ECOLOGY OF THE

ASPEN PARKLAND

of l/Uedtem L^anada

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ECOLOGY OF THE ASPEN PARKLAND
OF WESTERN CANADA

81314-7— li

Aspen parkland under cultivation. Most of the
grassland has been broken and the fields tilled
up to the aspen and willow that surround the
sloughs.

PUBLICATION 1066 FEBRUARY 1961

ECOLOGY OF THE
ASPEN PARKLAND

Of UUedtem (^anadu

IN RELATION TO LAND USE

by Ralph D. Bird

Entomological Laboratory

Research Station, Canada Department of Agriculture

P.O. Box 6200
Winnipeg, Manitoba

Contribution No. 27, Research Station

Canada Department of Agriculture

Winnipeg, Manitoba

RESEARCH BRANCH
CANADA DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

OTTAWA

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PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Great changes have taken place in the ecology of the aspen parkland since
it was invaded by the white man. Dominant animals and plants have been
greatly reduced in numbers and many communities have been destroyed. Their
places have been taken by the herds and crops of the settlers and their associ-
ated weeds and insect pests. Certain native species, however, have increased
in numbers at the expense of those less adaptable. Conditions continue to
change with the introduction of new farming methods. Oxen gave way to
horses, which were in turn replaced by tractors. The swather and combine
took the place of the binder and thresher; the plow was supplanted by the one-
way disk. New methods and implements are continually being introduced.
These man-made ecological changes are superimposed on changes that are
taking place continuously without the intervention of man.

This is an account of the original ecological conditions and the changes that
have taken place during settlement of the aspen parkland in Manitoba and
eastern Saskatchewan. The descriptions of the early conditions were taken
from the literature. Recent writers have described relatively undisturbed areas
of prairie and woodland and old residents have reported changes since they
settled in the country. The description of the changes is based on personal
observations made during a lifetime of close association with the animal and
plant life of the aspen parkland. Since early boyhood I have been keenly
interested in all forms of life and have taken every opportunity to observe and
photograph them.

The writing of this account was stimulated by association with many
people. Help from all sources is gratefully acknowledged.

Early association with that great naturalist Norman Criddle, with whom I
worked as an assistant for three summers while he was in charge of the Field
Crop Insect Laboratory, Canada Department of Agriculture, at Treesbank,
Manitoba, did much to stimulate my interest. He and his brothers Stuart and
Evelyn contributed a great deal of information.

The nomenclature used is that of the following standard taxonomic works.
When subspeciation is in doubt, binomials rather than trinomials are used.
Standard common names are given when available, otherwise those in most
general use in the area.

Mammals: Miller, S. G. and Kellogg, R. List of North American recent
mammals. 1955.

Birds: American Ornithologists' Union. Check-list of North American
birds. 5th edition. 1957.

Reptiles and amphibia: Logier, E. B. S., and G. C. Toner. Check list of
amphibians and reptiles of Canada and Alaska. 1955.

Fish: Hinks, D. The fishes of Manitoba. 1943.

iii

Insects: Common names of insects approved by the Entomological Society
of America. 1955. Scientific names as recommended by systematists
of the Entomology Research Institute, Dept. of Agriculture, Ottawa.

Plants: Fernald, M. L. Gray's manual of Botany. 8th edition. 1950.
Hitchcock, A. S., and A. Chase. Manual of the grasses of the United
States. 1950. (for grasses)

Rydberg, P. A. Flora of the prairies and plains of central North America.
1932. (for plants not listed by Fernald)

Budd, A. C. Plants of the farming and ranching areas of the Canadian
prairies. 1952. (for common names)

Technical help from the following people was most valuable: Prof. E. H.
Moss, Department of Botany, University of Alberta; Prof. R. T. Coupland,
Department of Plant Ecology, University of Saskatchewan; Dr. Doris Love,
Department of Botany, University of Manitoba (now at Botanical Garden,
Montreal, Que.); Dr. B. Boivin, Plant Research Institute, Dept. of Agriculture,
Ottawa; Earl Godfrey, National Museum of Canada; Dr. J. A. Elson, Depart-
ment of Geology, McGill University; Dr. Alan Mozley, Union College, Schen-
ectady, N. Y., and many others. My special gratitude is tendered to Dr. B.
Boivin for assistance in mapping the southern boundary of the parkland. In
his plant surveys in 1955 and 1956 he made a special project of checking this
boundary and freely made his notes available. The provincial forestry depart-
ments of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta assisted in mapping the north-
ern boundary.

I acknowledge also the help received from my late wife, Lois Bird, who
checked the manuscript and prepared the index.

IV

CONTENTS

Page

Abstract ix

The aspen parkland in its undisturbed condition 1

General character 1

Geographical limits 1

Surface geology 1

Soils and their origins 2

Major plant communities 3

Grassland communities 5

Plant components of grassland communities 5

Festuca grassland near Saskatoon, Sask 5

Agropyron-Stipa-Bouteloua grassland near Lyleton, Man 6

Agropyron-Koeleria-Agrostis-Stipa grassland near Birtle, Man 7

Agropyron-Poa-Spartina grassland near Arnaud, Man 7

Stipa-Andropogon sand prairie near Shilo, Man 8

Animal components of grassland communities 9

Forest communities 12

Plant communities of the forest 12

Aspen poplar community 12

Maple, elm, and ash flood-plain community 13

Bur oak community 14

Willow communities 14

White spruce sand hill community 15

Tamarack-black spruce swamp community 15

Animal components of the forest 15

Aquatic communities 18

Bodies of water with considerable vegetation 18

Lakes 22

Rivers 23

Successional changes 24

Succession from slough to forest 25

Succession from prairie to aspen forest 26

Succession from aspen to spruce 27

Influence of dominant animals, Indians, and fire 27

Influence of buffalo and elk 27

Influence of fire 28

Influence of animals in seed dispersal 29

Brief history of settlement 31

1668-1840: settlement and agriculture in fur- trading times 31

1840-1870: a period of transition 31

1871-1881: pre-railway settlement of Lake Agassiz basin 32

1881-1891 : coming of the railways 32

1891-1901: settlement following the railways 32

1901-1910: a decade of great expansion 32

1911-1925: rapid increase of production 32

1926-present: mechanization 33

v

CONTENTS— Concluded

Page

Changes brought about by settlement 34

Periods in establishment of white man 34

1691-1840: period of exploration and fur trade 34

1840-1870: transition period : 36

1870-1900: period of settlement 37

1900-present: period of intensified agriculture 38

1900-1925: period of horses 38

1925-present: period of mechanization 41

Changes in plant dominants and succession 47

Prairie 48

The weed problem on cultivated land 50

Abandoned land 53

Forest 54

Changes in animal abundance since settlement 55

Animals that decreased because of man-made changes 56

Animals that increased because of man-made changes 82

Introduced animals that have become established 96

Changes in animal abundance taking place without the agency of man 99

References 104

Illustrations

Index 112

VI

ILLUSTRATIONS

Frontispiece. Aspen parkland under cultivation

Map 1.
Map 2.
Map 3.

Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure 10.
Figure 11.
Figure 12.
Figure 13.
Figure 14.
Figure 15.
Figure 16.
Figure 17.
Figure 18.
Figure 19.
Figure 20.
Figure 21.
Figure 22.
Figure 23.
Figure 24.
Figure 25.
Figure 26.
Figure 27.
Figure 28.
Figure 29.
Figure 30.
Figure 31.
Figure 32.
Figure 33.
Figure 34.
Figure 35.
Figure 36.
Figure 37.
Figure 38.
Figure 39.
Figure 40.

The aspen parkland in 1956 .facing page

Map of southern Manitoba compiled by Ernest Thompson Seton in 1905. . . .do.
Surface geological deposits of southern Manitoba (modified from Ellis, 1938). .do.

Cultivated aspen parkland in winter

Aerial view of aspen parkland from 5,000 feet in winter

White sage, Artemisia ludoviciana

Prairie buttercup, Ranunculus rhomboideus

White beard tongue, Penstemon albidus

Pasque flower, prairie crocus, or anemone, Anemone patens

Cord grass, Spartina pectinata

Foxtail, Hordeum jubatum

Bergamot, Monarda fistulosa

Yellow lady's-slipper, Cypripedium calceolus

The buffalo, Bison bison

The sharp-tailed grouse, Pedioecetes phasianellus

Richardson's ground squirrel, or prairie gopher, Citellus richardsonii

Franklin's ground squirrel, or scrub gopher, Citellus franklinii

The red fox, Vulpes fulva regalis

The white-tailed jack rabbit, Lepus townsendii

Drummond's vole, Microtus pennsylvanicus drummondii

Silverberry destroyed by feeding activities of voles

The rose curculio, Rhynchites bicolor

Nuttall blister beetle, Lytta nuttallii

Mature aspen forest

The Spruce Woods sand hill area of Manitoba in winter

Creeping juniper, Juniperus horizontalis

The sand hill area near Hartney, Man

Moose, Alces americana

Elk, Cervus canadensis

The snowshoe rabbit, Lepus americanus, in winter

White-tailed deer, Odocoileus virginianus

Beaver, Castor canadensis, hut and store

Beaver cuttings

The great horned owl, Bubo virginianus, incubating in an old crow nest

An alkaline slough

The pocket gopher, Thomomys talpoides

A willow slough

Whitetop slough in autumn

Scirpus slough

A house of the muskrat, Ondatra zibethica, built of Scirpus

The coot, Fulica americana

A flight of blue geese, Chen caerulescens, and snow geese, Chen hyperboreus. . .
Canada geese, Branta canadensis

Page
x

11

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a:
n:

112
112
112
112
112
113
113
113
114
114
114
114
115
115
115
115
115
116
116
116
116
116
117
117
117
117
117
118
118
118
118
118
119
119
119
119

vn

ILLUSTRATIONS— Concluded

Page

Figure 41. An aerial view of aspen parkland illustrating advanced succession t . 120

Figure 42. A slough which has been dry for a number of years, now full of water 121

Figure 43. A slough in advanced stage of succession 121

Figure 44. Snowberry invasion of overgrazed pasture 121

Figure 45. An aspen seedling in Stipa prairie 122

Figure 46. Aspen grove rubbed and trampled by cattle 122

Figure 47. Buffalo rubbing stone 122

Figure 48. Prairie destroyed along road allowance in recent road building operations

near Souris, Man 123

Figure 49. Old road building operations in Lake Agassiz basin near Arnaud, Man 123

Figure 50. The trumpeter swan, Olor buccinator 123

Figure 51. Two-striped grasshopper, Melanoplus bivittatus 123

Figure 52. Prairie grain wireworm, Ctenicera aeripennis destructor, adult 123

Figure 53. A larva of the corn earworm attacking an ear of corn 124

Figure 54. The imported currantworm, Nematus ribesii 124

Figure 55. Imported cabbageworm, Pieris rapae 124

Figure 56. Sweetclover weevil, Sitona cylindricollis 124

Figure 57. European corn borer, Pyrausta nubilalis 124

Vlll

Abstract

The aspen parkland of the Prairie Provinces of Canada lies between the grass-
land of the great plains and the northern coniferous forest. The soil is of glacial
origin. In many places the land is poorly drained and is covered by numerous
small water bodies. There are also level beds of lakes of ancient times. Areas of
grassland and forest are intermixed. The grassland has several communities, of
which the following are typical: (1) Festuca, (2) Agropyron-Stipa-Bouteloua, (3)
Agropyron-Koeleria-Agrostis-Stipa, (4) Agropyron-Poa-Spartina, and (5) Stipa-
Andropogon. The forest is dominated by aspen poplar, which occurs in pure stands
over much of the area. Lesser communities are formed by (1) on the flood plains:
Manitoba maple, Acer negundo; elm, Ulmus americana; and ash, Fraxinus pennsyl-
vanicus; (2) in eastern Manitoba: bur oak, Quercus macrocarpa; and (3) in the Spruce
Woods Forest Reserve: isolated stands of white spruce, Picea glauca, larch, Larix
laricina, and black spruce, Picea mariana. Original animal dominants were large
herbivores: buffalo, Bison bison; prong-horned antelope, Antilocapra americana;
elk, Cervus canadensis; and the wolf, Canis lupus.

Deep waters in the lakes and rivers have little rooted vegetation but support
appreciable populations of fish. The shallow water bodies have many submerged
and emergent plants. They provide a habitat for large populations of birds, frogs,
and insects. Plant succession takes place from open water through stages of sub-
merged and emergent vegetation to willow (Salix) and aspen {Populus tremuloides)
forest. Aspen seedlings can become established on grassland only through the
agency of burrowing mammals, usually associated with western snowberry, Sym-
phoricarpos occidentalism seeds of which are often carried by sharp-tailed grouse,
Pedioecetes phasianellus, who use the mounds of soil for dust baths. White spruce
invades and replaces aspen on the northern edge of the parkland where the soil is
not strongly alkaline.

Buffalo and elk overgrazed the grassland, browsed the shrubs, and destroyed
trees by rubbing and trampling. They retarded the succession to forest. Fires
set by Indians killed back the forest and reduced the area of the parkland. With
settlement, fires were reduced and the forest advanced on the grassland to a con-
siderable degree.

The parkland has been greatly changed by the invasion of white men. Little
now remains undisturbed. From 1691 to 1870 the fur trade grew to a peak, and
then declined as the fur-bearing animals were decimated. The buffalo were exter-
minated and the Indians reduced to a fraction of their former population by small-
pox and tuberculosis. Settlers flocked to the vacant land and intensive agriculture
commenced. With the checking of fires, aspen forest extended southward and
occupied land formerly in grass. Grassland areas were first to be broken by the
plow, their native plants and animals being destroyed. Only a limited amount of
forest land was cleared until the bulldozer came into common use in 1945, when
land clearing was greatly accelerated. Introduction of the automobile brought
a demand for better roads. Grading of road allowances destroyed remnants of the
native vegetation, which has been replaced by weeds and introduced grasses. Weeds
from other countries have become well established in the fields. Land erosion by
wind and water has become serious.

With the destruction of their habitat many animals were greatly reduced in
numbers and a few species were exterminated in the area. Some fur bearers and game
animals, after becoming scarce, have increased with proper management. The white-
tailed deer, Odocoileus virginianus, and the jack rabbit, Lepus townsendii, have found
improved habitats and have increased in numbers and extended their range. Some
native insects have found crops preferable to their native food plants. The wheat
stem sawfly, Cephus cinctus, the two-striped grasshopper, Melanoplus bivittatus,
and other insects have become pests of crops. The Colorado potato beetle, Lept-
inotarsa decemlineata, which had turned from its native host to the potato, extended
its range into the parkland with the introduction of the potato. Many foreign in-
sects such as the imported cabbageworm, Pieris rapae, and the sweet-clover weevil,
Sitona cylindricollis, have been introduced. Domestic animals and their associated
insect parasites are now an established part of the fauna and compete with the
native animals.

Independent of the man-made changes there are continuing changes, due to
natural agencies, in the distribution and abundance of plants and animals.

ix

Map 1. The aspen parkland in 195G (Compare with Map 2, showing extent in Manitoba
in 1905). The southern boundary was plotted by Dr. B. Boivin during surveys in 1955-56.
The northern boundary, which is taken as the southern limits of spruce and jack pine, is
based on information supplied by forestry officers of the three provinces. The isolated areas
south of the main body of the parkland contain a more scattered growth of aspen. In the

great sand hills area of Saskatchewan, in particular, trees are found only on the northerly and
easterly slopes of the hills and ridges.

Halliday (1937) divided'the aspen parkland hto the western aspen grove section and
the eastern aspen oak section. This is based on the occurrence of scattered stands of bur oak
in Manitoba and in Saskatchewan south of the Qu'Appelle River.

•*v mP \ P of.fouthern Manitoba compiled by Ernest Thompson Seton in 1905. This map compared
with Map 1, compiled in 1956, shows how the aspen parkland has expanded to the south during the last
fifty years Particularly noteworthy is the "Big Plain" stretching from Carberry to Russell, which is
now covered by parkland.

Map 3. Surface geological deposits of southern Manitoba (modified from Ellis, 1938). The morainic
areas constitute the uplands and contain many water-filled depressions. The Lake Agassiz Basin is a
flat lowland area often referred to as the first prairie level. The higher land to the west is known as the
second prairie level.

The Aspen Parkland in its Undisturbed Condition

General Character

Daring the eighteenth century fur traders from Europe ascended the St.
Lawrence River, crossed the Great Lakes, and continued west. Others traveled
south and west from the barren shores of Hudson Bay. Guided by Indians,
they followed waterways for hundreds of miles in search of the rich trapping
grounds from which the Indians had been bringing their loads of fur, and of the
country where buffalo roamed in countless herds. After passing through a
great area of rock and forest, they entered grassland with many groves of aspen
poplars. Trees grew also along the watercourses and around many sloughs and
lakes. The tall grass and many flowering herbs furnished luxuriant pasture for
the herds of game. Waterfowl abounded. Best of all, from the point of view
of the traders, fur was plentiful. Beaver were found along the streams; musk-
rats inhabited the marshes; mink, otter, fox, ermine, and other valuable furs
wTere there for the taking. The Indians were friendly and with the encourage-
ment of a little rum were ready and willing to bring in the fur. It was truly a
paradise. This was the aspen parkland, later to become a rich agricultural
land.

Geographical Limits

The aspen parkland (Map 1) is situated between the great plains of central
North America and the coniferous forest of the Pre-Cambrian shield. Its
southern boundary runs from northern Minnesota (Ewing, 1924) northwestward
through southern Manitoba, central Saskatchewan, and Alberta. It is found
also along the foothills of the Rocky Mountains in Alberta (Moss, 1955) and in
Glacier County, Montana (Lynch, 1955).

Surface Geology1

The aspen parkland is a poorly drained region situated on relatively young
glacial drift, comprising mostly ground moraine and end moraine, and on the
beds of large glacial lakes with incomplete drainage systems.

The morainic areas constitute the uplands and the glacial lake bottoms the
lowlands. Deep, flat-bottomed valleys were cut by streams in the uplands
during deglaciation, and extensive deltas were deposited in the glacial lakes.
The most important of these deltas was deposited in Lake Agassiz by the Assini-
boine River. The sand that forms much of this delta has since been blown into
dunes, which are now overgrown by vegetation. A section of this area has been
set aside as the Spruce Woods Forest Reserve and is discussed in a following
section. Farther out in the lakes the fine sediment brought in by the rivers
was deposited as beds of clay. In addition to deltas, outwash plains of gravel
and coarse sand were deposited in some areas.

Prepared from information supplied by J. A. Elson, Department of Geology, McGill University,
Montreal, Que.

The till, of which the moraines are formed, was deposited in most instances
in a rolling topography consisting of low hills and undrained depressions, which
may be from three to 15 feet deep and from a few hundred square feet to 20 or
30 acres in area. Some of these hollows were formed by blocks of ice becoming
detached from the retreating glacier and covered with outwash sand and gravel.
When the ice melted, depressions known as kettles were formed. These low
spots now contain intermittent or permanent bodies of water. Locally these
bodies of water are known as sloughs. Only a few of the larger ones attain the
category of a lake. They may range in number from a few to 120 or more per
square mile and when abundant form a prominent part of the landscape. Not
all of the ground moraine, however, is of a rolling "knob and kettle" topography.
Considerable areas are relatively flat and have few waterfilled depressions.

The glacial till varies in thickness and composition. It is important as the
parent material of the soils that have developed on it. Highly alkaline areas
are formed where the till is composed of rocks and shale containing gypsum and
other salts. The salts are leached out from the surface and are carried down into
the water table. When the water table rises the salts are brought up and
deposited on the surface by evaporation. The surface of the water in a depression
represents a local water table if the till is impervious. This condition is known
as a "perched" water table.

As the ice sheet retreated, large glacial lakes were formed between the ice
and heights of land. Lake Agassiz, the largest, occupied most of the eastern
half of Manitoba. Lake Souris occurred in southwestern Manitoba and Lake
Regina in southeastern Saskatchewan. These lakes drained when the ice melted,
leaving lakes Winnipeg, Manitoba, Dauphin, and Winnipegosis in the Lake
Agassiz bottom and Oak Lake in the Lake Souris basin. Sloughs and marshes
occupy depressions in the glacial lake basins and occupy old drainage channels
that are no longer free-flowing. As the glacial lakes retreated, a succession of
beaches, or sand ridges, were thrown up by wave action. These beaches often
dammed up marsh areas behind them. A large marsh formed at the south end
of Lake Manitoba in this manner. At the south end of Lake Winnipeg large
marshes formed by a combination of the delta of the Red River and lake beaches.

Rivers now follow the valleys eroded during the melting of the ice sheet or
meander across glacial lake floors. They are characterized by abundant small
meanders, oxbow lakes, and relatively broad flood plains. In several instances
the river has been dammed by alluvial fans deposited by tributaries to form a
lake or series of lakes, e.g., Pelican Lake and Rock Lake in Manitoba, and the
Qu'Appelle Lakes in Saskatchewan.

Soils and Their Origins

The aspen parkland is -situated on soils of the black soil zone, encroaching
somewhat on degrading black earth and dark-brown zones adjacent to it (Moss,
1955; Ellis, 1938; Joel et al, 1936).

Important factors that determine soil type are temperature and moisture
within the soil, vegetation, parent material, and length of time the soil has been
under the influence of its environment. Black soils are formed under a heavy
grass and herbaceous vegetation whereas a gray type develops under forest.
This suggests that the aspen parkland represents a recent invasion of aspen upon
an area that had been in grass for a considerable period.

The parent material on which the soils were formed is boulder til] or water-
laid deposits on top of boulder till (Map 3).

The boulder till deposits vary markedly in character, depending on the
geological origin of the materials of which they are composed. In Manitoba,
Ellis (1938) stated that boulder till may be composed of limestome, of mixtures
of limestone and shale or granite, or entirely of shale, and that soils developed
on high-lime drift are shallow, whereas those of mixed origin are deeper.

The postglacial development of the flora of Manitoba was discussed by
Love (1959).

Major Plant Communities

The aspen parkland contains two major plant communities, forest and
grassland, which are intermingled in a mosaic of irregular isolated patches and
more or less solid stands, as well as numerous aquatic communities. According
to the pressure of the dominant factors — weather, man, and fire — the grassland
may advance on the forest when the trees are unable to survive during dry
periods and when there are repeated fires, or it may retreat as conditions become
more favorable for forest growth. These factors operated when the white man
arrived. Since his appearance, man, by the introduction of agriculture and the
checking of prairie fires, has taken an increasingly important part in changing
the biota.

The records of early travelers and settlers, however, indicate that there
were major fluctuations of the forest and grassland before the white man broke
the land for agriculture. Hind (1859), in his account of an exploring trip in
1858 up the Assiniboine River to the Souris River, up the Souris to the boundary
between Canada and the United States, across country to the mouth of the
Qu'Appelle River, and up the Qu'Appelle to the elbow of the South Saskatchewan
River, reported evidence of a greater extent of forest:

An old Indian, born in this part of the country, told us that he remembered the time
when the whole of the prairie through which we had passed since leaving Fort Ellice was
one continuous forest, broken only by two or three narrow intervals of barren ground.
The view from the Indian Head range is exceedingly beautiful; it embraces an extensive
area of level prairie to the north, bounded by the Aspen Woods on the borders of the
Qu'Appelle Valley. A portion of the old forest alluded to by the Indian still exists on
this range. It consists of aspen of large growth and very thickly set.

On the other hand, Hind referred frequently to extensive tracts of prairie
where many groves of trees now exist.

The country west of the Souris [near the present town of Wawanesa], so far, is an
open, treeless, undulating prairie. On the east side the Blue Hills [of Brandon] are very
picturesque, with their flanks and summits wooded with aspen . . .

The country west of the Souris is a treeless desert, in dr}^ seasons destitute of water
and without a shrub or bush thicker than a willow twig. . .

Our half-breeds informed us that this great prairie west of the Souris continues tree-
less and arid for a distance of 60 miles, it is then crossed by a river, probably an arm of the
Souris, connecting, as will afterwards be shown, with the Qu'Appelle River at Elbow
Bone Creek; beyond the river the prairie continues for 80 miles further, without tree or
shrub; and as this was the utmost westerly limit to which any of them had journeyed in
their buffalo-hunting expeditions, they could afford us no further information respecting
its extent.

Major wet and dry periods definitely affected the relative extent of forest
and prairie. Wet periods checked fires and enabled the forest to advance.

81314-7—2

Fires raged during the dry periods and were particularly severe in the accumu-
lated dead vegetation grown during the previous wet period. A major dry
period occurred in the 1860's and '70's, when there was a prolonged outbreak of
grasshoppers (Hind, 1859; Mitchener, 1954). A major wet period occurred
during the period of settlement in the 1880's and '90's.

Homesteaders of the 1890's reported much of the land west of the present
town of Souris and north to Birtle destitute of forest so that they had to go to
the river valleys for firewood. By 1920 this country was extensively covered
with groves of aspen. When settlers entered the sand plain southeast of Brandon
in the 1880's they found scattered groves of aspen. The low spots were full of
water, and dead trees of a previous dry period were standing in the water.
By 1910 the ponds had dried up and a fresh growth of trees had replaced the old
ones. In addition, many of the scattered groves had enlarged and joined to
form extensive areas of forest.

In 1955 and 1956 record winter snowfall followed by heavy rains in the
area northwest from Brandon to Birtle and Elkhorn raised the water levels in
sloughs and lakes so that willows and aspen, which had been encroaching on
them during the previous 15 to 20 dry years, were drowned out and killed.
This was particularly noticeable in 1956, when rings of dead trees about the
sloughs were common. Water levels in the sandhills near Brandon had not,
however, risen above the ground.

In 1905 Ernest Thompson Seton compiled a map (Map 2) indicating the
area then covered by the aspen parkland in Manitoba. A comparison with
Map 1, compiled 50 years later, shows the extent to which the parkland has
invaded the grassland and the closing in of several large areas. Particularly
noticeable is the area northwest from Carberry to Russell and south and west to
Saskatchewan. Part of this area, which is now parkland, is labeled by Seton
as the "Big Plain''.

The aspen parkland contains two principal biotic communities: (1) the
grassland community and (2) the aspen poplar forest community, each of which
may be divided into a number of lesser communities. In the northern part of
the parkland the forest cover is broken by only occasional patches of grassland
on the drier locations. As one approaches the great plains, the percentage of
forest cover diminishes until it occupies only small, isolated groves and is finally
restricted to depressions and north- and east-facing slopes, where there is more
available moisture. The area has usually been considered an ecotone, or area of
stress. Coupland and Brayshaw (1953), however, by their recent studies have
shown that the ecotone exists only at the point of contact between the two
communities:

The aspen grove region has often been considered as an ecotone between the grass-
land formation to the south and the coniferous forest to the north. Critical examination
of the vegetation, however, reveals that it consists of an intermingling of grassland and
forest communities and that the ecotone occurs only around each grove of aspen within
the zone. For this reason the authors consider the grassland community as distinct
from the forest.

Moss (1932), speaking of the parkland in Alberta, considered that the
groves of trees had been abundant for many years but not for many centuries,
as the soil on which they are now growing is of the black grassland type rather
than the gray wooded type.

4

Grassland Communities

Plant Components of Grassland Communities

The grassland portion of the parkland in Manitoba is considered a northern
expression of the true prairie (Stipa-Sporobolus association) (Weaver and Fitz-
patrick, 1934). In Alberta, Moss (1944) and Moss and Campbell (1947) have
shown that the community is dominated by Festuca scabrella. This dominance
is continued in the southern extremity of the aspen parkland in Glacier County,
Montana (Lynch, 1955). Coupland and Brayshaw (1953) found the latter
species dominant in the grassland of western Saskatchewan and named it the
Festuca scabrella association (in the Clementsian sense). However, they indicate
that the grassland to the east of Saskatoon represents a confused picture with
intermixed communities of true prairie, fescue prairie, and mixed prairie (of the
open grassland area).

The grassland of Manitoba and eastern Saskatchewan is made up of a
number of associations, many of which intergrade with dominants varying with
soil and available moisture. For the purpose of this publication examples are
taken from five widely separated areas:

Festuca grassland near Saskatoon, Sask. ; —
Agropyron-Stipa-Bouleloua grassland near Lyleton, Man.; —
Agropyron-Koeleria-Agrostis-Stipa grassland near Birtle, Man.; —
Agropyron-Poa-Spartina grassland near Arnaud, Man.; and
Stipa-Andropogon sand prairie near Shilo, Man.

Festuca Grassland near Saskatoon, Sask. — This association was studied
by Coupland and Brayshaw (1953), who considered that it is the main con-
stituent of the grassland in the aspen parkland from Saskatoon west to the
grasslands of the black soils of Alberta. They stated that three species of
grasses are the most abundant and compose 53 per cent of the basal cover:
rough fescue, Festuca scabrella Torr. ; porcupine grass, Stipa spartea Trin. var.
curtiseta Hitchc; and June grass, Koeleria cristata (L.) Pers. Sedges, notably
Carex stenophylla Wahlenb. var. eneivis (C. A. Mey.) Kukenth, C. pensylvanica
Lam. var. digyna Boeckl., and C. obtusata Lilj., make up 25 per cent of the
cover. Secondary grasses are northern wheat grass, Agropyron dasystachyum
(Hook.) Scribn. ; western wheat grass, A. smithii Rydb.; little bluestem, An-
dropogon scoparius Michx.; plains reed grass, Calamagrostis montanensis Scribn.;
wild oat grass, Danthonia intermedia Vasey; sheep fescue, Festuca ovina L.;
and blue grass, Poa spp. Together they furnish 3 per cent of the cover.

The nongrassy cover is composed principally of low goldenrod, Solidago
glaberrima Martens; pasture sage, Artemisia frigida Willd.; pasque flower, or
prairie crocus, Anemone patens L. var. wolfgangiana (Bess.) Koch; small ever-
lasting, Antennaria microphylla Rydb.; moss phlox, Phlox hoodii Richardson
and field chickweed, Ceraslium arvense L. These species make up 68 per cent
of the cover. Three per cent is composed of low prairie rose, Rosa arkansana
Porter. The remaining 29 per cent is made up of 14 species of herbs and three

81314-7—21

species of shrubs, of which western snowberry, Symphoi icarpos occidentalis
Hook., and wolf willow, Elaeagnus commutata Bernh., are the most important.
There are three layers of vegetative cover: the tall grasses and herbs; the short
grasses and sedges, Carex spp. ; and a discontinuous surface layer of little club
moss, Selaginella densa Rydb. "The Festuca community is postclimax to the
Stipa-Agropyron fasciation of mixed prairie."

To the east Festuca scabrella loses its dominance and other species become
more abundant. In southeastern Saskatchewan from the Canada — United
States boundary to Yorkton, Coupland and Brayshaw (1953) stated, "Small
areas dominated by Slipa spartea var. curtiseta, Stipa comata Trin. and Rupr.,
Agropyron spp. and Bouteloua gracilis (HBK.) Lag. alternate with communities
in which Festuca scabrella and associates of the fescue community are abundant
and with others in which species of the true prairie, notably Andropogon scopar-
ius, are conspicuous."

Agropyron- Stipa- Bouteloua Grassland near Lyleton, Man. — This area
is at the southernmost edge of the parkland in southwestern Manitoba. The
soil, which when cultivated is subject to wind erosion in dry years, is formed on
sediment that was deposited in glacial Lake Souris. The region is somewhat
more arid than in the parkland to the north and east because of lower preci-
pitation, higher temperature, and more permeable soils. Because of the abun-
dance of grasshoppers during the drought period of the 1930's, an area for
their ecological study was operated here from 1936 to 1938 by W. R. Allen
(1939) of the Field Crop Insect Laboratory, Canada Department of Agriculture,
Brandon, Man.

In July, 1938, Dr. S. E. Clarke and Dr. J. L. Bolton of the Experimental
Farm, Canada Department of Agriculture, Swift Current, Sask., made a recon-
naissance survey of the vegetation on relatively undisturbed road-sides. They
distinguished three communities:

A highland community composed of Bouteloua gracilis, Carex stenophylla
Wahlenb., and Slipa comata. Golden aster, Chrysopsis villosa (Pursh) Nutt.,
was an indicative herb species.

An intermediate grassland type composed of Stipa viridida, Trin. Stipa
comata, Bouteloua gracilis, Carex stenophylla, and Agropyron smithii. Stipa-
Agropyron and Agropyron-Stipa communities covered most of the area. In
many places A. smithii was found in pure stands or mixed with forbs in various
degrees. A. smithii and sand grass, Calamovilfa longifolia (Hook.) Scribn.,
formed communities, particularly where drifting soil was becoming stabilized.

A lowland grass type. Low meadow was dominated by fowl blue grass,
Poa palustris L. ; Canada blue grass, Poa compressa L. ; and Kentucky blue
grass, Poa pratensis L. Foxtail, or wild barley, Hordeum jubatum L., was
dominant or subdominant. The following species were also common: slender
wheat grass, Agropyron pauciflorum (Schwein.) Hitchc. ( = A. trachycaulum
(Link) Malte.); Macoun wild rye, Elymus macounii Vasey; Calamagrostis sp.;
mat muhly, Muhlenbergia squarrosa (Trin.) Rydb.; and Carex spp.

Small sloughs along the roadsides contained communities composed of
grasses, prairie cord grass, Spartina pectinata Link; Poa palustris; tall manna

6

grass, Glyceria grandis S. Wats.; and whitetop, Scolochloa festucacea (Willd.)
Link; willow, Salix sp.; Carex spp.; and the herb, swamp persicaria, Polygonum
coccineum Muhl.

The herbs mentioned as abundant in the fescue grassland were also important
at Lyleton. Additional abundant species were hairy golden aster, Chrysopsis
villosa; gumweed, Grindelia squarrosa (Pursh) Dunal; biennial wormwood,
Artemisia biennis Willd.; many-flowered aster, Aster ericoides L.; long-headed
cone flower, Ratibida columnifera (Nutt.) Wooton and Standi.; prairie goldenrod,
Solidago dumetorum Lunell; and silver leaf psoralea, Psoralea argophylla Pursh.
The shrubs Symphoricarpos occidentalis and Elaeagnus commutata formed exten-
sive patches.

Agropyron-Koeleria-Agrostis-Stipa Grassland near Birtle, Man. —

This area, situated about 90 miles north of the Canada — United States boundary
and 15 miles east of Saskatchewan, is in the central portion of the parkland.
It was studied by Bird (1930). The soil is black and overlies glacial drift.
The grassland vegetation is taller and more luxuriant than at Lyleton and
there are extensive aspen groves. The dominant grasses are Agropyron tra-
chycaulum; Koeleria cristata; rough hair grass, Agrostis scabra Willd.; and
Stipa comata. The first gives a characteristic aspect by means of its distinctive
flower heads, which persist throughout the winter. In some areas big blue-
stem, Andropogon gerardi Vitman., may become locally dominant, and And-
ropogon scoparius in dry locations on sand prairie and hillsides.

The two shrubs Symphoricarpos occidentalis and Elaeagnus commutata are
more abundant than at either Saskatoon or Lyleton and play an important
part in advance of the forest on the grassland.

Important forbs arranged in their seasonal assocations are:

Spring: pasque flower, or prairie crocus, Anemone patens var. wolfgangiana
(Fig. 6); Richards comandra, Comandra richardsiana Fern.; prairie buttercup,
Ranunculus rhomboideus Goldie (Fig. 4); three-flowered avens, Geum triflorum
Pursh; field chickweed, Cerastium arvense L. ; long-leaved bluets, Houstonia
longifolia Gaertn.; western ray-pimpernel, Androsace occidentalis Pursh; prairie
everlasting, Antennaria campestris Rydb.; northern bedstraw, Galium boreale
L.; hoary puccoon, Lithospermum canescens (Michx.) Lehm.

Summer: white prairie-clover, Petalostemum candidum (Willd.) Michx.;
purple prairie-clover, Petalostemum pur pur eum (Vent.) Rydb.; rose, Rosa sp.;
dotted blazing-star, Liatris punctata Hook.; black-eyed Susan, Rudbeckia serotina
Nutt.; bluebell, Campanula rotundifolia L.; white beardtongue, Penstemon
albidus Nutt. (Fig. 5); Indian turnip, or breadroot, Psoralea esculenta Pursh;
silverleaf psoralea, Psoralea argophylla.

Autumn: rough false sunflower, Heliopsis helianthoides (L.) Sweet var.
scabra (Dunal) Fern. ; narrow-leaved sunflower, Helianthus maximilianii Schrad. ;
bergamot, Monarda fistulosa L.; stiff goldenrod, Solidago rigida L.; low golden-
rod, Solidago missouriensis Nutt.; giant hyssop, Agastache foeniculum (Pursh)
Ktze. ; yarrow, Achillea millefolium L.; pasture sage, Artemisia frigida Willd.;
white sage, Artemisia ludoviciana Nutt. var. pabularis (Nels.) Fern. (Fig. 3);
many-flowered aster, Aster ericoides; smooth aster, Aster laevis L.

Agropyron-Poa-Spartina Grassland near Arnaud, Man. — This area
is in the southern extremity of the parkland in eastern Manitoba. It lies just

east of the Red River, 20 miles north of the Canada — United States boundary
in the tall-grass prairie region of Clarke et al. (1942). From 1935 to 1938 an
eight-square-mile area was used for an ecological study of grasshoppers by
Moore (1936). In July, 1939, Messrs. J. A. and J. B. Campbell of the Experi-
mental Station, Canada Department of Agriculture, Swift Current, Sask.,
made a botanical survey of the area. Their report and Moore's unpublished
thesis gave the following information.

The area comprises heavy clay soil developed on the level floor of glacial
Lake Agassiz. Much of the land is low lying. It was frequently flooded until
settlers drained it by deep roadside ditches. As a result the vegetation has
changed from marsh grasses, notably cord grass (Fig. 7), to grasses and herbs
favored by arid conditions, and aspen forest is invading the area. The land is
very fertile, and at the time of the Campbell survey much of it was under cult-
ivation. Hence their survey was confined to roadsides, railroad rights-of-way,
native pastures, and small patches of unbroken land. Because of the disturbed
conditions at the time of the survey it was difficult to distinguish natural com-
munities and it is doubtful if any climax areas survived. However, three
associations of single species or groups of species formed a series on soils ranging
from poorly drained to well drained. On the poorly drained soils occurred
cord grass, Spartina pectinata (Fig. 7), and big bluestem, Andropogon gerardi;
on the intermediate sites the following species dominated: Poa (plains blue
grass, P. arida Vasey; Kentucky blue grass, P. pratensis; Canada blue grass,
P. compressa; inland blue grass, P. interior Rydb.; fowl blue grass, P. palustris)
and the introduced timothy, Phleum pratense L. ; and on the driest locations
western wheat grass, Agropyron smithii, formed pure stands. Other common
grasses were foxtail, Hordeum jubatum (Fig. 8); slender wheat grass, Agropyron
trachycaulum; awnless brome grass, Bromus inermis Leyss (introduced). June
grass, Koeleria cristata; porcupine grass, Stipa spartea Trin. ; and spear grass,
Stipa comata, were less common.

The shrub Symphoricarpos occidentalis had begun to invade the prairie in
drier areas. Similarly, Elaeagnus commutata was found occasionally.

The important native herbs were prairie sage, Artemisia gnaphalodes Nutt. ;
smooth aster, Aster laevis; Aster ericoides; Rosa spp.; Monarda fistulosa (Fig. 9);
tall smooth goldenrod, Solidago serotina Ait.; Rudbeckia hirta; Galium boreale.
The yellow lady's-slipper, Cypripedium calceolus L. (Fig. 10), was found in moist
prairie and woodland areas but is now becoming rare because of destruction of
its habitat and excessive picking for floral bouquets.

Stipa- Andropogon Sand Prairie near Shilo, Man, — In the parkland
of Manitoba, extensive areas of grassland are situated on level sand plains and
anchored dunes. The soil is developed on medium-grained sand deposited as
deltas in glacial lakes. , Some species of plants found on sandy soils do not occur
on the black soil areas or the heavy clay soils of the Lake Agassiz floor. Others
exert a dominance, on sand, not found in other localities.

A large area of sand prairie is found in the Spruce Woods Forest Reserve
and, although some of it is used for military manoeuvres, it is maintained in
practically a virgin condition. The portion near Shilo military camp was
studied by Criddle (1915) and by Bird (1927).

The dominant grasses over most of this prairie area are Stipa comata;
Stipa spartea; sand dropseed, Sporobolus ciyptandrus (Torr.) A. Gray; An-

8

dropogon scoparius; Bouteloua gracilis) Koeleria cristata; purple oat grass, Schiz-
achne purpurascens (Torr.) Swallen; Agrostis scabra Willd.; and Calamovilfa
longifolia. The dominant grasses encroaching on areas of drifting sand are:
Andropogon gerardi; Indian rice grass, Oryzopsis hymenoides (Roem. & Schult.)
Ricker; and Calamovilfa longifolia. Several species of Car ex are common as
well as Selaginella densa.

Extensive areas are dominated by creeping juniper, Juniperus horizontalis
Moench. Patches of bearberry, or kinnikinnick, Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (L.)
Spreng. ; sand cherry, Prunus besseyi Bailey; and the lichens Cladonia uncialis
(L.) Hoffm., C. sylvatica (L.) Hoffm., C. alpeslris (L.) Rabenh., Cetraria islandica
(L.) Ach., and Parmelia molliuscula, Ach. are common.

The shrub Symphoricarpos occidentalis is found particularly in the moister
locations and about the edges of groves of trees. In areas of drifting sand
Elaeagnus commutata is important in tying down the sand by means of its long
rhizomes. Associated with it is the sandbar willow, Salix interior Rowlee, and
the following herbs: Petalostemum candidum; silky prairie-clover, P. villosum
Nutt.; skeletonweed, Lygodesmia juncea (Pursh) D. Don.; sand dock, Rumex
venosus Pursh; and common horsetail, Equiselum arvense L.

The most important herbs in the prairie are: field chickweed, Cerastium
arvense; prairie crocus, Anemone patens var. wolfgangiana; western wallflower,
Erysimum asperum (Nutt.) DC; alum root, Heuchera richardsonii R. Br.;
white cinquefoil, Potentilla arguta Pursh; prairie cinquefoil, Potentilla pen-
sylvanica L. var. arida Boivin; three-flowered avens, Geum triflorum Pursh;
rose, Rosa sp.; silverleaf psoralea, Psoralea argophylla; white prairie-clover,
Petalostemum candidum; ascending purple milk- vetch, Astragalus striatus Nutt.;
locoweed, Oxytropis lambertii Pursh; shrubby evening primrose, Oenothera
serrulata Nutt.; western ray-pimpernel, Androsace occidentalis; lilac-flowered
beardtongue, Penstemon gracelis Nutt.; downy paintbrush, Castilleja sessil-
iflora Pursh; bluebell, Campanula rotundifolia; dotted blazing-star, Liatris punc-
tata; rough fleabane, Erigeron asper Nutt.; daisy fleabane, Erigeron strigosus
Muhl.; everlasting, Antennaria spp.; purple coneflower, Echinacea anguslifolia
DC; gaillardia, or blanket flower, Gaillardia pulchella Foug. ; yarrow, Achillea
millefolium L. ; linear-leaved wormwood, Aitemisia d? acunculoides Pursh; pasture
sage, Artemisia frigida; prairie sage, Artemisia gnaphalodes; prairie ragwort,
Senecio plattensis Nutt.

Animal Components of Grassland Communities

As the animal dominants for the most part range freely over the plant
communities of the grassland, they are discussed for the grassland as a whole
rather than for each plant community.

When the white man appeared on the scene the outstanding dominant was
the buffalo, Bison bison (L.)(Fig. 11). Other dominants were: the prong-
horned antelope, Anlilocapra americana (Ord), which, though distinctly an animal
of the open plains, ranged well into the parkland; and elk, Cervus canadensis
(Erxl.)(Fig. 26), which grazed on the grassland around the edges of the aspen
groves. These large game animals were preyed on by the buffalo wolf, Canis
lupus nubilus Say.

The white-footed mouse, Peromyscus maniculatus bairdii (Hoy & Kennicott),
and other subspecies, and voles, Microtus pennsylvanicus subspp. and Microtus

(Pedomys) ochrogaster (Wagner), are abundant in the matted vegetation of un-
burned and ungrazed grassland (Figs. 17 and 18). The thirteen-striped ground
squirrel, Citellns tridecemlineatus (Mitchill), also inhabits the longer grass. In
shorter grass on knolls, gravel ridges, and overgrazed areas, Richardson's ground
squirrel, or flicker tail, Citellus richardsonii (Sabine) (Fig. 13), forms extensive
colonies. The white-tailed jack rabbit, Lepus townsendii Bachman (Fig. 16),
is the only hare inhabiting the grassland. The pocket gopher, Thomomys
talpoides subspp., spends most of its life underground. Its mounds of dirt
thrown up on the prairie are conspicuous features of the landscape (Fig. 33).

Associated with the herbivorous mammals are several predacious species.
Coyotes, Canis latrans Say, and red foxes, Vulpes fulva regalis Merriam (Fig. 15),
feed chiefly on rodents, birds, and insects. The principal food of the badger,
Taxidea taxus taxus (Schreber), consists of ground squirrels, which it captures
by digging. Weasels of three species, Mustela spp., feed chiefly on the mice
and voles.

Characteristic birds of the grassland are the western meadowlark, Stum-
ella neglecta Audubon; the horned lark, Eremophila alpestris (L.); the upland
plover, Bartramia longicauda (Bechstein); and the chestnut-collared longspur,
Calcarius ornatus (Townsend). The vesper sparrow, Pooecetes gramineus
(Gmelin); clay-colored sparrow, Spizella pallida (Swainson); chipping sparrow,
Spizella passerina (Bechstein); and sharp-tailed grouse, Pedioecetes phasianellus
(L.) (Fig. 12), are more abundant on prairie adjacent to woodland. The cow-
bird, Molothrus ater (Boddaert), followed the buffalo herds and fed on insects
associated with them. All the above species of birds migrate to the south in
the autumn, with the exception of the sharp-tailed grouse, which seeks winter
shelter in the woodland and valleys. During migration great flocks of the
Lapland longspur, Calcarius lapponicus (L.), stop over on the prairie. In the
winter large flocks of the snow bunting, Plectrophenax nivalis (L.), and the red-
poll, Acanthis flammea (L.), frequent the grassland and feed on the seeds of
forbs and grasses exposed above the snow.

Associated birds of prey, which nest in the woodland and hunt over the
grassland, are the red-tailed hawk, Buteo jamaicensis (Gmelin); Swainson's
hawk, Buteo swainsoni Bonaparte; and the ferruginous rough-legged hawk,
Buteo regalis (Gray). They feed mainly on ground squirrels and mice. The
marsh hawk, Circus cyaneus hudsonius (L.), nests on the ground in patches of
snowberry and long grass, and ceaselessly patrols the prairie in search of mice.
The short-eared owl, Asio flammeus (Potoppidan), nests on the ground in long
prairie grass; it also is a great mouser. The omnivorous crow, Corvus brachy-
rhynchos Brehm, nests in small aspen groves and feeds on the prairie. All
these birds are summer residents only. The snowy owl, Nyctea scandiaca (L.),
is an occasional winter visitor.

Reptiles are few. The commonest is the garter snake, Thamnophis sirtalis
parietalis (Say). More rarely, the green snake, Opheodrys vernalis (Harlan),
and the red-bellied snake, Storeria occipitomaculata (Stor), occur. In the sand
hill areas the western hognose snake, Heterodon nasicus Baird and Girard, is
occasionally found.

The common leopard frog, Rana pipiens Schreber, breeds in great numbers
in the numerous sloughs and migrates on to the neighboring prairie, often to
considerable distances from water, from the time the ice is gone in the spring

10

until freeze-up occurs in the fall. As many as 200 may be found to the acre
and, being insectivorous, they exert a powerful influence on the community
(Bird, 1930; Breckenridge, 1944).

There is little available information on the insects as they existed in early
times; however, they must have occurred about as they occur today on patches
of virgin prairie. Accounts are given by King (1926), Bird (1927, 1930), Moore
(1936), and Allen (1939). Great swarms of the Rocky Mountain grasshopper,
Melanoplus spretus (Walsh), were recorded by Henry (Coues, 1897), Hind
(1859), and Macoun (1883).

King (1926) estimated the total insect population at 7,322,350 per acre.
Of the total invertebrate animal population, insects formed 97 per cent.

Spiders comprised 98% of the other animals. Ants were the most abundant insect
group, forming 86.4% of the insect totals. The ant Myrmica scabrinodis (Nylander),
which accounted for 80.6% of the insect population, must be considered the dominant
species. A nest of the ant Lasius brevicornis Emery also occurred on the sample area.
Other groups in order of importance were, Coleoptera 6.2%, Diptera 2.9% and Hemiptera
2.7%.

Bird (1930) found that the insect population fluctuated greatly, with
spring and fall maxima. The peak population was over 6,000,000 per acre,
the average about 3,000,000. He also found ants to be the most numerous
insects, Myrmica scabrinodis being the most abundant and Lasius brevicornis
second in importance. The leafhopper Dikraneura mali (Prov.), the bug
Laccocera vittipennis (Van D.), and the beetle Stilbus apicalis (Melsh.) were
also abundant. A great many other species of insects occurred as a few indi-
viduals in the collections and were listed by King (1926) and Bird (1930). Some
of these insects became major pests because of the changes brought about by
agriculture, for example, the wheat stem sawfly, Cephus cinctus Nort.; the
prairie grain wireworm, Ctenicera aeripennis destructor (Brown); the red-backed
cutworm, Euxoa ochrogaster (Guen.); the white cutworm, Euxoa scandens
(Riley); the striped cutworm, Euxoa tessellata (Harr.); the two-striped grass-
hopper, Melanoplus bivittatus (Say); the red-legged grasshopper, Melanoplus
femur-rubrum (Deg.); and the clear-winged grasshopper, Camnida pellucida
(Scudd.).

Bird (1930) found a snail, Succinea sp., very abundant in the grassland at
Birtle.

11

Forest Communities

Plant Communities of the Forest

The forest area of the parkland is made up predominantly of aspen poplar,
Populus tremuloides Michx., with a number of lesser communities. The follow-
ing are considered here: (a) aspen poplar community; (b) maple, ash, and elm
flood-plain community; (c) bur oak community; (d) willow community; (e)
white spruce sand hill community; and (f) tamarack-black spruce, swamp
community.

Aspen Poplar Community. — The aspen poplar reaches its greatest
abundance in the parkland. In the central and northern parts it forms a dense
climax forest. In contact with the northern coniferous forest it is subclimax
to white spruce, Picea glauca (Moench) Voss. In contact with the prairie
communities it is considered climax, but succession from prairie to forest is
often slowed to a standstill by climatic and edaphic conditions and may be
reversed during drought periods.

In the southwestern extension of the aspen parkland into Glacier County,
Montana, Populus tremuloides retains its dominance but the black cottonwood,
Populus trichocarpa Torr. and Gray var. hastata (Dode) Henry, is associated
with it (Lynch, 1955). In southern Alberta the balsam poplar, Populus tac-
amahacca Mill., is its associate but P. trichocarpa and the variety hastata are
found north to the Oldman River (Moss, 1944).

The aspen is a soft-wooded, quick-growing tree that in this region rarely
reaches an age of 60 years, or a height of 55 to 60 feet and a diameter of 16 inches.
In mature stand the branches die on the lower two-thirds to three-quarters,
leaving only the top with leafy branches. The south side of the tree trunk is
covered with a white bloom. This may protect it from sun scald in late winter
and early spring, when the side exposed to the sun may be well above freezing
while the shady side is still frozen. The north side, being devoid of bloom, is
dark green and covered with varying amounts of black spots and blotches.
This characteristic is useful in determining one's direction when in the dense
woods. It is much more reliable than observing a mossy growth found in vary-
ing amounts on the north side near the base of the tree. The mosses most
commonly found, according to Prof. J. Ritchie, Department of Botany, Uni-
versity of Manitoba, are Leskea polycarpa Ehth., Brachthecium salebrosum
(Hoffm.) B. and S., B. oxycladon J. and S., and Mnium stellare Reich.

The aspen poplar grows in pure stands except in poorly drained soil, where
it may be associated with balsam poplar, Populus balsamifera L. In northern
areas, on north-facing slopes, and at higher elevations in the Riding, Duck,
and Porcupine mountains, there may be a considerable admixture of white
birch, Betula papyrifera Marsh.

Aspen poplar is attacked by several fungus diseases, which cause the pre-
mature deaths of many trees. Fungus attack is favored by any disturbance or
injury that weakens the trees: wind damage; borings by insects such as the

12

poplar borer, Saperda calcarata Say (Fig. 31); slash cutting by man; fire; and
drought. Probably the most important fungus disease is white heart rot,
caused by Fomes igniarius (L. ex Fr.) Gill., which weakens the tree tops and
causes them to break off in high winds (Fig. 31). Large sections of forest are
destroyed in this manner. A poplar canker, Hynoxylon pruinatum (Klotzsch.)
Cooke, is of scarcely less importance than F. igniarius. It attacks the trunk,
causing the bark to turn black and the leaves to die. Other important path-
ogenic organisms are Radulum caesearium (Morgan) Lloyd and Corticium
polygonium Pers.

There are well-marked shrub and herb strata. The shrub stratum is com-
posed principally of hazelnut, Corylus americana Walt. The beaked hazelnut,
Corylus cornuta Marsh., is less common. The red osier dogwood, Cornus sloloni-
fera Michx., is commonly scattered through the woods, particularly in the
moister locations. Hazelnut grows in dense patches, particularly in the well-
drained areas. The highbush cranberry, Viburnum opulus L. var. americanum
Ait., is common in moist woods. Rose, Rosa sp.; choke cherry, Prunus vir-
giniana L. ; pin cherry, Prunus pensylvanica L.; saskatoon berry, Amelanchier
alnifolia Nutt.; and snowberry, Symphoricarpos occidentalism are sparse in the
woods, but at the forest margin they grow in dense patches. The wild red
raspberry, Rubus idaeus L. var. strigosus (Michx.) Maxim., is found occasionally
throughout the climax forest and grows in profusion in disturbed areas, par-
ticularly after fire.

An upper herb stratum consists predominantly of wild sarsaparilla, Aralia
nudicaulis L., and to a lesser extent red baneberry, Actaea rubra (Ait.) Willd.;
Lindley's aster, Aster lindleyanus T. & G.; and sweet-scented bedstraw, Galium
triflorum Michx. In areas of sandy soil these herbs may be largely replaced by
poison ivy, Rhus radicans L. var. rydbergii (Small) Rehd.

Moss (1955) mentioned Corylus cornuta and Aralia nudicaulis as leading
species in central Alberta but indicated that they are much less common in
northwestern Alberta. Moss (1944) stated that Corylus ro strata ( — C. cornuta),
Aralia nudicaulis, Cornus canadensis L., and Maianthemum canadense var.
interius are apparently absent from the aspen community in southwestern
Alberta. Also, he stated that Amelanchier alnifolia, Rosa acicularis Lindl.,
R. woodsii Lindl., Aster lindleyanus, Galium boreale, and Symphoricarpos albus
(L.) Blake are characteristic. Cornus stolonifera, Prunus virginiana, P. pen-
sylvanica, Rubus parviflorus Nutt., R. idaeus L., Spiraea lucida Dough, Ribes
oxyacanthoides L., and Lonicera glaucescens Rydb. are less important. Lynch
(1955) lists sweet cicely, Osmorhiza occidentalis, and aster, Aster foliaceus var.
parryi, as dominants of the understory in Glacier County, Montana.

A lower herb stratum is composed of pink wintergreen, Pyrola asarifolia
Michx.; dwarf dogwood, or bunchberry, Cornus canadensis L.; false lily-of-the-
valley, Maianthemum canadense Desf . var. interius Fern. ; star-flowered Solomon's-
seal, Smilacina stellata (L.) Desf.; strawberry, Fragaria sp.; dewberry, Rubus
pubescens Raf. ; and blunt-leaved sandwort, Arenaria lateriflora L.

Maple, Elm and Ash Flood-Plain Community. — Flood plains along
the Red, Assiniboine, Souris, and other rivers in the parkland are covered with a
forest composed principally of Manitoba maple, or boxelder, Acer negundo
L. var. interius (Britt.) Sarg. Next in abundance are lance-leaved ash, Fraxinus

13

pennsylvanica Marsh, var. lanceolata (Borkh.) Sarg., and American elm, Ulmus
americana L. Less common is the cottonwood, Populus sargentii Dode. The
basswood, Tilia americana L., is common only along the Red River and up the
Assiniboine to Portage la Prairie. It becomes increasingly scarce westward and
is not found at Brandon. On sand bars and low spots along the river bank are
dense stands of the sand bar willow, Salix interior. The peach-leaved willow,
Salix amygdaloides Anderss., a tree up to 30 feet high, is common close to the
river. It grows in small clumps, or may be solitary.

