
the fallow crop is often too late to be profitable.

5. Fallow or breaking, wheat, oats, hay, pasture — used
to some extent in mixed farming areas where the pre-
cipitation is low.

The rotations of the future for the prairie areas must
includle a grain crop, a legume crop, and a fallow, o-r
where it can be profitably grown, an intertilled crop.
In the early years at least they Avill necessarily include
one or more cash crops.

Whal the cash crops will be, climate and soil condi-
tions will determine. Wheat, oats, barley and rye. in
some areas flax, and in some alfalfa, timothy and potatoes
may be used. The grass crops will likely be confined to
Western rye grass, brome grass and timothy, although
some Kentucky blue grass, fed top and meadow Eescue
may be grown. The most profitable Legume crops for
short rotations are sweet clover and peas, and for long

CROP ROTATIONS 197

rotations, alfalfa. The most promising intertilled crop
in the South is corn. No hoed crop suited to large
acreages is available for the North, although a small
acreage of roots and sunflowers may very profitably be
grown in this area.

153. Rotation Tests at Brandon. — The general con-
elusions from eight years' work with different crop ro-
tations at the Experimental Farm at Brandon have been
summarized by Mr. W. C. McKillliean, the Superin-
tendent of the Farm, in a discussion of the rotations
known as "E", "F", "G", "H", "I" and CCW" as follows :—

"The rotations under test at Brandon are as follows : —

154. "Typical Grain Farming Rotations. —

Rotation "E" : — -

1st year — "Wheat.

2nd year — Wheat.

3rd year — Oats.

4th year — Fallow.
"This is the typical grain farming rotation of Mani-
toba. No manure is applied at any time. This rotation
has the fallow for a cleaning season, has three cash
crops, but no fodder crop unless the oats are used in that
way, and no leguminous crop. By means of the fallow
it conserves moisture and makes plant food more readily
available for the crop that follows, and attempts at least
to control weeds. It makes no attempt to return any-
thing to the soil, so that gradual depletion and increased
tendency to blow are the inevitable results. During the
time that prairie soils are giving up their virgin fertility,
good results are obtained from this rotation, but it
cannot continue indefinitely.

Rotation "D":—
"This rotation has exactly the same order of crops as

198 DRY FARMING

"E", but has this difference, that onee in four years an
application of manure is given. This manure should
help to keep the soil from less rapid exhaustion than
where there is none applied. However, in the actual re-
sults at Brandon the increased returns from the manure
have not as yet been sufficiently great to pay for the
cost of application. It is expected that greater com-
parative returns from the manure will be obtained after
the cumulative results of longer application are felt.

155. "A Well Balanced Rotation.—
Rotation "F" :—
1st year— Wheat.
2nd year — Wheat.
3rd year — Corn.
4th year — Oats or barley (seeded

down ) .
5th year — Hay (clover and grasses).

'"This rotation fills the requirements as well as any for
Manitoba conditions. Two crops of wheat and one of
oats or barley place a good proportion (three-fifths)
of the land in grain, which is the cash crop of Manitoba.
The year of corn provides a cleaning season and also a
large amount of fodder. The year of hay adds to the
fodder supply and includes a leguminous crop. The hay
tand plowed in duly and well cultivated makes a very
good preparation for wheat. The corn hind makes ;i
good preparation for oats or barley and also for the
grass seed sown with these crops. The proportion of
corn is too large for most Manitoba farms, but this could
be reduced in actual practice by having the field partly
in e<»rn and partly in summerfallow. Manure is ap-
plied before the corn crop in this rotation.

CROP ROTATIONS 199

"This rotation has given very good results at Brandon.
Not only does it provide for the maintenance of the soil,
but it is giving greater returns at present than either
rotation "E" or "D*'. The average profit of this rota-
tion for the five years — 1914 — 1918 — was 81 per cent,
greater than that obtained from "E" the straight grain
growing rotation.

156. "The Most Profitable Rotation at Brandon.* :—
Rotation "G" :—

1st year — Wheat.

2nd year — Wheat.

3rd year — Oats or barley.

4th year — Hay (clover and grass).

5th year — Pasture.

6th year — Corn.

"This rotation is somewhat similar in character to the
last one. It includes the same kinds of crops, but
changes the order somewhat, the wheat coming after the
corn instead of after the hay and the coarse grain crop
following the wheat instead of coming after the corn.
This arrangement makes an excellent and extremely
profitable wheat crop, but it gives less suitable condi-
tions for seeding down. It gives better conditions for
corn (on sod) than the other where the corn follows the
wheat. It has a year of pasture and in that differs from

Writing of this rotation at the Scott Experimental Farm in
Western Saskatchewan, Superintendent Tinline says: "While the
profits from the hay are not large, and the pasture harely pays
expenses, yet the increased profits from the succeeding grain
crops, together with the decreased cost of keeping weeds under
control, has made this rotation unusually profitable. The aver-
age net profit for the past four years amounted to $7.88 per
acre as compared with $5.46 from the grain rotation — fallow,
Wheat, and wheat."

200 DRY FARMING

"F" which makes no provision for pasture. Manure is
applied for corn as in "F".

'"This rotation has also given good results at Brandon:
Its average profit for five years excels that of the straight
grain growing rotation by 155 per cent. ; it has been the
most profitable rotation tried on the farm. However,
seeding down with the third crop of grain would not be
successful in all parts of Manitoba and that feature
might rule it out in some places. The large proportion
of corn would also have to be modified in actual farm
practice as in the preceding rotation.
157. '"Rotations without Corn.—

Rotation "H" :—

1st year — Wheat.

2nd year — Wheat.

3rd year — Fallow.

4th year — Oats.

5th year — Hay (clover and grass).

6th year — Pasture; and

Rotation "Pr-
ist year — Flax.

2nd year — Oats.

3rd year — Fallow.

4th year — Wheat.

5th year — Hay (clover and grass).

Gth year — Pasture
"These two rotations are very similar in type, the only
difference being a change from wheal to flax as the first
crop and the interchanging of the wheat and oat crops.
They differ from "F" and "G", in that they do nol in-
clude corn, lint keep to the SUmmerfallow as the means

of cleaning the land. Tiny include fodder ami
leguminous crops and are therefore more permanent in

CROP ROTATIONS 201

their character than rotations "E" and "D". Manure is
applied on the pasture and plowed in.

"These rotations have been more profitable than "E"
and "D", but not so profitable as "F" and "G". On the
other hand, the absence of corn makes the labor problem
more easily handled than where corn is largely grown.
Taking "E" as the standard again, rotation "H" has
beaten its profits on a five-year average by 49 per cent.,
and rotation "I" has done a little better.

158. "A Rotation for a Dairy or Stock Farm.—
Rotation "W" :—

1st year — Wheat.

2nd year — Wheat.

3rd year — Corn.

4th year — Oats.

5th year — Barley.

6th year — Alfalfa (sown alone).

7th year— Alfalfa.

8th year— Alfalfa.

9th year — Alfalfa.

10th year — Alfalfa plowed up after
first cutting.

"This rotation is not intended for the ordinary mixed
farm but for a dairy or pure-bred stock farm where the
production of a large amount of high class fodder is
more important than wheat. It includes all the require-
ments of a permanent rotation and should build up the
fertility of the land more than any of the others. Man-
ure is applied twice in the circuit, for corn, and as a
top dressing on alfalfa.

"Being so long, it has not got a proper start as com-
pared to the other rotations. Its profit per acre for the

202 DRV FARMING

same Jive years exceed "E" by 145 per cent., being sec-
ond only to rotation "Gc" in profitableness. The indi-
cations are that it will soon take the lead."

159. Observations on Rotation Tests at Brandon. —
-From observing the results obtained from these rota-
tions and from farming conditions in Manitoba gener-
ally for a number of years, the following conclusions
among others have been reached : —

1. A good mixed farming rotation not only provides
for the future condition of the soil, but it gives a larger
per cent, profit than straight grain growing.

2. Corn is an exceedingly valuable rotation crop, not
only for its fodder value, but because the grain crops
following it are the most profitable on the farm.

3. It is impossible to control soil blowing and wild
oats by a straight grain and fallow system, no matter
how well you cultivate Grasses control both satis-
factorily.

4. The longer the start of mixed farming is postp d

the more difficult it is to start.

5. The most profitable way to use grasses is in a shorl
rotation. Left in sod too long they become unpro-
ductive ami hard to break up.

6. There is no best rotation for all farms. Each indi-
vidual ease must be studied by itself and a rotation de-
vised that will suit the kind of soil, the degree of weed
infestation, the rainfall that may be expected, the con
venience to market of the farm, and the plans, oppor-
tunities and limitations of the man who supplies the
brains."

160. Mixed Farming Rotations at Lacombe. The mixed
farming rotations being compared at the Lacombe Ex-
perimental Farm in central Alberta have been sum-

CROP ROTATIONS 203

marized by the ex-superintendent, Mr. Hutton,

as follows : —

"Since corn is a practical crop over a relatively small
section of the West where mixed farming is most gen-
erally practised, and since the growing of roots on such
a scale as would be necessary is prohibitive owing to the
high cost of labor and the difficulty of housing, the
tion scheme has at once been set aside by many
farmers.

'"The fact that within the last half dozen years the
growing of oats alone or peas and oats sown together, for
use as ensilage, lias been successful, puts an entirely dif-
ferent light on this phase of agriculture. While the
objection may be raised that the growing of green feed
does tint clean the land to the same extent as is done
where corn or roots are raised, yet the growing of green

f 1 for ensilage does clean the land to some extent.

since two or three crops of weeds may be destroyed be-
fore the crop for ensilage is sown. It is a thoroughly
practical crop and provides ensilage that is at once high-
ly palatable and nutritious. It readily forms a part of
any rotation and is nun iiiomically produced than

roots and much safer than corn vine,- there is no area
where its culture can be questioned because of nnsuit
ability to climatic conditions.

"Among the rotations which arc at all suitable where
mixed farming is practised are the following: —

"Rotation "L":—

1st year — Hay.

2nd year — Pasture. Manure 12 tons

per acre.
3rd year — Pasture.
4th year Wheat.

204 DRY FARMING

5th year — Oats.

(ith year — Barley, seeded down to
timothy, alsike and red clover.
Rotation "K" :—

1st year — Hoed crop.

2nd year — Wheat.

3rd year — Barley, seeded down.

4th year — Hay. Manure 12 tons pet-
acre.

5th year — Pasture.

Gth year — Pasture.
Rotation aO" :—

1st year- — Hoed crop.

2nd year — Wheat.

3rd year — Oats.

4th year — Summerf allow.

5th year — Barley, seeded down.

Gth year — Hay.

7th year — Pasture.
161. Criticisms of these Rotations. — "The rotation first
named, known as Rotation "L", has been modified
slightly at the Laeombe Experimental Farm, and is now
operated on a block of 210 acres and is known as the
'Main Farm Rotation'. The chief objection to the ro-
tation as it is shown above will be pointed out when
considering the modifications that have been introduced.
"In discussing Rotation "K" the objections already
raised to the growing of hoed crops on a large scale
obtain. Where corn is a doubtful crop, as it is over a
very large proportion of the West, particularly those
areas adapted to mixed farming, no other hoed erop is
[tract ieal. No one would think of having a sixth of his
farm in roots or hoed crops other than corn.

CROP ROTATIONS 205

"The objections to Rotation "0" lie in the fact that it
requires one-seventh of the land in hoed crop and also
one-seventh in summerfallow. For areas such as this
(central Alberta) . . . the summerfallow provides
too much free fertility and stores sufficient moisture to
produce a tremendous growth of straw, with the result
that the crop invariably lodges, does not fill well and
ripens irregularly. It is admitted that a better crop
than barley could be selected to follow the summer-
fallow, but no matter what cereal is sown the crop will
lodge nine years out of ten.

162. A Rotation with many Advantages — " The rota-
tion modifications as introduced in Rotation "L" are as
follows : —

1st year — Hay. Manure 12 tons per

acre.
2nd year— Pasture.
3rd year — Pasture. Plow six inches
deep July or August, pack, culti-
vate and fall cultivate thoroughly.
4th year — Oats, or oats and peas, for

ensilage.
5th year — Oats.

6th year — Barley, seeded down, tim-
othy and alsike clover.
"At the Lacombe Experimental Farm, as already
stated, this rotation covers about 240 acres of laud, and
from the 40 acre field seeded to green feed we have this
year filled one silo 12 x 30, one 16 x 36, and had suf-
ficient crop on the field to have filled a third silo as large
as the largest of those in use. The dairy consumption
per head for dairy cattle, where the silage constitutes
the chief part of the ration, runs only from 40 to 45

206 DRY FARMING

pounds. Since from eight to ten tons are taken from
each acre the stock-carrying capacity of the .land is
readily seen to be tremendously increased, as from two
to two-and-a-half head of mature animals to the acre
can be comfortably carried through the winter.

"This rotation has several distinct advantages, par-
ticularly for those areas where well-tilled summerfal-
lows result in too great a growth of straw the following
year. The fall cultivation given the summer plowed
sod is sufficient to produce a maximum crop without
carrying so much fertility and moisture as to cause
the crop to lodge seriously.

"The application of farm-yard manure at the rate of
12 tons per acre maintains soil fertility while the plow-
ing under of the sod once in six years adds root fiber
to the soil. One advantage in connection with the ap-
plication of manure on the sod consists in the fact that
during the rainy season weed seeds contained in the
manure germinate, but fail to develop for the reason
that the manure soon dries out and the young plants
are destroyed.

"There being but one year of the rotation in Bay a
maximum crop results; the application of the manure
on the sod induces a free growth of grass for pasture,
both the year the application is made and the one im-
mediately following. . . . As has already been poii Lte< I
out, the year following the ln-caking of the sod there
has also been produced a maximum crop every year the
rotation has been under way. If good cultivation is
given land under this system the fifth and sixth years
also produce satisfactory results."

163. Rotations with Sweet Clover. A few fanners are
testing a two-year rotation consisting of wheat seeded

CROP ROTATIONS

207

to sweet clover, the sweet clover to be pastured in fall
and spring and then plowed under in June. They
plan to reserve as much sweet clover for hay and
pasture as may be necessary. Some combination of
crops including sweet clover offers much promise for
the whole prairie area. If a strain of this crop, hardy
enough to live through our winters after being sown
with a nurse crop, can be developed, a very promising
rotation for much of the prairie area will be (1) fallow
or hoed crop, (2) grain, (3) grain, (seeded with sweet
clover or a grass mixture), and (4) sweet clover. Such
a rotation might be shortened up to three years if
thought advisable by omitting one of the grain crops.
(See "Crop Rotations" in "Dry Farming Practices in
South Dakota", chapter xvi).

164. An Adjustable Rotation that may be made to
meet almost every condition of climate and soil is as
follows : —

First Year Second Year Third Year Fourth Year

Fallow

or

Corn

or

Annual Pasture

or

Mixed Cereals

and Peas

or

some of each

Wheat

or

Winter Rye

or

Flax
or

Wheat

Oats

Barley

or

Rye,

seeded down to

Hay

or

Pasture

or

Plowed under

or

Any Suitable clover or grass Some of each
Grain or both Continue second

year if necess-
ary.

165. Crop Rotations for Special Conditions. — A crop
rotation planned to control annual weeds should have a
grass crop. One to control soil drifting should have a
grass crop or a crop such as winter rye or sweet clover
thai occupies the Land when blowing ordinarily occurs.
A rotation in dry areas should include either a fallow or

208 DRY FARMING

an intertilled crop, such as corn, at frequent intervals,
while one in a short season in humid regions need have
no fallow if mixed grass and legume crops are grown
occasionally and the sod plowed immediately after har-
vesting the hay.

The difficulty in applying these practices to western
conditions lies in the delayed returns and relatively low
yields from the crops classed as grass, legume or hoed
crops. In proportion as each is unprofitable in any
community it will, of course, have to be omitted from
the rotation, and some other measures taken for meet-
ing the soil conditions the rotation is designed to correct.

166. The Effect of Rotations on Soil Fertility.— It is
sometimes stated that a good crop rotation will main-
tain the fertility of the soil. This is quite erroneous.
A good rotation will result in keeping up the produc-
tiveness of land much longer than continuous crop-
ping either with or without fallowing, but it will main-
tain the plant food content of only one element, viz..
nitrogen, and this only if legumes are grown frequently
enough and a portion of the crop turned under occa-
sionally. It is generally considered that the nitrogen
can be maintained without fertilizers if about one
fourth of the land is kept in legume crops and a part of
the crop or an occasional catch crop of some other
Legume plowed under and the crop residues returned
tn the land. The other important elements of plant food
arc, of course, used up faster in a rotation than in con-
tinuous cropping and eventually they will have to be
kept up by using manure or commercial fertilizers or
both. The value of a good crop rotation is not in its
maintaining the plaid food content of the soil (except
nitrogen) but in its other beneficial effects. To per-

CROP ROTATIONS

209

manently maintain productiveness without live stock,
not only is a good rotation necessary but also the use
of commercial fertilizers. In systems of live stock
farming when all the crop residues, such as straw and
stubble and manure are returned to the land, soil pro-
ductiveness may be maintained for an indefinitely longer
time than in systems of grain growing that do not in-
clude legume crops and commercial fertilizers. Yet even
live stock fanning is not a permanent system, except
when butter and nothing else is sold from the farm.

Fig. 75. — Cattle Wintering Outside, Protected only by the Trees.
— Courtesy Man. Dept. of Agr.

Unfortunately the most permanent system is not al-
ways the best for immediate results. The farmer natur-
ally and perhaps legitimately considers that system best
which gives the most profit at the present time. The
problem of the future lies in finding for each soil and
climatic /.one the system that is at once the most profit-
able and the most permanent.

167. General Conclusions Regarding Rotations. — No
permanent profitable rotations have yet established
themselves in Ibis country. It is probable that in addi-
tion to the money crops ordinarily grown, the fallow,

- 210 DRY FARMING

or a modification of it, will necessarily form a part of
the rotations of the immediate future at least iu the
prairie area outside southern Manitoba; that corn, po-
tatoes, roots or early plowed grass laud may become
partial substitutes for the fallow or an addition to the ro-
tation in some areas; that alfalfa in the irrigated sed ions,
sweet clover in the prairie area and possibly red clover
in some favored humid regions will be the most satis-
factory legumes; and that Western rye grass, brome
grass and timothy will be the mosl suitable grasses.
What the most profitable cash crops will be — whether
wheat, oats, barley, rye, flax, potatoes, alfalfa or tim-
othy depends chiefly upon the moisture and temper
ature and to some extent the soil and market conditions
found in each climatic zone and on each type of soil.

A rotation designed to store moisture should include
a fallow or an intertilled crop, or in more moist parts, a
hay crop cut early, the laud to be plowed immediately:
or it may include any two or all three of these.

If the chief purpose of the rotation is to control soil
drifting it should include any one or any combination
of the following, — a grass crop which protects the land
and at the same time adds fiber to it, a cover crop, such
as wilder rye which only protects the laud, or a crop
such as sweet clover which protects the laud and adds
liber and nitrogen to it.

The length of the rotation or the period between
fallows or hoed crops will vary with the rainfall. Iu
(\vy areas one or other of these means of storing moisture
in the soil will necessarily come ,-it least every third
year pu1 in the more humid regions it need not be used
so frequently. In the latter the fallow may eventually
be partially or wholly replaced by hoed crops or the

early breaking of grass land.

CHAPTER XII.
WEEDS AND THEIR CONTROL

Weeds are plants which interfere with the growth of
crops or lower the profits of farming or mar the ap-
pearance of the landscape.

In a sense farming is a continual warfare against
these intruders, the contending forces being man and
crops on the one side and weeds on the other, with nature
a neutral onlooker, but one ever ready to lend her aid to
the side showing the greatest persistence. Most of our
important farm crops have largely lost the power to
compete with weeds. They have been so altered from
their original wild state by man that were they left to
themselves they would become extinct in a few years.
Our cropping methods must therefore be intelligently
directed if the fight for the profitable possession of the
land is not to be lost.

There is no easy road to weed control. Nevertheless
a knowledge of the habits of weeds and the needs of
cultivated crops places a man in an enlightened position
in the struggle. It remains only for him to create condi-
tions unfavorable to the one and favorable to the other.
Intelligent direction is much to be preferred over ill-
planned hard work. The child' difficulty is encountered
on old farms where the sins of the preceding generation

212 DRY FARMING

of farmers are being visited on the present occupants of
the land. Under these conditions it is generally a dif-
ficult problem to control weeds and at the same time
make a profit from the farming operations.

163. Why Weeds are Harmful.—

(1) Weeds dissipate soil moisture (approximately

500 lbs. for every lb. of dry matter they produce).

(2) They use plant food that otherwise might go to the

production of crops.

(3) They lower the yield of crops by crowding and

shading.

(4) They lower the value of grain by causing it to be

"docked" or to grade "rejected".

(5) They render seed unfit for sowing or cause extra

expense in cleaning for seed purposes.

(6) They increase the cost of tillage, twine, stooking,

threshing and freight.

(7) They lower the value of the farm.

(8) Some weeds are poisonous.

169. Some Good Points About Weeds. — Yet weeds are
not always harmful nor even useless. The weeds lliat grow
on fallowed land pump tons of moisture from it, but
when they are plowed under they add organic matter
to the soil. This is seldom a sufficient excuse for weeds
in dry areas, even though Ihe backward farmer may
find some consolation in the fact. The moisture saved
through the prevention of weeds growing on a fallow is
generally of more value to the soil than the organic
matter the weeds would produce. Nevertheless, the
plowing under of weeds increases the ultimate producing
power of the land, and on soils thai □ 1 organic matter

WEEDS AND THEIR CONTROL 213

the practice is not an unmixed evil. Weeds also, under
some conditions, reduce the loss of nitrates from the
soil.

On some of our heavy soils in older districts where
wheat lodges or ripens late, French weed or stinkweed
is frequently very prevalent. No farmer there will say
he prefers an infested to a clean farm, but many a
wheat grower because of the fact that this weed in a
fallow crop results in earlier maturity and in less
lodging of the grain, eases his conscience by considering
only its advantages. Such men are usually better phil-
osophers than farmers. Yet there are many people who
believe that the weed menace is a blessing in disguise
compelling as it does considerable tillage to keep it in
control. Whether one believes in this strange doctrine
or not the bald facts remain that farms do become
weedy, and that farmers must control weeds if they are
to make a living.

170. Principles of Weed Control. — Weeds spread by
means of seeds or by creeping root stalks or by both, but
in no other way. Weeds that spread by seeds can be
controlled by preventing seed formation. Weeds that
spread by creeping root stalks can be controlled by (1)
preventing seed formation, and (2) killing the plants
already established in the soil. But a man gets weeds
from outside his farm as well as from his own land.
Hence, if his plans are to be efficient, he must also take
steps to prevent the introduction of weeds to his Barm
from elsewhere.

The principles of weed control may then he stated
simply as follows : —

1st. Prevent the weeds from dtevelopinig seedls.
2nd. Kill the perennial weeds.

214

DRY FARMING

3rd. Prevent the introduction of weed seeds.
There are many different ways of putting these prin-
ciples into practice but in the business of farming the

cheapest and most efficient methods are the best.

Under differ-
ent soil and cli-
matic conditions
and with differ-
ent weeds, dif-
ferent practice-,
halve naturally
developed. The
relative suita-
bility of each
method to any
given farm or
district must be
determined by
the man on the
ground and his
judgement will
be more reliable
if he is inform-
ed! on ( 1 ) the
appeareiice of
noxious weeds and their seeds, (2) the habits of
growth of the common weeds and how each spreads ami
(.'!) the most, successful methods of combating each type
of weed.

171. Identification of Weeds and Weed Seeds. Space
does not permit of including illustrations Or even giving
descriptions of the more important weeds and weed

Fig. 76. — Wild Oats.

WEEDS AND THEIR ( !< >XTROL 215

seeds of the West. Information concerning the identifi-
cation of these may, however, be found in one or more of
the following bulletins : —

1. Farm Weeds — Clark, Dominion Department of

Agriculture, Ottawa.

2. Better Farming — Bulletin No. 31, Saskatchewan

Department of Agriculture, Regina.

3. Weeds of Alberta — Alberta Department of Agri-

culture, Edmonton.

4. Plants Injurious to Stock — Bulletin Xo. 7, Depart-

ment of Agriculture, Ottawa.

5. Weeds and W<ed Seeds — Bulletin No. S. 8, Do-

minion Department of Agriculture, Ottawa.

6. Weeds Used in Medicine — Farmers' Bulletin Xo.

188, U.S.D.A., Washington.

7. Lessons on Weeds — Bulletin No. 30, Manitoba

Agricultural College, Winnipeg, Man.

172. Duration of the Growth of Weeds. — The duration
of growth of different classes of weeds varies consider-
ably, some completing their life cycle in one season,
some in two or parts of two, while others live three
years or more. Thus we have annual, biennial, winter
annual, and perennial weeds, each type requiring a dif-
ferent treatment for its control or eradication. An-
nuals die at the end of the first season's growth, winter
annuals start in the late summer or early fall and die
the next year, biennials die at the end of the second
year, while perennials may live an indefinite number of
years.

Annuals, winter annuals and biennials can lie com-
pletely controlled by preventing seed formation and the
introduction of weed seeds to the farm, hut to control
perennials not only must seed formation and the intru-

216 DRY FARMING

duction of seeds be prevented but the plants already
established must be killed. In the second column of the
tables in Sec. 174 the classification of our worsl weeds
according to duration is indicated.

173. Habits of Root Growth and Time of Seeding.—
In addition to knowing the "duration of growth" of
weeds, it is essential also to know the habit of root
growth of each, because on this point depends very
largely the nature of the means of eradication.

There are three more or less distinct forms of roots,
(1) fibrous roots, (2) tap roots and (3) the so-called
"creeping roots" or underground stems. Annual weeds
usually have fibrous or tap roots, biennials generally
have tap roots while perennial weeds may have fibrous,
tap or creeping roots. The following are typical weeds
of each of these types :

Fibrous rooted annual . . . Wild Oats.

Tap rooted annual Lamb's Quarters and Most

Mustards.
Tap rooted biennial Tansy Mustard and Blue

Burr.
Fibrous rooted perennial. Wild Barley.
Tap rooted perennial .... Curled Dock.
Creeping rooted perennial. Canada Thistle, Sow

Thistle, Quack Grass.

The creeping rooted perennials are the mosl difficult
to kill because of the fact thai from cadi joint of the
so-called "root" there may be sent up new plants even
after fin- parent stem has been plowed down.

174. How Weeds Spread. — Nature is the chief agency
in the spread of weeds but man is largely responsible
for the present condition of our cultivated fields.

WEEDS AND THEIR CONTROL

217

Among the influences by which man aids weed distribu-
tion are (1) importing weedy foodstuffs including hay,
(2) sowing impure seed, (3) neglecting road allowances
and railway rights-of-way and freight yards, (4) using
weed-infested, undecayed farm yard manure, (5) cus-
tom threshing, and (6) by tillage machinery in moving
from dirty roads or fields to clean fields.

****»&&)0y>5x

TUMBLING MUSTARD.

Fig. 77. — Tumbling Mustard Piling Up Against a Fence.
The Russian Thistle, another weed of tumbling habit is a serious
menace to farmers in South Western Manitoba, South Western Saskat-
chewan and Southern Alberta.

The chief natural agencies resulting in the distribu-
tion of weeds are the wind, water, animals and birds.
The wind scatters (a) fluffy or hairy seeds such as
Dandelion, Canada thistle and Sow thistle, (b) winged
seeds such as Dock and Parsnip, (c) seeds having ex-
ten, led edges such as Penny Cress, (d) plants that roll
like Russian thistle and Tumbling mustard, (e) sticky
seeds like Plantain adhering to weeds that blow, and
(f) weed seeds in drifting soils. Irrigation water,
flood streams, and rapid "run off" water also distribute

218 DRY FARMING

man}* seeds. Barbed seeds such as Burdock and Bine
Burr, attach themselves to animals and are thus dis-
tributed in the same way. In undecayed manure many
undigested seeds are spread around and many small
seeds are dispersed by dirt on the feet of birds.

The tables on the following pages give the duration
of growth, time of ripening, brief note on the flower,
and the method of spreading, of each of our common
weeds.

WEEDS AND THEIR CONTROL

219

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222 DRY FARMING

175. How to Prevent Weeds from Developing Seeds. —
A knowledge of the appearance of the different weeds,
their duration, habits of growth and means of spreading,
enables a man to outline intelligently the practices he
should employ in controlling them, under the particular
soil and climatic conditions that exist where he lives.
He will seldom use all of the means available to accom-
plish the end he desires but only such of the methods as
best fit into his system of farming.

