edible and poisonous
mushrooms of Canada

•V- *!i

^^

,,,.>.

1^

Agriculture
Canada

edible
and

poisonous
mushrooms
of Canada

COVER : The Morchella esculenta (left) and Amanita muscaria (right) are detail
from drawings by Henry Jackson. They are part of a collection of the
National Gallery of Canada arid were donated to the Gallery by Dr. Naomi
.Jackson Groves.

*K^^^;.JMSJ40 j||4||*#/ n-'

' '>t<? collechoa vtade near
he bee 01 y ly On!?,PofHerkiitC.

Amanlia caesarea. Painting by Henry A, C. Jackson.

i

Digitized by the Internet Archive

in 2011 with funding from

Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada - Agriculture et Agroalimentaire Canada

I

http://www.archive.org/details/ediblepoisonousmOOgrov

edible
and

poisonous
mushrooms
of Canada

J. WALTON GROVES

Addendum by S. A. Redhead
Biosystematics Research Institute
Ottawa, Ontario

Research Branch
Agriculture Canada
Publication 1112
1979

©Minister of Supply and Services Canada 1979
Available in Canada through

Authorized Bookstore Agents
and other bookstores

or by mail from

Canadian Government Publishing Centre

Supply and Services Canada

Hull, Quebec, Canada Kl A 0S9

Catalogue No. A43-1 1 12/1979 Canada: $12.95

ISBN 0-660-10136-X Other countries: $15.50

Price subject to change without notice

Ottawa, 1962

Reprinted 1972

Revised 1975, 1979

Reprinted 1981

I

CONTENTS

Page

Acknowledgments x

Introduction 1

Parts of a mushroom 3

Collecting mushrooms 10

Food value of mushrooms 11

Mushroom poisoning 11

Identification 14

Nomenclature 19

Classification 21

Basidiomycetes 22

Fungi 23

Key to the genera of mushrooms 29

Cantharellus 32

Lactarius ; 37

Russula 60

Amanita 77

Amanitopsis 88

Limacella 93

Lepiota , 94

Cystoderma 1 00

Armillaria 100

Pleurotus 102

Clitocybe 107

Leucopaxillus 1 22

Tricholoma 1 24

Melanoleuca 1 30

Hygrophorus 131

Laccaria 145

Xeromphalina 146

Mycena 147

Collybia 149

Marasmius 158

Lentinus 1 60

Panus 161

Schizophyllum 1 64

Trogia 1 64

Pluteus 1 65

Volvariella 167

Entoloma 1 69

Leptonia 171

Nolanea 1 72

Clitopilus 177

Phyllotopsis 1 79

Cortinarius 179

Inocybe 183

Pholiota 184

Vll

Page

Phaeolepiota 190

Flammula 1 90

Hebeloma 191

Conocybe 192

Naucoria 197

Tubaria 197

Crepidotus 198

Paxillus 199

Agaricus 200

Stropharia 204

Naematoloma 206

Psathyrella 208

Coprinus 209

Panaeolus 217

Pseudocoprinus 218

Gomphidius 219

Boletaceae 220

Boletinellus 223

Boletinus 223

Boletus 224

Gyroporus 225

Leccinum 226

Strobilomyces 228

Suillus 228

Tylopilus 230

Xerocomus 231

Polyporaceae 237

Ganoderma 238

Polyporus 238

Hydnaceae 240

Hydnum 24 1

Clavariaceae 242

Clavaria 242

Thelephoraceae 244

Crater ellus 244

Tremellales 245

Pseudohydnum 245

Phlogiotis 246

Auricularia 246

Dacrymyces 246

Gasteromycetes 247

Mutinus 248

Dictyophora 248

Phallus 249

Cyathus 249

Geastrum 250

Calvatia 250

Bovista 25 1

Lycoperdon 252

Vlll

Page

Ascomycetes 257

Morchella 258

Verpa 258

Gyromitra 259

Hehella 260

Peziza 261

Sarcoscypha 261

Urnula 261

Hypomyces 262

Technical key to the genera of mushrooms 263

General bibliography 270

References for selected groups 271

Abbreviations of names of authors 308

Glossary 309

Index 312

Addendum 321

Nomenclatural and taxonomic update 323

IX

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Many people have been generous with their co-operation and assistance in
the preparation of this book. I would especially like to thank Dr. A. H. Smith
of the University of Michigan who has read much of the manuscript, supplied
some of the photographs, and made many helpful suggestions. Mrs. Sheila C.
Thomson, who was formerly employed in this section, gave invaluable assist-
ance during the early stages of preparation by aiding with identifications and
preparation of descriptions. Parts of the manuscript were read by colleagues
Dr. Mildred Nobles and Dr. Ruth Macrae. My wife. Dr. Naomi Groves,
read the entire manuscript and offered many valuable suggestions. Mr. Henry
A. C. Jackson kindly gave permission to use his painting of Amanita caesarea
as a frontispiece.