Undergrowth is scanty in the flood plain forest. There may be patches
of ostrich fern, Pteretis pensylvanica (Willd.) Fern. (Fig. 28), and along the
Red River a heavy growth of wood nettle, Loportea canadensis (L.) Wedd.
At the river edge there may be a marginal community composed of grasses;
sedges; stinging nettle, Urtica procera Muhl.; marsh hedge nettle, Stachys
palustris L. var. pilosa (Nutt.) Fern.; wild mint, Mentha arvensis L. var. glabrata
(Benth.) Fern.; flat-topped goldenrod, Solidago graminifolia (L.) Salisb. var.
camporum (Greene) Fern.; beggar-ticks, Bidens glaucescens Greene; flat-topped
white aster, Aster umbellatus Mill.; New England aster, Aster novae-angliae
L.; and silverweed, Potentilla anserina L. The American hop, Humulus ameri-
canus Nutt., is common. It climbs over the sandbar willow and marginal
trees. The red osier dogwood occurs in a zone along the bank of the Red River.

Bur Oak Community. — The bur oak, Quercus marcocarpa Michx., reaches
the limit of its northern distribution in southern Manitoba and southeastern
Saskatchewan. It is found in greatest abundance along the Red River and in
the vicinity of Winnipeg and Portage la Prairie. Here it may grow to a height
of 50 feet and occur in pure stands. To the west of the Lake Agassiz basin the
trees are much smaller and are generally scattered or in a fairly dense stand of
scrubby growth. The oak grows on the south and west slopes of hills and valleys
where there is greater warmth and is particularly abundant along the Pembina
Valley, Tiger and Pembina hills, Turtle Mountain, and Assiniboine Valley.
Scattered trees, usually very gnarled and twisted, occur in the Spruce Woods.
Halliday (1937) delimits the eastern portion of the parkland, Manitoba and
Saskatchewan south of the Qu'Appelle River, as the aspen-oak section because
of the presence of oak. On account of the localized distribution of oak in the
area, related to exposure and edaphic conditions, it is doubtful if this is justified.
Oak is a favorite browse of deer, moose, and rabbits, and trees are often much
dwarfed and club-shaped because of the repeated removal of leading shoots.
Porcupines, Erethizon dorsatum (L.), feed almost entirely on oak in the Spruce
Woods area but at Vermilion, Alta., where oak is absent, they consume mostly
aspen. Extensive defoliation by larvae of the moths Symmerista canicosta
Francl., Anisota virginiensis Dm., and A. manitobensis McD. often occurs.
The bur oak comes into flower and leaf in late May but is often frozen back by
early June frost.

Willow Communities. — Willow grows in great abundance in the parkland,
and many stands of pure species are found. The sandbar willow, Salix interior
Rowlee, grows in heavy stands along the sandbars and low banks of streams.
It is also found in sand hills where subsoil water is available. It stabilizes the
drifting sand by means of its long rootstock. It also occurs on sandy or gravelly
beaches of lakes and in recently excavated ditches along roads. Apparently
it is not the presence of running water that is necessary for the establishment

14

of this willow, but denuded soil with an abundant water supply. Its slender
growth makes it ideally suited for basket weaving by the Indians.

The basket willow, Salix petiolaris Smith, grows from three to ten feet high.
It is found in abundance about the margins of the numerous sloughs as a zone
between the high and low water levels. In the spring and after heavy rains it
often stands in one to two feet of water.

The pussy willow, Salix discolor Muhl., grows in low but better-drained
ground than do the above two species. It is often found around sloughs in a
zone just above the basket willow and between it and aspen forest or grassland.
It also occurs in low spots in the aspen forest, where sloughs previously occurred,
and on better-drained portions of flood plains.

There is little or no herbaceous growth under willows but often a heavy car-
pet of moss.

White Spruce Sand Hill Community. — The sand hill area of south-
central Manitoba, part of which has been set aside as the Spruce Woods Forest
Reserve, contains scattered stands of white spruce, Picea glauca (Fig. 22),
intermixed with aspen. Here it appears that were it not for fire, to which spruce
is very susceptible, and for the snowshoe rabbit, which prevents regeneration by
feeding on the young trees, spruce would be dominant. Seedlings are found
in abundance through the aspen forest, and mature trees are found in Ioav ground
and in stands of creeping juniper (Fig. 23) and bearberry, which protect them
from ground fires. In the climax stands of spruce the mat of fallen needles,
and dense shade, prevent the growth of herbaceous cover. In subclimax inter-
mixture with aspen and in open stands where light is not excluded there is gen-
erally a dense mat of creeping juniper and bearberry. Poison ivy also occurs
in abundance. Spruce is commonly the host of the dwarf mistletoe, Arceuthobium
pusillum Peck, which forms characteristic witches'-brooms.

Tamarack-Black Spruce Swamp Community. — This community is
not a part of the aspen parkland but of the northern coniferous forest. However,
as relict stands occur in the parkland and the coniferous forest is adjacent to
the parkland along its whole northern border, a brief description is given.

Tamarack, Larix laricina (DuRoi) K. Koch, occurs in swamps at the
headwaters of Epinette Creek in the Spruce Woods Forest Reserve, along the
Assiniboine River south of Shilo, and in numerous places along the Riding and
Duck mountains and between lakes Winnipegosis and Winnipeg. It grows in
the wetter parts of the swamps where there is often standing water. On slightly
higher land there is a dense growth of black spruce, Picea mariana (Mill.)
B.S.P. The tamarack, being deciduous and having less dense foliage than the
spruce, permits a heavy growth of Labrador tea, Ledum groenlandicum Oeder,
and dwarf birch, Betula glandulosa Michx. There is a heavy mat of sphagnum,
Sphagnum spp., grading downward into peat. The black spruce, which replaces
tamarack with a lowering of the water table, grows in such a dense stand that
shrub and herbaceous growth is crowded out. The trees often grow so close
together that it is scarcely possible to pass between them. Under such con-
ditions they have a spindly growth with live branches only at the tops.

Animal Components of the Forest

The varying hare, or snowshoe rabbit, Lepus americanus americanus Erxleben
(Fig. 27), is the dominant mammal of the forest. It is found chiefly in young

15

aspen and thickets of willow and hazel. Mule deer, Odocoileus hemionus hemionus
(Rafinesque), and elk (Fig. 26) were common in early days, but now are nearly
exterminated and are largely replaced by the Virginia white-tailed deer, Odo-
coileus virginianus dacotensis Goldman & Kellog (Fig. 28). Moose, Alces ameri-
cana andersoni Peterson (Fig. 25), occurred in the swamps and willow thickets.
Buffalo (Fig. 11) entered the woods for shelter in the winter and destroyed trees
by rubbing and trampling. The beaver, Castor canadensis canadensis Kuhl
(Figs. 29 and 30), through its damming of streams and cutting of aspen and
willow, was a major influent. It was the principal fur bearer and the chief factor
in the early exploration of the parkland. The red squirrel, Tamiasciurus hud-
sonicus, is plentiful in the vicinity of oak and hazel.

The red-backed mouse, Clethrionomys gapperi loringi (Bailey) ; the chip-
munk, Eutamias minimus borealis (Allen); Franklin's ground squirrel, Citellus
ranklinii (Sabine) (Fig. 14) ; and the skunk, Mephitis mephitis hudsonica (Rich-
ardson), are common mammals about the forest edge. The chief predators are
the coyote, the fox, and before settlement the timber wolf, Canis lupus griseoalbus
Anderson.

Birds are abundant, particularly at the forest edge. These include the
goldfinch, Spinus tristis (L.); yellow warbler, Dendroica petechia (L.); brown
thrasher, Toxostoma rufum (L.); catbird, Dumetella carolinensis (L.); crow;
eastern kingbird, Tyr annus tyr annus (L.); yellow-shafted flicker, Colaptes auratus;
mourning dove, Zenaidura macroura margin 'lla (Woodhouse) ; robin, Turdus
migratorius L.

These birds are all summer residents. In the early spring and late autumn,
during migration, great flocks of the slate-colored junco, J unco hyemalis (L.);
eastern tree sparrow, Spizella arborea arborea (Wilson) ; white-crowned sparrow,
Zonotrichia leucophrys (Foster); white-throated sparrow, Zonotrichia albicollis
(Gmelin); and Harris's sparrow, Zonotrichia querula (Nuttall), occur. In late
spring a heavy migration of warblers passes through. There are many species,
the myrtle warbler, Dendroica coronata (L.), being the commonest.

The red-tailed hawk and Swainson's hawk nest near the tops of large out-
standing trees and hunt about the forest edge and over the prairie. The great
horned owl, Bubo virginianus (Gmelin) (Fig. 31), occupies old crow and hawk
nests in the dense woods. It is a permanent resident, feeding mainly on the
snowshoe rabbit and mice. The long-eared owl, Asio otus tuftsi Godfrey, also
occupies old crow nests but is a summer resident only. The Cooper's hawk,
Accipiter cooperi (Bonaparte), nests in the dense woods and feeds on grouse and
other birds in preference to mammals. The large and powerful goshawk,
Accipiter gentilis atricapillus (Wilson), is a winter resident but occasionally
remains to nest. In some winters this species is abundant and destroys many
sharp-tailed and ruffed grouse as well as snowshoe rabbits.

Several birds are characteristic of the dense aspen forest. The red-eyed
vireo, Vireo olivaceus (L.); warbling vireo, Vireo gilvus (Vieillot); least flycatcher,
Empidonax minimus (Baird and Baird); and Baltimore oriole, Icterus galbula
(L.), frequent the tree tops. The downy woodpecker, Dendrocopos pubescens
(L.), and hairy woodpecker, Dendrocopos villosus (L.), two permanent residents,
are common on the tree trunks, where they dig out beetle larvae and excavate
their nesting holes. The black-capped chickadee, Patus atricapillus (L.), is also
a permanent resident among the tree trunks and shrubs, where it feeds on insects

16

and their eggs. On the forest floor live the ruffed grouse, Bonasa umbellus (L.),
and the willow thrush, or veery, Hylocichla fuscescens salicicola Ridgway. In the
sandbar willow community the northern yellowthroat, Geothlypis trichas (Swain-
son), is a common summer resident. The basket willow communities have no
characteristic bird but are used as nesting sites by many birds from the adjacent
sloughs.

The invertebrate population of the forest is abundant, particularly in the
willow and forest edge communities. Bird (1930) found that the population in
the basket willow community fluctuated seasonally from one million to 9.5 million
per acre, and in the sandbar willow community from 1.5 million to 6.75 million.
There are many species but few of outstanding importance. The willows are
covered by many distinctive insect galls. The sawfly Pontania pomum Walsh
forms spherical leaf galls on the basket willow, and the cecidomyid Phytophaga
walshii Felt makes rosette galls on the terminal twigs of the sandbar willow.
The beetle Galerucella decora (Say) sometimes occurs in such abundance that,
after completely defoliating its favorite food plant, Salix discolor Muhl., over
large areas, it attacks other species of willow. A collembolan, Nasosminthurus
spinatus (MacG.); leafhoppers, Draeculacephala mollipes (Say) and D. nove-
boracensis (Fitch); and snails, Vertigo ovata Say, Succinea sp., and Lymnea sp.,
are abundant. In the mature aspen, the invertebrate population may reach 4.5
million per acre, being highest among the leaf mold. The poplar borer, Saperda
calcarata, is an abundant and influential insect attaching the aspen poplar. The
adult lays its eggs beneath the bark and the larvae tunnel into the heart of the
tree, seriously weakening it and providing entrance for the heart-rot fungus (Fig.
31). The trees are usually attacked on the upper third. The forest tent cate-
pillar, Malacosoma distria Hbn., whose favorite food is aspen, at times occurs in
vast outbreaks, defoliating trees over hundreds of square miles. At other times,
only the occasional individual is found. The fall cankerworm, Alsophila pomet-
aria (Harr.), is a pest of boxelder. The oblique-banded leaf roller, Choristoneura
rosaceana (Harr.), curls the leaves of saskatoon and choke cherry. The ugly-
nest caterpillar, Archips cerasivoranus (Fitch), and the prairie tent caterpillar,
Malacosoma lutescens (N. and D.), make their nests on choke cherry; the latter
also occasionally attacks pin cherry and saskatoon. The long-horned beetle
Saperda bipunctata Hopping attacks saskatoon, and Ropalopus sanguinicollis
(Horn) choke cherry and pin cherry. The dermestid beetle Byturus rubi Barber
feeds on the fruit of raspberry and has become a pest of cultivated raspberries.
The lace bug Corythucha pruni 0. & D. sometimes heavily infests choke cherry,
and Corythucha arcuata (Say) oak. Two leaf rollers, Pseudexentera oregonana
Wlshm. in early summer and Choristoneura conflictana (Wlkr.) in midsummer,
heavily attack aspen and may defoliate considerable areas. The larch sawfly,
Pristiphora erichsonii (Htg.), is a major pest of tamarack. Spruce is attacked
by the balsam-fir sawfly, Neodiprion abietis (Harri.); the pine needle scale,
Phenacaspis pinifoliae (Fitch) ; the spruce budworm, Choristoneura fumiferana
(Clem.) ; and a spider mite, Paratetranychus ununguis (Jac). Nests of the prairie
tent caterpillar, Malacosoma lutescens (N. & D.), and the eastern tent caterpillar,
M. americanum (F.), are commonly found on choke cherry. The boxelder is
attacked by the boxelder leaf roller, Gracillaria negundella Chamb. ; the fall canker-
worm, Alsophila pometaria (Harr.); and the spotless fall webworm, Hyphantria
cunea (Dru.).

17

Aquatic Communities

The poorly drained morainic region of the aspen parkland contains many
bodies of water, ranging from depressions temporarily filled with snow water
to large lakes. There are three large rivers in the eastern part of the parkland
and a number of smaller streams. Aquatic communities contain many distinctive
plants and animals.

Bodies of Water with Considerable Vegetation

Most bodies of water in the aspen parkland are small and shallow with
much emergent vegetation about the margins. Open water often occurs in the
central portion but this is usually choked with a heavy growth of submerged
plants. The water accumulates from melting snow and rain running in from a
shallow catch basin. These bodies of water are variously named. The names
are often loosely applied and the distinction between one and another is not
clear-cut because there are a number of intermediate types. Many of them dry
up early in the summer. Others may persist throughout the year. Many of the
larger waters, even if they are shallow and contain considerable vegetation, are
called lakes (Metcalf, 1931). Whitewater Lake, Manitoba, is of this type
(Bossenmaier et al., 1954). Many biologists (Dzubin, 1955; Sowls, 1955; Evans
et al.; and others) refer to small bodies of water with emergent vegetation as
"potholes".3 Some writers, e.g., (Macoun, 1883) call them "ponds". Locally,
and in the literature (e.g., Metcalf, 1931), such bodies of water are referred to
as "sloughs". This is the term I prefer to use. An area of wet or periodically
inundated, treeless land with abundant grass, cattails, and rushes is usually
called a "marsh". Marshes are usually of considerable size and contain perma-
nent bodies of open water, as at the south end of Lake Manitoba.

There have been several attempts to classify sloughs. Metcalf (1931, p. 35)
recognized three types: "Type A, cattail sloughs, with Typha latifolia dominant;
type B, whitetop, or mallard, sloughs, characterized by a great abundance of
Fluminea festucacea; type C, stagnant sloughs, usually characterized by an
abundance of marsh plants, bulrush and common reed grass, Phragmites com-
munis Trin. and the aquatics, algae, and common bladderwort."

Evans et al. (? 1952) classified potholes (sloughs) as: A, permanent; B, semi-
permanent; and C, temporary. In A and B the following types of vegetation
were recognized: Sedge-whitetip, cattail, bulrush, and zones of emergents inter-
mixed or denuded. This classification is now being followed by most of the
wildlife workers in the parkland.

Sloughs may contain fresh water or water of various degrees of alkalinity.
Highly alkaline sloughs do not have a marginal growth of willows but are sur-
rounded by prairie. Aspen, if it does occur, grows some distance back from the
slough on higher ground. Fresh-water sloughs are generally surrounded by a
zone of willows, which are partly submerged at high water. Aspen grows next

3In geology the term pothole refers to a circular or sub-circular hole cut in the rocky bed of rivers by the
grinding action of stones whirled around by water in a particular spot (Webster, 1955; Rice, 1953). The
biological use, however, is firmly established.

18

to the willows. If extended periods of high water occur, the willow and aspen
will be killed by prolonged submergence and they will be replaced temporarily
by cattail (Fig. 42).

Macoun (1883, pp. 288-289) observed the difference in vegetation in fresh-
water and alkaline sloughs and stated :

A little experience only is necessary to detect brackish water by inspection of the
vegetation. None of the salt lakes or ponds have a marshy or black muck border, or
contain any sedges, except Scirpus maritimus and pungens [=Scirpus paludosus Nels.].
On the other hand, all the fresh water ponds have rich black soil around their margins,
or are filled in every part with grass and various species of Carex, of which Carex aristata
[ = Carex atherodes Spreng.] is the most prominent, and the one constantly eaten by the
horses in summer . . . many ponds of water that are good in summer are bad in October,
owing to evaporation. Good water may always be known here, b}^ the sedge in the ponds
remaining green, close to and in the water; while, if the pool has become brackish, the
sedges in the centre of it rot and apparently die.

Alkaline sloughs and marshes at low levels have shore lines heavily in-
crusted with white salts and usually bare of vegetation except for a few halophytic
plants.

Whitewater Lake, a large, shallow, alkaline marsh in southwestern Mani-
toba, was described by Bossenmaier et at. (1954). It is typical of alkaline
marshes and sloughs. Large areas of homogeneous aquatic vegetation occur.
Emergent vegetation consists of prairie bulrush, Scirpus paludosus; whitetop,
Scolochloa festucacea; cattail, Typha latifolia L. ; and hard-stem bulrush, Scirpus
acutus Muhl. Submerged vegetation is mostly sago, Potamogeton pectinatus L.
The exposed shore line has a characteristic flora composed of the following
species: seaside arrowgrass, Triglochin maritima L.; alkali grass, Distichlis stricta
(Torr.) Rydb.; Nuttall alkali grass, Puccinellia nuttalliana (Schultes) Hitch.
[= Puccinellia airoides (Nutt.) Wats, and Coult.]; creeping spike rush, Eleocharis
palustris (L.) R. & S.; halberd-leaved atriplex, Atriplex hastata L.; red goosefoot,
Chenopodium rubrum L.; samphire, Salicornia rubra Nels.; western sea blite,
Suaeda depressa (Pursh) S. Wats.; and seaside crowfoot, Halerpestes cymbalaria
(Pursh) Greene [= Ranunculus cymbalaria Pursh]. The pH of the lake varies
from 6.8 to 8.5

In the deeper portion of the larger sloughs there is open water, which may
become choked with a submerged growth of pondweed, Potamogeton pectinatus
and P. richardsonii (Ar. Benn.) Rydb.; white water crowfoot, Ranunculus
subrigidus W.B. Drew; and greater bladderwort, Utricularia macrorhiza (LeConte)
R. Clausen. In July the surface of the water may be covered with the flowers
of the last two species. Dr. D. Love (Department of Botany, The University
of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Man., in litt., 1955) has observed that the white-
flowered crowfoot usually does not grow in association with the yellow-flowered
bladderwort. Apparently they require somewhat different conditions.

Emergent vegetation consists of the soft-stem bulrush, Scirpus validus Vahl,
which may grow in water up to 2 or 3 feet in depth. In shallower water several
species of sedge, including Carex lanuginosa Michx. and C. rostrata Stokes; slough
grass, Beckmannia syzigachne (Steud.) Fernald; and whitetop grow in a dense
stand. The common reed grass, Phragmites communis Trim, is not generally
distributed but grows in very dense patches in some sloughs, particularly in the
marshes at the south end of lakes Manitoba and Winnipeg. This grass grows
up to 12 feet in height and spreads from creeping rootstalks. Many ducks nest
in whitetop but few in P. communis. Love and Love (1954) stated: "The

19

81314-7—3

Scolochloa (whitetop) patches, which sometimes cover some hectares of marsh,
are the main habitats of nesting ducks, especially in places where the grass is
sterile. It is thought that this preference may be based on the fact that Scolochloa
rarely flowers unless its bases are flooded for some time in the early summer,
and ducks may know that the sterile patches are comparatively safe against
water." On mud flats covered with a few inches of water, and in roadside
ditches, patches of the common cattail are found. It quickly populates exposed
wet soil by its wind-blown seeds, but is later crowded out by the sedges. The
sedges extend up on to land that is normally dry in late summer and are extens-
ively cut for hay. Around the edges may also be found patches of persicaria,
Polygonum coccineum and P. natans A. Eaton. The golden dock, Rumex mari-
timus L. var. fueginus (Phil.) Dusen, and J uncus balticus Willd. are common on
alkaline shores. Foxtail (Fig. 8) grows in extensive patches on moist and saline flats.

The muskrat, Ondatra zibethicus (L.), is the dominant mammal of sloughs
and marshes. It consumes quantities of roots and bulbs of aquatic plants, thus
helping to keep the water open and more suitable for ducks. Ducks also use the
muskrat houses for basking places.

Mozley (1938), who studied the abundant snail fauna, wrote: "Apart from
certain molluscs, namely Planorbis umbilicatellus Cockerell and Planorbula
campestris Dawson, the animals which are most characteristic of these situations
[temporary sloughs] are phyllopod Crustacea, tadpole shrimps, fairy shrimps and
clam shrimps such as Lepidurus, Branchipus, Limnetis and Estheria.,J Of the
more nearly permanent sloughs he stated, "The predominant molluscs are
Lymnea stagnalis jugularis Say, L. palustris (Muller), Planorbis trivolvis Say and
Physa gyrina Say."

The bird population about sloughs is large and impressive, being composed
of many species and large numbers of individuals. Probably the most abundant
bird in the parkland is the red-winged blackbird, Agelaius phoeniceus arctolegus
Oberholser. Its nests are usually suspended over water in sedges, cattails, and
willows, but they may be over dry land. The adults feed on insects and seeds
about the sloughs and adjacent prairie. The yellow-headed blackbird, Xantho-
cephalus xanthocephalus (Bonaparte), is less abundant and more restricted in
its habitat. It requires permanent sloughs with open water and patches of the
giant bulrush or common reed grass, in which it nests in colonies.

At one time Canada geese, Branta canadensis L. (Fig. 40) ; sandhill cranes,
Grus canadensis tabida (Peters); and the whooping crane, Grus americana (L.),
nested around the larger sloughs. With the exception of a few Canada geese,
these birds have now moved north of the parkland to less-disturbed areas.

Surface-feeding ducks were very abundant and still occur in considerable
numbers: mallard, Anas platyrhynchos platyrhynchos L.; pintail, Anas acuta L. ;
gadwall, Anas strepera L. ; baldpate, Mareca americana (Gmelin); blue-winged
teal, Anas discors L.; shoveler, Spatida clypeata (L.); green-winged teal, Anas
carolinensis (Gmelin). Among the diving ducks the following are found in
considerable numbers in the deeper and more nearly permanent sloughs: redhead,
Ay thy a americana (Eyton); canvasback, Ay thy a valisineria (Wilson); lesser
scaup, Aythya affinis (Eyton); and ring-necked duck, Aythya collaris (Donovan).
The ruddy duck, Oxyura jamaicensis rubida (Wilson), with its strikingly colored
plumage and upturned tail, is a conspicuous inhabitant of even small sloughs,
if the water is open and reasonably deep.

20

The American coot, Fulica americana americana Gmelin (Fig. 38), is very
common. It may be seen at all times of the day feeding among the pondweed.
The sora rail, Porzana Carolina (L.), is seldom seen, as it is very secretive among
the sedges and rarely flies, but its call is frequently heard. The bittern, Botaurus
lentiginosus (Rackett), also is heard more often than seen. Three species of
grebes are commonly seen on sloughs: the horned grebe, Podiceps auritus (L.);
the eared grebe, Podiceps caspicus (Hablizl) ; and the pied-billed grebe, Podilym-
bus podiceps (L.).

Shore birds are well represented, particularly about sloughs with exposed
mud or alkaline flats. The killdeer, Charadrius vociferus L., and willet,
Catoptrophorus semipalmatus inornatus (Brewster), are common breeding
birds; others are mostly migrants. The marbled godwit, Limosa fedoa (L.), is
more rarely found about the grassy sloughs without tree and shrub growth.
The black tern, Chlidonias niger, a very common summer resident, ceaselessly
patrols bodies of water in search of insect life. The nests of floating debries are
located in colonies among emergent vegetation.

The common leopard frog, Rana pipiens, Schreber, breeds in great numbers
in the sloughs. The loud spring chorus of singing males is a characteristic sound.
After the egg-laying period the adults gather around the edge of the slough and
wander into the surrounding vegetation. They are later joined by the new
generation until there may be a population of over a hundred per acre. The
quantities of insects consumed by them are very great.

Insect life is characterized by the swarms of mosquitoes and midges and
their chief predators, the dragonflies and damselflies. One of the commonest
species of mosquito is Aedes spencerii (Theobald), which occurs early in the
year and breeds in temporary snow water ponds. It is followed later in the
season by Aedes vexans (Meigen), which prefers open meadows and pasture
depressions about the edges of sloughs and temporary pools following heavy
rains. It goes through very rapid development in warm weather. Other common
mosquitoes are Culiseta inornata (Williston), Culex tarsalis Coquillett, Aedes
dorsalis (Meigen), A. campestris Dyar & Knab, and A. flavescens (Muller).

Dragonflies and damselflies feed on mosquitoes both in the nymphal stage,
when they attack the larvae, and as adults. Swarms of adult dragonflies hawk
about the edges of ponds, on the sheltered side of tall vegetation, and wander
far over the prairies and forest glades. The commonest are several species of
Sympetrum — S. corruption (Hagen), S. decisum (Hagen), S. costiferum (Hagen),
and S. danae (Sulz.). At times these dragonflies are so abundant that they
occur in swarms in the shelter of vegetation along prairie trails sufficient to clog
the radiators of automobiles driven along these roads. When they and the
species of Aeschna appear in abundance, mosquitoes begin to disappear. The
species of Aeschna are large and strong-flying. They range farther afield and
do not stay as close to vegetation as species of Sympetrum which are smaller.
Literally clouds of them may be seen flying about on the lee side of bushes and
trees and high in the air when the wind is not too strong. The commonest species
are Aeschna interrupta lineata Wlk., A. umbrosa Wlk., and A. canadensis Wlk.
Staying close to the open water and shelter of the sedges and rushes are the
weak-flying damselflies. The conspicuous blue and black species of Enallagma
hover over the water and settle in clusters on emergent pondweeds, where the
females oviposit. The commonest species are Enallagma cyathigerum (Charp.),

21

81314-7—3*

E. hageni (Walsh), and E. ebrium Hagen. Lestes disjunctus Selys, Lestes un-
guiculatus Hagen, and Ischnura verticalis (Say) are frequently found wandering
a short distance from shore and among the vegetation growing in water. Dragon-
flies and damselflies are preyed on heavily by kingbirds, purple martins, black
terns, and Franklin's gulls. Roberts (1932), speaking of the latter species,
stated, "The chief part of the food, however, and that on which the young are
largely fed, consists of the nymphs of dragonflies which are commonly to be
found in immense numbers at the time the young appear. The writer has counted
no less than 327 of these insects in the stomach and gullet of a bird engaged in
feeding young."

Alkaline sloughs and lakes with shallow edges where mud flats are exposed
during hot weather are subject to outbreaks of botulism. The causative bacte-
rium, Clostridium botulinum (van Ermengem) Holland, develops in the decaying
vegetation. At such times great numbers of ducks, shore birds, and gulls perish
from this virulent poison.

Lakes

Lakes in the parkland usually have firm sand or gravel bottoms and shores
of the same material. They are fed by small streams, springs, and runoff water.
Outlet streams usually join a river system. Patches of Scirpus validus may grow
in the shallower bays. Where the water is 14 feet or more in depth over consider-
able areas, fish are present. If the water drops below this level, fish may be
killed by suffocation in late winter when the oxygen supply is used up by the
death and decay of vegetation. In many parkland lakes the depth approaches
that critical for fish. When high water returns, fish may restock a lake by ascend-
ing the tributary streams. Minnows of the following species are common; the
fathead minnow, Pimephales promelas Rafinesque; the spottail shiner, Notropis
hudsonius (Clinton), and the brook stickleback, Eucalia inconstans (Kirtland).
Of the sport fish, the pike, Esox lucius L., is the most abundant. A fierce pre-
dator, it consumes not only great quantities of other fish and frogs but also young
ducks. When larger food is scarce, pike devour quantities of dragonfly nymphs
and freshwater shrimps, Gammarus spp. The yellow walleye (incorrectly called
pickerel over most of the parkland area), Stizostedion vitreum (Mitchell), is pre-
ferred to the pike by most fishermen; consequently it was introduced into many
lakes although it occurred naturally in the larger lakes and rivers. The white
sucker, Catostomus commersonii (Lacepede), occurs in large numbers but is not
esteemed for human consumption. Its ability to withstand adverse conditions
enables it to survive in shallow alkaline lakes when all other fish have been
eliminated. Great numbers of suckers ascend small creeks in the spring to
spawn and feed on many species of planktonic and bottom organisms, including
chironomid larvae. Young suckers are consumed by pike and yellow walleye.

Many birds inhabit both sloughs and lakes, but fish-eating species are
characteristic lake inhabitants. The common loon, Gavia immer (Brunnich), is
a solitary nester, but many lake birds are colonial, including the white pelican,
Pelecanus erythrorhynchos Gmelin, and the double-crested cormorant, Phalacro-
corax auritus auritus (Lesson), which often jointly occupy low treeless islands.
The great blue heron, Ardea herodias herodias L., prefers wooded islands and
sometimes associates with the black-crowned night heron, Nycticorax nycticorax
hoactli (Gmelin). The herring gull, Larus argentatus smithsonianus Coues, nests
both in colonies and as isolated pairs on small rocky islands. The common tern,

22

Sterna hirundo hirundo L., selects islands with gravelly or sandy soil if available.
Large colonies of Franklin's gull, Larus pipixcan Wagler, build floating nests out
of the reeds in marshes attached to the larger lakes. They range far afield in
their feeding forays and follow agricultural implements, picking up insects in
the newly turned soil. They are attracted to grasshoppers, which they catch in
the air as they fly or hop. Flocks systematically go over a field in leapfrog
fashion; the gulls falling behind keep flying up ahead of those in front. In this
manner they reduce high grasshopper populations to small numbers in fields where
they feed.

Great numbers of mayflies, caddisflies, and midges breed in the lakes. The
larvae are an important item of fish food. In the evening at certain times of the
year dense swarms of adults hover over or near the water; the next day their
dead bodies and exuviae may be washed up in windrows on the shore.

Rivers

The eastern portion of the parkland is drained by three major rivers: the
Red, the Assiniboine, the Qu'Appelle, and their tributaries. These rivers flow
slowly through meandering channels and have many oxbow lakes. The Qu'Ap-
pelle and upper Assiniboine flow in flat-bottomed valleys, one to two miles wide
and 120 to 300 feet deep, eroded by glacial melt water during the last deglaciation.
The lower portions of the Assiniboine and the Red rivers are on the floor of the
basin of glacial Lake Agassiz. The Assiniboine valley here is no larger than its
channel, and the Red River fills its valley from wall to wall. In this area spring
floods often spill over the river banks. This is particularly the case with the Red,
which flows north. Its lower reaches are often icebound when the headwaters
are subject to spring thaws. If the snow is deep and the thaw rapid, a major
flood results and much of the surrounding land is inundated. For a few years
before the railroads were built, river steamers up to 200 feet in length operated
on the Red and ascended the Assiniboine as far as Brandon. A few trips were
made up to Ft. Ellice and Ft. Pelly, Sask., on particularly high flood water. There
are few rapids exposed except at low water; the tributaries entering the deep
valley of the Assiniboine, however, are comparatively swift with many rapids.

Vegetation in running water is composed mostly of filamentous algae and
diatoms, which attach themselves to the rocks on the bottom. In late summer
great quantities of algae are detached and float downstream.

Common mammals are the beaver, muskrat, mink, and raccoon. In the
smaller streams the beaver construct dams on almost every rapid, but on the
larger streams dams are unnecessary and are not built. They burrow in the bank
and gather large stocks of aspen and willow boughs for winter feed. Muskrats
frequent the streams in large numbers. Here they give up their habit of house
building, which they follow in sloughs and marshes, and excavate holes in the
bank. They eat many clams, which they haul out on the bank and consume at
some favorite spot, where piles of empty shells will accumulate. Mink, Mustela
vison lacustris (Preble), feed on the muskrat, the abundant crayfish, fish, and
frogs. The racoon, Procyon lotor hirtus Nelson & Goldman, is common but sel-
dom seen because of its nocturnal habits.

Birds found along rivers are the belted kingfisher, Megaceryle alcyon alcyon
(L.), which nests in outbanks and feeds on small fish and crayfish; bank swallow,
Riparia riparia riparia (L.), which nests in colonies in cutbanks; and spotted

23

sandpiper, Actitis macularia (L.). In the autumn many mallard ducks congre-
gate on the open water of the rivers when the sloughs freeze over. At such times
they consume large numbers of water boatmen, Corixa spp., which may concent-
rate in such numbers as literally to cover the bottom.

The black fly Simulium venustum Say occurs in great numbers along some of
the more rapid streams, notably the Souris River. Larvae cling to submerged
stones, sticks, and vegetation, often in such numbers that they completely cover
them. Stoneflies, caddisflies, and mayflies are numerous. Water striders, Gerris
remigis Say and other species, are found in quiet waters.

Mollusca are common in the rivers. Mozley (1938) stated : "The commonest
forms on the Prairie and Parkland are Lymnea stagnalis jugularis, Planorbis
trivolvis, and Lampsilis saliquoidea rosacea. Lasmigona complanata katherinae
is abundant in certain streams." In comparing two streams, the moderately
rapid Birdtail with stony bottom, and the sluggish Red River with mud and clay
bottom, he listed the following species:

Birdtail Creek near Birtle, Man. (i) On bottom of stream, Planorbis antrosus, Fer-
rissia rivularis, Phijsa integra, Lasmigona complanata katherinae, Lampsilis siliquoidea
rosacea, Anodonta grandis footiana, Strophitus rugosus; in small marshy areas along the
banks of the stream, Lymnea palustris, L. umbilicata, L. parva sterkii.

Red River, near Winnipeg, Man. Lasmigona complanata katherinae, Lampsilis sili-
quoidea rosacea, L. venlricosa, Ligumia recta lalissima, Proptera alata megaplera, Anodonta
grand is footiana, Slrophilis rugosus, Amblema costata.

Many of the fish found in lakes also occur in the rivers, particularly pike,
suckers, and some species of minnows. Minnows particularly partial to rivers
are the common shiner, Notropis cornutus (Mitchill); the river shiner, Notropis
blennius (Girard); and the flathead chub, Platygobio gracilis (Richardon). The
rock bass, Ambloplites rupestris (Rafinesque), is common at rapids. Sturgeon,
Acipenser fulyescens Rafinesque, which at one time were abundant in the larger
rivers, are now very rare. The yellow walleye and the smaller sauger, Stizostedion
canadense (Smith), are common in rivers and lakes.

Crayfish, Cambarus spp., are abundant in all permanent streams. They feed
on many insect larvae and bottom organisms, and act as scavengers. Forming
an important link in the food chain, they are preyed on heavily by fish, kingfishers,
mink, and raccoon.

The western painted turtle, Chrysemys picta belli Gray, is a common inhabit-
ant of sluggish backwaters and oxbows in the eastern parkland (Bird, 1958). It
is largely vegetarian in its diet. The large predacious snapping turtle, Chelydra
serpentina, is less abundant.

Successional Changes

An aerial view of the parkland (Fig. 41) shows willows and aspens surround-
ing water-filled depressions. They are separated by irregular patches of prairie.
In some places they merge and the prairie is almost, if not entirely, crowded out.

Throughout the greater part of the parkland, vegetational succession is
toward a forest climax. As sloughs dry up, the surrounding willows close in
and in turn are crowded out by aspen. Succession is thus chiefly from water to
aspen forest but may also proceed from prairie to forest. Intervening periods
of drought and excessive moisture may temporarily reverse succession. During
periods of drought the forest may recede from the prairie but at such times forest

24

invasion of the dried-up sloughs is hastened. When moisture again becomes
abundant, the invading forest is drowned out, resulting in zones of dead willows
and aspens about the sloughs (Fig. 42).

Succession has been studied by Ewing (1924), Bird (1930), Love and Love
(1954), and Sowls (1955).

Succession from Slough to Forest

Succession in sloughs is initiated by a heavy growth of pondweeds, Pota-
mogeton spp. ; white water crowfoot ; and greater bladderwort. As dead vegetation
accumulates in the muck bottom the water becomes shallower and the open
water is invaded by emergent vegetation, including bulrush, cattail, reed grass,
whitetop, Scolochloa festucacea (Fig. 35), and several species of sedge. In sloughs
that are slightly alkaline the sedges, on the land side, grade into prairie, often
through a zone of foxtail grass (Figs. 33 and 8). In most sloughs which have
fresh water, the vegetation between low and high water levels is a dense growth
of basket willow. In a narrower zone at high water level the chief species is
pussy willow. There may also be a few balsam poplar, but usually the willows
adjoin aspen poplar, which forms a band around the depression. The next
successional stage in invasion of the slough, before a complete coverage by willow
and aspen, is a dense growth of sedge and often a few water parsnip, Sium
suave Walt. (Fig. 43). Outside the aspen is prairie. The aspen encroaches on
the prairie by sucker growth; hence taller and more mature trees are found next
to the willows and the trees diminish in size toward the outer edge to suckers of
only a year's growth. The prairie edge of the aspen grove often contains an
undergrowth of snowberry, Symphoricarpos occidentalis , which helps to crowd
out the grass as the forest advances on the prairie.

An account of succession from marsh to prairie, in the great alkaline marshes
at the south end of Lake Manitoba, was given by Love and Love (1954). Their
account applies to most of the highly alkaline sloughs except that reed grass is
usually absent or occurs only in small patches. In the open water of the bays
submerged vegetation occurs as large colonies of water milfoil, Myriophyllum
exalbescens Fern., and small colonies of M. verticillatum L. In the deeper water
pondweed, Potamogeton richardsonii, is found. Reed grass, Phragmites communis,
is the predominating grass of the marsh. It grows in habitats ranging from soil
that is moistened only by spring floods to water that is 18 inches deep. Although
it has great powers of vegetative reproduction, it rarely sets seed before frost.
Most of the humus of the marsh is formed from reed grass straw. Where the
water level is low and does not rise much above the ground except in spring,
there are extensive patches of whitetop. Where the water is deeper, soft-stem
bulrush, Scirpus validus, may become dominant. Cattail, Typha latifolia, is
not common but may be associated with the hard-stem bulrush, Scirpus acutus.
There may be a narrow zone of alkaline vegetation between the reed grass and
meadow vegetation or, if the whitetop is present, a gradual change into the
prairie communities.

Succession in the same marsh was studied by Sowls (1955), who observed
the effect of alternating periods of drought and flooding. In dry years willow
and cottonwood invade the marsh, couch grass and wild barley (foxtail) thrive,
whitetop and cord grass survive but do not bloom, reed grass survives, and cat-
tail and hard-stem bulrush (Scirpus acutus) die out. In wet years reed grass,

25

cattail, hard-stem bulrush, wild barley, and whitetop thrive, cord grass blooms
profusely, and willow and cottonwood survive. Under flooding hard-stem bulrush
survives and all the other plants mentioned die out.

During periods of high water as in 1954-56, I observed that willows and
aspen surrounding sloughs were killed by submersion and that this zone of dead
vegetation was soon replaced by a dense stand of cattails (Fig. 42). It is possible
that many cattail sloughs were created by changing water levels which killed
other vegetation. Cattails quickly seed down shallow muddy areas, to be in
turn crowded out by other vegetation.

Succession from Prairie to Aspen Forest

Aspen replaces prairie when there is sufficient moisture, and fires are not
too frequent. Groves established about sloughs enlarge by underground stems
and shoots, and occasionally aspen seedlings may become established directly on
localized disturbed areas in prairie (Fig. 45), through the agency of birds and
mammals and intervening shrub growth. It is difficult for aspen seedlings to
become established on prairie because of the competition of grass but they may
survive when the seed falls on bare ground. Such localized areas of bare soil
are produced by burrowing mammals — Richardson's ground squirrels, pocket
gophers, badgers, foxes, and coyotes. In the past buffalo produced bare areas
by wallowing (Fig. 11) and trampling. These bare areas are used by sharp-
tailed grouse for dusting places. Some seeds from snowberry fruit that they
have consumed are passed in their droppings, and snowberry patches become
established on the bare areas. Krefting and Roe (1949) stated that viable
seeds have been found in sharp-tailed grouse droppings and that passage through
the digestive tract probably aids in breaking dormancy. Pine grosbeaks, Pinicola
enucleator leucura (Muller), which feed extensively on snowberry during the
winter, may also aid in dispersal. Snowberry thus established spreads into the
prairie, progress being accelerated by the reduction of grass through overgrazing,
in the past by buffalo, now by domestic stock (Fig. 44). Coyotes and foxes
utilize old holes within the patches of snowberry for denning sites.

On these mounds of earth, with the protection of the surrounding shrubs,
seedlings from wind-blown aspen seed may take root. Only one seedling is
necessary to establish a grove, as further reproduction takes place by rhizomes.
Shading and crowding by aspen cause the snowberry to die out within the grove
but it continues as a fringe around the edge. The enlarging groves coalesce
to form forest areas. Since aspens are dioecious and there is individual variation,
the single origin of groups of trees becomes evident in the spring by different
dates of leafing.

Pelton (1953) stated that annual or very frequent fires are probably detri-
mental to the establishment of snowberry. This is further evidence of the
importance of fires in limiting the extent of the parkland through the checking
of forest succession. On the other hand, overgrazing and trampling by livestock
(and probably by buffalo in the past) favor the increase of snowberry through
the reduction of competition by grass (Fig. 44). Pelton's observations confirm
my own.

Wolf willow (Elaeagnus commutata), in addition to snowberry, aids in the
establishment of aspen. It forms extensive patches in the prairie and spreads by

26

long rhizomes (Fig. 36). Although it grows in a more open stand than snow-
berry it competes successfully with grass. Its shelter is attractive to coyotes for
denning sites, the disturbed soil of which in turn provides seedbeds for snowberry
and aspen. It is fed on by deer and cattle and probably was also eaten by buffalo.
These mammals may have aided in the dispersal of the seeds, which have a very
hard coat, but the main dispersal of seeds is probably by wind detaching the
berries and rolling them across the top of crusted snow during the winter.

Succession from Aspen to Spruce

White spruce is dominant along the northern fringe of the parkland and in
some sections of the Spruce Woods Forest Reserve. Here succession may pro-
ceed directly from aspen to spruce. Spruce seedlings become established in the
forest floor, and when the aspen is crowded out or dies of old age a pure stand of
spruce remains. This succession may be retarded by the feeding of rabbits,
which, when abundant, nip off the leading shoots of young spruce. Deer select
young spruce for rubbing their antlers and kill many of them by removing the
bark. Single, widely scattered seedlings are generally killed before they are high
enough to escape damage.

Fire kills spruce but aspen regenerates by sucker growth. Hence fires check
the invasion of spruce into the parkland where conditions are otherwise favorable
for its establishment, and may cause parkland conditions to extend into coni-
ferous forest areas. The northern boundary of the parkland is hence not clearly
defined (Map 1).

In the Spruce Woods Forest Reserve I have noted that isolated spruce grow-
ing in patches of juniper, Juniperits horizontalis, are often saved because juniper
does not burn readily and helps to check fires. This is one of the reasons for the
scattered growth of individual spruce trees in the area (Fig. 22).

Repeated fires kill not only the spruce but also the aspen.
Influence of Dominant Animals, Indians, and Fire

Before the coming of white men the parkland was heavily populated with
large herbivores — buffalo, elk (wapiti), and to a lesser extent antelope. The
nomadic population of Indians — Cree, Ojibwa or Saulteux, and Assiniboine —
lived principally on buffalo. The large game animals and the Indians in their
hunting and fighting disturbed the parkland and interfered with successional
changes but kept it in a relatively stable subclimax condition.

The length of time that these conditions prevailed is unknown. MacNeish
(1956) traced cultures in Manitoba from before 3000 B.C. to about A.D. 1750.
The oldest culture he examined was the Whiteshell Focus, excavated in the
Whiteshell Forest Reserve of southeastern Manitoba. Here he found the Indians
had been living on buffalo and not forest game. Wettlaufer (1956) excavated a
stratified site at Mortlach, Saskatchewan, near Moose Jaw not far south of the
present boundary of the parkland. He found cultures dating back approx-
imately 3400 years. The food of the Indians in this area was also buffalo.

Influence of Buffalo and Elk

The large herds of buffalo overgrazed sections of the prairie. Henry (Coues,
1897) wrote of the country west of the Red River: "The grass would be rather

27

long were it not for the buffalo ... By rubbing and trampling they destroyed small
groves of trees". Again quoting from Henry:

Buffalo have ravaged this small island; nothing remains but the large elms and oaks,
whose bark has been polished to the height of the buffalo by their perpetual rubbing.
Brush and grass are not to be seen in this little wood, which on the whole is a delightful
spot [See Fig. 46] .... Buffalo have destroyed all the grass and our horses are starving ....
The ravages of buffaloes at this place [on Red River near Morris] are astonishing to a
person unaccustomed to these meadows. The beach, once a soft black mud into which
a man would sink knee-deep, is now made as hard as pavement by the numerous herds
coming to drink. The willows are entirely trampled and torn to pieces; even the bark of
the smaller trees is rubbed off in many places. The grass on the first bank of the river
is entirely worn away. Numerous paths, some of which are a foot deep in the hard turf,
come from the plains to the brink of the river, and the vast quantity of dung gives this
place the appearance of a cattle yard.

By trampling and wallowing in numerous dust baths the buffalo created
patches of bare ground. This together with overgrazing created conditions
favorable for an increase of grasshoppers, particularly the Rocky Mountain
grasshopper. Henry frequently mentioned flights of grasshoppers. By brows-
ing, elk destroyed much young growth, and Henry stated, "Red deer were very
numerous here not long ago, as the tops of the oaks along this little river are all
broken and twisted."

Influence of Fire

Indians set many fires. Both Henry and Hind frequently referred to them.
The following quotations from Hind (1859) are particularly illuminating:

Putting out [setting] fire in the prairies is a telegraphic mode of communication
frequently resorted to by Indians. Its consequences are seen in the destruction of the
forest which once covered an immense area south of the Qu'Appelle and Assiniboine.
The aridity of those vast prairies is partly due to this cause. The soil, though light,
derives much of its apparent sterility from the annual fires. In low places and in shallow
depressions where marshes are formed in spring, the soil is rich, much mixed with vegetable
matter, and supports a very luxuriant growth of grass. If willows and aspens were per-
mitted to grow over the prairies, they would soon be converted into humid tracts in which
vegetable matter would accumulate, and a soil adapted to forest trees be formed. If
a portion of prairie escapes fire for two or three years the result is seen in the growth of
willows and aspens, first in patches, then in large areas, which in a short time become
united and cover the country; thus retarding evaporation and permitting the accumulation
of vegetable matter in the soil. A fire comes, destroys the young forest growth and estab-
lishes a prairie once more. The reclamation of immense areas is not beyond human power.
The extension of the prairie is evidently due to fires, and the fires are caused by Indians,
chiefly for the purpose of telegraphic communication, or to divert the buffalo from the
course they may be taking. These operations will cease as the Indians and buffalo dimish,
events which are taking place with great rapidity. . . .

. . . From beyond the South Branch of the Saskatchewan to Red River all the prairies
were burned last autumn, a vast conflagration extending for one thousand miles in length
and several hundreds in breadth. The dry season had so withered the grass that the whole
country of the Saskatchewan was in flames. The Rev. Henry Budd, a native Missionary
at the Nepoween, on the North Branch of the Saskatchewan, told me that in whatever
direction he turned in September last the country seemed in a blaze; we traced the fire
from the 49th parallel to the 53rd, and from the 98th to the 107th degree of longitude.
It extended, no doubt, to the Rocky Mountains. . .The prairie on the west of the Souris
as well as on the east is treeless, the banks of Snake Creek [Plum Creek] support a thin
belt of small forest trees, such as oak and ash, with a few ash-leaved maple. The annual
fires prevent the willows and aspens from covering the country, which they undoubtedly
would do until replaced by other species, if not destroyed to within a few inches of the
root every time the fire sweeps over them. . .

. . . He had not visited it [Pipestone Creek] for twenty years, and the timber, con-
sisting of aspens and willows which then covered the country, had nearly all disappeared.
The old man was correct, the face of the country had changed, the aspen forest had been
burnt and no vestige remained. . .

. . .Ponds and lakes are numerous on the Grand Coteau side, and it is probably on
this account that the Buffalo cross the Qu'Appelle valley near the Moose Jaws Fork and

28

west of Buffalo Pound Hill Lake; in the winter they keep towards the Touchwood Hills
for the sake of shelter, and the excellent herbage which grows in the beautiful meadows
between the aspen clumps. The prairies there too are not so often burned as south of the
Qu'Appelle, the valley of that river serving as a great barrier to prevent the onward progress
of the devastating fires.

In addition to destroying the forest and increasing the area of grassland,
fires destroyed the nests and nesting sites of ground-nesting birds and voles and
created arid, short-grass conditions favorable for the Richardson's ground
squirrel.

Fires were set so frequently that they maintained a prairie subclimax that
would, if left undisturbed, be invaded by aspen. The use of fire by primitive
peoples to change the vegetation is universal. This practice was described by
Stewart (1956), who summed it up in the following statement.

The unrestricted burning of vegetation appears to be a universal culture trait among
historic primitive peoples and therefore wTas probably employed by our remote ancestors.
Archeology indicates that extensive areas of the Old and New Worlds were being burned
over ten thousand years ago. It is logical to assume that some of the reasons which
motivated historic and Neolithic men would also have motivated our remote ancestors
to set vegetation on fire. One may conclude that fire has been used by man to influence
his geographic environment during his entire career as a human. Furthermore, it is
impossible to understand clearly the distribution and history of vegetation of the earth's
land surfaces without careful consideration of fire as a universal factor influencing the plant
geography of the world.

Influence of Animals in Seed Dispersal

The extent to which birds and mammals aid in seed dispersal and germina-
tion is not fully known. Krefting and Roe (1949) have done some preliminary
experiments and quote references, to show that the consumption of fruit by birds
not only ensures dispersal of the seed but improves germination and increases
the chances of seedling establishment. Many seeds have double dormancy,
and passage through the digestive tract helps to break dormancy caused by an
impervious seed coat. Poison ivy seeds taken from droppings of sharp-tailed
grouse showed good germination. Rose and snowberry seeds showed some injury
in the gizzard, but those that were not damaged showed improved germination.
Choke cherry seeds, which do not have an impervious seed coat, were mostly
destroyed in passing through pheasants. None of the seed passed through
mammals was improved in germination by the digestive action as with birds.
However, seeds do pass through uninjured and are dispersed. Bears eat quanti-
ties of sarsaparilla berries and are an important agent in their dissemination.
Chipmunks and mice destroy many raspberry seeds by chewing but some pass
through uninjured.

It is evident that in the above plant species, and doubtless in many others,
birds and mammals are important factors in the dispersal of seeds. I have found
choke cherry seeds abundant in the droppings of bears and coyotes. These
mammals as well as foxes consume raspberries, strawberries, and other small
fruits and pass their seeds relatively unharmed. Rodents, although they destroy
many seeds by chewing, pass some uninjured and scatter many while collecting
stores for winter use (S. Criddle, 1926, 1939, and 1950).

Horses pass many seeds of grains, grasses, and weeds unharmed, and since
their introduction have been important in spreading seeds.

Burrs and awned grasses are carried by long-haired mammals. I have
observed coyotes with many seeds of spear grass in their fur.

29

Jack rabbits aid in the dispersal of seeds of Elaeagnus commutata. The
plants go into the winter with many fruits attached. As the snow drifts around
the plants, jack rabbits reach up and pick off the fruit at successively higher
levels. They eat only the outer portion, leaving the hard seeds. In addition to
the fruits that are consumed, many others are knocked off. Both seeds and
fruits blow along the hardpacked snow. Jack rabbits eat some of the smaller
twigs but do not girdle the plants by removal of bark as do snowshoe rabbits,
which are very partial to E. commutata.

30

Brief History of Settlement

The introduction of the horse into North America by the Spaniards was
the first ecological change resulting from European invasion. Through escape,
trade, and Indian capture, horses spread far ahead of the Europeans themselves.
The destruction of the buffalo was accelerated. This reduced the amount of
grazing and possibly brought about changes in the grassland cover before the
build-up of the population of cattle (Clark 1956). The role of man in practical,
accidental, and sentimental introduction of organisms was also stressed by
Bates (1956).

The following brief review of the history of settlement in the parkland of
Manitoba helps to trace the progressive effects of an increasing white population.
This account is based on Morton and Martin (1938), who divided settlement
into seven periods.

1668-1840: Settlement and Agriculture in Fur- trading Times

The invasion of Western Canada by white men began with the fur trade.
It started when the Hudson's Bay Company ship Nonsuch reached Hudson Bay
in 1668. The first trading posts were on the coast, but the competition of rival
traders entering the "prairies" from the east via the Great Lakes caused the
Hudson's Bay Company men to spread inland and build forts along the larger
rivers. Henry Kelsey, in 1691, the first white man to reach the parkland,
explored the area about the Touchwood Hills in Saskatchewan, met the Assini-
boine Indians, and saw the buffalo. La Verendrye passed through southern
Manitoba and built several forts: Ft. Maurepas near Winnipeg in 1734, Ft. La
Reine near Portage la Prairie in 1738, Ft. Dauphin on the Mossy River in 1741,
and Ft. La Corne in Saskatchewan in 1753. As early as 1680 the Hudson's Bay
Company ordered gardens and grain to be planted near their forts and attempted
to establish livestock, Alexander Henry built a number of forts along the Red
and Assiniboine rivers in 1800-1808 and planted gardens. The Selkirk Settlers
arrived at the junction of the Red and Assiniboine rivers in 1812. After initial
hardships, the settlement was thriving by 1825. By 1849 the population of
Manitoba reached 5,291.

1840-1870: A Period of Transition

The fur trade declined with the increase in settlement and keen competition
by rival traders. Buffalo were reduced. Floods and grasshoppers plagued the
settlers. Because of the lack of communication with Eastern Canada, trade
with the United States increased. This was a period of unrest resulting in the
Riel Rebellion. The rival fur companies finally amalgamated with the Hudson^s
Bay Company, which surrendered its charter in 1870. The Province of Manitoba,
with a population of 18,599, was formed in the same year.

Two explorers visited the country to determine its suitability for settlement,
Palliser in 1857-60 and H. Y. Hind in 1857-58. They came at a time of drought
and declared the open prairie nothing but a desert. Palliser drew a triangle

31

based on the Canada-United States boundary with its other boundaries approx-
imately that of the south boundary of the aspen parkland. He declared the
land within this area unsuitable for settlement.

1871-1881: Pre-railway Settlement of Lake Agassiz Basin

The Northwest Mounted Police were established and brought law and order.
Treaties were made with the Indians and metis, who were placed on reservations.
John Macoun explored the country in 1872, 1875, and 1879 under favorable
weather conditions and reported it suitable for farming. As a result of his report,
the Canadian Pacific Railway selected the southern route through the prairie.
The Dawson Road from the Lake of the Woods was built, land was surveyed,
free homesteads were given out, and the government promoted immigration.
Foreign groups were brought in and placed on reservations. Mennonites were
settled in the southern Red River Valley in 1873. Steam boats were put into
service on the Red and Assiniboine rivers, and from 1876 to 1881 they did a huge
business carrying settlers and their effects and establishing them along the rivers.
Although most agricultural production was consumed locally, the first shipment
of wheat was made to Toronto in 1876 and to Great Britain via the United
States in 1877. Local lumber was sawn. The population increased to 65,954.

1881-1891: Coming of the Railways

This was a period of railway building. The transcontinental railroad from
the east reached Brandon in 1881, Birtle, in 1886. The railroad brought a heavy
influx of settlers and its building marked the end of the hunting and fur trading
and the beginning of the era of agriculture. It also marked the end of the steam-
ships on the Red and Assiniboine rivers.

The first Dominion experimental farms in Western Canada were established.
The one at Brandon was started in 1888. Red Fife wheat, which was grown at
that time, was subject to damage by frost. The population increased to 152,506.