Among the chief means that are now followed on
western farms for preventing weeds from developing
seeds are :

1. Fallowing, to get the seeds in the soil germinated
and the seedlings killed,

2.. "Duckfooting" the fallow in late fall if biennials
are growing on it,

3. Late spring cultivation after weeds have started,
and before early maturing crops are sown.

4. Sowing annual hay crops such as oats or beardless
barley, to be cut before weed seeds mature.

5. Using early maturing grain crops such as Winter
rye and Early Six barley, which ripen before
many of the weed seeds,

6. Harrowing growing crops of grain after they are
up to kill the small weeds that may be starting,

7. Early fall cultivation of stubble land to encourage
germination of seeds, winch may then be destroyed
by the low temperature of winter,

8. Plowing stubble land in fall or spring it' biennial
weeds are prevalent,

9. Sowing perennial hay crops which (1) smother
many weeds, and (2) are cut before most weed
seeds mature,

WEEDS AND THE IK CONTROL

22.3

10. Mowing weeds on roads around fences and in
waste places before seeds develop on them.
176. How to Kill Perennial Weeds. — Some of our
perennial weeds arc the most difficult of all to control,

while some are
quite easily
eradicated. The
tap or fibrous
rooted perenni-
als can be killed
by deep plowing
and careful cov-
ering of all vege-
tation, followed
by surface culti-
v a t ion. The
creeping - rooted
ones are not so
easily dealt
with. One plow-
ing is seldom
sufficient to kill
them and fre-
quently several
plowings do not
succeed in doing
so. Three of the
common meth-
ods employed in controlling the creeping-rooted peren-
nials are as follow : —
1. Shallow plowing in the fall and deep plowing the
next summer after the weeds have made a fresh
start. The firsl plowing followed by the cold win-

Fig. 78. — Blue Burr.
A typical tap-rooted winter annual or biennial.

224 DRY FARMING

ter gives the plants a set-back and the deep plow-
ing when they have not entirely recovered, gives
them another. Surface cultivation as needed may
then be given to prevent green leaves forming on
any that may remain. This plan, or some modifica-
tion of it, is generally used for the Perennial Sow
Thistle.

2. Deep plowing as soon as the weather turns warm in
May. then sowing thickly to a leafy crop like oats
or barley. This often gives very satisfactory re-
sults with Quack Grass.

3. Mowing and removing the weeds just after blos-
soming when they are least able to stand a check,
then deep plowing followed by deep, thorough and
frequent cultivation to keep the land black. This
is frequently used for the control of Canada
Thistle.

177. How to Prevent the Introduction of Weeds to the
Farm. — With the exception of a few native weeds all
those now on our farms have grown from seeds that
were introduced to it by human or other agencies. The
prevention of weeds coming to the farm is the big prob-
lem of men on virgin soils, and not an unimportant
problem for all other fanners. Among the means of
prevention are :

1. losing only clean seed — unclean seed is chiefly res-
ponsible for the weed evil.

2. Buying only such U><>d grain as is free from Wild
Oats. Mustard and other weed seeds, and such
forage grasses as are free from Canada and Peren-
nial Sow Thistles.

3. Controlling soil drifting. A man cannot, of course,
farm his neighbor's land and he cannot keep the

WEEDS AXD THEIE ( '< >NTR< >L

weed seeds from blowing about. Co-operative com-
munity effort as well as better farming must be
enlisted in the fight against weeds.

4. Cleaning the grain separator before it comes on
the farm — the thresherman may resent this prae-
tiee. but the farmer will suffer if it is not carried
out.

5. Preventing stray animals roaming over the land —
the dissemination of seeds in the manure of wan-
dering stock is of common occurrence.

(i. Preventing the roadside weeds going To seed — thU
may be the business of the community, but it is
sure To be the individual farmer's loss if not looked
after.
7. The intelligent enforcement of weed control legis-
lation— laws do not kill weeds but they give power
to communities to protect themselves from careless
land owners and operators.
178. Means at Man's Disposal for Controlling Weeds. —
The chief means at our disposal for controlling weeds
already in the soil are tillage, crop rotations, smothering,
hand pulling, pasturing and the use of chemicals.

Tillage. — In so far as controlling weeds is a function
of fallowing il is accomplished by tilling the latter in
such a way as (1) to germinate The wed seeds present,
I 2 i to kill the weeds that grow and i ■'! I if not successful
in the hitler, to prevent The weeds forming seeds.
The use of hoed or intertilled crops enables one, al

some expense, To germinate seeds and to kill many w Is

without leaving The land idle.

By plowing in fail or spring every year, biennials can
be controlled absolutely and perennials can at least be
kept in cheek-. By disking early in the fall, annuals can

226 DRY FARMING

be lessened but not entirely controlled. By using the
duck-foot cultivator small weeds of all types can be
killed. By harrowing, young' weeds can often be les-
sened at a very low cost whether they appear in the
fallow or growing crop.

Digging by hand is not a popular method of weed
control but when Canada or Sow Thistle are first ob-
served in small patches they should be "eradicated" by
hand if the area is too small to cultivate satisfactorily
with machinery-
Crop Rotations. — If we had good crop rotations we
could control our weeds at a small fraction of the present
cost. In considering this question four important tads
should be kept in mind:

1. Perennial hay crops will control weeds having short-
lived seeds, such as "Wild Oats, providing the in-
troduction of other Wild Oats seeds is prevented.

2. An occasional fallow encourages germination of
weed seeds in the soil and permits killing the
young plants shortly after they begin to grow.

3. Intertilled crops will lessen the necesshy for fal-
lowing to kill weeds but may not prove profitable
on a large acreage under presenl economic condi-
tions.

4. The use of early maturing crops that may be har-
vested before weeds ripen enables one to prevenl
seed development. Among these early crops are
(1) grain crops to be cut for forage, (2) Winter
rye and, (3) early barley.

(h< mical Sprays. — A twenty percent, solution of [ron
Sulphate (l<»() pounds to 50 gallons of water per acre),

applied mi bright sunny days to mustard coining into
bloom, will prevent mie-li of n developing. Another

WEEDS AND THEIR CONTROL

227

solution used is a two per cent, solution of Copper Sul-
phate (10 pounds to 50 gallons of water per acre).
These chemicals may be applied with either a hand or
power sprayer. Some men claim that Iron Sulphate
solution will kill all Mustards, Cow Cockle, Dandelion,
Canada Thistle,
Bindweed, Plan-
tain, Ragweed
and some other
weeds; other in-
vestigators are
much less opti-
mistic regarding
the efficacy of
chemical sprays.
In any case the
practice of
s p r a y in g for
weed control is
expensive and
has not yet
therefore come
into general use.

Pasturing. —

When pasture is short, sheep aid in controlling Mustard,
•Plantain, Thistles, Lamb's Quarters, Shepherd's Purse
and many other weeds but they seldom touch Stinkweed
or Blue Burr.

Smothering. — Leafy crops on spring plowing aid in
the control of Quack Grass by smothering. It is a fact
also that many young weed plants are prevented from
developing by the crowding and shading of a good stand
of any crop. This is why we find so many weeds where

"•"' ,„

Wm *( iMf

\^*K

# 7

9 m' *E\;'±L-+JML

, '-JT

- - J

F/iAir? ' - i

a*

;-^l

J%

T^$+

Fig. 79. — Dandelion.

A typical tap-rooted perennial. A had weed in

lawns and waste places in Manitoba.

228 DRY FARMING

the drill has missed a strip and so few relatively where
no skips in seeding occur. This fact is of great signifi-
cance and should be appreciated by every grain grower.
If we can succeed in giving our crops a good ••start".
particularly after having given the weeds a "set-hack",
our problem will have been made much easier; and a
good even stand of grain with no skips or misses is
important for the same reason.

Tar paper is sometimes used to smother Canada or
Sow Thistle when found in small patches.

Hand Pulling. — Hand pulling weeds is expensive and
with labor at present prices is impracticable exeept on
small areas such as the seed plot, or as a preventive
measure on relatively (dean laud. Where only a few
weeds are present in a field '"an ounce of prevention"
is worth many pounds of "cure", and roguing a field
may be much less expensive than leaving the weeds t..
multiply and to add to the difficulties of future crop
production. ■

179. The Control of Annual Weeds.— The wild oa1 is
a typical annual weed, and incidentally, one of the
worst we have.

The first and mosl important measure of control is to
stop sowing them, a measure that is easy to plan but
difficult to put into practice.

The second is to prevent their introduction to the
farm in \'vrd, in threshing machines, by wandering stock.

etc.

The third is to prevent them from going to seed by
(a) double disking or plowing shallow early in the fall
so ;is to encourage germination and subsequenl death by
freezing, (b) killing as many as possible in the fallow
year by disking aftei the firsl growth siarts in the

WEEDS AND THEIR CONTROL

229

spring' and plowing after the second growth starts, (c)
growing a crop that may he harvested before the Wild
Oats mature.

The above practices may be followed on any grain
farm with no serious alteration of cropping plans and
no lessening of the acreage sown. If the weeds are so

Fig. 80. — Quack Grass.
A creeping-rooted perennial that is difficult to eradicate.

prevalent that these measures are insufficient several
others may be followed. Winter rye may be sown on
the fallow to smother the oats the following year; or if
the stand of rye is thinned out and wild oats grow, the
crop may be cut for hay before the oats ripen. Early
barley may be sown in the spring after a crop of wild
oats has been killed by thorough disking or shallow plow-
ing; and the barley may be cut for hay if the weeds
develop, or left for grain if they do not. Early fall
cultivation after this crop, providing then' is sufficient
moisture, will start many of the oats still left in the soil.
A corn crop or a potato crop may be used instead of the

230 DRY FARMING

rye or barley and with better results. If these measures
do not result in more or less complete eradication, tame
grasses should be sown and left down two years or more,
and a year taken to break up the land before the next
crop is put in.

The annual mustards and all other plants of similar
habit may be controlled by the practices outlined for
Wild Oats. Harrowing the growing crop after it is up,
a practice that will not kill Wild Oats, is an additional
means of killing the smaller seedlings of these annual
plants. On account of the long time the hard seeds of
many of these weeds may live in the soil, the use of
perennial crops has not proven as useful a means of
control as in the case of "Wild Oats.

180. The Control of Winter Annual and Biennial Weeds.
—Most of the so-called winter annuals, of which Tum-
bling Mustard and Stinkweed are typical examples,
may develop as annuals if they happen to get a start
early enough in the season. If they start in the spring
they may be prevented from seeding by the practices
suggested for controlling annual weeds. Those that
start in the fall and those of the earlier plants that
have not produced seed may be killed by the treatment
outlined in the next paragraph for biennials.

Blue Burr and Tansy Mustard are typical biennial
weeds. If clean seed is always sown, and if seeds of
Tansy Mustard are kept from blowing in. and those of
Blue Burr from being carried in by stock or otherwise,
these weeds can be controlled by late fall or early spring
cultivation of all fields whether fallow or stubble. Fall
or spring plowing of stubble fields is to be preferred.
Disking will kill the young plants only if the discs are
sharp and the soil firm. Thorough cultivation of the

WEEDS AND THEIR CONTROL

231

fallow late in the fall with a "duckfoot" cultivator will
kill most of the winter annual and biennial weeds that
have started.

When dealing with either biennials or winter annuals
it should be kept in mind, (1) that late fall cultivation

Fig. 81. — Canada Thistle.

a typical "cieeping-rooted" perennial. The Sow Thistle which is some-
what similar in habit is more difficult to control in the Red River Valley.

is essential whether early cultivation has been given or
not, and (2) that the use of biennial crops like Winter
rye and sweet clover which aid in the control of annual
weeds, only foster the development and spread of bien-
nial weeds.

In some seasons some biennial weeds will germinate,
and like annuals, produce seed in the same year. Fall
cultivation v\ ill not control these. The usual cultivation
given to control other annual weeds will, however, take
care of them.

181. The Control of Perennial Weeds.— The native
quack grass ^gropj ron glaucnm), is a typical peren-
nial wefed in many parts of the West. It is less difficull

2:J2 DRY FARMING

to control than the eastern species (Agropyron repens).
The chief methods of combating it in breaking are : —

1. Plowing all the land and leaving no skips or misses.

2. Plowing shallow early in June and plowing again
deep late in the summer.

3. On less ''grassy" land in more dry areas, and par-
ticularly in dry seasons, deep breaking followed by
timely and sufficient surface cultivation may kill
the native Quack but seldom kills the Sweet grass so
frequently found in low moist places.

The chief means of controlling Quack or other creep-
ing rooted grasses in stubble fields, are: —

1. Plowing in the fall — a ''dry" time. <

2. Plowing in spring and seeding at once to a leafy
crop such as oats or barley.

When present in the fallow. Quack grass may be' con-
trolled by, —

1. Plowing and digging out the roots with a spring
tooth cultivator — always costly and not always an
efficient method, but sometimes advisable and neces-
sary.

2. Plowing twice, preferably shallow in the fall and
deep in the Late -Tune or early July following.

Rose bushes can be controlled in much the same ways
but when backsetting, or plowing stubble, or plowing
fallow the second lime, deeper work is necessary and
more deep surface cultivation is desirable.

The Canada Thistle and Perennial Sow thistles in
stubble are also very difficult to control. In addition to
the practices suggested above for Quack grass, frequent
and thorough surface cultivation with cultivators having
sharp cutting blades is desirable. After giving the
plants as serious a set back as possible by deep plowing.

WEEDS AND THEIR CONTROL 233

one should endeavor to prevent the appearance of any
young thistles above ground. This requires frequent
thorough cultivation, but, given favorable weather, will
result in the gradual deatli of the creeping root stocks
by starvation, because they cannot be nourished if green
leaves are prevented from forming. A "green"" fallow
may be advisable occasionally throughout the fallow year
for controlling wild oats but a "black" fallow is essential
for the control of perennial weeds. If a field is infested
with wild oats and perennial sow thistle the fallow should
be planned to kill the most prevalent weed since the two
cannot be satisfactorily eradicated the same year.

182. Poisonous or Otherwise Injurious Weeds. — Poison-
ous weeds are seldom found growing on cultivated fields.
They are usually found in native pastures or low uncul-
tivated areas where tillage is never given. The most
commonly found poisonous plants are Water Hemlock,
Dwarf Larkspur, Tall Mountain Larkspur, Purple
Larkspur, Small Larkspur, Woolly Loco Weed, White
Loco Weed, Poison Ivy, Lupines, Death Coma, Night
Shade, Corn Cockle and Cow Cockle. The Crocus or
Prairie Anemone is not poisonous but sometimes results
in the death of sheep by the formation in the stomach of
balls of the hairs that grow so profusely on the stems.
Spear grass is sometimes injurious to sheep for a time
when the "spears" are being shed, and to other animals
when fed in hay, by the spears penetrating the flesh.

CHAPTER XIII
IRRIGATION FARMING IN WESTERN CANADA

By W. H. Fairfield,

Superintendent, Experimental Farm, L< thbrUUje,
Alberta.

The application of water to the land by artificial
means for the production of crops is a very ancienl
practice. Authentic records indicate that irrigation
was used in Egypt over five thousand years ago, and in
China and India at least as early. Even in North and
South America remains of ancient irrigation ditches of
great length have been found. "The development of
irrigation from the time when man first watered his
crop with a bucket, then a doon, next a paddle wheel
and finally the gravity system giving water to enormous
areas, is one of the wonders and proofs of the advance
of civilization.*'

II is estimated that at present nearly two hundred
million acres of land are irrigated, by far the Larger
part of which is in India, China and Japan, although
Large projects are found in United States, Egypt, Aus-
tralia and Canada.

183. History of Irrigation in Western Canada. — In the
early nineties, some years after completion of the main
line of the Canadian Pacific Railway, preliminary sur

234

IRRIGATION FARMING 235

veys were inaugurated by the Government to determine
the feasibility of diverting water from some of the
mountain streams for irrigating a portion of the prairie
land of southern Alberta, The first project of any
magnitude was built by the Canadian North West Irri-
gation Company, now owned and operated by the Can-

Tig. 82. — Float Levelling Land for the Border System of Irrigation.

;i(li;m Pacific Railway Company, in the vicinity of Letb-
bridge where approximately 130,000 acres of land have
been brought "under the ditch". Water was first carried
by Ibis ditch in the fall of 1900. Five or six years later
the Canadian Pacific Railway Company inaugurated an
irrigation project east of Calgary, diverting water from
the Bow River, to irrigate, approximately. 880,000 acres
in their block of 3, 000,000 acres of land extending from
west of Strathmore to east of Brooks.

Previous to this time there were a number of small
projects taken out by private individuals, the greater
number of these being in the southwestern pari of Sas

23G DRY FARMING

katchewan, in the vicinity of the Cypress Hills, where the
water is used almost exclusively for the irrigation of hay

lands.

184. Methods of Irrigation. — There are various
methods of applying water to the crops. The one best
suited to a particular locality, or a particular crop, de-
pends upon a. number of factors. Among these might be
mentioned (1) the nature of the surface of the land.
whether it has a steep slope or is fairly level. (2) the
character of the soil, and (3) the kind of crop grown, in-
cluding the value of the crop, the latter determining how
much expense might be warranted for the construction
of the system. Among the methods used are (I) Wild
Flooding, (2) the Furrow System, (3) the Bedding
System, (4) the "Check" System, (5) the Border Sys-
tem, and (6) Sub-irrigation.

185. Wild Flooding. — This is the earliest and crudest
system known. By it the water is diverted from rapidly
flowing streams by plow furrows or small cheaply con-
structed ditches and so spread over the bottom lands
adjacent to the stream, the idea being either to increase
tin1 yield of native hay or to insure a crop of small
grains. The water is taken out of the ditches at con-
venient points and allowed to run practically at will
until it reaches the lower ground, or possibly goes back
into the stream again.

186. The Furrow System. — This is used where the land
has a sleep slope. ;ind often where the supply of water is
limited. It is also employed in the irrigation of garden
truck and all crops grown in rows. For the irrigation
id' grain crops with this system, shallow furrows three or
four feet apart are made on the land after the crop is

sown l»nt before it comes no. The water is allowed to

IRRIGATION FARMING

237

trickle down these furrows in such small amounts that
washing of the soil does not take place and is allowed to
run long enough so that the soil between the furrows is
thoroughly wet. This method is not used on the prairies
in Western Canada with grain or hay.

187. The Bedding System. — This is a method employed
on land which has little fall. The banks or dykes are

Fig. 83. — Making Borders for Border System of Irrigation.

raised so that the areas enclosed, from a fraction of an
acre to an acre or more, are all covered with water. This
is then drained into the nexl bed Lower down.

188. The "Check" System is a form of bed irrigation
and is used quite extensively on hay lands in the Cypress
Hills district. The method followed is to dam the stream
by building a dyke across the valley. By this method
the water, especially during the spring freshets, is
cheeked and forced hack over the creek bottoms. The

dykes are placed at different intervals, depending upon

the fall of the stream, so that the bottom land may be
completely submerged while there is sufficient water in

238

DRY FAKMINCJ

the stream to allow this to be done. Proper sluice gates
are, of course, installed in these dykes.

189. The Border System. — This is a modification of the
flooding system and is very successful on hay and past-
ure lands and will doubtless be used to a greater and
greater extent on the prairie farms as development goes

Fig. 84. — The "V" Ditcher at Work.
Making contour ditches for irrigating a grain field.

on. The field (before seeding) is laid out in strips, two
or three or four rods wide, up and down the slope of the
Land. Separating these strips, ridges six to eight inches
high are thrown up. They are so arranged thai where
water is turned into one of these strips it will spread
out evenly between the ridges and irrigate the whole
Length of the strip uniformly with less Labor than is
usually required with the ordinary flooding method. The
entire field, ridges and all, are seeded.

IRRIGATION FARMING 239

190. Sub-Irrigation, or upward irrigation is sometimes
used where a very intensive scheme is inaugurated. This
is done by the use of tiles laid in the ground just deep
enough so that they will not be struck by the plow.
These are kept full of water which percolates upwards
and sideways from the openings at the ends of the
tiles. This is not used on the prairies nor is it apt to be,
for, although it has some advantages, the extremely high
expense of installation makes it prohibitive.

191. Relative Suitability of Various Crops under Irri-
gation.— Owing to the fact that our climate is sub-humid
or semi-arid rather than arid it is not necessary to irri-
gate all kinds of crops every season to obtain profitable
returns. In this connection the hay crops are an ex-
ception since they rarely if ever produce abundantly in
the dry parts without irrigation and they always re-
spond favorably to the use of water. There is an old
adage that comes from northern Italy where irrigation
has been practised for several centuries, which says,
"The more water the more hay". This is certainly true
in the drier parts of Western Canada with grasses and,
with slight modifications, with alfalfa, potatoes and
truck crops. Alfalfa is the most promising irrigation
crop. Timothy also does exceptionally well 'Tjelow the
ditch." The grain crops are somewhat less suited
to irrigation in this climate, but respond well to the
timely application of water.

192. Irrigating Timothy and Native Grasses. — The
management of these crops is perhaps less difficult than
that of any others now grown under irrigation in Western
Canada. The profit depends solely upon an adequate
supply of \v;ilcr evenly applied to the fields from the
time growl li starts in the spring, which is early in May,

1M0

DRY FARMING

up to the latter pari of June. The amount of water
that may b( applied to grasses is greater than for any
other crops that are raised. The land selected for the
growing of such hay should be reasonably level and
should not have too great a slope. In other words, con-
ditions must be such that water can be easily and often

Fig. 85. — Irrigator at Work.

applied and at not too great expense for labor. It is
necessary if the best results are to be obtained that the
surface of the soil should never be allowed to dry out.
With the grasses a cool, moist condition at the surface
is essential for maximum returns. It is also important
thai the field be given a thorough soaking in the fall so
thai the "jrass may grow vigorously in the spring even
before the irrigation water is applied.

In the preparation of land for timothy some excellent
results have been obtained in certain localities where the
native sod has not been broken but the surface disked
and Hie seed sown. The seed usually germinates on the

IRRIGATION FARMING 241

application of water and the young plants grow vigor-
ously if the surface of the soil is kept moist. The re-
sulting hay is a mixture of native grass (principally
Blue Joint) and timothy which makes an excellent for-
age, more nutritious and more palatable to stock than
timothy alone.

193. Alfalfa under Irrigation. — Among all crops that
are now raised under irrigation in the AVest none is so
well adapted to this type of farming as alfalfa. The
preparation of the land for this crop should be the same
as when it is raised under dry land conditions except
that a greater amount of seed should be used. From
fifteen to eighteen pounds of seed is generally recom-
mended. The thicker the stand obtained the greater the
yield and the finer and better the quality of the hay will
be. In all cases seed grown in Western Canada is to be
preferred. In localities where winter killing is common
only extremely hardy strains such as Grimm or Baltic-
should be used.

The irrigation of alfalfa is somewhat different from
that of the grasses in that the field should be irrigated
and thoroughly soaked as rapidly as possible and Then
the surface allowed to dry so that the soil can warm up. .
In the Lethbridge district, where the largest acreage of
alfalfa in the Wesl is now grown, it is not always neces-
sary to irrigate for the first cutting but it is usually
advisable. The common practice is to take two cuttings
but three oil tint's may lie obtained in ordinary seasons
by taking the first cutting about the 15th or 20th of
June instead of from one to two weeks later. As soon as
each crop is removed from the laud the field should be
immediately irrigated, i.e.. there should be an irrigation
for each cutting. Fall irrigation for alfalfa has been

242 DRY PAEMING

found as a rule to be a good practice, although in a few-
places where the land is extremely heavy late fall irri-
gation is of somewhat doubtful value.

194. Grain Crops. — There has been some contention as
to the advisability of irrigating growing grain in certain
localities where the season is short, and the grain slow in

Fig. 86. — Irrigating Wheat, Strathmore, Alta.

ripening, on account of danger from frosl in the fall. In
such localities this difficulty can be overcome by irri-
gating tin1 laud in the fall after the growing season is
over. This is a commendable practice under all circum-
stances. But in dry seasons even when the land lias
been irrigated the fall previous, the growing crop musl
be irrigated again if maximum yields are to be obtained.
In most districts where irrigation is now practised grow
ing grain can be irrigated quite safely, and certainly ad-
vantageously, providing the water is applied before the
crop has suffered materially from drought. The secret
of raising grain successfully under irrigation is pre-
paredness. The period in which water can be applied to

IRRIGATION FARMING 243

,a particular kind of grain to obtain the best results is
limited to less than three weeks, consequently a man with
a large acreage of grain must have his ditches made, and
be prepared to apply the water expeditiously, as soon as
the time arrives when he thinks it is wise to apply it. It
is better not to put water on a grain crop till the
stooling process has been completed, otherwise the ap-
plication of water might affect the development of the
crop at this point. As a rule one irrigation is all that is
required, but in extremely dry seasons a second irriga-
tion is necessary, if the best results are to be obtained.
The method used is to flood irrigate from laterals put in
at from forty to seventy yards apart in the field. These
may be run lengthwise of the ridges or "hogbacks", or
contour ditches may be put in at right angles to the fall
of the land. The latter plan is usually preferable. It
is better to have the ditches too close together than too
far apart.

195. Potatoes. — It requires more skill and experience
to raise potatoes successfully under irrigation than any
other crop commonly grown. The secret appears to lie in
being able to keep the plants growing vigorously from
the beginning with no setbacks, and on the other hand
in being able to apply the water so that too sudden
growth will not be stimulated at any time. The first
irrigation should be very light, and it should not be given
until the small potatoes are set and perhaps the size of
peas. This stage is usually about the time the first blos-
soms appear. If the crop is wet before this time there
is danger of the plants setting more potatoes than they
will lie able to develop to a marketable size. To be sure
that the potatoes are not wet too much when the first
irrigation is given, it is well to run the water between

244

DRY FARMING

every alternate row only, and turn it off just as soon ;is
it gets through so as not to let the ground soak up any
more than is necessary. As soon as the ground dries suf-
ficiently the land should be given a shallow cultivation.

Fig. 87. — Furrow System of Irrigation.

About ten days after the first irrigation, the second
should be given. This Time the water may be run down
between all the rows and should be allowed to remain
running until the land is well wetted. After irrigation
has once begun, the land should never be allowed to dry
up completely. Unless heavy showers intervene, it will
be found necessary to irrigate about every ten days in
order to maintain a moist condition. After each irriga-
tion as soon as the surface of the soil dries sufficiently it
should be given a shallow cultivation. If U>v any reason
after irrigation has once begun the land is permitted i<>
become quite dry the potatoes should no1 he irrigated
again. If they are, a second growth is almost certain to

IRRIGATION FARMING

245

be induced, and this will injure the quality. The main
cause of soggy potatoes, when grown under irrigation, is
allowing the land to become somewhat dry so that the
growth is checked, and then applying water and in-
ducing a fresh growth of roots and tops.

196. Other Crops, Including Trees. — All garden truck,
should be furrow irrigated with sufficient cultivation be-
tween irrigations to prevent the soil from crusting.

Fig. 88. — Map Showing Location of Irrigation Projects Under Way or

Projected.
The dots indicate the number and location of small private irrigation

schemes.

Strawberries and small Eruits such as currants and rasp-
berries should be irrigated often during fruiting time to
keep them growing in a vigorous manner during the time
the fruit is forming and ripening. With trees and
shrubs generally the water should be applied liberally
in the early part of the spring but should cease during
1he latter part of duly and August so that the hind may

246 DRY FARMING

have a chance to dry out and so induce the new suc-
culent growth to harden up properly for the winter.
This is an important point and one that is often over-
looked. Trees that are ordinarily perfectly hardy arc
made tender and suffer from winter killing owing to the
fact that rapid growth is maintained right up to the
time hard frosts may be expected. After the leaves starl
to drop in the fall it is well to give the trees ami shrubs
a liberal soaking.

CHAPTER XIV
THE CAUSES AND CONTROL OF LOW YIELDS

197. The Causes of Low Yields. — The major causes of
low yields in the West at the present time are climatic —
drought, frost and high winds. The many minor causes
are the cropping and soil management practices man em-
ploys or fails to employ — in the operation of his farm.

In the final analysis all low yields trace back to one
or more of six fundamental things : —

1. The purity or quality of the seed.

2. The suitability of the crop or the variety.

3. The supply and availability of the plant food in
the soil.

4. The moisture in the soil.

5. The temperature of the soil and air.

6. The amount of air in the soil.

But while this list includes the immediate or funda-
mental causes of low yields, yet each «>f these is the direct
result of certain other influences or practices to which is
generally ascribed the cause of the decreased return.
The former may be regarded as the immediate or funda-
mental causes, the latter as the practical causes of partial
or complete failure.