Grateful acknowledgment is made to the following for permission to use
their photographs.

Dr. A. H. Smith — Figures 52, 56, 64, 79, 145, 155, 160, 198, 255, 266,
274, 302, 340, 351, 361, 388, 395.

Mr. K. A. Harrison, Kentville, N.S. — Figures 124, 156, 180, 182, 196,
262,291, 332, 335, 353.

Dr. and Mrs. B. T. Denis, Quebec City — Figures 105, 107, 110, 112,
342, 343, 344, 347, 348, 349.

Dr. Maria Pantidou, Ottawa — Figures 317, 319, 324.

National Museum of Canada — Figures 90, 91, 92, 126, 127, 128, 303,
304, 327, 328, 329, 384, 386, 387, 400.

Bio-Graphic Unit, Canada Department of Agriculture — Figures 174,
175, 396,397.

INTRODUCTION

Mushrooms appeal to different people in different ways. The biologist is
attracted by the variety of species, their place in the economy of nature and
their interrelations with other plants and animals; the artist or photographer
delights in their infinite variety of form and color; the medical research worker
may look to them hopefully as a possible source of new drugs; but to most
people the quality that first arouses interest in them is their use as food. In
Roman times edible mushrooms were renowned as a delicacy and today in
some parts of the world they constitute an important part of the food supply
of the people.

One of the questions often asked a mycologist is "How do you tell an
edible mushroom from a poisonous one?" It would seem that the questioner
expects some simple test or rule of thumb by which an instantaneous diagnosis
can be made. It is curious that this attitude toward mushrooms should exist
because it is not manifested toward other plants. People rarely ask how to tell
an edible berry from a poisonous one nor do they expect to be given a simple
test to distinguish between edible and poisonous leaves.

Although several reasons for this attitude might be suggested, perhaps
one may be connected with the comparatively late development of precise
knowledge of the structure and life history of mushrooms and other fungi. For
a long time even botanists did not look upon the fungi as plants in themselves
but regarded them as a sort of excrescence on decaying vegetable matter. Their
apparently sudden appearance and disappearance often late in the season
without visible seeds or means of reproduction, their frequent association with
decaying organic matter, their vivid colors, fantastic shapes, and in some in-
stances their poisonous properties, caused them to be regarded as objects of
mystery and sometimes even to be associated with the supernatural.

One common superstition concerned the fairy rings, those dark green
circles in the grass where mushrooms appear. We now know that these are
caused by the circular growth outward of the fungus in the soil, but they were
once believed to mark the spot where the fairies held their midnight revels.

Another well-known example of magical power attributed to a fungus
occurs in Alice in Wonderland where a bite of one side of a certain mushroom
would make you grow taller and a bite of the other side would make you grow
shorter, so that by a httle judicious nibbhng it was possible to adjust oneself to
any desired dimension.

Mycologists take a more reahstic and less fanciful view of the mushrooms
but to most people these are still a very unfamiliar and somewhat mysterious
group of organisms, and perhaps it is because of this background of mystery
that some magical test is expected to distinguish good mushrooms from bad.

Actually there is only one test to find out whether a mushroom or any
other plant is poisonous and that is to eat it. If it makes you sick or kills you it
is poisonous, and it is mainly through such human experience that we have
built up our knowledge of which plants are edible and which poisonous.

1

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

Throughout man's process of becoming civiUzed he has probably at some time
or another tried eating everything that looked edible. From the records of
experience of other people in trying fungi we know that certain species are
poisonous and that certain other species are edible and desirable, just in the
same way that we know that certain berries are poisonous and others are
edible. The edible qualities of a good many species of mushrooms are still
unknown and reports about some species are conflicting.

Conflicting reports may arise from a variety of reasons. Sometimes illness
arising from some other cause is wrongfully attributed to mushrooms. It is a
common practice to fry mushrooms in butter but the use of too much butter
may cause illness and the mushrooms be blamed, or some other dish eaten at
the same meal as the mushrooms may be the real cause of the illness. Some-
times misidentification of mushrooms may occur and the wrong species be
blamed for causing illness. Apparently allergy may also be involved and some
species may sicken certain individuals but not others. It is possible, too, that
certain geographic races of mushrooms may produce poisons and other races
may not. Possibly a species may be edible when it is young and fresh and may
become poisonous when it is overmature and has started to decay. On the
other hand, the method of preparation or cooking may destroy a poisonous
substance that is present in the uncooked specimen.