1891-1901: Settlement Following the Railways

There was a continued influx of settlers of many nationalities. The practice
of summer-fallowing was begun by Angus McKay of Indian Head in 1889.
Railways were built into northern lumbering areas. The population increased
to 285,664.

1901-1910: A Decade of Great Expansion

This was a period of great progress, prosperity, and continued immigration.
Farmers began to organize to improve their marketing. The population increased
to 455,614.

1911-1925: Rapid Increase of Production

A great increase in agricultural production arose out of the development of
new wheats, new methods, and new machinery. An agricultural extension service
was developed. Heavy debts for land and machinery put farmers in a poor
position to cope with a general depression in the 1930's. The population increased
to 700,139.

1926-present: Mechanization

The depression period of the 1930's was accompanied by a major drought
and a severe outbreak of grasshoppers. As a result, much land was severely
injured by wind erosion and was abandoned.

A period of prosperity followed the depression, due to a demand for food
during the war of 1939-1945 and a period of abundant rainfall. New power
machinery resulted in the breaking up of much abandoned and new land and
clearing of forest.

The population increased to 809,000 in 1953.

Changes Brought About by Settlement

Periods in Establishment of White Man

Modification of the parkland due to the activities of the increasing white
population may be divided into four periods: (1) Period of exploration and fur
trade, 1691-1840; (2) transition period, 1840-1870; (3) period of settlement,
1870-1900; and (4) period of intensified agriculture, 1900-present. The last
may be divided into two subperiods: (a) period of horses, 1900-1925; and (b)
period of mechanization, 1925-present.

In each period a distinctive sequence of events affected the plant and
animal life.

1691-1840: Period of Exploration and Fur Trade

Before 1700, no great changes had taken place in the life of the parkland
for hundreds, perhaps thousands, of years. The first change of importance was
the introduction of the horse, which was brought into southern North America
by the Spaniards. It reached the parkland about 1750. By its use the Indians
changed their hunting methods and became more mobile in their hunting and
tribal wars. La Verendrye stated that two horses were brought to Fort La Reine
(Portage la Prairie) in 1741. The Assiniboine Indians had some horses before
1776 but still moved camp with dogs and hunted on foot (Burpee, 1927).

The white man was attracted by the abundant fur-bearing animals and the
profitable sale of their skins on the European market. There was no thought of
agriculture. In fact, the country was reported as uninhabitable. The first fur
traders established peaceable relations with the Indians and, except for the
encouraging of trapping and the introduction of a limited number of firearms,
had little effect on the country. It was not until about 1800 that changes began
to occur at an accelerating speed. The fur trade had become so lucrative that
many traders of rival companies entered the field. Each vied with the other in
debauching the Indians.

Henry (Coues, 1897) stated in 1803:

The Indians totally neglect their ancient customs: and to what can this degeneracy
be ascribed but to their intercourse with us, particularly as they are so unfortunate as to
have a continual succession of opposition parties [In a footnote, Coues stated: "In the
winter of 1794-95 no fewer than five mutually opposed trading-houses were located on
the Assiniboine a short distance above the mouth of the Souris"] to teach them roguery
and destroy mind and body with that pernicious article, rum? What a different set of
people they would be, were there not a drop of liquor in the country!

In addition to the degrading effect of liquor the white man brought in many
of his diseases, to which the Indian had little immunity. Sickness greatly reduced
the population and undermined the physique of the remainder. The ravages of
smallpox and other maladies were graphically described by Jenness (1934).

In 1800, Henry (Coues, 1897) camped at the present site of Winnipeg on

August 19 and found evidence of smallpox. He stated:

We are troubled by swarms of water-snakes, which even come into our tents at midday;
every morning some are sure to be found in our beds; but they are harmless. They appear
to lurk and breed in the old graves, of which there are many, this spot having been a place
of great resort for the natives in 1781-82, and at the time the smallpox made such havoc
many hundreds of men, women, and children were buried here.

34

Coues in a footnote to the above stated:

Mr. Bell believes that he has determined the exact spot; viz., the Indian graveyard
Henry speaks of: 'even as late as 1870, when I arrived at Fort Garry, the thicket of willows
and brambles which stretched along what is now the east side of Main street, from, near
the entrance of Graham St., south to York St., covered the site of an extensive Indian
graveyard, and was evidently the locality mentioned by Henry as the resort of the water-
snakes'.

The " water snakes" were undoubtedly common garter snakes which were
congregating in a favored area in preparation for hibernation.

Henry mentioned tuberculosis a number of times.:

"Their complaint is a cough, spitting and pains in the breast: they linger for a long
time, get very lean and seldom recover. This is the most common and fatal disease among
them ... all ages and sexes are attacked . . . Indians all sick with coughs and some at the
point of death, which prevents all hunting."

Large numbers of firearms were brought in, and traded to the Indians. Fur
bearers were trapped and game was shot in a very wasteful manner without any
thought of conservation. Buffalo were shot in much greater numbers than could
be consumed, and often for their tongues alone. Fires raged unchecked, often
started from pure carelessness. Henry frequently mentioned fires raging in every
direction in the spring and fall when the grass was dry. On October 4, 1803, he
stated: "Fire raging at every point of the compass; thick clouds of smoke nearly
deprive us of the sight of the sun and at night the view from the top of my house
is awful indeed. In every direction are flames, some leaping to a prodigious
height as the fire rushes through willows and long grass, or low places covered
with reeds and rushes." On October 24: "The plains are burned almost every-
where: only a few spots have escaped the fury of the flames."

The fires often trapped and burned herds of buffalo. On November 25 1804
when on the plains near the foot of the Pembina Mountain, Henry wrote:

Plains burned in every direction and blind buffalo seen every moment wandering
about. The poor beasts have all the hair singed off: even the skin in many places
is shrivelled up and terribly burnt. It was really pitiful to see them staggering about,
sometimes running afoul of a large stone, at other times tumbling downhill and falling into
creeks not yet frozen over. In one spot we found a whole herd lying dead. The fire
having passed only yesterday, these animals were still good and fresh, and many of them
exceedingly fat.

Agriculture began during this period but little land was broken for this
purpose. Many trading posts had sizable garden plots.

Henry reported good yields from his garden at his Park River Post:

Oct. 16th, 1803: I took my vegetables up — 300 large heads of cabbage, 8 bushels of
carrots, 16 bushels of onions, 10 bushels of turnips, some beets, parsnips, etc. 20th:
I took up my potatoes — 420 bushels, the produce of 7 bushels, exclusive of the quantity we
have roasted since our arrival and what the Indians have stolen, which must have been
at least 200 bushels more. I measured an onion, 22 inches in circumference, a carrot 18
inches long and at the thick end 14 inches in circumference, a turnip with its leaves weighed
25 pounds and the leaves alone weighed 15 pounds. The common weight is from 9 to 12
pounds without leaves.

In 1805 he raised a thousand bushels of potatoes, and as well as other stand-
ard crops, cucumbers, melons, and squash. The cucumbers he pickled in vinegar
made from the sap of the boxelder (Ace? negundo). Sugar was regularly prepared
from the sap of the same tree by the Indians and traders.

The first real attempt at agriculture dates from the establishment of the
Selkirk colony at the junction of the Red and Assiniboine rivers in 1812. They

35

81314-7—4

broke up a considerable acreage of land and planted grain. They also had
domestic stock. Undoubtedly many of the weeds common in the Prairie Pro-
vinces were introduced at this time.

1840-1870: Transition Period

This period ended the fur trade because of near extermination of the beaver
and other important fur-bearers through overlapping resulting from the keen
competition of the rival traders. Buffalo, the main food supply of both Indians
and white men, were greatly reduced and finally exterminated in Manitoba at
the end of the period. Other large game was also greatly reduced in numbers.
The Indians had not learned to hunt game birds, which were abundant. Macoun
(1883) was struck by the inability of the Indians to turn from large game to small
game for their subsistence. They had so degenerated that they preferred to get
subsistence from the government.

After the middle of September the sea ducks began to arrive, and it is no figure of
speech to say that the ponds and lakelets were alive with them. For the following six
weeks feathered game of every kind were so abundant that any person in a week could have
shot enough ducks and geese to have lasted a family all winter. The abundance of water-
fowl in the interior is of such importance at this time when Indians are being fed by the
( iovernment, that they should be compelled to lay in a stock of food for themselves during
the winter. To see hunters perishing of hunger, or living on supplies furnished by the
( Iovernment, and at the same time surrounded by millions of birds is a paradox- but these
men carry rifles, and bird shooting to them is a small business after buffalo hunting.
Within a day's journey of the Cree Reserve on the north side of the Cypress Hills, is a
large lake named by me Gull Lake, which during the last days of August was literally
alive with birds, and when one shot was enough to supply six of us with a dinner, yet these
Indians were largely depending on the Government rations at this time, and Colonel
McDonald could scarcely persuade some young men to go and kill a few ducks by liberal
offers of powder and shot. At the Assiniboine Reserve it wTas just the same, plenty of
birds in the neighborhood but scarcely any attempt made to shoot them, as the men pre-
ferred Government rations to independence. Rifles today are of little value to the plain
Indians, and they should be required to exchange these for shot guns at an early day.

Fires continued to rage over the prairie and into the forest and prevented the
successional advance of the forest community. Their effect was noted by Ma-
coun (1883):

It seems probable that at a period not very remote, a great part of this district was
covered with forest trees. The humidity of the soil and climate is sufficient for their
growth, and in some places little hummocks, resembling those formed in a forest, and
known as "cradle hills", were observed. On approaching Turtle Mountain, the tendency
of this part of the prairie to reclothe itself, is showTn by the recurrence of thickets of seed-
ling poplars on the sheltered sides of the undulations, wherever the fires have not passed
for a few years.

. . . Fire passes over the country every year, and, in 1879, in many places, burned the
life so completely out of the roots of the various grasses which have a tendency to grow in
clumps, that the following year, scarcely a blade was seen. Although the grass is short
the rainfall is quite sufficient, as there is abundance of fresh water ponds, and yet not a
shrub over six inches high exists in the country. I speak of the region east of the
Qu'Appelle trail, which we crossed in lat. 50° 03'.

. . . Aspen Poplar [Populus tremuloides] may be called the characteristic tree of the
plains. Wherever there is dry soil, not too sandy, outside of alluvium, there is aspen.
I have passed repeatedly from aspen "bluffs" on the prairies, not twenty feet high, and
with the trees not thicker than a walking stick, to continuous forests of stately trees,
with their white trunks towering to the skies. Each time I have noticed that the forest
was only kept in check by the annual fires. Until the willow and aspen roots had lost
their vitality, they persisted in sending up crop after crop of stems ever increasing in
in number, until death by exhaustion took place and permanent prairie was formed.
It has been frequently stated that aspen seeds remain in the soil, but this is not so. The
reason it reclothes the ground so many times after being swept off by fire, is the fact that
it throws up shoots from every root after a fire has killed the stem. It possesses this quality,
in common with all members of the Willow family, which it is well-known grow indis-
criminately from either roots or planted stems, and very seldom from seeds.

36

. . . Indians in past time burnt the grass over wide areas every fall, so that the young
and tender grass of the burnt districts might tempt the buffalo to migrate. On the dry
southern plain few of the grasses bear seed the year after a fire, as the surface of the ground
being bare of any covering to act as a mulch, the warm sun begins to change the grass to
hay before seed has been formed. Where the rainfall is greater this is not noticed and
heavy crops of grass loaded with seed may be seen every year. Hence certain grasses
obtain local names. A grass may be cut for hay in one locality, in another it may bear
no seed and be merely short pasture. By burning the grass, good pasture for the season
is assured, but this should always be done in spring after the cattle have roamed over it all
winter. Should the grass not be burned the young shoots grow up amongst the old grass,
and cattle and horses wander off to where there is less of this mixture.

In some ways the transition period might be considered a partial vacuum.
Buffalo and other big game had been nearly exterminated along with the import-
ant fur-bearers. Thus the people had been deprived of their main food supply
and income. The Indians had been greatly reduced by the ravages of disease,
and the remaining population, composed mainly of metis, was on the verge of
starvation. Conditions were ripe for an influx of agriculturists with their live-
stock and crops.

1870-1900: Period of Settlement

On November 19, 1869, the Hudson's Bay Company surrendered to Great
Britain rights over Rupert's Land that it had held since 1670. On July 15, 1870,
Rupert's Land was transferred to the Dominion of Canada. This political event
formally closed the period of fur trade and opened the land to agricultural deve-
lopment. At this time the population of the Red River area was 11,963, com-
posed of 1,565 whites, 9,840 metis, and 558 Indians who were settled on the land.
In March, 1871, formal provision was made for settlement on homesteads, and
survey parties were sent in to lay out the land. For the first decade there was
political unrest, and population growth was slow because of the lack of trans-
portation. Then a great surge of settlers came in, first by steamships on the Red
and Assiniboine rivers and after 1880 by the railroads.

With the coming of the settlers an increasing amount of virgin prairie was
plowed by oxen and horses. Weeds were introduced with unclean seed and
became such serious pests that in 1883 the Noxious Weeds Act was passed by
the Government of Manitoba. Livestock was brought in and replaced the buf-
falo as grazing animals. Land was fenced and farm buildings were erected.
Prairie fires were curtailed but it was still necessary to plow fire guards for protec-
tion of buildings and crops. Because of the greater labor involved, forested land
was not broken, but an increasing amount of timber was cut for firewood. At
first sod and log buildings were constructed, but later sawmills were set up and
larger timber was cut for lumber to build more substantial dwellings. In spite
of this utilization, forests spread out onto unbroken prairie because of the protec-
tion from fires.

Big game reached an all-time low in population, because of unregulated
killing for food by settlers, who were often on the verge of starvation. In 1876
the first game act in Manitoba was passed. Its provisions were very liberal and
gave the game little protection. It established closed seasons on prairie chicken,
April 1-Aug. 15; ducks, May 25- Aug. 15; elk, moose, and deer, March 1-July 1;
but no limit was placed on numbers taken. Poison was prohibited and most fur
bearers were protected from May 1 to November 1. Revisions in the following
years extended the closed season, but through lack of public support and shortage
of enforcement officers they had little effect. Animals were killed at all times of

37

81314-7—4*

the year whenever opportunity offered. In 1883, for the first time in Manitoba,
insectivorous birds were protected. By this time twenty-seven game guardians
had been appointed (Manitoba Dept. Agr., Stat., and Health, 1884).

Wildfowl were not long in discovering a readily available food supply in
the grain fields. Macoun (1883), reporting on his trip of 1880, stated:

Geese, ducks, and prairie chickens are taking to the stubble fields in the fall, so that
no difficulty will be found by incoming settlers to lay up a supply of fat fowl for the winter.

Fish received little protection. In 1881 some regulations to prevent pollution
were passed but were not enforced (Manitoba Dept. Agr. and Stat., 1883).

Agriculture was of a primitive type. Oxen, used at first for power, were
soon replaced by horses. Breaking was done with the single walking plow.
Cultivators and seed drills with 12-foot sweep, however, were brought in by
1880 along with early binders and threshers.

1900-present: Period of Intensified Agriculture

After the turn of the century, pioneering and unsettled conditions had
largely passed. Transportation had been provided by the railways. Rapid
agricultural development of the country took place as more and more land was
put under the plow.

1900-1925: Period of Horses

During the first half of the agricultural period, horses were the main source
of power. They were supplemented by large steam engines and gang plows,
on a custom basis, for breaking sod. Land breaking was confined mostly to
prairie, relatively little forested land being cleared.

The method of land survey and assignment of certain sections to the
Hudson's Bay Company and schools kept a considerable acreage in an undis-
turbed condition for some years after other land had been put under cultivation.
The land was laid out in the cardinal directions into square townships six miles
to the side. Each township thus contained 36 units, known as sections, of one
square mile each. Generous road allowances of 99 feet were left around each
section. Sections 11 and 29 in each township were set aside as school property,
and the Hudson's Bay Company retained rights to sections 8 and 26 in town-
ships whose numbers were divisible by 5 and to section 8 and to the S J and
NW j of section 28 in all other townships. This land was not sold to settlers
until after all homestead land had been taken up. The Hudson's Bay Company
land was sold first, but most of the school land did not pass into private owner-
ship until the next period. Road allowances were not disturbed except for a
wagon trail or a narrow graded road on the main travelled routes. This left
considerable land in its virgin state.

Increased agricultural activity for food production during and after the
First World War, 1914-18, resulted in the breaking of some submarginal land
which proved unprofitable and was later abandoned.

The great prairie fires that were common in the past century did not recur
during this period. However, fires started by settlers for clearing land, and from
carelessness, occasionally burned over patches of prairie and forest. These
fires retarded the successional advance of the forest but were not so frequent as
the previous conflagrations and the forest extended its range considerably.

38

Areas in the vicinity of Miniota, Virden, and Reston in Manitoba, and Redvers
and Moosomin in Saskatchewan, for example, which were destitute of trees
when settlers came in, were covered with aspen groves by 1920.

Agricultural methods are important because they had a direct effect on
vertebrates, insects and weeds. After the land had been broken from sod,
tillage was accomplished with gang plows, disk harrows, drag harrows, and
cultivators. Wheat and oats, the main crops, were cut with the binder, stooked,
and often stacked. Threshing was done on a custom basis or by a group of farmers
jointly owning an outfit. Threshing outfits were large, consisting of a large
separator and powerful self-propelled engines. The engines were at first steamers,
which for operation required, in addition to an engineer, a fireman, a man and
team to haul straw for fuel, and another man and team to haul water from a
nearby slough or well. There was a gang of pitchers and stook teams if the grain
was not stacked. Some of the straw was utilized for bedding of stabled livestock
but the great majority was burned. The straw piles were usually fired in the
evening at the end of the day's work. It was spectacular to have twenty or
more burning straw piles in sight at one time.

This type of agriculture was beneficial to wild game because it provided
food and shelter. People were becoming more conservation-minded. Better
game laws were passed and hunting seasons were established. Laws were
generally obeyed, but many people still felt it was their privilege to take game
at any time. In 1916 the Migratory Bird Convention Act was passed in co-
operation with the United States to give protection to all migrating birds.
Ducks and geese fed in increasing numbers on grain fields and did appreciable
damage to those adjacent to marshes. White-tailed deer found fields inter-
spersed with woodland ideal habitat and increased accordingly, so that regular
hunting seasons on bucks were established and several thousand were taken
annually in addition to numerous illegal kills of both sexes. Mule deer and elk
continued to decrease and remnants of the once plentiful herds retreated to
the hills.

Sharp-tailed grouse and the greater prairie chicken, although subject to
periodic cycles in abundance, generally benefited by this type of agriculture.
They found waste grain about the sites of threshing outfits, stooks, stacks,
and straw piles an abundant source of food for the winter months. Adjacent
aspen groves furnished shelter and buds, rose hips, and snowberry fruit for food.

Weeds spread with agriculture and with disturbance of the native flora.
Seeds were spread from one farm to another by the movement of unclean seed
grain and implements, particularly by custom threshing outfits. Plants that
had wind-blown seeds, such as the perennial sow thistle, Sonchus uliginosus
Bieb., and dandelion, Taraxacum officinale Weber, rapidly spread over great
areas during the first quarter of the 20th century. The harvesting methods
of this period, however, when grain was cut and hauled to a central point for
threshing, were not so effective in spreading weeds over the fields as the later
methods of swathing and combine threshing.

During this period the wheat stem sawfly, Cephus ductus Nort., and the
prairie grain wireworm, Ctenicera aeripennis destructor (Brown), became major
pests in the wheat growing areas. Both insects are native species whose numbers
increased under farming conditions. The sawfly found the bread wheats a more
favorable host plant than the native Agropyron grasses. It became a serious

39

pest in Manitoba in the period 1910-25, after which it became less important.
The reduction in numbers was due to the introduction of soft durum wheats,
which show a partial resistance to the sawfly (as opposed to hard spring wheat),
and particularly to a rotation with barley, oats, and flax, which are resistant.
Further reduction in sawfly numbers was caused by the replacement of native
grasses on roadsides and headlands by brome grass, on which the larvae fail
to reach maturity. The wireworm became a crop pest in areas of clay loam but
is not numerous in heavy clay, sandy, or gray wooded soils. On account of its
long larval stage, up to eight years, it does not fluctuate markedly in numbers
annually, but it may be more destructive in dry seasons because of greater activ-
ity in loose soil.

Several species of grasshoppers occurred in outbreak numbers in the years
1898 to 1903, 1911 to 1912, and 1919 to 1923. These included the migratory
grasshopper, Melanoplus bilituratus Walk. ( = mexicanus Sauss.); Packard's
grasshopper, Melanoplus packardii Scudd.; the red-legged grasshopper, Melan-
oplus femur-rubrum; and the clear-winged grasshopper, Camnula pellucida.
M. bilituratus laid its eggs in the fields, and C. pellucida in sod adjacent to the
fields and in pastures. The Rocky Mountain grasshopper, Melanoplus spretus
(Walsh), a migratory, long-winged species that bred in enormous numbers in
the dry, short-grass plains to the southwest in what is now Montana, Wyoming,
and adjacent states, periodically migrated into the parkland from the time of
the first explorers. The last flight into Manitoba occurred in 1901-02. The
species is now believed to be extinct.

A number of other native insects became sufficiently abundant to be des-
tructive to crops during this period. These include alfalfa caterpillars, Colias
philodice Latr. and C. eury theme Bdv. ; the alfalfa plant bug, Adelphocoris lineo-
latus (Goeze), and the rapid plant bug, A. rapidus (Say) ; the army worm, Pseuda-
letia unipuncta (Haw.), which attacks grains and grasses; the beet webworm,
Loxostege sticticalis (L.), which attacks flax and a great variety of garden plants;
cutworms, Euxoa ochrogaster, E. tessellata, and other species, which are general
feeders; flea beetles, Phyllotreta spp., which attack beets, cabbages, radish, and
rape; the six-spotted leaf hopper, Macrosteles fascifrons (Stoal), which attacks a
wide range of hosts and transmits the disease aster yellows; the plant bugs
Liocoris lineolaris (Beauv.) and L. borealis Kelton, which feed on the developing
seeds of alfalfa and on the foliage of a wide variety of garden plants; the pepper-
grass beetle, Galeruca browni Blake, which attacks turnips; the strawberry root
weevil, Brachyrhinus ovatus (L.), which spreads from snowberry and other native
plants to cultivated strawberries; the currant fruit fly, Epochra canadensis
(Loew), which became a serious pest of cultivated currants and gooseberries.

The imported cabbageworm, Pieris rapae (L.), from Europe, and the Colo-
rado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say), which spread from Colorado
into the parkland with the introduction of the potato, became firmly established
pests requiring annual control measures. The corn earworm, Heliothis zea
(Boddie), migrates in annually from the United States and attacks corn but is
unable to survive the winter. The imported currantworm, Nematus ribesii
(Scop.), was introduced with the early shipments of nursery stock.

An efficient plant inspection service was set up by the Government of
Canada under the Destructive Insect and Pest Act, passed in 1910, to prevent
further importations of injurious insects.

40

1925-yresent: Period of Mechanization

The great increase in population during this period, accompanied by the
development of the tractor and automobile, rural electrification, and almost
complete mechanization of farms, produced great changes in the parkland. In
many districts the native vegetation was completely destroyed, and in others
only a few relatively undisturbed areas, generally on poor agricultural land,
remain.

Horse power for farm work was gradually replaced by the tractor. Horses
were still used to some extend as late as 1940. After that date they were retained
only for odd jobs and winter use.

The development of farm machinery is important ecologically because
changing methods of tillage affected the abundance and distribution of weeds,
insects, and such animals as the jack rabbit and sharp-tailed grouse.

Tractors first appeared about 1909. At first they were large steam machines
used mainly for threshing and pulling heavy breaking plows. Gasoline-powered
engines, which appeared about 1914, were also large and cumbersome but smaller
than steamers. After 1925 smaller engines suitable for pulling plows and other
machinery were produced, but they did not come into general use until the late
1930's. The Manitoba Department of Agriculture (1939) reported only 195
tractors sold in 1932 and 3008 in 1938, after which there was a slight drop in
annual sales as the supply saturated the market. The preference was for the
smaller machine of 10-20 to 12-35 h.p., economically suitable for a single farm
with the implements of that time. There was another upsurge in buying in the
late 1940's as more modern machines were produced. In 1949, 7741 tractors
were sold in Manitoba. Bigger machinery then called for larger tractors and
the 22-31 to 27-39 h.p. class was favored.

Along with the development of the tractor was a corresponding develop-
ment of tractor-drawn machinery, tillage practices, and harvesting methods.
Four-furrowed gang plows were largely replaced by the oneway disk and duck-
foot cultivator in the drought years of the 1930's, when it was necessary to
produce a cloddy surface with trash cover to prevent wind erosion. Disk seeders
became common in 1938 to 1940, and a flexible disk seeder, 16 feet in width, in
four sections, was introduced in 1950. The high cost of labor and scarcity of
help during the Second World War, 1939-45, which forced the farmer to attempt
to work his land single-handed or with family help, stimulated the use of all
possible labor-saving machinery. One of the most important was the combine
thresher, either tractor-drawn or self-propelled, which eliminated the large
gangs of men required for the stationary thresher. The grain was swathed in
windrows. The combines picked up the grain from the swaths and threshed it
as they moved over the field. The straw was either scattered with a spreader
or left in long strips. In spite of recommendations to the contrary, many fields
were burned to remove the straw. This type of harvesting aggravated the weed
problem, particularly that of wild oats, by scattering the seeds. Ergot was
similarly scattered over the fields and shallow tillage with the oneway disk was
not effective in destroying the resting stage. Fires, which were started to burn
the stubble, besides increasing the hazard of erosion, often escaped to the road-
sides and into adjacent stands of trees. The burnt fields blew clear of snow in
the winter, with the result that huge drifts piled up in water courses and wind-
breaks.

41

A great stimulus to land clearing was the introduction of the bulldozer in
1945-48. This powerful machine easily pushed over mature trees and piled them
up for burning. Sometimes a blade was used to shear them off at ground level.
This work was usually done in the winter, when the ground was frozen and young
saplings easily snapped off with the frost. The bulldozed land was run over with
a heavy disk the next spring and put into crop. From 1946 to 1952, 43,000 to
60,000 acres were broken annually, bringing the total cultivated acreage in
Manitoba to about 8f million.

With the development of farm machinery a corresponding development in
automobiles, road building, and highway transportation occurred. Automobiles
became common after the First World War and roads were improved to handle
this new traffic. Better roads were built as power machinery became available
and traffic demanded them. At first, with only horses for power, only a few
narrow grades were built. Graveled highways were being constructed in 1930,
and a few years later concrete and asphalt roads. There is now a network of
wide, paved trunk highways, gravelled secondary highways, and graded roads.
Grades are built high so that they will blow snow-free. The result of this road
building program has been an almost complete destruction of native roadside
vegetation. The grade and accompanying borrow pits have taken most of the
width of the road allowance, and for trunk highways additional footage has
been used. Along the main highways this disturbed soil has been sown to brome
grass to prevent erosion, but on lesser roads ditches have been allowed to grow
up with weeds. Considerable shrub growth on the road allowances has been
killed with herbicides. In many districts where the fields are not fenced they
are cultivated right down into the ditch and there is no sod margin.

The removal of native vegetation, particularly from hilly land, increased
the rate of water runoff with the result that low lands were subject to flooding.
There were also areas of low-lying marsh or semi-marsh land that attracted the
agriculturist. A drainage program was hence started. Roadside ditches were
often utilized for drainage purposes. In the flat country on both sides of the
Red River this was a common practice. These ditch banks made excellent
egg-laying sites for the grasshopper M. bivittatus.

During this period aspen lost its value as fuel in competition with coal and
oil. Farmers became well-to-to and found it less laborious and more efficient
to equip their houses with stokers and oil burners than to cut wood. Compara-
tively little aspen is now used for heating purposes. It is now treated as a weed
and in land clearing is piled up and burned. Wooded areas are fast disappearing.

In addition to the high value of grain crops and the ease of clearing with a
bulldozer, further impetus to breaking new land has been the reduction in the
number of horses and the lessened need for pastures. For dairy herds it has been
found more profitable to break the land and sow it to brome grass and alfalfa
rather than leave it in native sod. Native pastures remain only on marginal
agricultural land — hilly, stony, or sandy. Here overgrazing has reduced the
more nutritious grasses, and pasture sage and snowberry have increased. Except
where there has been excessive trampling, aspen has increased in native pastures.

A direct effect of intensified agriculture has been a marked increase in wind
and water erosion. Plant fiber and soil structure have been broken down. As
an erosion preventive the retention of straw and trash cover is recommended.
A large amount of straw, however, lowers the yield because of its capacity to

42

hold nitrifying bacteria, and fertilizers high in nitrogen are required to maintain
yields. Many farmers still have the destructive habit of burning off the straw
and stubble with little thought to the future condition of the soil. It is a general
practice to summer-fallow every third year to conserve moisture and kill weeds.
To kill the weeds, six or seven cultivations are necessary. This destroys all trash
cover and so pulverizes the soil that it is easily eroded. Severe erosion takes
place with high winds and heavy rains. It is estimated that soils that have been
under cultivation for 22 years have lost a large percentage of organic matter,
20 per cent for prairie soils and 30 per cent for gray wooded soils.

Changes taking place during this period have affected game birds and
mammals. People have generally become aware of the need for conservation
and scientific wild life management. G. W. Malaher, Director of Game and
Fisheries Branch, Manitoba Department of Mines and Natural Resources, sum-
med this attitude up in the introduction to his report for 1953:

One of the most encouraging aspects in the field of fish and wild life management
during recent years has been the growing recognition of the place of research in man-
agement ... It is becoming generally recognized that protection alone is insufficient in
the maintenance or improvement of fish and wild life populations. Protection will not
enable a species to survive if the right environment within which the species can thrive
no longer exists. To determine the requirements of a particular species it is necessary to
know something of the species itself, its life history, habits, food and other environmental
needs.

It is therefore gratifying to report that during the period under review research has
taken, and it is hoped will continue to take, an increasingly important place in the man-
agement of our fish and wild life resources.

Game preserves and sanctuaries, hunting seasons and bag limits based on
population, food, and habitat surveys, have been established. Men are being
trained at universities in the technical aspects of game management and are
being employed by provincial game departments. An outstanding research
center for the study of wild fowl has been established at Delta, Man., by the
North American Wildlife Institute. In spite of increased hunting pressure with
the expanding human population, game has been able to hold its own or even
increase under wise management when habitat destruction is not too great.
Ducks Unlimited, an organization supported by contributions from sportsmen,
has accomplished a great deal in habitat improvement for ducks by the con-
struction of dams and the reflooding of marsh land that had been drained and
found valueless for agricultural purposes. Muskrats benefited also from more
stable water levels and increased so that local residents could obtain an income
by trapping the surplus. In large marshlands methods of muskrat farming were
developed. It was found that land could not be permanently flooded and continue
to produce high populations of muskrats indefinitely. Natural succession of
vegetation rendered these areas progressively less suitable as muskrat habitat.
Periodic draining and reflooding produced more favorable conditions. For this
purpose dams and dikes were built and maintained largely by Indians under
white supervision. The Indians were also employed in trapping a carefully
regulated annual take, thus stabilizing their economy. Outside the heavily
populated areas, and hence outside the parkland proper, the provincial game
departments have done much toward placing trapping on a stable basis and
eliminating cutthroat competition that would result in serious overtrapping,
by introduction of the registered trap line system. In this system a single indi-
vidual is given sole rights of trapping in a certain area. He is encouraged to
practise conservation and management and to leave sufficient breeding stock.

43

The beaver population has responded remarkably under management and has
increased to a peak that has threatened its food supply. It has become necessary
to extend the trapping season for the entire winter and remove quotas in order
to try to reduce the population in both registered trap line districts and settled
portions of the Province. In a trip by boat along 10 miles of the Assiniboine
River east of Brandon in November, 1954, I counted 14 beaver lodges. This
abundance must closely approach that at the height of the fur trade.

There is still considerable trapping of muskrat, weasel, mink, skunk, fox,
coyote, and other fur animals in thickly settled areas of the parkland. To supple-
ment the taking of wild fur animals and to produce pelts of high quality and
improved types, fur ranching has become a big business. In 1952-53 the value
of fur taken in the wild and that raised on farms in Manitoba was approximately
equal at a little over two million dollars each. Mink and fox were the two species
chiefly raised on the farms. It is tragic that fashion should change so rapidly
that fur prices fluctuate violently and the production of fur cannot become a
basic economy of a large group of the population.

The white-tailed deer extended its range into the parkland after 1900 and
has increased greatly in settled areas under protection of short open seasons
during which only one buck may be shot per license. Starting from an annual
kill of only a few hundred (840 reported taken) in 1933, the take increased to
an estimate of 30,950 taken by 45,986 hunters in 1951. It then became necessary
to open the season on both sexes to reduce the population and try to prevent
winter starvation. High populations endanger the winter food supply and heavy
winter kills take place in seasons of heavy snowfall as in the winters of 1948-49
and 1955-56.

Although the population of waterfowl is definitely lower than at the beginning
of the period of mechanization, sizeable populations still remain. In 1952 there
was an estimated kill of 278,739 ducks by 24,283 licensed hunters in Manitoba.
Farmers, who are not required to take out licenses, made no returns but took
an additional number. Upland game birds, mostly sharp-tailed grouse, contri-
buted an estimated 80,980 to the hunters' bag in 1952, the peak year of a cycle.

Hunting pressure on all species of game has increased tremendously through
the use of the automobile, to which few areas of the parkland are now inaccessible.
Improved firearms and ammunition have also increased the efficiency of the
individual hunter. Fortunately for the game, however, the skill of the average
hunter has decreased. The majority of hunters appear to have no idea of the
range of a shotgun and shoot off boxes of ammunition at birds hopelessly out of
range. This so alarms the birds that few venture within range of the careful
hunter. Around many of the larger marshes, "firing lines" develop where hunters
line up only a few yards apart. Each man is so anxious to get in a shot ahead of
his neighbor that birds are shot at long before they come within range, causing
them to fly so high that only a few are taken. The best way to hunt geese was to
allow them to feed in a grain field for a few days, undisturbed, and then dig pits
and set up decoys. It is now impossible to find an undisturbed flock. As soon
as a flock leaves a marsh, cars of hunters follow it. If the flock alights in a field,
a dozen cars converge on the surrounding road allowances within a few minutes.
The birds get up well out of range and only occasionally come close to a lucky
hunter.

44

Deer hunting, too, has developed much inefficiency. The majority of hun-
ters prefer to drive around in cars and jump out to shoot at any they see out in
the open. There is much wild shooting and the deer soon learn to stay in the
thick willow swamps, where they dodge about like rabbits when hunters attempt
to drive them out. Stalking has become a lost art, and hunters awaiting where
deer are expected to appear make all kinds of noises and movements that alarm
the deer.

Insect pests became of greater importance. Many of the destructive
species were introduced from Europe and native species commenced to attack
cultivated plants in preference to native hosts before the period of mechanization.
There are, however, several that have become of economic importance more
recently.

The sweetclover weevil, Sitona cylindricollis Fahr., of European origin,
became a pest in Manitoba in 1939 and extended its range rapdily to the west
and south. It does not attack any plants native to the parkland but is a major
pest of sweet clover (Bird, 1947) and may also feed on alfalfa in the autumn.
The European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis (Hbn.), first appeared in Manitoba
in 1950, entering via Minnesota. After the introduction of commercial sunflower
growing in Manitoba in 1942, three species of native insects became important
pests and several others became pests of less importance. The banded sun-
flower moth, Phalonia hospes (Wlshm.), attacked the seeds (Westdal, 1950); the
sunflower maggot, Strauzia longipennis (Wied.), mined in the pith (Westdal,
1951); and the sunflower beetle, Zygogramma exclamationis (F.), devoured the
foliage (Westdal, 1952). Grasshoppers appeared in a major outbreak during the
severe drought years of 1930-1942 (Mitchener, 1954). The severity of the out-
break of Melanoplus bilituratus at this time was increased by the large amount of
cultivated land and ridges of wind-blown soil, both of which formed ideal egg-
laying sites. Melanoplus bivittatus was favored by the abundance of sow thistle,
Sonchus uliginosus Bieb., and succulent crops on the heavier clay soils of the Red
River Valley. It first became a major pest in 1932 (Criddle, 1933). Camnula
pellucida, which prefers sod for its oviposition sites, found overgrazed pastures
and roadsides well suited to its needs.

Chemicals for weed control were introduced in 1946. At that time it was
found possible to kill mustard and other broad-leaved weeds in crops of seedling-
grain by spraying with 2,4-D without injuring the grain. Since then consider-
able advances have been made in the use of selective weedicides, and thousands
of acres are sprayed annually. Chemical weed control is not a cure-all. There
has been some relaxation in necessary cultural practices, and immune weeds such
as wild oats and wild millet have increased with the removal of broad-leaved
competitors. Seeds persist in the soil for many years and annual treatments are
necessary.

Since 1949 herbicides have been used extensively by municipalities for the
elimination of willows and aspens in the roadside ditches. Powerful turbine
sprayers blow the chemicals into adjacent property. Killing of willows where
they cause snow to collect on the highway is necessary, but poison crews have
systematically gone up and down road allowances spraying everything. They
have killed many harmless shade trees and bushes and eliminated important cover
for wildlife where the road allowance may contain the last cover for miles. The
chemical 2,4-D drifts with the wind for several hundred yards and at that distance

45

kills or severely injures tender garden and native plants. Its general use has a
profound effect on the parkland.

Chemicals for the control of insect pests were introduced about 1867.
Probably the first was paris green, which was used for control of the Colorado
potato beetle. It and other arsenicals were used as stomach poisons. Pyre-
thrum, derris, and nicotine sulphate were the main contact insecticides. Along
with insecticides, sometimes in combination, fungicides have been used. Since
1945 many new insecticides, chlorinated hydrocarbons and organic phosphates,
have been introduced and have largely replaced the arsenicals. Most of these
are both contact and stomach insecticides. The first to come into general use
was DDT. It was used for the control of house flies, mosquitoes, and many
chewing and sucking insects. Chlordane came into general use for grasshopper
control in 1948, to be replaced first by aldrin in 1950, then by dieldrin in 1952,
and later by heptachlor. They, along with toxaphene, have also been used
widely for the control of grasshoppers and other insects in the parkland.

The use of these insecticides and fungicides has produced other problems.
Pickett (1949) and Bartlett (1956) have shown how the use of hydrocarbon
insecticides has affected not only the species for which it was applied but also
other species of insects and mites that might be present. Organic phosphates
have produced the same results but to a lesser degree because of a shorter residual
toxicity. Parasites and predators may even be more susceptible to the poison
than the host, with the result that the surviving host insects reproduce rapidly
without their natural enemies. Furthermore, they may have survived because
of resistance to the chemical. They are left to reproduce, and by repeated
application of poison over a number of generations a resistant strain is selected.
This has happened with house flies following repeated use of DDT. Mites
generally show a high degree of resistance and almost at once increase from low
numbers to high populations when a hydrocarbon insecticide such as DDT, is
applied to control an associated insect pest, because of the reduction of parasites
and predators. Similar increases of mites have occurred with the application of
sulphur fungicides. Pickett (1949) also demonstrated that the codling moth
population in Nova Scotia increased through the repeated use of sulphur fung-
icides. The use of copper fungicides, on the other hand, had no effect on the
parasites and predators and the population of codling moth decreased when they
were used in place of sulphur.

The use of agricultural chemicals, both for the control of undesirable plants
and for insect control, may have broad ecological effects. It is not safe to make
generalizations, as effects vary locally and in different seasons or years. Much
more research is needed.

According to Rudd and Genelly (1955), herbicides affect wildlife through the
effect on plant cover and might be beneficial if they broke up dense cover and
produced "edge" environment. On the other hand, they may remove protective
cover plants that produce food in the form of berries or seeds. The effect of
insecticides on food supply is very important. Insectivorous birds have been
forced to leave areas of treated forest land because of reduced invertebrate food.
Raccoons have been affected by the destruction of crayfish in waters treated
with DDT. The resistance of vertebrates to insecticides varies with the species.
In an area sprayed with half a pound of dieldrin per acre, ducks were unaffected;
fish, herons, and egrets were killed; and pheasants showed sensitivity. Dieldrin

46

at 1^ pounds per acre, applied to cover crops in an orchard, killed pheasants,
mice, rabbits, and snakes. Toxaphene at two to three pounds per acre caused
some pheasant mortality. Generally insecticides applied at recommended doses
for insect control do not visibly affect vertebrates, but through carelessness
stronger doses may be applied and concentrates may be spilled where they are
accessible.

Martin (1955) pointed out that the necessity to protect domestic animals
from dangerous chemicals also serves as a safeguard to wildlife but widespread
harm could be done by the use of chemicals that have not been fully tested, and
that tests cannot keep up to the rapid release of new chemicals. The significance
of this lag in knowledge is demonstrated by the work of DeWitt (1955), who has
shown that, although adult birds (bobwhite, quail) showed no ill effects from small
doses of DDT, there was heavy mortality in young hatched from eggs laid by
these birds. Only seven per cent survived for six weeks.

Changes in Plant Dominants and Succession

As indicated by Anderson (1956), disturbance of the native fauna and flora
by human activities has produced changes in plant dominants and in succession
of native plants. Many species have been introduced from abroad and have
become established. They may be cultivated plants, weeds, or incidental species
associated with man. Some have found niches among native plants and it is
difficult, even for experts, to determine if they are native. Some hybridize with
native species. They form new communities and new habitats for animals.

It is now difficult to find undisturbed areas in the parkland. Coupland
(1954) stated that the importance of preserving areas of native vegetation for
study purposes in as nearly as possible their natural state was recognized in
1917 when the Ecological Society of America set up a committee for the pre-
servation of natural conditions. In 1931 the committee for the study of plant
and animal communities was established, and in 1935 the Society appointed a
committee for Saskatchewan. In 1941 the Saskatchewan group had five reserves
set aside for the study of grassland, and is endeavouring to locate other repre-
sentative areas. The greatest effort is being expended on setting up grassland
preserves, as these areas are rapidly being cultivated and reserves, parks, and
nature sanctuaries have not been created for them as they have for forested land.

It is not easy to manage an area and preserve it in an undisturbed, primitive;
condition. Fires, grazing, and disturbance by dominant animals are a part of
the environment. Removal of any of these factors upsets the natural balance.
Grazing by domesticated stock may approach that of buffalo and other wildlife
but differs because of food preferences and habits of the individual species. For
instance, cattle do not make dust wallows or paw through snow to reach the
grass, as did buffalo. Coupland (1954) stated:

The management of grassland reserves requires careful consideration. Each reserve
must be managed according to its own characteristics . . .

. . . The role of fire, artificial clipping and other factors must also be considered in
managing grassland reserves . . . The Saskatchewan committee has decided that the essential
thing for the main reserves is to avoid overgrazing — either cumulative or during severe
drought periods — which would appreciably alter the virgin character of the grassland.
Fencing of the area is necessary in connection with this aim. The prime essential is con-
sidered to be that the arrangements should be made in such a way as to ensure that grass-
land reserves will not be upset or materially altered at any time in the future, and that no
change in policy can be made except after due consideration. Once such reserves are
destroyed or damaged they can probably never be restored and may not be replaced
elsewhere.

47

Weaver and Fitzpatrick (1943) have experimental proof of the effect of
fire on prairie:

Experiments over a period of only 3-5 years have shown that the accumulation of
debris greatly retards growth in spring. The soil warms more slowly since it does not
receive the usual insolation. Not only is there an actual diminution of the basal cover,
but also certain of the smaller and earlier species are greatly handicapped in growth and
tend to disappear. Thus, occasional fires every two or three years renovate unmowed
prairies and are distinctly beneficial if they occur in spring before growth is renewed.

Weaver's experiments, however, were conducted during favorable growing
seasons in an area of heavier growth than that of the aspen parkland.

In forested areas it is now becoming recognized that fire is a factor that has
always been present and that complete fire protection in managed areas does not
necessarily produce the desired results. Sometimes controlled burning is necessary
to promote regeneration of desired species and remove competitors. Spurr (1954)
showed that complete protection from fire in Itasca Park, Minnesota, will
result in the destruction of Norway pine, Pinus resinosa Ait., which the park
was set up to preserve. He has shown that "they owe their establishment to
the clearing of ground by these fires, and their continued existence to their
ability to withstand the fires after they have reached sapling size." If fires are
excluded they will be replaced by boreal or hardwood forest. Halliday (1935)
traced the history of fires in the Riding Mountain of Manitoba and showed
that repeated burning has suppressed white spruce in favor of aspen. In areas of
jack pine, Pinus banksiana Lamb., fire promotes regeneration by stimulating
the germination of dormant seeds.

Prairie

Very little, if any, prairie in the parkland of Manitoba and eastern Saskat-
chewan now remains in its virgin condition. It has been modified in varying
degrees by human interference. The greatest factor has been overgrazing and
trampling by domestic stock. Fires have been less frequent than formerly.
Through fencing, a few areas have been excluded from domestic stock and lack
the modifying effect of grazing as originally occurred.

Railroad rights-of-way and some ungraded road allowances have been
considered representative. The former, however, have been modified by an
appreciable deposit of soot and cinders, annual fires, and absence of grazing.
The accumulation of soot on the snow along railroads absorbs the heat of the
sun and causes the snow to melt earlier than on adjacent prairie, particularly
on south-facing slopes. These early bare areas in the spring attract deer and
grouse. At this time of the year numbers of both are killed by trains. The
switch to diesel-oil engines from coal-burning locomotives, commenced in 1954,
will remove the modifying effect of soot. Road allowances of native vegetation
are so narrow that they are subject to deposition of wind-blown soil from adjacent
fields and the invasion of weeds and other ruderals from both field and road.
In pastures, horses spread many weed seeds by their droppings, whereas cattle,
sheep, buffalo, and deer, which chew their cuds, destroy most of the seeds they
consume.

Coupland (1950) stated: "Overgrazing results in favoring the less palatable
and the low-growing species at the expense of palatable and tall-growing ones."
The most conspicuous change brought about by overgrazing is a marked increase
in the abundance of the pasture sage, Artemisia frigida. In some severely

48

overgrazed pastures on sandy land an almost pure stand of this species develops.
On heavier soils the snowberry, Symphoricarpos occidentalis (Fig. 44), increases
to the exclusion of grass from large patches. It also grows in profusion along
headlands and fence rows where there is an accumulation of drift soil.

In sandy areas the blue grama grass, Bouteloua gracilis, and the sun-
loving sedge, Car ex pensylvanica Lam. var. digyna Boeckl., increase with over-
grazing. Overgrazing aggravates drought conditions by removal of vegetative
cover and exposure to excessive evaporation and runoff. This in turn favors
certain plants. Weaver and Hansen (1941) recorded a great increase of western
wheat grass, Agropyron smithii, under drought conditions in eastern Nebraska
and stated that this early growing species further depletes moisture for later
species and thus crowds them out. This grass is common in southwestern Mani-
toba and provides a favored food plant and egg-laying site for the clear-winged
grasshopper, Camnula pellucida. Overgrazing and drought appear to favor an
increase of A. smithii in this area, and hence promote an increase of C. pellucida.
Many other species of grasshoppers are also favored by shortgrass conditions
produced by overgrazing.

The blue grasses, Poa pratensis, P. compressa, P. interior, and P. arida,
increase with drier conditions through drainage and grazing. They have spread
in many pastures and in some cases form pure stands. This is particularly
noticeable in the Red River Valley, where many pastures and roadsides now
support pure Poa stands. Jackson (1924) forecast that Poa spp. will be the domi-
nant vegetation in the Red River Valley area. Poa spp. are attractive to Camnula
pellucida.

The introduced brome grass, Bromus inermis, has been planted in many
cultivated pastures and on roadsides and headlands. It grows 2\ to 3 feet in
height and establishes pure stands, which spread and crowd out other species,
particularly when the sod has been broken by wheeled vehicles, trampling, or
other disturbance. After several years, however, it becomes root-bound through
the lack of nitrogen and the stand is reduced in vigor. Under such conditions
with grazing it may be replaced by Poa spp. Farmers increase the vigor of
brome by planting it with alfalfa, which fixes nitrogen. Where forest cover
is reduced by disturbance, brome grass often invades and eventually takes over.
Brome on roadsides is regularly mown for hay. New growth after mowing is
attractive to Camnula pellucida and is often used for egg beds, but Poa spp. are
preferred. The rank, unmown growth is generally unattractive to grasshoppers
except Melanoplus bivittatus, which feeds extensively on the foliage and causes
a conspicuous blackened appearance to the stand.

In pastures of brome and Poa spp., tall green spots are noted where animal
droppings have increased the nitrogen. The grasses in these patches, although
appearing lush and attractive, for some reason are unpalatable and are avoided
by livestock.

Some goldenrods, Solidago rigida L., S. lepida DC, and S. canadensis L. ;
coneflower, Ratibida columnifera; aster, Aster ericoides; gumweed, Grindelia
squarrosa; and golden aster, Chrysopsis villosa, increase with disturbance and over-
grazing in pastures. They are not palatable and are conspicuous when in flower.

Along headlands and fence rows, particularly where drift soil accumulates,
Solidago canadensis, Symphoricarpos occidentalis, Aster ericoides, A. laevis, and

49

Monarda ftstulosa grow along with Bromus inermis, Calamovilfa longifolia, and
other grasses.

Where prairie is grazed to the extent that bare patches of ground appear,
there is an invasion of annual weeds, such as ragweed, Ambrosia artemisiifolia L. ;
false ragweed, Iva xanthifolia Nutt. ; peppergrass, Lepidium spp. ; bluebur,
Lappula echinata Gilib., and shepherd's-purse, Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medic.

In low spots that are grazed, particularly alkaline ones, foxtail, Hordeum
jubatum, becomes dominant and may develop a pure stand. It is palatable
when young but the long-awned seeds are very irritating to grazing animals as
they pierce the nose and mouth and cause festering sores on the gums and tongue.

Roadside prairie near Lyleton, Manitoba, where the original dominants
were Stipa viridula, S. comata, and Agropyron smithii, was severely disturbed by
drift soil and wind erosion in the 'thirties. Allen (1939) reported:

In 1936 fully half of the road allowance area, severely damaged by erosion, fostered
societies of false ragweed, Russian thistle, bind weed Bilderdykia convolvulus [= Polygonum
convolvulus L.l, lamb's quarters [Chenopodium album L.] and worm wood, Artemisia
biennis, either in pure or mixed stands. Sweet clover seed blown from the fields also
became established in many of the ditches. . .Agropyron smithii was the first grass to come
back and in places it completely smothered the weeds. In other locations Stipa viridula
came to its assistance. In sandy locations, Calamovilfa longifolia either assisted it or
first became established. At a few points Agropyron repens competed with it for dom-
inance. Bromus inermis (likely escaped from cultivation) and Poa compressa have joined
with it in places to form a sod.

The Weed Problem on Cultivated Land

Cultivation is designed to kill all plant life and replace it with a pure stand
of desirable species that will serve as food for man or domestic animals. This
objective is never completely reached because a number of plants, including
many introduced species, thrive under cultivation and invade the fields. These
weeds have become a major problem of the agriculturist.

Groh (1949), in summarizing 25 years of weed survey work in Canada, lists
about 1200 weed species, nearly one-quarter of all the flowering plants. His
interpretation of a weed is very broad and includes:

Not only undoubtedly noxious and nuisance plants but also an}^ native plant per-
sisting more or less regularly under the changed conditions of settlement, any alien plant
establishing itself or spreading from cultivation to maintain itself unaided, and any poison-
ous or otherwise injurious plant.

Further, Groh did not survey fields and intentionally avoided them. He stated:

Few weeds of farm land are absent from waysides, towns, railway and other yards,
and many that go to make up the total weed nuisance scarcely appear in crops.

Groh lists the source of origin of all weeds recorded. His definition of a weed
and method of survey would weight the list heavily with native species. In spite
of this, the percentage of introduced species runs high. Of some 230 species
listed for the area concerned in this publication, 79 are listed as of European
origin and 26 of Eurasian origin.

The time when weeds first became a problem in the parkland is not known.
Some were introduced with unclean seed by fur traders who cultivated gardens,
and by early settlers. It is known that weeds plagued the Red River settlers
and as early as 1883 the Manitoba Noxious Weeds Act was passed. At that
time weeds were recognized to cause a serious loss to farmers and steps were
taken to control them. Lamb's-quarters, Chenopodiwn album L.; peppergrass,

50

Lepidium sp. ; wild buckwheat, Polygonum convolvulus L. ; sunflowers, Helianthus
spp.; thistles; and stinkweed, Thlaspi arvense L., were mentioned as being
abundant. Canada thistle, Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop., was found growing about
the sites of old Hudson's Bay Company forts near Brandon, Manitoba, by
settlers in 1880. It has become a favorite food of the painted-lady butterfly,
Vanessa cardui (L.), which in years of abundance severely defoliates it. Green
foxtail, Setaria viridis (L.) Beauv., and wild oats, Avena fatua L., were brought
in by early settlers. The 1895 report of the Manitoba Weeds Commission lists
the following additional weeds as most injurious: tumbling mustard, Sisymbrium
altissimum L. ; wild mustard, Sinapis arvensis L. [Brassica kaber (DC.) L.C.
Wheeler var. pinnatifida (Stokes) L.C. Wheeler]; hare's-ear mustard, Conringia
orientalis (L.) Dumort.; ball mustard, Neslia paniculata (L.) Desv.; false flax,
Camelina saliva (L.) Crantz; and cow cockle, Saponaria vaccaria L. Russian
thistle, Salsola pesiifer A. Nels., was mentioned as being found along the railroad
near Wawanesa. The first perennial sow thistle, Sonchus arvensis L., a weed of
European origin, was reported from Cartwright, Manitoba, in 1895, but it was
not recognized as a serious pest until between 1900 and 1906, when patches were
found all over the Red River Valley. It spread rapidly by its wind-blown seeds
and by 1910 was considered the worst noxious weed. It thrives best on heavy
soils with abundant moisture conditions. It also seeds rapidly into newly broken
and disturbed forest land in northern areas. In the dry years of the 1930's it
was given a severe setback by a combination of drought and grasshoppers.
The two-striped grasshopper, Melanoplus biviltalus, is attracted by its milky
juice and eats its leaves and stems so continuously that the plant dies of starva-
tion. During the years of increased rainfall in 1945-54 sow thistle again became
a serious weed.

Leafy spurge, Euphorbia esula L., was probably brought into Manitoba by
the Mennonite settlers with a German wheat known as spelt. It was first
noticed on a farm near Rounthwaite, Manitoba, in ,1900. The farmer planted
rye on the field and sold the infested seed to other farmers in the district. He
also pulled a cultivator through the patch and spread roots over his farm. Norman
Criddle reported the occurrence and indicated the danger of it becoming a
noxious weed. It was not until 1923, however, when the weed became wide-
spread in the Miami-Morden area, that steps were taken to eradicate it. It is
found on clay soils but is well adapted to sandy soil where the necessary cultiva-
tion required to control it cannot be practiced on account of the danger of soil
erosion. It is now widely established and thousands of dollars are being spent
annually to keep it in check. It has also spread to uncultivated areas of sandy
land through the agency of birds. This is particularly well demonstrated in the
Spruce Woods Forest Reserve, where many hundreds of patches now occur.
On a special survey of the Shilo area alone, by the Manitoba Weeds Commission
in 1950, 1435 patches were counted. Stuart Criddle has observed mourning
doves feeding in patches of leafy spurge and patches of the weed starting under
trees where the birds stop to rest. From one seedling a patch develops by means
of roots and chokes out other vegetation. Sheep are the only domestic animals
that eat the foliage. They can be used to eradicate leafy spurge by close grazing;

Russian thistle, although mentioned in 1895, did not cause concern until
the dry years about 1920, when it was becoming established in the Red River
Valley. It is a weed of the lighter soils and of the drier years. In the great
drought of the 1930's it constituted the major plant cover of many abandoned

51

81314-7—5

fields. Growing in a dense mat, it did much to prevent wind erosion. At such
times, although rather laxative, it was eaten by livestock while young and tender,
and some farmers even put it up as emergency hay. Smith et al. (1952), who
carried out nutritional studies with the grasshopper Melanoplus bilituratus,
found it of poor food value.

A particularly interesting point is the apparent susceptibility to heat, of grasshoppers
fed on Russian thistle as indicated by the severe mortality, on this food only, in 1945 at
temperatures about 110° F.

The fact that Russian thistle is also an unfavourable food, particularly with respect
to egg production, is of significance on the western prairies, where in some areas and in
some years this plant may form the major food supply.

On the return to years of higher rainfall, Russian thistle ceased to be a
troublesome weed in Manitoba but persisted in the drier parts of Saskatchewan.