The fundamental cause of low yield in a certain field
may be lack of moisture. The practical cause may have
been p<><>r fallowing, weeds, warm winds, low precipita-

L' 17

248 DRY FARMING

tion or any of the causes that go to diminish the moisture
content of the soil. The fundamental cause of Low
yield in another field may be insufficient available plant
food. The practical cause may have been an infertile
soil, unsuitable tillage, continuous cropping with no
return of plant food or any of the other causes that de-
erease or leave undeveloped the plant food in the soil.

In this chapter we shall discuss the practical causes of
low yields because it is with these the grain grower is
most familiar and it is these he usually advances to ex-
plain why his crops are not satisfactory. Among these
are: —

198. Poor Seed. — Poor seed is seed that will either not
germinate or will not grow vigorously, that contains dis
ease or impurities or that belongs to a variety that is not
suited to the district where it is to be grown. The vigor
of growth and percentage of germination can be deter-
mined by making a germination test. Its freedom from
impurities including most forms of disease can be told by
examining the seed or by its odor, hut the presence of
some diseases can only be detected in the field before the
crop is harvested. The suitability of the variety to a
district cannot be foretold by examining the seed. This
point can only lie determined from the experience "I'
other fanners or from carefully conducted tests.

The seed may be so inferior thai it will produce no
crop, it may be so good that it will result in maximum
returns or it may occupy any intermediate stage of per-
fection. No intelligent farmer takes chances on his seed
being the cause of decreased yield. This is one of the
factors of production thai lies wholly within the power
of the fanner to control.

199. Too Early or Too Late Seeding. — The best time to

THE CAUSES OF LOW YIELDS

•24! t

250 DRY PAEMING

sow is determined largely by the temperature conditions
- ring and fall. When sown too early the seed may
rot or the early growth freeze. If sown too late the crop
may be injured by frost in the fall. Our grain crops are
quite resistant to spring frosts but very susceptible to
fall fir sts Corn and potatoes are very susceptible to
spring frosts and suffer from the first fall frosts while
ts and rape will stand very heavy fall frosts. The
perennial grasses and alfalfa withstand both spring and
fall frosts of considerable severity. As a rule all spring
sown crops should be planted between April 10 and the
end of done in the following order : — wheat, rye.

ts, barley, flax, roots, potatoes, sunflowers, com and
alfalfa. If no nurse crop is use a - - and clovers
should be sown in June, otherwise they may he put in
with spring sown nurse crops at an earlier date.

200. Toe Much or Too Little Seed per Acre.— The
amount of grain to sow per acre is greatly influenced by
the moisture and temperature conditions prevailing A
thin stand is desirable in dry areas having a medium to
_ growing season while a thick stand is preferable in
humid regions, particularly where the growing season is
short. I: is hardly correct to say that thin seeding is
always - able in dry areas and thick seeding in
humid areas for the reason that the condition of th( a
with respect to moisture and tilth at seeding time largely
determines the stand. Thin seeding on a peri

may give _ -"and. while thick seeding on p
prepared land may result in a thin stand. It should
always be our aim to have . _ - 'fed and tin-' -
thinly in dry areas and on dry soils and proportionately
heavier in more moist regions and those having a si
growing season. A thin stand will withstand drought

THE CAUSES OF L(>W YIELDS

553

better than a thick stand but a thick stand will ripen
earlier than a thin stand.

201. Unsuitable Varieties. — Varieties of any of our
common grain crops that from any cause, such as lateness,
low quality, weak straw, or susceptibility to frost or dis-
ease, are not well suited to our conditions, result eitber
in low yields or in decreased prices. The standard vari-
eties that are known to be suitable to the different parts
of the West are as follows : —

Crop.

Best Varieties at
Present.

Promising Varieties.

Wheat

Marquis and Bed Fife Kitchener for yield
Eed Bobs and Ruby
for earliness
Banner, Victory and
Gold Bain

Manchurian and O.A.C. Hannchen for grain
Xo. 21 Early Six for earli-

ness
X. D. Xo. 959 and Sas-
katchewan

Ottawa Select Frolific

Premost

Arthur Early White. Al-

berta Blue and
Carleton
Bangholm and others
Green Globe and others
Yellow Intermediate and
Average Soils Globe types
Deep Soil Long Red and White

Sugar
Shallow Soils Golden Tankard
Carrots Varieties of White In-

termediate Type
Potat

Early Early Six Weeks, Early

Ohio
Milium Irish Cobbler, Rochester

Rose

Oats
Barley

Bye — Winter

Rye — Spring
Flax

Peas

— Swedes
Turnips
Mangels

252 DRY FARMING

rvnr> Best Varieties at . . Tr .
*^rop. Promising Varieties.
Present.

Potatoes (continued).

Late Wee McGregor, Car-

men No. 1, Gold Coin
and others'
Corn

Early Squaw, Patterson, Gehu Quebec No. 28.

Late North Dakota White,

Grasses Longfellow, North West-

ern Dent

Western Rye Grass ami
Brome Grass; Timothy
for more humid pari s.
('lovers New hardy strains

Sweet Clover Grimm New hardy strains

Alfalfa Baltic and new

st rains of Grimm

New varieties are appearing from time to time and
while the great majority of these are not equal to the
claims made for them a few are quite sure to be superior
to the old sorts. Nevertheless new settlers and inex-
perienced Westerners should use only standard var-
ieties. It is of course desirable that the testing of new
varieties be encouraged on all different soil types and
in all climatic zones of the country for the reason that
the Experimenl Stations are so few and so far apart
that their conclusions regarding the suitability of
varieties are not necessarily applicable to all parts. At
the same time a large acreage of a new sort should never
be sown until it has given positive evidence thai it is as
good or better than the standard ones used.

202. Shattering. — After a grain or seed crop has
started to mature a considerable loss often occurs ;is ;]
result of shattering d\\t' either to winds or to the neces

sary handling at harvest time. This loss is greater in

some classes of crops than in others and in some varieties

THE CAUSES OP LOW YIELDS

253

?^**-

5

v>

I

254 DRY FARMING

than in others. It is greatesl in over-ripe crops and
least in immature ones. The Durum or Macaroni wheats
are our most non-shattering varieties. Marquis shatters
less than any of our other commonly-grown sorts. Barley
does not shatter seriously, but the heads break off easily
after maturing. Rye shatters very easily if let get too
ripe. The seed of the grasses and sweet clover when al-
lowed to mature also shatters freely. Early harvesting,
careful handling, and the use of non-shattering classes
or varieties, are about the only practices that will offset
this possible loss.

203. Late Breaking. — The results of experiments at
Saskatoon during the last four years indicate thai delay
in breaking native prairie after the tenth of June de-
creases the yield of wheat one bushel per acre per week,
ui' what is more important, decreases the profit from
$8.44 per acre on June 10th breaking to $3.81 on
August breaking and $1.09 on breaking done in the
month of September. It is impossible on a farm to do
every job at the best time, but when the best time is
known a man can so shape his plans that as much as
possible of the work can be done when it should lie done.

These conclusions are probably applicable only to that
portion of the open prairie lying between the 104th and
110th meridians. In proportion as the average rain-
fall of other areas is greater than that at Saskatoon, the
breaking of the prairie land or the grass land may very
profitably be delayed. In the most humid parts Augusl
breaking or even spring breaking may be cropped with
some success.

204. Seeding on Breaking Done the Same Season. —
The newcomer naturally desires a crop as soon as pos-
sible after taking up land. In the more humid parts a

THE CAUSES OF LOW YIELDS 255

fair crop on the average may be obtained by good break-
ing done early enough to seed it about the last of May
to an early-maturing crop. In the drier parts such a
practice will only result in a profit about once in four
years, the reason of the low return being the lack of
moisture and available plant food in the soil from the
previous year. In the more moist parts oats, barley and
potatoes are frequently grown on breaking done the same
season, but the practice even in these areas is to be en-
couraged only where the land can be well prepared by
being broken not less than four inches deep, packed and
disked and harrowed to form a good seed bed.

Where the rainfall is low and the evaporation great
sowing a grain crop on spring breaking is not a good
practice. It not only is a losing proposition three times
out of four, but the land so used is seldom in good con-
dition for a subsequent crop, nor is it likely to give a
good yield until it is summerfallowed. In the dry parts
flax is the crop generally used at present for sowing on
breaking. Potatoes are sometimes grown on such land
for home use, but such preparation is inadvisable for a
large acreage of this crop. Oats also are occasionally
grown on spring breaking for sheaf feed. Corn is seldom
used on spring breaking, but unlike the other crops
mentioned it will do quite well and at the same time leave
the land in far better condition for a subsequent crop
than any of the others mentioned.

205. Native Perennial Plants in Stubble Fields.— The
long-lived perennial plants commonly found growing w
prairie sod arc often the chief causes of low yields in
stubble fields. Quack grass, sweet grass and rose busies
are three widely spread members of this group. Such
perennials are reproduced by creeping roots as well as

256 DRY FARMING

by seed and can be controlled only by plowing. Plow-
ing in a dry time is more effective than plowing in a wet
season. To kill these plants in prairie sod it is often
necessary to plow twice, or to "break and backset". To
kill them when present in stubble fields either of two
methods may be used: (1) fall plow and leave loose over
winter, or (2) spring plow and sow thickly at once to
a leafy crop like oats or barley. If present in land to be
fallowed two plowings are advisable — shallow in fall
and deep the following summer or shallow in late spring
and deeper in late summer.

206. Plowing When the Soil is Too Wet or Too Dry.—
When a soil is plowed when either too wet or too dry its
physical condition may be seriously injured. The dam-
age resulting from such a cause can seldom be remedied
by tillage and is frequently not repaired by the weather-
ing agencies until it is too late to get a good crop. It is
true thai many heavy soils when left in this condition
'"slake down" after rains and after the low tempera-
tures ;ui(l snows of winter: hut some do not, and often
Hi.' rains and snows of winter are very scarce and fail
to accomplish the leavening influence of normal or wet

seasons.

This injury is seldom serious on fallowed fields that
are too wet or too dry when plowed for the reason that
the weathering agencies have time to either partially or
wholly repair the injury done by man in his untimely
operations. Medium and light types of soil seldom suf-
fer serious physical injury from this cause hut heavy
loams and clays frequently do. On some of the heavier
soils in the drier parts fall plowing that is done when
too Avy turns up in chunks and dries out and often can-
not lie worked down well enough to give good results

THE CAUSES OF LOW YIELDS 257

the following year. The "stubbling in" of fields is
generally an undesirable practice but its chief justifi-
cation in the minds of many farmers lies in the fact that
there are times and conditions in some of our medium
dry areas when land is put out of condition by fall plow-
ing and, as a result, gives disappointing yields.

For economic reasons man must plow when time per-
mits and this may not be the best time. Nevertheless,
the condition of the soil at different seasons of the year
and in different years should be an important consider-
ation, when planning the season's operations.

207. Plowing Under Heavy Stubble or Coarse Manure. —
These substances when plowed under add considerable
organic matter to the soil but they do not decay rapidly
in a dry climate and may therefore leave the soil so
loose that the upward movement of moisture and the
downward growth of plant roots is interfered with thus
sometimes resulting in a decreased yield of the first crop
after the application. This is one of our difficult
problems. Continuous grain-growing dissipates organic
matter; and coarse organic matter unless well inter-
mixed with the soil and firmly packed down may injure
the condition of the soil.

AVhen organic matter is badly needed as on the lighter
types of soil and those that drift neither stubble nor
manure should ever be burned, but when either is plow-
ed under the land should be worked down to a firm
condition. Manure should never be applied thickly for
grain crops in the Prairie Provinces. Ten loads per
acre on a forty-acre field is much to be preferred over
twenty loads per acre on a twenty-acre field.

208. Too Late Plowing of the Fallow. — In tests con-
ducted at Saskatoon the yield of wheat decreased at the

258

DRY FARMING

THE CAUSES OF LOW YIELDS 259

rate of approximately one bushel per acre for each
week's delay in plowing the fallow after the tenth of
June. It was quite apparent that the longer the fallow
was left unplowed after weed growth commenced the less
moisture there was conserved and the less available
plant food developed.

On very weedy soils it is generally advisable to get the
weed seeds germinated before plowing the fallow. This
often necessitates a delay in plowing. In such cases the
bad effects from delayed plowing will be lessened if the
weeds and volunteer plants are kept down by some form
of surface cultivation such as disking or cultivating.
On soils that drift easily late plowing of the fallow may
be advisable. (See "Objections to Fallowing" and "De-
fense of Fallowing" in Chapter X).

209. Weeds. — Space does not permit of more than a
brief reference to this point. The subject is, however,
fully discussed in Chapter XII. At this time we shall re-
fer only to the principles of weed control, the first of
which is that annual weeds like wild oats and the com-
mon mustards can be controlled by preventing them
from seeding; the second that biennials can be controlled
by plowing the land every year ; the third that perennials
can be controlled by preventing them from seeding and
by killing the established plants by tillage; and the
fourth that eradicating weeds is of little practical value
if others are introduced to the farm and sown with the
seed, or distributed in any other way. Dozens of sys-
tems or combinations of practices are used and recom-
mended for weed control. But all control methods trace
back to one or more of these fundamental principles.

210. Insects. — Insects do much less damage to our
crops here than they do in milder climates. Yet we are

260 DRY FARMING

by no means free from their visitations. When any
species is found to be increasing the methods of con-
trol may take any one or more of three forms : — first, the
prevention of its reproduction or its spread ; second, its
destruction by poisoning if it is a "biting" insert; and
third, its destruction by chemicals that kill by contact
if it belongs to the "sucking" insects. In sonic cases
none of these plans of attack are successful and other
means of destruction are necessary. Tin1 common insect
pests of the West and their control are very ably and
plainly discussed by Mr. Criddle in Chapter XIV of
"Crop Production in Western Canada", and by other
entomologists in bulletins that may be secured free of
charge from the Dominion Department of Agriculture at
Ottawa or from any of the Provincial Departments.

211. Plant Diseases.— The most common diseases affect-
ing grain crops in Western Canada are smut and rust.
Flax wilt and certain fungous, bacterial and physio-
logical diseases of potatoes and other crops also take an
annual toll from the farmer's profit. Rust cannot be
controlled but its ravages may be lessened by the use of
rust resistant varieties as well as by all those cultural
practices that result in earlier maturity. The eradica-
tion of secondary hosts of the plant such as the barberry
and buckthorn lessens the probability of the appearance
of the disease. The grain smuts, except the loose smuts
of wheat and barley, can be lessened or entirely pre-
vented by the formalin treatment of the seed. The loose
smuts referred to can he controlled by the hot water
treatment of the seed. The physiological diseases can be
largely prevented by the choice of suitable varieties and
the use of healthy seed. The bacterial and fungous dis
eases can be controlled only by 1 he use of disease-free

THE CAUSES OP LOW YIELDS 261

seed on a healthy soil or by chemical or physical treat-
ment to destroy the bacteria or fungi present.

212. Heavy Spring Frosts. — In Western Canada most
of the grain crops must be sown before danger of spring
frosts is past. The only means of lessening the damage
from such late spring frosts as may come are, first, to
have seed of strong vitality in order that the young
plants may have the greatest possible chance to recover,
and secondly to have the soil in the best possible condi-
tion in order that the weakened plants may be well sup-
ported in their efforts to recover.

Damage may be prevented to some extent by some-
what later seeding and by seeding the hardiest kinds
first and the tender est last. But with grain crops
especially it is generally wise to risk the spring frosts
rather than to sow late and run the danger of fall frosts.
The latter do very great damage occasionally, but spring
frosts seldom do serious harm to cereals except when ac-
companied by a long period of dry weather or by soil
drifting. If the tender crown is exposed by blowing the
effect of spring frosts may be disastrous.

In order of hardiness in spring the cereals rank as
follows : — Rye, wheat, oats and barley. Flax is not less
tender than oats or barley, but if frosted, does not re-
cover so well on account of its habit of branching above
ground. It is therefore not usually sown until after
the cereals. Peas withstand spring frosts quite well but
if injured recovery is much slower and less complete than
with the grain crops. Corn and potatoes are very tender
I) i it potatoes will recover from frosts that kill corn.

213. Hail Storms. — This is one of the factors affecting
crops that man has no power to control. The only way
in which he can play safe is by insuring hi-- crop. It is

262 DRY FARMING

seldom that more than two or three per eent. of our crop
is damaged by hail. It is true that the average man pays
more in premiums than he gets out in awards for hail
damage but it is equally true that many uninsured farm-
ers have gone bankrupt because they could not stand the
loss of a crop.

The justification for insuring against hail is not in the
probability of getting back more than is paid in. but
rather of insuring one's self against serious incon-
venience or even bankruptcy in case of loss of one or
more crops.

214. Hot Winds. — The hot winds that occasionally oc-
cur in southern Alberta and southwestern Saskatchewan
increase very greatly both the evaporation of moisture
from the soil and its transpiration from the leaves of
plants. If the velocity of the wind could be economically
lessened in any way, such as by using wind breaks, much
damage could be prevented. In actual practice the only
ways of lessening the amount of injury from this source
are to store as much moisture as possible in the soil, to
use drought-resistant or drought-avoiding crops and to
follow as efficiently as possible the established practices
of "dry farming". In the very warm parts of the driesl
areas the use of early maturing cereals such as winter
rye offers much promise as a result of partial avoidance
lather than resistance to hot winds.

215. Dry Seasons. — The average precipitation in the
West is about sixteen inches which is less than one-half
of that received in the corn belt of the United States, or
in Ontario, or in many parts of England. The monthly
distribution of this precipitation is very favorable;
nevertheless the low rainfall causes more low yields than
any other factor at the present time. Since we cannol

THE CAUSES OF LOW YIELDS 263

control the climate it remains for us to conserve as much
as possible of the limited moisture that falls. Every extra
inch of moisture that can be stored and conserved in
the soil means on an average a possible increase of two
to four bushels of wheat per acre. (See Chapter X).

216. Fall Frosts. — Low temperatures in early fall fre-
quently work serious injury to all grain and other crops
in the northern areas and occasionally also in other parts
of the West. Our growing season is short and we cannot
control the temperature of the atmosphere. We can
lessen the damage from frost only by putting into use
those practices that result in avoiding frost and by grow-
ing crops that take little or no injury from low tempera-
tures. Among these practices are ; — ( 1 ) packing the
land, (2) thick seeding, (3) using early classes of grain
such as oats, barley or rye, (4) using early varieties of
grain such as Prelude, Kuby or Red Bobs wheat; Sixty-
day, Orloff or Daubeney oats; Early Six barley; Long
Stem flax; and Early White peas, (5) less frequent fal-
lowing, (6) shallower plowing for the fallow, (7) later
plowing of the fallow, (8) pasturing the fallow, (9) early
seeding, (10) the use of press drills, (11) growing frost
resistant crops such as Western rye grass, brome grass,
grain crops for hay and Swede turnips for succulent
winter feed, and (12) going into mixed or stock farming.
The first ten of these practices aid us in avoiding frost,
the last two enable one to farm so that serious injury
will not result from this cause.

CHAPTER XV

THE MANAGEMENT OF SPECIAL SOILS .

In Western Canada there are a number of soil types
which differ from what may be considered normal soils.
These generally require some special treatment for best
returns. Although most of these soils have not been
studied scientifically it has been thought advisable to
add a brief discussion of their peculiarities and the
methods now followed by fanners in managing Drifting'
Soils, Alkaline Soils, Loose Top Soils, Burnt < hit Soils.
Poor Soils and Cold Soils.

Drifting Soils

Soil erosion as a result of wind action is one of the
most serious problems facing the farmer on some types
of soil in the open plains region of the West. It is the
first and most emphatic evidence of either poor soil, un-
suitable tillage or soil deterioration. During the pasl
three years it has been responsible for the partial or
complete destruction of thousands of acres of crop in
many different portions of the plains area.

217. The Damage Caused by Soil Drifting is evidenced
not only in injury to the crop that may be on the land
but also to the soil itself. The seed may be uncovered or
blown out of the ground and the young plants may be

264

MANAGEMENT OP SPECIAL SOILS 265

killed by having their roots exposed, or by being covered
by the drifting particles, or by abrasions resulting
from the long continued impingement of the drifting
particles against the tender tissues of the plant. The
soil itself is injured by the removal of much of the sur-
face or more productive part. Aside from these more
or less general effects of soil drifting there are other
objectionable features such as the possible serious injury
to adjoining crops or fields, the spread of weeds and the
interference with traffic as a result of the accumulation
of drifting soil in road allowances.

218. The Chief Factors Favoring Soil Drifting are a fine
textured soil, low precipitation and frequent high winds
in early summer before the land is protected by the
growing crop. "When to these are added too much or
unsuitable surface tillage, and a system of farming
which is wasteful of soil humus and returns little or no
organic matter to the soil, we have a combination of
conditions that is responsible, not only for the large
losses from soil drifting that have already occurred, but
also for preparing the way for still more serious losses
in the future if some radical changes are not made in the
methods of tillage and cropping heretofore practised in
the affected areas. The greatest damage from this cause
is to be observed in southern Alberta, portions of west-
ern and southern Saskatchewan and in southwestern
Manitoba.

219. The Chief Causes of Soil Drifting are a high wind
velocity and the low cohesion or binding force of the ex-
posed soil particles. The wind velocity as well as the
frequency of high winds and their general direction is a
climatic condition which cannol be controlled; hence
man's only recourse is, (1) to increase the cohesion of the

266 DRY FARMING

soil particles or their ability to hold together and (2 i 1"
reduce the exposure of the surface soil by some form of
protection.

220. The Means Employed to Prevent Excessive Damage
from soil blowing therefore fall into two groups, (1)
those that increase the resisting power of the soil, and
(2) those that protect the soil surface from the wind.
Among the methods used to increase the power of the
soil to resist the wind are, (a) increasing the moisture
content, (b) increasing the organic matter content, and
(c) modifying the structure of the soil. The protection
of the soil surface from the wind may be accomplished
by: (a) growing a protecting crop, (b) letting the stub-
ble of one crop remain until shortly before the time of
seeding the next crop, or, as with corn stubble, through
the whole of the next crop season, (c) applying manure
or straw to the field, and (d) providing artificial pro
tection such as the growing of windbreaks. We shall
take time for a detailed discussion of only the more im-
portant of these practices.

221. Increasing the Moisture Content. — When a soil is
moist its particles are not as likely to become separated
and blow away as when the soil is dry. This fad is of
value chiefly to the farmer on irrigated land where water
may be applied at will. Under dry land conditions it
becomes of value only in so far as one may by keeping the
surface soil firm, also keep it moisl to within a very short
distance of the surface. The chief value of packing, in
the control of soil drifting, is to be found in the fact
that it aids in bringing moisture from below to the sur-
face soil, thus Increasing the resistance of the particles to
the wind. On the Other hand if there is not a fair sup-
ply of moisture in the lower soil, the breaking up and

MANAGEMENT OF SPECIAL SOILS 267

levelling of the coarse surface particles by the packer
Avill tend to encourage soil blowing. For this reason pack-
ing is not a desirable practice in the control of soil drift-
ing on all types of soil.

222. Increasing the Organic Matter Content. — This is
the chief and probably the most permanent means of
lessening the danger of soil drifting. The organic mat-
ter content may be increased, (1) by growing perennial
or biennial hay crops, (2) by applying farmyard man-
ure, or (3) by plowing under green crops. The choice
rests between (a) growing grass crops, which in some
parts are not considered profitable, or (b) going into
stock or mixed farming and hauling manure to the land,
or (c) plowing under green crops, which has never been
shown to be profitable under semi-arid conditions, or (d)
doing all of these things.

The use of hay crops for the purpose of adding humus
or root fibre to the soil results in, (1) improving the soil
as a result of their dense root systems, and (2) provid-
ing forage for stock from which manure for further im-
proving the soil may be obtained. The low yields of hay
from perennial grasses under semi-arid conditions is well
known, nevertheless the use of such hay and pasture
cn»ps furnishes what is probably the best means of main-
taining the organic matter of much of our lighter soils.
Brome grass, owing to its very dense root system, is prob-
ably the best for this purpose. Sweet clover promises
much, not only as a forage crop but also as a soil improv-
er. It has one advantage over brome grass in that it is a
Legume. It therefore leaves the soil richer in nitrogen
than does brome grass, but the latter probably leaves
more root fibre.

The chief value of manure is not in its eontenl of plant

268 DRY FARMING

food; the organic matter which it contains increases the
power of the soil to hold moisture and to resist blowing.
On drifting soils the only argument against the use of
manure when intelligently applied is the cost of apply-
ing it. The application of manure as a surface dressing
on the more exposed portions that are likely to blow first
is a preventive measure that should come into general
practice.

The plowing under of weeds in the fallow year, or lie-
early spring growth of sweet clover or of the perennial
grasses, is probably the only green manuring it will be
found profitable to practise in our dry areas at the
present time. The growing of green crops through a
whole season in order to have a large growth to plow
under to increase the organic matter content of the soil
will not likely ever come into general nse in the West, for
the reason that the organic matter thus added to the soil
is secured at the expense of an enormous quantity of soil
moisture which is itself generally the limiting factor in
crop yields. On soils that are low in organic matter in
areas of light rainfall, it is questionable how far this
practice may be carried before its waste of soil moisture
will result in making the remedy more to lie feared than
the disease.

223. Modifying the Structure of the Soil.— Soil drift-
ing occurs chiefly on the fine textured soils — the sandy
types and the heavy clays thai slake down to a fine
powdery condition on top. The fallow generally suffers
the most, although fall plowed land is not free from
erosion and spring plowed land on some soil types oc-
casionally blows. The smaller the soil particles are and
the drier they are the greater the probability of their
drifting. The problem is therefore one of pre-
venting the soil becoming too tine and too dry on top.

MANAGEMENT OP SPECIAL SOILS 269

The drying out of the top layer cannot be prevented but
the formation of a fine "dust" mulch may be — at least
on most soils. The use of the unfortunate term "dust
mulch" in so much of the Western Canadian and
American agricultural literature, is responsible for at
least a portion of the excessive drifting that has occurred
in recent years. The "dust*' mulch has no place in
the agriculture of any dry country where high winds
prevail. A rough cloddy surface developed by deep
cultivation and preferably left in small ridges by a
cultivator is to be preferred.

On drifting soils the cultivator should take the place
of the disc and harrows on the fallow field. Harrowing
once after the plow, in order to level the surface, is all
the harrowing such a fallow needs if the soil is prevented
from baking or cracking and the weeds prevented
from growing by the use of the cultivator. More care
in plowing in order to secure a level surface, and the
use of the packer (preferably the sub-surface type
packer or a disc run straight) behind the plow, are
practices that are making harrowing less necessary and
are proving to be more efficacious in lessening soil drift-
ing. A ridged surface such as is left by the cultivator
provides a refuge for the fine particles in the bottom of
the narrow ridges, and in practice is found to result in
less blowing and in the production of greater returns
than a smooth surface. Working the soil when it is dry
should be discouraged. When it is slightly moist below
the surface a more granular or lumpy top can be de-
veloped than if tilled when dry. On smooth fields that
are Eree from stones the revolving rod cultivator offers
much promise. On the heavy clays of the Regina plains
cultivating the fallow in the spring with a narrow tooth
cultivator is found to lessen drifting.

270

J)KY FAliMlXtjl

The use of the press drill leaves the soil in heller con-
dition to withstand the effects of the wind than the use of
must other types, although on some soils the hoe drill
has been found to give very satisfactory results. The

<**Vf

-

■ \>i.

Fig. 92. — Winter Rye Lessens Soil Drifting.

On the left a field of oats was completely destroyed by drifting. The rye

was unhurt, except for 10 or 20 feet along the edge where the soil from
the oat field blew into the rye field.

single disc drill is particularly undesirable on soils that
drift.

Shallow soils or Ihose having a sandy or gravelly
subsoil or those having a deficiency of organic matter in
the subsoil should not be plowed deep, or they will soon
begin to blow. The surface layer of such soils is richer
in organic matter and therefore much more resistant to
the wind thai] the lower layers.

224. Growing Protecting Crops. — The most serious
drifting occurs in May before the spring sown crops
cover the ground; but winter drifting is not uncommon
in years of light snowfall following a dry autumn sea-

MANAGEMENT OF SPECIAL SOILS 271

son. In those areas where drifting is quite common the
only fields that can be depended upon to wholly resist the
wind action, under severe conditions, are those that are
protected by a crop or by unplowed stubble.

225. Perennials as Protecting Crops. — The best pro-
tecting crops, although often the least profitable, are the
perennials. Among these the grasses are to be preferred,
although alfalfa and sweet clover (a biennal) are equal-
ly as good soil protectors. It is very seldom that crops
sown on land broken up out of sod suffer from soil drift-
ing. In 1919 such land produced almost an average
yield at Saskatoon while many crops on fallow and fall
and spring plowing were partial or complete failures as
a result of high winds and dry weather.