Sweet clover has been introduced and cultivated for forage and honey
production, for which it is excellent. Its seeds have a hard coat and require
scarification before planting to ensure rapid germinating. Because of this they
may lie dormant in the soil for several years. Being small, the seeds are easily
wind-blown. For these reasons the plant has become a weed. White sweet
clover, Melilotus alba Desr., is the commonest species, but the yellow sweet clover,
M . officinalis (L.) Lam., is also found in abundance. In fields where sweet clover
has been allowed to go to seed, seedlings appear for several years after. When
cut and threshed with wheat it imparts a flavor to the wheat known as melilot
taint, which is objectionable to the milling industry. Sweet clover grows
abundantly along roadsides, where it flourishes on high-lime soil that is exposed
after the humus is removed by graders. It escapes from cultivation and spreads
over adjacent prairie, disturbed land, and abandoned fields. It is attacked by
the sweet-clover weevil, a species introduced from Europe.

Couch grass, Agropyron repens (L.) Beauv., which is thought to be of Eura-
sian origin, has taken over much disturbed sod land and has invaded fields, where
it is difficult to eradicate. Abandoned fields are often invaded by this grass. It
makes reasonably good pasture and prevents soil erosion by means of its creeping
root stocks. Along with wild oats and wild millet it is not affected by the selec-
tive weed killer 2,4-D. The removal of the competitive broad-leaved weeds with
chemical may have resulted in an increase in these three major weeds in crop land.

Field bindweed, Convolvulus arvensis L., a perennial of European origin,
began to appear in patches in the Emerson and Morden areas in 1936. By 1942
it was considered one of the most common perennials.

Weeds of recent introduction are Russian knapweed, Centaurea repens L.;
Loesel's mustard, Sisymbrium loeselii L.; hoary cress, Cardaria draba (L.) Desv. ;
bladder campion, Silene cucubulus Wibel. Since 1950, Tartary buckwheat,
Fagopyrum tataricum (L.) Gaertn., and a biennial bladder campion, Silene cserei
Baumg., have been found in a few localities along railroads.

The weed problem has changed with the change in farming methods. In
the days of horses, these animals spread weed seeds through their droppings.
Seeds were also spread with the fodder that was carried to feed the horses, and
in their bedding straw. Furthermore, horses could not work fast enough to
carry out timely operations for weed control. To offset these factors, harv-
esting methods of those days limited the spread of weeds since, grain was cut
with a binder, stooked, and stacked or hauled to a central point for threshing.

52

With the change to mechanized farming the factors favoring the spread of
weeds when horses were used were removed but others were introduced in their
place. Ample power and better tillage implements permitted a more timely and
better job of cultural control. The introduction of 2,4-D in 1946 revolutionized
control of broad-leaved weeds. In 1949, 2,300,000 acres in Manitoba were
treated with 2,4-D, mostly for the control of mustard. The extensive use of
chemicals resulted in a tendency to depend too much on them and neglect
complementary cultural practices. As 2,4-D is selective and kills only broad-
leaved plants, the removal of these weeds as competitors resulted in an increase
of wild oats, wild millet, and couch grass. Wild oats became the major weed
problem, in fact, a greater problem than all other weeds together (Brown, D.A.
Assistant Superintendent, Canada Experimental Farm, Brandon, Man. In litt.
1956). The ability of wild oat seeds to lie dormant for years makes it very dif-
ficult to control this weed. Delayed seeding and cultivation in the spring, in
order to encourage germination and destroy as many wild oats as possible, is
the approved method of control. This, however, increases the hazards of the
crop and reduces yields. The switch to swathers and pick-up combine threshers
has done much to spread weed seeds over the farms. Shallow cultivation with
the oneway disk and the duckfoot cultivator, with the use of trash cover to check
wind and water erosion, has increased the weed problem as compared with the
older method of plowing. These methods scatter the seeds more widely and,
particularly when used in the spring and in combination with a seeder attach-
ment, put the weed seeds in the best condition for germination at the time the
crop is coming up (Brown, D.A.). The use of trucks to haul loose grain to
country elevators has done much to spread weed seeds. Often screenings are
brought back to the farm for chicken and hog feed. The truck bodies are seldom
covered with a tarpaulin, and the speed at which they travel blows much grain
and weed seeds onto the road, where they are further dispersed by graders. Rail-
road cars have always been a means of spreading weed seeds, and new weeds are
often found along railroads.

New weeds are continually being introduced and some native plants
are becoming weeds. The native horsetails, Equisetum spp., are becoming a
serious problem in heavy moist soils and the introduced hemp nettle, Galeopsis
tetrahit L., which has been present for years, is now spreading at an alarming rate
in some areas.

Abandoned Land

Under changing economic conditions, a considerable acreage of land that has
been under cultivation may be abandoned. During war years when there was
a great demand for food and when prices were high, farmers were encouraged to
break up submarginal land that could not be profitably farmed under more
stringent economic conditions. This was farmed for a few years and then
abandoned. There is a "fly by night" type of farmer who with the aid of power
machinery breaks up large acreages of sandy or gravelly prairie land and plants
it to flax or rye for one or two years. He makes big profits and gets good yields
while the grass fiber is still in the sod. The land is abandoned when the sod
breaks down and low yields can be expected. During years of drought and
economic depression considerable acreage of good farming land may also be
abandoned.

53

These abandoned fields support a succession of annual and biennial plants
before being invaded by perennial herbs and grasses, and, if left undisturbed,
revert to the original prairie vegetation. Successional stages, except for some
differences in species and usually a prairie rather than a forest climax, are similar
to those described for Michigan by Beckwith (1954). Fields on the sand plain
near Shilo, Manitoba, abandoned during the drought of 1900-03 were practically
indistinguishable from the surrounding native prairie thirty years later.

Handford (1936) made the following observations on reversion on badly
wind-blown and abandoned fields in the Lyleton, Manitoba, area:

Reverted fields have been found with patches blown out by wind and entirely without
vegetation. Where vegetation occurs it varies considerably and the species present do
not always give the true indication of the years that have elapsed since the field was
cropped. However, the impressions gained from the observations were that Artemisia
dracunculoides, Chenopodium album, Setaria viridis, Erigeron spp. and the various pigweeds
predominate, indicating a fairly recent reversion. In the next stage of reversion it appears
that patches of Solidago, Agropyron repens or Bromus inermis (or both) creep in and
continue to increase in size. Later, Artemisia frigida and Artemisia ludoviciana come in
and the earlier plants, of the first stage of reversion, largely disappear and the grassy
areas become larger. Then Bouteloua gracilis, Agropyron smithii, Poa pratensis begin
to appear in patches, the B. gracilis appearing eventually to predominate.

The early stages of succession featuring rank growth of annual and biennial
weeds, particularly sweet clover, false ragweed, sunflowers, and pigweed, form
important food and shelter for wildlife. This was well illustrated in the Lyleton
area during the drought period of the 1930's. At this time many abandoned
fields formed ideal habitat for pheasants, which invaded the area from North
Dakota and maintained a high population for several years. At the end of the
drought period farmers again cultivated the land and the pheasant population
was greatly reduced. Other animals maintaining a high population at this time
were jack rabbits, foxes, Hungarian partridge, and sharp-tailed grouse. Grass-
hoppers occurred in outbreak numbers and were an important food supply for
the pheasants, grouse, and foxes. White-tailed deer found that the tall growth
of sweet clover provided excellent food and cover, invaded areas where this
plant was abundant, bedded down in it, and stayed there for long periods.

Forest

Aspen groves and forests normally decrease in height at the margins.
Here young trees only a foot or so in height are found because of the habit of
spreading by underground shoots. This gives protection from wind, which is
directed up and over the mature trees in the center. The progressive shading
kills competitive plants and a normal understory of shrubs and herbs develops.
When the forest margin is destroyed by land-clearing or road-building operations,
the bare trunks of the mature trees are exposed to the elements and the lack of
marginal shading permits the invasion of brome, Poa spp., and other grasses,
often resulting in the death of the trees. The exposed trees are also more subject
to wind damage and attack by fungus and insect pests, causing further die-back.
Grazing by livestock on the invading grasses, trampling, and browsing on young
aspen shoots prevent regeneration and extensive areas of forest may be killed
out (Fig. 46).

Fire and the cutting of blocks of mature trees usually result in extensive
suckering and a dense growth of young aspen. If this coincides with a peak of
snowshoe rabbit abundance, a high percentage of aspen are girdled and killed.
Usually only beneficial thinning results. If elk are abundant they may destroy

54

all sucker growth during their winter browsing. If this is repeated two years in
succession, the trees are killed and grassland results. This has happened, on
occasion, in the Riding Mountain. After fire there is usually a profuse growth of
fireweed, Epilobium angustifolium L., and raspberry, Rubus, which in a few
years is choked out by the regenerating forest. Choke cherry, pin cherry, and
saskatoon also take advantage of disturbance to gain a foothold on disturbed
areas. If the forest regenerates successfully, they are in turn choked out except
at the forest edge.

Changes in Animal Abundance Since Settlement

Changes that have affected the abundance of animals to the detriment of
some species and the benefit of others have been taking place since the beginning
of life and will continue to take place as long as life exists. This is aptly summed
up in a statement made in a report of a working party set up by the British
Ministry of Agriculture to study the effect of toxic chemicals in agriculture on
wildlife (Zuckerman, 1955) :

In approaching the problem, we were fully conscious of the fact that there is no such
thing as a fixed balance of nature, and equally that every advance that has occurred in
the evolution of plants and animals has meant a change in this so-called balance. Man's
part in transforming the face of the earth is only the most recent contribution to a process
which is as ancient as life itself. It is, however, probably a more rapidly acting and more
far-reaching factor than any of those which have preceded it. As our species has mul-
tiplied, and as we have spread over the globe, forests have been laid low, and many animal
species have disappeared, or their number been so considerably reduced that they now
constitute little more than fragments of a previous picture of animal life. This process
of change has intensified progressively over the past four centuries, and the essential
question that we have had to ask ourselves is whether the chemicals now being used in
farming constitute a more serious hazard to the fauna and flora of our land than did
earlier innovations in farming and forestry practice.

By the establishment of an agricultural economy in the aspen parkland,
white men brought about great changes in the abundance and habits of the fauna.
Indians were much reduced by white men's diseases and forced to give up a
nomadic hunting economy for agriculture and a sedentary existence. The
dominant herbivore, bison, has been exterminated in the wild state, along with
its chief predator, the buffalo wolf. Antelope, which ranged into the parkland,
have retreated to the high plains. The passenger pigeon was extermined, and the
trumpeter swan and whooping crane were reduced to very low numbers and
driven from their former nesting grounds in the parkland. Elk, which occurred
in great abundance, are represented by a few remaining herds that have retreated
to the more heavily wooded and hilly country. Moose, which ranged all through
the parkland, where there was an abundance of willow and forest growth asso-
ciated with swamps, have retreated to national parks and inaccessible areas in
the northern fringe of the parkland. Mule deer disappeared with settlement,
except for a few in remote hilly sections, and were replaced by the white-tailed
deer, which has flourished. The white-tail is well adapted to life near to settle-
ment and has increased its range and numbers to the point where overpopulations
occur in spite of heavy hunting.

The fur bearers were greatly reduced by intensive trapping and destruction
of habitat. Grizzly bear and puma were exterminated in the parkland as were
wolverine, marten, fisher, and otter. Beaver became scarce but are again common.
Raccoons are holding their own and increasing in some localities. Mink are
still common in spite of heavy trapping. Weasels are only a small fraction of

55

their former numbers. The long-haired fur animals, coyotes, foxes, badgers, and
skunk, after being reduced by heavy trapping are now increasing as their fur
has gone out of fashion. Muskrats are prolific, are under management, and pro-
duce great quantities of a currently popular fur.

Ground squirrels, particularly Richardson's, became an agricultural pest
but have been much reduced by control campaigns and destruction of burrows by
tillage. Mice fluctuate greatly in numbers as they have done from the days of
the fur traders up to recent times. Native insects, especially the wheat stem
sawfly, wireworms, and cutworms, have become pests of cultivated crops.

Snowshoe rabbits still occur in abundance in woodland areas and fluctuate
in numbers regardless of man. Jack rabbits have been benefited by agriculture
and have extended their range into the parkland with settlement. The prairie
chicken at first increased but is now almost extinct. The robin has become semi-
domestic. Insect pests, rats, mice, house sparrows, starlings, pheasants, and
Hungarian partridges were introduced.

Before the coming of white men the Indians with their fires kept conditions
in relative equilibrium and changes occurred mainly through natural phenomena.
After the white men came, changes brought about by human agency were
paramount but natural factors are still operating.

There are few continuous records of the changes in animal abundance in
the parkland since settlement and much information reported here is gathered
from scattered accounts and observations. The Criddle family of outstanding
naturalists at Aweme (near Treesbank), Man., have resided on their farm and
kept records continuously since 1883. They have reported many events orally
and in publication.

Baines (1956) reported on changes at Crescent Lake, 16 miles south of
Yorkton, Sask., since 1883. He noted that the lake went completely dry in
1897 and 1938 and that it was full to overflowing in 1919 and again in 1956,
because of wet and dry cycles. In 1883 the prairie was covered with the bones of
the recently abundant buffalo and the antlers of elk. Mule deer were fairly
common in 1883, became scarce about 1911, and disappeared about 1928. The
white-tailed deer appeared about 1910 and became abundant by 1920. Sharp-
tailed grouse were common but have become scarce with more intensive agri-
culture. The prairie chicken appeared about 1900 and became as plentiful as
the sharp-tailed from 1910 to 1920, when it commenced to thin out and finally
disappeared. The Canada goose still nests about Crescent Lake as it has done
for the past 70 years, but in reduced numbers. Migrating flocks are now bypassing
the area. Crows were scarce in 1883 but gradually increased until about 1915,
when they began to be less abundant. Magpies were not present until 1920.
They were scarce until a few years ago but are now common.

Animals of the aspen parkland that showed marked changes in abundance
in the historic period are discussed under the following groups: (1) animals that
decreased because of man-made changes; (2) animals that increased because of
man-made changes; (3) introduced animals that have become established;
and (4) changes in animal abundance taking place without the agency of man.

Animals That Decreased because of Man-made Changes

The number of animals that decreased as a result of human interference
is much larger than the number that increased as a result of the improvement

56

of conditions necessary for their survival. As the parkland was cleared and
plowed for agricultural purposes, much cover and nesting habitat were destroyed.
An example is given by Farley (1932). He counted the nesting birds in a half-
section of typical parkland near Camrose, Alta., in June and found 256 birds
of 41 species. Two years later this land was cleared and put under cultivation
except for a few acres of coulee. He then found only a few pairs of vesper
sparrows nesting in the area.

No discussion of the changes that have taken place in the aspen parkland
would be complete without mention of the original human inhabitants. The
Indians suffered by the invasion of a dominant race as much as many other
species of animal.

According to Jenness (1934), about 15,000 to 20,000 Indians lived in the
parkland in 1725. The large central portion was occupied by the Assiniboines.
The Blackfeet were found in Alberta, and the Plains Crees in eastern and northern
Manitoba. All were nomadic hunting tribes dependent on buffalo. Travel by
means of travois drawn by dogs was slow. Along the borders of tribal territory
there were occasional raids and fights but generally they lived a peaceful life.

The introduction of horses and firearms about the middle of the 18th century
made the Indians much more mobile and lethal. Both buffalo hunting and
warfare were stimulated. The Crees allied with the Assiniboines and attacked
the Blackfeet to the west and the Sioux and Mandans to the south. They
extended their area to the Rocky Mountains and the Peace River district of
Alberta.

White men brought with them several diseases to which the Indians had
little resistance. The most deadly was smallpox, which swept through the
parkland in a series of outbreaks in the early part of the 19th century. A
particularly severe outbreak in 1836 killed about half the population. Tuber-
culosis and other pulmonary diseases also took a heavy toll.

The Indians had no alcoholic beverage of their own and abandoned every
restraint in their frenzy for white men's firewater. Alexander Henry (Coues,
1897) stated:

Whiskey and brandy destroyed the self respect of the Indians, weakened every family
and tribal tie, and made them, willing or unwilling, the slaves of the trading posts where
liquor was dispensed to them by the keg . . . Disease and alcohol demoralized and destroyed
the Indians just when they needed all their energy to cope with the new conditions that
suddenly came into existence around them.

Once a tribe had adopted metal tools and firearms they were unable to hunt
by their old methods and became entirely dependent on the traders, who, in
turn, demanded more and more furs. For a few years the Indians were rich
but they soon depleted their own hunting grounds and invaded territories
of their neighbors. Firearms and horses converted the buffalo hunt into a
slaughter. Tribes jostled each other in the buffalo chase, with ceaseless raids
for horses, arms, and scalps. By the early 1800's fur-bearing animals were
nearly exterminated over extensive areas. When the buffalo disappeared
about 1870, the Indians became poor and could with difficulty procure the neces-
sities of life.

One by one the bands and tribes signed treaties ceding their land and sub-
mitting to confinement on reserves. They are slow to adapt to agriculture and
other occupations of the white man. As wards of the government they receive

57

technical assistance, schools, old age pensions, children's allowances, and medical
care, and are beginning to increase but are still demoralized and lack initiative
and thriftiness.

The bison, Bison bison, commonly called buffalo by residents of the area
in which it occurred, was undoubtedly the dominant animal of the plains before
the advent of white men. It wandered well up into the parkland and forested
areas as far as Great Slave Lake, where the last wild herd exists in Wood Buffalo
Park.

Alexander Henry (Coues, 1897) established a fort for the North West Fur
Company on the Red River about 35 miles south of the Canada-United States
boundary just above the entrance of Park River near the present town of
Grafton, N.D., in 1801. He frequently referred to the abundance of buffalo
and their effect on the vegetation in the vicinity of the fort and northward to the
site of the city of Winnipeg.

Langlois and myself proceeded along Riviere aux Marais [near Letellier]. Leaving
the woods of that river, we crossed the plains to L'Isle du Passage through one continuous
herd of buffalo, but had no time to chase them, At one o'clock we stopped at this island
to rest our horses, and then proceeded to the foot of the Panbian river traverse, where we
allowed our horses another half hour's rest and feed. Here I climbed a high tree, and, as
far as the eye could reach, the plains were covered with buffalo in every direction . . .

I saw more buffaloes than ever. They formed one body, commencing about half a
mile from camp, whence the plain was covered on the W. side of the river [Red River] as
far as the eye could reach. They were moving southward slowly, and the meadow seemed
as if in motion . . .

This afternoon I rode a few miles up Park river. The few spots of wood along it have
been ravaged by buffaloes; none but the large trees are standing, the bark of which is
rubbed perfectly smooth, and heaps of wool and hair lie at the foot of the trees. The
small wood and brush are entirely destroyed, and even the grass is not permitted to grow
in the points of wood. The bare ground is more trampled by these cattle than the gate of
a farmyard . . .

The country from Red River to this mountain [Pembina Hills near Canada — United States
boundary] is one level plain, without a hill or stone. The grass would be rather long
were it not for the buffalo.

Great numbers of buffalo were drowned when they attempted to cross the
rivers on weak ice in the spring. Henry records drowned buffalo drifting down
the Red River past his Park River post for the whole month of April, 1801.

Apr. 1st. The river clear of ice, but drowned buffalo continue to drift by entire
herds . . .

... It is really astonishing what vast numbers have perished: they formed one con-
tinuous line in the current for two days and nights. . .Apr. 18th. Drowned buffalo still
drifting down the river . . . Apr. 25th. Drowned buffalo drift down river day and night . . .
May 1st. The stench from the vast numbers of drowned buffalo along the river was
intolerable.

As further evidence, editor Coues appended the footnote:

This account is not exaggerated. John McDonnell's Journal of May 18th, 1795,
when he was descending Qu'Appelle R., stated: 'Observing a good many carcasses of
buffaloes in the river and along its banks, I was taken up the whole day with counting
them, and, to my surprise, found I had numbered when we put up at night, 7,360, drowned
and mired along the river and in it. It is true, in one or two places, I went on shore and
walked from one carcass to the other, where they lay from three to five files deep'. It
is probable that the total number of buffalo killed by man in those days was insignificant
in comparison with the destruction wrought by the warring of nature's elements against
the poor brutes.

The above accounts are verified by the numbers of buffalo bones that may
still be found as they erode out of the river banks.

58

The advent of firearms, which were traded to the Indians, marked the
beginning of the end for the buffalo. Indians and whites alike had no idea of
conservation and buffalo were slaughtered wholesale, often only for their tongues.
Henry (Coues, 1897) frequently mentioned this and remarked:

The stench about camp was great from the quantities of flesh and fat thrown away
since our arrival. . .

Although I killed enough provisions yesterday to last a month, today we are without
a mouthful, so very improvident are people in this country.

Near Winnipeg, buffalo were last seen wild in 1819; the last great wild
herd on the Souris was seen in 1867 and the last individual on the Souris in 1883
(Seton, 1909).

By 1900, buffalo were extinct in the wild state except in what is now Yellow-
stone Park and in the area south of Great Slave Lake. The latter was set aside
as Wood Buffalo Park, for their protection. The buffalo of this northern area
belonged to a larger, darker subspecies, the wood buffalo, Bison bison athabascae
Rhoads. The plains buffalo was saved from extinction through the purchase by
the Government of Canada in 1907 and 1909 of 709 animals from Don Michel
Pablo of Montana. They were placed in a fenced area at Wainwright, Alta.,
where they increased sufficiently to supply nucleus herds for parks and zoological
gardens and, in addition, surplus animals were butchered. In 1925-1928,
6,673 plains bison from the surplus herd at Wainwright, Alta., were shipped into
the northern area and liberated. They hybridized extensively with the wood
buffalo and the subspeciation is lost. In 1945 the herd numbered about 20,000
animals (Rand, 1948). Fuller (1950) made a resurvey by air in 1949 and reported
that the population had been overestimated by ground parties. He estimated
the population at between 10,000 and 12,500 and stated that the buffalo had
been extending their range both inside and outside the park.

During World War II it was decided that the Wainwright reserve had served
its purpose; some animals were moved to other areas but the great majority
were butchered and the land was used for military training purposes.

Now all that remains in the parkland is mute evidence of the great herds
of the past. Bones are frequently turned up by the plow or exposed in blown-out
fields, particularly where there were Indian encampments. Skeletal remains
are also exposed along river banks and lake shores. In a few patches of unbroken
land, remains of their paths and wallows may still be seen. Another conspicuous
sign, which is not generally understood, may often be noted. The prairies are
dotted by large, erratic boulders surrounded by depressions (Fig. 47). These
were the rubbing stones used by the buffalo to remove their winter hair. They
still carry a considerable polish. The depressions were caused by trampling,
and by blowing away of powdered soil.

The cowbird, Molothrus ater, formerly known as the "buffalo bird", followed
the herds of buffalo, feeding on insects disturbed by their trampling. The
extermination of the buffalo and their replacement by domestic cattle did not
greatly affect its abundance. It now follows cattle in the same way as it did the
buffalo and may be seen on the ground about their feet or sitting on their backs.
Being entirely parasitic, never making a nest of its own, it is free to roam with the
herds. It lays its eggs in the nests of birds of similar size or smaller. Changes
in the abundance of their host probably affect the abundance of cowbirds more
than the change from buffalo to cattle.

59

The pronghorn antelope, Antilocapra americana, is often mentioned in the
literature as being associated with buffalo. Its main center of distribution is
in the short-grass plains but it did range into the mixed grasslands of what is
now parkland. Perhaps its presence here was due to the reduction of aspen by
frequent fires and it did not enter the aspen groves. However, it is known at
times to inhabit wooded areas, as reported by Sowls (Sowls, L. K. United States
Fish and Wildlife Service, Tucson, Arizona, In litt. 1956) for Arizona.

Henry (Coues, 1897) did not often mention antelope but he did record a
large "cabbri" shot near Pembina in 1801 and herds of "cabbrie" always in sight
near the Brandon Hills. Hind mentioned some herds of "cabri" at Antler Creek
and north to Two Creeks. Seton (1909) stated: "Formerly found in all the prai-
ries of the South West. Recorded once or twice in early days very near Winnipeg
and last seen on the Souris about 1881. Now extinct in the Province." The
scarcity of early records may be partly due to the fact that, being at the northern
extremity of their range, the antelope fluctuated greatly in abundance. They
are delicate animals and cannot survive a severe winter. The present herds in
southwestern Saskatchewan and southeastern Alberta have suffered considerable
mortality in several winters in recent years (Rand, 1948).

Two large predators were associated with the buffalo and antelope, the
buffalo wolf and the grizzly bear. They both followed the buffalo into exter-
mination in the parkland.

Henry (Coues, 1897) frequently mentioned the abundance of the buffalo
wolf, Cants lupus nubilus. He also called attention to behavior of wolves that
indicated an outbreak of rabies, a disease that has been known to decimate their
numbers:

Sunday Nov. 2d. Last night the wolves were very troublesome; they kept up a
terrible howling about the fort, and even attempted to enter Maymiutch's tent. A large
white one came boldly into the door and was advancing toward a young child, when he
was shot dead. Some of them are very audacious. I have known them to follow people
for several days, attempt to seize a person or a dog, and to be kept off only by fire-arms.
It does not appear that hunger makes them so ferocious, as they have been known to pass
carcasses of animals, which they might have eaten to their fill, but they would not touch
flesh; their object seeming to be that of biting. The Canadians swear that these are mad
wolves, and are much afraid of them.

While excavating an Indian campsite near Brandon, Man., considered to be
over 300 years old, I came across numerous wolf bones associated with great
quantities of bones of buffalo killed in a pound. They may have been semidomes-
ticated wolves or crosses with dogs. Mr. R. M. Anderson (in litt.) of the National
Museum of Canada, who identified the jaws, indicated some were of pure Cams
nubilus but others were of Canis familiaris or of a hybrid with C. nubilus.

With the decimation of the buffalo, wolves turned their attention to livestock,
with the result that they were poisoned, shot, and trapped to the point of extinc-
tion. There may be the occasional individual still alive in part of their former
range. On October 16, 1943, a specimen was taken by Mr. David Walters on
Sec. 10, Twp. 4, Rge. IE, near the town of Morris, Man. The skull is in the
Manitoba Museum and was determined by Dr. Stanley P. Young of the United
States National Museum in 1947 as of C. I. nubilus. Another wolf, possibly of
this subspecies, was shot near Headingly, Man., on March 13, 1948.

60

Seton (1909) stated that the grizzly bear, Ursus horribilis Ord., has been
extinct in Manitoba for perhaps 100 years. Henry (Coues, 1897) referred to
their abundance about his Park River, North Dakota, fort in 1806:

Grizzly bears are not numerous along Red river, but more abundant in the Hair
hills [Pembina Hills, Manitoba]. At Lac du Diable [Devil's Lake], which is about 30
leagues W., they are very common — I am told as common as the black bear is here, and
very malicious. Near that lake runs a principal branch of Schian [Cheyenne River],
which is partially wooded. On the banks of this river I am informed they are also very
numerous, and seldom molested by the hunters, it being the frontier of the Sioux, where
none can hunt in safety; so there they breed and multiply in security.

While present in such abundance the grizzly was an important predator on
buffalo and smaller mammals. It is now extinct over the whole parkland area.

The passenger pigeon, Ectopistes migratorius (L.), was a summer resident
occuring in great abundance. Henry (Coues, 1897), when camping at the
present site of Winnipeg on August 19, 1800, stated: "Pigeons were in great
numbers: the trees were every moment covered with them and the continual
firing of our people did not appear to diminish their numbers". Hind (1859),
in reporting on his trip up the Assiniboine and Souris rivers in 1858, repeatedly
referred to their abundance. At St. James Church in the suburbs of what is now
Winnipeg he observed pigeon traps. Pigeons fed on acorns, wild berries, and,
after settlement, grain in fields. They did extensive damage to the settlers'
crops but were an important food item and many were trapped and shot for
human consumption.

The pigeons nested in large colonies near plentiful supplies of oak and beech
mast in Wisconsin and the northeastern United States (Schorger, 1955). As
there was only a limited amount of oak in the eastern parkland and no beech,
colonies were small in this area. Two nesting colonies were recorded in Manitoba
by Macoun (1909): "Waterhan [Waterhen] River, lat. about 52° N., a colony of
less than a dozen nests on June 23, 1881, and a colony in an aspen grove at the
Northwest Angle, Lake of the Woods". Mitchell (1935) also recorded them
nesting throughout the district north of the Lake of the Woods and Rainy Lake
where cranberries and blueberries were abundant. Thompson (1891) recorded
a few breeding at Portage la Prairie. The birds passed through Manitoba in
large numbers during migration. They were plentiful over the whole of the
parkland area in Manitoba and scattered flocks occurred over the northern part
of the Province. Spring records date from April 8 to May 20 and fall records
from August 30 to September 21 (Schorger, 1955). Seton (1909) reported that
the last big flight came to Manitoba in 1878. Great reduction in numbers occur-
red after 1880 and the bird became extinct in the Province by the turn of the
century. Schorger (1955) attributed the extinction of the passenger pigeon to
wholesale market hunting in the northeastern United States and the destruction
of nesting colonies to obtain squabs. Populations were reduced below the mini-
mum required to maintain the species. Late records for Manitoba are: Riding
Mountain, May 12, 1892, and Winnipegosis, April 10, 1898 (Fleming, 1907),
and St. Boniface in the fall of 1893 (Atkinson, 1904).

The trumpeter swan, Olor buccinator Richardson (Fig. 50), bred across
southern Canada and the northern United States from Manitoba westward,
according to Roberts (1932) and Taverner (1926). However, it was not abund-
ant as Coues (1874) saw it on only a few occasions. Taverner (1926) discussed a
number of factors that caused its extermination in the parkland. It nested in an
area that soon became settled. Although it was not as wary as the whistling

61

swan, Olor columbianus (Ord.), it did not tolerate disturbance. It was a favorite
mark of hunters, particularly in the early days when its breast feathers had a
market value with the Hudson's Bay Company. At this time its larger size and
relative easiness of approach contibuted to a heavy kill. In 1959 a brood of 5
cygnets was successfully raised by captive parents at the Wildfowl Research
Station, Delta, Man.

Bent (1925), recorded nesting in Manitoba at Shoal Lake in 1893 and 1894.
Fred Bard, Saskatchewan Natural History Museum, Regina, reported (Shortt,
A. H. Ducks Unlimited (Canada), Winnipeg, Man. In litt. 1956) that he has
had annual reports of trumpeter swans nesting on Botley Lake and Adams Lake
in the Cypress Hills, Saskatchewan, from 1949 to 1955.

The whooping crane, Grus americana, according to the monographic review
of the species by Allen (1952), had its main breeding area in Canada in the aspen
parkland. He reported that 47 per cent of the authentic nesting sites were in the
parkland and 15 per cent in what he called transitional plains to parkland, most
of which is now within the present boundaries of the parkland. He included in
his aspen parkland habitat for the year 1864 two localities (Fort Resolution and
Salt River, Mackenzie Territory) far removed from the aspen parkland as
covered here but probably of a similar type of habitat. Allen's aspen parkland
(and transitional) records include the following points: — Alberta — Killam,
1904-05; Whitford Lake; 1909; Saskatchewan — Moose Mountain area, 1881;
near Yorkton, 1900; near Battleford, 1884; 20 mi. N. of Davidson, 1911; near
Bradwell, 1912; near Baliol, 1922; Muddy Lake, 1922; Manitoba — near Winnipeg,
1871; Oak Lake, 1891. An unconfirmed record of a last nesting date for White-
water Lake, Man., is given as 1879 (anonymous, 1956b). Allen quoted Raine
(1892) as recording the whooping crane nesting in the Netley marshes at the
mouth of the Red River in 1891. The disturbances accompanying settlement
had driven it from its ancestral nesting grounds in the aspen parkland by 1922,
after which there are no nesting records. The few remaining birds pass over
during migration and stop briefly to feed and rest (anonymous, 1956a; Bard,
1956b; Bradshaw, 1956; Lahrman, 1957).

The dwindling numbers of the whooping crane have aroused much concern
as to its possible extermination. Wildlife authorities have made every effort to
protect it. Publicity has aroused the public to give it protection. Its wintering
grounds are now restricted to one locality, the Aransas Refuge on the Gulf coast
of Texas. Here it is closely guarded and annual counts are made. In 1954 there
were 22 birds and no young of the year. In 1955 these birds left for northern
nesting grounds and returned with six young. Although migrating birds are
seen passing over Manitoba and Saskatchewan each year and attempts have
been made to follow them with aircraft, no nesting sites were located until 1954.
In this year nesting cranes were located by the Canadian Wildlife Service in a
marsh in Wood Buffalo National Park near Fort Smith, Northwest Territories.

Fur-bearers, especially the beaver, prompted the first invasion of the park-
land by white men, and the fur trade was the principal industry for about 150
years. During this time keen competition among the traders and resultant
overlapping greatly reduced the numbers of most of the fur-bearers.

The marten, Martes americana abieticola (Preble), which is generally con-
sidered an animal of the coniferous forest, probably at one time ranged in the
parkland (Hagmeier, 1956). Henry (Coues, 1897) reported a take of 1207

62

marten from his Red River post in 1806-07, of which 908 came from Portage la
Prairie, Man. Skins may have been brought into this post from a coniferous
forest area in the Riding Mountain, but it is hardly likely, as Brandon House
would have been closer. Swanson (1945) gave a number of records from northern
Minnesota and mentioned that it was very easy to trap and hence became quite
rare by 1900. According to Seton (1929) it was probably exterminated in the
parkland of Manitoba a hundred years ago. It fed extensively on the snowshoe
rabbit, mice, birds and their eggs, fish, and berries.

The fisher, Martes pennanti (Erxleben), now a rare animal of the coniferous
forest, at one time ranged into the parkland (Hagmeier, 1956). Henry (Coues,
1897) recorded in his fur pack at Portage la Prairie 84 skins in 1804-05 and 48
in 1806-07. Swanson (1945) recorded it from northern Minnesota and mentioned
that, unlike the marten, it was very difficult to trap. Hence returns were small
and it is still present in the northeastern part of the State. Seton (1929) stated
that it was the most arboreal of the weasel family and could easily catch a marten
in pursuit among the trees. Marten in turn easily caught squirrels. The fisher
was also very fast on the ground and could catch rabbits in chase. Rabbits
formed an important part of its diet.

The wolverine, Gulo luscus luscus (L.), is now a rare animal of the coniferous
forest and probably was never common. Before settlement it was apparently a
resident of the parkland. Henry (Coues, 1897) recorded five in his fur pack
from Portage la Prairie in 1806-07. Seton (1929) reported it as a principal pred-
ator on beaver and stated that it was usually found where beaver were abundant.

The otter, Lutra canadensis (Schreber), was at one time found along the
rivers in the parkland. Henry (Coues, 1897) recorded it in his fur pack from
Portage la Prairie, 45 in 1804^05 and 24 in 1806-07. Seton (1929) stated that
in 1909 it was exceedingly rare. A few signs of its presence were seen in the
Spruce Woods until about 1920 (Bird, 1927). Otters are now probably extinct
over most of their former range in the parkland because of the value of their
fur and persistent trapping.

The wapiti, Cervus canadensis, like the bison, is not commonly called by the
correct name but is usually referred to as "elk". This was a characteristic large
herbivore of the parkland, second only to the buffalo in abundance. The pre-
ferred habitat is a mixture of aspen and prairie. They seek shelter in the wood-
land during the day. In the evening they come out to graze on the prairie,
where they consume grasses and herbs. In winter they paw through a consider-
able depth of snow to reach their food, but when the snow depth increases they
consume large amounts of browse. Favorite browse plants are willow, saskatoon
(Amelanchier) , choke cherry, hazelnut (Corylus), aspen, oak, and dwarf birch
(Betula glandulosa) (Banfield, 1949).

Alexander Henry (Coues, 1897) frequently referred to the abundance of
elk, or red deer as he called them, in the years about 1800:

Buffalo and red deer were everywhere in sight, passing to and fro. . .Red deer are
seen continually in droves near the woods [country near the present town of Grafton,
N.D.]...

The land between these two rivers [Tongue River in North Dakota and Pembina
River along the Canada — United States boundary] is partly wooded, forming a famous
country for moose and red deer . . .

Red deer were very numerous here not long ago, as the tops of oaks along this little
river [Riviere aux Marais near the present town of Letellier, Manitoba] are all broken
and twisted.

63

Elk were greatly reduced in numbers but were not exterminated in the wild
state as were the buffalo. They were driven from the parkland and sought
shelter in adjacent heavily wooded and hilly country. Elk do not get along well
in settled areas even when given protection. They prefer wilderness areas and
when forced by hunger to migrate to the edge of settlement, do extensive damage
to haystacks, not only by feeding but also by tearing them apart with their
horns and by trampling.

One of the largest remaining herds of elk in the parkland sought refuge in
the Riding Mountain of Manitoba at the turn of the century. Their story is
typical of elk herds and is recorded by Banfield (1949) and Green (1933). This
area was set aside as a forest reserve by the Government of Manitoba and hunting
was prohibited for a number of years. In 1914 the number of elk was estimated
at 500, 2000 in 1925, and 3500 in 1933, when the area became a national park.
With the protection of the park they continued to increase to 12,000 in 1946,
when on overpopulation during the winter of 1946-47 destroyed their browse
and a winter-kill of 20 per cent occurred. Banfield (1949) reported:

The population dropped from an estimated 77.1 to 58.7 per square mile of concen-
tration range. The rising yearling class had the heaviest loss of 64%. The senile class
also suffered heavy loss . . . This high percentage caused extensive damage to the aspen
stands. As high as 76% of all aspen under 10 ft. in height were killed in certain areas,
while 69% of the aspen more than 10 ft. in height had part of the bark peeled by elk.

In addition, elk killed out saskatoon and choke cherry. Willows were so
closely browsed that they were reduced to clumps of dead sticks with a few
green shoots in the centers. Hazel, which formed a dominant understory, was
browsed down to the snow line but was still alive and healthy as it appeared to
be able to withstand heavy browsing: Aspen was denuded of branches to a height
of about 10 feet, so that the forest had an open appearance with upper and lower
browse lines and bare, often badly scored and blackened trunks in between.
Grass and herbage in the open areas was eaten down like an overgrazed pasture.
Elk developed a general rundown condition, and although starvation was the
principal cause of death, according to Banfield (1949) there was also heavy
parasitism by the hair lungworm (Dictyocaulus viviparous) , lice resembling the
horse biting louse [Bovicola equi (L.)], and the winter tick [Dermacentor albipictus
(Pack.)]. Even when the park was under the pressure of overpopulation Banfield
was able to divide it into areas he classified as (1) concentrated elk range, com-
posed of prairie, parkland, and open aspen stands, (2) marginal elk range, con-
sisting of moderately open aspen stands, and (3) transient elk range, covered
by coniferous stands as well as mixed stands of sufficient density to yield 30
cords or more of wood to the acre, outside elk range and crossed by transient
animals only. It is thus evident that preferred elk habitat is typical aspen
parkland.

Since 1947 there has been very little winter starvation. Hunting seasons
have been allowed in the area immediately surrounding the park and some surplus
animals have been harvested. The population is now possibly half what it was
at its peak and browse is slowly improving.

This increase from low numbers to an overpopulation under protection from
hunting and reduction of predators is typical of the large herbivores in many
parts of North America. The only predator of elk: recorded by Green in 1933
was the coyote, which he observed killing young elk calves. He was unable to
verify reports that black bears killed elk calves. However, in company with

64

Stuart Criddle and Dewey Soper, I observed a black bear kill an elk calf on the
ranges in which Green carried out his studies.

Timber wolves have now invaded Riding Mountain National Park and
several packs are established there. They have not appreciably reduced the elk
herd. Coyotes are at present abundant. When flying over the park in winter
one commonly sees 20 or 30 in packs of five to seven. They feed on carrion and
small mammals, and on elk calves for about ten days after they are born and
before they are able to follow their mother.

The mule deer, Odocoileus hemionus (Rafinesque), was present throughout
the parkland at the time of the early settlers. Set on (1909) stated: ''Formerly
abundant in all the Alleghanian Region [prairies and aspen forest]; greatly
reduced some twenty years ago, but now once more abundant in its proper
region, wherever there is cover combined with open ground." After this peak in
population, numbers were steadily reduced with the encroachment of settlement.
The mule deer is now found only in small numbers in the northern part of the
parkland, principally in the hilly sections. A few individuals may still be found
in the Spruce Woods Forest Reserve and in Riding, Duck, and Porcupine moun-
tains in Manitoba. Mule deer are unable to adapt themselves to life in settled
areas as has the white-tail, which is now found over most of the former range of
the mule deer in the aspen parkland.

The moose, Alces americana (Clinton), was abundant prior to settlement.
Seton in 1909 stated:

Abundant in all the forested areas of the Province [Manitoba] ; apparently in no danger
of extinction, since reasonable game laws have come into force. Several thousand are
killed each year . . . The estimated total head of moose within our limits is between 20,000
and 30,000.

Since Seton wrote his statement, moose have steadily declined because of en-
croachment of settlement and hunting pressure. From 1933 to 1946 the annual
kill by hunters was between 200 and 300. Since 1946 no hunting has been per-
mitted in the parkland of Manitoba and the population has increased. An
isolated band of some 30 to 40 moose is found in the Spruce Woods Game Pre-
serve. A bull taken from this band was described by Peterson (1950) as a type
of the subspecies found in Western Canada. Larger numbers are found in the
Riding Mountain National Park, the Duck and Porcupine preserves, and east
and north about lakes Winnipegosis and Winnipeg.

Moose are forest animals preferring low swampy areas where there is abund-
ance of willow and red osier dogwood, upon which they browse. In the fly season
of midsummer they spend much of their time in swamps and lakes, where they
often lie partly submerged to escape the large bulldog and deer flies, Tabanus spp.
and Chrysops spp. At this time they feed on aquatic vegetation and dive to
obtain water lily roots. In the winter they scatter and wander considerable
distances, singly or a cow and calf together. They then browse on oak, choke
cherry, saskatoon, and aspen.

The black bear, Ursus americanus Pallas, was originally more numerous than
the grizzly. It has been exterminated in most of the parkland but has persisted
in the more isolated hilly and wooded areas. Adjacent to these areas it is a pest
of farm stock and apiaries, with the result that a bounty has been placed on it
in some sections of Manitoba, notably about the Duck and Porcupine Mountains.
It is common in the Riding Mountain National Park. Until 1936 a few were

65

found in the Spruce Woods. It is omnivorous and feeds on wild fruits as well
as small mammals, birds, and ants, whose nests it uproots. Occasionally it
attacks larger game and the young of elk and deer. Henry (Coues, 1897) fre-
quently mentioned their abundance along the Red River and their feeding activ-
ities on wild fruit and acorns:

Bears make prodigious ravages in the brush and willows; and plum trees are torn to
pieces, and every tree that bears fruit has shared the same fate; the tops of the oaks are
also very roughly handled, broken, and torn down, to get the acorns, The havoc they
commit is astonishing; their dung lies about in the woods as plentiful as that of the buffalo
in the meadow.

Henry (Coues, 1897), on September 15, 1808, stated:

Bears were uncommonly numerous in the Hair Hills [Pembina and Turtle Hills'
Manitoba] owing perhaps to the quantity of water on the lowlands, which obliged them
to resort to the rising grounds for winter quarters; they were excessively fat. One of my
hunters killed 36 prime bears in the course of the season. Whatever the number of bears
an Indian may kill in the summer or fall is considered of no consequence, as they are value-
less and easy to hunt; but after they have taken up their winter quarters the Indians
glory in killing them.

When the fur trading period was over the pressure was taken off wild fur-
bearers and the raising of fur on ranches commenced. Trapping of wild fur
animals, however, continued as a profitable sideline for many rural residents.
A new factor, the vagaries of fashion, played an important part in selective
trapping. For a number of years long-haired fur, wolf, coyote, fox, raccoon,
skunk, and badger, has been out of fashion and prices have been so low that
these animals are not worth trapping. Consequently, being well able to get
along under settled conditions, they have increased in numbers. Marten,
fisher, wolverine, and otter, however, cannot survive under settlement and have
disappeared from the parkland. Beaver, the principal furbearer of the old days,
made a remarkable comeback after being reduced to very low numbers. Musk-
rats have retained their popularity when made up in various forms for ladies'
coats, but being prolific have been able to maintain high populations.

The badger, Taxidea taxus (Schreber), was found commonly in the prairie
portion of the parkland, where it was the principal predator on the common
" gopher", Citellus richardsonii. Its holes made in digging out gophers were
a common sight. They were used by burrowing owls for nesting sites, by jack
rabbits for shelter, and by skunks for shelter and dens, and enlarged by coyotes
for dens. Bird (1930) reported that dirt thrown up by the badger in digging
brings up the subsoil and forms a seedbed for successional changes. Symphori-
carpos occidentalis often take root in this dirt and aid succession from prairie
to forest. Unfortunately for the badger, its holes in pastures and fields were a
source of annoyance to the farmer. Also, its coat was highly prized as fur,
as well as being of value in the manufacture of shaving brushes. Hence, it was
greatly reduced in numbers by trapping and shooting. Recently the value of
its fur has declined and the badger has increased. It will never become abundant,
however, as agriculture has destroyed the native prairie and greatly reduced the
gopher.

Three species of weasel are found in the parkland of Manitoba: the long-
tailed weasel, Mustela frenata longicauda Boneparte; the short-tailed weasel,
Mustela erminea L. ; and the least weasel, Mustela rixosa rixosa (Bangs). The
first two species were once abundant. They feed principally on mice but also
on ground squirrels, and the large, long-tailed species occasionally on snowshoe

66

rabbits. Weasel fur has always brought a good price, with the result that they
are extensively trapped. They are easy to catch and provide pocket money
for many a farm boy. The result is that the weasel population has been greatly
reduced. In some places public sentiment is for protection of the weasel as a
valuable mouser.

The mink, Mustela vison lacustris (Preble), has long been a staple item
of the fur trade. It is found along streams and about the marshes of the park-
land, where it feeds principally on muskrats, fish, and crayfish. In spite of
heavy trapping mink are still common. The fur, being of the short-haired type,
brings a good price and the animals are eagerly sought by the trapper.

The Canada lynx, Lynx canadensis canadensis Kerr, was at one time a
common animal of the forested portion of the parkland, where it fed principally
on the snowshoe rabbit and fluctuated in numbers with it. Up until the early
part of this century it was commonly trapped in southern Manitoba. By 1915
it had become very rare, and except for the occasional wanderer is now extinct
in the parkland. A straggler was shot near Margaret, Man., on December 7,
1950, and one near Kemnay, Man., in 1953.

The puma, Felis concolor, was never common and is not mentioned by Henry,

but Seton (1929) recorded several from Manitoba, the last being killed in 1904.

Swanson (1945) has several records from Minnesota. In recent years the puma

has again been observed in both Manitoba and Saskatchewan. G. W. Malaher,

Director of Game for Manitoba, gave the following record (letter of May 25,

1956):

This animal was first seen on January 20, 1955, from a low-flying aircraft crossing
Manigotogan River above Gem Lake, Township 21, Range 17E. On February 13, 1955,
it was seen in the same area from the ground at close quarters. A plaster cast was taken
of the foot pad and identified definitely as that of a mountain lion. In this identification
Kenneth Racey, biologist from British Columbia, agreed.

F. G. Bard, Director, Saskatchewan Museum of Natural History, gave two
records and a report from Saskatchewan (letter of May 16, 1956) :

Accession No. 4635. Cougar — male. Trapped and shot by Joe Fournier, March
20, 1948, at Connell Creek, Arborfield, Sask. 150 lbs. 7 ft. long.

Accession No. 5342. Plaster cast of footprint of cougar. Vicinity of Yorkton.
Submitted by Dr. Swallow, Yorkton, Sask. 1950.

Report of cougar in Saskatchewan south south-east of Regina in the vicinity of
Lajord-Riceton; however, we have nothing to substantiate this claim.

The Saskatchewan timber wolf, Canis lupus griseoalbus Baird, occurs in
the forested area, where it feeds on moose, elk, deer, snowshoe rabbits, small
mammals, and birds. Although it has been driven back into inaccessible areas
by settlement it has not reached the point of extinction. In spite of bounties
and control operations by aerial predator hunters and government control
operators it has increased and migrated into settled areas during recent years.
Here it preys on deer and domestic stock. It is now common in the Riding and
Duck Mountain and Lake Winnipegosis areas, and a few are found in the Spruce
Woods. In 1950-51, bounty was paid on 3410, a large number of them from
unsettled areas north of the parkland, but at least 250 were taken in the southern
portion of Manitoba.

The coyote, Canis latrans, inhabits both the prairie and wooded portions
of the parkland. It was abundant prior to settlement and has continued to
thrive under settled conditions in spite of determined attempts to destroy it.

67

81314-7—6

It feeds on a variety of small mammals, birds, and insects, including grass-
hoppers when they are abundant. In season, wild fruits (choke cherries,
saskatoons, and strawberries) are consumed. At times it attacks big game.
Green (1933) records it killing elk calves. It must also consume numerous fawn
deer. During the winter when the snow is deep and crusted it is a major predator
of adult deer. It consumes large quantities of carrion of both wild and domestic
animals. It is particularly partial to sheep and makes sheep raising difficult
in some districts. It also attacks poultry, particularly turkeys that wander
from buildings. All hands are against the coyote and it is destroyed on every
opportunity. Encouragement is given by a $5.00 bounty. The raiding of dens,
which contain five or six pups on the average but may have as many as 10,
is a lucrative occupation for Indians and farmers. The coyote held its own against
this persecution and even increased when it had sufficient cover and wild land
for protection and denning. In recent years the advent of hunting from air-
planes and shooting them with shotguns as they run across open fields and frozen
lakes has become popular and has decimated their numbers. One team of aerial
hunters shot over 1000 in southwestern Manitoba in five years. The coyote,
however, is an adaptable animal and is learning fast. It is safe from the aerial
hunter if it stays in bush and forested areas. In 1955 and 1956 aerial hunting
decreased in popularity and coyotes immediately increased. Although it has been
necessary to control the numbers in order to protect game and livestock, it is
evident that drastic reduction in numbers or extermination is not desirable.
The coyote has a controlling influence on mice, gophers (Citellus richardsonii
and C. tridecemlineatus) , and rabbits, which are important agricultural pests.

The economic value of coyote fur has had a marked effect on trapping
pressure. Thus the vagaries of milady's fashion influence the number of coyotes.
At one time, about 1920, coyote skins were worth up to $25.00. Since 1950 they
have not been worth skinning.

The red fox, Vulpes fulva regalis Merriam, fluctuates markedly in its abun-
dance. Seton in 1909 stated that it was less numerous than formerly. It
certainly was very scarce in following years up to about 1930. Then it began
to increase as the commercial value of its fur decreased and trapping was reduced.
It has been abundant for the past twenty years and has been classed as vermin
with a bounty of $5.00. It is vulnerable to aerial predator control but has
learned faster than the coyote to hide from airplanes. Where persistently
hunted from planes it has become nocturnal and takes to dens during the day.
On the Brandon, Man., municipal airport, which was being used by aerial
hunters, three occupied fox dens were found but no foxes were seen from the
aircraft.

Foxes inhabit both prairie and woodland, and where plentiful exert con-
siderable influence on the abundance of rabbits, mice, ground squirrels, and
pocket gophers. At times they feed heavily on grasshoppers. In the 1930's,
when grasshoppers were in outbreak numbers, droppings were composed almost
entirely of grasshopper remains, mostly Melanoplus bilituratus. Were it not for
its fondness for poultry and game birds the fox would be a very desirable inhabi-
tant of the settled community.

The striped skunk, Mephitis mephitis hudsonica Richardson, is a common
animal of the parkland, being found particularly about the edges of woodland
and sloughs. It is omnivorous and is an important influent of the community.

68

At times it feeds extensively on insects, digging up white grubs and grasshopper
eggs. It eats many grasshoppers and is partial to the underground nests of wild
bees and hornets, which it digs out at night, when the insects are numbed with
cold, to feed on the brood. It also feeds on mice, eggs and young of ground-
nesting birds, and poultry. Its fur, which at one time brought a good price on the
market, is now practically valueless. No one wants the smelly job of trapping
skunks, and they have increased greatly. They wander onto highways at night
and many are killed by cars. Around some duck marshes skunk tracks are very
plentiful and in some places form regular trails; here they feed on wounded birds
and ducks lost by hunters.

Fur of the beaver, Castor canadensis canadensis Kuhl., was the most impor-
tant item of the fur-trading days. Beaver abounded in the streams of the park-
land, where they were important in controlling runoff and maintaining water
levels. Henry (Coues, 1897), in his returns for the lower Red River Department
for the winter of 1806-07, recorded 1184 beaver pelts weighing 1750 pounds.
Seton in 1909 stated: "Formerly very abundant in all parts of Manitoba. Re-
duced to very few some years ago, but owing to fostering laws it has since in-
creased and may once more become abundant." His forecast was correct, for
they have continued to increase to a degree where they have become a nuisance.
Numerous permits have been issued to farmers to reduce the number of beaver
on their land and game department officials have live-trapped and moved beaver
to other areas. When too abundant, beaver destroy the available food supply,
aspen and willow, and flood areas of agricultural land. One of their most trouble-
some habits is the plugging of culverts under highways and railroads to make use
of the man-made dam, with resultant washing out of the grade.

This increase in numbers is widespread. Minnesota opened a season on
them in 1939 and took 11,048, and seasons were continued in the following years
(Swanson, 1945). In North Dakota, beaver have increased to the point where
they have become a problem and an open season was declared for the spring of
1953, after a permit trapping system had been practiced since 1931.

Nash (1951), in his studies in northern Manitoba, found the favored food of
beaver was predominantly aspen followed by willow. Birch and alder were used
for building material and occasionally food. Spruce was utilized only when
there was no other food. Beaver can utilize aspen only within 500 to 600 feet
of water and are hence limited to a narrow belt along streams. Fires are an
important factor in providing beaver food since when spruce is killed by fire it is
followed by a subclimax aspen forest.

In southern Manitoba, where flood-plain trees along the larger rivers are
boxelder (Acer negundo), American elm, and green ash, I have observed beaver to
utilize ash and only rarely the other trees.

The muskrat, Ondatra zibethicus (L.), is an abundant and prolific rodent of
the streams and marshes of the parkland. It is extensively trapped and has
become one of the most popular furs for ladies' coats. It is easily managed and if
given protection stands a heavy harvest. It is preyed on by mink, great horned
owls, and other predators, but probably its greatest natural enemy is drought.
Frequently sloughs in which it builds its houses are so shallow that they freeze
to the bottom, thus killing the muskrats, which do not store food or hibernate
and must feed under the ice. Man has adversely affected the muskrat in agri-
cultural areas by the drainage of sloughs and marshes. On the other hand, he

69

81314-7—61

has reduced the numbers of predators and, in marsh areas unsuited for agricul-
tural production, has put in dams to regulate water levels intentionally for the
benefit of muskrats and wild fowl. Large areas in the delta of the Saskatchewan
River are thus under management for muskrat production. Ducks Unlimited
has done much in controlling water levels for ducks and enlarging muskrat
habitat. Ducks and muskrats live in the same type of habitat. Muskrats
improve conditions for ducks: ducks utilize the muskrat houses for basking places
and the muskrats keep areas of water free from encroaching vegetation through
their feeding activities on rushes, cattails, and sedges. In the early autumn,
muskrats wander long distances from water and suffer heavy losses by predation.
They are generally very active as freeze-up approaches and may be seen all day
house-building and feeding, whereas at other times they are largely crepuscular
or nocturnal. Muskrats inhabiting streams behave differently from those in
marshes. They do not build houses but live in holes they excavate in the bank
and they gather many clams, which they bring up to the shore or on to ice to
consume. Piles of empty clam shells are conspicuous at their feeding places.

Richardson's ground squirrel, Citellus richardsonii, is the "common gopher"
of the prairies. Its burrows have conspicuous piles of dirt on one side of the hole.
It is particularly partial to dry uplands and gravel ridges, where it forms loose
colonies, and is not found in the heavy soil of the lowlands. Closely grazed
pastures on light soil are a favored habitat. It was thus associated with the
buffalo as it now is with domestic stock. Sowls (1955) recorded a population
persisting in a closely grazed pasture in the Delta marsh area. It is a grass feeder
and soon learned to attack cereal crops. It invaded the crops from its burrows
in the surrounding sod but also made some burrows in the fields. It not only fed
on the young plants but also broke down many heads of ripe grain in obtaining
seed for its winter stores. It was estimated that each gopher destroyed at least
a bushel of grain. When the population about a field ran into the hundreds,
losses were considerable. Hence it became a pest of prime importance. It was
trapped, shot, and poisoned unmercifully. Competitions were organized among
boys for the most gopher tails, and prizes and bounties were awarded. The
greatest control measures were exerted from 1910 to 1925, after which the gopher
became less of a problem. It is still common and troublesome in some spots but
its numbers are greatly reduced, more by the destruction of habitat than by con-
trol measures. With increased acreage under the plow and the introduction of
power machinery, waste land, pastures, and roadsides have been almost elimin-
ated as breeding places.

During grasshopper outbreaks gophers eat large numbers of grasshoppers.
They may do so in search for moisture when the vegetation is very dry as much as
from desire for an insectivorous diet.

The thirteen-striped ground squirrel, Citellus tridecemlineatus, has the sub-
species tridecemlineatus (Mitchill) in the southern part of the parkland and hoodii
(Sabine) in the northern. The "striped gopher" is much more solitary and
secretive than C. richardsonii and is found in longer and denser grass. Although
C. tridecemlineatus invades gardens and crops it is seldom abundant enough to do
much damage and is easily controlled. It is more nearly omnivorous than C.
richardsonii and in addition to a predominantly vegetable diet consumes num-
erous insects and the flesh of mammals, as well as birds and their eggs.

70

Stuart Criddle (1939) studied winter homes and stores of the striped ground
squirrel. He found nests and store chambers as deep as six feet. Dirt was scattered
widely to leave no telltale mound and the original entrance hole was plugged
with dirt from a side entrance joining the main tunnel at a sharp angle. This
entrance was well hidden with a sharp angle making it difficult for a badger to
follow in digging out the occupant. Winter stores were much smaller than those
of field mice but might contain as much as 2\ pounds of wheat or less of grass
seeds. There were, however, several emergency stores in addition, small amounts
hidden away under clumps of grass and in other places. After a rain these seeds
sprout and can be easily located. Between a winter hole and a wheat field 140
yards away Criddle counted 173 of these sprouted stores containing from a few
dozen up to 400 grains of wheat. The latter would be a full load for their cheek
pouches. Since many of these small stores are never consumed they must be
an important influence on the distribution of the food plants.

Agricultural practices have been detrimental to the striped ground squirrel,
as the shallower summer burrows have been destroyed by the plow and grazing
has removed protective vegetation. Populations are now considerably reduced.

Franklin's ground squirrel, Citellus franklinii (the shrub or bush gopher,
as it is commonly called), is found about the edges of aspen groves, thickets of
choke cherry, saskatoon, and willow, and in tall grass and rushes on dry land about
the edges of sloughs and marshes. Sowls (1948) studied its life history and habits
at the Delta marsh. Here he found that populations fluctuated markedly, with
a peak in 1938 and lows in 1943 and 1946. He also found that animal food
constituted about one-third of its diet and consisted of mice, young snowshoe
rabbits, toads, frogs, young birds and birds' eggs, and insects, particularly
grasshoppers. Vegetable food included sow thistle, stinging nettle, choke cherries,
and clover. Many garden plants were eaten. At times of abundance at Delta
they destroyed 19 per cent of vulnerable duck nests as compared with 21 per
cent destroyed by crows. They were apparently reduced in numbers by disease,
as predation by hawks, skunks, weasels, and mink was low. Land clearing oper-
ations have considerably reduced the habitat of Franklin's ground squirrel and
the population in the aspen parkland.

Birds were not the primary concern of the early traders, as were mammals,
and only a comparatively few were killed for food. It was not until an agricultural
economy developed that game birds were hunted to any extent. All birds soon
felt the effect of land clearing, cultivation, drainage, and the establishment of
human habitation.

The aspen parkland with its many sloughs, potholes, and marshes is one
of the best waterfowl breeding areas on the North American continent. As a
group, ducks, geese, and swans have probably been subject to as great a pressure
from settlement as any other group of birds in the parkland. They are excellent
game birds and have been heavily shot each year. In 1952 an estimated 278,739
ducks were taken in Manitoba by 25,283 licensed hunters.

Many species of ducks return for nesting to the locality where they were
raised (Sowls, 1955). Shooting too early in the autumn, before the birds have had
a chance to scatter from their nesting areas, has resulted in the "burning out"
of the breeding stock, particularly diving ducks, of some marshes. Stubble-fed
mallards are preferred and are selectively shot by many Canadian hunters.

71

In spite of this terrific pressure, ducks are still holding their own in fair numbers,
thanks to conservation measures. Seasons and bag limits have been set to
regulate the take, marshes have been reclaimed, and preserves have been
established.

In addition to the toll taken by hunters, ducks come into conflict with
agriculture. Much nesting habitat has been destroyed by tillage, drainage, and
grazing. However, some agricultural activities have benefited ducks. Two
species, mallards and pintails, have taken to feeding in grain fields, where they
pick up much waste grain. For a short period in the autumn heavy concentra-
tions of these ducks may do considerable damage to unthreshed grain lying in
swath. To combat this loss, permits have been issued to farmers to shoot the birds
on their fields before the hunting season opens. This method has led to much
abuse. Hochbaum et at. (1954) have shown, however, that it is not necessary
to kill birds to drive them from the fields. This can be accomplished by the
erection of scarecrows and the firing of blank shells from exposed positions near
the scaring devices and by automatic exploding devices.

The habit of feeding in fields was developed almost as soon as fields were
planted, for Macoun (1883), commenting on his trip of 1880, stated, "Geese,
ducks and prairie chickens are taking to the stubble fields in the fall".

Sowls (1955) has shown that moderate grazing by livestock in the neigh-
borhood of sloughs and marshes is beneficial to ducks. Trampling and grazing
of reed grass, bulrushes, and cattails at the water margin exposes mud banks,
which are important to ducks for loafing areas. The same relationship must also
have existed with buffalo.

Sowls (1955) also noted that heavy grazing of a palatable grass, such as
blue grass, renders the pastures useless for duck nesting sites but that patches of
unpalatable vegetation, such as reed grass (Phragmites communis), wild barley
(foxtail), and Canada thistle, make good nesting cover. Leitch (1951) found that
snowberry, which increases with overgrazing, is used for nesting sites by blue-
winged teal and shovelers when close to water. Sowls found that ungrazed
meadows of whitetop are preferred nesting sites, and of secondary importance
are reed grass, couch grass, goldenrod, aster, and annual weeds. The narrow
strips of vegetation on roadside embankments were used by 10 per cent of the
nesting ducks observed by Sowls. A few mallards nested close to the edges of
heavy stands of red grass but these stands were impenetrable for any distance.
Pintails and some mallards used stubble and fallow fields up to 500 or more
yards from water. Most of these nests were destroyed by tillage.

Farmers adjacent to marshes cut wild hay as it becomes available when
water levels retreat. If the area has not been cut for some years, because of
high water, there is a dense mat of dead vegetation. To remove this, fires are
set. These fires do a great deal of harm to nesting ducks unless they are timed
and controlled to avoid the destruction of nests.

The relationship of predators to ducks is indirectly affected by human
activities. The flushing of birds from their nests during agricultural and other
activites exposes eggs to crows. Crows often closely follow agricultural imple-
ments to feed on insects and mice that are disturbed. If a duck is flushed from
her nest they invariably take the eggs, even if the farmer is careful to leave a

72

patch of untilled land to shelter the nest or moves the nest to another site close
by. Kalmbach (1937, p. 7) stated:

It cannot be emphasized too strongly, however, that careless intrusion of human
beings into duck-nesting areas creates a hazard of utmost importance, for incubating ducks
may then be flushed in the presence of crows and the suddenly uncovered eggs left exposed
to view. It is for this reason that the breeding grounds of ducks should be carefully
guarded against trespass during the nesting season.

There is abundant evidence that the crow increased with agriculture (Phillips,
1928; Farley, 1932; Kalmbach, 1937; Hochbaum, 1944; and Sowls, 1955),
although there is now some evidence that its population is declining. Kalmbach
(1937) found that crows destroyed 33 per cent of the duck nests at Waterhen
Lake, Saskatchewan.

Sowls (1955) lists the skunk, along with the crow and Franklin's ground
squirrel, as a principal predator of duck nests at Delta. In the Lower Souris
Refuge, North Dakota, Kalmbach (1938) found that the skunk took 30 per cent
of the duck nests. The skunk, when it was an important fur-bearer, was trapped
heavily and its numbers kept at a minimum. Now this check on its numbers
has been removed, as its fur is valueless.

The effectiveness of localized programs of crow reduction to protect duck
nests is questioned by Sowls (1955). He points out that the destruction of
crow nests produces more wandering crows, which are more persistent hunters
of duck nests than breeding birds. Also, if adult crows are reduced, more nests
are available for skunks and the end result may be the same. Kalmbach (1938)
concludes that the control of predators is so involved that it should be undertaken
only by wildlife managers. The intrusion of predator hunters on waterfowl
nesting areas disturbs the ducks. In other areas hunters may shoot predators
that are taking food to the detriment of agricultural interests.

The American coot, Fulica americana Gmelin, is a very common bird that
may be seen about the open water of sloughs in association with ducks. It nests
in the rushes and raises large broods, which soon scatter, and young of all ages
may be seen swimming over the marsh. Sowls (1955) has shown that young
coots are fed on extensively by mink and that they are an important buffer
between the mink and ducklings.

The Canada goose, Branta canadensis (L.), is the only goose that nested in
the parkland. It apparently nested generally throughout the area but there is
little exact information on its nesting locations. Stuart Criddle (naturalist and
old-time resident, Treesbank, Man. In litt. 1955) stated that a few pairs nested
along the Assiniboine River near Treesbank, Manitoba, in the 1880's and that
some nested in the Douglas marsh, ten miles, to the north, until the early part
of this century. Hales (1927) stated that he shot a Canada goose out of a flock
nesting in Oak Lake, Manitoba, in 1901, and that geese were then nesting in
only a few scattered localities. According to Lawrence (1925), A. G. Vidal of
West Shoal Lake, Manitoba, reported that 20 Canada geese had nested there in
1925 and that these were the first geese nesting there for about 30 years. This
was just a year following the creation of the Shoal Lake sanctuary in February,
1924. Farley (1932) recorded five pairs of Canada geese nesting in a lake near
Camrose, Alberta, in 1931, and that geese have nested there annually since he
first observed them in 1907. A few pairs still nest in more isolated marshes, e.g.,
Dog Lake near Ashern, Manitoba, where a sizeable colony is still found; but
the goose has been practically exterminated as a breeding bird in the aspen

73

parkland. It is easily raised in captivity, and some captive birds have been
released and are once again nesting in the old haunts in a few protected marshes.
A breeding colony has been re-established at Delta on the south end of Lake
Manitoba through the activity of the Delta Waterfowl Research Station.
Sizeable flocks pass through on migration. In 1950 the reported hunter kill
of Canada geese in Manitoba was 4,668, over twice the number taken in 1948
and 1949.

The white-fronted goose, Anser albifrons frontalis Baird; the lesser snow
goose, Chen hyperborea (Pallas); and the blue goose, Chen caerulescens (L.), are
common migrant geese. The last two species, however, pass through in numbers
only in the spring migration and most return via the Niagara peninsula in
autumn. Southern Manitoba is a main stopping place on the way to Hudson
Bay. As spring shooting has been stopped for the last forty years, the geese are
exposed to very little hunting in the parkland. Unfortunately they have never
become accustomed to aircraft. Training planes during the Second World War
disturbed them on their resting grounds near Marquette and Warren, a few
miles northwest of Winnipeg, and the migration has become disorganized.

The whistling swan, Olor columbianus (Ord), never nested in the area but
passes through regularly on migration to and from its nesting grounds in the
Arctic. It, as well as the trumpeter swan, was shot for down and skins and
decreased in numbers, but with protection in recent years it has increased.
Large numbers now stop over, particularly in the fall migration, and gather on
the larger marshes. Thousands may be seen on Whitewater Lake in south-
western Manitoba in October. Seton (1909) described it as a rare migrant.

The hawks and owls, like wolves, have been persecuted by man on account
of their habit of preying on domestic and game birds. Unfortunately, however,
most men do not distinguish between the hawks that feed primarily on rodents
and those that take birds, and many hawks helpful to human interests are
destroyed. The only hawks of the parkland that feed primarily on birds are
the sharp-shinned hawk, Accipiter striatus; Cooper's hawk, Accipiter cooperi;
and the goshawk, Accipiter gentilis atricapillus. The last is the largest and most
destructive of the three; however, it is only a winter resident. During this
period it takes considerable numbers of sharptailed and ruffed grouse and snow-
shoe rabbits. If game is scarce it raids flocks of domestic fowl. It lives and
hunts close to woodland, and its habitat is being reduced with land clearing.
The other two species, which are summer residents, are also woodland dwellers.
The sharp-shinned hawk is too small to attack birds larger than pigeons and
songbirds. It does not often molest poultry. Cooper's hawk will feed on ruffed
grouse and poultry and is primarily responsible for putting hawks in disrepute.
It has increased during the past fifty years. Seton (1909) reported it as rare
and that he did not know of a specimen being taken in the Province.

The red-tailed hawk, Buteo jamaicensis borealis, and Swainson's hawk, Buteo
swainsoni, are two common and conspicuous hawks that have unjustly been
subject to severe persecution. Their habit of sitting on telephone poles and
building conspicuous nests in outstanding trees makes them very vulnerable.
They only rarely attack poultry but feed chiefly on mice and ground squirrels.
Swainson's hawk, which hunts mostly over the prairie, also consumes large
numbers of grasshoppers. Both hawks have been considerably reduced in
numbers by shooting and destruction of nesting sites.

74

The marsh hawk, Circuls dyaneus hudsonius, is the most abundant hawk
of the parkland. The Manitoba parkland is probably the finest marsh hawk
breeding range in North America (Hochbaum, A. Director, Waterfowl Research
Station, Delta, Man. In litt. 1956). Coues (1874) stated that in North Dakota
it was the most abundant and widely distributed of all the rapacious birds.
With the expansion of farming, draining, pasturing, and breaking of prairie sod,
however, it is considerably less abundant than in earlier times. As with ducks
(Leitch, 1951), some compensation for loss of habitat has arisen through the
increase of snowberry in overgrazed pastures. It rarely settles on a high object
such as a telephone pole and is hence not vulnerable to the rifle and it rarely
approaches within shotgun range. Its wariness has developed on association
with settlement, for Coues (1874) stated that it showed little of the wariness
most hawks display. Sowls (1955), who studied the food habits of marsh hawks
at Delta, Manitoba, found that ducklings and adult and juvenile coots were
occasionally taken but that juvenile passerine birds, mice, insects, and amphibians
comprised the principal food items. In the hunting season it captures many
wounded ducks. I have observed them carry off blue-winged teal shot and
dropped in the water, before they could be retrieved by the hunter. Its nests
are on the ground, well hidden in tall grass or low shrubs. Criddle (1912) noticed
that young marsh hawks when they start to hunt for themselves will take young
sharp-tailed grouse. The grouse soon get too large for them to handle and they
learn to leave them alone. The following year when young grouse are about,
they do not molest them.

The sparrow hawk, Falco sparverius L., is a common bird of the parkland.
It is restricted in its nesting distribution as it requires some sort of a cavity,
usually an old flicker's hole, in which it builds a very scanty nest. The destruc-
tion of nesting sites through land clearing has only partially been compensated
for by the habit flickers have of excavating holes in telephone poles, which are
later utilized by the hawks. It is not shot as much as the larger hawks and is
still common. Its food is chiefly grasshoppers, dragonflies and other large
insects, mice, and occasionally small birds.

The great horned owl, Bubo virginianus, is resident throughout the year.
This powerful predator is still common about wooded areas and groves of trees
in spite of persecution by farmers and sportsmen. At times it captures grouse
and ducks and feeds on domestic fowl, but such attacks are made mostly by a
few individuals that have found an abundant food supply or have experienced a
scarcity of other food. It consumes large numbers of snowshoe rabbits, mice,
pocket gophers, and rats, and occasionally takes skunks and crows. I (Bird, 1929)
kept six nests under observation while the young were being fed and found the
principal food to be rabbits and mice, only the occasional duck and domestic
fowl being taken during the period of observation.

The ruffed grouse, Bonasa umbellus, is the grouse of the denser woods and
willow swamps of the parkland. Like other grouse and snowshoe rabbits, it is
subject to periodic highs and lows of population, averaging about ten years
between peaks. Since settlement the peaks of population have been progressively
lower. The birds are easy to shoot on account of their tameness, and much
habitat has been destroyed by land clearing. They eat the fruit of the poison
ivy, which is not toxic to them, but sportsmen sensitive to the ivy have reported
symptoms after cleaning ruffed grouse and touching the berries in the crop.

75

The sharp-tailed grouse, Pedioecetes phasianellus, is the most abundant
grouse of the parkland. The groves of aspen interspersed with grassland or
grain fields make an ideal habitat. The birds resort to the woods for protection
in the winter and a noon-day siesta in the summer. They are well adapted
to withstand the rigors of winter. On the approach of winter, scales on the sides
of the toes grow out to enable them to walk on crusted snow. They feed on rose
hips, snowberries, and buds of trees and shrubs projecting above the snow, and
for protection from the cold they dive into soft snow and make their beds
several inches below the surface. Changes in farming practices first benefited
the sharp-tail. Food was abundant in gleanings about straw piles, and sheaves
in stooks or stacks were often available for several weeks before they were
threshed. The change to mechanized farming reduced the available grain.
Grain was threshed from the swath, eliminating straw piles, and the stubble was
generally worked with a oneway disk or cultivated shortly afterward, thus
burying most of the waste grain. The most unfavorable effect of agriculture
on this grouse has been the destruction of nesting sites and land clearing. The
reduction in numbers of horses with resultant breaking up of native pastures
has further reduced their habitat. Intensively cultivated areas are now nearly
devoid of sharp-tails.

The sandhill crane, Grus canadensis tabida, and the little brown crane, Grus
canadensis canadensis (L.), were always much more abundant than the whooping
crane. They feed considerably on the uplands although they return to a marsh
for resting. The little brown crane, which is the more abundant, did not nest
in the parkland. It soon learned to feed on waste grain in the stubble fields,
and since swathing of grain has been practiced may do considerable damage by
trampling. It was shot for food by the settlers and reduced in numbers, but
since protection has been enforced it has increased and is commonly seen during
migration. It gathers in large numbers about favorite marshes in the spring
and fall. The Big Grass Marsh west of Lake Manitoba is one such area. Flocks
of hundreds may be seen feeding on adjacent fields.

Norman Criddle (Entomologist in Charge of the Dominion Entomological
Laboratory at Treesbank, Man. In litt. 1925) recorded the sandhill crane nesting
in the area east of Brandon, Man., along the Assiniboine River in the 1880's.
Pittman (1956) mentioned sandhill cranes as plentiful and nesting near Wauchope
in southeastern Saskatchewan in the early days of settlement. They nested on
low but not wet ground. Destruction of nesting habitat drove them away.

Shore birds were heavily shot during the days of market hunting and have
not regained their former numbers (Roberts, 1932). The upland plover, which
inhabits the prairie, was most vulnerable to destruction of nesting habitat by
agricultural activity. It is greatly reduced in numbers.

The following are breeding species of shore birds: the killdeer, Charadrius
vociferus L. ; Wilson's snipe, Capella gallinago delicata (Ord) ; the upland plover,
Bartramia longicauda; the spotted sandpiper, Actitis macularia; the willet,
Catoptrophurus semipalmatus inornatus; the marbled godwit, Limosa fedoa; and
Wilson's phalarope, Steganopus tricolor Vieillot. Many other species pass through
during migration.

The white pelican, Pelecanus erythrorhynchos, and the doublecrested cor-
morant, Phalacrocorax auritus, are largely fish eaters. They nest together in

76

colonies on islands in the larger lakes. McLeod and Bondar (1953), who in-
vestigated the status of the cormorant in southern Manitoba, reported colonies
confined to Lake Manitoba and that the estimated number of nests was reduced
from 39,448 in 1945 to 18,624 in 1951. This reduction resulted from the repeated
raiding of colonies and smashing of eggs by commercial fishermen. In one case
a mink rancher harvested the young each year for mink food.

The Saskatchewan horned lark, Eremophila alpestris enthymia Oberholser,
is the only true lark in the parkland. It is a common and abundant bird of the
grassland and open cultivated fields, to which it readily adapted itself. It stays
late in the fall and is the first bird to return in the spring. Its food consists of
about 20 per cent insects and the remainder seeds, mostly weeds. With the
development of intensive agriculture its numbers have been reduced by destruc-
tion of nests by tillage operations and the planting of crops. Roberts (1932)
estimated that in southeastern Minnesota only one pair is now found where
there used to be fifty.

The bobolink, Dolichonyx oryzivorus (L.), was an abundant summer resident
in moist meadows (Seton, 1909). In recent years it has become much less
abundant because of the draining and breaking of land. Roberts (1932) reported
a decrease in numbers in Minnesota. He believed that Brewer's blackbird,
which has been extending its range to the eastward, has been driving it from its
former range. Hales (1927) considered Brewer's blackbird, Euphagus cyano-
cephalus (Wagler), the most abundant blackbird. Since that time it has steadily
decreased in numbers through destruction of its nesting habitat in the fast-
disappearing native prairie. The western meadowlark, Sturnella neglecta, is a
common and delightful bird of the prairies. Roberts (1932) considered that it
adapted itself well to settlement and even increased, as it preferred pastures to
wilder places. In recent years with mechanized farming and the destruction of
pastures this is no longer true and populations have declined.

The chestnut-collared longspur, Calcarius orriatus, was common on dry
upland sand prairie. Some of this land is unfit for agriculture and appreciable
populations remain in these locations. In Minnesota, Roberts (1932) reported
that the bird has been driven from the western part of the State, where it was
once common, by cultivation of its habitat.

Prior to settlement the rivers and lakes of the parkland teemed with fish.
Since settlement there has been a steady decline in the fish population as a
result of overfishing and pollution. Alexander Henry (Coues,, 1897), in his
travels along the Red River from 1799 to 1808, made frequent references to the
abundance of fish. Unfortunately the names he used are often misspelt Indian
and French names and it is not possible to identify the species. He frequently
used the words "picaneau" and "piccanan", which are apparently different
spellings of the same word and to which there is no clue. Similarly the words
"pois d'oile" and"pois d'ouce" are used. The term "lacaishe" may refer to the
goldeye, Amphiodon alosoides Rafinesque, or pike, Esox lucius, and "achegan"
to the yellow walleye, Stizostedion vitreum. The following quotations give some
idea of the abundance of fish and their ease of capture:

My men as usual betook themselves to fishing, and in a short time caught upwards of
300 Lacaishe . . .

We take plenty of catfish and lacaishe . . .

Men fishing with hook and line, and others with the seine: all were successful, taking
plenty of catfish, sturgeon, lacaishe, and other kinds. . .

77

We take plenty of catfish with a night-line of 60 hooks, and 20 to 30 sturgeon a day . . .

My people are all unwell: as usual every spring, on the sudden change of diet from
flesh to fat sturgeon, they are very troubled with dysentry that reduces them very much:
they are extraordinary gormandizers, and the sturgeon oil is too much for them. We
take large fat picaneau in our sturgeon nets; they are excellent eating, but too oily, and
tend to increase the disease . . .

He takes daily a number of fine large whitefish in his nets [in Lake Manitoba]. This
fishing is abundant the whole year, but more particularly in the autumn, when almost any
number may be caught; they generally weigh from 12 to 20 pounds. . .

We caught great abundance of sturgeon and all other kinds of fish peculiar to this
river [Red River] — much more than my people could consume.

With settlement we immediately find a pollution problem. The report
of the Manitoba Department of Agriculture for 1882 included mention of the
first efforts at trying to impose regulations to prevent pollution, without success.
"The prohibition of placing saw dust in streams is a dead letter. The Winnipeg
Gas Company is doing great injury by polluting Red River with its refuse
and killing the fish." It is also interesting to note in the same report that an
attempt to introduce carp was considered.

The cities dump raw sewage, waste oils, and chemicals into the rivers.
Pollution, together with overfishing, has sadly reduced the fish population.
The once-abundant sturgeon and catfish are now practically exterminated.
Goldeye are much reduced. Pike hold their own in reasonable numbers in suit-
able water but are very scarce in the Red River.

Erosion and silting are particularly acute on the east slopes of the Riding
and Duck mountains. As land has been cleared, erosion has been accelerated
and drainage systems have dumped much silt into the rivers. Lake Dauphin
at one time was a particularly productive lake. It is now silting up rapidly and
fishing has declined. Tributary rivers, which were crystal clear and formed
ideal spawning grounds for pike and walleyes, are now scoured by spring floods,
and gravel beds are loaded with silt so that fish reproduction is much reduced.

Attempts are being made to restock depleted waters but with the spoilage
of habitat the attempts are often futile.

Lastly, sport fishing has become extremely popular, and with more leisure,
cars, and outboard-motor boats, the fishing pressure at favorite spots is very
heavy. On holidays and weekends hundreds of people gather at such places.
Fishing camps with modern conveniences have sprung up and the market has
been flooded by every imaginable lure and accessory. New lakes are soon
fished out as roads are built to them and the fishing frontier is pushed farther
and farther north.

Of all animals, insects as a group are the most adaptable to changes in the
environment. Changes in the parkland, however, have been so great that a
number of insects have been reduced in abundance.

The only serious attempt at comparative studies of insects in disturbed and
undisturbed areas of the parkland has been made by King (1926) at Saskatoon,
Sask. In comparison of grazed and ungrazed prairie he said that there was no
evidence that insects indigenous to the Symphoricarpos and Elaeagnus thickets
were particularly affected by grazing except by partial destruction of the habitat.
Because of the importance of migrant forms, however, the population was con-
siderably affected indirectly by changes in the prairie and proximity of ruderal
associations. I have noted that although livestock do not feed to any extent on

78

Symphoricarpos occidentalism except for some browsing on the fruit and dried
leaves in winter, they cause it to spread by removal of competition of grasses
through close grazing. Pastures become overrun with the shrub and their
carrying capacity is greatly reduced. On the other hand, Elaeagnus commutata
is heavily browsed by cattle, and patches are killed by a combination of browsing
and trampling. The killing of patches of E. commutata by pasturing was noted
by King, but he did not report an increase of S. occidentalis as a sign of over-
grazing, as noted by Leitch (1951) and observed by myself.

King (1926) stated that grazing of grassland reduced the taller herbs and
grasses and the animals associated with them, including thrips, spiders and the
ambush bug, Phymata erosa wolffii Stal. Insects requiring specific food plants
were most affected. These included the wheat stem sawfly, Cephus cinctus,
which requires large grass stems for larval development; the fly Eurosta solidaginis
fascipennis, which makes galls on goldenrod; the bugs Lopidea minor Kngt.
and L. dakota Kngt., which feed on certain Leguminosae; and the katydid
Scudderia pistillata Brunn, which is not a general feeder. The abundance of
animal droppings resulted in an increase of insects associated with them, in-
cluding the fly Forcipomyia specularis Coquillett. Closely grazed grass with
exposed soil favored the increase of certain grasshoppers. Melanoplus infantilis
Scudd. was the most abundant. Other species that increased with this condition
were: Psoloessa delicatula (Scudd.), Xanthippus corallipes (Hald.), Arphia
conspersa Scudd., and Spharagemon collare Scudd. Grasshoppers characteristic
of undisturbed grassland such as Aeropedellus clavatus (Thorn.) decreased.
The increase of sunlight and evaporation associated with overgrazing benefited
the lygaeid bug Geocoris discopterus Stal, and the cutworms Euxoa flavicollis
(Sm.), Euxoa divergens (Wlk.), Feltia ducens (Wlk.), Spaelotis clandestina (Harr.),
and Lacinipolia meditata Columbia (Sm.). Other cutworms, Leucania commoides
Gn., Nephelodes emmedonia tertialis Sm., Faronta diffusa (Wlk.), Hyphilare
oxygala (Grt.), and Paradiarsia littoralis (Pack.), were more abundant in areas
of long grass. Among the ants, Myrmica scabrinodis increased in grazed areas
whereas Lasius brevicornis was reduced. Three weevils, Trichalophus simplex
Lee, Lepyrus palustris (Scop.), and Hyper odes ulkei (Dietz), decreased with
grazing as did crane flies, Pachyrrhina spp.

King found that the total insect population of all strata in cultivated
fields was less than that of pasture. Ants were practically eliminated by cultiva-
tion and spiders, Heteroptera, and Homoptera were greatly reduced. During
outbreaks certain Orthoptera were more abundant in crop land. Diptera and
Coleoptera were appreciably more abundant in the cultivated fields, particularly
in the families Elateridae, Carabidae, and Staphylinidae although there was a
reduction in Curculionidae and Chrysomelidae. He also found that although
the upper strata of soil in cultivated fields contained low populations, the levels
below seven inches contained high populations. In sandy loam the insect popula-
tion averaged over 40,000 per acre between 7 and 10 inches and 20,000 per acre
between 10 and 13 inches. "The most important natural enemies of wireworms
(Elateridae) appeared to be birds, especially the Franklin Gull, and the larvae
and adults of Carabidae. . . The mortality, in actual numbers, from both these
agencies is very much greater in cultivated fields than in native sod." Carabids
were more abundant although cultivation exposed them and other insects to be
picked up by birds. Soil moisture was important to both carabids and elaterids.

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In dry years there was considerable mortality of both groups but proportionately
less of the wireworms, which were able to burrow to greater depths. Cultiva-
tion may thus be more injurious to the predaceous carabids than to the wire-
worms, which were often below plow depth.

Grasshoppers with restricted food habits have been adversely affected by
destruction of the native prairie. A number of those that are more general feeders,
however, have benefited by human activity and have become pests. One
exception is the Rocky Mountain grasshopper, Melanoplus spretus, a species
to which all grasshopper outbreaks in the parkland prior to 1903 are referred.
These outbreaks have undoubtedly occurred periodically for centuries. Layers
of grasshoppers are found frozen in glaciers on the east slopes of the Rocky
Mountains — remnants of ancient nights from the plains (Gurney, 1953). The
first outbreak of which we have any record occurred in 1799-1800. There was
another in 1808, and a large one in 1818, which wiped out the crops of the Selkirk
Settlers near Winnipeg. A great outbreak continued from 1857 to 1876 (Mitch-
ener, 1954). M. spretus was last seen in a small outbreak that occurred in
Manitoba in 1902-03.

The early outbreaks of the Rocky Mountain grasshopper originated in the
short-grass plains to the southwest and the grasshoppers invaded the parkland,
where they laid great quantities of eggs. One or more generations developed
before they died out. The grasshoppers in migration sometimes flew north and
east beyond the parkland to the large lakes and heavily forested country, where
they perished by drowning or from unfavorable habitat.

On August 17, 1800, Alexander Henry (Coues, 1897), on the south shore of
Lake Winnipeg, a few miles east of the mouth of the Red River, recorded:

The beach was covered with grasshoppers which had been thrown up by the waves
and formed on continuous line as far as the eye could reach; in places they lay from 6 to 9
inches deep and in a state of putrefaction which occasioned a horrid stench.

Again on July 25, 1808, at the mouth of the Pembina River: Swarms of grasshoppers
have destroyed the greater part of the vegetables in my kitchen garden . . .

The swarms appear about the 15th of June generally in clouds from the south and
spread destruction, the very trees are stripped of their leaves.

. . . They do not make such a formidable appearance every year.

The most graphic account of a grasshopper flight, which occurred in 1858
in the country west of the present town of Souris, Man., was given by Hind
(1859, p. 44) :

On the second of July we observed the grasshoppers in full flight towards the north,
the air as far as the eye could penetrate appeared to be filled with them. They com-
menced their flight about nine in the morning, and continued until half-past three or
four o'clock in the afternoon. About that hour they settled around us in countless mult-
itudes, and immediately clung to the leaves of grass and rested after their journey. On
subsequent days when crossing the great prairie from Red Deer's Head River [now Antler
River] to Fort Ellice, the hosts of grasshoppers were beyond all calculation ; they appeared
to be infinite in number. Early in the morning they fed upon the prairie grass, being
always found most numerous in low, wet places where the grass was long. As soon as
the sun had evaporated the dew, they took short flights, and as the hour of nine approached,
cloud after cloud would rise from the prairie and pursue their flight in the direction of the
wind, which was generally S.S.W. The number in the air seemed to be greatest about
noon, and at times they appeared in such infinite swarms as to lessen perceptibly the
light of the sun. The whole horizon wore an unearthly ashen hue from the light reflected
by their transparent wings. The air was filled as with flakes of snow, and time after time
clouds of these insects forming a dense body casting a glimmering silvery light, flew swiftly
towards the north north east, at altitudes varying from 500 to perhaps 1000 feet . . .

80

Lying on my back and looking upwards as near to the sun as the light would permit,
I saw the sky continually changing colour from blue to silver white, ash grey and lead
colour, according to the numbers in the passing clouds of insects. Opposite to the sun
the prevailing hue was a silver white, perceptibly flashing. On one occasion the whole
heavens, towards the south-east and west appeared to radiate a soft grey-tinted light with
a quivering motion, and the day being calm, the hum produced by the vibration of so
many millions of wings was quite indescribable, and more resembled the noise popularly
termed 'a ringing in one's ears', than any other sound. The aspect of the heavens during
the greatest flight we observed was singularly striking. It produced a feeling of uneasiness,
amazement and awe in our minds, as if some terrible, unforeseen calamity were about to
happen. It recalled more vividly than words could express the devastating ravages of the
Egyptian scourges, as it seemed to bring us face to face with one of the most striking and
wonderful exhibitions of Almighty power in the creation and sustenance of this infinite
army of insects. . .

In the evening, when the grasshoppers were resting from their long journeys, or in
the morning, when feeding on the grass leaves, they rose in clouds around us as we marched
through the prairie — if a strong wind blew they became very troublesome, flying with
force against our faces, in the nostrils and eyes of the horses, and filling every crevice in
the carts. But fortunately, comparatively few flew on a windy day, otherwise it would
have been almost impossible to make headway against such an infinite host in rapid motion
before the wind, although composed individually of such insignificant members. . ,

Those portions of the prairie which had been visited by the grasshoppers wore a
curious appearance; the grass was cut uniformly to one inch from the ground, and the
whole surface was covered with the small, round, green exuviae [feces] of these destructive
invaders.

When grasshoppers occurred in outbreak numbers they formed an important
food supply for many birds and mammals that do not normally feed on them.
Coues (1874, p. 359) stated:

Those [Swainson's hawk] that I shot after midsummer all had their craws stuffed
with grasshoppers. These insects, which appear sometimes in almost inconceivable
numbers, seem to be the natural source of supply for a variety of animals. Wolves, foxes,
badgers, and even rodents, like gophers, supposed vegetarians, come down to them.
Sand-hill Cranes stalk over the plains to spear them by thousands. Wild fowl waddle
out of the reedy sloughs to scoop them up. We may kill scores of Sharp-tailed Grouse,
in September, to find in every one of them a mass of grasshoppers.

Norman Criddle (unpublished manuscript) pointed out the importance
of grasshoppers in maintaining other forms of life. Grasshoppers are eaten by
many birds and mammals, which do much to control the numbers of grass-
hoppers, but it is not generally realized that these predators would perish with-
out grasshoppers for food or would have to feed on other forms of life. The
upland plover and to a lesser extent the western meadowlark and horned lark
depend on grasshoppers for food for their young. The sharp-tailed grouse
flourishes in dry years when there are plenty of young grasshoppers for their
chicks. Crows and such hawks as the Swainson and sparrow hawks eat large
numbers of grasshoppers and when this food is not present turn to small birds,
their young, and rodents for food. Grasshoppers thus act as buffers in the
food chain.

Grasshopper flights such as described by Hind have not occurred since the
great outbreak of 1857-76 and Melanoplus spretus has not been recorded since
1902. Parker (1930) and Norman Criddle considered it was a long- winged form
of M . bilituratus produced by a dry diet and by overcrowding. Gurney and
Brooks (1959), however, consider that it is a distinct species that is now extinct.
Conditions in the short-grass prairie region, which Parker and Criddle con-
sidered necessary for production of a long-winged form of M. bilituratus, appar-
ently were required by M . spretus. Their elimination by settlement contributed
to the extinction of the species. Before settlement, buffalo by grazing, trampling,
and making dust wallows created favorable egg-laying sites and the dry prairie

81

grass provided the principal food. With settlement buffalo were replaced by cattle,
which do not make dust wallows. The prairie was more closely grazed with the
resultant reduction of various grass species and the introduction of weeds, but
the most important change in food supply was the breaking of land and the
planting of crops, which provided green food in place of the dry prairie grass.

Cole (1956) indicated that the bumble bee Bombus terricola Kirby and the
leaf-cutter bees Megachile frigida Smith and M. inermis Prov. are finding alfalfa
a good source of pollen and have become efficient cross pollinators by tripping
the blossoms. Thus the introduction of this crop has favored their increase.
Land clearing by burning provided nesting sites for the leaf-cutters, in dead logs,
but as the fields were enlarged logs were destroyed and nesting habitat for leaf-
cutters and bumble bees was destroyed. This has resulted in such a reduction
in the bee population that alfalfa seed production has become unprofitable in
many areas.

Animals That Increased because of Man-made Changes

Although many animals were reduced in numbers by changes brought about
by the white man, others found these changes beneficial. Because of improved
habitat and the introduction of new food plants, species such as the white-tailed
deer, the jack rabbit, the pinnated grouse, and the Colorado potato beetle
extended their ranges into the parkland ; and native species of grasshoppers, wire
worms, cutworms, and the wheat stem sawfly increased to become pests of
agricultural crops.

The white-tailed deer, Odocoileus virginianus (Fig. 28), did not occur in the
aspen parkland at the time of the first white traders, except possibly at its
southern tip in Minnesota. Henry (Coues, 1897) in his travels, in 1801, in
Marshall County, Minnesota, near the present town of Warren, stated:

Red deer were very numerous, and for the first time we saw numerous tracks and
roads of the fallow deer or chevreuil (Cariacus virginianus), which we soon perceived
jumping in every direction. . .Red and fallow deer are very numerous. They have beaten
paths in the woods like those of the buffalo on the banks of Red River.

He was probably referring to the white-tailed deer, though he may have
confused it with the mule deer, Odocoileus hemionus, a race of which is believed to
have inhabited this area at that time.

Seton (1909), speaking of white-tailed deer, stated: "Unknown in the pro-
vince [Manitoba] until about 30 years ago, since then it has greatly increased,
following the settlers; now found wherever there are settlements adjoining
woods." In the district about Brandon, Manitoba, the white-tailed deer was
unknown at the time of settlement in 1880-1900, but scattered individuals were
seen a few years later. The mule deer was the common deer at that time. In
the Tiger Hills, 40 miles south of Brandon, settlers reported that in the 1880's
half the deer were white-tail and half mule. The white-tail flourished under
settlement, where it had protection from wolves and hunting was restricted to the
shooting of bucks only during a short season. Aspen groves interspersed with
cultivated fields provided an ideal habitat. It extended its range to the limits of
settlement and had replaced the mule deer, except on a few isolated ranges of
wooded hills, by 1925. Once firmly established the white-tail continued to
increase to the point of overpopulation, as it had done in other parts of its range.
This became evident in the winters of 1948-49 and 1955-56, when there was deep

82

snow. Deer gathered in groups in river valleys and other favored wintering
areas, browse was depleted, and starvation occurred. The winter following 1948-
49 was mild with light snowfall and the population quickly recovered. A hunting
season for both sexes was declared in 1951, but in spite of a heavy kill another
good winter and fawn crop brought their numbers back almost to those of 1948.
Recovery from the severe winter in 1955-56 was also rapid.

White-tailed deer are very specialized feeders, much more so than elk.
When they occupy a range with elk they are unable to compete with the elk and
populations are much smaller than where only deer are found. Deer prefer
broad-leaved plants in summer. In winter they browse on choke cherries, pin
cherries, and saskatoon. In districts where Juniperus horizontalis is found in
abundance they paw through a considerable depth of snow to reach it. They
also feed on oak mast wherever it occurs and browse on oak twigs in winter. In
the spring they graze on fields of fall rye, as it is often the only green forage
available at that time. They feed on the ripened heads of grains and flax. In
fields adjacent to good deer habitat, they may damage standing, swathed, and
stooked grain.

White-tailed deer feed on sweet clover, and where areas of abandoned land
support a heavy growth they bed down in it and remain there for long periods.
They have invaded the heavy stands of Phragmites communis about the south end
of Lake Manitoba and in the Big Grass Marsh. This grass provides shelter, and
nettles and sow thistle provide the principal food. Under such conditions the deer
become semi-aquatic, wade belly deep in water, and swim without hesitation.

Intensive mechanized agriculture is rapidly depleting deer habitat, parti-
cularly with the use of the bulldozer in land clearing. Many aspen groves that
had been allowed to remain in and about fields are now being bulldozed out and
deer are being forced to seek shelter in woodlands along river valleys and in non-
arable districts.

The future for the white-tailed deer in southern Manitoba appears to be a
reduced population due to reduced habitat. It would be advantageous to leave
groves of aspen for protection from wind and water erosion and to provide deer
habitat, but the pressure for more land under the plow is too great. In the re-
maining habitat, good management practices must be carried out to conserve
the deer and at the same time prevent overpopulation and the depletion of
browse and resultant starvation. It may be that as settlement is pushed farther
north to the edges of the Pre-Cambrian shield the deer range will continue to
expand and more habitat will be made available on nonarable land adjacent to
settlement. Deer will occupy the mixed deciduous-coniferous forest in the Pre-
Cambrian shield if given protection from wolves, as is evidenced in the White-
shell country of southeastern Manitoba.

Harold Wells (Conservation Officer, Game Branch, Manitoba Department
of Mines and Natural Resources, The Pas. In litt. 1948) reported on the in-
vasion of mule and white-tailed deer into The Pas area in northern Manitoba
and replacement of the mule deer by the white-tail :

1914. First deer lolled in The Pas area. These deer were all mule deer and came
from the Pasquia Hills.

1920. Mule deer common and white-tails first appearing. These latter came from
the Pasquia Hills to the west and also from the south, following the two streams which
point to The Pas, the Carrot River and Pasquia River.

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81314-7—7

1925. Mule deer scarce. White-tails abundant and trying the country to the
north.

1930. Mule deer replaced by white-tails. White-tails reach highest point of abun-
dance.

1948. White-tails static, limited by wolves and hunters. Floods drive the white-
tails out of the Saskatchewan River Valley to higher ground. Flood damage to browse
plants severe.

We might add that the population of white-tails in The Pas area is nothing like as
large per acre of habitat as that in the Swan River and Birch River areas, just to the
south of the reported area.

To the east of The Pas about Cedar Lake I saw a recently killed mule deer
in 1950, and Indians reported them as more numerous than the white-tail but not
common. The white-tail may continue its spread and replace the mule deer here
also. At Wanless, 30 miles north of The Pas, white-tailed deer became common
when some of the forest was cleared in 1954, and the land was planted to alfalfa.

The white-tailed jack rabbit, Lepus townsendii campanius (Fig. 16), which is
a hare, increased with agriculture and extended its range. Seton (1929) gave a
history of its invasion into Manitoba from farther south and west. In travels
throughout southwestern Manitoba in 1883, Seton did not see a single jack
rabbit. One was reported from Boissevain in 1881 and another at Fort Ellice in
1885. Since then they increased and extended their range. At Carberry the first
one was shot in 1892, and by 1897 they were so plentiful one could see 15 to 20
in a mile. Near Winnipeg the first one was seen in 1896 and at Stony Mountain
in 1898.

The jack rabbit feeds, makes its bed, and raises its young in cultivated
fields as readily as in its native prairie. Its range has continued to increase and
it is now found as far north as Swan River. When snow covers its normal hiding
places in winter, it seeks the shelter of isolated patches of willow or aspen, where
it makes its bed on hard-packed drifts of snow from which it can readily escape
by running out into the open. Well-packed trails lead from resting to feeding
areas. It digs burrows in snow banks and takes refuge in badger holes when escap-
ing from winged predators, goshawks, and eagles, but prefers to run from four-
footed and human enemies. It fluctuates considerably in numbers, but not in
the same rhythm as the snowshoe rabbit. During the early 1930's it occurred
in great abundance and it was common to see as many as 50 at one time. For
the past 20 years numbers have been much lower. One reason for their present
low numbers is the value of their skins. Prices of from 50 to 75 cents are worth
while to farm boys. They are also used as human food and are fed in fox ranches.
They, as well as the snowshoe rabbit, are the alternate hosts of the bladder
tapeworm found in dogs, coyotes, and foxes.

The raccoon, Procyon lotor (L.), is found along the wooded streams of the
parkland. Henry (Coues, 1897) recorded 14 to 25 skins yearly from the returns
of Portage la Prairie and as many as 63 (1805-06) at Pembina. During recent
years it has increased. Tracks are common along the Assiniboine and Souris
rivers in western Manitoba. Its fur is at present of little value, and it is seldom
killed except when it raids chicken houses. Its increase is limited by the availabi-
lity of hollow trees for denning sites.

The greater prairie chicken, Tympanuchus cupido pinnatus (Brewster),
entered the parkland with settlement. There were no prairie chickens in Mani-
toba or Minnesota in the days of the early explorers. They were favored by the

84

presence of grain fields and advanced westward and northward with settlement
(Roberts, 1932). Near Winnipeg the first specimen was taken in 1881. By 1884
it was common at Winnipeg and Portage la Prairie. In 1886 it reached Carberry
(Seton, 1909; Cooke, 1888). After an initial increase the prairie chicken declined
in numbers because of over-shooting and destruction of nesting sites by intensified
agriculture. It is now a very rare bird.

The crow, Corvus brachyrhynchos brachyrhynchos Brehm, is a very common
summer resident of the parkland, which with its groves of aspen and willow
makes a favorable nesting area. It ranges over prairie, cultivated fields, and sloughs
to feed. When the young leave the nest they go off with their parents in family
groups. Soon families join company and by August small flocks have grown to
big flocks in preparation for migration. These large flocks remain for some time
before departing. At such times they consume large quantities of grasshoppers
when these insects are abundant. Norman Criddle (1925) considered the crow,
because of its insectivorous diet, highly beneficial to the farmers. Before settle-
ment, when tree growth on the uplands was kept at a minimum by repeated fires,
crows resorted to wooded river bottoms. This was noted by Coues (1874).

Many authors— Taverner (1926), Roberts (1932), Phillips (1928), Hales
(1927), Farley (1932), Kalmbach (1937), Hochbaum (1944), Sowls (1955), and
others — recorded the spread of crows with agriculture and the increase in their
numbers in the aspen parkland. This increase was brought about by an increase
in food supply and nesting sites. Cultivated fields and pastures provided an
abundant supply of grain, weed seeds, and insects. Dead livestock, birds and
animals killed on highways, and refuse in garbage dumps provided readily
available food. Nesting sites increased with settlement because of the checking
of prairie fires and the spread of aspen groves. Schorger (1941, p. 105), speaking
of areas adjacent to the prairie but south of the parkland stated:

There is general agreement that the crow, in both Wisconsin and Illinois, was a
comparatively rare bird in the prairie regions until the latter were brought under cultivation.
Agriculture not only provided more food but permitted the growth of forests previously
prohibited by prairie fires.

As settlement moved north into the continuous forest stands at the northern
portion of the aspen parkland, clearings were made which provided the forest
edge environment important to crows. The crow population probably reached
a peak in Manitoba in the 1930's and '40's, since when there has been a gradual
decline. There are few statistical data on comparative populations in recent
years but it is the impression of reliable observers and old timers, such as Stuart
Criddle (1956), that crows are definitely less numerous. A. H. Shortt (Ducks
Unlimited (Canada), Winnipeg, Man. In litt. 1956) also has observed a decrease
in recent years and agrees with me that intensive crow control campaigns in
Canada and the United States might have had effect on the overall population,
but opinions among authorities differ widely and there is no proof that this has
actually taken place. He stated that Ducks Unlimited questionnaire returns
indicated a slight decrease of crow populations.

Phillips (1928, p. 147) stated:

The crow has increased rapidly during the past few years in the newer agricultural
districts [near Edmonton, Alberta]. It may already have reached its maximum. It
does not appear to be a problem in the older settled districts.

Land clearing, in recent years, has eliminated many small groves of trees
and has reduced crow nesting sites over considerable areas of the parkland. This

85
81314-7— 74

may have been partly compensated for by the opening up of forested land by
land clearing in more northern areas.

Swallows — the cliff swallow Petrochelidon pyrrhoonta (Vieillot); the barn
swallow, Hirundo rustica erythrogaster Boddaert; the bank swallow Riparia
riparia; and the tree swallow, Iridoprocne bicolor (Vieillot) are common insecti-
vorous birds of the parkland whose nesting activities have been greatly influenced
by settlement.

The cliff swallow nests in colonies on cliffs where the mud nests are protected
from rain. Natural sites are not plentiful in the parkland. Buildings and bridges,
however, provide ideal locations and have been freely utilized by the swallows.
Emlen (1954), who conducted studies in the Jackson Hole area in Wyoming, had
18 colonies under observation. Of these, eight were under the eaves of buildings,
four under concrete culverts, three under ledges on large concrete bridges or
dams, one on steel girders under a steel-wood bridge, one in a natural limestone
bank, and one in a sand bank. About the same ratio would be expected in
Manitoba.

Roberts (1932) reported a change in cliff swallow abundance in Minnesota
associated with human activity. Before settlement the swallows nested in
colonies on cliffs. Large wooden frame barns and buildings erected by settlers
were quickly adopted for nesting sites and the population increased. This was
followed by a reduction in numbers for two reasons. First, as farmers became
more prosperous they painted their barns and destroyed the nests, which they
considered unsightly. Secondly, the introduced house sparrow usurped the
nests for its own, and the swallows were not able to defend themselves. They
were hence forced to return to their original nesting sites. In more recent years
they have found concrete bridges and girders to their liking and have begun to
increase. Many bridges in Manitoba now have nesting colonies.

The bank swallow has had somewhat the same history as the cliff swallow
in relation to man. In primitive times their only nesting sites were clay or sand
banks along streams where they could excavate their nesting tunnels. As man
commenced road building, vertical banks were formed in road cuts and gravel
pits. Many of these were quickly adopted by swallows, resulting in a consider-
able increase in population. In recent years road cuts along main highways
have been cut back to a gradual slope and planted to brome grass, thus destroy-
ing the nesting sites. Gravel pits are still used when the birds are not disturbed
by further excavating. When colonies are near buildings some nests have been
usurped by house sparrows.

The barn swallow in the parkland is entirely dependent on man for nesting
sites. According to Roberts (1932) it did not nest in northern Minnesota before
settlement. Seton (1909) recorded it as a rare bird that was then just beginning
to increase. It does not nest in colonies but constructs single, cup-shaped nests
on the rafters and walls inside outhouses and buildings where the birds can gain
entrance. They are also very partial to bridges and large culverts. It has
become so closely associated with man that it might be considered semidomest-
icated. It does a great deal of good by destroying many destructive and annoy-
ing insects, including house flies, horse flies, and mosquitoes.

The tree swallow nests in holes in trees, such as old woodpecker holes, and
takes readily to bird boxes. Man has increased its abundance indirectly through
use of cedar telephone poles, which are excavated by the flicker for nesting sites;

86

the deserted holes are in turn used by tree swallows. Many bird lovers also
erect bird boxes. Roberts (1932) reported it as consuming about 20 per cent
vegetable matter, made up of berries of Virginia creeper and other plants and a
small quantity of seeds.

The purple martin, Progone subis (L.), is commonest in eastern Manitoba.
It occasionally nests in old woodpecker holes away from dwellings but is almost
entirely dependent on apartment-type nesting boxes erected by man. It
consumes a great variety of insects, particularly ants. I once observed winged
ants taking off from a colony on a lawn near a martin house. As fast as the
ants took to the air they were caught by the martins.

Swallows, except the purple martin, form enormous mixed flocks in prep-
aration for migration. At such times they assemble near marshes where insect
food is abundant. They rest in trees or rushes but prefer telephone and power
lines when available. The wires may be covered with swallows as close as they
can sit for several hundred yards. Such concentrations are common at the south
end of Lake Manitoba.

The Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say), extended its
range into the parkland after the introduction of the potato. Chittenden (1907)
stated that its original food plant was the buffalo bur, Solarium rostratum Dunal,
and the center of its distribution Colorado. When the potato was introduced
by settlers, the beetle fed on it in preference to the buffalo bur and became a
serious pest. In 1859 it was recorded from Nebraska and by 1874 it had spread
eastward through the northern states and southern Canada to the Atlantic
coast. Gibson et al. (1925) recorded its first appearance in Ontario in 1870, in
Nova Scotia in 1881, in Manitoba in 1887, in Alberta in 1900, and in British
Columbia in 1919. In Manitoba the beetle has encountered climatic conditions
that may limit its abundance. It is here limited to only one generation a year,
whereas in other localities it may have two generations. In Manitoba adults
over-winter, emerge in the spring, and lay eggs. The resulting larvae mature
and produce adults, most of which hibernate. A few may lay eggs but the
resulting larvae are killed by frost. In the average winter there is sufficient
snowfall to protect the hibernating adults, but if there are severe frosts before
there is sufficient snow to give protection there may be heavy mortality. Norman
Criddle (1917) recorded that in the winter of 1914-15 there was very little snow.
In districts with less than three inches of snow all hibernating beetles died from
frost. In districts where there was more snow many survived and where there
was over a foot of snow none died from frost. Districts where the beetle was
eliminated were slowly repopulated from the surrounding areas. At Treesbank,
Manitoba, however, Criddle reported they were still scarce in 1916. In isolated
areas the beetles may be introduced and breed for a number of years. If they
are killed by frost, it may be many years before they are again introduced.
Severe infestations were reported in the area about The Pas, Manitoba, in 1942
but they have not been found there since.

The Colorado potato beetle is noteworthy in that it became a pest before
chemical control measures had been developed. The first chemical to be used
for insect control in North America, paris green, was demonstrated as being
effective against the beetle in 1869 but it was some years before methods of
application were developed.

87

As new crops are introduced, native insects feeding on closely related
plants may find them attractive and become pests of importance. Since 1940,
sunflowers have been grown on considerable acreages in southern Manitoba and
two native insects have become pests (Westdal and Barrett, 1955). The banded
sunflower moth, Phalonia hospes (Wlshm.), feeds on sunflower pollen and seeds
in its larval stages, and the larva of a fly, the sunflower maggot, Strauzia long-
ipennis (Wied.), mines in the pith. The native hosts of both these insects are
wild sunflowers; the common sunflower, Helianthus annuus L.; the narrow-
leaved sunflower, H. maximilianii; and the tuberous-rooted sunflower, H.
subtuberosus Bourgeau.

The wheat stem sawfly, Cephus ductus Nort., is a native insect that has
become a major pest of wheat. It was first collected from wheat at Indian Head,
Sask., in 1895 by Dr. James Fletcher. Fletcher (1897) reported that it caused
injury to wheat at Indian Head in 1897 and at Souris, Man., in 1896. Norman
Criddle studied it in its early adoption of its new host. He (1911) stated:

This is an insect that usually confines itself to native grasses upon which it sub-
sisted entirely before the introduction of grain; its food plants being species of the genus
Agropyron — especially [awned wheat grass] A. caninum [ = subsecundum (Link) Hitchc.].
Happily A. tenerum [western rye grass], which is now so extensively grown in western
Canada, has proved almost immune, due, no doubt, to its more slender stems. This
sawfly, however, readily adapts itself to new conditions and having once become estab-
lished, seems to have a preference for the plants that it fed upon in its early stages. In
1906 owing to a failure of its native food plant to produce heads, it swarmed to the wheat
fields, where it soon became established and, in some cases, where proper precautions were
not taken, remained ever since.

This is a very important observation. One wonders how often the failure
of a native food plant to mature properly in one year may have influenced an
insect to move into a cultivated crop, which it then preferred.

Criddle (1915) continued his studies and showed how dependent the sawfly,
when on its native hosts, was on stem size and how this size was in turn dependent
on abundant moisture. The sawfly hence fluctuated in abundance with weather.
After grain fields were available for alternate oviposition sites stems of suffici-
ent size were always available but weather changes also affected the grain.
In 1914 during a severe drought, wheat ripened prematurely, resulting in the
killing of a number of larvae, and the stunting of many more. He also noted
that sunshine was necessary for ovipositing and that activities were much
retarded at temperatures below 60°F. A cold cloudy period at the time of
oviposition might prove as disastrous as a very dry one. The years 1906 and
1907 were the turning point in its development as a pest. In these years there
was a high population of sawflies with the result that practically every stem of
Agropyrou spp. and Elymus canadensis L. was infested. There were more
sawflies than the native grasses could accommodate. Consequently they
invaded fields of wheat and rye, which suffered severely. After this original
heavy infestation the sawflies changed their habits and selected wheat and rye
in preference to the wild grasses.

Of cultivated plants, hard spring wheat, winter wheat, and spring rye are
the most susceptible to the sawfly. Durum wheat is resistant. Barley, owing
to its quicker growth and late date of planting, usually escapes the main attack
but is not immune. Similarly, fall rye and oats are often heavily attacked but
are resistant to damage. Speltz is also a suitable host, but oats are not attacked.