226. Winter Rye Lessens Drifting. — Another commonly
grown crop but one less sure of furnishing the protec-
tion needed is winter rye. This crop, like the perennials
mentioned, may be sown in or following the rainy sea-
son when the soil seldom blows, and by covering the
ground in May is, like the others, likely to lessen or en-
tirely prevent any blowing. The question of growing
winter rye is one that deserves consideration by all
farmers living in soil drifting areas. Where drifting
interferes with wheat raising to such an extent as to
make it unprofitable, winter rye, in many cases, may be
substituted to advantage. As a commercial crop, how-
ever, rye generally sells for twenty-five to thirty per cent,
less than wheat, so that where the latter can be satis-
factorily grown rye cannot compete with it as a profitable
crop. The illustration (Fig. 92) shows very convincingly
the relative resistance to drifting, of land protected by
winter rye as compared with that seeded to oats, a spring
sown crop.

272 DRY FARMING

227. Late Sown Oats for Soil Protection. — Where the
conditions are not so serious as to require the use of one
or more of these crops, but where some protection of the
soil is desirable, a very thin seeding of oats or other
cereal may be sown on the fallow in late July or early
August and lightly pastured if necessary. These plants,
of course, die in winter, but the roots and leaves remain-
ing furnish considerable protection against the high
winds the following May. An objection to this practice
is to be found in places where biennial weeds are pre-
valent. If the latter start after the cover crop is
sown in July they will, of course, be present in the crop
the next year, as no opportunity to kill them in the fall
offers itself, the ground being occupied by the cover crop
which would be destroyed if cultivated. A volunteer
growth of grain or annual weeds in late summer lias a
similar effect to the sowing of a thin crop of oats, but is
subject to the objections pointed out above, viz., the
possible presence of biennial weeds that will live over and
appear in the next crop.

228. Stubble as a Soil Protector. — Where soil drifting
occurs on fall plowed land in winter or in spring two
alternatives present themselves, spring plowing or "stub
bling in." In much of the very dry portions of the
plains region, even aside from the question of soil drift-
ing, spring plowing is rather to be preferred to fall
plowing. Where these conditions obtain, of course, all
the advantages are with the spring plowing because
such land is protected in winter and generally blows Less
than fall plowing even in the spring. "Stubbling in" is
only advisable on land that is free from weeds and grass
and thai is in good physical condition, in the <\vy parts
and on new land it is more frequently followed than

MANAGEMENT OF SPECIAL SOILS 273

elsewhere. Such fields, of course, benefit as a result of
protection in the early summer as well as in the preced-
ing winter.

229. Corn Stubble Lessens Drifting. — On warm soils
in the southern part of all three provinces corn may be

Fig. 93. — Rotary Rod Cultivator.
A new machine that is being tried out on soils that are inclined to drift.

used as a partial substitute for the fallow. Where fal-
low land in such areas drifts badly, the use of corn as a
substitute for fallowing lessens the tendency to drift,
ruder severe conditions the corn ground will blow, but
frequently the corn stubble furnishes sufficient protec-
tion to wholly prevent serious injury from this cause.

Where corn is grown and the field kept free from w Is,

plowing is, as a rule, not necessary or even advisable for
i In- next crop. Disking the corn stubble generally gives
better returns. Tins practice results in leaving the corn
stubble on 1 lie surface of the soil where they form a
considerable protection against soil drifting.

274 DRY FAEMING

229a. Artificial Protection. — The value of windbreaks
such as clumps of trees, hedges, fences, etc., is in
direct proportion to their height and extent. De-
pending upon the severity of the storm the land
adjoining such windbreaks is generally protected
from ten to twenty times the height of the wind-
break, although instances have been reported when'
such protection is felt over a much greater dis-
tance. As a means of lessening soil drifting wind-
breaks are practicable only for small areas. No
doubt when shelter of this kind becomes established on
all farms the wind velocity will be lessened somewhat .
but the cost of planting and maintaining will probably
be found to be too great to warrant planting out enough
trees to make any appreciable effect on the wind velocity
on large farms in the open plains. Where windbreaks
such as hedges or fences are used to protect the farm-
stead or the garden, an outer row. a few rods from an
inner one, should be provided in order to form a ""trap"
for the drifting soil, otherwise the drift will accumulate
within the enclosure and become a nuisance in the carry-
ing out of the necessary farm operations.

230. Miscellaneous Practices and Suggestions. — In fields
where the soil has begun to blow much can be done to
check it by going into the field and plowing either single
furrows or narrow strips of four to six furrows from
five to twenty-live rods apart, at righl angles to the
direction of the winds. These raised portions ad as
checks behind which the drifting particles lodge. Tins is
an extreme measure and is only advisable where a small
patch of drifting soil promises to do serious injury to
adjoining areas that are not likely to blow it' the drifting
material can be kepi ;i\vay from them.

MANAGEMENT OF SPECIAL SOILS 275

Arranging the areas to be seeded in long strips rather
than approaching the square will also counteract the
injurious effects of the soil drifting to a certain extent.

By sowing the grain deeper than usual, thus leaving
the soil furrowed, tends to prevent soil drifting and les-
sens the probability of the seed or the plant roots be-
coming exposed.

The sandy soils take more permanent injury from
drifting and are much less subject to favorable modifi-
cation by tillage than the clay types ; the maintenance or
increase of the organic matter content by applying
manure and growing grass or legume crops becomes
therefore of much greater importance with these than
with heavier soils.

The introduction of perennial grasses to the rotation
in dry districts should be made gradually, otherwise there
may be difficulty in adjusting the farm organization to
the change. It is hardly necessary to point out that if
the cropping system is altered to include the growing of
the forage grasses and legumes, provision for the
economical utilization of this forage should also be care-
fully planned, otherwise the benefit to the soil arising
from the change may be secured at too high a price.

As curative measures after soil starts to blow there is
very little effective treatment that can be given. Where
isolated spots only are affected, such as light knolls or ex-
posed elevations, spreading manure either in strips
or over the whole surface will lessen the injury. Plow-
ing a few furrows in strips a short distance apart on the
lee side of such drifting areas, while a very drastic
measure, is one thai is advisable where a small area of
drifting soil in a larger area of good soil is likely to re-
sult in injury to the whole if not controlled in the early

276 DRY FARMING

stage of the blowing. The drifting particles that leave
snch light areas may during the course of several days
of blowing affect several parts of the field, since they
move readily from one place to another, doing injury at
every move. It thus happens that from one small patch
of poor land a large acreage may be severely damaged
if drastic measures are not taken in the early stage of
the storm.

231. Conclusion. — The fallow is the worst to suffer
from soil drifting and the danger is greatest in May but
may occur in winter. The damage is increased when
such surface tillage as disking and harrowing, which
tend to make the soil fine and loose on top, is practised ;
it is lessened by deeper tillage with cultivators which
leave the soil in a rough, more or less lumpy condition.
and preferably in shallow- ridges. If this treatment is
not sufficient to control the drifting a thin seeding of
oats may be sown on the fallow in July and August, or
in some districts corn may be used as a partial substi-
tute for the fallow. In case one or other of these fails to
produce the desired results, winter rye, which establishes
itself in the fall and which has possession of the ground
in May, and is therefore likely to prevent the blowing,
may be used. Under more serious conditions of soil
drifting it may be necessary to grow perennial or bien-
niel crops and sow cereals only on the sod land, or to so
build up the organic matter content of the soil by using
hay and pasture crops and farmyard manure, that when
intelligently tilled the land will not be likely to blow.

Alkaline Soils

The " Alkali" spots so familiar in some districts, and
which produce Low returns or none at all are the result

MANAGEMENT OF SPECIAL SOILS 277

of an accumulation of soluble salts of different kinds.
In the process of weathering through long periods of
time chemical changes in the soil result in the develop-
ment of certain chemical compounds which are soluble.
Some of these are useful to plants but some are harm-
ful. In humid climates the excess is removed by drain-
age through the soil. In semi-arid and arid climates an
accumulation of the toxic salts occurs because there is
insufficient rain to wash them through the soil. The
result is they are slowly moved to the low spots by soil
water as it seeks the lower levels, where, on the evapora-
tion of the water the salts remain as "alkali" on or near
the surface of the ground.

This condition is found chiefly in countries having a
low precipitation, and occurs in areas where the drain-
age is poor and the evaporation high. It is a condition
that is not general in Western Canada, but is found
usually in small patches here and there over the whole
West. These patches are invariably found (1) along
the edges of old storage basins, (2) in low places where
moisture accumulates and evaporates, and (3) in
"springy" places below higher ground where salt im-
pregnated water oozes from the surface and evaporates.
Alkali frequently "rises" and often with serious conse-
quences where too much water is applied in irrigation.

According to Shutt* the compounds known collective-
ly as alkali comprise chiefly sodium sulphate (Glauber's
salts), sodium carbonate (washing soda), sodium
chloride (common salt), magnesium sulphate (Epsom
salts), and occasionally the chlorides of calcium and
magnesium.

*In bulletin on "Alkali Soils", published by Dominion De-
partment of Agriculture.

278 DRY FARMING

Black alkali is characterized by the presence of
sodium carbonate (sal soda, washing soda) although this
compound is almost always associated with one or more
of the chlorides and sulphates mentioned in the preced-
ing paragraph. Sodium carbonate is, as is well known,
white, but from the fact that it acts upon and dissolves
the decayed vegetable matter (humus) of the soil the
incrustation is tinged dark brown or black — hence the
name. Water standing in pools on soils impregnated
with the carbonate is invariably of a darker color and
much resembles a strong infusion of coffee.

232. Why Alkali is Harmful.— It is thought that the
harmful effects of alkali result from one or more of four
different actions: (1) the destruction of soil tilth, (2)
the corrosive effect of those alkalies containing sodium
carbonate, (3) the withdrawal of moisture from the
plant cells by osmosis, and (4) the toxic effect of some
of the salts.

233. The Reclamation of Alkali Soils.— In the dry lands
where alkali spots are found the chief means to im-
prove them are: (1) the application of manure, (2)
surface drainage, (3) thorough tillage to lessen evapora-
tion and (4) the use of grass crops where the alkali ia
bad or the spots too numerous or too large to attempt to
reclaim. Manure improves the tilth and thus aids crops
to establish themselves. Surface drainage removes the
water carrying the alkali in solution and thus prevents
a further accumulation of sails.

Thorough tillage aids in lessening evaporation and the
consequent rise of alkali with the water as the hitler
comes to the surface. Manure also aids in lessening
evaporation. Thorough tillage and manure, by helping
to keep the soil filled with water, help also to wash Ihc

MANAGEMENT OF SPECIAL SOILS 279

alkali down to lower levels and to dilute the solution in
the surface soil, thus frequently making profitable crop
growing possible.

On irrigated land, flooding and under drainage to
wash out the soluble salts and carry them away in the
drainage water is frequently practised. When the alkali
contains sodium carbonate, land plaster or ground
gypsum may be applied. This changes the black alkali
to white alkali, a less harmful form and one that may
more easily be removed by drainage. The removal of
alkali by mechanical means is sometimes practised on
high-priced land. Shutt points out also that on certain
types of alkali or those consisting largely of magnesium
sulphate (Epsom salts) the application of lime or marl
before irrigation and drainage is beneficial.

234. The Use of Alkali-Resistant Crops. — None of the
important field crops can be grown where the alkali is
strong. Rye and barley are reported to be more resist-
ant to alkali than the other cereals. Among wheats the
macaroni varieties are said to be the best. Members
of the beet family are the most resistant root crops for
this type of soil. The legumes as a class do not do well
on alkaline areas, although sweet clover is reported to be
alkali-resistant. The forage crops or those grown for
hay or feed rather than for seed are generally the best
to grow on alkali laud. Western rye grass and brome
grass are commonly sown and used either for hay or
past ore on soils of this nature.

Kearney in a summary of his studies on the alkali
resistance of crops states in Bulletin No. 44 of the
United States Department of Agriculture that '"'most
field crops cannot be profitably grown when the
quantities of white alkali salts (sulphates, bicarbonates

280 DRY FARMING

and chlorides) in the depth occupied by the roots ex-
ceed one per cent, of the dry weight of the soil and only
a few resistant species can be expected to give good crops
when the quantity exceeds one-half of one per cent/'

Loose Top Soils

This is a loeal name applied to a peculiar type of very
heavy soil which both in the unbroken as well as in the
cultivated condition frequentlty carries a loose or springy
layer of soil three or four inches in depth. The vegeta-
tion is rather sparse, mostly grasses of a bunchy nature
with considerable sage brush in some parts. Very few-
native trees or shrubs are found growing on it.

This soil bakes very readily after being wet and on
drying opens up in large cracks often wide enough to
let the plow wheel in to the axle. The rain water and
some of the loose particles of soil pass into these cracks
and on freezing and expansion later there results the
roughened surface popularly spoken of as ffhummoeks".
A considerable area of this type of soil lying west and
south of Goose Lake in Saskatchewan was spoken of
among the early ranchers as the Saskatchewan desert.

This soil when broken is dark in color, the loose spots
appearing almost a slate blue. Even in dvy weather it
seems dam]) when plowed and if the dry weather con-
tinues after plowing, the soil of the furrow slice becomes
very hard. After rains it "slakes" down forming a loose
surface dry on top and wet underneath and inclined to
bake and crack in the heat after heavy pains. The soil
is very deep, rich and very fertile but cold and rather
difficult to till.

235. How Loose Top Land is Broken. — This land is us-
ually broken with rod plows instead of the ordinary

MANAGEMENT OF SPECIAL SOILS 281

mouldboard breaker. When the breaking is not done
with engines a sulky drawn by five or six horses is used.
The fact that so much power is necessary to cut and
turn over one furrow gives some indication of the heavy
nature of the soil. The use of the heavy float or plank
drag or scrubber on the rough surface soon after plow-
ing and before it bakes is becoming a general practice.
This operation is followed, as opportunity presents, by
double disking to form a seed bed and aid in killing
grass. To finish the season's cultivation a single or double
stroke of the harrow is given.

236. The Crops Grown. — Loose top land is frequently
infested with wireworms which work havoc with cereal
crops if they are sown first, but which injure flax very
little. The first crop is therefore generally flax and the
common practice is to use cereals as the second crop.
Wheat is frequently sown on the flax stubble without any
cultivation, although fall or spring disking is also com-
monly followed. The practices of breaking and the use
of flax as the first crop are quite fixed and general but
the best preparation for the second crop has not yet been
determined to the satisfaction of many.

237. Fallowing Loose Top Land. — After taking two
crops, the land is usually fallowed, tin' plowing being
done with disc plows. Motor power is in common use.
The level land, its freedom from sloughs and stones, and
the heavy draft all lend to foster this form of power.
The plowed land is subsequently cultivated much the
same as ether soils. At present discs and drag harrows
are extensively used but cultivators are being intro-
duced more and more.

238. The Rotation Used. — The rotation generally prac-
tised is a fallow and two crops, breaking, flax and

282 DRY FAEM1NG

wheat at first, followed by fallow, wheat and wheat, oats
or flax is the general rule. The small seeded annual
weeds are quite prevalent owing to the use of so much
flax. The weed pest together with the relatively low
precipitation, heavy soil and somewhat unsatisfactory
yields from fall and spring plowing is tending towards
the three year system, — of fallow, crop and crop — with
no plowing for the second crop. A few men are follow-
ing the two-year system and fallowing half the land each
year.

"Burnt Out" Soil

A peculiar spotted condition of what seems to be
otherwise a normal type of soil is to be found in some
parts of southwestern Saskatchewan, southeastern Al-
berta and Montana. It is locally spoken of as "In in it
out" land. Areas varying in size from a few feet in
diameter to as many rods arc found, scattered thinly in
some areas and thickly in others, where in some manner
the surface soil to the depth of six to ten inches seems
to have been removed. Many settlers are of the opinion
thai these areas have at some time been "burnt out"
leaving the prairie in the spotted condition it is found
in to-day. The more probable explanation is thai after a
series of dry years with Utile vegetation on the land, it
has become puddled after heavy rains, then slaked down
to powder and eventually blown away by the wind.
Whatever the explanation, it is clear that the surface soil
has gone and that the soil now on top in these depres-
sions appears to be quite similar in texture1 and compo-
sition to the siihsoil of adjoining normal soil.

Most of these low spots are covered with <rrass but in
a \\'\v areas they carry very little vegetation. After

MANAGEMENT OP SPECIAL SOILS 283

breaking some of them are reported to be more or less
alkaline but many of the "burn outs" are found to be
productive. The difficulty with and chief objection to
them is that the texture is different from that of the good
soil, hence the "burnt outs" are seldom in condition to
work when the good land is, and the crop the former pro-
duces is either very small or very late, resulting in a
lower yield or a lower grade. The difficulty is one of
handling the land efficiently and of getting a high grade
of grain.

239. The Management of "Burnt Out" Soils.— The lower
levels of the "burnt out" spots and the lack of organic
matter in them are the chief causes of inconvenience and
loss, and suggest the basis of attack. After a survey of
the methods of handling this land the following prac-
tices were found to be used by many of the most suc-
cessful farmers with apparently favorable results : —

1. Levelling with floats and harrows to get some of
the good surface soil into the "burn outs", thus lessen-
ing the difference in level and improving the tilth of
these low spots.

2. Surface drainage to prevent water standing in the
hollows too long after rains.

3. Heavy applications of manure either plowed under
or used as a top dressing.

4. In a few cases shallow fall plowing, left loose, was
recommended. Spring cultivation with a spring tooth
cultivator or disc barrow seemed necessary in some areas
whether the land had been well prepared the fall previ-
ous or not.

5. Deep plowing of the fallow, it was frequently stat-
ed, resulted in ;i more uniform and heavier crop.

(i. Some men strongly recommended the use- of 'lie

284

DRY FARMING

spring tooth cultivator on the fallow in preference to the
disc, which seemed to make the soil too fine and thus
cause it to run together more when wet.

The plowing under of green crops, such as winter rye
or sweet clover to increase the organic matter supply
has not been tried out, nor has the application of slaked
lime or finely ground limestone been tested. It is prob-

4. ** *J '

:

Fig. 9-1. — Hauling Manure with a Spreader.

The use of fresh manure in thin applications, preferably by ;i manure
spreader, is a good practice

able that while both of these practices might result ill
some improvement to the soil, it would be at present too
<-osily a procedure for general use by pioneer settlers.

Vigorous floating, planking ami harrowing, deep plow-
ing, not permitting the surface to get too fine in the fall.
working the land only when in condition, surface drain
age of the low spots by furrows and the application of
manure seem to be the most promising methods of im-
proving the productive power of this type of land.

MANAGEMENT OF SPECIAL SOILS 285
Poor Soils

The soils of Western Canada are far from poor as a
rule, but a few small areas of land have been settled upon
that never should have been opened fo'r homesteading.
In a climate such as ours at this stage of our economic
development some of the latter cannot be farmed at a
profit, much less can they be brought up to a state of
productiveness once their virgin fertility is lost.

Many of our soils become "poor" after cultivation for
a few years with no return of organic matter. The pro-
cess is so slow and so gradual that the pioneer farmer
seldom notices it. A false sense of security in .the last-
ing power of soils has ever blinded the first generation
of farmers to the inevitable result of ruining the land.
It is only where one notes the records of many years that
the truth forces itself home. One instance out of many
is sufficient to illustrate this point. The average yield
of wheat in Kansas for twenty-five years previous to
1890 was 14 bus. 47 lbs., while for the twenty-five years
s ill (sequent to that date it was 12 bus. 27 lbs. The aver-
age for oats for the first period was 33 bus. 08 lbs., and
for the last, 22 bus. 17 lbs.

In the early years of cultivation over much of the
semi-arid plains of America manuring seldom produced
large increases but after a few years cropping it has in-
variably been found to produce excellent results. As an
example, on the Kansas land mentioned above, where
manure produced very little increase in the early
years, an application equal to 2]/z tons per acre per year
during the years 1911 to 1917 increased the yield 7 1-3
bus. or about one-half more than from unmanured land.
Similar results have been reported from many places in

28G

DRY FARMING

the older plains States between Kansas and Western
Canada.

239A. The Value of Manure. What lias been1 said
about the advantages of organic matter in Chapter 111
and in other places applies in a greater degree to manure.
The value of this fertilizer is not chiefly in the food

Fig. 95. — Cereal Test Plots at Beaver Lodg
Northern Alberta.

Grande Prairie District,

material it carries but rather in its physical and biol-
ogical effects on the soil. It not only adds sonic elements
of plant food but it improves the structure of the soil,
increases its moisture-holding power, lessens the tend-
ency 1(> blow and, perhaps most important of all. in-
creases the activity and the number of the desirable soil
bacteria, that perform the important function of making
plant food available.

According to Hopkins* "a ton of fresh-mixed cattle
and horse manure contains about 500 pounds of dry
matter, 10 pounds of nitrogen. 2 pounds of phosphorus,
and 8 pounds of potassium. . . . By Leaching and fer-
mentation the dry matter, nitrogen, and potassium are
lost in approximately the same proportion, but the phos-
phorus is lost only about half as rapidly, so that one ton

*In "Soil Fertility and Permanent Agriculture. ' '

MANAGEMENT OF SPECIAL SOILS 287

of average yard manure, resulting from perhaps two
tons of fresh manure, contains about 500 pounds of dry
matter, 10 pounds of nitrogen, 3 pounds of phosphorus,
and 8 pounds of potassium, one-half of the dry matter,
nitrogen, and potassium, and one fourth of the phos-
phorus having been lost.

"In an experiment conducted at Cornell University,
4,000 pounds of ordinary manure from the horse stable,
worth $2.74 per ton for the plant food content (at com-
mercial prices) were exposed in a pile out of doors from
April 25 to September 22. At the end of that time
the total weight had decreased to 1,770 pounds, worth
only $2.34 per ton. In other words, the value of this
pile of manure was reduced from $5.48 to $2.03 during
five months' exposure. ... In no case should manure be
allowed to heat and ferment before being spread on the
land, if its full value is to be secured."

Manure gives best results when applied thinly and
worked well into the soil. It is usually applied (1) as
a top dressing for grass land, or' (2) plowed in before
corn, roots, potatoes or barley, or (3) on some of the
lighter types of soil plowed under in the fallow year. It
may be objectionable (1) when applied thickly in dry
areas and plowed under for a crop the same season, or '
(2) when plowed under on heavy soils in the fallow year.
In the former case the soil may dry out, in the latter
the growth may be too rank and weak and the crop may
lodge.

239B. The Place of Commercial Fertilizers. — Com-
mercial fertilizers have not yet dlemonstrated that
they have a place in our cropping system. These sub-
stances do not. like manure, improve the tilth or physical
or biological condition of the soil. They are valuable
only for the nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium or lime they

288 DRY FARMING

may carry. It is possible that on some soils the use of
one or more of these fertilizers might pay even now, but
in the few tests that have been conducted (usually on
good soils) they have not produced sufficient increase to
warrant their use, except perhaps in truck farming or
potato growing. The time will come, no doubt, when it

Fig. 96. — Wheat Field at Fort Vermilion, Peace Rivsr.
700 miles by trail north-west of Edmonton, Alia.

will be necessary to apply phosphorus, the supply of
which in our soils is not high; and we arc shipping it
away in large quantities in the grain we sell.

Nitrogen can be gotten from the air by growing
legumes, and the potash supply in the soil is very high,
but unfortunately there is no means of replenishing
the phosphorus supply excepl by purchasing. It is in-
teresting to note thai the use of phosphate fertilizers in
some places results in an earlier crop of grain.

MANAGEMENT OF SPECIAL SOILS 289

Cold Soils

The practice of agriculture in warm climates is based
on the experience of four thousand years or more. Like-
wise the practices of crop growing under irrigation have
developed through an equally long time. Even modern
dry farming practices are based upon the experiences
of more than a generation. But the growing of crops
in climates as far north as the northern settlements of
Western Canada and Europe is a comparatively recent
movement, and it enjoys neither the accumulated ex-
perience of years nor the benefit of such searching
scientific investigations as has the agriculture of other
climatic zones.

When the amount or the condition of the plant food in
soil limits the yield, as in most warm humid areas,
methods for permanently maintaining or increasing the
yields are known. Similarly on dry lands where water
limits the yield the science of dry farming has been
quite thoroughly worked out. But in northern regions
and in high altitudes where the growing season is short
and where low temperatures limit the yield there is
little to be learned from the investigations of science and
still less from the practices of older agricultural
countries. This means that successful methods have ye1
very largely to be worked out for the crop grower along
the northern edges of settlement.

239C. Some Practices of Northern Agriculture.—
At the present time some of the chief practices being
followed where Low temperatures limit the yield are as

follows :

(1) Ranching, which permits of the extensive use of
the native vegetation and such Erost-resistanl crops as
our hardy perennial grasses :

290

DRY FARMING

Fig. 97. — The Windstorm at its Height.

Fig. 97B. — After the Windstorm.

MANAGEMENT OF SPECIAL SOILS 291

(2) Mixed farming, which may provide for the utiliza-
tion of the native vegetation, and which permits the use
of (1) grain crops for hay, (2) Swede turnips for suc-
culent winter feed, and (3) the profitable use of frost-
damaged grain as feed.

(3) The use of early classes of grain crops, such as
oats, barley or rye in preference to wheat ; and the use
of early varieties such as Prelude or Ruby wheat; sixty-
day, Orloff or Daubeney oats; Early Six barley and
Early White peas.

(4) Soil management practices that result in earlier
germination or earlier maturity such as (a) packing the
land, (b) less frequent fallowing, (c) shallow plowing
of the fallow, (d) later plowing of the fallow, and (e)
the use of manure to warm up cold soils.

(5) Thicker seeding — No combination of practices
will result in preventing damage to grain crops from
summer frosts, but a few days earlier maturity may les-
sen the probability of injury from fall frosts. Thick
seeding results in somewhat earlier maturity of the crop.

CHAPTER XVI

LESSONS FROM EXPERIENCE

The Great Plains Region of North America includes
a large part of the Prairie Provinces of Canada and most
of the United States lying between the Mississippi Valley
and the Rocky Mountains. This large area includes
many soils and climatic conditions and its problems
therefore, are not the same in all parts. They are, how-
ever, sufficiently similar to justify the inclusion under
one cover of the experiences of the settlers in its different
parts. It has therefore been thought wise to ask some
of the leading agronomists in this large area to sum-
marize the experience of the best farmers and the re-
sults of experiment station work in their respective
states and provinces. These summaries, for which the
author is very much indebted to the writers, are as fol-
lows : —
Dry Farming in the Great Plains Region of the United
States, E. C. Chilcott, Agriculturist in Charge of
Dry Land Investigations, Washington, D.C
Dry Farming Practices in Kansas, L. E. Call, Pro-
fessor of Agronomy, Manhattan, Kansas.
Dry Farming in Nebraska. \V. W. Burr, Professor of

Agronomy, Lincoln, Neb.
Dry Farming Practices in North Dakota, Manley
Champlin, formerly Associate Professor of Agron-
omy, Brookings, S.D.

292

LESSONS FROM EXPERIENCE 293

Dry Farming Practices in North Dakota, W. R.

Porter, Superintendent of Demonstration Farms

for North Dakota.
Dry Farming Practices in Montana, Alfred Atkinson,

President Montana State College of Agriculture.
Dry Farming in the Red River Valley, T. J. Harrison,

Professor of Field Husbandry, Manitoba Agricul-
tural College, Winnipeg.
Dry Farming in Western Manitoba, W. C. McKillican,

Superintendent Experimental Farm, Brandon, Man.
Dry Farming Practices in the Park Belt of Alberta,

G. H. Hutton, Superintendent of Agriculture and

Animal Industry, C. P. R., Calgary.
Summer Fallow In Southern Alberta, James Murray,

Superintendent of Farms, Noble Foundation Ltd.,

Nobleford, Alberta.

DRY FARMING IN THE GREAT PLAINS REGION
OF THE UNITED STATES

A Summary of Some of the Conclusions Drawn From

the Investigations Conducted by the Office

of Dry Land Agriculture, United States

Department of Agriculture, Into the

Best Method of Managing Land in

the Great Plains Area.*

By E. C. Chilcott, Agriculturist in Charge.

240. Summer Tillage. —

Spring Wheat: — Summer tillage without crop has
given the highest average " yields of any method under

*The references in parenthesis refer to the U. S. D. A. Bulletins
in which may lie found the evidence upon which the conclusions
herewith reproduced are based.

2!>4 DRY FARMING

trial at 12 of the 14 stations. However, on account of
its high cost due to extra labor and alternate year crop-
ping, it has not been the most profitable practice. (Bui.
214, —p. 43-11).

Winter Wheat : — Summer tillage has given the high-
est average yields of any method under trial at 11 of the
13 stations. However, on account of its high cost due
to extra labor and alternate year cropping it has not
netted the largest returns except at Huntley (Montana).
(Bui. 595, —p. 35-10).