88

Timothy is sometimes attacked. Although Agropyron richardsonii ( = subsecun-
dum) and A . smithii are the favored wild hosts, species of Elymus and Calama-
grostis, Deschampsia caespitosa, and Hordeum jubatum are also attacked. Criddle
(1917) pointed out that A. richardsonii is the most important host in the eastern
districts, but that A. smithii is the more important farther west. The latter is
much influenced by rainfall in the size of stems it produces. At times of drought
they are seldom large enough to accommodate sawfly larvae, under normal
rainfall a third of the stems are suitable, and at times of heavy rainfall as many
as 90 per cent may be satisfactory. Criddle also made an observation on the
importance of couch grass in the spread and establishment of the sawfly. Even
in 1917, ten years after the sawfly had become a major pest of grains, it still
did not appear to be fully adapted to cultivated hosts. Its population dropped
to low numbers because its native hosts had been reduced by increased acreage
under the plow. It was saved and propagated by couch grass, whose stems were
suitable. This plant, which is difficult to eradicate and is spread over the
fields by tillage implements dragging the living rhizomes, had now become
widespread over many fields. It was probably a greater menace as a breeder of
sawflies than any other grass.

By 1920 another grass appeared that had an important influence on the
future of the sawfly in Manitoba, namely, brome grass, Bromus inermis, of
Hungarian origin, which was introduced into North America in 1880 (Dolan,
1956). It was planted extensively as a pasture and forage grass and escaped
to populate headlands and roadsides. Criddle (1922) stated:

There are three important grasses being grown by farmers on the prairies at the
present time; they are timothy, western rye-grass, and awnless brome. All of these are
severely attacked by the sawfly but only two are of much importance as sawfly carriers,
timothy being cultivated chiefly outside the insect's present range. Of the two remaining,
both of which are heavily attacked, only rye-grass has been found to mature the sawflies
in large numbers. Our studies in 1921 showed that about 42% of the insects matured in
western rye-grass in comparison with only 7% in brome grass. Secondly, that rye-grass
reared parasites to the extent of 38% as against 54% in brome grass. It will be noted that
brome grass appears to be of particular value in controlling the sawfly because it induces
large numbers to lay their eggs in it instead of flying to the growing grain, while of the
larvae thus started in their career only a very small percentage survive. Thus the evidence
indicates that brome grass is not only a valuable fodder plant but also an important one
in assisting to control the western wheat stem sawfly.

Criddle's predictions proved correct. After peak populations in the 1920's
the sawfly ceased to be a major pest in Manitoba. In the short-grass plains of
Saskatchewan and Alberta, it had previously occurred in very low numbers on
account of the scarcity of native grasses with sufficiently large stems. Here,
when wheat was grown without rotation it became and still is a major pest.
In Manitoba, crop rotations of hard spring wheat with durum wheat, barley,
oats, flax, sweet clover, and brome-alfalfa mixtures reduced the sawfly to small
numbers. Brome grass has become a weed and has spread extensively over
field margins, roadsides, and disturbed prairie and woodland. It is planted
by highways and municipalities for erosion control. The abundance of brome
grass helped to reduce the sawfly. Also, with improved implements and knowl-
edge, farmers are better able to control couch grass and thus reduce its import-
ance as an alternate host in grain fields.

Grasshoppers, Melanoplus bilituratus, M. bivittatus (Fig. 51), and C cannula
pellucida, and to a lesser extent M . packardii and M. femur-rubrum, have become
pests as a result of agricultural practices.

89

To gather detailed information on the ecology of grasshoppers and how they
increase under conditions of intensive cultivation, two study centers with
resident observers were operated by the Canada Field Crop Insect Laboratory,
Brandon, Man. One was established in 1935 at Arnaud on heavy clay soils of
the Red River Valley, where M. bivittatus and C. pellucida were abundant.
A second center was established in 1936 at Lyleton in southwestern Manitoba,
where M. bilituratus associated with C. pellucida, M. bivittatus, and M. packardii
were the principal species. The Lyleton center was located on the light and
sandy loam of glacial Lake Souris at a period of extreme drought and wind
erosion and during a major grasshopper outbreak.

Allen (1939) reported that the main concentrations of Melanoplus nymphs
at Lyleton were found in abandoned, weedy fields, in weedy stubble fields, and
on drift ridges and road allowances covered with drift soil. Russian thistle,
Salsola pestifer; false ragweed, Iva xanthifolia; Canada fleabane, Erigeron can-
adensis L. ; wild buckwheat, Bilderdykia ( = Polygonum) convolvulus; and biennial
wormwood, Artemisia biennis, provided early spring food and shelter for the
nymphs. As the grasshoppers matured and began to fly, about the middle of
July, they spread widely and fed on cultivated crops as well as weeds. With
the maturing of vegetation they again became more localized. Concentrations
were first found in late crops of wheat, oats, or barley; and, as these crops were
cut, in weedy stubble fields, corn, and weedy sweet clover fields. Russian thistle
was favored by the adults because it matured late and irregularly and provided
succulent food until early September, when the population declined. For this
reason stubble fields with a heavy growth of Russian thistle supported a heavy
late-season population of the migratory grasshopper.

Lactiferous plants, such as blue lettuce, Lactuca pulchella; ridge-seeded
spurge, Euphorbia glyptosperma Engelm.; and also skeletonweed, Lygodesmia
juncea, were important grasshopper food plants in August. The last two plant
species were attacked chiefly by M . bilituratus and M. packardii, whereas M,
bivittatus favored the blue lettuce. In all cases observed more than half the
individuals were females. Swarms of grasshoppers concentrated on individual
plants and destroyed them.

Abandoned fields reverting to couch grass, Agropyron repens, had low
nymphal populations but were flooded by a general population spread as the
season advanced. Couch grass was apparently attractive to M. bilituratus
because of its succulence. It remains more succulent than other grasses during
drought but eventually desiccates during long periods of extreme drought.
It revives quickly with light rains and again becomes attractive.

Brome grass, Bromus inermis, is attractive to grasshoppers when mowing
promotes an autumn growth. There was a noticeable movement of grass-
hoppers to road allowances in -August because mown brome provided succulent
food.

Grasshoppers retreated to dense patches of snowberry, Symphoricarpos
occidentalis, when other vegetation desiccated with drought. They fed on snow-
berry to some extent but preferred grasses growing among it. S. E. Clarke,
Canada Experimental Farm, Swift Current, Saskatchewan, who made a plant
survey of the area, pointed out a definite plant association that provided a late-
season habitat. Among the patches of snowberry the grasses Agropyron smithii

90

and A. repens grow more lush, and Poa pratensis, P. palustris, and Agropyron
trachycaulum, which require more humid conditions, are found. Clarke con-
sidered that, by holding more snow in winter, snowberry provides more soil
moisture and a cooler and moister habitat.

In the Lyleton area, fields were badly wind-blown, creating high ridges of
drift soil among the vegetation along the fences and headlands. These drift
ridges made ideal sites for grasshopper egg laying. Allen reported them as
being favored by M. bilituratus because they were composed of coarse-to-fine
sand intermixed with silty clay and were markedly different in texture from the
soil type of the area. He found an average of 1.56 egg pods per square foot on
drift ridges as compared with 0.88 per square foot on road allowances, covered
with varying amounts of drift soil, and 0.5 in fields. The south-facing slopes
of the drift ridges were more favored, having an average of 2.42 egg pods per
square foot as compared with 1.29 and 1.26 for east and west slopes and 0.96
for north slopes. The grasshoppers sought the warmer slopes, where on warm
sunny spots sheltered from the cool northerly winds they could oviposit on
cooler days. Allen pointed out, however, that newly formed drift ridges with
loose soil are not so attractive for egg laying sites as older ones that have become
firm. In a year or so, they become covered with vegetation and are less attrac-
tive. The same soil condition applies to cultivated fields. Fields that are well
worked and have loose soil contain fewer grasshopper eggs than fields that have
firm soil. Plowing or cultivation with the oneway disk or the duck-foot culti-
vator sufficient to kill all weed growth loosens the soil, reduces the grasshopper
population, and kills nymphs by starvation and exposure to heat and desiccation.

The Arnaud study center was established on the heavy clay soils of glacial
Lake Agassiz, on land that had only recently been drained from a wet meadow
and put into cultivation. As in the Lyleton area, a grasshopper outbreak was
present. Moore (1936), who Avas resident observer, reported that according
to farmers resident in the area since 1899 grasshoppers were not troublesome
until 1930. Grasshoppers became pests as a result of man-made changes, drain-
age, drying up of the soil, and change in plant dominants. The vegetation on
the better drained areas consisted of Agropyron smithii and Poa spp. sod, whereas
that on wetter areas was mostly Spartina pectinata ( = michauxiana Hitchc).
The former supported the heaviest populations of Carnnula pellucida. Timothy
and brome that had become abundant on roadsides supported both C. pellucida
and M. bivittatus. M. bivittatus was found over the whole area except in pure
stands of Spartina pectinata, which it only entered for shelter from high winds.
M. bivittatus was found in disturbed areas such as roadsides and ditch banks,
with the greatest concentrations among areas of brome, false ragweed, ragweed,
lamb's-quarters, Poa, spp. timothy, snowberry, and mixed grasses.

M. bivittatus fed on sow thistle, dandelion, false ragweed, giant ragweed,
lamb's-quarters, timothy, brome, Poa spp., dock, willow, rushes, and slough
grass (Beckmannia syzigachne (Steud.)). Snowberry was stripped of its leaves
by adults when other food was scarce. Spartina pectinata, couch grass, asters,
goldenrod, and barnyard grass, Echinocloa crusgalli (L.) Beauv., were hardly
touched. False ragweed was preferred to lamb's-quarters and stinkweed,
Thlaspi arvense.

Smith (1938) also reported on the food preference of M. bivittatus for mustard
and considered its abundance important as a nymphal food. He observed that

91

this food preference was more noticeable in the spring but continued through-
out the year and that concentrations of nymphs were associated with mustard
about the borders of crops. In a sweet clover field concentrations up to 30 per
square yard were found in August in patches of mustard growing where stocks
had stood the previous year. Young millet associated with the mustard was
practically untouched. Wild buckwheat, Bilderdykia convolvulus, was a favored
food when abundant.

In contrast to the wide range of food plants eaten by M. bivittatus, C.
pellucida fed only on grasses. Both species invaded grain fields and did extensive
damage to these crops.

Concentrations of M. bivittatus on blue lettuce, Lactuca pulchella, were
recorded by Smith (1938). A number of individuals would attack a plant,
eating first the flowers, then the leaves and stem, and finally follow the stem
right into the ground. They would fight for a place on one plant while another
plant alongside would be untouched. Blue lettuce carries a large supply of
latex and possibly served as a moisture reservoir at the time of the year when
other plants were becoming dry and before seedlings of winter-annual weeds
appeared in the stubble fields.

In gardens, Moore (1936) reported M. bivittatus feeding on potatoes, beans,
cabbage, corn, and black currant. Squash, tomatoes, and plum were not
attacked.

For oviposition sites M. bivittatus prefers south-facing ditch banks, where
during cool days they are active in sheltered sunny spots.

Wireworms and cutworms are native, soil-inhabiting insects that have
become major pests. Breaking of the native sod and cultivation has made
conditions more favorable to them than to their enemies, as they are able to
move freely below the surface in loose soil. Some idea of the importance of
these insects as pests is given by McDonald (1954).

These soil-inhabiting spring pests destroyed 4.30% of the crop. This was slightly
more than in 1952, but less than in 1950 or 1951. . .The value of the crop destroyed [in
Saskatchewan] by wireworms and cutworms in 1953 was almost 27 million dollars, as
compared with 38 3/4 and 35 1/2 million dollars in 1951 and 1952, respectively.

Even though a great deal of this damage occurred in the true prairie rather
than the parkland, losses in the parkland were large. The prairie grain wire-
worm, Ctenicera aeripennis destructor (Brown) (Fig. 52), is the principal species.
Its native habitat is a bunch-grass formation in friable soil. It is able to in-
crease in land that is continually cropped and grass is not necessary for its
increase. It is usually found in medium-textured soils, not in sandy land,
and only in heavy soil when it is kept loose by cultivation. The second most
important species of wireworm, Cryptohypnus nocturnus (Eschscholtz), is favored
by the abundance of the introduced Agropyron repens, which has invaded many
fields, also by Hordeum jubatum, and increases in land which has temporarily
been abandoned (King, 1926).

The red-backed cutworm, Euxoa ochrogaster (Guen.); the striped cutworm,
Euxoa tessellata (Harr.); the white cutworm, Euxoa scandens (Riley); the army-
worm, Pseudaletia unipuncla (Haw.); and the bertha armyworm, Mamestra
configurata Wlk., are all cutworms that have invaded cultivated fields in suf-
ficient numbers to do extensive damage to a variety of crops.

92

The beet web worm, Loxostege sticticalis (L.), similarly is favored by agri-
culture. It feeds on many of the broad-leaved weeds, particularly lamb's-
quarters, but also attacks flax, sugar beets, sunflowers, and many garden plants.
It passes the winter as larvae spun up in silk-lined cells in the loose soil of the
fields.

Changes in harvesting methods have resulted in grain going into storage
at a higher moisture content. This has led to an increase in infestations of the
rusty grain beetle, Laemophloeus ferrugineus (Steph.), the so-called fungus beetles
Cryptophagus spp. and Lathridius spp., and mites that feed on grain in storage.
F. L. Watters (In Charge, Canada Stored Product Insect Laboratory, Winnipeg,
Man. In litt. 1957) stated:

The combine harvester is used almost exclusively now compared with the threshing
machine of 15-20 years ago. One result of this change in farming methods is that wheat,
formerly stored at 12 to 13 per cent moisture content, is now being harvested and stored
at between 13 and 15 per cent moisture content. The fear of crop losses through early
frosts in autumn has led many farmers to cut their crops before they are fully mature.
This, together with the use of combines during wet weather, has intensified insect problems
concerning stored grain.

Several species of insects invade the parkland from the south from time to
time, but although they reproduce during the summer they are unable to survive
the winter. The corn earworm, Heliothis zea (Fig. 53), appears practically
every year and attacks sweet and field corn. Three species of aphids — the
greenbug, Toxoptera graminum (Rond.); the corn leaf aphid, Rhopalosiphum
maidis (Fitch); and the English grain aphid, Macrosiphum avenae (F.) — over-
winter in the winter wheat area of the southern United States but occasionally,
when conditions are favorable, migrate into the parkland in sufficient numbers
to cause severe damage to grain crops. The painted-lady butterfly, Vanessa
cardui (L.), emigrates to wintering grounds in the southern United States and
immigrants return in the spring. It fluctuates greatly both in abundance and in
extent of its summer range. Canada thistle, Cirsium arvense, a common intro-
duced weed, is its favorite host but it also feeds on hollyhocks and commercial
plantings of sunflowers (Bird, 1956).

Several species of birds adapted themselves to changes brought about by
settlement and have increased for various reasons.

Two common gulls are nesters in the parkland: the herring gull, Larus
argentatus Coues, and Franklin's gull, Larus pipixcan Wagler. The former
nests on rocky islands in the larger lakes. It feeds on garbage dumped by boats,
dead animal matter washed up on the shore, and some insects and rodents.
It ranges inland during migration and sparingly at other times. At such times
it picks up food in the fields and flocks around city garbage dumps. Franklin's
gull is a common bird of the parkland. It nests in colonies in rushes about
the larger lakes and flocks range out to feed over cultivated land. It has adapted
itself well to agriculture, which has greatly increased its food supply. It is
common to see flocks of birds closely following plows and other agricultural
implements to pick up insects brought to the surface. When grasshoppers are
abundant, flocks systematically work fields and consume enormous quantities
of these insects, When the young take to the wing, the flocks do not return
to the larger lakes at night but water at small sloughs and ponds. They are
important destroyers of agricultural pests and have no harmful habits other than
possibly the destruction of dragonfly nymphs, which feed on mosquito larvae.

93

They have probably increased in numbers because of their close association with
agriculture. Their chief enemy is apparently botulism, to which they are more
sensitive than ducks. In 19b4 I investigated an outbreak of botulism in a
colony at the south end of Lake Manitoba. At that time large numbers of
young and a few adults died. Another outbreak of botulism occurred in 1958.

The mourning dove, Zenaidura macroura, has found an abundant supply
of food made available by agriculture. It is tame and confiding and readily
enters towns and villages, where it nests in shade trees. In the country, where
there is not the menace of cats and dogs, it often nests on the ground. Several
broods may be raised in a year.

The western house wren, Troglodytes aedon parkmani Audubon, is the
common wren of the parkland, and like many other birds it has adopted man
and nests in many places about outbuildings, machinery (the twine box on most
binders has a wren's nest), tin cans, boxes, etc. It takes readily to bird houses
but still nests in the wild state in old woodpecker nests and other cavities.

The catbird, Dumetella carolinensis, and the brown thrasher, Toxostoma
rufum, are two beautiful song birds that nest near human dwellings as well as
in the wild state about the forest edge. They nest regularly in windbreaks
planted about farm homes and in hedges and shrubbery about urban dwellings.
Both eat a large number of insects and some small fruits. Of the two the cat-
bird eats the most fruit and sometimes can be destructive. It regularly consumes
all the berries of honeysuckle bushes, which are commonly planted for ornamental
purposes. By so doing it sometimes drops seeds and starts honeysuckle in the
wild.

The robin, Turdus migratorius, prefers to nest close to man in shade trees
and about dwellings and machinery. It is attracted by the abundance of earth-
worms in lawns and gardens as well as cutworms and other insects. Several
broods of young are raised in a season and the amount of earthworms and insects
destroyed is large. In the fall before nocking for migration they may destroy
some small fruits. Huge flocks may be seen feeding in pastures, prairies, and
about the edges of woodland areas during migration. Choke-cherry fruit dries
and stays on the bushes all winter. It is a favorite food of robins and a few
birds may stay well into the winter when this fruit is abundant.

Two bluebirds, the eastern bluebird Sialia stalls (L.), and the mountain
bluebird, Sialia curfucoides (Bechstein), are common in the parkland. They
are both highly insectivorous and delightful birds that take readily to nesting
boxes close to dwellings. They also nest regularly in the wild, and frequent
old flicker holes in telephone poles and fence posts. Roberts (1932) quoted
from observations published in 1871 by T. M. Trippe that at that time both the
robin and the eastern bluebird nested in the pine barrens, aspen poplar, and
tamarack of northern Minnesota and were then just beginning to associate
themselves with man.

The red-winged blackbird, Agelaius phoeniceus arclolegus Oberholser, is
probably the most abundant bird of the parkland and has adapted itself well to
settlement. It prefers to nest in vegetation over water but also constructs its
nest over dry land in tall grass, herbage, willows, snowberry, and rose. Road-
side ditches where temporary water promotes rank vegetation are favored
locations. Red-winged blackbirds consume great quantities of insects and

94

follow agricultural implements, but as the nesting season terminates enormous
flocks form and range out into the fields, where they destroy grain by picking
the kernels from the heads or crushing them in the milk stage. They prefer
oats, corn, and sunflowers. They are so destructive that measures have to be
undertaken to control them. Feeding on grain is not a recent adaptation.
Roberts (1932) published an old photograph of Indians attempting to frighten
blackbirds from their corn fields. The Manitoba Department of Agriculture
(1884) also reported on their destructiveness: "The grain crops have suffered
very severely from the incursions of these pests; from 5 to 25 per cent of some
crops in some places being destroyed by them." Associated with the flocks
of red-wings there is often a considerable percentage of the rusty blackbird,
Brewer's blackbird, the yellow-headed blackbird and grackle. The bronzed
grackle, Quiscalus quiscula versicolor Vieillot, is the most crowlike of the black-
birds and like that bird it destroys eggs and young of other birds. It often
nests in a loose colony close to farmsteads and urban dwellings, where on account
of its nest-robbing habit it is unpopular. It will even carry off the newly hatched
young of domestic chicken. At other times it is a grain and fruit eater but will
consume large numbers of insects. Roberts (1932) recorded a great increase
in its numbers in recent years with a corresponding decrease of song birds in the
vicinity of their nests. In the wild it nests in trees and willows adjacent to
sloughs.

The nighthawk, Chordeiles minor (Forster), has maintained its earlier
abundance. It is not afraid of man and may lay its eggs on the flat roof of city
buildings. Its food is composed entirely of insects and includes many injurious
species such as June bugs, potato beetles, mosquitoes, and winged ants. Re-
markably, its stomach has been found to contain numerous grasshoppers (Rob-
erts, 1932).

The chimney swift, Chaetura pelagica (L.), nested sparingly in hollow trees
until settlement. It then took to nesting in unused chimneys and is now fairly
common about towns and villages.

The yellow-shafted flicker, Colaptes auratus luteus Bangs, is the commonest
woodpecker but is only a summer resident. It feeds on the ground more ex-
tensively than any other woodpecker and at such times consumes large quantities
of ants. It may often be seen on urban lawns, sitting with its beak close to the
ground and "licking up" ants as they come out of their nest. It nests in dead
limbs of shade trees in towns and in telephone poles in the country as well as
throughout the aspen forest. To prevent flicker damage, electricity poles are
sometimes creosoted for their entire lengths.

The eastern phoebe, Sayornis phoebe (Latham), is often found nesting in
old buildings, under bridges, and in other man-made structures, particularly
if near water.

The Baltimore oriole, Icterus galbula, is common about well-treed urban areas,
farmers' shelterbelts, and aspen groves. It has adapted itself well to settlement.
Its habitat has been considerably enlarged through the spread of aspen on to
prairie after the checking of prairie fires by settlement. Its food is mostly insects
but at times it eats raspberries and other small fruit and is very fond of garden
peas.

95

The Lapland longspur, Calcarius lapponicus, is found in immense flocks over
the open fields in late fall and early spring. Agriculture has provided abundant
weed seeds, which it consumes in large quantities.

The snow bunting, Plectrophenax nivalis, has probably increased with settle-
ment, as the abundance of weed seeds provides plenty of food during its winter
sojourn. Very large flocks may commonly be seen on open fields and along the
highways that are blown bare of snow. Stomachs have been found to contain
up to 1500 pigweed seeds (Roberts, 1932).

Introduced Animals That Have Become Established

A number of animals have been associated with the invasion of Europeans
into the parkland. Domestic animals, cattle, horses, sheep, hogs, dogs, and cats;
carp; game birds, pheasants and Hungarian partridge; rats and mice; insect
pests of crops, stored food, and man, have become established, purposely or
accidentally. They compete with the native fauna and flora. Cattle, sheep, and
hogs cannot survive without human care and feeding in the winter months.
During the summer they may cause serious overgrazing of pastures with resultant
destruction of native plants and the invasion of weeds. Dogs generally stay
close to habitation but sometimes form hunting packs and attack deer and other
wild animals. They are then more destructive than coyotes, with which they
sometimes interbreed. Cats frequently run wild all summer and feed on native
birds and rodents.

Carp, Cyprinus carpio L., were unknown in Manitoba until 1938, when,
according to Hinks (1943), they were taken in the Red River. They may have
spread northward in that river from the United States or have been introduced
accidentally by fishermen who released unused live bait (minnows) containing
young carp. Dymond (1955) stated:

Since that time they have extended northward into Lake Winnipeg where they are
now known as far north as Sturgeon Bay (Lat. 52°). This represents a northward spread
of 200 miles in 15 years ... In Canada they are largely confined to the warmer, preferably
weedy, rivers and lakes. They are accused of driving out other more valuable species
but the success of the carp and the disappearance of other species is probably to be attrib-
uted to change ecological conditions incident to the clearing of the land. . .Two of the
conditions favorable to carp and detrimental to other species, are the higher temperatures
of streams and the silting of lakes and streams. The warmer summer temperatures are
due to the removal of the forest cover and the reduced flow in summer; silting results
from the erosion of agricultural lands.

The European or " Hungarian" partridge, Perdix perdix (L.), was introduced
into Western Canada in 1908-09, when 207 pairs were released at Calgary, Alta.
They increased so rapidly that an open season was declared in 1915. In 1921
they were released in Saskatchewan and an open season was declared in 1927.
In 1924, 17 pairs from Czechoslovakia were released at Warren, Man., and a
further 26 pairs in 1925. In the same year 17 pairs were released at Neepawa,
Man. (Lawrence, 1930). The bird became established and large populations
built up in the parkland of Manitoba in the early 1930's. During the drought
period of 1931 to 1938 it reached a peak population but since has declined in
numbers. It is a bird of the open stubble, grain fields, and weedy headlands.
Besides eating a large quantity of waste grain and weed seeds it also consumes
insects, particularly ants, which make up a large part of its summer diet (Roberts,
1932). The birds stay in flocks and huddle close together on the ground at night.
This habit is sometimes the cause of mortality. During the late winter many

96

feed along the railroads picking up spilt grain, and bed down between the rails.
They fly up at the last minute in front of oncoming trains and are killed. Some
are also killed along highways.

The ring-necked pheasant, Phasianus colchicus, has been repeatedly intro-
duced into North America, chiefly from England, where it has been "f armed"
for centuries. The birds are a mixture of Chinese, Mongolian, and Japanese
strains. They thrived in parts of Eastern Canada, British Columbia, Alberta,
and Saskatchewan, and in the United States. In the parkland its status is doubt-
ful. During periods of drought and light snowfall it does well but it cannot survive
long winters with deep snow unless it has adequate shelter and food. It has not
learned to shelter in forms under the snow as do the native grouse, or to subsist
on buds and berries on trees and shrubs above the snow. It requires a high seed
diet and prefers to scratch for its food. In the drought period of the 1930's it
increased sufficiently for short open seasons in southern and southwestern
Manitoba. On the return to more average seasons the numbers declined and only
a small population maintains itself in a few sheltered localities.

The starling, Sturnus vulgaris L., was first successfully introduced into North
America at New York in 1890 and 1891 by Europeans who sought the companion-
ship of this bird from their homeland. Since that time it has spread rapidly across
the continent, reaching Fort William on Lake Superior in 1931 (Roberts, 1932).
Shortt (1956) stated that it was first recorded in Manitoba in June, 1925, at
Somerset and was first reported nesting at Fort Whyte, near Winnipeg, in 1935.
It was reported as resident at Lethbridge, Alta., in 1954 by Bird (1956). Small
flocks are now commonly seen and there are a number of nesting records, but it
has not become excessively abundant in the parkland as it has in the northeastern
United States. It prefers to live close to human dwellings and cultivated areas
where by its aggressive nature it drives out more desirable native birds. Its diet
is largely insects.

The English sparrow, or house sparrow, Passer domesticus (L.), is not a
sparrow but a weaver bird that was introduced from Europe into over a hundred
cities in the United States and Canada. In Manitoba it was first seen at Carberry
in 1892 and by 1909 it was found in every town and farmstead as far northwest as
Athabaska Landing, Alta. (Seton, 1909). It is a domestic bird, rarely nesting
away from buildings but is undesirable, as it is noisy and dirty and by its
aggressive nature drives off more desirable native birds. It eats considerable
vegetable matter and is destructive about gardens but consumes numbers of
insects. In the summer of 1954 in Brandon it ate many cankerworms and did
much to reduce an outbreak. The house sparrow reached a peak of its abundance
in the horse and buggy days. The sparrow fed on grain passed in the horse
droppings. This was one time when it could be said "Two can live as cheaply
as one" — the horse and the sparrow. With the decline in the use of the horse in
cities the sparrow population declined.

The hessian fly, Phytophaga destructor (Say), which was accidentally intro-
duced into North America from Europe, reportedly in straw bedding for horses
used by Hessian soldiers at the time of the American revolution, was first recorded
at Long Island, New York, in 1776. From here and possibly by other introduc-
tions it spread over the wheat growing area of the continent by the shipment of
infested straw and by flight. It was first recorded from Manitoba and as far
west as Moose Jaw, Saskatchewan, in 1899, when it damaged 10 to 30 per cent

97

of the wheat crop. Criddle (1915) related its spasmodic outbreaks to climate and
pointed out that they are much worse in wet years than in dry ones. The insect
has two broods, a spring brood that attacks seedling grain, and a summer brood
derived from 20 per cent of the puparia of the spring brood. The remaining
puparia of the spring brood and those of the summer brood overwinter. If dry
weather occurs, many of the summer brood perish. Earlier-maturing varieties
of wheat similarly limit the survival of the summer brood. This may be the reason
why no outbreaks of importance have occurred for the past 35 to 40 years and
the hessian fly has ceased to be a major pest. Red Fife and other early wheat
varieties had a time of maturity of 114 to 124 days. Marquis shortened the season
to 106 to 112 days, and Reward to 103 to 105 days. Later rust-resistant wheats
have lengthened the season to 107 to 108 days. The hessian fly attacks wheat,
barley, and rye. It has also spread from cultivated grains to wild grasses in the
reverse direction to the wheat stem sawfly. Criddle (1915) found light infesta-
tions in Agropyron trachycaulum and a few other species of this genus. He
expected, but did not actually record, it to breed in Hordeum jubatum.

The imported cabbageworm, Pieris rapae (L.) (Fig. 55), a native of Europe,
was first recorded in North America in Quebec in 1860. Within 20 years it had
spread over Eastern Canada and the United States east of the Mississippi River
(Metcalf et al., 1951). It has spread through Western Canada and has become a
serious pest of cabbages, turnips, rape, and other cruciferous plants. It is, how-
ever, unable to overwinter in the parkland except in particularly favorable
locations. Heavy migrations occur annually into the area from the south.
Stephen and Bird (1949) have shown that these migrations take place during
periods of atmospheric highs. During periods of low pressure the butterflies
settle down and commence egg-laying.

The imported currantworm, Nematus ribesii (Fig. 54), was imported from
Europe and was first recorded as a pest in North America about 1857. The currant
aphid, Capitophorus ribis (L.), and the currant borer, Ramosia tipuliformis
(Clerck), are also of European origin. They are now common pests of currants
and gooseberries (Metcalf et al., 1951).

Two introduced insects that have recently become important crop pests are
the sweetclover weevil, Sitona cylindricollis Fahr., and the European corn borer,
Ostrina nubilalis (Hbn.) (Fig. 56 and 57). The sweetclover weevil was first
found in Canada near Montreal, Quebec, in 1927. It was first recorded from
Manitoba in 1939. In 1940 it completely defoliated sweet clover at Waldeck,
Saskatchewan, and in 1943 was abundant at Medicine Hat, Alberta. In North
America it feeds on sweet clover, attacking alfalfa only occasionally. In Europe,
where little sweet clover is grown, it regularly feeds on alfalfa (Bird, 1947).

The European corn borer first reached Manitoba via Minnesota in 1949.
It quickly spread throughout the sweet corn growing area of Manitoba and entered
Saskatchewan. In Saskatchewan its spread has been slow and as recently as
1955 it was still expanding its range. It appears as though the corn borer will
not become a serious pest in the parkland, for since its first appearance it has
done only a limited amount of damage to early sweet corn and in the majority
of years is of rare occurrence. Apparently the chief limiting factor is the lack of
warm nights at the time of oviposition (Bird and Stewart, 1958).

Many insect pests of man and domestic animals, households, and stored
foods entered the parkland with the establishment of agriculture. Hearle (1938)

98

stated that the cattle grubs, Hypoderma bovis (L.) and H. lineatum (De Vill.) ;
the sheep ked, Melophagus ovinus (L.) ; the sheep bot fly, Oestrus ovis L. ; the horse
bot flies, Gasterophilus haemorrhoidalis (L.), G. nasalis (L.), and G. intestinalis
(DeG.); the cat flea, Ctenocephalides felis (Bouche) ; the dog flea, Ctenocephalides
canis (Curt.); and the human flea, Pulex irritans L., are of world wide distribu-
tion. They became established in the parkland with the introduction of domestic
stock. Percy Criddle (diary, 1883), who homesteaded at Aweme, Manitoba,
reported warbles on oxen in 1883. The human flea attacks cats and dogs and has
spread to foxes and coyotes and to jack rabbits, which sometimes enter vacant
fox dens. The horn fly, Siphona irritans (L.), according to Hearle was first noted
in Canada in 1892 and in the succeeding eleven years spread across the continent.

The wheat midge, Sitodiplosis mosellana (Gehin), appeared as a pest of wheat
in 1955. It is most abundant in the Red River valley south and west of Winnipeg
and is only rarely encountered west of Portage la Prairie.

Changes in Animal Abundance Taking Place Without the Agency of Man

Although changes brought about by man are very great, in some cases
catastrophic, animals continue to vary in abundance and distribution regardless
of man's activities (Urquhart, 1957). In many cases the reasons are unknown.
Some may be due to climatic and other changes slowly taking place after the
retreat of glacial ice, beginning about 11,000 years ago. It was followed by a
thermal maximum f,000 to 6,000 years ago (Elson, 1954). At the present time
there is a warming trend, glaciers are retreating, and some animals are showing
signs of a northward advance (Bird, 1956). Major as well as minor climatic
cycles continue to take place. Norman Criddle (1930) has shown how these
affect the abundance of grouse, grasshoppers, and some insectivorous birds. He
concluded that the abundance of insects, which fluctuates with weather cycles,
in turn affects the abundance of birds. Periods during which large bodies of
water dry up cause their abandonment by waterfowl, but they are reoccupied on
the return of wet seasons. This has happened at Whitewater Lake in Manitoba
and is recorded for Crescent Lake near Yorkton, Saskatchewan, by Baines (1956).
A ten-year cycle is very pronounced in the abundance of the snowshoe rabbit,
mice, and sharp-tailed and ruffed grouse. Hawks, owls, lynx, and other predators
that depend on these animals for food fluctuate in the same rhythm because of
alternate periods of plenty and starvation (Rowan, 1948). Elton (1936) has
indicated that the marten, which used to show a conspicuous ten-year cycle, now
has no cycle. "After about 1900 the cycle gradually broke down and this is
probably connected with overlapping". This is the only reference to the possi-
bility of periodicity being broken by human interference.

Cartwright (1944) has shown that an abrupt decline in the population of a
short-lived species such as the sharp-tailed grouse can be produced by a short
period of inclement weather at hatching time and that heavy destruction of
nests by predators, not less than 50 per cent, may be beneficial by causing
renesting and thus staggering the hatch to avoid such periods. As three years is
the normal life expectancy of sharp-tails, one adverse breeding season might
reduce the population by 70 to 80 per cent, two adverse seasons would cause a
"crash decline", and three adverse seasons would exterminate the species if it
were not saved by renesting.

99
81314-7—8

Of particular interest is the remarkable extension of range of the Arkansas
kingbird and the magpie in recent years. This may be partly due to their asso-
ciation with settlement but the reason for this increase is unknown.

The Arkansas kingbird, Tyrannus verticalis Say, during the past 50 years
has extended its range eastward into Manitoba, where it is now common over
the parkland. Lawrence (1952, 1953) gave an account of its range extension
into Manitoba from Saskatchewan but recorded a reduction in numbers over the
last few years. In Manitoba it was first recorded at Oak Lake in 1907 and at
Pilot Mound in 1909, after which its spread was rapid to as far east as Victoria
Beach and Whitemouth. It often nests in windbreaks planted close to occupied
buildings and has invaded villages and towns, where it builds in shade trees or
on the crossarms of telephone poles.

The American magpie, Pica pica hudsonia (Sabine), has extended its
range to the north and east. Before 1910 it was a rare casual visitor to Man-
itoba. In 1910 more than the usual number of birds came to Manitoba and a
few remained to nest (Hales, 1927). G. W. Malaher (Director, Game Branch,
Manitoba Department of Mines and Natural Resources, Winnipeg. In litt.
1956) reported that it appeared at The Pas and Moose Lake in 1950 and has
now been recorded from Fort Churchill on Hudson Bay. Extension of its
range in Alberta was recorded by Farley (1932, p. 73). He stated:

Until 1911 it was unknown north of the Red Deer River. In October of that year,
the writer observed two about seven miles north of Lacombe, the following year magpies
were reported from the vicinity of Bittern Lake, and from that time on they have gradually
become more numerous until they are now very plentiful at all times of the year.

Its appearance is not welcomed by the farmer and sportsman, and attempts
have been made to control it through the payment of bounties, without success.
It feeds on carrion and is not averse to attacking open wounds on living animals,
particularly in the winter when other food is scarce. It will alight on the backs
of cattle and peck at warbles and sores. It eats into the living flesh and
enlarges the opening so that frost enters the wound and the animal dies. One
rancher (Criddle, S. In litt. 1949) lost eight animals by magpies out of a herd of
200 in one winter. The cattle make no attempt to defend themselves. This
bird probably attacked buffalo in the same way. It consumes many birds'
eggs and young and is considered one of the most important predators of game
birds.

The burrowing owl, Speotyto cunicularia hypugeaa (Bonaparte), may be
found occasionally in western Manitoba, where it nests in the burrows of badgers
made in digging out Richardson's ground squirrel. Seton (1909) reported it
as having appeared only recently in Manitoba and that it was unknown in the
eighties. Its food consists mostly of insects, particularly grasshoppers, but may
include mice and young ground squirrels. With the breaking up of prairie sod
and pastures and the destruction of ground squirrels and badgers, populations
of the owl have been reduced because of the scarcity of nesting sites in most
areas. In a few areas it may still be on the increase. A. Hochbaum (Director,
Waterfowl Research Station, Delta, Man. In litt. 1955) stated that it is on the
increase in the Portage la Prairie plains.

Brewer's blackbird, Euphagus cyanocephalus, according to Roberts (1932)
increased in Minnesota and spread eastward, replacing the bobolink. Hales
(1927) stated that it was the most abundant blackbird in Manitoba. It has

100

since been considerably reduced in numbers through destruction of its nesting
habitat and is now far exceeded in numbers by the red-winged blackbird.

The snowshoe rabbit, Lepus americanus americanus Erxleben (Fig. 27),
occurs in Alberta, Saskatchewan, and northern Manitoba, and L. a. phaeonotus
Allen, the Minnesota snowshoe rabbit, is found in the southern portion of Man-
itoba. Their habits, however, are very similar. The former stays more in the
mixed coniferous forest whereas the latter is found mostly in the true parkland.

The snowshoe rabbit is a woodland species and seldom ventures far from
trees. It is found in greatest abundance in dense stands of young aspen, willow,
hazel, and cherry thickets, which provide cover and food. It is predominant
and a major influent not only on its food plants but on its predators, which
fluctuate in numbers with the food supply made available by cycles of abund-
ance of rabbits. These cycles, of roughly ten years between peaks (Elton,
1936), have not been affected by human interference. Man has eliminated
rabbits in places where cultivation has destroyed forests, and reduced them
where woodland has been heavily pastured, but has helped them by reduction
of predators and by cutting and burning forest where the resultant second
growth makes abundant food and shelter.

Stuart Criddle (1938) made a careful study of the rabbit about his home at
Treesbank, Man. He reported on the importance of well-kept runways to the
rabbits in escaping predators and for travel, and the labor they go to in main-
taining them. In the summer all vegetation is carefully trimmed back and in
the winter the snow is kept hard-packed. He proved by a large number of
records over a period of years that the size and number of broods do not vary
with the period in the cycle of abundance. Numbers are determined by deaths
rather than births. There are at least three, often four, and occasionally five
litters a year, with an average of 3.4 per litter. The snowshoe rabbit shows a
preference for certain trees and shrubs particularly aspen, oak, hazelnut, willow,
wolf willow (Elaeagnus commutata), and cherry. Maple, saskatoon, and snow-
berry are rarely eaten. The bur oak would be much more abundant were it
not for rabbits. Growing shoots of young trees are eaten back year after year
so that the trees are reduced to stunted clubs and finally die.

The white-footed mouse, Peromyscus maniculatus and subspecies, is one
of our commonest mice. Its numbers show a marked periodicity, and early
records show that it occurred in great numbers before settlement and before its
predators had been depleted. This would indicate that it fluctuates in spite of
predators and that human interference may not greatly affect its abundance. It is
particularly abundant near woods and frequently enters houses. Henry in 1808
(Coues, 1897) recorded their abundance at his Park River, North Dakota, fort:

We are plagued by great numbers of mice, which destroy almost everything but
metals; our strouds and blankets are nearly all damaged, and they even carry off our
beads. At night we see them running in droves over the floor; they are not shy in the
least. They often awake us by scampering over our faces and playing on our beds . . . The
mice destroy everything; they eat my skins and peltries — indeed, anything that is not
iron or steel goes down with them.

Stuart Criddle (1950) stated that these mice were as abundant in pre-
agricultural days as at the present and quotes from his father's diary of 1882:

This little pest pervades the prairie in thousands and destroys everything . . . No
place is safe from him, and for the construction of his nest, wherein lies his greatest des-
tructiveness, he is not contented with gnawing up and destroying any one garment, but
loving variety, he will take a bit of fur here, some wool there, the heel of a sock, the seat
of a pair of breeches.

101

Criddle also gave an account of the food and stores of this mouse. During
the warmer months it feeds extensively on insects, grasshoppers and their eggs,
cutworms, June beetles, and others. As fruits and seeds ripen it feeds on them
and stores great quantities of seed for winter use, including many weeds, grains,
grasses, acorns, and cherry stones. In this activity it is an important influent
in the community both in dispersal and in consumption of seeds.

Voles or meadow mice, Microtus pennsylvanicus (Fig. 17) and Pedomys
(Microtus) minor, are very common mammals of the prairie. They inhabit the
matted dead grass, where their runways and nests are conspicuous. Bird (1930)
mentioned the abundance in virgin prairie of Microtus pennsylvanicus drum-
mondii (Audubon & Bachman), and Stuart Criddle (1956) made observations
for 22 years. He recorded their abundance, a periodic fluctuation of about 10
years, their food preference for grain crops, for Poa and Bromus inermis and other
introduced grasses. In the wild they eat Geum triflorum, fruit, insects, and fungi.
They eat bark when other food is scarce. Stuart Criddle (1926) discussed the
habits and food of Microtus (Pedomys) ochrogester. They store large quantities
of seeds and roots. Criddle weighed a number of these stores and found a total
weight of food material of 17 pounds 5 ounces to 24 pounds 6 ounces. Such
stores were used by several mice. They store a certain amount of wheat, oats,
and rye from gleanings about the edges of fields, but their food consists chiefly
of Liatris punctata, Allium stellatum Fraser, Psoralea esadenta, Helianthus spp.,
Geum triflorum, Taraxacum erythrospermum Andrz., and Juniperus horizontalis.
Bailey (1924) refers in general terms to the genus Microtus, and in particular
to Microtus pennsylvanicus. He mentioned the serious agricultural losses they
cause by the destruction of grass and clover and the barking of trees below the
snow line in the winter. Criddle, however, stated that Pedomys minor, unlike
the red-backed mouse, Clethrionomys gapperi loringi, does not feed on the bark
of trees. Bailey also referred to the huge stores of seeds and roots and mentioned
that at one time their stores formed an important food item for Indians, who
systematically searched for them.

Agriculture with its accompanying cultivation and overgrazing has de-
stroyed the native prairie and much vole habitat and consequently reduced the
population; however, they are still abundant and continue to fluctuate in a
marked periodicity unaffected by man.

Among insects, grasshoppers have shown the most marked periodicity.
The history of grasshopper outbreaks in Manitoba has been compiled by Mit-
chener (1954). He recorded outbreaks in 1799-1800, 1808, 1818-1821, 1857-58,
1864-74, 1898-1902, 1919-22, 1929-35, 1937-42, and 1949-52.

The early grasshopper outbreaks up to and including 1902 were probably
largely of the Rocky Mountain grasshopper, Melanoplus spretus. The species
Melanoplus bilituratus, M. bivitatus, and Camnula pellucida, which have been
most abundant in the later outbreaks, show similar periodicity associated with
periods of low rainfall.

Insects of the forests have been less affected by man-made changes than
those of areas brought under agriculture. Many of them show marked fluc-
tuations in abundance arising from natural causes. Mr. W. A. Reeks (Chief,
Forest Biology Laboratory, Winnipeg, Man. In litt. 1959) has supplied data
on peaks of abundance of the following forest insects found in southwestern
Manitoba: Larch sawfly, Pristiphora erichsonii (Htg.), 1913-1920, 1925-1926,

102

1938-1949; forest tent caterpillar, Malacosoma disstria Hbn., 1923-1924, 1937-
1938, 1952-1953; large aspen tortrix, Choristoneura conflictana (Wlk.), 1916-
1917, 1957; willow leaf beetle, Galerucella decora Say, 1932-1934, 1948-1950,
1956-1957. These outbreaks, which resulted is repeated defoliation of the
host trees over a period of years, retarded growth, weakened the trees, and in
some cases killed out sections of the forest (Hodson and Duncan, 1956).

103

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Figure 41. An aerial view in spring of aspen parkland, illustrating advanced succession.
Across the foreground is a strip where the groves of aspen have started to coalesce and the
grass (light color) is almost crowded out. The central groves surround sloughs with heavy
border growths of willow but still with some open water, whereas the groves to the right have
overgrown sloughs that have dried up. The grassland is being invaded by patches of snow-
berry (dark) and sucker growth from the aspens. In the mid-distance two prominent sloughs
show bands of willow. These have deep water, which extends beyond the willow and prevents
the establishment of aspen.

120

Figure 42. A slough full of water after being dry for a number of years, with a resultant
invasion of willow and aspen. The invading plants have been killed by flooding, and cat-
tails have commenced to seed into denuded areas.

Figure 43. A slough in an advanced stage of succession. Surface water has been practically
eliminated through filling by accumulated vegetative debris. Willow and aspen have closed
in so that only a small area supporting a dense stand of sedge, Carex spp., and a few water par-
snip, Slum suave, remains.

Figure 44. Overgrazed pasture invaded by snowberry.

121

Figure 45. An aspen seedling in Stipa prairie. This seedling probably became established
on bare ground created by a burrowing mammal.

Figure 46. Aspen grove rubbed and trampled by cattle in the manner described by Henry
for buffalo.

Figure 47. Buffalo rubbing stone. Large, erratic boulders scattered over the prairie
were used by buffalo as rubbing stones. They are still evident today, often have a distinct
polish, and are characteristically surrounded by a depression from which soil loosened by
trampling has blown away.

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124

INDEX

125

INDEX

Acanthis flammea (redpoll), 10

Accipiler

cooperi (Cooper's hawk), 16, 74
gentilis atricapillus (goshawk), 16, 74, 84
striatus (sharp-shinned hawk), 74

Acer negundo var. interius (Manitoba maple,

boxelder, ash-leaved maple), 13, 17, 28,

35, 69, 101
Achillea millefolium (yarrow), 7, 9
Acipenser fulvescens (sturgeon), 24, 77, 78
Acorns, 61,66, 102
Actaea rubra (red baneberry), 13
Actitis macularia (spotted sandpiper), 24, 76
Adams Lake, Sask., 62
Adelphocoris (plant bug)

lineolatus (alfalfa p.d.), 40

rapidus (rapid p.d.), 40

Aedes (mosquitoes)

campestris, 21

dorsalis, 21

flavenscens, 21

spencerii, 21

vexans, 21
Aeropedellus clavatus (grasshopper), 79
Aeschna (dragonflies), 21

canadensis, 21

interrupta lineata, 21

umbrosa, 21

Agastache foeniculum (giant lryssop), 7

Agelaius phoeniceus arctolegus (red- winged
blackbird), 20, 94, 95, 101

Agriculture, agricultural, 1, 3, 6, 11, 31, 32, 34,
35, 37, 39, 42, 43, 50, 55-57, 66, 68-73, 76, 77,
82-85, 89, 93, 94, 96, 98, 101, 102

Agricultural implements: see machinery, farm

Agropyron (wheat grass), 5-7, 39, 88
caninum (= subsecundum), 88
dasystachyum (northern w. g.), 5
pauciflorum (= trachycaulum), 6-8
repens (couch grass), 25, 50, 52-54, 72, 89-92
richardsonii (=subsecundum), 89
smithii (western w. g.), 5, 6, 8, 49, 50, 89-91
subsecundum (awned w. g. ), 88, 89
tenerum (=trachycaulum) (western rye
grass), 88, 89
trachycaulum (slender w. g.), 6-8, 91, 98

Agrostis
scabra, 7, 9

Aircraft (also airport, planes, aerial hunters),
62, 67, 68, 74

Alberta, 1, 4, 5, 12, 13, 57, 60, 62, 87, 89, 97,
100, 101

Alces americana andersoni (moose), 14, 16, 37,

55, 63,65, 67; Fig. 25
Alder, 69

Aldrin, 46: see chemicals
Alfalfa, 40, 42, 45, 49, 82, 84, 89, 98

a. caterpillar (Colias philodice eury theme), 40

a. caterpillar (Colias philodice philodice), 40

a. seed, 40, 82

Algae, 23

blue-green a., 18

Alkali grass

Distichlis stricta, 19

Nuttall alkali grass (Puccinellia nuttal-

liana), 19

Alkaline: see salt
a. flats, 1, 21,
a. lakes, 22
a. slough : see slough

Alleghanian Region, 65

Allen, W. R. (1939), 6, 11, 50, 90, 91; (1952), 62

Allium stellatum [wild onion], 102

Alsophila pometaria (fall cankerworm), 17

Alum root (Heuchera richardsonii), 9

Amblema costata (mollusc), 24

Ambloplites rupestris (rock bass), 24

Ambrosia artemisii folia (ragweed), 50, 91

Ambush bug (Phymata erosa wolfii), 79

Amelanchier alnifolia: see saskatoon

Amphibians, 75

Amphiodon alosoides (goldeye), 77, 78

Anas

acuta (pintail), 20

carolinensis (green-winged teal), 20

discors (blue-winged teal), 20

platyrhynchos platyrhynchos (mallard), 10, 20,

24,71,72

strepera (gadwall), 20
Anderson, R. M. (1956), 47; in litt., 60

Andropogon (bluestem), 5

gerardi (= furcatus) (big b.), 7-9; Fig. 16

scoparius (little b.), 5-7, 9
Androsace occidentalis (western ray-pimpernel),

7,9
Anemone patens var. wolfgangiana (crocus,

prairie crocus, pasque flower), 5, 7, 9

Anisota

manitobensis (moth larvae), 14
virginiensis, 14

127

81314-7—10

Anodonta grandis footiana (mollusc), 24

Anonymous (1956), 62

Anser albifrons frontalis (white-fronted goose),

74
Antelope, American pronghorn (Antilocapra

americana), 9, 27, 55, 60
Antennaria (everlasting), 9

campestris (prairie e.), 7

microphylla (small e.), 5
Antilocapra americana (American pronghorn

antelope), 9, 27, 55, 60
Antler

Creek, Man., 60
River, Man., 80

Ants, 11, 66, 79, 87, 95, 96
Lasius brevicornis, 11, 79
Myrmica scabrinodis, 11, 79

Aphid

corn leaf a. (Rhopalisiphum maidis), 93

current a. (Capitophorus ribis), 98

English grain a. (Macrosiphum granarium),

93

greenbug (Toxoptera granimum), 93

Apiaries, 65

Aralia nudicaulis (wild sarsaparilla), 13, 29

Aransas Refuge, 62

Arborfield, Sask., 67

Arceuthobium pusillum (dwarf mistletoe), 15

Archiology, 29

Ar chips

cerasivorana (ugly-net caterpillar), 17

Arctic, 74

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (bearberry), 9, 15

Ardea herodias herodias (great blue heron), 22

Arenaria lateriflora (blunt-leaved sandwort), 13

Arizona, 60

Army worm (Pseudaletia unipuncta), 40, 92
bertha a. (Mamestra configurata), 92

Arnaud, Man., 5, 90-91

Arphia conspersa (grasshopper), 79

Arrow-grass, seaside (Triglochin maritima), 19

Arsenicals, 46: see chemicals

Artemisia (sage, wormwood),

biennis (biennial wormwood), 7, 50, 90
dracunculoides (linear-leaved w.), 9, 54
frigida (pasture sage), 5, 7, 9, 42, 48, 54
gnaphalodes (prairie s.), 8, 9
ludoviciana var. pabularis (white s.), 7, 54;
Fig. 3

Ash, lance-leaved (Fraxinus pennsylvanica var.
lanceolata), 13, 28

Ash, green, 69

Ash-leaved maple, 28: see Manitoba maple

Ashern, Man., 73

Asio (owl)
flammeus (short-eared o.), 10
otus (long-eared o.), 16

Aspen parkland (parkland), 1, 3-8, 12-15, 18,
20, 22-24, 26, 27, 31, 32, 34, 40, 41, 43-48,
50, 55-71, 73-78, 80, 82, 84-87, 92-94, 96-101;
Map 1, 2; Figs. 1-3, 12, 17, 40, 41, 50

Aspen, white poplar, quaking aspen (Populus
tremuloides), 1-4, 7, 8, 12, 14-19, 23-29, 36, 39,
42, 45, 48, 54, 60, 63-65, 69, 71, 76, 82-85, 95,
101; Map 1; Figs. 1, 2, 9, 22, 25, 29, 30, 31,
32, 35, 36, 41, 42, 43, 45, 46

Aspen Woods, Sask., 10

Assiniboine

Indians, 27, 31, 34, 36, 57: see Indians

River, Man., 1, 3, 13-15, 23, 28, 31, 32, 34,

35, 37, 44, 61, 73, 76, 84
Aster, 72, 91

ericoides (many-flowered a.), 7, 8, 49

foliaceus var. parryi, 13

laevis (smooth a), 7, 8, 49

lindleyanus (Lindley's a.), 13

novae-angliae (New England a), 14

umbellatus (flat-topped white a)., 14
Aster

hairy golden a. : see golden aster

yellows, plant disease, 40

Astragalus striatus (ascending purple milk-
vetch), 9

Athabasca Landing, Alta., 97

Atkinson, George E. (1904), 61

Atlantic coast, 87

Astriplex hastata (halberd-leaved atriplex), 19

Automobile (car), 21, 41, 42, 44, 45, 69, 78

Avena fatua (wild oats), 41, 45, 51-53

Avens, three-flowered, 7, 9, 102

Aweme, Man., 56, 99

Ay thy a

afflnis (lesser scaup), 20
americana (redhead), 20
collaris (ring-necked duck), 20
valisineria (canvasback), 20

B

Badger (Taxidea taxus taxus), 10, 26, 56, 66,
71, 81, 84, 100

Bailey, Vernon (1924), 102

Baines, K. E. (1956), 56, 99

Baldpate (Mareca americana), 20

Baliol, Sask., 62

Ball mustard, 51

Balsam-fir sawfly, 17

Balsam poplar, 12, 25

Baneberry, red (Actaea rubra), 13

Banfield, A. W. F. (1949), 63, 64

128

Bank swallow, 23, 86
Bard, F.G. (1956), 62, 67
Barley, 40, 88-90, 98

wild b. : see Hordeum jubatum
Barn swallow, 86

Barnyard grass (Echinochloa crusgalli), 91
Bartlett,B. R. (1956), 46

Bartramia longicauda (upland plover), 10, 76,81
Bass, rock (Ambloplites rupestris), 24
Basswood (Tilia americana), 14
Bates (1956), 31
Battleford, Sask., 62
Beach, 2, 28
Beans, 92; Fig. 20
Bear (Ursus), 29, 66

black b. ( Ursus americanus), 61, 64, 65

grizzly b. (Ursus horribilis), 55, 60, 61, 65
Bearberry (or kinnikinnick) (Arctostaphylos

uva-ursi), 9, 15
Beardtongue (Penstemon)

lilac-flowered b. (P. gracilis), 9

white b. (P. albidus), 7; Fig. 5
Beaver (Castor canadensis), 1, 16, 23, 36, 44, 55,

62,63, 66, 69; Figs. 29, 30

Beckmannia syzigachne (slough grass), 19, 91

Beckwith, Stephen L. (1954), 54

Bedstraw (Galium)

northern b. (G. boreale), 7, 8, 13
sweet-scented b. (G. triflorum), 13

Beech, 61

Bee

bumble b. (Bombus terricola), 82
leaf-cutter b., 82
wild b., 69

Beetle

Chrysomelidae, 79

dermsetid b. (Byturus unicolor), 17

flea b. (Phyllotreta spp.), 40

fungus b. (Cryptophagus spp., Lathridius

spp.), 93

June b., 102

larvae, 16

long-horned b. (Ropolopus sanguinicollis), 17

long-horned b. (Saperda bipunctata), 17

Nuttall blister b. (Lytta nuttallii), Fig. 20

peppergrass b. (Galeruca browni), 40

potato b., Colorado (Leptinotarsa decemli-

neata), 40, 46, 82, 87, 95

rove b. (Staphylinidae), 79

rusty grain b. (Laemophloeus ferrugineus), 93

Stilbus apicolis, 1 1

sunflower b. (Zygogramma exclamationis), 45

willow leaf b., 17, 103

Beets, 35, 40

Beet webworm, 40, 93

Beggar-ticks (Bidens glaucescens), 14

Bent, A. C. (1925), 62

Bergamot (Monarda)

M.fistulosa, 7, 8; Fig. 9

M. f. var. menthae folia, 50
Berries, 61, 63, 75, 87, 94, 97; Fig. 23
Betida (birch)

glandulosa (dwarf b.), 15, 63

papyrifera (white b.), 12, 69

Bidens glaucescens (beggar- ticks), 14
Biennial wormwood, 7, 50, 90
Big Grass Marsh, Man., 76, 83
"Big Plain", 4; Map 2

Bilderdykia convolvulus (== Polygonum con-
volvulus) (bindweed, wild buckwheat), 50,
51, 90, 92

Binder, 38, 39, 52, 94

Bindweed, 50, 51, 90, 92

Bindweed, field, 52

Biologists, 18, 67

Birch (Betula)

dwarf b. (B. glandulosa), 15, 63
white b. (B. papyrifera), 12, 69

Birch River, Man., 84

Bird, Charles D( 1958), 24

Bird, Ralph D. (1927), 8, 11, 63; (1929), 75;
(1930), 7, 11, 17, 25, 66, 102; (1947), 45, 98;
(1956), 93, 97, 99; (1958), 24

Bird, R. D., and W. W. A. Stewart (1958), 98

Birds, 10, 16, 17, 20, 22, 23, 26, 29, 36, 47, 51,
57, 59, 61-63, 66, 77, 79, 81, 85-87, 93-97, 99,
100; eggs, 47, 63, 69, 70, 71, 95, 100; game,
30, 43, 44, 68, 71, 74, 96, 100
gullet, 22

ground-nesting, 29, 69
insectivorous, 38, 46, 86, 94, 99
lake, 22

migratory, 39, 61, 62, 85, 87, 93, 94
shore, 21, 22, 76
song, 74, 94, 95
stomach, 22, 95, 96

Birdtail Creek, Man., 24

Birtle, Man., 4, 7, 11, 24, 32

Bison (buffalo)

bison bison (plains bison, plains buffalo) 57;

Fig. 11; see buffalo

b. athabascae (wood bison, wood buffalo), 59

Bison, plains: see buffalo

Bittern (Botaurus lentiginosus), 21

Bittern Lake, Alta., 100

Black bear, 61, 64, 65

Blackbird

Brewer's b. (Euphagus cyanocephalus), 77,
95, 100

red-winged b. (Agelaius phoeniceus arcto*
legus), 20, 94, 95, 101

129

81314-7 — 10^

Blackbird — concluded

rusty, b. 95

3'ellow-headed b. (Xanlhocephalus xanlho-
cephalus), 20, 95

Black cottonwood, 12

Black currant, 92

Black-e}^ed Susan (Rudbeckia serontina), 7, 8

Blackfeet Indians, 57: see Indians

Black fly (Simulium venustum), 24

Black tern, 21, 22

Bladder campion (Silene)

b. c. (S. cucubulus), 52

biennial b. c. (S. cserei), 52

Bladder tapeworm, 84

Bladder wort, 18

greater b. (Utricularia macrorhiza), 19, 25

Blazing-star, dotted (Liatris punctata), 7, 9, 102

Bluebell {Campanula rotundifolia), 7, 9

Blueberry, 61

Bluebird (Sialia), 94

eastern b. (S. sialis), 94

mountain b. (S. currocoides), 94

Bluebur (Lappula echinata), 50

Blue goose, 74,; Fig. 39

Blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), 6, 9. 49, 54

Blue grass (Poa), 5, 7, 8, 49, 54, 72, 91, 102

Canada b. g. (P. compressa), 6, 8, 49, 50

fowl, b. g. (P. palustris), 6, 8, 91

inland b. g. (P. interior), 8, 49

Kentucky b. g. (P. pratensis), 6, 8, 49, 54, 91

plains b. g. (P. arida), 8, 49
Blue-green algae, 18
Blue Hills, Man., 3

Blue lettuce (Lactuca pulchella), 90, 92
Bluestem (Andropogon), 5

big b. (A. gerardi), 7-9; Fig. 16

litte b. (A. scoparius), 5-7, 8

Bluets, long-leaved (Houstonia longifolia), 7

Blue-winged teal: see teal

Bobolink (Dolichonyx oryzivorus), 77, 100

Bobwhite, 47

Boissevain, Man., 84

Boivin, B., Map 1

Bombus terricola (bumble bee), 82

Bonasa umbellus (ruffed grouse), 16, 17, 74, 75,
99

Borer

European corn b.: see corn borer
poplar b. : see poplar borer

Bossenmaier, E. F. et al. (1954), 18, 19
Botaurus lentiginosus (American bittern), 21
Botfly

horse b. f. (Gasterophilus intestinalis), 99
nose b. f. (G. haemorrhoidalis), 99

Bot fly — concluded

sheep b. f. (Oestrus ovis), 99

throat b. f. (Gasterophilus nasalis), 99

Botley Lake, Sask., 62

Botulism, 22, 94

Bounty, 67, 68, 70, 100

Bouteloua, 5

gracilis (blue grama), 6, 9, 49, 54

Bovicola equi (louse), 64

Boxelder: see Manitoba maple

Boxelder leaf roller, 17

Brachthecium (moss)
oxycladon, 12
salebrosum, 12

Brachyrhinus ovatus (strawberry root weevil),

40
Bradshaw, F. (1956), 62
Bradwell, Sask., 62
Branchipus (fairy shrimp), 20

Brandon, Man., 3, 4, 6, 14, 23, 32, 44, 51, 60,
68, 76, 82, 90, 97

Brandon Hills, Man., 60

Brandon House, 63

Brandy, 57: see liquor

Branta canadensis (Canada goose), 20, 56, 73,
74; Fig. 40

Brassica kaber var. pinnalifida (= B. arvensis)
(= Sinapis arvensis) (wild mustard), 45, 51

Breadroot, 7, 102

Breckenridge, W. J. (1944), 11

British Columbia, 6, 7, 87, 97

British Ministry of Agriculture, 55

Brome grass, awnless brome (Bromus inermis),
8, 40, 42, .49, 50, 54, 86, 89-91, 102; Fig. 49

Bromus inermis (brome grass, awnless brome),
8, 40, 42, 49, 50, 54, 86, 89-91, 102; Fig. 49

Bronzed grackle, 95

Brown, D. A. (in litt. 1956), 53

Brown thrasher, 16, 94

Browsing (browse), 54, 55, 63-65, 79, 83, 84;
Fig. 23

Bubo virginianus (great horned owl), 16, 69, 75;
Fig. 31

Buckwheat
tartary b., 52
wild b., 50, 51, 90, 92

Budd, Rev. Henry, 28

Budworm, spruce, 17

Buffalo, plains bison (Bison bison), 1, 3, 9, 10,
16, 26-28, 31, 35-37, 47, 48, 55-61, 63, 64, 66,
70, 72, 81, 82, 100; Figs, 11, 46, 47

Buffalo

bird: see cowbird

bur (Solanum rostratum), 87

130

Buffalo — concluded

rubbing stones, 59; Fig. 47

wallows, 47, 59, 81, 82; Fig. 11

wolf: see wolf

wood b. (Bison bison athabascae), 59
Buffalo Pound Hill Lake, Sask., 29

Bug-
alfalfa plant b., 40
Geocoris discopterus, 79
June b., 102
Laccocera vittipennis, 1 1
plant b., 40
rapid plant b., 40

Bulldog flies (Tabanus spp.), 65
Bulldozer, 42, 83

Bulrushes (Scirpus), 18, 25, 72, Figs. 36, 37

giant b., 19, 20,22, 25

great b., 19, 20, 22, 25

hard-stem b. (S. acutus), 19, 25, 26

prairie b. (S. paludosus), 19

salt-marsh b. (S. maritimus), 19

soft-stem b., great b., giant b. (S. validus),

19, 20, 22, 25

Bumble bee (Bombus terricola), 82

Bunting, snow, 10, 96

Bur oak: see oak

Burpee, Lawrence J. (1927), 34

Buteo (hawk)
jamaicensis borealis (red-tailed h.), 10, 16, 74
regalis (ferruginuous rough-legged h.), 10
swainsoni (Swainson's h.), 10, 16, 74, 81

Buttercup, prairie (Ranuncidus rhomboideus),
7; Fig. 4

Butterfly, 98

painted-lady b. (Vanessa cardui), 51, 93
Byturus rubi (dermestid beetle), 17

C

Cabbage, 35, 40, 92, 98

Cabbage worm, imported (Pieris rapae), 40, 98;
Fig. 55

"Cabbri" (antelope), 60

Caddis flies, 23, 24

Calamagrostis, 6, 89

montanensis (reed grass, plains), 5

Calamovilfa longifolia (sand grass), 6, 9, 50

Calcarius (longspur)

lapponicus (Lapland 1.), 10, 96
ornatus (chestnut-collared 1.), 10, 77

Calgary, Alta., 96

Cambarus spp. (crayfish), 23, 24, 46, 67

Camelina sativa (false flax), 51

Camnula pellucida (clear-winged grasshopper),
11,40,45,49,89-92,102

Campanula rotundifolia (bluebell), 7, 9

Campbell, J. A. and J. B., 8

Camrose, Alta., 57, 73

Canada, 3, 6, 8, 32, 50, 58, 61-63, 85, 87, 96-99

Department of Agriculture: see Department

of Agriculture, Canada

Dominion of C, 37

Eastern C, 31, 97, 98

fleabane, 90

goose: see goose, Canada

government of C, 40, 59

national museum of C, 60

thistle (Cirsium arvense), 51, 72, 93

United States boundary, 7, 58, 63

Western C, 31, 32, 65, 88, 96, 98

wildlife service of C, 62

Canadian Pacific Railway, 32
Canis

familiaris (dog), 34, 57, 60, 84, 94, 96, 99

latrans (coyote, prairie wolf), 10, 16, 26, 27,

29, 44, 56, 64-68, 84, 96, 99

lupus griseoalbus (Saskatchewan timber

wolf), 16, 65, 67

lupus nubilus (buffalo wolf), 9, 55, 60
Cankerworm, 97

fall c. (Alsophila pometaria), 17
Canvasback (Ay thy a valisineria), 20
Capella gallinago delicata (Wilson's snipe), 76
Capitophorus ribis (currant aphid), 98
Capsella bursa-pastoris (shepherd's-purse), 50
Carabidae (beetles), 79, 80
Carberry, Man., 4, 84, 85, 97; Map 2
Cardaria draba (hoary cress), 52
Caragana, Fig. 20

Carex (sedge), 5-7, 9, 14, 18-21, 25, 70; Figs.
34, 43

aristata (= C. atherodes), 19
atherodes, 19
lanuginosa, 19
obtusata (blunt sedge), 5

pensylvanica var. digyna (sun-loving s.), 5, 49
rostrata, 19
stenophylla, 6
s. var. enervis (low s.), 5

Cariacus virginianus (fallow deer), 82

Carp (Cyprinus carpio), 78, 96

Carrot River, Man., 83

Carrots, 35

Cartwright, B. W. (1944), 99

Cartwright, Man., 51

Castilleja sessiliflora (downy paintbrush), 9

Castor canadensis (beaver), 16, 23, 36, 44, 55,
62, 63, 66, 69; Figs. 29, 30

Cat, 94, 96, 99

Catbird (Dumetella carolinensis), 16, 94

Caterpillar
alfalfa c.,40
eastern tent c, 17

131

Caterpillar — concluded
forest tent c, 17, 103
prairie tent c, 17
ugly-nest c., 17

Catfish, 77, 78

Cat flea, 99

Catoprophorus semipalmatus inornatus (willet),

21,76
Catostomus commersonii (common sucker), 22,

24
Cattail {Typha latifolia), 18-20, 25, 26, 70, 72;

Figs. 37, 42, 49

Cattle, 27, 31, 37, 47, 48, 58, 59, 79, 82, 96, 99;

Fig. 46
Cattle warbles

Hypoderma bovis, 99

lineatum, 99

Cecidomyid (midge), 17, 21, 23

Cedar, 86

Cedar Lake, Man., 84

Centaurea repens (Russian knapweed), 52

Cephus ductus (wheat stem sawfly), 11, 39, 40,

56, 79, 82, 88, 89, 98
Cerastium arvense (field chickweed), 5, 7, 9

Cervus canadensis (elk, wapiti), 16, 27, 28, 37,

39, 54-56, 63-68, 83; Fig. 26
Cetraria islandica (lichen), 9
Chaetura pelagica (chimney swift), 95
Charadrius vociferus (killdeer), 21, 76
Chelydra serpentina (snapping turtle), 24
Chemicals (for fungus, insect and weed control),

45-47, 52, 53, 55, 78

aldrin, 46

arsenicals, 46

chlordane, 46

chlorinated hydrocarbons, 46

copper fungicide, 46

DDT, 46-47

derris, 46

dieldrin, 46

fungicide, 46

heptachlor, 46

herbicide, 42, 45, 46

hydrocarbon insecticides, 46

insecticides, 46, 47

nicotine sulphate, 46

organic phosphates, 46

Paris green, 87

poison, 37, 45, 46, 60, 70

pyrethrum, 46

river pollution from c, 78

sulphur fungicide, 46

toxaphene, 46, 47

2,4-D, 45, 52, 53

weedicides, 45
Chen (goose)

caerulescens (blue goose), 74; Fig. 39

hyperborea (lesser snow goose), 74; Fig. 39

Chenopodium

album (pigweed, lamb's quarters), 50, 54, 91,

93

rubrum (red goosefoot), 19
Cherry, 101

choke c. : see choke cherry

pin c. : see pin cherry

sand c, 9

stones, 102

Cheyenne River, 61

Chickadee, black-capped (Patus atricapillus),
16

Chicken: see poultry

Chickweed, field {Cerastium arvense), 5, 7, 9
Chimney swift {Chaetura pelagica), 95
Chipmunk {Eutamias), 29

minumus borealis, 16
Chipping sparrow, 10
Chironomid larvae, 22
Chittenden, F. H. (1907), 87
Chlidonias niger (black tern), 21, 22
Chlordane, 46
Chlorinated hydrocarbons, 46

Choke cherry {Prunus virginiana), 13, 17, 29,
55, 63-65, 68, 71, 83, 94

Chordeiles minor (nighthawk), 95

Choristoneura

conflictana (leaf roller), 17, 103
fumiferana (spruce bud worm), 17
rosaccans (oblique-banded leaf roller), 17

Chrysemys picta belli (western painted turtle),

24
Chrysomelidae (beetles), 79
Chrysops spp. (deer flies), 65
Chrysopsis villosa (golden aster), 6, 7, 49
Cicely, sweet, 13
Cinquefoil {Potentilla)

prairie c. {P. pennsylvanica var. arida), 9

white c. {P. arguta), 9
Circus cyaneus hudsonius (marsh hawk), 10, 75
Cirsium arvense (Canada thistle), 51, 72, 93
Citellus (ground squirrel, gopher)

franklinii (Franklin's g. s., shrub or bush

gopher), 16, 71, 73; Fig. 14

richardsonii (Richardson's g. s. or flickertail),

10, 26, 29, 56, 66, 68, 70, 81, 100; Fig. 13

tridecemlineatus tridecemlineatus (13-striped

g. s.), 10, 68, 70, 71

t. hoodii, 70

Cladonia (lichen)

alpestris, 9

sylvatica, 9

uncialis, 9
Clams, 23, 70
Clark (1956), 31
Clarke, S. E., 90, 91

132

Clarke, S. E. et al. (1942), 8
Clarke, S. E., and J. L. Boulton, 6
Clay-colored sparrow, 10
Clear-winged grasshopper: see grasshopper
Clethrionomys gapperi loringi (red-backed
mouse), 16, 102; Fig. 18

Cliff swallow, 86

Climate, 36, 98, 99

Clostridium botulinum (bacterium causing

botulism), 22
Clover, 71, 102

Club moss, little (Selaginella densa), 6, 9
Coal, 42
Cockle, cow, 51
Codling moth, 46

Colaptes auratus (yellow-shafted flicker), 16, 95
Coleoptera (beetles), 11, 79
Cole, T.V. (1956), 82

Colias

eury theme (alfalfa caterpillar), 40
philodice (clouded sulphur), 40

Collembola(springtails), 17

Colorado, 40, 87

Colorado potato beetle: see potato beetle

Comandra richardsiana (Richards' comandra), 7

Committee for the Preservation of Natural

Conditions, 47

Community, 47, 102
animal c, 47
aquatic c, 18
aspen c, 13
aspen poplar c, 12
basket willow c, 17
biotic c, 4
bur oak c, 12, 14
forest c, 4, 12, 36
grass land c, 4-6, 8, 9
maple, ash and elm flood-plain c, 12, 13
plant c, 3, 12, 47
prairie c, 12, 25
sandbar willow c, 17

tamarack — black spruce swamp c, 12, 15
white spruce and sand hill c, 12, 15
willow c, 12, 14, 17

Coneflower

long-headed c. {Ratabida columnifera), 7, 49
purple c. (Echinacea angustifolia), 9

Coniferous forest, 1, 4, 15, 27, 62-64, 83, 101

Connell Creek, Sask., 67

Conringia orientalis (hare's-ear mustard), 51

Conservation, 35, 39, 43, 59, 72, 83

Convolvulus arvensis (field bindweed), 52

Cooke, W.W. (1888), 85

Cooper's hawk, 16, 74

Coot, American (Fulica americana), 21, 73, 75;
Fig. 38

Cord grass, prairie (Spartina pectinata), 6, 8,
25, 26, 91; Fig. 7

Corixa spp. (water boatmen), 24

Cormorant, double-crested (Phalacrocorax
auritus), 22, 76, 77

Corn, 40, 90, 92, 93 , 95, 98; Fig. 53

c. borer, European (Ostrina nubilalis), 45, 98;
Fig. 57

c. earworm (Heliothis zea), 40, 93; Fig. 53
c. leaf aphid (Rhopalosiphum maidis), 93

Cornus (dogwood)

canadensis (dwarf d., bunchberry), 13
stolonifera (red osier d.), 13, 14, 65

Corticium polygonium (disease of aspen poplar),

13
Cornus brachyrhynchos (crow), 10, 16, 56, 71-73,

75, 81, 85

Corylus (hazelnut), 63

americana (American h.), 13
cornuta (= C. rostrata) (beaked h.), 13

Corythucha (lace bug)
arcuata, 17
pruni, 17

Cottonwood (Populus)

black c. (P. trichocarpa var. hastata), 12
c. (P. sargentii), 14, 25, 26

Couch grass (Agropyron repens), 25, 50, 52-54,
72, 89-92

Coues, Elliott (1874), 61, 75, 81, 85; (1897)),
11, 27, 34, 35, 57-63, 66, 69, 77, 80, 82, 84, 101

Cougar, 55, 67

Coupland, R. T. (1950), 48; (1954), 47

Coupland, R. T. and T. C. Brayshaw (1953),
4-6

Cowbird, buffalo bird (Molothrus ater), 10, 59

Cow cockle (Saponaria vaccaria), 51

Coyote (Canis latrans), 10, 16, 26, 27, 29, 44,

56, 64-68, 84, 96, 99
"Cradle hills", 36
Cranberry, 13, 61

Crane (Grus)

little brown c. (Grus canadensis canadensis),

76

sandhill c. (G. canadensis tabida), 20, 76, 81

whooping c. (G. americanus), 20, 55, 62, 76

c. flies, 79
Crayfish (Cambarus spp.), 23, 24, 46, 67
Cree, 27, 36, 57
Creeping juniper: see juniper
Crescent Lake, Sask., 56, 99
Cress, hoary, 52
Criddle family, 56

133

Criddle, Norman, 51, 88; (1911), 87, 88

(1912), 75; (1915), 8, 88, 98; (1917), 89

(1922), 89; (1925), 85; (in litt., 1925), 76

(1930), 99; (1933), 45; photo, Fig. 21
unpub. ms., 81

Criddle, Percy (diary, 1883), 99

Criddle, Stuart, 51, 65, 73, 102; (1938), 101;

(1939), 29, 71; (in litt., 1949), 100; (1950),

29, 101; (1956), 102; (in litt., 1955), 73;

(in litt., 1956), 85
Crocus, prairie (Anemone patens var. wolf-

gangiana), 5, 7, 9; Fig. 6

pasque flower, 7; Fig. 6

anemone, Fig. 6

Crustacea, ph}dlopod, 20

Crow (Corvus brachyrhynchos), 10, 16, 56,

71-73, 75, 81, 85

c. nests, Fig. 31

Crowfoot

seaside c. (Halerpestes cymbalaria) (=

Ranunculus cymbalaria), 19

white water c, 25
Cruciferae (mustard family), Fig. 55

Cryptophagus spp (fungus beetles), 93
Cryptophypnus nocturnus (wireworm), 92
Clenicera aeripennis destructor (prairie grain
wireworm), 11, 39, 40, 92; Fig. 52

Ctenocephalides (flea)

cants (dog flea), 99

felis (catf.), 99

Cucumbers, 35

Culez tar salis (mosquito), 21

Culiseta inornata (mosquito), 21

Cultivator, 38, 39, 51
duck-foot, c, 41, 53, 91

Curculionidae (weevils), 79

Curculio, rose (Rhynchites bicolor), Fig. 19

Currant
fruit fly, 40
borer (Ramosia tipuliformis), 98

Currants, 40, 98; Fig. 54
black c, 92

Currantworm, imported (Nematus ribesii), 40,
98; Fig. 54

Cutworms (Agrotis, Cirphis, Epipsilia, Euxoa,
Feltia, Leucania, Neleucania, Nephelodes,
Polia, Rhizagrotis), 40, 56, 79, 82, 92, 94, 102
red-backed c. (Euxoa ochrogaster), 11, 40, 92
striped c. (E. tessellata), 11, 40 92,
white c. (E. scandens), 11, 92

Cypress Hills, Sask., 36, 62

Cyprinus carpio (carp), 78, 96

Cypripedium calceolus (yellow lady's-slipper),
8; Fig. 10

Czechoslovakia, 96

D

Dairy herds, 42
Daisy fleabane, 9

Damage

wind d., 12, 54

frost d., 32
Dams, 23, 43, 69, 70, 86
Damselfly (Enallagma, Ischnura, Lestes), 21, 22

Dandelion (Taraxacum)
d. (T. officinale), 39, 91
red-seeded d. (T. erythrospermum), 102

Danthonia intermedia (wild oat grass), 5

Davidson, Sask., 62

Dawson Road, 32

DDT, 46, 47: see chemicals

Deer, 14, 27, 37, 45, 48, 66-68, 83, 96

fallow d. or chevreuil (Cariacus virginianus),
82

mule d. (Odocoileus hemionus), 16, 39, 55, 56,
65, 82-84

white- tailed or Virginia d. (Odocoileus vir-
ginianus dacotensis), 16, 39, 44, 54-56, 65,
82-84; Figs. 23, 28,

Deer flies (Chrysops), 65

Delta

of rivers, 1, 2
Saskatchewan River d., 70

Delta Marsh, Man., 70, 71, 73, 74

Delta Waterfowl Research Station, 43, 62, 74,
75, 100

Dendroica (warblers)
coronata (myrtle w.), 16
petechia (yellow w.), 16

Dendrocopos (woodpecker)
pubescens (downy w.), 16
villosus (hairy w.), 16

Department of Agriculture
Canada D. of A.

Experimental Farm, Brandon, Man., 32,
53

Experimental Farm, Swift Current, Sask.,
6

Experimental Station, Swift Current, Sask.
90

Field Crop Insect Laboratory, Brandon,
Man., 6, 90

Forest Biology Laboratory, Winnipeg,
Man., 102

Stored Product Insect Laboratory, Winni-
peg, Man., 93

Manitoba D. of A., 38, 41, 78, 95

Department of Mines and Natural Resources,
Manitoba
Game and Fisheries Branch, 43, 83, 100

Dermacentor albipictus (winter tick), 64

Dermestid beetle (Byturus rubi), 17

134

Derris, 46

Deschampsia caespitosa (tufted hair grass), 89

Destructive Insect and Pest Act, 40

Devil's Lake, 61

Dewberry (Rubus pubescens), 13

De Witt, J. B. (1955), 47

Diatoms, 23

Dictyocaulus viviparous (hair lung worm), 64

Dieldrin, 46

Diesel-oil engines, 48

Dikraneura moli (leaf hopper), 11

Diptera (flies), 11, 79

Disease, 34, 37, 55, 57, 71

dysentry, 78

pulmonary d., 57

smallpox, 34, 57

tuberculosis, 35, 57
Disk seeder, 41

Distichilis stricta (alkali grass), 19
Dock (Rumex), 91

golden d. (R. maritimus var. fueginus), 20

sand d. (R. venosus), 9
Dog (Canisfamiliaris), 34, 57, 60, 84, 94, 96, 99

flea, 99
Dog Lake, Man., 73
Dogwood (Cornus)

dwarf d., bunchberry (c. canadensis), 13

red osier d. (C. stolonifera), 13, 14, 65
Dolan, D. D. (1956), 89
Dolichonyx oryzivorus (bobolink), 77, 100
Domestic birds or fowl: see poultry

Domestic stock or animals, livestock, 26, 31,
36, 37, 39, 47-52, 54, 59, 60, 67, 68, 70, 72,
78, 85, 96, 98, 99

Don Michel Pablo, 59

Douglas Marsh, Man., 73

Dove, mourning (Zenaidura macroura), 16, 51,

94
Draeculacephala (leafhopper)

millipes, 17

noveboracensis, 17

Dragonflies (Aeschna, Sympetrum), 21, 22, 75
d. nymphs, 22, 93

Drainage, 49, 71, 72, 75, 77, 78, 91

Drift

ridges, 90, 91

soil, 49, 90, 91
Drought: 6, 12, 13, 24, 25, 31, 32, 41, 45, 47, 49,

51, 53, 54, 69, 88-90, 96, 97: see dry periods

Dry periods, 6, 25, 51, 56, 80, 81, 98

Duck, 19-21, 36-39, 43, 44, 46, 69-73, 75, 94
diving d., 20, 71
ducklings, 22, 63, 75
eggs, 72, 73
nests, 19, 20, 71-73, 75

Duck — concluded
ring-necked d., 20
sead., 36
surface-feeding d., 20

Duck Mountains, Man., 12, 15, 65, 67, 78
Ducks Unlimited, 43, 62, 70, 85
Dumetella carolinensis (catbird), 16, 94
Dust wallows: see buffalo wallows
Dymond, J. R. (1955), 96
Dysentry, 78
Dzubin,A.(1955), 18

E

Eagle, 84

Earthworm, 94

Earworm, corn : see corn earworm

Echinacea angustifolia (purple coneflower), 9

Echinochloa crusgalli (barnyard grass), 91

Ecological Society of America, 47

Ecotone, 4

Ectopistes migratorius (passenger pigeon), 55,61

"Edge" environment, 46, 85

Edmonton, Alta., 85

Egret, 46

Eggs

bird e. : see bird eggs

ducke., 72, 73

grasshopper e. : see grasshopper eggs
Elaegnus (silverberry, wolf willow), 78

commutata, 5, 7-9, 26, 30, 79, 101; Figs. 18, 36
Elateridae (wire worms), 56, 79, 80, 82, 92
Elbow Bone Creek, Sask., 3
Electrification, 41

Eleocharis palustris (creeping spike rush), 19
Elevators, 53
Elk, wrapiti (Cervus canadensis), 9, 16, 27, 28,

37, 39, 54-56, 63-68, 83; Fig. 26

red deer, 28, 63, 82
Elkhorn, Man., 4
Ellis, J. H. (1938), 2, 3,; Map 3
Elm, American, white elm (Ulmus americana),

14, 28, 69
Elson,J. A. (1954), 1,99
Elton, C.( 1936), 99, 101
Elymus, 89

canadensis, 88

macounii (Macoun wild rye), 6
Emerson, Man., 52
Emlen, John T. , Jr. (1954), 86
Empidonax minimus (least flycatcher), 16
Enallagma (damselfly), 21, 22

cyathigerum, 21

ebrium, 22

hageni, 22

135

England, 97

Epilobium angustifolium (firewood), 55

Epinette Creek, Man., 15

Epochra canadensis (currant fruit fly), 40

Equisetum (horsetail)

arvense (common h.), 9

sp., 53
Eremophila alpestris (horned lark), 10, 77, 81
Erethizon dorsatum (porcupine), 14
Ergot, 41

Erigeron (fleabane)
asper{ rough f.), 9
canadensis (Canada f . ), 90
strigosus (daisy f.), 9
spp., 54

Ermine, 1

Erosion, 41-43, 50, 78, 89, 96; Fig. 48

soile., 51, 52

water e., 42, 53,84

wind e., 6, 33, 41, 42, 50, 52-54, 83, 90

Erysimum asperum (western wallflower), 9

Esox lucius (pike), 22, 24, 77, 78

Estheria (fairy shrimp), 20

Eucalia inconstans (brook stickleback), 22

Euphagus cyanocephalus (Brewer's blackbird),
77, 95, 100

Euphorbia (spurge)
esula ( leaf y s.), 51
glyptosperma (ridge-seeded s.), 90

Eurasian, 50, 52

Europe, 40, 45, 52, 97, 98

European, 31, 34, 45, 50-52, 96-98

European corn borer : see corn borer

Eurosta solidaginis fascipennis (trypaneid), 79

Eutamias minimus borealis (chipmunk), 16

Euxoa (cutworms)
divergens, 79
flavicollis, 79

ochrogaster (red-backed c), 11, 40, 92
scandens (white c), 11, 92
tessellata (striped c), 11, 40, 92

Evans, C. D., et al. (1952), 18

Evening primrose, shrubby {Oenothera ser-
rulata), 9

Everlasting {Antennaria), 9
prairie e. {A. campestris), 7
small e. (A. microphylla,) 5

Ewing, J. (1924), 1,25

Experimental Farm, Canada Department of
Agriculture
Brandon, Man., 32, 53
Swift Current, Sask., 6

Experimental Station, Canada Department of
Agriculture Swift Current, Sask., 6

Fagopyrum tataricum (Tartary buckwheat), 52

Fairy shrimps (Branchipus, Estheria, Lepi-
durus, Limnetis), 20

Falco sparverius (sparrow hawk), 75, 81

Fall

cankerworm: see cankerworm
webworm, spotless: see webworm

False

flax {Camelina sativa), 51

lily-of-the-valley {Maianthemum canadense

var. interius), 13

ragweed (Iva xanthifolia), 50, 54, 90, 91

sunflower, rough {Heliopsis helianthoides

var. scabra), 7
Faronta diffusa (cutworm), 79
Farley, F. L. (1932), 57, 73, 85, 100
Feed, chicken and hog, 53
Felis concolor (puma, cougar, mountain lion),

55, 67
Feltia ducens (cutworm), 79
Fern, 14; Fig. 28
Ferrissia rivularis (mollusc), 24
Ferruginous rough-legged hawk, 10

Fescue (Festuca), 6

rough f. (F. scabrella), 5, 6

sheep f. {F. ovina), 5
Field bindweed {Convolvulus arvensis), 25
Field Crop Insect Laboratory, Canada De-
partment of Agriculture, Brandon, Man., 6,

90
Fire, 3, 4, 13, 15, 26-29, 35-38, 41, 47, 48, 54-46,

60, 69, 72, 85, 95
Firearms, 34, 35, 44, 57, 59, 60

rifles, 36, 75

shotguns, 36, 44, 68, 75

Firewater, 57 : see liquor
Firewood {Epilobium angustifolium), 55
Fish, 22-24, 38, 43, 36, 63, 67, 76-78
Fisher {Martes pennanti), 55, 63, 66
Flax, 40, 53, 83, 89, 93

false f., 51
Flea

cat f. {Ctenocephalus felis), 99

dog f. (C. canis), 99

f. beetle {Phyllotreta spp.), 40

human f. {Pulex irritans), 99

Fleabane {Erigeron), 54

Canada f. {E. canadensis), 90

daisy f. {E. strigosus), 9

rough f. {E. asper), 9
Fleming, J. H. (1907), 61
Fletcher, Dr. James, 88
Flicker, 86

yellow-shafted f. {Colaptes auratus), 16, 95

f. holes, 75, 87, 94

136

Floods, 23, 25, 31, 69, 78, 84
flooding, 25, 26, 42, 43; Fig. 42
f. plains, 2, 15, 69; Fig. 28

Fluminea festucacea (= Scolochloa festicacea)
(whitetop, spangle top), 7, 18-20, 25, 26, 72;
Figs. 35, 36

Fly

black f., 24

bulldog f., 65

caddis f., 23, 24

currant fruit f., 40

deer f., 65

hessian f., 97, 98

horn f., 99

horse fly, 86

house fly, 46, 86
Flycatcher, least (Empidonax minimus), 16
Fomes igniarius (white heart rot), 13
Forcipomyia specularis (ceratopogonid), 79
Forest, 1-4, 7, 8, 12-14, 16, 17, 21, 24-26, 28, 29,

33, 36-38, 46-49, 51, 54, 55, 58, 64-68, 80,

83-86, 94, 96, 101-103

aspen f., 15, 16, 24, 26, 28, 65, 69, 95; Fig. 21

Fort, 31, 58, 60

Churchill, Man., 100

Dauphin, Man., 31

Ellis, Sask., 3, 23, 80, 84

Garry, Man., 35

La Corne, Sask., 31

La Reine, Man., 31, 34

Maurepas, Man., 31

Pelly, Sask., 23

Smith, N.W.T., 62

Resolution, Mackenzie Territory, 62

Whyte, Man., 97

William, Ont., 97

Fournier, Joe, 67

Fox, red (Vulpes fulva regalis), 1, 10, 16, 26, 29;

44, 54, 56, 66, 68, 81, 84, 99; Fig. 15

f. ranch, 84

Foxtail, wild barley (Hordeum jubatum), 6, 8,

20, 25, 26, 50, 72, 89, 98; Fig. 8
green f. (Setaria viridis), 51, 54

Fragaria (strawberry), 13, 29, 40, 68
fungus

heart-rot f., 17

f. disease, 12, 13

Fraxinus pennsylvanica var. lanceolata (lance-
leaved ash), 13, 28,

Frog, 22, 23, 71

leopard f. (Rana pipiens), 10, 21
Fruit fly, currant (Epochra canadensis), 40
Fuel, 42

aspen, 42

coal, 42

oil, 42

Fulica americana americana (American coot),

21, 73; Fig. 38

Fuller, W. A. (1950), 59

Fungicide, 46
copper f., 46
sulphur f., 46

Fungus beetles (Cryptophagus, Lathridius), 93

Fur, 1, 29, 44, 56, 57, 63, 66-69, 73, 84, 101;
see trapping

—bearing animals, 34-37, 44, 55-57, 62, 66, 73
ranch, 44, 66

traders, 31, 34, 35, 50, 56, 57, 62, 71, 82
trading and trade, 31, 32, 34, 36, 37, 44, 62,
66, 67, 69

G

Gadwall (Anas strepera), 20

Gaillardia pulchella (gaillardia, blanket flower),
9

Galeopsis tetrahit (hemp nettle), 53

Galeruca browni (peppergrass beetle), 40

Galerucella decora (beetle), 17, 103

Galium (bedstraw)

boreale (northern b.), 7, 8, 13

triflorum (sweet-scented b.), 13
Galls, 69

insect g., 17

leaf g., 17

rosette g., 17

Game, 1, 35-38, 43, 44, 66-68, 74: see hunting
laws, 37, 38, 65
management, 43, 44
preserves, 43
provincial g. departments, 43, 69

Gammarus (freshwater shrimps), 22

Gardens, 31, 35, 46, 50, 70, 71, 80, 92-95, 97

Garter snake, 10, 35

Gasterophilus (bot flies)

haemorrhoidalis (nose b. f.), 99

intestinalis (horse b. f.), 99

nasalis (throat b. f.), 99
Gavia immer (loon), 22
Gem Lake, Man., 67
Geocoris discopterus (lygaeid), 79

Geography, 1

plant g., 29
Geology, 1, 18

Geothlypis trichas (northern yellow-throat), 17
Gerris remigis (water striders), 24
Geum triflorum (three-flowered avens), 7, 9, 102
Giant hyssop, 7
Gibson, A., et al. (1925), 87
Glacial lakes

L. Agassiz, 1, 2, 8, 14, 23, 32, 91; Map 3;

Fig. 49

L. Souris, 2, 6, 90

L. Regina, 2

Glacier County, Mont., 1, 5, 12, 13

137

Glaciers, 1-3, 80, 99

glacial beach, 21

g. boulder till, 3

g. drift, 7

g. ice, 99

g. lakes, 1, 2, 6

g. meltwater, 23

g. moraines, 1, 2, 18; Map 3

g. till, 2, 3
Glyceria grandis (tall manna grass), 6
Godwit, marbled (Limosa feoda), 21, 76
Golden aster (Chrysopsis villosa), 6, 7, 49
Goldenrod (Solidago), 49, 54, 72, 79, 91

Canada g. (S. canadensis), 49

flat-topped g. (S. graninifolia var. camporum)

14

g. (S. lepida), 49

low g. (S. glaberrima), 5

low g. (S. missouriensis) , 7

prairie g. (S. dumetorum), 7

stiff g. (S. rigida), 7, 49

tall smooth g. (S. seronlina), 8
Goldeye (Amphiodon alosoides), 77, 78
Goldfinch (Spinus tristus), 1G
Goose, 36, 38, 39, 44, 71-74

blue g. (Chen caeridescens), 74; Fig. 39

Canada g. (Branta canadensis canadensis),

20, 56, 73, 74; Fig. 40

lesser snow g. (Chen hyperborea), 74; Fig. 39

nests of g., 73

white-fronted g. (Anser albifrons frontalis),

74

Gooseberries

cultivated g., 40, 98; Fig. 54
northern g. (Ribes oxycanthoides), 13

Goosefoot, red (Chenopodium rubrum), 19

Gopher

bush g. : see ground squirrel, Franklin's

"gopher": see ground squirrel, Richardson's

pocket g. (Thomonys talpoides), 10, 26, 68,

75; Fig. 33

prairie g. : see ground squirrel, Richardson's

striped g.: see ground squirrel, thirteen-

striped

shrub g. : see ground squirrel, Franklin's

Goshawk : see hawk

Gracillaria negundella (boxelder leaf roller), 17

Grackle, bronzed (Quiscalus quiscula versi-
color), 95

Grades (road), 42, 69
graders, 52, 53

Grafton, N. D., 58, 63

Graham Street, Winnipeg, Man., 35

Grain, 29, 31, 36, 38-42, 45, 52, 53, 61, 70, 72,
76, 83, 85, 88, 89, 93, 95-98, 102
g. fields, 1, 39, 41, 44, 72, 76, 85, 88, 89, 92, 96

Grand Coteau, Sask., 28

Granite, 3

Grasshoppers (Arphia, Aeropedellus, Camnula,
Gomphocerus, Melanoplus, Stiraplenra,
Xanthippus), 4, 6, 8, 11, 23, 31, 33, 40, 45, 46,
49, 51, 52, 54, 68-71, 74, 75, 79-82, 85, 89-91,
93, 95, 99, 100, 102

clear-winged g. (Camnula pellucida), 11, 40,
45, 49, 89-92, 102
eggs, 40, 45, 49, 52, 69, 80, 91, 102
migrations (and flights), 80, 81, 90
migratory g. (Melanoplus bilituratus =
mexicanus), 40, 45, 52, 68, 81, 89, 91, 102
outbreaks, 45, 68, 70, 80, 81, 90, 91, 102
Packard's g. (M . packardii), 40, 89, 90
red-legged g. (M . femue-rubrum), 11, 40, 89
Rockv Mountain g. (M . spretus), 11, 28, 40,
80, 81, 102; Fig. 11

two-striped g. (M. bivittatus), 11, 42, 45, 49,
89, 90, 102; Fig. 51

Grassland or grass, 1, 3-10, 14-16, 18-20, 24-29,
31, 35-40, 42, 47-50, 52-55, 58, 60, 63, 64,
70-72, 75-77, 79-83, 88-92, 94, 98, 102; Figs.
8,41,48

Graves, Indian, 34
graveyard, Indian, 35

Grazing, 31, 47-51, 54, 63, 70-72, 78, 79, 81-83

Great Britain, 32, 37

Great Lakes, 1, 31

Great Plains, 1, 4

Great Slave Lake, N.W.T., 59

Grebe, 21

eared g. (Podiceps caspicus), 21

horned g. (P. auritus), 21

pied-billed g. (Podilymbus podiceps), 21

Greenbug (Toxoptera graminum), 93

Green foxtail (Setaria viridis), 51, 54

Green, H. V. (1933), 64, 65, 68

Green snake, 10

Green-winged teal, 20

Grindclia squarrosa (gumweed), 7, 49

Grizzly bear: see bear

Groh, Herbert (1949), 50

Grosbeak, pine, 26

Ground squirrel (Citellus), 10, 56, 66, 68, 74, 100

Franklin's g.s., shrub or bush gopher (C
franklinii), 16, 71, 73; Fig. 14

Richardson's g.s., flickertail (C. richardsonii) ,
10, 26, 29, 56, 66, 68, 70, 81, 100; Fig. 13

Thirteen-striped g.s., striped gopher (C.
tridecemlineatus) , 10, 68, 70, 71

Grouse, 16, 48, 75, 76, 97, 99
pinnated g., 82

ruffed g. (Bonasa umbellus), 16, 18, 74, 75, 99
sharp-tailed g., prairie chicken (Pedioecetes
phasianellus), 10, 16, 26, 29, 39, 41, 44, 54,
56, 74-76, 81, 99; Figs. 12, 23

138

Grub

cattle g., 99
white g., 68

Grus (cranes)

americana (whooping c), 20, 55, 62, 76
canadensis canadensis (little brown c), 76
canadensis tabida (sand-hill c), 20, 76, 81

Gull (Larus), 22, 23, 93

Franklin's g. (L. pipixcan), 22, 23, 79, 83

herring g. (L. argentatus), 22, 93
Gull Lake, Sask., 36

Gulo luscus luscus (wolverine), 55, 63, 66
Gum weed (Grindelia squarrosa), 7, 49
Gurney, A. B. (1953), 80
Gurney, A. B., and A. R. Brooks (1959), 81
Gypsum, 2

H

Hagmeier, E. M. (1956), 62, 63

Hair Hills (Pembina Hills), 61, 66

Hair lungworm (Dictyocaulus viviparous), 64

Hairy golden aster, 6, 7, 49

Halerpestes cymbalaria (== Ranunculus cymba-
laria) (seaside crowfoot), 19

Hales, B. J. (1927), 73, 77, 85, 100

Halliday, W. E. D. (1935), 48; (1937), 14;
Mapl

Handford, R. H., et al. (1936), 54

Hare's ear mustard, 51

Harris's sparrow, 16

Harrow
disk h., 39
drag h., 39

Hartney, Man., Fig. 24

Hawk, 71, 74, 75, 99

Cooper's h. (Accipiter cooperi), 16, 74

ferruginous rough-legged h. (Buteo regalis),10

goshawk (Accipiter gentilis atricapillus), 16,

74, 84

march h. (Circus cyaneus hudsonius), 10, 75

h. nests, 16

red-tailed h. (Buteo jamaicensis borealis), 10,

16,74

sharp-shinned h. (Accipiter striatus), 74

sparrow h. (Falco sparverius), 75, 81

Swainsin's h. (Buteo swainsoni), 10, 16, 84, 81

Hay, 20, 37, 49, 52, 64, 72

Hazelnut (Corylus), 16, 64, 101; Fig. 21
American h. (C. americana), 13
beaked h. (C. cornuta= C. rostrata), 13
C. spp., 63

Headingly, Man., 60

Hearle,E. (1938), 98, 99

Hedge nettle, marsh (Stachys palustris var.
pilosa), 14

Helianthus (sunflower)
annus (common s.), 88
maximiliani (narrow-leaved s.), 7, 88
H. spp., 51, 54, 102
subtuberous (tuberous-rooted s.), 88

Heliopsis helianthoides var. scabra (rough false

sunflower), 7

Heliothis zea (corn earworm), 40, 93; Fig. 53

Hemiptera, 11

Hemp nettle (Galeopsis tetranit), 53

Henry, Alexander, 11, 27, 28, 31, 34, 35, 57-63,

66, 67, 69, 77, 80, 82, 84, 101; Fig. 46
Heptachlor, 46
Herbicide, 42, 45, 46
Heron, 46

black-crowned night h. (Nycticorax nycti-

corax hoactli), 22

great blue h. (Ardea herodias herodias), 22
Hessian fly (Phytophaga destructor), 97, 98
Hessian soldiers, 97

Heterodon nasicus (western hognose snake), 10
Heteroptera, 79

Heuchera richardsonii (alum root), 9
Highbush cranberry (Viburnum opulus var.

americanum), 13

Hind, Henry Youle, 31, 81; (1859), 3, 4, 11, 28,

61, 80
Hinks, David (1943), 96

Hirundorusticaerythrogaster (barn swallow), 86
Hoary cress (Cardaria draba), 52
Hoary puccoon, 7

Hochbaum, H. A. (1944), 73, 85; (inlitt., 1955),

100; (in htt., 1956), 75
Hochbaum, H. A., et al. (1954), 72
Hodson, A. C., and Duncan, D.P. (1956), 103
Hognose snake, 10
Hogs, 53, 96
Hollyhock, 93

Homesteaders, 4: see settlers
Homoptera, 79
Honey, 52
Honeysuckle, twining h. (Lonicera glaucescens),

13
Hop (Humulus americanus), 14
Hordeum jubatum (foxtail, wild barley), 6, 8,

20, 25, 26, 50, 72, 89, 92, 98; Fig. 8

Horn fly (Siphona irritans), 99

Horned Lark (Eremophila alpestris), 10, 77, 81

Hornets, 69

Horse, 19, 28, 29, 31, 34, 37, 38, 41, 42, 48, 52,
57, 58, 76, 81, 96, 97
bot fly, 99
fly, 86
power, 41

139

Horsetail, 9, 53

House fly, 46, 86

Houstonia longifolia (long-leaved bluets), 7

Hudson Bay, 1, 74, 100

Hudson's Bay Company, 31, 37, 38, 62

forts, 51
Human flea, 99
Humulus americanus (hop), 14

Hungarian partridge, European p. (Perdix
perdix), 54, 56, 96

Hungary, 89

Hunting, 27, 43-45, 55, 57, 61, 64-68, 71, 74,
76, 82, 96

hunters, 44, 45, 61, 62, 65, 66, 69, 71-75, 84
h. licenses (or permits), 44, 69, 71
h. seasons (or trapping seasons), 43, 44, 64,
69, 72, 75, 82, 83, 96, 97

Hydro polies, 95

Hylocichla fuscescens salicicola (thrush, willow;
veery), 17

Hyperodes ulkei, 79

Hyphantria textor (spotless fall web worm), 17
Hyphilare oxygala (cutworm), 79
Hypoderma (cattle grubs)

bovis (northern c. g.), 99

lineatum (common c. g.), 99
Hypoxylon pruinatum (poplar canker), 13
Hyssop, giant (Agastache foenirulum), 7

Ice, 2, 58, 69, 70, 99

Icterus galbula (Baltimore oriole), 16, 95

Illinois, 95

Imported cabbageworm, 4, 98, Fig. 55

Imported currantworm, 40, 98; Fig. 54

Indian, 1, 3, 15, 27, 28, 31, 32, 34-37, 43, 55-57,

59, 60, 66, 68, 84, 95, 102

Assiniboine, 27, 31, 34, 36, 57

Blackfeet, 57

Cree, 27, 36, 57

Mandans, 57

Ojibway, 27

Plains Cree, 57

Salteaux, 27

Sioux, 57, 61
Indian Head, Sask., 32, 88
Indian Head Range, Sask., 3
Indian rice grass (Oryzopsis hymenoides), 9

Indian turnip (or breadroot) (Psoralea escu-
lenla), 7, 102

Insecticides, 46, 47: see chemicals
Iridoprocne bicolor (tree swallow), 86, 87
Ischnura verticalis (damselfly), 22
Itasca Park, Minn., 48

Iva xanthifolia (false ragweed), 50, 54, 90, 91
Ivy, poison: see poison ivy

Jack pine: see pine

Jack rabbit, white-tailed (Lepus townsendii
campanius), 10, 30, 41, 54, 56, 66, 84, 99;
Fig. 16

Jackson Hole, Wyo., 86

Jackson, V. W. (1924), 49

Jenness, Diamond (1934), 34, 57

Joel, A. H., etal. (1936), 2

Junco, slate-colored (J unco hy emails), 16

Juncus (rushes), 18, 21, 35, 70, 71, 87, 91, 93;
Fig. 37
balticus, 20

June

beetle, 102

bug, 95

June grass (Koeleria cristata), 5, 7-9

Juniper, creeping (Juniperus horizontalis), 9,
15, 27, 83, 102; Figs. 23, 24

K

Kalmbach, E. 11(1937), 73, 85; (1938), 73

Katydid, 79

Ked, sheep, 99

Kelsey, Henry, 31

Kemnay, Man., 67

Kettles, 2

"knob and kettle", 2

Killam, Alta., 62

Killdeer (Charadrius vociferus), 21, 76
King, Kenneth M. (1926), 10, 78, 79, 92
Kingbird (Tyrannus)

Arkansas k. (T. verticalis), 100

eastern k. (T. tyrannus), 16, 22
Kingfisher, belted (Megaceryle alcyon), 23, 24
Kinnikinnick, 9, 15
Knapweed, Russian, 52
Koeleria cristata (June grass), 5, 7-9
Krefting, L. W., and E. I. Row, (1949), 26, 29

Labrador tea (Ledum groenlandicum), 15

Laccocera vittipennis (bug), 11

Lac du Diable, 61

Lace bug

Corythucha arcuata, 17
C. pruni, 17

Lacinipolia meditata Columbia (cutworm), 79

Lacombe, Alta., 100

140

Lactuca pulchella (blue lettuce), 90, 92
Lady's-slipper, yellow (Cypripedium calceolus),

8; Fig. 10
Laemophloeus ferrugineus (rusty grain beetle),

93
Lahrman, F. W. (1957), 62
Lajord-Riceton, Sask., 67

Lake

Agassiz, 1, 2, 8, 14, 23, 32, 91; Map 3; Fig. 49

Dauphin, Man. 2, 78

Manitoba, 2, 18, 19, 25, 74, 76-78, 83, 97, 94

of the Woods, Ont., 2, 32, 61

Regina, 2

Souris, 2, 6, 90

Superior, 97

Winnipeg, Man., 2, 15, 19, 65, 80, 96

Winnipegosis, Man., 2, 15, 61, 65, 67

Lakes, 1, 2, 4, 6, 18, 22-24, 28, 56, 59, 65, 68,

77, 78, 80, 93, 96

alkaline L, 22

lakelets, 36

salt 1., 19
Lamb's-quarters, 50, 54, 91, 93
Lampsilis (molluscs)

saliquoidea rosacea, 24

ventricosa, 24
Lappula echinata (bluebur), 50
Larch sawfly, 17, 102
Larix laricina (tamarack), 15, 17, 94

Larus (gulls)

argentatus (herring g.), 22, 93
pipixcan (Franklin's g.), 22, 23, 79, 93

Lasius brevicornis (ant), 11, 79

Lasmigona complanata katherinae (mollusc), 24

Lathridius spp. (fungus beetles), 93

La Verendrye, 31, 34

Lawrence, A. G. (1925), 73; (1930), 96; (1952),
100; (1953), 100

Leaf-cutter bees

Megachile frigida, 82
M. inermis, 82

Leafhopper

Deltocephalus mollipes, 17

D. noveboracensis, 17

Dikraneura moli, 1 1

six-spotted 1. (Macrosteles fascifrons), 40

Leaf roller

boxelder 1. r. (Gracilaria negundella), 17
1. r. (Choristoneura conflictana), 17
1. r. {Pseudexentera oregonana), 17
oblique-banded 1. r .{Choristoneura rosaceana),
17

Leafy spurge, 51

Ledum groenlandicum (Labrador tea), 15

Leitch, W. G. (1951), 72, 75, 79

Leopard frog, 10, 21

Lepidium spp. (peppergrass), 50, 51
Lepidurus (fairy shrimps), 20

Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Colorado potato
beetle), 40, 46, 82, 87, 95

Lepus (rabbits)

americanus americanus (snowshoe rabbit,
varying hare), 15, 16, 29, 54, 56, 63, 67,
71, 74, 75, 84, 99, 101; Fig. 27
a. phaeonotus (Minnesota snowshoe rabbit),
101

towsendii campanius (white-tailed jack rab-
bit), 10, 30, 41, 54, 56, 66, 68, 84, 99; Fig. 16

Lepyrus palustris (weevil), 79

Leskea polycarpa (moss), 12

Lesser snow goose : see goose

Lestes (damselflies)
disjunctus, 22
ungiculatus, 22

Letellier, Man., 58, 63

Lethbridge, Alta., 97

Lettuce, blue : see blue lettuce

Leucania commoides (cutworm), 79

Liatris punctata (dotted blazing-star), 7, 9, 102

Lice (Bovicola equi), 64

Lichen, 9

Ligumia recta laiissima (mollusc), 24

Limestone, 3, 86

Limnetis (fairy shrimps), 20

Limosa fedoa (marbled god wit), 21, 76

Linear-leaved wormwood, 9, 54

Liocoris (plant bugs)

borealis, 40

lineolaris, 40
Liquor, 1, 34, 57

brandy, 57

firewater, 57

rum, 34

whiskey, 57
L'Isle du Passage, 58

Liihospermum, canescens (hoary puccoon), 7
Little brown crane, 76
Little upland mouse: see voles
Livestock: see domestic stock
Locomotive, 48

Loco weed (Oxytropis lambertii), 9
Loesel's mustard, 52

Long-horned beetle
Saperda bipunctata, 17
Ropolopus sanguinicollisy 17

Long Island, N.Y., 97

Longspur (Calcarius)

chesnut-collared 1. (C. ornatus), 10, 77
Lapland 1. (C. lapponicus), 10, 96

Lonicera glaucescens (twining honeysuckle), 13

141

Loon, common (Gavia immer), 22

Lopidea (mirids)

dakota, 79

minor, 79
Loportea canadensis (wood nettle), 14
Love, Askell, and Doris Love (1954), 19, 25
Love, Doris; (1959), 3 (in litt., 1955), 19
Lower Souris Refuge, N.D., 73
Loxostege sticticalis (beet webworm), 40, 93
Lumber, 32, 37

Lutra canadensis canadensis (otter), 1, 55, 63, 66
Lygaeid bug (Geocoris discopterus) , 79
Lygodesmia juncea (skeleton weed), 9, 90
Lyleton, Man., 5-7, 50, 54, 90, 91

Lymnea (snails) , 17

palustris, 20, 24

parva sterkii, 24

stagnalis jugular is, 20, 24

umbilicata, 24
Lynch, D. (1955), 1, 5, 12, 13
Lynx, Canada (Lynx canadensis canadensis), 67

99
Lytta nuttallii (Nuttall blister beetle), Fig. 20

M

Machinery, farm, 23, 41, 42, 72, 89, 93-95
binder, 38, 39, 52, 94
combine, 93

combine threshing and thresher, 39, 41, 53
cultivator, 38, 39, 51

duck-foot c, 41, 53, 91
disk harrow, 39
disk seeder, 41
drag harrow, 39
one-way disk, 41, 42, 53, 76, 91
plow, 38, 41, 53, 59, 70, 71, 80, 83, 89, 91, 93

breaking p., 41

gang p, 38, 39, 41
seed drill, 38
swather, 53

thresher, threshing, 38, 39, 41, 56, 76, 93
tractor, 41

gasoline t., 41

steam t., 41

MacNeish, R. S. (1956), 27

Macoun, John (1883), 11, 18, 19, 32, 36, 38, 72

Macoun, John, and James H. (1909), 61

Macrosiphum granarium (English" grain aphid),
93

Macrosteles fascifrons (six-spotted leaf hopper),
40

Maggot, sunflower, 45, 88

Magpie, 56, 100

American m. (Pica pica hudsonia), 100
Maianthemum canadense var. interius (false

lily-of-the-valley), 13

Main Street, Winnipeg, Man., 35
Malacosoma (tent caterpillars)

eastern t. c. (M. americanum) , 17

forest t. c. (M. disstria), 17, 103

prairie t. c. (M. lutescens), 17
Malaher, G. W., 67; (1953), 43; (in litt., 1956),

100
Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos platyrhynchos),

18, 20, 24, 71, 72 "

Mamestra configurata (bertha armyworm), 92

Man, 3, 13, 28, 31, 43, 44, 47, 50, 55, 56, 58, 69,
74, 77, 82, 86, 87, 91, 94-96, 98, 99, 101, 102
Neolithic m., 29
white m., 27, 31, 34, 36, 37, 55-59, 62, 82