Oats: — Oats following summer tillage produced the
highest average yields at all stations except Hettinger
(N.D.) where the yield was exceeded only by that on
disked corn ground. While the expense of the method
has prevented its being the most profitable the degree
of insurance which it affords against failure of the feed
crop might justify its practice in oat production in at
least some sections of the Great Plains. (Bui. 218 — p.
42-9).

Barley : — The highest average yields at 11 of the 14
stations have been by summer tillage. On the average
it increased the yields nearly one-half over those pro-
duced on land cropped in the preceding year. On ac-
count of its cost, it has not been the most profitable meth-
od of production. (Bui. 222— p. 32-3).

Com: — Summer tillage has slight ly increased the
grain yields at all except three stations and has materially
increased fodder yields at the three southern stations.
The increased yields, however, have not been sufficient to
make it the most profitable method at any station except
Scottsbluff (Nebraska ). I Bui. 21!) p. 31-3).

241. Corn or Sorghums vs. the Fallow. —

Spring Wheat: — Disked corn ground has given con-

LESSONS FROM EXPERIENCE 295

sistently high yields. This, together with the low cost of
preparation, has resulted in its showing the highest
average profit or lowest average loss of any of the meth-
ods tried at all fourteen of the stations except one. These
profits are based on the assumption that the corn crop
was so utilized as to pay for the cost of its production.
(Bui. 214— p. 43-7).

Oats: — At Garden City (Kansas) and all stations
north of North Platte (Nebraska) disking corn ground
has been productive of higher average yields of oats than
either fall or spring plowing. At North Platte (Nebras-
ka), Hays (Kansas), Dalhart and Amarillo (Texas), it
yielded either the same as one of them or its place was
intermediate between the two. (Bui. 218 — p. 41-5).

Barley : — At ten of the fourteen stations under study,
disked corn ground produced higher yields than from
either the fall plowing or the spring plowing of barley
stubble. It has been the most profitable method under
trial at all the stations except Hettinger (N.D.). (Bui.
222— p. 32).

Winter Wheat :— Disked corn ground has given con-
sistently high yields. This, together with the low cost of
production, has resulted in this method showing the high-
est average yields of any of the methods at all of the 11
stations where it has been tried, except at Huntley (Mon-
tana) and Amarillo (Texas). These profits are based on
the assumption that the corn crop was so utilized as to
pay for the cost of producing it. (Bui. 595 — p. 35-p).

242. "When Disking May Be Substituted for Plowing —
These investigations have shown that when the corn crop
has been grown on properly prepared Land and kept free
from weeds, the land docs not require plowing in prepar-
ation I'm- ;i following crop of smlall grain. Wheat, oats

296 DRY FARMING

and barley have usually given better yields on disked
corn laud than upon land that has been plowed. This,
together with the fact that disking is cheaper than plow-
ing, makes disking corn land generally the most profit-
able method of preparation for small grain. Discing
potato land is probably as good a preparation for small
grain as disking corn land, and there are undoubtedly
other intertilled crops such as peas, beans and peanuts
that will serve the same purpose. The sorghums, how-
ever, do not leave the ground in as favorable a condition
for the crop that is to follow as the other crops men-
tioned. (Bui. 268— p. 22).

243. The Use of the Lister in the Fall. — The practice
of ridging with a lister as a substitute for fall plowing,
and cultivating down level without the use of a plow in
the spring has been tested at most of the stations as a
preparation for all of the small grain crops considered in
this bulletin except winter wheat. It has usually pro-
duced as good or better yields than fall plowing. Its
lower cost has made it in many instances nearly or quite
as profitable a method as disking corn stubble. In addi-
tion to its low cost it has the advantage of catching and
holding the snow and checking soil blowing during the
winter and of arresting run-off.

"When the lister is used in preparing land \'<>v winter
wheat, the listing is done immediately after the harvest
of the preceding crop. The soil is worked down level.
usually with a disc, in Late summer or early fall and then
seeded with an ordinary grain drill. Very little differ-
ence in average yields between Listing and plowing have

been noted except at Hays (Kansas), where the ad-
vantage is in favor of Listing. (Bui. 268 — p. 22).

244. How and When to Plow. — The comparative aver-

LESSON'S FROM EXPERIENCE

297

age yields from fall and from spring plowing at each
station for corn, spring wheat, oats, barley, milo and
kafir have shown but small differences. As the land re-
quires plowing for all annual crops except in those cases
above noted, and as plowing is an expensive operation, it
is a question of great economic importance as to how and

Fig. 98. — Harvesting Winter Wheat with a Header in Kansas.

when this plowing should be done. Much has been writ-
ten upon this subject and many theories have been de-
veloped and advocated, but the investigations conducted
in the Great Plains by the Office of Dry Land Agricul-
ture seem to show conclusively that no set rule can safely
be followed. The best practice seems to be to do a good
cle?an-cu1 workmanlike job of plowing to a depth of from
4 to 8 inches when the soil is in proper condition and the
work can lie done to the besl advantage, taking into con-
sideration tlie most economical distribution of labor
throughout t he year. ( Bui. 268 — p. 23).
245. The Purpose of Plowing. It is mistaking or tail

298 DRY FARMING

ing to recognize the purpose of plowing that leads to the
belief that its efficiency increases with its depth, even
though that depth be extended below all practical limits
of cost and effort. Plowing does not increase the water-
holding capacity of the soil, nor the area in which roots
may develop, or from which the plants may obtain food.
Plowing removes from the surface either green or dry
material that may encumber it, provides a surface in
which planting implements may cover the seed, and re-
moves or dielays the competition of weeds or plants other
than those intended to grow, and in some cases, by loosen-
ing and roughening the immediate surface checks the
run-off of rain water. All these objects are accomplished
as well by plowing to ordinary depths as by subsoil ing,
dynamiting, or deep tilling by any other method. There
is little basis, therefore, for the expectation of increased
yields from these practices, and the results of these ex-
periments show that they have been generally ineffective.
(Journal of Agricultural Research, Vol. XIV, No. 11—
p. 484).

The quite general popular belief in the efficiency of
deep tillage as a means of overcoming drouth or of in-
creasing yields has little foundation in fact, but is based
on misconceptions and lack of knowledge of the form and
extent of the root systems of plants and of the behaviour
iind movement of water in the soil. (loc. cit. — p. 52] ).

245a. Green Manuring. — Green manuring has not usu-
ally given as high yields of spring wheat, winter wheat,
oats or barley as has summer tillage. It lias yielded but
little if any higher than disked corn ground with any of
these crops. It is much more expensive even than sum-
mer tillage. There is not yet any apparent cumulative
effect of the addition of humus to the soil, although it has

LESSONS FROM EXPERIENCE 299

been practised at some of the stations for twelve years.
The evidence so far as to its practicability is negative.

246. Destruction of Weeds. — The destruction of weeds
is nearly always desirable, as undler dry-farming condi-
tions weeds are one of the most serious obstacles to suc-
cessful crop production. When summer tillage is prac-
tised on a bare fallow during the entire season, cultiva-
tion should be frequent and thorough enough to destroy
all weeds before they attain sufficient size to transpire
appreciable quantities of water or to reseed themselves.
This tillage will also keep the surface in a condition suf-
ficiently loose and open to allow the rain that falls to
penetrate it. When the soil becomes well filled with
water early in the season and additional rains can reason-
ably be expected, it may sometimes be desirable to allow
the weeds to attain a larger growth and then plow them
under in order to provide additional organic matter in
the soil, but it must be borne in mind that this gain in
organic matter is made at the expense of the soil
moisture.

Our investigations show that summer tillage is, with
the exception of green manuring, the most expensive and
least profitable method under trial. Exceptions are to be
noted in the case of kafir and milo at Dalhart, corn at
Scottsbuff, and winter wheat at North Platte and
Huntley.

The purpose of summer tillage is accomplished by the
prevention of vegetative growth rather than by the main-
tenance of a mulch. Numerous experiments made in con-
nection with this work have furnished an abundance of
evidence that when vegetative growth is restrained the
loss of water from a mulched surface is practically the
same as from an uiimiilehed one.

300 DRY FARMING

The cheapest and most efficient methods of weed de-
struction necessarily form a soil mulch. The results ac-
cruing' from the prevention of weed growth have been
very generally attributed to the mulch itself when the
mulch is, in fact, only accidental.

Tillage for the purpose of destroying weeds after har-
vest is warranted only in those exceptional cases when
sufficient water remains in the soil to start weed growth
after harvest or when heavy rains come soon after. In
such cases early fall plowing is the most effective method
of destroying the weeds and thus saving the moisture That
would be used) by them if allowed to grow. The same
object may be accomplished by disking soon after the
weeds have started. This method has the advantage of
being more rapid than plowing, thus making it possible
to cover more ground with the same number of teams
and men. But as the land will have to be plowed before
another crop is sown, the labor of disking is mostly lost.
although the labor of plowing the disked land may bo
somewhat less than if it were not disked and a better job
of plowing may sometimes be done on the disked land.
The cost of early fall plowing or disking, when the wea-
ther is hot and the men and teams are needed for stack-
ing, threshing, and hauling grain, is greater than later
in the fall, when the weather is cooler and there is less
other work for men and teams. All of these facts should
be taken into consideration before going to the extra
expense of tillage to kill weeds immediately after harvest.

Spring plowing or disking, as soon as the u 1 seeds

have germinated, is usually a profitable practice. Where
small grain is to be sown, the sowing should he done soon
after plowing; but. where corn, potatoes, or the sorghums
arc to be grown there is often a period of several weeks

LE*S( )XS PROM EXPERIENi E 301

between the time of the germination of the weed seeds
and the time when the season is sufficiently advanced to
plant the crop. This period should be utilized as far as
possible for the destruction of weeds before the crop is
planted. Much labor in keeping the crop free from
weeds during its growing period can thus be saved.

Harrowing small grain for the destruction of weeds
after the grain is sown and until it has reached a height
of 3 or 4 inches may sometimes be practised to advantage.
Experimental evidence does not show it to be generally
profitable. Harrowing corn and potatoes after planting
and until the young plants have attained a height of 2
or 3 inches is quite generally practised to advantage.

It is absolutely essential for the most profitable growth
of corn, potatoes, the sorghums, and, in fact, all the inter-
tilled crops, that sufficient tillage be given to keep the
growing crop free from weeds until the plants have at-
tained such growth that they will be seriously injured by
the cultivators or the horses. (Bui. 268— p. 24-25).

247. The Application of the Capillary Theory to Dry
Farming Practices. — The capillary theory is undoubtedl}'
responsible for more false reasoning about dry land agri-
culture than any other one thing. It is a convenient
theory to explain certain well-known phenomena such as
the rise of oil in a lamp wick, but it must be taken in its
entirety. It will not do to eliminate the one most import-
ant factor in the theory and then expect it to work. This
one factor is the presence of a constantly replenished sup-
l>hj of free-moving water <it the base of the system. In
oilier words, a permanent water table within a few feet
of the surface of the soil, a condition that i^ never met
under true dry land conditions. Therefore, any system
of dry land farm practice that is dependent upon the ;in

302 DRY FARMING

sumption that there is a continuous upward movement of
soil water by capillarity of sufficient magnitude to materi-
ally affect crop growth will prove disappointing when
put to the test of actual field practice, as has been done
in the extensive investigations conducted during the past
fourteen years in the Great Plains by the Office of Dry
Land Agriculture.

A careful study of hundreds of thousands of soil mois-
ture determinations fails to show any such movement.
The soils of the semi-arid regions undoubtedly do lose
large quantities of soil water, but this loss is undoubtedly
due almost entirely to some one, or to a combination of
two or more, of three factors, utilization by the growing
crop, transpiration from growing weeds, or loss from
internal evaporation and escape from the soil to the at-
mosphere in the form of water vapor. Only such methods
of moisture conservation as will prevent loss from these
sources are worth considering, so far as the water which
has actually entered the soil is concerned. Excessive run-
off may be retarded and the absorption of water by the
surface soil may be facilitated to a limited extent Im-
proper methods of surface tillage. But any method of
tillage calculated to prevent capillary rise and surface
evaporation of soil water in semi-arid regions will be use-
less except in so far as it stimulates the growth of crop
plants, destroys weeds or retards their growth, or checks
the escape of wrater vapor from cracks or other openings
in the soil.

248. Farm Organization and Crop Rotations. — As for-
age crops of some kind can profitably be grown at all
stations, they must occupy an important place in any
system of farming adapted to the Great Plains. Suf-
ficient live stock must be kept to convert these crops into

LESSONS FROM EXPERIENCE 303

finished products on the farm and sufficient forage must
be produced and stored during the favorable seasons to
carry the live stock through specially unfavorable
seasons.

Good farming is an essential to success in the Great
Plains area as elsewhere. Good farming means practic-
ing the best method of producing the largest crops at the
lowest relative cost of production and leaving the soil in
the best condition for the production of subsequent crops.
Good farming may involve methods either intensive or
extensive, either expensive or inexpensive ; and it must
be practical and economical as well as scientific and
thorough in order to be good farming. It is just as poor
farming to go to too much expense as it is to go to too
little expense to accomplish a given result. These investi-
gations show that the largest net profits have usually
been obtained from crops raised by cultural methods
involving a low cost of production rather than from high
yields obtained under methods involving a high cost of
production. Lessening the cost of production without
proportionately lessening yields should therefore be given
first consideration. In other words, extensive rather than
intensive systems, of farming should be followed.

Different types of soil and different combinations of
climatic conditions require different cultural methods and
different combinations of crops to produce the most pro-
fitable results.

The personality of the farmer and his family; the size,
location, soil and environment of the farm; market facili-
ties and prices; the available capital, in cash, labor, or
equipment, may any or all be determining factors in the
problem of profitable dry farming in the Great Plains
area.

304 DRY FARMING

Dry farming- in the Great Plains area, in common with
all farming, to be successful must be systematized, and in
order to accomplish this, some definite rotation of crops
should be established. In planning such a rotation, due
consideration should be given to all the factors here enu-
merated, as they apply to each particular farm and far-
mer. With these considerations clearly in mind, it is
believed that no intelligent farmer will experience any
great difficulty in adopting a system of crop rotation and
farm organization that will be better adapted to his con-
ditions than any that could be proposed by anyone less
familiar with these conditions than is the farmer him-
self. (Bui. 268— p. 27-28).

DRY FARMING PRACTICES IN KANSAS

By L. E. Call, Professor of Agronomy, Agricultural
College, Manhattan, Kansas.

The average animal rainfall of Kansas varies from lev.
than sixteen to over forty -five inches. In the eastern two-
thirds of the state, it exceeds twenty-two inches while in
the western third, it is less than this amount The aver-
age animal rainfall is ample for all crops in the eastern
two-thirds of the State, bu1 irregular distribution and
very rapid evaporation during the growing season often
makes it necessary to conserve moisture with care if
profitable crops are to be produced. It is only in the west-
ern third of Kansas thai moisture is so deficienl thai it is
necessary to use the bare summer fallow in the cropping
system. In this section, fallowing is not necessary more
often than once in three to live years, and even then may

LESSONS FROM EXPERIENCE 305

not be necessary if the fallow season should prove unusu-
ally favorable.

249. The Place of Summer Tillage. — The sorghum crops
and winter wheat are the most dependable dry farming
crops for Kansas. These crops must be grown in rota-
tion for best results. It is advisable in western Kansas
to summerfallow sorghum ground in changing from sorg-
hum to wheat unless conditions are unusually favorable.
In an unusually wet fall, wheat may be sown on disked
sorghum ground, and in an unusually wet spring, barley
miay be sown on disked sorghum ground in the spring.
At all other times, it is best to summerfallow sorghum
ground for wheat.

The best method of preparing sorghum ground for
wheat is to disk the ground in the spring after the first
weeds start. This kills the first crop of weeds and starts
other weed seeds germinating. The ground is then plowed
before the second growth of weeds becomes too large and
in time to finish plowing before harvest. The fallow is
usually plowed in late May or earl y June. It is left with-
out work until after wheat harvest which occurs in July.
In August and early September, it is worked down and
the wheat seeded in late September. Care must be exer-
cised not to work the fallow ground more than necessary
to kill weeds and to prepare a good seedbed for wheat,
otherwise, the surface of the field may be left too smooth
and the wheat injured by soil drifting during the winter.
When stubble ground is summerfallowed, it is handled
in the same manner. It is the usual practice to grow
wheat at least three years after fallowing before chang-
ing the ground l<> sorghum. The first year the wheat is
on fallowed ground. The second year the crop is
drilled in the stubble and the third season, the ground i^
plowed after harvest and the crop seeded the same fall.

306

DRY FARMING

The next year the field is changed to a sorghum crop.
After growing sorghum from one to three years the land
is fallowed and returned to wheat. Corn frequently re-
places sorghum in this rotation, or corn may be planted

Fig. 99. — Black Amber Sorghum in Kansas.

This is one of the leading typos of drought-resistant forage crops in

the South.

after the sorghum crop in place of the fallow. It is only
under the most favorable conditions that corn should be
used in this way.

250. Kansas Dry Farm Crops. — The best dry farming
crops in Kansas arc of two distincl kinds. First, those
that are able to withstand extremely hot summer weather
and take advantage of moisture whenever rain may occur
and second, those thai mature early enough in the spring
to escape the hot dry summer weather.

The sorghums are the best example of the first class of
crops. They have the ability to withstand high temper-

LESSONS FROM EXPERIENCE 307

atures and to remain in an uninjured condition for a
long period of time without rain. There are varieties of
sorghums adapted to many different uses. Kafir, milo,
feterita and kaoliang are especially valued for the pro-
duction of grain ; the sweet sorghums such as black amber
red amber, orange and sumac are very large growing,
leafy plants and are especially valuable for fodder and
silage ; while Sudan grass is more grass-like in character
and is especially valuable for hay and pasture. Kansas
is fortunate in having this valuable sorghum family of
crops so well adapted to the dry farming sections of the
Stale.

251. Crops That Mature Early. — Winter wheat is the
best example of those crops that mature early. It ma-
tures in late ,~!une or early July and thus escapes the hot
summer months. The best winter wheat varieties are
those that mature early and at the same time are winter
hardy. Varieties of the Turkey Red type have given
best results. Of these, Kanred, a variety developed at the
Kansas Experiment Station, is the best. It matures some-
what earlier than other varieties of Turkey, is more win-
ter hardy, less 'susceptible to most diseases and is some-
what more productive. Spring wheat always matures
later than winter wheat and consequently is more often
injured by hot weather. It cannot be successfully grown
in Kansas except in the northwestern part where the
elevation is higher and the summers cooler than in the
rest of the State. Barley is the best dry land spring
grain for Kansas. It matures earlier than oats and conse-
quently produces more grain. When oats are sown only
wry early varieties such as Burl and \lf>\ Texas should
be used.

252. The Amount of Seed to Sow. — Where moisture

308 DRY FARMING

is limited it is not advisable to sow grain too thick, other-
wise the supply of rnloisture may be exhausted before the
crop is matured. The quantity to sow will depend upon
the character of the soil, and the time of seeding. On
well prepared summerfallowed ground, one-half bushel
of winter wheat is sufficient seed to sow in western Kan-
sas. On ground less well prepared, a bushel of seed is
often necessary. "When wheat is sown very late in the
season, more seed should be used for it will tiller less
and therefore, should be sown thicker.

DRY FARMING IN NEBRASKA

By W. W. Burr, Professor of Agronomy,

Agricultural Experiment Station,

Lincoln, Neb.

A large portion of the cultivated land west of the
hundredth meridian in Nebraska is under what is com-
monly called dry farming. The conditions that deter-
mine dry farming are a dry subsoil and a limited rain-
fall. Within the area mentioned in western Nebraska
are sub-irrigated areas where sheet water comes close to
the surface, and there we could not say that dry farming
is practised. Obviously, where water is applied by irri-
gation, it is not dry farming.

The early experiences \>f farmers in western Nebraska
were far from,1 satisfactory, and many failures resulted.
There were several causes for this, aside from the uncer-
tainty of the weather,- lack of experience in dry regions,
poorly adapted crops, and lack of working capital prob-
ably being the main ones. The conditions have changed
considerably in the'last 15 years. Out of the experiences
of the farmers have crystallized some very sound and

LESSONS FROM EXPERIENCE 309

definite information. To this have been added results of
agricultural investigations, all of which, has brought
about a much better understanding of the situation. More
adapted crops, more suitable machinery, and, what is per
haps even more important, the farmers have accumulated

*r4f E

■ ■ ■•-i.-*

10$

Fig. 100. — Disking Behind the Binder to Conserve Moisture in Nebraska.

a working capital or a credit, sufficient to tide them over
adverse seasons.

The dry farming area of Nebraska contains many
types of soil. Considerable areas are so sandy as to be
unfitted for grain production, and the farming opera-
tions are confined largely to supplementing the native
feed for live stock. In other areas the soil is heavier. 1 1
is fertile, and with sufficient moisture responds abund-
antly to grain cropping. No very distinct methods are
employed in dry fanning. The amount and kind of till-
age is usually determined by the seasonal conditions and
the available supply of man and team labor.

253. Summer Tillage is not extensively practised in

310 DRY FARMING

Nebraska. It is occasionally practised on limited areas
in preparation for winter wheat or in preparation for a
grass crop or alfalfa. The farmers have found1 that
wheat is quite as certain after corn as it is after summer
tillage, though the yield may be somewhat less. The
cultivation of the corn costs practically no more than
the summer tillage, and by growing the corn they obtain
a considerable amount of roughage and usually a grain
crop. The roughage is an important factor, since in
almost all of our dry farming sections considerable live
stock is carried. Where summer Tillage is practised, the
land is usually left uncultivated until after corn plant-
ing, when it is plowed ; and after plowing, sufficient cul-
tivation is given with a disc or harrow to keep down
weed growth.

254. Crop Rotation. — There is no very definite system
of rotation in the dry farming area. The most nearly
definite is corn and winter wheat alternating. The win-
ter wheat is usually drilled with a one-horse drill into
the standing corn. Later the corn is harvested, usually
by husking from the standing stalks and then turning
the stock in to get what rough feed they can. Where the
corn has been kept fairly clean, this is a very satisfactory
way of growing winter wheat. The wheal goes into a
firm seed bed and has the stalks and stubble to catch
snow and serve as a protection from blowing during the
winter. Ordinarily the wheat stubble is prepared for
corn simply by disking it early in the spring and then
putting in the corn with the lister.

255. Crop Adaptation. — This is a very important factor
in the development of any section. Obviously no amounl
or kind of tillage will make profitable the production of
a. poorly adapted crop. All of the ordinary grain crops

LESSOXS FROM EXPERIENCE 311

suitable to this section are grown in the western part of
our State. Winter wheat is tending to replace spring
wheat. Turkey Reel winter wheat is most commonly
growTn and is well adapted. Both common and Macaroni
spring Wheats are grown, and no one variety has proved
mjarkedly superior to several others. In most of the area
the early type of oats has proved superior to the later
tj'pes. Kherson is most commonly grown. Ordinary
six-rowed barley has proved superior to an}* of the two- or
four-rowed variety. The comparatively small types of
corn are grown, the size varying with the section and the
probable amount of available water. Under the most
extreme conditions a rather flinty type of corn with a 5-
or 6-inch ear is grown, while under more favorable con-
ditions they grow an 8 to 10-inch ear decidedly more
dent in type. Alfalfa grows abundantly in the bottom
lands where sheet water is within reach of the deep
roots. It is grown, but with less certainty of production,
on the uplands. For seed purposes it is sometimes grown
in rows. Millets and Sudan grass are successfully grown
throughout the entire area. Sorghum for forage is prob-
ably the predominant annual forage crop. Grain sorg-
hums are not extensively grown.

256. Cultural Practices. — Small grain is almost uni-
versally planted with a grain drill in preference to broad-
cast seeding. Corn is usually planted with a lister.
Early planting is advisable for all small grain crops, as
it tends to get them ahead of the usual dry, hot weather
of midsummer. Corn is planted early in the frost-free
period.

The usual rates of seeding are mueh less than under
more humid conditions. The following are the common
rates per acre: Winter wheat, 40 to 50 pounds; spring

312 MiY FARMING

wheat, 4 peeks; oats, 6 peeks: barley, 6 pecks; corn, one
stalk to 18 to 24 inches in the row.

Harrowing small grain is not extensively practised. On
the average it has not proved beneficial. Under certain
conditions, where ground cracks or where there are many
young weeds that may be killed, harrowing might be ad-
visable. The harrow is often used to break down stand-
ing cornstalks where grain has been sown in the corn.

Deep plowing, or in fact stirring the soil in any man-
ner to a greater depth than ordinary 6- to 8-inch plowing.
nas not given average increased yields nor shown any
particular advantage in overcoming drought. It lias
greatly increased the labor cost and lessened the acreage
that a man with a given equipment can handle. After
plowing, the furrow slice is usually worked down with a
disc or harrow. The subsurface packer is not in general
use but may have an important place, especially where
small seeded crops such as grass or alfalfa arc to be
sown. Getting the soil firm is an important factor, since
the loose soil will dry out much more quickly than the
more firmly packed soil.

257. The Farming- Unit. — In the dry farming section
the farming unit is comparatively Large. Intensive cul-
tivation is not generally practised. Broadly speaking,
climatic conditions are more important than tillage meth
ods in determining yields. Naturally when the differ-
ences of yield that come from climatic causes are greater
than differences due to other factors, cost of production
becomes the most important factor and the system of
farming tends in become increasingly extensive.

258. Live Stock. — In order to equalize income, live
stock is alni'ust essential to farming under our <\vy land
conditions. Where strict grain farming is followed, a

LESSONS FROM EXPERIENCE 313

crop failure is apt to be very serious; but where both
grain and live stock are raised, there is the chance, if the
necessity arises, of selling off some of the live stock in
order to get through the period of stress. Animals are
also important in that they furnish a profitable market
for the roughage produced on the farm. Without stock,
this roughage would have little value and probably would
be wasted.

259. The Possibilities for Dry Farming. — Even under
the climatic limitations, the possibilities for dry farming
are good for the man who will work in accord with
nature. He needs a reasonable amount of capital and a
clear understanding of conditions. He should not allow
himself to be hampered by false hopes and theories, nor
try to farm by hard and fast rules. Under the erratic
climatic conditions of that section, any system of farm-
ing to be successful mlust be sufficiently elastic to meet
conditions as they arise. By studying the conditions as
they exist on his own farm and carefully considering the
various factors that influence crop production, he can
determine the kind and amount of labor that should be
expendted. By doing each operation in the most advan-
tageous way and as nearly as possible at the right time,
the labor required can be materially decreased, more land
gotten over with a given amount of equipment, and the
cost of production lowered.

DRY FARMING PRACTICES IN SOUTH DAKOTA

l>v Maxi.ky Champlin, Formerly Associate Professor
op Agronomy, Brookings, S. D.

The average rainfall in South Dakota varies from 25
inches in the southeasl bo about 14 or 15 inches in the

314

DKY FARMING

northwest section. Most of the rain comes during the
spring and summer months. There is usually a light
snow-fall and comparatively little rain in the autumn.
The months of April, May and June are generally well
provided with moisture and occasionally g'ood rains occur
in July and August, but there are short periods of drouth

Fig. 101. — Sweet Clover.

A crop thai is coming into popular use in parts of Nebraska ami South

Dakota.

in some parts of the state nearly every season and suc-
cessful farming or crop production depends to a very
great extent upon the success which one has in over-
coming these short periods of drouth. There are occa-
sional seasons such as the year 191] when certain crops
are failures in spite of good tillage and crop rotation
methods, but there has not been any season since the
State was settled that has not been favorable to some
crops. It therefore is excellenl policy to diversify as
much as is practicable in order to avoid total loss in any
season.

LESSONS FROM EXPERIENCE 315

260. Summerfallowing. — Summerfallowing is practised
very little. Successful crops are frequently produced
on summerfallow, but on account of the loss of the in-
come from the land for a season incident to this practice,
it has never become a common one in the state. When
summerfallowing is practised the land is plowed 5 or 6
inches deep in June, disked three or four times during
the summer to keep the weeds down and usually sown to
winter rye during the latter part of August. This prac-
tice gives good results and could be more generally adop-
ted in the western two-thirds of the state.

261. Crop Rotation. — Crop rotation is a very important
factor, not only in insuring safe crop production, but
also in increasing the yield and improving the quality
of the crops. Fortunately, it is possible for the farmer
here to rotate his crops to the best advantage of the land
and at the same time produce crops that are profitable.
Among the cultivated crops corn is easily first. In fact
it is the most important cereal crop of the state. Pota-
toes, amber sorghum, navy beans and soy beans may also
be grown tis cultivated crops. Oats, barley, spring wheat,
emmer, spring rye and winter rye as well as proso and
millet furnish wide choice among the small grain crops.
Sweet clover is the leading biennial legume. It is hardy
so far as we know in all parts of the state and it is easier
to secure a stand of sweet clover than any of the other
small seeded legume crops. Red clover can be grown in
the southeastern and eastern sections, but it is very dif-
ficult to obtain a stand in the drier parts of the state
with this kind of clover. Canadian field peas and oats
are sometimes grown together as hog pastures or as a
temporary hay crop. Soy beans are occasionally mixed
with corn for silage. Alfalfa succeeds in nearly all parts

316 DRY FARMING

of the state and may be used as a permanent meadow or
may be treated as if it were a short-lived erop and used
in the rotation. Experiments conducted at the State
Agricultural College experiment farms in various parts
of the state indicate that a three-year rotation of corn,
small grain and sweet clover is very satisfactory. This
rotation is easy to take care of and is satisfactory from
the economic or business standpoint. It is also a good
rotation for maintaining the soil in good condition. It
is handled about as follows : the land is divided into three
parts approximately equal, the first field is plowed 6 or
8 inches deep in the fall. In the spring this field is har-
rowed to break up the lumps and level the ground. About
the first of May or a little later, it is double disked to
further pulverize the seed bed and kill weeds. It is then
harrowed again and planted to corn, potatoes or whatever
cultivated crop may be desired. This crop receives
thorough cultivation, usually from three to five cultiva-
tions during the season to keep it as free from weeds as
possible. The following year this land is double disked
and dragged in the spring without plowing and is sown
to an early maturing variety of grain with 10 or 15
pounds of sweet clover per acre. If alfalfa is preferred,
it may be substituted for the sweet clover. The grain
crop is harvested leaving the stubble to protect the clover
or alfalfa plants during the second winter. The third
year this field will be producing sweet clover or alfalfa.
A crop of sweet clover hay will be ready to cut by the
10th to the 15th of June. A seed crop will be ready 'ate
in August or early in September. If in alfalfa the crop
will be cut from one to three times according to the abun-
dance of moisture during the season. It is not best to
cut it after the first of September as the alfalfa is more

LESSONS PROM EXPERIENCE 317

likely to winter in good shape with a liberal aftermath.
After the rotation is in full swing there will he one field
in corn or other cultivated crop, one field in small grain
and one field in legume, either sweet clover or alfalfa.
Variations in this plan of rotation are easily made and
work out very nicely. In fact the rotation is so adapt-
able that it can be made to fit almost any requirement.
It can be changed to a four-course rotation by growing
two crops of corn in sucession, followed by the grain and
sweet clover or to a five-course rotation by growing corn
in one field for silage, following it with winter rye, fol-
lowing the rye with corn for grain and the corn in turn
with spring grain and sweet clover or alfalfa. The prin-
ciple involved in sucessful crop rotation in South Dakota
consists in providing for a cultivated crop preceding the
grain crop in order to conserve moisture and render the
seed bed firm and in good tilth for the seeding of the
grain and the hay crop. Yields in favorable seasons are
often doubled by this practice and in unfavorable seasons
yields are secured that are very satisfactory while the
crop on land put into grain continuously may prove a
total failure.

262. Drought-Resistant Crops. — In the early years of
South Dakota's development great difficulty was experi-
enced because the crops which the settlers attempted to
grow were not of the proper variety. Through the efforts
of the United States Department of Agriculture and the
State College of Agriculture crops have been introduced
from south-central Russia and other countries where con-
ditions are somewhat similar and thoroughly tested in
comparison willi varieties from other sources, until the
ones which were best for South Dakota conditions were
determined. After introduction and testing, these var-

318 DRY FARMING

ieties have been distributed through, the efforts of the
Smith Dakota Experiment Association until at the pre-
sent time nearly all of the crops grown in the state are
of adapted varieties. Odessa, S.D. 182 barley can be
grown successfully throughout the state. Manchuria,
Minnesota 105 is well adapted to the eastern section.
Among the oat varieties, Sixty Day S.D. 165 and its
selections have proved best and are generally grown.
Two medium late varieties are fairly popular, namely,
the Swedish Select S.D. 112 and the Silvermine. Durum
wheat is represented by Kubanka S.D. 75 and a pedi-
greed variety selected from the Kubanka. Acme S.D. 284.
Common spring wheat is almost exclusively Marquis or
Preston procured from Canada. Swedish S.D. 348 and
Dean S.D 177 and a selection from Dean, the Advance
S.D. 1030 are hardy varieties of winter rye. Grimm S.D.
162 and common alfalfa grown in South Dakota for a
long time are the most commonly grown and best adapted
varieties of alfalfa. There is some Turkestan grown, but
its popularity has not increased with that of the Grimm
and the South Dakota Common. Cossack, a new variety,
is proving hardy and becoming popular in some local it ies.
White Spring emmer is the only variety of emmer grown.
Tambov S.D. 80 is the best proso and Kursk S.D. 79 or a
selection from Kursk known as Shelley S.D. 34S are tin'
best adapted millets. Corn varieties have been intro-
duced and developed by corn growers in nearly ever}
section of the state. In the southeastern section A. .1.
Wimple has developed the Wimple's Yellow Dent, in the
northwestern section the late Louan Slaughter has car-
ried on the work of selecting and increasing the large
strain of Squaw corn known as Slaughter's Squaw corn.
The Northwestern Dent variety has given a good account

LESSONS FKOM EXTHKIEXCE 319

of itself in the entire northern section. In the central
section the Minnesota 13 Yellow Dent and the Dakota
White Dent are quite generally grown.

Conclusions

As a result of the introduction of hardy adapted crops
and the increasing practice of crop rotation and diversi-
fied fanning in collection with the production of regis-
tered and high grade live stock, the agriculture of South
Dakota is rapidly getting upon a permanent basis and
the prosperity of the state which depends entirely upon
its agriculture has constantly increased. The state is
growing rapidly in population. If a proper proportion
of this population interests itself in farming so that the
farm labor problem gradually becomes less acute, there
is every reason to hope for a continuation of this pros-
perity, due to increased farm production which can be
attained by the better farm practice that will be possible
with more help available.

In making these statements, we have tried to make it
clear that successful crop production in this state does
not depend upon any one minor practice, such as harrow-
ing the growing crop, harrowing fall plowing, excessively
deep plowing, packing or sub-soiling, but depends upon a
continuation and combination of all good farm practices
in connection with the use of good crop rotations and
good seed of adapted varieties with requisite attention
given to keeping up the fertility of the soil and improv-
ing its physical condition by the addition of barnyard
manure and the inclusion of clovers, alfalfas and similar
crops in the rotation system.

::•_•() DRY FARMING

DRY FARMING PRACTICE IN NORTH DAK( >TA

By W. R. Porter, Superintendent of Demonstration
Farms for North Dakota.

The term dry fanning- is usually considered to include
those types of farming that are practised in areas having
less than twenty inches of annual rainfall. If this defini-
tion is correct parts of the Red River Valley in North
Dakota and all the region west of the Red River Valley
come within the dry farming area.

The ability of the soil to hold moisture is probably a
more important factor in the success or failure of a far-
mer than the amount of rainfall annually received. Thirty
inches of rainfall on a loam) soil with a sand or gravel
subsoil will probably no,t be as effective in producing
crops as fifteen- inches of rain on a loam soil having a
clay subsoil. The place for summer tillage under North
Dakota conditions is where the farms are too big to use
all the corn or handle all the potatoes that migh.1 he
produced if these crops were grown or where perennial
weeds such as the sow thistle, and quack grass, have g-ot
a hold on the land. Summer tillage is the only method
we have of combating these weeds.

263. Summer Tillage. — Land which is to be summer
tilled, particularly if infested with the above named
weeds, should be plowed about 3 inches deep the latter
pari of October. This has two effects, it saves moisture
and exposrs the weed roots to more or less winter killing.
The latter part of May or earl} in -him' this land should
be plowed live to si\ inches deep and after that it should
be cultivated al frequenl intervals with the Spring Tooth
Duck Foot Cultivator.

LESSONS FROM EXPERIENCE 321

The bare fallow has no place in a good system of crop
rotation in North Dakota. The climate of North Dakota
is a little too cold to grow sorghum. Corn, however, does
well and as a feed crop it should always be used in pre-
ference to summer tillage as it gives a good return in feed
and the land is in just as good shape to produce a small
grain crop the following year.

Potatoes are a profitable crop and they leave the land
in excellent condition for small grains. One acre of po-
tatoes requires approximately as much labor as five acres
of small grain and will probably give more than five
times the return per acre.

264. Stubble Land. — In the heavy soil areas stubble
land should be plowed as soon after harvest as possible.
This land should be packed with a subsurface packer
or with a disc run straight, the day it is plowed. The
next spring such land may either be disced or harrowed
or both in order to make a compact fine seed bed. The
important thing is to have the seed bed compact with a
rather coarse mulch on the surface and not too smooth.
Light soils should be left for spring plowing. They
should be subsurface packed and seeded the day they are
plowed, if possible. Only rarely should the harrow be
used on lighter, sandy soils in the spring.

265. Grass Land. — One of the best ways of utilizing
grass land is to break in the spring, pack down level with
a weighted disc or roller and disc until a fine mulch is
on the surface and seed to flax. The other method is to
break in the summer time and double-disc early the next
spring, harrow until the seed bed is fine and seed to
wheat.

266. Rotations. -Profitable rotations require small
grains, legumes and cultivated crops. The simplest pro-

322 DRY FARMING

Stable rotation of this character for North Dakota is po-
tatoes or corn, seeded to wheat without plowing and with
the wheat sow sweet clover. This would be a three-year
rotation consisting- of wheat, sweet clover, and corn or
potatoes. A longer and more practical rotation would be
to have a field in each of corn, wheat, sweet clover, pota-
toes, wheat, oats or barley, flax and one held seeded per-
manently to alfalfa.

In the dry region it i> very important to maintain the
organic matter of the soil as this constituent has great
ability to hold moisture and prevent the soil from drift-
ing. Legumes are necessary to keep up the nitrogen
content of the soil and at the same time they furnish the
best kind of feed for live stock which' in turn helps to
keep up the fertility of the soil and at the same time give
a permanent income.

267. The Best Crops. — The besl varieties of wheat for
the dry region are Marquis and the two Dnrnnis. Acne
and Kubanka. Early varieties of oats should be used,
such as the "Sixty-day". Early .Mountain, and Swedish
Select. Of the mid-season varieties the Siberian White
and the Lincoln are the best. One of the wilt-resistant
varieties of flax should be used such as N.I). 114. 52 or
1.")."). The two-rowed barleys, such as Swan Neck and
Ilannsclien are the most productive. The yellow variety
of sweet clover (Melilotus officinalis) is probably a little
superior to the white (Melilotus alba) variety. The
Grimm is the only variety of alfalfa hanl\ enough for
our conditions. Brome grass is the hardiest and mosl
palatable grass. Western ryr grass is also \vr\ good.
Sunflowers may be used as an intertilled crop or as a
substitute for COrn as a silage crop.

268. The Rate of Seeding. -In the drier parts the ;.ate

LESSONS PROM EXPERIENCE 323

of seeding1 should always be less than in humid sections.
In western North Dakota three-fourths of a bushel of
wheat is sufficient on most farms. One and one-fourth
bushels of oats and barley are plenty to seed.

269. Weeds are a great nuisance throughout the dry
farming section. Wild oats is probably the worst of our
annual weeds. The seed will not grow in the fall but
readily grows and matures in fields of small grain. A
good system of crop rotation is' necessary to keep this
weed in control. The Russian thistle is present every-
where in the dry regions. In the wetter years it causes
but little harm but in the dry seasons it often grows up
and smothers crops and makes their harvesting difficult.
It may be used for hay or silage and if fed with other
feeds it lias been found fairly nutritious. A good system
of crop rotation is also very beneficial in holding this
weed in check.

270. Soil Drifting. — This sometimes causes the total
destruction of crops. It is usually the result of the con-
tinuous growing of small grains, particularly if alter-
nated with summerfallow or summer tillage. Prevention
of soil drifting is preferable to curing it after it starts.
The growing of grass crops in the rotation and the re-
turn of all the organic matter such as straw to the soil,
in the form of manure and the leaving of the surface
soil rough will prevent soil drifting. Where the soil is
light and so deficient in organic matter that it drifts
badly it should be spring plowed only. Strips of straw
should be scattered over it at intervals and the surface
of the soil should be left rough and the land seeded the
same day it is plowed.

(Ireat care imi>t lie used in harrowing the growing
crop. This practice usually makes the crop somewhat

324 DRY FARMING

later but it is effective in thinning out weeds, particularly
those starting from small seeds such as mustard, buck-
wheat and pig weed. Harrowing should only be done
with a light harrow on a firm soil after the crop is 5 or
6 inches high and on a warm sunshiny day. Heavy soils
should be harrowed immediately following the plow as
this breaks up all the lumps and leaves a good surface
mulch.

Packing is best accomplished by using a disc set
straight and going over the soil the day the land is
plowed. The subsurface packer is also a good implement
to use. Early after harvest disking probably is bene-
ficial but it comes at a time when the labor supply on the
farm is in great demand for other necessary operations.
Plowing deeper than 6 inches probably does not pay.

A farmer in the dry region should aim to get one-half
of his income from live stock and live stock products.
In the good years when he has an abundance of feed and
straw, this should be carried over for the years of exces-
sive drouth. This together with what he can produce by
good cultivation will assure him a steady income even
through the most adverse seasons.

DRY FARMING IN MONTANA

By Alfred Atkinson, President Montana St ah

College of Agriculture. (Formerly

Professor of Agronomy | .

Dry farming in Montana has been practised in seel ions
of the state for a long period of years and is now thor-
oughly established. In the Lighl of the experiences
gained, the following stand mil as the essential requisites

which must be met if success is to be gained.

. LESSONS FROM EXPERIENCE 32n

271. Limited Supply of Moisture. — The conditions for
crop growth in the dry farm sections are most favorable
with one exception. The soils are rich in plant food and
the temperatures are favorable, but the supply of mois-
ture is below the amount commonly considered necessary.
A system must, therefore, be adjusted to make the most
efficient use of the moisture present. The chief ways of
doing this are conserving moisture by careful tillage and
the selection of crops and the use of crop management
methods that make the most economical use of moisture.

The saving of a maximum amount of valuable moisture
is important to insure plant growth and also to make
available the plant food in the soil. Continuous cropping
results in low yields, chiefly because the valuable plant
food in the soil becomes used up. It is, therefore, neces-
sary to make light moisture demand occasionally in the
summer time in order that there may be heat, air and
moisture present to bring the plant food into condition
to be used by growing crops. The common method of
establishing these conditions is by means of the summer-
fallow. In many sections, the tendency has been to sub-
stitute cultivated crops, such as corn or sunflowers, in
place of the fallow. "Where careful tillage is followed,
moisture may be conserved about as effectively in a corn
field as in a bare fallow and the feed produced is most
valuable in maintaining and adding to the number of
live stock kept. It, therefore, seems essential that the dry
farm field should be fallowed or planted to an intertilled
crop not less than two years in five.

272. Early Maturing Crops. — In many dry farm sec-
tions of the West, the heavy precipitation falls between
the first of April and the loth of July. Under this con-
dition, it seems wise to plant crops that will make most

326 DRV FARMING

of their growth during this period and bo far enough
along to fill in good shape before the hot, dry weather
starts in. Fall-sown wheat commonly matures early and
the heads fill before the dry period. Such early maturing
strains as the Marquis Wheat, the Sixty-Day Oats and
the "White Hulless Barley are rapidly growing spring
strains and they should be vised on the dry farm. The
late maturing- strains, which produce the heavy straw
returns, commonly exhaust the moisture in the soil before
the grains are developed and this moans a light grain
return.

273. Light Seeding. — To economize the moisture pres-
ent, light seeding should be practised. Under humid or
irrigated conditions, two bushels of seed is a fair rate of
planting, while on the dry farms, from three to four
peeks has given better returns. The light seeding limits
the straw production and carries more moisture over t'oi
the maturing of the grain.

The dry farmer, who would play safe, must have more
than one source of income. Where land returns on the
year's effort are all tied up in one grain crop, a dry rea-
son has a very disastrous effect. Every dry farm should
carry some live stock, so that the risk of the dry period
is not so great. Even if forage may not be produced
during the dry spell, the live stock may be sold to some
exterrt and this will insure some income. Corn or Mam-
moth Russian sunflowers, if carefully cultivated, give
large silage returns, and with the winter and also the
summer silo, the pasture shortage may be supplemented.
Many successful dry farmers are tilling one or more
silos and carrying them over to \'>'a\ during the follow-
ing summer. This, as a pasture supplement, is most

valuable.

LESSON'S PROM EXPERIENCE 327

Dry farming is not gambling on a wet season. Ii is
so conducting the operations of the farm that there is
fair prospect of returns every year.

DRY FARMING PRACTICES IN THE RED RIVER
VALLEY

By T. J. Harrison, Professor of Field Husbandry,
Manitoba Agricultural College, Winnipeg.

The Province of Manitoba may be divided into three
agronomic zones, i.e., Eastern, Southwestern and North-
western. It is not possible at this time to state definitely
the boundaries of these districts because no detailed
climatic and soil survey has been made. The Eastern
section or the Red River Valley may. however, be de-
scribed as that portion occupying the basin of the old
glacial lake Agassiz. It is approximately that part of
the Provkice which lies between the 96th and 98th
meridians, and south of the 5ls1 degree of latitude. The
Southwestern and Northwestern sections are west of the
98th meridian and are separated approximately by the
50th degree of latitude.

The fundamental differences in farming methods in
these districts may be summarized as follows: —

Southwestern: Except for the lack of moisture the
climate in this district is favorable to the production of
any of the small grain crops. The average animal pre-
cipitation is only about 15 inches. The farm practices
are, therefore, adapted to the conservation of moisture.

Northwestern: In this portion of the province there
are many variations in climate due to the mountains and
lakes. The annual precipitation is about 18 inches.
This with the cool climate and Low evaporation is usually

328 DRY FARMING

sufficient moisture to produce good crops. The early fall
frosts influence the type of farming more than moisture
conservation; therefore, the growing of early ripening
varieties and the use of methods of soil management
that will induce early maturity are the general farm
practices.

Eastern or Red River Valley: The climate of this dis-
trict is more favorable to crop production than that of
any other portion of the Province. The annual precipi-
tation is about 20 inches. A large amount of this moist-
ure comes during the growing season and if not wasted
is more than sufficient to produce maximum crops. Wi1 h
the standard varieties now in use on most farms there is
practically no danger from fall frosts. The methods of
farming are based as much upon the control of such
factors as weeds, plant diseases and insects as they are
upon the conservation of moisture. Fortunately, how-
ever, methods that control weeds and insects are usually
the same as methods that conserve moisture.

274. The Place of the Bare Summerfallow in the Red
River Valley. — Since the pioneer days when grain grow-
ing became prevalent the summerfallow has been the
popular method of preparing stubble land for crop. The
purpose of summerfallow is to prepare, during the slack
season, a large acreage of land for crop and to conserve
moisture. Before the advent of the perennial sow
thistle the summerfallow was introduced into the rota
tion every fourth year. Since the control of this weed
has become important it is now necessary in most in-
stances to fallow every third year. Where I his practice
is followed profitable crops are ensured.

275. Methods of Fallowing. — The methods of fallowing
are determined quite as much by weeds and other factors

LESSONS FROM EXPERIENCE 329

as by the need of moisture. There are three methods
practised although each has many modifications under
different conditions.

1st. Using cultivator only.

2nd. Plowing in the fall and cultivating the follow-
ing season.

3rd. Plowing in the spring and cultivating the bal-
ance of the season.

In the first method cultivation is done by the use of
the stiff-shank wide duck-foot cultivator. From five to
eight cultivations are required during the season to
eradicate perennial weeds. The work is started the last
of May or the beginning of June and is repeated as fre-
quently as necessary to keep the land black until freeze-
up. The first stroke is necessarily shallow but the depth
is increased each time until the final cultivation is five
or six inches deep. This ensures the shares cleaning
and thoroughly cutting off the roots of the perennial
weeds.

The second method consists of plowing the land five
inches deep in the fall, and in the following year culti-
vating with a duck-foot cultivator. Six cultivations are
usually necessary to control the weeds.

The third method with some modifications is the one
that is in general use throughout the district. The land
is plowed in June about six inches deep, and is cultivated
three to six times afterwards to keep down the weeds.
This method is often improved upon by either skim
plowing or disking in the previous fall as soon as the
crop is off the ground. This practice induces the germ-
ination of the annual weed seeds in the fall and early
spring. For fields infested with wild oats this method
is to be commended.

330 DRY FARMING

276. Substitutes for Summerfallow. — Intertilled crops,
such as corn, sunflowers and roots, can be grown in the
Red River Valley for fodder every year with a fair
degree of success. They leave the soil in a better con-
dition for the succeeding crop of wheat than summer-
fallow. The wheat crop has shorter straw and is, there-
fore, less subject to rust. Sow thistle cannot be success-
fully controlled by intertilling and the average farmer
cannot utilize the crop from 80 to 100 acres of corn,
sunflower or roots. While this method may be profitably
practised on a limited acreage, it will never fully dis-
place summerf allowing as long as the present system of
grain farming is practised.

277. Preparation of Stubble Land for Crop. — In pre-
paring stubble land for crop it is conceded in the Red
River Valley that fall plowing is necessary. It requires
the mellowing effect of frost and moisture to put the
heavy clay soil in condition for spring seeding. Spring
plowing leaves the land so hard and rough that a seed
bed cannot be made; so if the land has not been plowed
in the fall, cultivation in the spring will give better re-
sults than plowing. This method of preparing stubble
Land for crop without the use of the plow will give Pair
results if the land is clean, hut as the average farm eon-
tains several kinds of noxious weeds this method cannot
he recommended.

278. Preparation of Grass Land for Crop. — In the pre-
paration of grass land for crop the best results are ob-
tained by breaking two or three inches deep in June or
even laler and back-setting five inches deep in Sep-
tember. After the land is backset it should be packed
and disked sufficient to keep down the weeds. Although

k

LESSONS PROM EXPERIENCE 331

this means the land is idle for the first year the succeed-
ing crops will more than compensate for the loss.

279. Rotations. — The question of the most profitable
rotation is one that has not been conclusively answered,
but is one that is now under close observation by many
practical farmers and by the experiment stations. From
the information on hand the following would seem to be
the most profitable where straight grain growing is fol-
lowed : —

1st Year — Summerf allow.

2nd Year — Wheat.

3rd Year — Oats and barley.

Where mixed farming is followed the following ro-
tation has given good results and with modifications to
suit the needs of individual farmers is being adopted: —

1st Year — Fallow, corn, sunflowers and roots.

2nd Year — Wheat seeded down to grass.

3rd Year — Hay.

4th Year — Pasture until after haying, then break and
backset.

5th Year — Wheat.

6th ear — Oats and barley.

280. Importance of Organic Matter in Soil. — The main-
tenanee of organic matter in the soil is essential to keep
i1 friable and prevent baking. After a heavy rain the
fibre-depleted soil bakes and cracks and much moisture
is lost. In this district, with the exception of some of
the lighter soils here and there, soil-drifting is not a
problem. Within the last few years farmers throughout
the valley have been making more use of farmyard man-
ure and grass and clover crops for the purpose of main-
taining the soil fibre and returning some planl food to
the older soils.

332 DRY FARMING

281. Crops. — In this district, wheat, oats, barley, rye,
flax, grass, clover, corn and sunflowers are the crops that
may be considered to give the best results.

Wheat : This crop has been the main source of wealth
in this district in the past. It will also continue to be
the principal cash crop in the future unless the ravages

Fig. 102. — Sunflowers for Silage, Agricultural College, Winnipeg.

of rust make its production unprofitable. At the pres-
ent time 95% of the wheat grown is of the Marquis
variety. The remainder is made up of Red Fife and
other less-known strains, such as Red Bobs and
Kitchener. Durum Wheat, of which Kubanka is the
• •hief variety, is also being grown. The Red Fife is Later
maturing than the Marquis, and, therefore, is more sub-
ject to rust. The Red Bobs is somewhat earlier but does
not yield nearly so well. The Kitchener unit hits aboul
the same time as Marquis but on the heavy clay soils
gives a poorer yield. The Durum wheats are of more
recent introduction. If a ready markel can be found
for this type and if they prove to be rust-resist ant they
may become more popular.

Oats: This crop docs no1 thrive so well in this districl

LESSONS FROM EXPERIENCE 333

/
as in the Northwestern. For that reason it is not con-
sidered one of the important cash crops. It is, however,
largely grown for feed purposes; part of the crop is
threshed and part used for cured fodder in the sheaf.
Less attention has been paid to the varieties of this
crop, and in nearly every municipality there will be
found as many as ten to fifteen different sorts. The
results at the experiment station, however, indicate that
the three best varieties are Banner, Gold Rain and
Victory.

Barley: The soil of the Red River Valley seems well
adapted for the production of this crop. This, coupled
with the fact, that it can be used for weed control, be-
cause of its early maturing habit, makes it one of the
cash crops that is receiving more and more attention each
year. Its main use, however, as yet is for hog and cattle
feed. The three best varieties are 0. A. C. 21, Manchur-
ian and Mensury.

Flax : Where conditions are favorable excellent flax
crops are produced. Flax, however, is considered one of
the new land crops, and as a large percentage of the
land has been brought under- cultivation, this crop is not
being grown to as great an extent as in the past. The
average farmer has paid very little attention to varieties
of flax. The most common variety grown is Premost,
while some of the will resistant strains from the North
Dakota Experiment Station are also on the market.

Eye: A limited amount of winter and spring rye is
produced. The difficulty with winter killing has pre-
wired the wintei: sort becoming more common. Spring
rye lias given such ;i small average yield that it lias not
displaced any of the three Eoregoing cereals. Because of

334 DRY FARMING

the small amount of this crop grown there are no var-
ieties being recognized by the farmers.

Grasses: With the introduction of weeds and the need
for diversification of crops more attention has been given
each year to grasses. Timothy remains the most popu-
lar, largely because of the cheapness of the seed and its
popularity in the Eastern Provinces and the States.
Western Rye, Meadow Fescue and Brome are grown in
limited quantities.

Legumes: Little attention has been paid to legumes,
but where they have been tried out Alfalfa and Sweet
Clover seem to give best results, while in most years the
common Red Clover and Alsike can be grown with a fair
degree of success. This is especially true east of the
Red River.

Intertilled Crops: As mentioned previously, fodder
corn, sunflowers and roots are the intertilled crops that
are grown in this district. The root crops have never
come into favor because of the expense in handling and
the amount of hand labor necessary. A five- to ten-acre
patch of fodder corn is quite common on the farms
throughout the district; where there is a silo a greater
acreage is grown. The success with sunflowers as silage
has displaced corn on some of the Larger farms. The
varieties of corn usually grown are Northwestern Dent
and Minnesota No. 13. So far Mammoth Russian is the
sunflower that is being used.

282. Kate of Seeding. — The rate of seeding with practi-
cally all crops is much heavier in this section than in
most of the Greal Plains Area. This is due to the com-
paratively heavy precipitation and the need to crowd
out all other plants. Wheat is sown al the rale of a

LESSONS FROM EXPERIENCE 335

bushel and three-quarters per acre, oats — two and one-
half to three bushels per acre, barley — two to two and a
half bushels per acre, and all other crops at an equally
heavy rate.

283. Dates of Seeding. — Experience has shown, other
things being equal, that the earlier the crop, the heavier
the yield as it is less liable to insect damage and plant
diseases. Wheat should be sown as soon as the land can
be worked; oats and barley about the first week after
the land is fit for cultivation. Grasses and clovers are
usually sown sometime between the 15th of May and the
15th of June ; sunflowers during the month of May, and
corn between May 20th and June 10th.

284. Weeds, Plant Diseases and Insects. — These are the
three factors that cause the greatest loss throughout the
district. Among the most pernicious weeds are peren-
nial sow thistle, wild oats, Canada thistle, French weed
and wild mustard. The plant diseases that have taken
the greatest toll from the farmers are rust, smut and
wilt. The insects are cut-worms, western saw-fly and
grasshoppers.

Conclusion

The successful farmers of the Eastern zone are those
who have selected suitable crops and varieties and have
adapted their farming practices to the control of weeds,
plant diseases and insects. Incidentally these practices
conserve moisture but this has not been the primary con
sideration. The use of the bare fallow and other farm-
ing practices mentioned above have produced profitable
crops practically every year in the lied River Valley.

33G DRY FARMING

DRY FARMING IN WESTERN MANITOBA

By W. C. McKillican, Superintendent Experimental
Farm, Brandon, Max.