Mandans, 57

Manigotogan River, Man., 67

Manitoba, 1, 2-8, 14, 15, 19, 27, 31, 36-42, 44,
45, 48, 49, 51-53, 57, 61-69, 71, 74, 75, 77, 80,
82-90, 96-102; Maps 1-3; Fig. 22
Department of Agriculture, 38, 41, 78, 95

Department of Mines and Natural Resources,

83

Game and Fisheries Branch, 43
Government of M., 37, 64
Museum, 60
University of M., 12, 19
Weeds Commission, 51

Manitoba maple, boxelder, ash-leaved maple
(Acer negundo var. interius), 13, 17, 28, 35, 69,
101

Manna grass, tall (Glyceria grandis), 6

Maple

ash-leaved maple, 28

Manitoba m.: see Manitoba maple
Marbled godwit, 21, 76
Mareca americana (baldpate), 20
Margaret, Man., 67
Marquette, Man., 74
Marsh, 1, 2, 18-20, 23, 25, 28, 39, 42-44, 62, 67,

69-74, 76, 87; Fig. 14

alkaline m., 25
Marsh hawk, 10, 75
Marshall County, Minn., 82
Marten (Maries americana abieticola), 55, 62,

63, 66, 99
Martes

americana abieticola (marten), 55, 62, 63,

66,99

pennanti (fisher), 63

Martin, A. C. (1955), 47

Martin, purple, 22, 87

Mat muhly (Muhlenbergia squarrosa), 6

Mayflies, 23, 24

McDonald, Colonel, 36

McDonald, H. (1954), 92

McDonnell, John, 58

142

McKay, Angus, 32

McLeod, J. A. and G. F. Bondar (1953), 77
meadow, 21, 28, 29, 58, 66, 72, 77, 91
Meadowlark, western (Sturnella neglecta),

10, 77, 81
Meadow mice : see voles
Mechanization, mechanized farming, 33, 34,

41,44,45,53,76,77,83
Medicine Hat, Alta., 98
Megaceryle alcyon aclyon (belted kingfisher),

23,24

Megachile (leaf-cutter bees)

frigida, 82

inennis, 82
Melanoplus (grasshoppers)

bilituratus (migratory g.), 40, 45, 52, 68,

81, 89-91, 102

bivittatus (two-striped g.), 11, 42, 45, 49,

51,89-92, 102; Fig. 51

femur-rubrum (red-legged g.), 11, 40, 89

infantilis, 79

packardii (Packard's g.), 40, 89, 90

spretus (Rocky Mountain g.), 11, 28, 40,

80,81, 102; Fig. 11

Melilotus (sweet clover), 45, 50, 52, 54, 83,
89, 90, 92, 98; Figs. 20, 56
alba (white s. c), 52
officinalis (yellow s. c), 52

Melolith taint, 52

Melons, 35

Melophagus ovinus (sheep ked), 99

Mennonites, 32, 51

Mentha arvensis var. glabrata (wild mint),
14; Fig. 9

Mephitis mephitis hudsonica (skunk), 16, 44,

56, 66, 68, 69, 71, 73, 75
Metcalf, C. L., et al. (1951), 98
Mercalf, F. P. (1931), 18
Metis, 32, 37
Miami, Man., 51

Mice, 10, 16, 29, 47, 56, 63, 66, 68, 69, 71, 72,
74, 75, 96, 99-102

Baird or Michigan white-footed m. (Pero-
myscus maniculatus bairdii), 9
field m., 71

red-backed m. (Clethrionomys gapperi lori-
ngi), 16, 102; Fig. 18

white-footed m. (Peromyscns maniculatus
sub-spp.), 9, 101, 102

Michigan, 54

Microtus (voles, meadow mice), 9, 102

(Pedomys) Ochrogaster 9, 10, 102

pennsylvanicus (voles, meadow mice), 9, 102;

Fig. 18

p. drummondii (Drummond's vole), 102;

Fig. 17

Midges (cecidomyids), 17, 21, 23

wheat m. (Sitodiplosis mosellana), 99
Migrations, grasshopper 80, 81, 90
Migratory Bird Convention Act, 39

Migratory grasshopper : see grasshopper migra-
tory

Milfoil, water, 25

Milk-vetch, ascending purple (Astragalus
striatus), 9

Millet, 92; Fig. 57

Miniota, Man., 39

Mink (Mustela vison lacustris), 1, 23, 24, 44,
55,67,69,71,73,77

Minnesota, 1, 45, 63, 67, 69, 77, 82, 84, 86,
94, 98, 100

Minnows, 24, 96

fathead m. (Pimephales promelas). 22
flathead chub m. (Platygobio gracilis), 24
shiner, common (Notropis cornutus), 24
shiner, river (N. blennius), 24
spottail shiner (N. hudsonius), 22
stickleback, brook (Eucalia inconstans), 22

Mint, wild {Mentha arvensis var. glabrata), 14
Fig. 9

Mississippi River, 98

Mistletoe, dwarf (Arceuthobium pusillum), 15

Mitchell, Margaret H. (1935), 61

Mitchener, A. V. (1954), 4, 45, 80, 102

Mites, 46, 93

spider m. (Paratetranychus ununguis), 17

Mnium stellar e (moss), 12
mold, leaf, 17

Molluscs

Amblema costata, 24

Anodonta grandis footiana, 24

clams, 23, 70

Ferrissia rivularis, 24

Lampsilis saliquoidea rosacea, 24

L. ventricosa, 24

Lasmigona complanata katherinae, 24

Ligumia recta latissima, 24

Lymnea sp., 17

palustris, 20, 24

parva sterkii, 24

stagnalis jugularis, 20, 24

umbilicata, 24
Physa gyrina, 20
P. integra, 24
Planorbula campeslris, 20
Planorbis antrosus, 24
P. trivolvis, 20, 24
P. umbilicatellus, 20
Proptera alata megaptera, 24
Succinea sp., 11, 17
Strophitus rugosus, 24
Vertigo ovata, 17

143

81314-7—11

Molothrus ater (cowbird, buffalo bird), 10, 59
Monarda (bergamot)

fistulosa, 7, 8; Fig. 9

/. var. menthaefolia, 50

Montana, 1, 5, 40, 59

Montreal, Que., 98

Moore, H. W. (1936), 8, 11, 91, 92

Moose (Alces americana andersoni) , 14, 16, 37,

55, 63, 65, 67; Fig. 25
Moose Jaw, Sask., 27, 97
Moose Jaw Forks, 28
Moose Lake, Man., 100
Moose Mountain, Sask., 62
Moosomin, Sask., 39

Moraine, 1, 2, 18; Map 3

Morden, Man., 51, 52

Morris, Man., 28, 60

Mortlach, Sask., 27

Morton, A. S., and C. Martin (1938), 31

Mosquitoes (Aedes, Culex, Culiseta), 21, 46, 86,

95

m. larvae, 93
Moss, 15

Brachthecium salebrosum, 12

B. oxycladon, 12

Leskea poly car pa, 12

Mnium stellare, 12

Moss, E. H. (1932), 4; (1944), 5, 12, 13; (1955),
1, 2, 13

Moss, E. H., and J. A. Campbell (1947), 5

Moss phlox, 5

Mossy River, Man., 31

Moth, banded sunflower, 45, 88

Moth, codling, 46

Mountain lion, 67, 55, 67

Mourning dove, 16, 51, 94

Mouse: see mice

Mozley, Alan (1938), 20, 24

Muddy Lake, Sask., 62

Muhlenbergia squarrosa (mat muhly), 6

Mule deer, see deer

Museums

Manitoba Museum, 60

National Museum of Canada, 60

Saskatchewan Natural History Museum, 62,

67

United States National Museum, 60

Muskrat (Ondatra zibethica), 1, 20, 23, 43, 44,

56, 66, 67, 69, 70; Fig. 37

Mustard (Cruciferae), 53, 91, 92; Fig. 55
ball m. (Neslia paniculata), 51
hare's-ear m. (Conringia orientalis), 51
Loesel's m. (Sisymbrium loeselii), 52

Mustard — concluded

tumbling m. (S. altissimum), 51

wild m. (Brassica kaber var. pinnatifida), 45,

51

Mustela, 10, 44, 55, 63, 66, 67, 71

erminea (short-tailed weasel), 66

frenata longicauda (long- tailed weasel), 66

rixosa rixosa (least weasel), 66

vison lacustris (mink), 1, 23, 24, 44, 55, 67, 69,

71, 73, 77
Myriophyllum (water milfoil)

exalbescens, 25

verticillatum, 25

Myrmica scabrinodis (ant), 11, 79

N

Nash, John Blake (1951), 69
Nasosminthurus spinatus (collembolan), 17
National Museum of Canada, 60
Nebraska, 49, 87

[Needle grass, green] (Stipa viridula), 6, 50
Nematus ribesii (imported currantworm), 40,
98; Fig. 54

Neodiprion abietis (balsam-fir sawfly), 17
Nephelodes emmedonia tertialis (cutworm), 79
Nepoween, 28

Neslia paniculata (ball mustard), 51
Netley marshes, 62

Nettle, 83

hedge n., 14

hemp n., 53

stinging n., 14, 71

wood n., 14
New York, N. Y., 97
Niagara, 74
Nicotine sulphate, 46
Nighthawk (Chordeiles minor), 95
Nitrogen, 43, 49

nitrifying bacteria, 43
"Nonsuch', 31
North America, 1, 31, 34, 64, 71, 75, 87, 89, 97,

98
North Dakota, 54, 69, 75
Northwest Angle, 61
North West Fur Company, 58
Northwest Mounted Police, 32
Northwest Territories, 62
Norway pine, 48
Nose bot fly, 99

Notropis (minnows)

blennius (river shiner), 24

cornutus (common shiner), 24

hudsonius (spot-tail shiner), 22
Nova Scotia, 46, 87

144

Noxious Weeds Act, 37, 50
Nuttall blister beetle (Lytta nuttallii), Fig. 20
Nyctae scandiaca (snowy owl), 10
Nycticorax nycticorax hoactli (black-crowned
night heron), 22

O

Oak Lake, Man., 2, 62, 73, 100

Oak, 14, 16, 17, 28, 61, 63, 65, 66, 83, 101;

Map 1

bur o. (Quercus macrocarpus) , 14, 101; Map 1

Oats, 39, 40, 88-90, 85, 102
o. grass, purple, 9
wild o., 41, 45, 51-53

Oblique-banded leaf roller, 17

Odocoileus (deer)

hemionus (mule d.), 16, 39, 55, 56, 65, 82-84
virginianus dacotensis (white-tailed or Vir-
ginia d.), 16, 39, 44, 54-56, 65, 82-84; Fig. 23,
28

Oenothera serrulata (shrubby evening primrose);
9

Oestrus ovis (sheep bot fly), 99

Oil, fuel, 42

Ojibway, 27

Old Man River, Alta., 12

Olor (swans), 71

buccinator (trumpeter s.), 55, 61, 62, 74;

Fig. 50

columbianus (whistling s.), 62, 74

Ondatra zibeihica (muskrat), 20, 23, 43, 44, 56,
66, 67, 69, 70; Fig. 37

Oneway disk, 41, 42, 53, 76, 91: see machinery,
farm

Onions, 35

[Onion, wild] {Allium stellatum), 102

Ontario, 87

Opheodrys vernalis (green snake), 10

Organic phosphates, 46: see chemicals

Oriole, Baltimore {Icterus galbula), 16, 95

Orthoptera (grasshoppers), 79

Ozyzopsis hymenoides (Indian rice grass), 9

Osmorhiza occidenialis (sweet cicely), 13

Ostrich fern {Pteretis pensylvanica) , 14; Fig. 28

Ostrina nubilalis (European corn borer), 45,
98; Fig. 57

Otter {Lutra canadensis canadensis), 1, 55, 63,
66

Outbreaks, grasshopper: see grasshopper out-
breaks

Overgrazing, 26, 28, 42, 45, 47-49, 64, 72, 79,
96, 102; Fig. 11
overgrazed areas, 27, 75; Fig. 44

Owls, 74, 99

burrowing o. {Speotyto cunicularia hypugeaa),

66, 100

great horned o. {Bubo virginianus), 16, 69,

75; Fig. 31

long-eared o. {Asio otus), 16

short-eared o. {Asio flammeus) , 10

snowy o. {Nyctea scandiaca), 10
Oxbow lakes, 2
Oxen, 37, 38, 99

Oxtropsis lambertii (locoweed), 9
Oxyura jamaicensis rubida (ruddy duck), 20

Pachyrrhina spp. (tipulids, craneflies), 79

Packard's grasshopper, 40, 89, 90

Paintbrush, downy {Castilleja sessiliflora) , 9

Painter, R. H., photo, Fig. 15

Palliser, John, 31

Panbian River traverse, 58

Paradiarsia litioralis (cutworm), 79

Parasites, 46, 59, 64, 89

Paratetranychus ununguis (spider mite), 17

Paris green, 87: see chemicals

Parker, J. R. (1930), 81

Parkland: see aspen parkland

Park River post or fort, 35, 58, 61, 101

Park River, N.D., 58

Parmelia molliuscula (lichen), 9

Parsnips, 35

Partridge, Hungarian, 54, 56, 96

Pasque flower, 5, 7, 9; Fig. 6

Pasquia Hills, Man., 83

Pasquia River, Man., 83

Passenger pigeon {Ectopistes migratorius), 55,

61
Passer domesticus (English or house sparrow),

56, 86, 97
Pasture, 21, 42, 45, 48, 49, 52, 64, 66, 70, 72,

75-77, 79, 85, 89, 94, 96, 100, 101; Fig. 44

Pasture sage: see sage

Patus atricapillus (black-capped chickadee), 16

Peace River, Alta., 57

Peas, 95

Peat, 15

Pedioecetes phasianellus (sharp-tailed grouse,

prairie chicken), 10, 16, 26, 29, 39, 41, 44, 54,

56, 74-76, 81, 99, Figs. 12, 23
Pelecanus erythrorhynchos (white pelican), 22,

76

Pelican Lake, Man., 2

Pelican, white {Pelecanus ezythrorhynchos) , 22,
76

145

81314-7— 1H

Pelton, John (1953), 26

Pembina

Pembina, N.D., 60, 84

P. Hills, Man., 14, 58, 61, 66

P. Mountain, 35

P. River, N.D., 63, 80

P. Valley, Man., 14
Penstemon (beardtongue)

albidus (white b.), 7; Fig. 5

gracilis (lilac-flowered b.), 9
Peppergrass (Lepidium spp.), 50, 51
Peppergrass beetle (Galeruca browni), 40

Perdix perdix (Hungarian partridge, European

p.), 54, 56, 96
Peromyscus maniculatus bairdii (white-footed

mouse), 9, 101, 102
Persicaria, swamp (Polygonum coccineum), 7, 20

Pests, 11, 40, 45, 46, 54, 56, 65, 68, 80, 82,

87-89, 91-93, 95, 96, 98, 99, 101; Figs. 19, 54

55
Petalostemum (prairie clover)

candidum (white p. c), 7, 9

purpureum (purple p. c), 7

villosum (silky p. c), 9

Peterson, R. L. (1950), 65

Petrochelidon pyrrhonota (cliff swallow), 86

Phalacrocorax auritus auritus (double-crested

cormorant), 22, 76, 77
Phalarope, Wilson's (Steganopus tricolor), 76
Phalonia hospes (banded sunflower moth), 45,

88
Phasianus colchicus (ring-necked pheasant), 97
Pheasants, 29, 46, 47, 54, 56, 96
Phenacaspis pinifoliae (pine needle scale), 17
Phillips, J. C. (1928), 73, 85
Phleum pratense (timothy), 8, 89, 91
Phlox hoodii (moss phlox), 5
Phlox, moss (Phlox hoodii), 5
Phoebe, eastern (Sayornis phoebe), 95

Phragmites communis (common reed grass),
18-20,25,72,83

Phyllotreta spp. (flea beetles), 40

Phymata erosa wolffii (ambush bug), 79

Physa (snails)
gyrina, 20
integra, 24

Phytophaga

destructor (hessian fly), 97, 98
walshii (cecidomyid, rosette galls on wil-
low), 17

Pica pica hudsonia (American magpie), 100
magpies, 56, 100

Picea (spruce), 15, 17, 27, 69; Map 1; Fig. 22
glauca (white s.), 12, 15, 27, 48
mariana (blacks.), 15

Pickerel, yellow, wall-eye (Stizostedion vit-
reum), 22, 77

Pickett, A. D. (1949), 47

Pieris rapae (imported cabbage worm), 40, 98;
Fig. 55

Pigeon domestic p., 74

passenger p., 55, 61
Pigweed, 54

lamb's-quarters (Chenopodium album), 50,

54,91,93

p. seeds, 96

Pike (Esox lucius), 22, 24, 77, 78

Pilot Mound, Man., 100

Pimephales promelas (fathead minnow), 22

Pin cherry (Prunus pennsylvanica) , 13, 17, 55, 83

Pine (Pinus)

jack-pine (P. banksiana), 48; Map 1

Norway p. (P. resinosa), 48

pine barrens, 94

Pine grosbeak (Pinicola enucleator leucura), 26

Pine needle scale (Phenacaspis pinifoliae) , 17

Pinicola enucleator leucura (pine grosbeak), 26

Pintail (Anas acuta), 20, 72

Pinus (pine)

banksiana (jack pine), 48; Map 1
resinosa (Norway p.), 48

Pipestone Creek, Man., 28

PittmamH. H. (1956), 76

Plains Cree, 57

Planorbis (snails)
antrosus, 24
trivolvis, 20, 24
umbilicatellus, 20

Planorbula campestris (snail), 20

Plant bug

alfalfa p. b. (Adelphocoris lineolatus), 40
rapid p. b. (A. rapidus), 40
p. b. (Lygus lineolaris), 40
p. g. (L. borealis), 40

Platygobio gracilis (flathead chub), 24

Plectrophenax nivalis (snow bunting), 10, 96

Plover, upland, 10, 76, 81

Plow, 38, 41, 53, 59, 70, 71, 80, 83, 89, 91, 93
breaking p., 41
gang p., 38, 39, 41

Plum, 92
p. trees, 66

Plum Creek, Man., 28

Poa (blue grass), 5, 7, 8, 49, 54, 72, 91, 102
arida (plains b. g.), 8, 49
compressa (Canada b. g.), 6, 8, 49, 50
interior (inland b. g.), 8, 49
paulstris (fowl b. g.), 6, 8, 91
pratensis (Kentucky b. g.), 6, 8, 59, 54, 91

146

Podiceps (grebes)

auritus (horned g.), 21

caspicus (eared g.), 21
Podilymbus podiceps (pied-billed grebe), 21
Poison, 37, 45, 46, 60, 70: see chemicals
Poison ivy (Rhus radicans var. rydergii), 13,

15, 29, 75
Pollution, 38, 77, 78
Polygonum

coccineum (swamp persicaria), 7, 20

convolvulus : see Bilderdykia convolvulus

natans (persicaria), 20

Ponds, 18, 19, 28, 28, 36, 93
Pond weed (Potamogeion), 21, 25

p. (P. richardsonii) , 19, 25

sago p. (P. pectinatus), 19

Pontania pomum (sawfly), 17

Pooecetes gramineus (vesper sparrow), 10, 57

Poplar (Populus), 36

aspen p., white p. : see aspen

balsam p. (P. balsamifera) , 12, 25

[balsam p.] (P. tacamahacca) , 12

Poplar borer (Saperda calcarata), 13, 17; Fig. 31

Poplar canker (Hypoxylon pruinatum), 13

Populus

balsamifera (balsam poplar), 12, 25

sargentii (cottonwood), 14, 25, 26

tacamahacca (balsam poplar), 12

tremuloides (aspen, quaking aspen, white

poplar) : see aspen

trichocarpa var. hastata (black cottonwood),

12

Porcupine (Erethiron dorsalum), 14
Porcupine grass (Stipa)

S. spartea, 6, 8

S. s. var. curtiseta, 5, 46
Porcupine Mountains, Man., 12, 65

Portage la Prairie, Man., 14, 31, 34, 61, 63,

84, 85, 99, 100
Porzana Carolina (sora rail), 21
Potamogeion (pondweed), 21, 25

pectinatus (sago p.), 19

richardsonii (p.), 19, 25
Potato, 35, 40, 87, 92
Potato beetle, Colorado (Leptinotarsa decem-

lineata), 40, 46, 82, 87, 95

Potentilla

anserina (silver weed), 14

arguta (white cinquefoil), 9

pensylvanica var. arida (prairie cinquefoil), 9

Pothole, 18; Fig. 1

Poultry, 38, 53, 68, 69, 74, 75, 84, 95
turkey, 68

Prairie: see grassland

Prairie chicken (Tympanuchus cupido pinnatus),
37-39, 56, 72, 84, 85

Prairie provinces, 36

Prairie cinquefoil, 9

Prairie clover (Petalostemum)

purple p. c. (P. purpureum), 7

silky p. c. (P. villosum), 9

white p. c. (P. candidum), 7, 9
Prairie fire: see fire
Prairie level

first prairie level, Map 3

second prairie level, Map 3

Prairie sage, 8, 9

Pre-Cambrian shield, 1, 83

Predators, predation, 16, 21, 22, 46, 55, 60, 61,

63, 64, 66-73, 75, 80, 81, 84, 99-101; Fig. 15
Preservation of Natural Conditions, Committee

for the, 47
Pristophora erichsonii (larch sawfly), 17, 102

Procyon lolor hirtus (racoon), 23, 24, 46, 55, 66,

84
Progone subis (purple martin), 22, 87
Pronghorn antelope, American, 9, 27,:5, 60
Proptera alata megaptera (mollusc), 24
Prunus (cherry)

besseyi (sand cherry), 9

pensylvanica (pin c), 13, 17, 55, 83

virginiana (choke c), 13, 17, 29, 55, 63-65, 68,

71, 83, 94
Pseudaletia unipuncta (army worm), 40, 92
Pseudexentera oregonana (leaf roller), 17
Psoloessa delicatula (grasshopper), 79

Psoralea

argophylla (silverleaf psoralea), 7, 9
esculenta (Indian turnip, breadroot), 7, 102

Pteretis pensylvanica (ostrich fern), 14; Fig. 28

Puccinellia airoides (= P. nuttalliana) (Nuttall
alkali grass), 19

Puccoon, hoary (Lithospermum canescens), 7

Pulex irritans (human flea), 99

Pulmonary diseases, 57

Puma (Felis concolor), 55, 67

Purple martin (Progone subsis), 22, 87

Purple oat grass (Schizachne purpurascens) , 9

Pyrethrum, 46

Pyrola asarifolia (wintergreen, pink), 13

0

Quail, 47

Qu'Appelle

Lakes, Sask., 2

River, Sask., 3, 14, 23, 28, 29, 36, 58; Map 1

Valley, 28, 29
Quebec, 98
Quercus macrocarpa (oak), 14, 17, 28, 61, 63,

65, 66, 83, 101; Map 1
Quiscalus quiscala versicolor (bronzed grackle, 95

147

R

Rabbit, 14, 27, 45, 47, 63, 68, 75 101
jack r., white-tailed: see jack rabbit
snowshoe r.: see snowshoe rabbit
Minnesota s. r., 101
varying hare: see snowshoe rabbit

Rabies, 60

Racey, Kenneth, 67

Raccoon (Procyon lotor hitrus), 23, 24, 46, 55»

66, 84,
Radish, 40
Radulum caesearium (disease of aspen poplar, 13

Ragweed, Fig. 49

false r. (Iva xanthifolia) , 50, 54, 90, 91

giant r., 91

r. {Ambrosia artemisiijolia) , 50, 91

Ragwort, Prairie (Senecio plattensis), 9

Rail, sora, 21

Railway, railroad, 23, 32, 37, 38, 48, 50-53, 69,

97

Canadian Pacific R., 32

pre-r. settlement, 32

r. right-of-way, 48
Raine (1892), 62
Rainy Lake, 61

Ramosia tipuliformis (currant borer), 98
Rana pipiens (leopard frog), 10, 21
Rand, A. L. (1948), 59, 60

Ranunculus

cymbalaria: see Halerpestes cymbalaria
rhomboideus (priairie buttercup), 7; Fig. 4
subrigidus (white water crowfoot), 19

Rape, 40, 98

Rapids, 23, 24

Raspberry

cultivated r., 13, 17, 29, 55, 95
Rubus idaeus var. strigosus ,13, 55
r. fruit and seeds, 17, 29

Ratibida columnifera (long-headed coneflower),
7,49

Rats, 56, 75, 96

Ray-pimpernel, western {Androsace Occident-
alis), 7, 9

Red-backed mouse, 16, 102; Fig. 18

Red-bellied snake, 10

Red deer: see elk

Red Deer River, Alta., 100

Red Deer's Head River, Man., 80

Redhead (Ay thy a americana), 20

Red-legged grasshopper : see grasshopper,
red-legged

Redpoll (Acanthis flammea,) 10

Red River, 2, 8, 13, 14, 23, 24, 27, 28, 31, 32,

35, 37, 42, 58, 61, 62, 66, 69, 77, 78, 80, 82, 96

Red River — concluded

R. R. Post, 63

R. R. settlers, 50

R. R. Valley, 32, 45, 49, 51, 90, 99
Red-tailed hawk, 10, 16, 74
Redvers, Sask., 39

Red-winged blackbird : see blackbird, red-
winged

Reed grass, common (Phragmites communis),
18-20, 25, 72, 83

Reed grass, plains (Calamagrostis montanensis) ,
5

Reeks, W. A. (in litt., 1959), 102

Regina, Sask., 62, 67

Reston, Man., 39

Rhopalosiphum maidis (corn leaf aphid), 93

Rhus radicans var. rydbergii (poison ivy), 13,
15, 29, 75

Rhynchites bicolor (rose curculio), Fig. 19

Ribes oxyacanthoides (northern gooseberry), 13

Rice, C. M. (1953), 18

Ridge-seeded spurge, 90

Riding Mountain, Man., 12, 15, 48, 55, 61,
63-65, 67, 78; Fig. 26

Riel Rebellion, 31

Rifles, 36, 75

Ring-necked duck (Aythya collaris), 20

Riparia riparia riparia (swallow, bank), 23, 86

Ritchie, Prof. J., 12

River, 2, 18, 22-24, 28, 32, 58, 63, 69, 77, 78,
83, 85, 96

Riviere aux Marais, 58, 63

Roads, 21, 42, 48, 53, 78; Fig. 49

allowances, 38, 42, 44, 45, 48, 50, 90, 91;

Fig. 48

building, 42, 54, 86

cement and asphalt, 42

ditches, 20, 94

roadsides, 6, 40-42, 45, 49, 52, 70, 72, 89, 91

roadside vegetation, 42

highways, 42, 69, 85, 86, 89, 96, 97

highway transportation, 42

highways, gravel, 42
Roberts, Thomas S. (1932), 22, 61, 76, 77,

85-87, 94-97, 100
Robin {Turdus migraiorius), 16, 56, 94
Rocks, 2, 23
Rock bass, 24
Rock Lake, Man., 2
Rocky Mountains, 1, 28, 57, 80
Rocky Mountain grasshopper or locust: see

grasshopper
Ropolopus sanguinicollis (long-horned beetle),

17
Rosa: see roses

148

Roses (Rosa), 7-9, 13, 29, 94; Figs. 19, 49
low prairie r. (R. arkansana), 5; Fig. 19
[prickly r.] (R. acicularis), 13
r. hips, 39, 76
[Wood's r.] (R. woodsii), 13

Rose curculio, Fig. 19

Rosser, Man., Fig. 39

Rough false-sunflower, 7

Rough fleabane, 54

Rough hair grass (Agrostis scabra), 7, 9

Rough-leg hawk, ferruginous, 10

Rounthwaite, Man., 51

Rowan, William (1948), 98

Rubus

idaeusvar.sirigosus (raspberry), 13, 17, 29, 55

parviflorus [thimbleberry], 13

pubescens (dewberry), 13
Rudbeckia serotina (black-eyed Susan), 7, 8
Rudd, R. L. and Genelly, R. E. (1955), 46
Ruddy duck (Oxyura jamaicensis rubida), 20
Rum, 1, 34
Rumex (dock)

maritimus var. fueginus (golden d.), 20

venosus (sand d.), 9

Rupert's Land, 37

Rushes (Juncus), 18, 21, 35, 70, 71, 73, 87,

91, 93; Fig. 37

/. balticus, 20

Russell, Man., 4, Map 2

Russian knapweed (Centaur ea repens), 52

Russian thistle (Salsola pestifer), 50-52, 90

Rusty grain beetle (Laemophloeus jerrugineus) ,

93
Rye, 51,53,88,98, 102

fall r., 83, 88

spring r., 88

Macoun wild r. (Elymus macounii), 6

Rye grass, western (Agropyron ienerum), 88, 89

Sage (Artemisia)

linear-leaved s. (A. dracunculoides) , 9, 54

pasture s. (A.frigida), 5, 7, 9, 42, 48, 54

prairie s. (A. gnaphalodes) , 8, 9

white s. (A. ludoviciana var. pabularis), 7,

54; Fig. 3
Sago (Potamogeton pectinatus) , 19
St. Boniface, Man., 61
St. James Church, 61
St. Lawrence River, 1
Salicornia rubra (samphire), 19
Saline flats, 1, 21
Salix (willow)

amygdaloides (peach-leaved w.), 14

discolor (pussy w.), 15, 17, 25

Salix — concluded

interior (sandbar w.), 9, 14, 17

Petiolaris (basket w.), 15, 17, 25
Salsola pestifer (Russian thistle), 50-52, 90
Salt, 2, 19

s. lakes, 19

Salt River, Mackenzie Territory, 62

Salteaux, 27

Samphire (Salicornia rubra) , 19

Sand

bank, 86

bars, 14

drifting, 9, 14

dunes, 1, 2

hills, 2, 4, 14, 15,;Fig. 22, 23, 24; Map 1

plains, 8, 54

prairie, 8, 77

sandy land, 49

sandy loam, 79, 90

soil, 8, 13, 23, 40, 49, 51, 91, 92
Sand cherry (Prunus besseyi), 9
Sand dock (Rumex venosus), 9
Sand dropseed (Sporobolus cryptandrus) , 8
Sand grass (Calamovilja longifolia), 6, 9, 50
Sandhill crane, 20, 76, 81
Sandpiper, spotted (Actiiis macularia), 24, 7G

Sandwort, blunt-leaved (Arenaria lateriflora),
13

Saperda

bipunctata (long-horned beetle), 17
calcarata (poplar borer), 13, 17; Fig. 31

Saponaria vaccaria (cow cockle), 51

Sarsaparilla, wild (Aralia nudicaulis), 13, 29

Saskatchewan, 1, 2, 4-6, 14, 31, 39, 47, 48, 52,

60, 62, 67, 76, 89, 92, 96-98, 100, 101; Map 1

Natural Histor\' Museum, 62, 67

River, Sask., 70

North S. R , 28

South S. R., 3, 28

S. R. Valley, 84
Saskatoon (Amelanchier alnifolia), 13, 17, 55,

63-65, 68, 71, 83, 101
Saskatoon, Sask., 5, 7, 78
Sauger, smaller (Stizostedion canadense), 24

Sawfly

blasam-fir s. (Neodiprion abietis), 17

larch s. (Pristophora erichsonii), 17, 102

s. (Pontania pomum), 17

wheat stem s. (Cephus cinctus), 11, 39, 40,

56, 79, 82, 88, 89, 98
Sayornis phoebe (phoebe, eastern), 95
Scarecrow, 72

Scaup, lesser (Aythya atfinis), 20
Schian River, 61

Schizachne purpurascens (purple oat-grass), 9
Schorger, A. W. (1941), 85; (1955), 61

149

Scirpus (bulrush), 18, 25, 72; Figs, 36, 37

acutus (hard-stem b.), 19, 25, 26

maritimus (salt-marsh b.), 19

pungens (- S. paludosus) , 19

paludosus (prairie b.), 19

validus (soft-stem b., great b., giant b.), 19,

20, 22, 25
Scolochloa festucacea ( — Fluminea festucacea)

(whitetop, spangle top), 6, 7, 18-20, 25, 26,

72; Figs. 35, 36

Screenings, 53

Scudderia pistillata (katydid), 79

Sea blite, western (Suada depressa), 19

Seaside

arrow-grass: see arrow-grass, seaside
crowfoot: see crowfoot, seaside

Sedge (Carex), 5-7, 9, 14, 18-21, 25, 70; Figs. 34,
43

sun-loving s. (C. pensylvanica var. digyna), 5,
49
for other spp. : see Carex

Seed drill, 38

Selaginella densa (little club moss), 6, 9

Selkirk settlers, 31, 35, 80

Senecio plattensis (prairie ragwort), 9

Setaria viridis (green foxtail), 51, 54

Seton, Ernest Thompson (1905), 4; Map 2;

(1909), 60, 61, 65, 68, 69, 74, 77, 82, 85, 86,

97, 100; (1929), 63, 67, 84

Settlers, early, and travelers, 4, 31, 32, 37-39,
50, 51, 61, 65, 76, 82, 86, 87
Settlement, 31, 32, 34, 37, 50, 55, 56, 61-68,
71, 75-78, 81-86, 93-96, 100, 101

Shale, 2, 3

Sharp-shinned hawk: see hawk

Sheep, 48, 51, 68, 96

bot fly, 99

ked (Melophagus ovinus), 99
Shepherd's-purse (Capsella bursa-pastoris), 50
Shilo, Man., 5, 8, 15, 51, 54
Shoal Lake, Man., 62, 73
Shortt, Angus (1956), 97; (in litt., 1956), 62
Shotguns, 36, 44, 68, 75
Shoveler {Spatula clypeata), 20, 72

Shrimps
clam s., 20
fairy s., 20

freshwater s., (Gammarus) 22
tadpole s., 20

Sialia (bluebird)

currucoides (mountain b.), 94
sialis (eastern b.), 94

Silene (bladder campion)
cserei (biennial b. c), 52
cucubulus (b. c), 52

Silverberry (Elaeagnus commutata), 5, 7-9, 26,
30, 79, 101; Figs. 18, 36

Silver-leaf psoralea (Psoralea argophylla), 7, 9

Silverweed (Potentilla anserina), 14

Simulium venustum (black fly), 24

Sioux, 59, 61

Siphona irritans (horn fly), 99

Sisymbrium (mustard)

altissimum (tumbling m.), 51

loeselii (Loesel's m.), 52

Sitodiplosis mosellana (wheat midge), 99

Sitona cylindricollis (sweetclover weevil), 42,
52, 98; Fig. 56

Sium suave (water parsnip), 25; Fig. 43

Six-spotted leafhopper, 40

Skeletonweed (Lygodesmia juncea), 9, 90

Skunk (Mephitis mephitis hudsonica), 16, 44,

56, 66, 69, 71, 73, 75

striped s., 68

Slough, 1, 2, 4, 6, 10, 15, 17-26, 39, 68, 69, 71-73,
81, 85, 93, 95; Figs. 1, 2, 6, 34, 36, 41-43,
alkaline s., 18, 19, 22, 25; Figs. 8, 32

Slough grass (Beckmannia syzigachne), 19, 91

Smallpox, 34, 57

Smilacina stellata (star-flowered Solomon's-
seal), 13

Smith, D. S. (1938), 91, 92

Smith, D. S., etal. (1952), 52

Snails (Lymnea, Physa, Planorbula, Planorbis,

Vertigo), 19

Succinea sp., 11, 17
Snake, 47

garter s. (Thamnophis sir talis pariclalis),

10, 35

green s. (Opheodrys vernalis), 10

hognose s. (Heterodon platyrhinos) , 10

red-bellied s. (Storeria occipitomaculata) , 10
Snake Creek, Man., 28
Snipe, Wilson's, 76

Snowberry (Symphoricarpos), 10, 26, 27, 29,
39, 40, 42, 72, 75, 76, 78, 90, 91, 94, 101;
Figs. 41, 44
s. (S. albus), 13

s., Western (S. occidentalis) , 6, 7-9, 13, 25,
49, 66, 79, 90

Snow bunting (Plectrophenax nivalis), 10, 96

Snowshoe rabbit (Lepus) : see rabbit

s. r., varying hare (L. americanus ameri-
canus), 15, 16, 29, 54, 56, 63, 67, 71, 74, 75,
84, 99, 101; Fig. 27
s. r., Minnesota (L. a. phaeonotus), 101

Sod, 45, 49, 50, 53, 70, 75, 79, 91, 92, 100

Soil, 2-4, 6-8, 12, 25-28, 36, 42, 43, 45, 48, 50,
52, 59, 70, 79, 92, 93
blacks., 19

150

Soil — concluded

clays., 40, 45, 51, 90

clay loam, 40

gray wooded s., 40, 43

heavy s., 49, 51, 53, 70, 91, 92

lime s., 52

prairies., 43

sand s., 8, 13, 23, 40, 49, 51, 91, 92,; Fig. 6

sandy L, 79, 90
Solarium rostratum (buffalo bur), 87
Solidago (goldenrod), 49, 54, 72, 79, 91

canadensis (Canada g.), 49

dumetorum (prairie g.), 7

glaberrima (low g.), 5

graminifolia var. camporum (flat-topped g.),

14

lepida, 49
Solidago (goldenrod) (cont'd)

missouriensis (low g.), 7

rigida (stiff g.), 7, 49

serotina (tall smooth g.), 8

Solomon 's-seal, star-flowered (Smilacina stel-
lata), 13

Somerset Man., 97

Sonchus (sow thistle)
arvensis, 51
uliginosus, 39, 45, 71, 83, 91 ; Fig. 49

Soot and cinders, 48

Soper, J. Dewey (1941), 65

Sora rail (Porzana Carolina), 21

Souris, Man., 4, 80, 88

Souris River, Man., 3, 13, 24, 28, 34, 59-61, 84

Sowls, L. K. (1948), 71; (1955), 18, 25, 70-73,
75; (inlitt., 1956), 60

Sow thistle (Sonchus)
(S. arvensis), 51
OS. uliginosus), 39, 45, 71, 83, 91; Fig. 49

Spaelotis clandestina (cutworm), 79

Spangle top : see whitetop

Spaniards, 31, 34

Sparrow

chipping s. (Spizella passer ina) , 10

clay-colored s. (S. pallida), 10

Harris's s. (Zonotrichia querula), 16

house s., English s. (Passer domesticus), 56,

86,97

tree s. (Spizella arbor ea arbor ea), 16

vesper s. (Pooecetes gramineus), 10, 57

white-crowned s. (Zonotrichia leucophrys), 16

white-throated s. (Z. albicollis), 16

Spartina, 5, 7

pectinata (prairie cord grass), 6, 8, 25, 26, 91;
Fig. 7

Spatula clypeata (shoveler), 20, 72
Spear grass (Stipa comata), 6-8, 29, 50

Speotyto cunicularia hypugaea (burrowing owl),
66, 100

Spelt, 51
speltz, 88

Sphagnum, 15

Spharagemon collare, 79

Spider, 11,79

Spider mite (Paratetranychus ununguis), 17

Spike rush, creeping (Eleocharis palustris), 19

Spinus tristis (goldfinch), 16

Spiraea lucida [meadowsweet], 13

Spizella (sparrows)

arborea arborea (tree s.), 16

pallida (clay-colored s.), 10

passerina (chipping s.), 10
Sporobolus, 5

cryptandrus (sand dropseed), 8
Spotless fall webworm, 17

Spruce (Picea), 15, 17, 27, 69; Fig. 22; Map 1
black s. (P. mariana), 15
white s. (P. glauca), 12, 15, 27, 48

Spruce budworm (Choristoneurafumiferana), 17
Spruce Woods Forest Reserve, 1, 8, 14, 15, 27,
51, 63, 65-67

Spruce Woods Game Preserve, 65
Spurge (Euphorbia)

leafy s. (E. esula), 51

ridge-seeded s. (E. glyplosperma) , 90
Spurr, Stephen H. (1954), 48
Squash, 35, 92

Squirrel, red (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus), 16, 63
Slachys palustris var. pilosa (marsh hedge

nettle), 14
Staphylinidae, 79
Starling (Sturnus vulgaris), 56, 97
Starvation, 37, 64, 83, 91, 99
Steam engine, 38
Steamship, steamboat, 32, 37

steamers, river, 23
Steganopus tricolor (Wilson's phalarope), 76
Stephen, W. P., and R. D. Bird, (1949), 98
Sterna hirundo hirundo (common tern), 22, 23
Stewart, O. C. (1956), 29
Stilbus apicolis (beetle), 11
Stinging nettle (Urtica procera), 14, 71
Stinkweed (Thlaspi arvense), 51, 91
Stipa, 5, 6, 8; Fig. 45

comata (spear grass), 6-8, 29, 50

spartea (porcupine grass), 8

s. var. curtiseta (porcupine grass), 5, 6

viridula (green needle grass), 6, 50
Stizostedion

canadense (smaller sauger), 24

vitreum (wall-eye pike, pickerel), 22, 24, 77,

78
Stone flies, 24
Stony Mountain, Man., 84

151

Storeria occipitomaculata (red-bellied snake), 10

Stratum

shrub s., 13

herb s., 13
Strauria longipennis (sunflower maggot), 45, 88
Straw, 39, 41-43, 52, 76, 97

reed grass s., 25
Strawberry, 13, 29, 40, 68
Strophitus rugosus (mollusc), 24
Stubble, 41, 43, 72, 76, 90, 92, 96
Study of Plant and Animal Communities,

Committee for the, 47
Sturgeon (Acipenser fulvescens), 24, 77, 78
Sturgeon Bay, 96
Sturnella neglecta (western meadowlark), 10i

77, 81
Sturnus vulgaris (starling), 56, 97
Suaeda depressa (western sea blite), 19
Succinea sp. (snail), 11, 17
Sucker, white (Catostomus commersonii), 22, 24
Sugar

beets, 93

made from sap, 35

Summer fallow, 32, 43

Sunflower

beetle (Zygogramma exclamationis) , 45
maggot (Strauzia longipennis), 45, 88
moth, banded (Phalonia hopses), 45, 88

Sunflowers (Helianthus), 51, 54, 88, 93, 95
common s. (H. annuus), 88
grown commercially, 45, 93
narrow-leaved s. (H. maximiliani) , 7, 88
rough false s. (Heliopsis helianthoides), 7
tuberous-rooted s. (Helianthus subluberosus) ,
88

Swainson's hawk, 10, 16, 74, 81

Swallow, 86, 87

bank s. (Riparia riparia), 23, 86
barn s. (Hirundo rustica erythrogaster), 86
cliff s. (Petrochelidon pyrrhonota), 86
tree s. (Iridoprocne bieolor), 86, 87

Swallow, Dr., 67

Swamp, 15, 16, 45, 55, 65, 75

Swans, 71

trumpeter s. (Olor buccinator), 55, 61, 62, 74;

Fig. 50

whistling s. (O. columbianus), 62, 74

Swan River, Man., 84

Swanson, G., et al. (1945), 63, 67, 69

Swathing, swather, 39, 41, 53, 72, 76, 83

Sweet cicely (Osmorhiza occidentalis) , 13

Sweet clover (Melilotus), 45, 50, 52, 54, 83, 89,
90, 92, 98; Figs. 20, 56
white s. c. (M . alba), 52
yellow s. c. (M. officinalis), 52

Swift Current, Sask., 90

Symmerista canicosta (moth larvae), 14

Sympetrum (dragonfly), 21

corr upturn, 21

costiferum, 21

danae, 21

decisum, 21, 22, 75

Symphoricarpos (snowberry), 10, 26, 27, 29, 39,
40, 42, 72, 75, 76. 78, 90, 91, 84, 101; Figs. 41,
44

albus (s.), 13

occidentalis (western s.), 6, 7-9, 13, 25, 49, 66,
79,90

T

Tabanus spp. (bulldog and deer flies), 65
Tamarack (Larix laricina), 15, 17, 94

Tamiasciurus hudsonicus (red squirrel), 16, 63

Taraxacum (dandelion)
erythrospermum (red-seeded d.), 102
officinale (d.), 39, 91

Tartary buckwheat (Fagopyrum tataricum), 52

Taverner, P. A. (1926), 61, 85

Taxidea taxus laxus (badger), 10, 26, 56, 66, 71,

81,84,100
Teal (Anas)

blue-winged t. (A. discors), 20, 72, 75

green-winged t. (A. carolinense), 20
Telephone

poles, 74, 75, 86, 94, 95, 100

wires, 87

Tent caterpillars (Malacosoma)
eastern t. c. (M. americanum), 17
forest t. c. (M. disstria), 17, 103
prairie t. c. (M. lutescens), 17

Tern

black t. (Chlidonias niger), 21, 22
common t. (Sterna hirundo), 22, 23

Texas, 62

Thamnophis sir talis parictalis (garter snake),
10,35

The Pas, Man., 83, 84, 87, 100

[Thimbleberry] (Rubus parviflorus) , 13

Thistle, 51

Canada t., 51, 72, 93

Russian t., 50-52, 90

sow thistle: see sow thistle
Thlaspi arvense (stinkweed), 51, 91

Thomomys talpoides (pocket gopher), 10; Fig.

33
Thompson, Ernest S. (1891), 61
Thrasher, brown (Toxostoma rufum), 16, 94
Three-flowered avens (Geum trijlorum), 7, 9,102
Threshing, 39, 41, 52, 76, 93

combine thresher and threshing, 39, 41, 53

thresher, 38

threshing outfits, 39

152

Thrips, 79

Throat bot fly, 99

Thrush, willow (Hylocichla fuscescens), 17

Tick, winter, (Dermacentor albipictus), 64

Tiger Hills, Man., 14, 82

Tilia americana (basswood), 14

Till : see glaciers

Timothy {Phleum pratense), 8, 89, 91

Tipulids (craneflies), 79

Toad, 71

Tomatoes, 92

Tongue River, N. D., 63

Toronto, Ont., 32

Tortrix, large aspen (Choristoneura conflictana),

17, 103
Touchwood Hills, Sask., 29, 31
Toxaphene, 46, 47

Toxoptera graminum (greenbug, aphid), 93
Toxostoma rufum (thrasher, brown), 16, 94
Tractor, 41

gasoline t., 41

steam t., 41

Trampling, 42, 48, 49, 54, 58, 59, 64, 72, 76, 79,
81; Fig. 46, 47

Trapping, 34, 43, 44, 55, 56, 60, 61, 63, 66-70,

73 : see fur
Trash cover, 41-43, 53
Travois, 57

Treesbank, Man., 56, 73, 76, 87, 101; Fig. 21
Tree sparrow, 16
Tree swallow, 86, 87
Trichalophus simplex (weevil), 79
Triglochin mariiima (seaside arrow-grass), 19
Trippe, T. M., 94

Troglody'es aedon parkmani (western house
wren), 94

Trucks, 53

Trumpeter swan : see swan

Tuberculosis, 35, 57

Tucson, Arizona, 60

Tufted hair grass {Deschampsia caespitosa), 89

Tumbling mustard, 51

Turdus migratorius (robin), 16, 56, 94

Turkey : see poultry

Turnip, 35, 40, 98

Turtle Mountain, Man., 14, 36
Turtle Hills, 66

Turtle

snapping t. (Chelydra serpentina serpentina),

24

western painted t. (Chrysemys picta belli), 24

Two Creeks, Man., 60
2, 4-D, 45, 52, 53

Two-striped grasshopper : see grasshoppers

Tympanuchus cupido pinnatus (prairie chicken),
37-39, 56, 72, 84, 85

Typha latifolia (cattail), 18-20, 25, 26, 70, 72;
Fig. 37, 47, 49

Tyrannus (kingbird)
tyr annus (k.), 16, 22
verticalis (Arkansas k.), 100

U

Ugly-nest caterpillar (Archips cerasivorana) , 17

Ulmus americana (American or white elm), 14,
28,69

United States, 3, 6, 8, 31, 32, 39, 40, 58, 61, 63,
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 60
U.S. National Museum, 60

Upland plover (Bartramia longicauda), 10,
76,81

Urquhart, F. A. (1957), 99

Ursus (bears), 29, 66
americanus (black b.), 61, 64, 65
horribilis (grizzly b.), 55, 60, 61, 65

Urtica procera (stinging neettle), 14, 71

Utricularia macrorhira (greater bladderwort),
19,25

V

Vanessa cardui (painted-lady butterfly), 51, 93

Varying hare : see snowshoe rabbit

Vegetables, green, 70, 80

Vermilion, Alta., 14

Vertigo ovata (snail), 17

Vesper sparrow, 10, 57

Vetch (Vicia sp.), Fig. 20

Viburnum opulus var. americanum (highbush
cranberry), 13, 61

Vicia (vetch), Fig. 20

Victoria Beach, Man., 100

Vidal,A.G.,73

Virden, Man., 39

Vireo (vireos)
red-eyed v. (V. olivaceus), 16
warbling v. (V. gilvus), 16

Virginia creeper berries, 87

Virginia deer: see deer

Voles, meadow mice, 9, 20, 29, 102; Fig. 18

Drummond's V. (Microtus pennsylvanicus
drummondii), 102; Fig. 17
red-backed v., 16, 102; Fig. 18

Vulpes fulva regalis (fox, red fox), 1, 10, 16, 26,
29, 44, 54, 56, 66, 68, 81, 84, 99; Fig. 15

153

w

Wain wright, Alta., 59

Waldeck, Sask., 98

Wall-eye pike or pickerel (Stizostedion vitreum),

22, 24, 77, 78
Wallflower, western {Erysimum asperum), 9
Wanless, Man., 84
Wapiti: see elk
War, 53, 57

First World War, 38, 42

Second World War, 33, 41, 59, 74

tribal wars, 34

Warble, 16
Warblers (Dendroica)

myrtle w. (D. coronata), 16

yellow w. (D. petechia), 16

Warren, Man., 74, 96

Warren, Minn.., 82

Water boatmen (Corixa), 24

Water crowfoot, white (Ranunculus subrigidus),

19
Waterfowl, 1, 36, 44, 71, 73, 99
Waterhen (Waterhan) River, 61
Waterhen Lake, Sask., 73
Water level, 4, 15, 25, 26, 43, 69, 70, 72
Water lily, 65
Water milfoil (Myriophyllum)

exalbescens. 25

veriicillatum, 25
Water parsnip (Sium suave), 25; Fig. 43
Water plantain, Fig. 49
Water-snakes, 34, 35
Water striders (Gerris remigis), 24
Water, snow, 18, 21
Water table, 2, 15; Fig. 22
Watters, F. (in litt., 1957), 93
Wauchope, Sask., 76
Wawanesa, Man., 3, 51

Weasels (Mustela), 10, 44, 55, 63, 66, 67, 71
ermine, 1

least w. (M. rixosa rixosa), 66
long-tailed w. (M. frenata longicauda)) , 66
short-tailed w. or ermine (M . erminea), 66

Weather, 3

Weaver, J. E., and T. J. Fitzpatrick (1934), 5;
(1943), 48

Weaver, J. E., and W. W. Hansen (1941), 49

Webster [dictionary] (1955), 18

Webworm

beet w. (Loxostege sticticalis), 40, 93
spotless fall w. (Hyphantria textor), 17

Weeds, 36, 37, 39, 41-43, 45, 47, 48, 50-54, 72,
77, 82, 89-93, 96, 102; Fig. 51

Weeds — concluded

Weeds Act, Noxious, 37, 50

Weeds Commission, Manitoba, 71

w. seeds, 29, 45, 48, 85, 91, 102
Weevils (Curculionidae), 79

strawberry root w. (Brachyrhinus ovatus), 40

sweetclover w. (Sitona cylindricollis) , 45, 52,

98; Fig. 56

W. (Hyperodes idkei)

W. (Lepyrus palustris)

W. (Trichalophus simplex)

Wells, Harold (in litt., Dec, 1948), 83
Westdal, P. H. (1950), 45; (1951), 4 ; (1952), 45
Westdal, P. H., and C. F. Barrett .1955), 88
West Shoal Lake, Man., 73
Wet periods, 25, 56, 98, 99
Wettlaufer, B. (1956), 27

Wheat, 32, 39, 51, 52, 71, 88-90, 93, 97-99, 102
bread w., 39
durum w., 40, 88, 89
hard spring w., 40, 88, 89
Marquis, 98
Red Fife, 32, 98
Reward, 98
rust-resistant w., 98
winter w., 8S, 93

Wheat grass (Agropyron)

awned w. g. (A. subsecundum) , 88,89
northern w. g. (A. dasystachyum), 5
slender w. g. (A. trachycaulum), 6-8, 91, 98
western w. g. (A. smilhii), 5, 6, 8, 49, 50, 89-
91

Wheat stem sawfly : see sawfly

Whiskey, 57 : see liquor

Whistling swan : see swan

White cinquefoil, 9

White-crowned sparrow, 16

Whitefish, 78

White-footed mouse : see mice

White grubs, 68

White-fronted goose, 74

White heart rot (Fomes igniarius), 13

White man : see man

Whitemouth, Man., 100

White poplar : see aspen

White sage : see sage

Whiteshell Focus, 27

Whiteshell Forest Reserve, 27, 83

White-tailed deer : see deer

White-throated sparrow, 16

Whitetop, spangle top (Scolochloa festucacea)

6, 7, 18-20, 25, 26, 72; Figs. 35, 36
Whitewater Lake, Man., 18, 19, 62, 74, 99
Whitford Lake, Alta., 62
Whooping crane, 20, 55, 62, 76

154

Wild bees, 69

Wild buckwheat, bindweed (Bilderykia con-
volvulus), 50, 51, 90, 92

Wildfowl, 38, 43, 70. 81
Wildlife, 43, 45-47, 54, 55, 62

w. management, 43, 73

W. Service, Canadian, 62

North American Wildlife Institute, 43
Wild millet, 45, 52, 53
Wild oat grass {Danthonia intermedia), 5
Wild oats (Avena fatua) , 41, 45, 51-53
Wild onion, 102

Wild rye, Macoun (Elymus macounii), 6
Willet (Catoprophorus semipalmatus inornatus),

21,76
Willow (Salix), 4, 7, 14-20, 23-26, 28, 35, 36, 45,

55, 63-66, 69, 71, 75, 84, 85, 91, 94, 95, 101;

Fig. 1, 2, 25, 29, 34, 35, 41, 42, 43

basket w. (S. petiolaris) , 15, 17, 25

peach-leaved w. (S. amygdaloides) , 14

pussy w. (S. discolor), 15, 17, 25

sandbar w. (S. interior), 9, 14, 15, 17

Wilson's snipe (Capella gallinago delicata), 76

Wind, 27, 54

w. erosion : see erosion, wind
w. damage, 12, 54

Windbreak, 41, 94, 100
Winnipeg Gas Company, 78
Winnipeg, Man., 14, 24, 31, 34, 58-62, 74, 80,
84, 85, 93, 97, 99

Wintergreen, pink (Pyrola asarifolia), 13

Winter tick, 64

Wireworms (Elateridae), 56, 79, 80, 82, 92
prairie grain w. (Ctenicera aeripennis de-
structor), 11, 39, 40, 92; Fig. 52
w. (Cryptophypnus nocturnus) , 92

Wisconsin, 61, 85

Witches'-brooms, 15

Wolves (Canis), 60, 66, 74, 81-84

buffalo w. (C. lupus nubilis) , 9, 55, 60
prairie w. or coyote : see coyote
timber w., Saskatchewan (C. lupus griseo-
albus), 16, 65, 67

Wolf willow : see Elaegnus

Wolverine (Gulo luscus luscus), 55, 63, 66

Wood buffalo, wood bison (Bison bison atha-
bascae), 59

Wood Buffalo Park, 58, 59, 62

Woods, woodland, 12, 13, 16, 58, 60, 63, 64,
66-68, 74-76, 82-84, 89, 94, 101; Figs. 10, 15

Wood nettle (Loportea canadensis), 14
Woodpecker (Dendrocopos), 95

downy w. (D. pubescens), 16

hairy w. (D. villosus), 16

w. holes, 86, 87, 94
World

Old W., 29

New W., 29

Wormwood (Artemisia)

biennial w. (A. biennis), 7, 50, 90
linear-leaved w. (A. dracunculoides) , 9, 54

Wren, western house (Troglodytes aedon
parkmani), 94

Wyoming, 40, 86

X

Xanthippus corallipes (grasshopper), 79
Xanthocephalus zanthocephalus fellow-headed
blackbird), 20, 95

Y

Yarrow (Achillea millefolium), 7, 9

Yellowstone Park, 59

Yellow-throat, northern (Geothlypis trichas), 17

York Street, Winnipeg, Man., 35

Yorkton, Sask., 6, 56, 62, 67, 99

Young, Stanley P., (1947), 60

Zenaidura macroura marginella (mourning
dove), 16, 51,94

Zonotrichia (sparrow)

albicollis (white-throated s.), 16
leucophrys (white-crowned s.), 16
querula (Harris's s.), 16

Zuckerman, S. (1955), 55

Zygogramma exclamationis (sunflower beetle),
45

155

CAL/BCA OTTAWA K1A 0C5

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