Tlift average precipitation for the ten years, 1911-1919,
at Brandon, Manitoba, was 16.33 inches. The area which
this represents is therefore of a semi-arid character and
farm practices which conserve soil moisture and utilize
it to the greatest degree are necessary for success in
agriculture.

SUMMERFALLOW.

285. Importance of the Fallow. — The corner stone of
dry farming in Western Manitoba is the summerfallow
and so is it likely to continue for many years. Grain
crops have enjoyed almost a monopoly of crop raising,
and the summerfallow has served to clean the land, to
conserve the moisture from one year to another and in-
deed has made grain growing possible in the pioneer and
exploration stages of the country's development.

286. Methods of Fallowing. — The main features of a
good summerfallow as practised in this region are early
plowing and thoroughness <>l* after-cultivation. Both
of these derive their importance Prom their efficacy in
preventing the loss of moisture through weed growth.
By early plowing Ave mean the first half of the month
of June. May plowing has given no advantage over
June but June has a very decided advantage over July.
Depth of plowing is also generally believed to be an
important feature of good summerfallowing. I believe
this is usually correct, though our experimental results at

LESSONS FROM EXPERIENCE 337

Brandon have not corroborated this opinion. In the con-
trol of annual weeds one plowing followed by bare
cultivation is better than two, but where couch grass or
other persistent perennials are to be fought two plow-
ings are justified.

The best implement for the cultivation of summer-
fallows is the stiff -tooth, duck-foot cultivator. Disc har-
rows and drag harrows should be used very sparingly if
at all. Only in exceptionally loose, soddy or lumpy land
is the use of the packer justified. A very full set of
experiments at Brandon show no returns from its use.

287. Dangers of Fallowing. — The dangers of summer
fallowing are soil exhaustion and soil drifting. It
makes no provision for the return of plant food. This
result (loss of fertility) has not been felt as yet in Man-
itoba, but it is something that plans for the future must
take cognizance of. Soil drifting is here and is perhaps
the biggest difficulty in Western Manitoba farming to-
day. The grain and summerfallow system of the past
must be modified to control it.

288. Substitutes for Summerfallow. — Corn is the best
substitute for the summerfallow. It should not be used
in very dirty fields as the cost of cleaning is too great.
The crop of grain produced on a well cultivated corn
field will usually equal and often exceed that on sum-
merfallow.

Other intertilled crops such as mangels, turnips, po-
tatoes or sunflowers, may also be used in the same way
as corn, but none are so satisfactory as corn so far as
effectiveness as a substitute for fallow is concerned.

A pastured fallow is sometimes substituted for bare
cultivation. It is not satisfactory in the real farming
districts; the pasture crop uses too mudi moisture, and

338

DRY FARMING

if there are perennial weeds, persist cut cultivation is
necessary to kill them.

Hay crops may be used as a partial substitute for
summerfallow. For this method to be successful the sod
must be plowed early so as to be well rotted and to
provide for the accumulation of moisture. At the best
there will not be as much moisture conserved as in a bare
fallow but practical results have been satisfactory and it
is only by the use of sod-forming crops that the soil
drifting menace can be overcome.

Rotations.

289. Rotations now in Use. — The standard rotation
generally in use in the western part of .Manitoba is sum-

^^^bA^^ I ~i

' ?4,

fjtoialmt*' "

A

"

Fig. 103. — Cutting Western Rye Grass and Alfalfa at Brandon Experi-
mental Farm.

merfallow and three crops of grain. Wheat practically
always follows the summerfallow, the second year after
fallow being sometimes wheat ami sometimes oats and
the third year oats or barley. In the early grain grow-

LESSONS FROM EXPERIENCE 339

ing years on a fertile soil this was found to be very satis-
factory. The summerfallow once in four years was
found to be sufficient to conserve moisture and keep the
weeds at least partly in check. This rotation with
modifications represents most of the farming in this
region. However as has already been indicated soil
drifting is proving its inadequacy for a permanent sys-
tem, and the great increase in weeds also indicates the
need of a change.

290. Improvements in Rotation. — These have been indi-
cated generally in discussing substitutes for summer-
fallow. Greater diversity of crop is needed, including,
first a sod-forming hay crop to return fibre to the soil
and make feed for live stock which will result in manure.
Second, the use of corn or other inter-tilled crop to pro-
vide additional live stock fodder and to cheapen the
cost of production of wheat. Third, fall rye may be
needed to control soil drifting where it is so bad that
grasses could not be started. A practical rotation which
combines these features is as follows:

1st Year — Wheat.

2nd Year — Oats.

3rd Year — Summerfallow and partly corn.

4th Year — "Wheat or, if necessary, Fall Eye, seeded
down with grasses and clovers.

5th Year — Hay.

6th Year — Hay or pasture plowed up in midsummer
or earlier, and prepared for wheat.

This rotation has one half the land in grain crops, one
sixth in hay, one sixth in hay or pasture for the early
pari of the sr;ismi and afterwards fallow, and one sixth
in summerfallow and corn. The seeding down to grasses
is on summerfallow or com land which is the only

340 DRY FARMING

place to insure a catch. The wheat which is our main
crop is given the two most advantageous years in the six.

This rotation is offered as a practical suggestion, which
may be altered to suit varying conditions.

290a. Dry Farming Crops. —

Wheat: — The effect of shortage of moisture on a crop
is to make it sacrifice leaf and stem for the development
of the seed. Dry areas are consequently best fitted for
the production of seed-bearing crops. Wheat is the
great seed-bearing crop of Manitoba. Wheat made Mani-
toba, and will continue to be its chief support for many
years to come. The object of diversification of crops.
introduction of new crops and live stock raising is not
to replace wheat, but rather to make the continuation
of profitable wheat growing possibile, where an attempt
to grow nothing but wheat is suicide for wheat growing.

Marquis is at the time of writing (1920) the best
variety of wheat for Manitoba. Red Fife has been en-
tirely replaced and rightly so. Red Bobs has had a
somewhat sensational period of advertising but is prov-
ing distinctly inferior. Kubanka. a durum variety, is
being introduced to some extent on account of drought
resistance and supposed immunity from rust. Its low
milling value makes it distinctly undesirable unless rust
should become so bad as to make the growing of Marquis
or other wbite-flour-producing wheats impossible. Ruby
is a new variety somewhat earlier than Marquis ami of
similar quality which has not been fully tried out. but
may be of importance for northern districts.

Oats. — Oats fill an important place in Manitoba farm-
ing. The Banner and Victory varieties are the Leading
favorites.

LESSONS FROM EXPERIENCE 341

Barley. — Manelmrian and 0. A. C. No. 21 both six-
rowed varieties, are the best in use at present.

Fall Bye. — Fall Rye has been used to some extent as
a means of controlling soil-drifting and combating wild
cats and is proving very valuable for these purposes.

Corn. — The great value of corn in a crop rotation lias
already been mentioned. Northwestern Dent and Min-
nesota No. 13, are good varieties for this territory.

Sunflowers. — Sunflowers have been proven to be a
good siiage crop and can fill the place of corn where it
does not succeed.

Mangels and Turnips. — Are not extensively grown but
can be grown successfully.

Grasses. — Brome grass is our most drouth-resistant
grass and is used to quite a degree for permanent hay
and pasture. Its persistence makes it undesirable where
more easily handled grasses will succeed. "Western Rye
grass is probably the most generally useful grass for this
territory. It stands drought well, yields almost as well
as brome grass and being easily plowed up is a better
rotation grass. Timothy is too dependent on moisture
and the same is true of all grasses commonly grown in
humid countries.

Leguminous Hay Crops. — Alfalfa is the most valuable
of these. It is grown with great success at Brandon Ex-
perimental Farm and by some few private farmers but
is generally considered throughout this region as im-
possible to grow successfully. I believe the future will
see it grown very much more generally, and that it will
contribute very largely to the solution of farming prob-
lems. Sweet clover is being introduced to a consider-
able degree and has a greal value where alfalfa cannot
be grown. Ms productiveness, hardiness, free see« 1 i nur

342 DRY FARMING

and adaptability give it a great value as a pioneer
Leguminous crop, but its coarseness and short life lessen
its value. Red clover is only grown successfully in
limited areas and can hardly be recommended for gen-
eral use; the same is true of Alsike. Neither of these are
really dry farming crops.

DRY FARMING PRACTICES IX THE PARK BELT
OF ALBERTA

By G. H. Hutton, B.S.A., Superintendent of Agri-
culture and Animal Industry, C.P.R., Calgary.

291. The Place of the Summerf allow. — As a general
proposition it is not necessary to sunimerfallow in Central
Alberta. The average precipitation during the year is
in the neighbourhood of seventeen inches, sixty per cent,
of which falls during the growing months. Other con-
ditions than the amount of rainfall influence crops, such
as the kind of soil on which the rain falls, its depth, and
character of subsoil, velocity of prevailing wind, and
amount of protection against such winds afforded by
trees. The soil in the Park Belt of Alberta is a heavy
black loam as much as three or four feet deep in many
places, resting on a clay subsoil; there is therefore,
practically no loss of moisture below, while the rate of
evaporation is slow because of the fact that wind is not
a serious factor to be reckoned with, also the large
amount of humus in the soil holds the moisture ten-
aciously, ruder such conditions a summerfallow stores
such a large amount of moisture and liberates such a high
percentage of nitrogen that the following crop Lodges
ninety per cent, of the time, tails to till well, and is dif-
ficult to harvest.

LESSONS FROM EXPERIENCE

343

292. Suitable Rotation for the Park Belt. — A rotation
which has given excellent results is as follows: —

1st Year. — Hay; manure during winter, 12 tons per
acre.

2nd Year. — Pasture.

3rd Year. — Pasture to July or early August, plow-
ed 6 inches deep and cultivated.

Fig. 10-1. — Alsike Clover and Timothy, Lacombe, Alta.

4ili Year. — Wheat or oats.
5th Year.— Oats.
(illi Year. — Barley seeded down.
As a rule a first-class stand of timothy and alsike or
red clover combinations can be obtained when s led

344 DRY FARMING

down with a nurse crop of barley. The land is cleaned
to some extent by means of the cultivation given after
the sod is plowed in the third year of the rotation,
while the manure applied in the winter of the first year
to the surface of the sod maintains fertility, and the
weed seeds contained therein are largely destroyed prior
to the plowing of the land in the third year of the
rotation. On account of the liberal rainfall in May or
June weed seeds germinate near the surface and in the
manure, but lack sufficient roothold to come to ma-
turity, and are thus destroyed. Such a rotation has re-
sulted in the freeing of land from weeds to a remarkable
extent, and has also built the land up as to fertility to a
noticeable degree.

293. Corn vs. the Fallow. — Corn has been tested for
some years in Central Alberta with rather indifferenl
success. During only about half of the years, lias it
given a crop which could be called profitable, and the
risk thus indicated is too great to warrant the general
use of this crop in that part of the country. It is ad-
mitted that an intertilled crop would be an advantage if
it were practical in a large way, and economical use
could be made of the fodders grown. The sunflower may
prove to be a plant which can be utilized in this section
of the country to good advantage because il resists frost
better than corn, and from the data at hand would ap-
pear to be superior to corn. When the size of farms
reaches a better balance in relation to the amount of
labor available this intertilled crop will command
much more attention, and can be used to splendid ad-
vantage in conjunction with silos. Such use of crops
suitable for ensilage and of silos will result in doubling
the stock-carrying capacity of land.

LESSONS PROM EXPERIENCE 34.")

294. The Preparation of Stubble Land for the Crop
Following. — If time permits, stubble land should be
plowed six inches deep in the fall and plowing oper-
ations should be followed immediately by the use of a
soil packer, or if this implement is not available, by the
drag harrow or disc. Such practice closes the air space
in the land, and prevents the loss of moisture through
the circulation of air. The use of a packer immediately
following the plow also permits of fall germination of
wreed seeds by firming the soil near the freshly turned
surface, thus permitting the movement of moisture to
these seeds. Packing promptly after the plow is an
effective cultivation in preparing the land for work the
next spring, as it levels as well as firms the soil. Such
land, well plowed and double-disked after the packer,
is in good condition for the grain drill in the black loam
soil of this section of the "West.

295. Preparation of Grass Land for the Crop Fol-
lowing.— As indicated in the previous paragraph the
plowing of grass land in July or early August is ad-
vised. The depth should be six inches and the plow
should be followed by the packer or by the disc harrow
operated in the same direction as the plow. As soon as
convenient after the packer the land should be given a
double disking, after which it may remain for some time
without further cultivation. It is advisable, however, to
give such land the necessary work in the fall so that it
will not require much more than drag harrowing, or a
double disking and drag harrowing at most, tin' follow-
ing spring, in order to insure a good seed-bed.

296. Organic Matter, Legumes and Soil. — The import-
ance of organic matter in the soil is shown by the wonder-
ful crops which it is possible to grow when the virgin

346 DRY FARMING

prairie is first broken. Such fertility is the result of the
decayed organic matter of generations of plant growth,
and its presence insures yields of as much as seventy
bushels of wheat to the acre and one hundred and forty
bushels of oats. Such rich soils will produce profitable
crops with light rainfall, as compared with the possi-
bilities of poorer land with the same precipitation. No
permanent system of agriculture can be maintained
which disregards the maintenance of soil fertility
through the use of barnyard manure and leguminous
crops. It is quite possible to exhaust the fertility and to
make barren, lands which, with ordinary good farming
practice could be maintained in a splendidly high state
of fertility. The case with which alsike clover, red clover
and other clovers can be grown with a nurse crop in
Central Alberta, and the natural adaptability of the
country for live stock should insure for this district
perpetual resources of fertility in the land if any
semblance of sane agriculture is followed.

297. Best Dry Farm Crops. — Cereals, legumes and
grasses thrive. As to varieties, Marquis wheat, Banner
or Victory oats; Mensury, O.A.C. 21 and Barks barley;
alsike, red clover, alfalfa in some districts, sweet clover
in some districts, and (iiant Russian Sunflowers; timothy
Western rye, and brome grass, are all suitable for dif-
ferent parts of 1 lie country.

298. Rates of Seeding in Central Alberta.- As a general
practice rather heavy seeding is advisable for the Park
Bell in Alberta. The proper rate to sow, of course, de-
pends upon the variety of grain, which involves size of
kernel and the kind and condition of the land on which
the grain is to be sown. Breaking and summerfallow
well supplied with moist ure will carry from one-half to

LESSONS FROM EXPERIENCE 347

one bushel more seed per acre than stubble land equally
well cultivated. It has been found advisable to sow
from two to three bushels of spring wheat per acre on
well-cultivated breaking or summerfallow, depending
upon the character of the land and its location, reducing
the amount of seed on stubble land by half a bushel to a
bushel, again depending upon condition. Oats should
be seeded at the rate of from two and a half to three
bushels per acre; barley at about two bushels per acre;
sunflowers about ten pounds, and grasses and legumes at
various rates according to the combinations used. As a
rule it is advisable to sow from twelve to fifteen pounds
of Western Rye grass to the acre when this is the only
variety being used, and this may be used as the basis
for determining other mixtures.

299. Weeds. — The eradication of weeds, while a serious
problem, is not as acute a question in Central Alberta as
in districts where wind has more sweep, and where the
varieties of weeds have adjusted themselves to these con-
ditions and spread over the whole territory by means of
wind. The disking of stubble land following the binder,
the following of the plow with the packer to encourage
germination of seed; giving the land a stroke with the
drag harrow as early in the spring as it is possible to
work the soil, and the drag harrowing of the growing
crop, together with the fall cultivation of July plowed
sod. will gradually reduce the weed population of a foul
farm, and will keep a clean farm clean.

300. Soil Drifting. — The drifting of soil will never be
a serious problem in Central Alberta provided methods
outlined iu the paragraphs immediately preceding are
followed. The use of barnyard manure, the seeding down

348 DRY FARMING

of land to grass, and the growing of such big-rooted
plants as a number of the legumes are, will all assist in
solving this problem before it arises, and it might be said
in passing that this is the time to solve such a problem.
The reclaiming of all soil which has been allowed to reach
the drifting stage is a serious matter, and the said condi-
tion should be avoided by every serious-minded, thinking
farmer as he would avoid a plague. The following of the
practice which will lead to the avoidance of the difficulty
will also prove more profitable than those farming prac-
tices which lead to the soil-drifting condition.

301. Plowing. — Good plowing is one of the most, if
not the most important cultural operation on the Harm.
If this work is well done the battle is half won. Deep
plowing is advisable in most cases, and in my judgment
should never be less than six inches. Deep plowing of
breaking is important, not only to permit of a good seed-
bed being worked after breaking without the necessity
of backsetting, which is not feasible in the Park Belt,
but is also necessary in areas where there is much wil-
low or other growth of tree roots to be turned down. The
breaking plow must cut under these roots. Where the
ground is very rich it is advisable to disc in the second
crop on the stubble allowing more time for roots to rot.
The deep plowing of stubble land provides a greater
reservoir for the storing of moisture, and a better oppor-
tunity for plants to develop roots. The importance of
Inking pride in the various operations in conned ion with
farm work cannot be overstated. The doing of work well
is the only thing which will lift farm work from being a
mere job to an interesting home-building occupation.

LESSONS FROM EXPERIENCE 349

THE SUMMERFALLOW IN SOUTHERN ALBERTA

By James Murray, B.S.A., Superintendent of Farms,
Noble Foundation Limited, Nobleford, Alberta.

302. Climate. — The climate of Southern Alberta is
characterized by light rainfall, — about fifteen inches, —
and the prevalence of chinook winds which blow inter-
mittently throughout the year. The chinook frequently
attains the proportions of a gale; in winter it carries
away a heavy snowfall in a few hours, and in spring and
summer, and also frequently in winter, it not only dries
out the surface soil very rapidly, but carries away in
dust storms any soil in condition to blow readily. On
account of these conditions — light precipitation and
heavy winds, — the Southern Alberta farmer on dry land
must keep always before him the need of conserving as
much as possible of the moisture and of so working his
land that it does not readily blow.

303. A Fallow Considered Necessary. — The general
practice on the farms of the Noble Foundation Limited
is to summerfallow one half of the land each year. This
is departed from more or less every year, as feed oats is
frequently grown on land that was in crop the previous
year; but only in very favorable seasons does the yield
approach that from summerfallow. In dry seasons the
yield from such land is very low. Over a series of years
the further Ave depart from the method of fallowing one
half each year the less satisfactory are the results. "With
most of the crop grown on summerfallow a fair return
is secured even in a poor year, and an excellent crop in
a good year.

304. Summerfallow to Control Weeds. The method
followed in summerfallowing is planned to control weeds

350 DRY FARMING

since most of the moisture lost during a fallow season is
by the growth of weeds. The land to be summerfallowed
"is sometimes double-disked in the fall after the crop is
removed, but more f requently, on account of lack of i hue
in the fall, this operation is delayed until spring when
it is done either during the progress of seeding or im-
mediately after. This disking covers weed seeds and
grain so that they grow readily. It kills millions of
small weeds just starting and it breaks up the crust and
leaves a light mulch on the surface. Such a surface makes
a much better connection with the bottom of the furrow
when the land is plowed than one that is hard, cracked
and lumpy. In some seasons it may be advisable in order
to control weeds to disc a second time any land that is
not plowed reasonably early, but usually one double-
disking is sufficient.

305. Plow Summerfallow Early. — The plowing of the
summerfallow is started immediately after seeding and
an effort made to have it completed before July. No
single operation in summerfallowing is so important as
plowing, so that care is taken to do the work well, turn-
ing a furrow of from six to eight inches deep depending
upon how deep the land was plowed previously. Only a
little subsoil is brought to the surface at each plowing.
Immediately after plowing the land is packed by using
either a subsurface packer or a disc run straight or one
notch back. The packing is more perfectly done when the
land is fresh-plowed, so that an effort is made to have
the packing done the same day as the plowing.

306. Controlling Weeds After Plowing. — After the
plowing and packing of the fallow is done little more
attention wall need to be given for three weeks or a month
when weeds begin to appear. A start must he made at

LESSONS FROM EXPERIENCE

351

U

PS «

1 ' -.

o o

O £

n

352 DRY FARMING

destroying the weeds when they are very small, else
many of them will be large and have made a heavy draft
on the moisture before they have been all killed. The
implement used almost exclusively during the first two
seasons as a weed destroyer in the fallow is the Rotary
Rod Weeder. For several years previously a stationary
rod weeder was used, but since the weeder with the re-
volving rod has been tried, the other one has been dis-
carded. The Rotary Rod "Weeder destroys all the weeds
if it is used before they are too large, and leaves the land
with a rough surface, not likely to blow. In some seasons
it will be necessary to go over the fallow twice with the
weeder to control weed growth, but the amount of work
given is governed entirely by conditions. If weeds make
their appearance and are likely to attain any size they
should be destroyed.

307. Fall Treatment of Fallow. — The final operation on
the fallow in the fall should be such as will leave it in a
condition to best withstand heavy winds during the
winter. Ridging with either a cultivator or a spring
tooth harrow across the direction of the general winds is
a good practice. The ridges not only serve to catch any
soil that starts to shift, but they catch and hold light
snowfalls that are frequently swept off fields that have a
smooth surface. By removing two-thirds of the teeth
from the spring tooth harrow so that the ridges are one
foot wide the draft is lightened and the work more ef-
fectively done at the same time.

308. Hoe Drill Preferred. — The hoe drill has been given
a fairly good trial during the past two years and since
it leaves the land much rougher than the other types of
drills, it will probably come into fairly general use in
districts where soil-drifting is particularly troublesome.

LESSONS FROM EXPERIENCE 353

When the hoe drill has been used on land not likely to
drift, harrowing is advisable after sowing, but if drift-
ing is feared the harrow had best be dispensed with.

309. Two Important Points About Fallowing. — In all
the work on the summerfallow it is particularly im-
portant that two points be borne in mind, — the killing
of weeds when they are small and the use of implements
that will not pulverize the surface. The only safe time
to use the disc harrow is before the land is plowed, — at
other times it tends to pulverize too much. The drag
harrow must, for the same reason, be used with great
caution and drags of any kind that grind the surface
should not be used on any account.

Fig. 105a. — Combined Harvester and Thresher.

I sed in the Inter Mountain States, but very little in the Great Plains

and almost never seen in the Canadian Wheal Fields.

CHAPTEE XVII
THE PROBLEM OF CROP PRODUCTION

The control of crop yields and the maintenance of sod
productiveness are problems that directly affect the
prosperity of both the individual and the state

An increase in net return equal in value to one bushel
of wheat per acre on the land at present under cultiva-
tion in Western Canada would, at $1.00 per bushel, pay
the whole cost of the general expenditure for purposes
of government of the three Prairie Provinces. The same
increase per acre per year for six years would more than
pay Western Canada's share of the Greal War debt.

An increase in net return equal to one bushel of wheat
per acre would mean that approximately $35,000^000 ad-
ditional cash would be available for that section of the

community engaged in supplying the i ds of the farmer

and in distributing his products— the commercial and in-
dustrial interests; while a decrease of one bushel per
acre would mean that an equally Large amount of mort-
gages, loans and notes would remain unpaid for at least
an addit tonal year.

310. The Problem in a Nutshell. -If one bushel per
acre or more of an increase is to be obtained or even it' one
bushel or more decrease is to be prevented, the men who
control our greal resource, viz.. the soil, must know:

354

PBOBLEM OF CHOP PRODUCTION 355

(1) The factors that are essential to the growth of
crops •

(2) The factors that affect the profit of crop produc-
tion; and

(3) The factors that affect the permanence of a profit-
able agriculture.

And they must not only know, out they must also put
into practice, the means at their disposal for controlling
or influencing the factors of growth, profit and perman-
ence.

A statement and brief discussion of the fundamental
principles underlying crop production, has seemed to us
essential to a proper appreciation of the subject, both by
the producer and the student of agricultural affairs. In
this chapter we have, therefore endeavored to bring to-
gether the various phases of the question in such a way
that the reader may get a general view, even though a
brief one, of the relationship of its different parts to
each other and to the problem as a whole.

311. The First Part of the Problem— That of Growing
Crops. — As previously mentioned* the factors that must
be provided before plants can grow are:

(1) The seed — which contains the life principle, the
reproductive part.

(2) Plant food materials— the chemical elements of
soil, water and air thai are available to plants and that
are necessary for growth.

(3) "Water — a plant food itself and also a carrier of
elements of plaid food from the soil to the plant.

(4) Heat — without which the Life process of the plant,
germination and growth, eannol go on.

In Chapter 111.

356 DRY FARMING

(5) Light — for the synthesis or building up, in the
leaves, of organic compounds from the inorganic elements
of plant food.

(6) Air — which not only supplies a large part of the
food of plants, but which in small quantity in the soil

Fig. 106. — Cattle on the Eange ill Northern Saskatchewan.

provides a desirable environment for plant roots and at
the same time plays a large part in the development of
"available" plant food.

Fortunately for us nature provides most of these re-
quirements with a lavish hand. It remains for man to
increase, or at least maintain the supply of those that
under his own climatic and soil conditions have been
either wasted or but sparingly supplied.

312. Light and Air Essential, but of Little Practical
Importance. — Light and air are as important to the plant
as plain food, water or heat, yet neither is as important
to the crop grower for the reason thai he finds both pro-
vided in very -rival alnnidanee. More light than readies
the earth in most climates where agriculture is practised,
is seldom needed, and even if it were, the amount could
not be increased profitably.

PROBLEM OF CROP PRODUCTION 357

Nature supplies plenty of air above ground and in all
except' humid climates, low lying soils, or very heavy
lands sufficient in the soil as well. It is our business only
to regulate the supply so that the soil will contain
neither too much nor too little, but just the right amount
for good tilth.

313. Frost limits the Yield in Northern Climates. — The
average number of days between spring and fall frosts
for a period of twelve years in the Central West varies
from 73 in the north to 133 in parts of the south. The
shortest period between frosts during the same length of
time was 33 days for the north and 101 for the south
while the longest frost-free period in each of these dis-
tricts was 112 and 163 days respectively. These figures
probably represent the extremes in length of frost-free
period for most of the present settled area of Western
Canada.

It is apparent from these data as well as from actual
experience that in northern climates nature sometimes
fails to provide enough heat to mature crops without in-
jury from low temperature, and that, therefore, man
must either add to the supply or take such steps as will
offset the danger from frost. This is one of the two
chief difficulties facing the crop grower in Western Can-
ada. There is need for developing a system of "North-
ern Farming" for northern regions just as there is a
need for a system of "Dry Farming" for dry regions or
one of "Humid Farming" for wet ones.

314. Water in the Soil Determines the Yield in Dry
Climates. — Water is generally the limiting factor in crop
production here. In other words, it is the chief cause of*
low yields. From 250 to 1,000 pounds of moisture are
extracted from the soil and transpired by the plant into

358 DRY FAHMING

the air in the process of forming one pound of dry
organic matter in the plants' tissues. In Western Can-
ada we receive from 12 to 22 inches of -water from the
clouds annually. The precipitation in most agricultural
countries ranges between 10 inches and 150 inches per
year. Our supply is small and our need is great. Man
must make the best use of what nature supplies or
furnish artificially the shortage, otherwise he must be
content with low yields.

In humid regions the supply of moisture from the
clouds is generally sufficient to produce large returns.
In arid and semi-arid climates there is insufficient rain-
fall to produce large crops every year with the resull
that the supply of water must be increased by irrigation
or steps must be taken to store a portion of one sea sun's
moisture in the soil for the use of the next season's crop,
as by summerfallowing, or the use of intertilled crops.

The efficient utilization of our precipitation for the
development of the latent wealth that is in our soil is the
biggest material problem "Western Canada lias to face.
She has made some progress towards its solution. bu1
much work still remains to be done.

315. Plant Food Materials, the Limiting Factor on Poor
Soils. — Of the eighty odd chemical elements known to
science, fifteen may be used by plants, but only ten are
essential to growth, and of these ten. all but four — nitro-
gen, phosphorus, potassium and calcium — are provided
in liberal quantity in the soil. The available supply of
one or more of these essential elements of plant food is
sometimes so small in humid climates that large yields
on poor soils are an impossibility. Under these condi-
tions the terms "manure" and "•fertilizer'* are therefore
almost synonymous with soil fertility, and the chief

PROBLEM OF CROP PRODUCTION 359

problem of the crop grower is to maintain the supply of
available plant food in the soil.

In Western Canada our normal soils are rich. The
total supply of the chemical elements essential to plant
growth is relatively large — so large in fact that on many
soil types we are permitting ourselves to neglect almost
wholly the question of its conservation. Our immediate
problem is one of development rather than conservation.
Nevertheless, it should be possible for us to do what older
agricultural countries have done, viz., conserve our soil
resources while still developing them. The maintenance
of soil productiveness is likely ultimately to become one
of our most serious problems and it would therefore seem
to be the part of wisdom to direct more of our energies
and resources toward the early solution of this difficult
question.

316. The Importance of Good Seed. — The seed we sow
may be good or poor. Its vitality may be lessened by
frost or other injury, its vigor of germination lowered
by disease and exposure, while the health and purity of
the resulting crop may be seriously affected by the pres-
ence of disease spores and weed seeds in the sample sown.

It is man's privilege to see that the seed he uses will
germinate and germinate vigorously, that it is free from
disease and admixture, ami that it is a sort that is suited
to the climate and soil where it is to be planted. These
are fundamental requirements. They constitute the
primary elements of successful crop growing. They are
the only ilium's essential in good ^ecd. and fortunately
for us it is absolutely within our power to see that the
seed we sow tnleets all these requirements

317. Some Fundamental Facts. — The seed, plant food
materials, moisture, heat. Lighl ami air are all absolutely

3G0

DRY FARMING

essential to growth. When each is provided in suitable
quantity and in available form, the soil produces abund-
antly. If any one is lacking, no growth whatever will
take place. And it is important to note that the factor
that is present in smallest quantity in relation to the

Fig. 107. — Bacon Hogs in the Making.

need of the crop will determine the yield. A chain is as
strong as its weakest link. The yield of a crop will be
as high and no higher than the supply of the limiting
factor will permit.

318. The Vital Part of the Problem— That of Profit-
It is not enough that man should know the factors that
are essential to plant growth nor that he should provide
them. The intelligent farmer does not farm for his
health alone. For him there must be some profit after
the various items in the cost of product ion have been
paid.

It is not difficult to grow crops. It is not very difficult

PROBLEM OF CROP PRODUCTION 361

to produce large yields. But it is a difficult matter to
grow crops at a profit whether the yields be small or large.

319. Factors Affecting Profit. — Suitable crops planted
in productive soil according to up-to-date methods do not
necessarily yield profitable returns. In order that a pro-
fit may be assured, not only must all the essential condi-
tions of growth be provided, but (1) the crop must be
protected from weeds, insects, plant diseases and storms,
and (2) either the cost of production or the selling price
must be controlled.

320. The Cost of Weeds. — Weeds rob the crop of its
plant food and moisture and increase the cost of produc-
tion. It has been estimated by the Department of Agri-
culture that the weed crop of Saskatchewan costs her
farmers $25,000,000 a year, and probably this item does
not cost the average farmer in Saskatchewan more than
it does the average one in either of the other Prairie
Provinces.

321. The Cost of Insects. — Insect, animal or bird pests
may lessen the yield or quality of the crop either before
or after maturity. The Dominion Department of Agri-
culture places the loss through destruction of crops by
cutworms in one district in a single season at 35,000
acres. And the cutworm is only one of dozens of insects
that take an annual toll from the farmer's crops.

322. The Loss from Rust.— Plant diseases nourish them-
selves on the tissues of plants and thus lessen the yield
or quality or both. The loss to Western Canada from
rust alone in the year 1916 has been estimated to average
six bushels per acre. This at the October price of $1.50
per bushel on an area of aproximately 12,000,000 acres,
reaches the enormous sum of over $100,000,000. In
other years wheat smut, flax wilt, potato blight and other

362 DRY FARMING

fungous or bacterial enemies have contributed to the
large annual loss from plant diseases.

323. The Amount Hail Takes from the Profits. — Severe
storms may injure the soil and damage the crop by soil
"drifting" or by stunting, lodging or breaking down the
plants, or by shattering the grain. The loss from hail
is variously estimated at from one-half to two and one-
half per cent, of the total acreage, or on the basis of the
present acreage a logs of 125,000 to 600,000 acres. The
damage done by hail in the year 1916 was considerably
greater than the highest of these percentages. These
storms ccmie as the insurance men say "'by act of Provi-
dence". It is fortunate that provision for carrying this
risk has been provided by hail insurance companies.

324. The Moral. — And yet these losses may occur even
after the soil has been made productive. It is apparent
that one of three things must result: — (1) those factors
that affect cost must be controlled, or (2) the price must
be regulated by the producer, or (3) the business of grow-
ing crops profitably cannot be controlled, and is therefore
more or less of a gamble.

325. The Cost of Production and the Selling Price. —
A farmer, like any other business man, is legitimately
concerned with obtaining the largest possible return !'< r
his labor and for the capital invested. This being the
case he is concerned with the profits of his business rather
than with his total output. Society in general is greatly
concerned with the desirability of increasing the quan-
tity of foodstuffs produced, since cost of living is thereby
reduced. Herein lies the reason for the cry "Back to
the Land" and the slogan "Greater Production" raised by

those not living mi 1 he land.

The farmer from a purely business point id' view is

PROBLEM OF CROP PRODUCTION' 363

concern c(l with the problem of greater production only
in so far as it tends to increase his own net profits. He
has been forced to recognize that larger crops do not
necessarily mean larger net returns, partly because the
larger crop usually costs more to produce, and partly
because a bountiful crop tends to reduce the selling price.
Profit is measured by the difference between the cost of
production and the selling price and farmers are con-
cerned with maintaining, if possible, a reasonable and
constant spread between the two.

Intelligent and timely cultural practices, hard work,
good management and frugal habits will lower the unit
cost of production and increase the unit value. But the
eost of the farmer's machinery and other equipment, the
cost of his money and, to a considerable extent, the cost
of his living are all fixed by conditions and institutions
over which he individually has no control. It is coming
to be realized, however, that those factors which cannot
be controlled by individual effort may be very consider-
ably modified by collective and co-operative effort. Far-
mers" organizations seem to be in a fair way toward hav-
ing tariff schedules, particularly those on implements of
production, reduced, thereby reducing eost of produc-
tion. Farmers' business organizations in the handling
of agricultural implements and supplies in general have
had considerable to do with keeping down the costs of
these supplies. The cost of money to the farmer has also

1 Q reduced by organizations, such as rural credits

societies and farm loan associations designed to meet
the needs of the agriculturist. In general the cost of
production seems to have been materially reduced where-
ever farmers" organizations have made a determined
etVort to compete in the handling of farmers' business.

364 DRY FARMING

The price a farmer gets 'i or his products is fixed by the
law of supply and demand, the tariff schedules, the cost
of transportation and the cost of handling by middlemen.
Here even more than in the cost of production the factors
that determine the selling price are beyond the influence

Ad

r„ ^M^

■

S2S3K

iS^'ffl

***;j

Fig. 108. — Manitoba Farm Yard Scene, in Winter.

of the individual producer. Individually a farmer can
influence the price of wheat about as much as he can the
state of the weather. If he is ever to get a larger propor-
tion of the consumer's price it seems apparent that it
must be through co-operative effort.

The price of crops in the future as in the past will in
a large measure be controlled by the law of supply and
demand. The world's demand is relatively constant.
May not the supply be made more uniform ? By a better
knowledge of the probable market requirements may it
not be possible to avoid over-production of one crop and
under-production of another with consequent loss in net
returns'? May it not also be possible to arrive at a valu-
ation of the services of transportation companies and
middlemen, with fairness to all concerned? These are
problems that farmers, transportation companies, middle-
men and consumers must solve collectively. In this way

PROBLEM OF CROP PRODUCTION 365

only will the interests of society as a whole, rather than
that of any class or section of it, be equitably served.

326. The State's Third of the Problem— That of a Per-
manent Agriculture. — The conditions that affect growth
and the factors that affect profit are and will continue to
be the chief considerations of the individual farmer. Yet
a third set of conditions of vastly greater importance to
the future of the state, viz., those that affect the perman-
ence of our agriculture, remain to be considered.

We are hearing much to-day on the one hand about
the "depletion" of the land, the loss of "fertility" and
the "exhaustion" of plant food from the soil ; and from
another quarter about our soil being "the richest in the
world", and about its supply of plant food being "inex-
haustible".

We hear of some land that after continuous cropping
and no return of plant food, is producing as much as, or
more than it did a generation ago, and we are led to ask
ourselves, "Do soils wear out?" "Can they become de-
pleted?" "Are they being exhausted?" These are ques-
tions upon our solution of which the future material
success of Western Canada very largely depends.

What is fertility? In its narrowest sense it is plant
food materials in the soil, — the chemical substances
plants use in growing. In its broadest sense it is ability
to produce crops, and includes (1) "available" plant
food, (2) tilth, or a favorable condition of the soil with
relation to water and heat and air; (3) health, or free-
dom of the soil from disease, and (4) purity, or its rela-
tive freedom from weeds and weed seeds. In its broadest
sense "fertility" means productiveness, which is not
necessarily synonymous with, although generally closely

366 DRY FARMING

related1 to, the content of plant food materials in the soil.

Soils do not become literally "depleted" or "exhausted*'
of the plant food elements they contain, although the
amount may be seriously lessened, but the land may be-
come depleted or exhausted of its "productiveness".
These so-called "depleted" soils may at any time be made
productive, but the trouble is they cannot be made to
produce a profit until such time as the pressure of popu-
lation or some other economic condition increases the
price of soil products or lowers the cost of production.
And if this does not happen, such soils remain unprofit-
able and unproductive. In any case they seldom redeem
themselves. The}" generally have to be built up by capita]
brought from some other source. Such soils become not
only a source of loss to the man who operates them but
also a burden to the state which indirectly has to hear.
not only the loss from their inefficient use, but also the
cost of their redemption.

327. Factors that Affect Permanence. — The chief factors
thai affect the maintenance of productiveness in any com-
munity have already been mentioned, but will hear re-
peating. They are :

1. The maintenance of soil tilth, which in practice
generally means the maintenance of organic matter.

2. The. maintenance of soil health, or the prevention
or control of plant diseases that live in the soil.

3. The maintenance of soil purity, or weed control, and
last Imt by far the most important in the long run

•4. The maintenance of a .sufficient amount of available

plant food.
In addition to being productive, a permanent agricul-
turt must <ils<> Ik a profitabli agriculture.

And now, having considered this many-sided problem

PROBLEM OF CROP PRODUCTION 367

the farmer has to solve, let us examine the nature and
effectiveness of the instruments he has been given with
which to achieve his purpose.

328. The Means at Man's Disposal for Controlling or In-
fluencing the Factors of Growth. Profit and Permanence. —

The instruments now available for controlling or in-
fluencing the factors of growth, profit and permanence
are :

1. The choice of suitable crops.

2. Suitable crop management practices.

3. The improvement of crops by selection and breeding.

4. Irrigation or drainage, or both.

5. Tillage.

6. Suitable crop rotations.

7. The use of live stock.

8. The application of business principles to the man-
agement of the whole farm — the land, the stock, the
labor, the finances and the machinery and other
equipment.

9. The use of legumes and nitrogen fixing bacteria.

10. The utilization of manures.

329. The Choice of Suitable Crops. — Nature has given
us some plants that resist disease, some that resist frost,
some that resisl drought, and some that avoid these con-
ditions. A great number of crops suited to different
systems of farming are available to choose from, and the
experience of farmers and the records of our experiment
stations are fast teaching us the ones that are best suited
to our climate ;ni<l soil. The value of some new and un-
tried crops has yet to he determined, ami the suitability
of different elassrs and types of crops for peculiar local

soil ami climatic conditions is a lii f work that needs

greater attention. Bui our presenl knowledge, if utilized,

368 DRY FARMING

is sufficient for our present need, and we have faith that
new plant forms will be developed or discovered that will
meet any pressing* requirements of the future.

Some doubt exists concerning the relative value of dif-
ferent varieties for some local climatic and soil condi-
tions, but these are being quickly dispelled. One needs but

Fig. 109. — Dairy Herd in Red River Valley.

refer to the nearest experiment station Eor the results of
comparative tests. If these are not conclusive, co-opera-
tive trials on one's own farm can easily be made. It is
sufficient here to refer the reader to the reports of the
different experiment stations, and to urge him to keep
informed on the results of official tests.

330. Suitable Crop Management Practices. — The clean-
ing of the seed, its treatment for disease, the time, rate
and depth of planting, and the time and method of liar-

PROBLEM OF CKOP PRODUCTION 369

vesting and curing of crops, offer many opportunities
for error. In new countries, and1 particularly where the
settlers are unfamiliar with farming, the best practices
have to be- learned by experience, and in the early days of
such settlements this experience is often gained at a very
great cost. But even now there is a considerable fund of
information, sufficient at least to make a safe working
guide to the successful prosecution of each of these, even
under the diverse climatic conditions the different parts
of the West present. The experimental farms have been
given the responsibility for getting more accurate infor-
mation on this subject and their results are being made
available to all in their annual reports and periodical
bulletins. No one need long remain in the dark concern-
ing the "crop management" practices now recognized as
suitable in different portions of Western Canada.

331. The Improvement of Crops. — Men are improving
crops by doing two things: (1) by the negative process
of preventing them from deteriorating, and (2) by in-
creasing their hereditary power with respect to yield,
quality, or some other economic character. The first is
the business of the farmer, the responsibility for the
second lies with our experiment stations.

Our crops have in many instances deteriorated sadly
by admixture with weeds and seeds of other crops, by
attacks of disease, by drought and frost and by improper
care of the seed. The prevention of each of these in so
far as it is possible is necessary in order to maintain pro-
ductiveness and quality. It is not always within the far-
mers power to wholly prevent these conditions, but
ordinarily he can do much to lessen their ill effects.

The hereditary power of our crops has been and is
being improved by selection and by artificial crossing,

,370 DRY FARMING

followed by selection. It is true generally that "like pro-
duces like", but it is not always so. Variations occur in
all our crops. It is necessary then that the undesirable
variants be eliminated and that the favorable ones be
isolated and tested out, and if better than the parent,
increased and made available to the crop grower. This
is accomplished by the selection of individual plants, the
propagation of the seed in a "pure culture", the testing
of its yield and constancy for a number of years, and
then increasing it as quickly as possible and making it
available to the crop grower.

"Crossing" is resorted to, first, in order to produce
variation so as to give greater opportunity for selection,
and second, to engraft on a race some desirable charac-
ter possessed by another. Crossing or breeding, the in-
termixture of the blood of two parents results in many
new combinations of characters, some one of which may
be the very one desired by the breeder. This favorable
plant must be found, isolated, tested out, the seed in-
creased, and then distributed. Practically all of the
common crops now grown have felt the influence of the
breeders' touch. Marquis wheat, Victory oats, O.A.C.
No. 21 barley and N.D. No. 959 winter rye are familial'
examples of improvement by selection and breeding.

332. Irrigation and Drainage. — In warm, dry climates,
moisture is the limiting factor in crop production. Where
water can be secured by artificial means, a profitable
agriculture generally results. We practise irrigation in
parts of Western of Canada, but over most of our coun-
try, it is not possible to do so, because water is not avail-
able.

In wet climates and low lying soils moisture may also
limit the yield, not because I here is too little, but because

PROBLEM OF CROP PRODUCTION :!71

there is too much in the soil. Under such conditions the
removal of the surplus by artificial surface or under-
ground drainage is just as necessary as the addition of
of water to dry lands. Outside a few local areas and on
low, flat lands and alkaline soils, land drainage is not a
serious problem in the Prairie Provinces.

333. Tillage. — Tillage is the greatest means at man's
disposal for controlling the conditions that at the present
time are causing low yields on the farms of Western Can-
ada. It is also by far the largest single item on the cost
side of the crop account. Tillage is a universal practice,
but on account of the great variation in soil, temperature
and moisture conditions in different countries and in dif-
ferent parts of the same country, the various methods
employed art still fruitful of debate and somewhat dif-
ficult to determine satisfactorily. At the present time in
the West, tillage is one of the most important subjects
connected with crop growing, yet it is one upon which
conclusive data concerning the relative value of different
piactices is not available for more than a few sections of
the country. In the dry year of 1914 the yields of Mar-
cpiis wheat at Saskatoon ranged from six bushels per
acre to thirty-two. In the wet year of 1915 they ranged
from seventeen to forty-seven. The range in yield in each
of these seasons was due entirely to the different tillage
practices followed. This subject is discussed at some
length in chapters VII to X.

334. Crop Rotations. — The most reliable information
the world affords on the value of crop rotations shows
that land in England when cropped continuously to
wheal for sixty years produced an average of fourteen
bushels per acre, and when grown in a rotation of turnips
barley, clover and wheat it produced twenty-five bushels

372 DRY FARMING

per acre every fourth year for the same length of time.
The most' reliable information that America affords shows
that corn in Illinois when grown continuously for
twenty-nine years produced twenty-seven bushels per
acre, while in a rotation of corn and oats it produced
forty-six bushels, and in a rotation of corn, oats and
clover, fifty-eight bushels per acre.

But we are not living either in England or in Illinois.
Their rotations do not suit the conditions found here.
Yet our rotations of the future must include, as do those
of older regions, a legume crop, an intertilled or fallow
crop and a money crop. Until recently in Western Can-
ada, neither legumes nor intertilled crops suitable for use
in a large vTay were available, or if so were either not
well suited to all conditions or did not lend themselves
satisfactorily to practicable changes in our present sys-
tem of farming. Some difficulties have yet to be sur-
mounted before paying crop rotations are discovered and
firmly established, but at least we are fast becoming
familiar with the crops we must depend upon not only as
nitrogen gatherers and as intertilled crops but also as
money crops.

In the meantime the spread of weeds, the "drifting"
of soil and the loss of organic matter are in many places
lowering the profit from grain farming so materially that
resort to hay crops occasionally is being practised. In
other places corn is coming to be a partial substitute for
the fallow. It is possible that these crops, together with
alfalfa, or some other Legume such as sweet clover, may
be the stepping stones to more desirable crop rotations.

335. Crop Rotations and Live Stock. — The introduction
of a large acreage of forage crops on the farms of West
era Canada will require an enormous initial outlay of

PROBLEM OF CROP PRODUCTION 373

capital for stock and for fencing and buildings. The
greater part of this money must be made on our farms.
The problem then will be solved but slowly. It is largely a
rotation, a farm management and an economic problem.
The purely agronomic or crop and soil phases of it are
the least difficult to answer.

In Our opinion we shall not control weeds and drifting
soil permanently until we adapt our systems of farming
to meet those conditions which have caused and are now
causing low yields and poor quality in our crops. That
adaptation will include a rotation of crops designed
chiefly for controlling weeds and drifting soil, for lessen-
ing the cost of production and for building up a more
permanent agriculture. It will necessarily include live
stock, (1) to make use of the forage crops that must be
grown, (2) to lessen the amount, and thereby the cost of
the tillage necessary to control weeds, (3) to lessen the
risk of our one-crop system and (4) to turn the wastage
and by-products of the farm into a realizable asset.

336. Business Farming. — It is not long since the farmer
did not need to be a business man. He produced his own
food, he grew and manufactured his own clothing and
built his own house. He lived unto himself largely. He
needed little business training.

The modern farmer cannot live unto himself. He does
not produce his own clothing nor the material to build
his house, nor does he grind his own wheat into flour.
To-day he must spend, even for the necessities of life.
Therefore he must have something to sell. In other
words, the modern farmer must be a business man.

It does not take long to learn the art of farming, but
unfortunately it takes some of us a long time to learn the
art of successful farm business. It would seem that we

374 DRY FARMING

as individuals might with profit give more attention to
mathematics in relation to onr business. Our profits are
determined by the difference between our receipts and
our expenditures, and not by our gross incomes. Let us
know, if possible, the essentials of our own business enter-
prises. It would seem also that we as a class must prac-
tise greater co-operation. Our co-operative enterprises
have accomplished much in the interest of the farmer,
chiefly in the marketing end of his business, and they
have still much opportunity for service. At the same
time let us not forget that as individuals we can still do
much to lower the cost of production and to lessen the
risk in farming, both of which are directly related to
profit.

337. Legumes and Inoculation. — The air over every
acre of land contains seventy million pounds of nitrogen,
the most costly of fertilizing elements. This amount is
sufficient to supply the nitrogen of fifty bushel crops of
wheat every year for a million years, yet farmers in some
countries are paying twenty cents a pound for nitrogen
to put on the land. Nitrogen in the air can be secured
at no cost to the farmer if he will but grow some legume
crop at intervals. This kind of crop when inoculated
with nitrogen-fixing bacteria, has the power of drawing
upon the immense store of nitrogen in the air.

In such of our virgin soils as are rich in nitrogen it is
possible that the use of legume crops may not now resull
in large increases in yield. Investigations at presenl
under way will soon answer that question. In the mean-
time the fundamental fact regarding legumes should not
be forgot leu. Wither should it be forgotten thai all our
soils are not virgin, nor are all rich in nitrogen.

PROBLEM OF CROP PRODUCTION 375

338. The Use of Manures. — Land cropped continuously
to wheat for fifty-five years in England produced an
average yield of 12.9 bushels per acre, while in a nearby
field the wheat in a rotation that was heavily fertilized
gave an average of 35.5 bushels.

In Illinois, as was stated previously, land continuously
cropped to corn for twenty-nine years produced an aver-
age of 27 bushels per acre, in a rotation of corn and oats,
46 bushels and in a rotation of corn, oats and clover, 58
bushels per acre. In the latter rotation when the land
was manured the yield was 81 bushels, and when man-
ured and given commercial fertilizers as well, the 3-ield
was 96 bushels of shelled corn per acre.

At the present time we cannot get such large increases
from the use of either manures or commercial fertilizers,
although we can and do get good returns from the intel-
ligent use of manure, even on our new soils.

In this connection a definite statement regarding the
amount cf the more important food elements in western
soils and the actual results of the application of manures
and fertilizers to them may not be out of place.

In the surface 6 2/3 inches of the normal Saskatchewan
soils so far analyzed by the Department of Chemistry of
the Provincial University, the nitrogen supply ranges
from 3,000 to 11,000 pounds, the phosphorous from 1,000
to 3,000 pounds, and the potassium supply from 14,000
to 45,000 pounds. Assuming that the straw were all
returned to the land, the amount of these elements re-
moved from the soil in the production of one bushel of
wheat would be 1 2-5 pounds of nitrogen, 1-5 pound of
phosphorus and about 1-5 of a pound of potassium.

It is, therefore, apparent that if all of this plant food
Could he utilized by crops without loss, then' is enough

376 DRY FARMING

nitrogen to produce from 2,000 to 10,000 bushels of wheat,
enough phosphorus to produce 5,000 to 15,000 bushels and
enough potassium to produce from 70,000 to 225,000
bushels in the surface 6 2-3 inches of one acre.

Man would take out all this wheat in a year if he could,
and leave none for future generations, but Providence
has wisely provided that only about 2 per cent, of the
content of certain elements, 1 per cent, of others aud 1-4
of 1 per cent, of still others can be annually released from
the soil aud taken up by growing plants, so that we can-
not literally deplete our soils of their potential wealth
by cropping even if we would ; but we can and are de-
pleting even the best of our soils of their surplus wealth
and their productiveness. We must not let the sup-
ply of total plant food get so low that the small per-
centage that becomes available to plants annually will
be insufficient for a large crop.

It may be asked, why add manure or other fertilizer to
soil containing so much plant food ? The answer is to be
found in the proportion of the plant food in the soil that
is available to plants. The elements added in decayed
manure are quickly available to the plant, while much of
thai found in the soil is not. And in addition, decaying
organic manures not only improve the physical condition
of the soil, lessen its tendency to blow, and improve its
moisture holding power, but also liberate or make avail-
able other more or less insoluble plant food elements.
Of course it costs money to handle manure and there are
some miner objections to its use under certain conditions.
Nevertheless at many different places in the West it has
increased the yield of every crop tested, even on rich
land.

It' n system of permanent agriculture is to be estab-

PROBLEM OP CROP PRODUCTION :!77

lished on our western prairies — and our future welfare
depends upon its establishment — we must not carry our
wheat system too far. We cannot waste the fertility of
our soil and still have it. To-day we are selling our soil
fertility at the rate of 25 cents for each bushel of wheat
sold. We .individually can afford to do that for some
time, but the State cannot afford to permit us to do it
indefinitely.

339. In Conclusion. — It is the moral duty of the crop
grower to produce as large crops as can be profitably
grown. It is the double function of society to see (1) that
the farmer is not hampered in this purpose by economic
disadvantages and (2) that agriculture receives such co-
operation and encouragement from the State as will
enable it to establish a more permanent system of farm-
ing.

Intelligent tillage, the choice of suitable crops, and
suitable cultural practices, will enable us to develop the
resources of our soil. Business methods and in some
places a rotation of crops and the introduction of live
stock will enable us to produce crops more profitably,
but only the use of leg-ume crops, the practice of a
rotation and the return to the soil of some of the plant
food we remove in crops and in fallowing will enable us
to build up a permanent agriculture, and a permanent
agriculture is absolutely essential to the future well-
being of the State.

In the final analysis our ultimate success as a nation
depends not only upon our ability to produce profitable
crops now, but upon our ability to keep on producing
profitable crops.

APPENDIX

380

DRY FARMING

s a

APPENDIX

381

PRECIPITATION -at-WINNIPE

1674 TO 1919

perciRTATim fee jam rca a-o «ak
P8cci?nAT'on foe apc ,*vv jun£««july 5-noe/aai -

PEtCIPITATOM roe AUG SCPa*

PECCIPfTATIOfl POB. ,NOV and DEC. D - NORMAL • AMOUW.

NOTt_: •'■ * ■OlAEMXOlCATt. ' iNOO-OniKTtE.'

|»,da*a*fe*«g*K«l***K*»|8*3*S8^888*!"s*!ll*St,8

Fig. 111. — Precipitation Record — Winnipeg, Man.

382

DRY FARMING

PRECIPITATION -at QUJAPPELLE

.264101919.
PRECIPITATION fOG JAN. FEB. /viD MAC A -NORMAL AMOUNT
PgEOPiTATKDN FOK APRfttYJUNC.wJ.-
PPXG P 1ATTON FOQ AUO SEP and OCT C-flOeMAL AMOWT.

PECaPnADOn FOE NCV and dec D-nob/ml- amount.
NGJT - - •- • xrt 'iNalc5<r-wircRr.

Fig. 112. — Precipitation Record — Qu'Appelle, Sask.

APPENDIX

383

PEECIPITATIOVat- EATTLCroeD-^r.-.

189! TOI9S9.

PeCCIPITATlOS-fOP. -JAM PtB AND MAB. A-NOEMAL-AMCXWr

■M PRECIPITATION -foe APC AW JUNE and JULY B-/HCCAWL AMCUfT

EZ22 PCECIPITATIOM -roe AUG SEP aw OCT. C - /SOBA\AL AMOWT.

^^ PeECIPlTATlOM-fOB NOV. and DEC. D-NOBMAL AMOUW.

NOTtr ncuetsATaotof chaizt- indicate ' inches-otweb."

Fig. 113. — Precipitation Record — Battleford, Sask.

384

DRY FARMING

PetCiP! TATIQN-at -tWOtC.' HAT- acta:

I864TDBI9.

: pecapnAnoN rex jam fc&andMac A-mo2?^alawu)st

I PBCaPTTAnQM fOZ APE./AAYJUNC>ndJJUC b-WCMAL amohi

3 pccawmcN rcGAUG.5tPA.oocr c • moe/'al Arauwf.

1 PEPCIPTTATiON fCC. NO,', and DEC. D-fKKMAL- AMOUNT.
NOTt - noses at ice a- own nncArt ' wo £3 cr wsrcjz!

-a

B

I

, *

Fig. 114. — Precipitation Record — Medicine Hat, Alberta.

APPENDIX

385

I^LaHTAriGf+-AT • CALGARY • ALrA.

\&&5-TO-&e .
PRECIPITATION FOQ> JAN FE& w MAC A- NORMAL AWtWT
PCECIPIWICM FOP_APBA\AYJINLa,\dJUY E> NCC'^AL AAVDUU
PEECIHTATiaN foe AUG SEP/vnd OCT C- flOEMAL AMCW '
PECCIPTTAriON fOQ. NO/. AMD DEC D-NOBMAL AWfT
NOTtr fiojQE5-fir3£or CHAcrr tocate. 'iNCHEicrsartP..'

!§8SSS§ai*$$Sl*&SS!§&a8S88fc35§*iS0*'ti*,i«||

Fig. 115. — Precipitation Record — Calgary, Alberta.

386

DRY FARMING

• PBtaPITATlQNwEmmTGn • ^

i6S51D!9!9.
=1 PRCQPiTATlO^ fCQ. JA.N fLfc WC "AS. A - NOBMAL A-OWT.

mm PeroPnAnaN roe apb .^-jaC *ojuy b-rcxttAL A^ctm
gza PQEaaTATias nc& aug. sk>© oer c - floenAL awiwt.
^m PKCiPtTAnO* roe /SCV a^ dec. d-nobval amoumt.

NOTt- f!02E^AT jctcr ouer-vwcAit. ' inchts-ot *STTR."

p^ - '■ - ■ " ' "

•

Fig. 116. — Precipitation Record — Edmonton, Alberta.

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