Any one of these reasons may result in reports at one time that a mush-
room is edible and at another time that it is poisonous, but until there is clear-
cut and convincing evidence that a species is edible, it should be regarded with
suspicion.

Thus any rules about eating mushrooms resolve themselves into one bit of
common sense — eat only the species you know and avoid all the others. Just
as one can easily learn to identify a wild raspberry or blueberry and avoid
unknown berries, he can learn to identify several common species of mush-
rooms such as the meadow mushroom Agaricus campestris, the chantarelle
Cantharellus cibarius, the shaggy mane Coprinus comatus, the 'delicious
lactarius' Lactarius deliciosus, the parasol mushroom Lepiota procera, the
morel Morchella esculenta, and the giant puflfball Calvatia gigantea, to mention
only a few.

Unrecognized species should not be eaten, and because of the very great
danger from the deadly species of Amanita, the characters of this genus should
be learned and its species avoided. However, by collecting and studying
different species the number that can be identified and eaten will gradually
increase. Some people will be satisfied to know a very few species; others will
want to try different ones. Obviously one should proceed cautiously when
trying any species for the first time because of the possibility of allergic reac-
tions, but by making certain that amanitas are avoided and by using only
species that have been identified and are known to be edible, one may enjoy
many tasty mushroom dishes in safety.

Although much of the interest in mushrooms arises from their use as
food, other aspects also attract the collector. The wide variety they exhibit in

INTRODUCTION

form and color, the great number of species that occur, and their interesting
relationships with other plants and types of habitat are all features that invite
further study.

One of the things that adds to the interest of mushroom collecting is the
fact that one may visit the same locahty time after time and continue to find
different species. Some of the common ones will be found repeatedly of course,
but something different is likely to be found at any time under varying weather
conditions. Some species seem to produce fruiting bodies only rarely, perhaps
only once in several years, so that there is always the possibility of coming
upon a rare and unusual species, even on famihar ground.

Mushrooms are also interesting from the standpoint of their place in the
economy of nature. One of their chief functions is to aid in the breakdown of
dead organic material and to return the essential elements to the soil. When
this function is appreciated, their frequent association with decay is understood
and any feeling of repulsion toward them disappears. Some of the species are
found only with certain trees where they form associations with the tree roots
that are termed 'mycorrhiza.' Some trees cannot thrive without the presence of
their fungus associate. Attention has also been directed in recent years to the
mushrooms as a possible source of antibiotic substances that might prove
useful in medicine. Investigations are being carried out to see if the hallucino-
genic mushrooms of Mexico might prove to be a source of a non-habit-
forming tranquilizing drug that would be valuable in neuropsychiatric re-
search. Investigation of the mushrooms from these and similar angles is only
beginning.

It should be realized that in our mushroom flora we have many more
species that must be omitted from a book of this nature than can be included.
Consequently, caution must be exercised in making identifications. If the
characters of a particular specimen under examination do not agree in all
respects with the description, there is a good chance that the mushroom may
be a species not in the book, hence for safety's sake it should not be eaten.

PARTS OF A MUSHROOM

Most people have a general idea of what a mushroom is, but the term has
never been precisely defined and has diff^erent meanings to different people.
Perhaps the most generally accepted usage is to apply the term mushroom to a
fungus fruiting body with a more or less evident stalk, bearing an expanded
cap at the apex, with a series of thin, radiating, gill-like or blade-Hke structures
on the lower surface of the cap. Some would consider that only one or two
species such as the meadow mushroom and cultivated mushroom are true
mushrooms, whereas others would call almost any large fleshy fungus a mush-
room. From a scientific standpoint it is probably best to use the term mushroom
to apply to the whole group of gill-bearing fungi and it is used in that sense in
this book.

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

In classifying fungi or other plants, botanists try to group together those
forms that are thought to be closely related, and in general it is beUeved that
the fungi bearing gills, or more properly lamellae, are more closely related /to
each other than to those not bearing lamellae. The species bearing lamellae are
grouped by mycologists in a family, the Agaricaceae, and therefore the use of
the term mushroom for these fungi gives it a popular meaning roughly equiva-
lent to the family Agaricaceae.

'Toadstool' is another popular term that is frequently used and it too
means different things to different people. To some it means any fungus except
the field mushroom or cultivated mushroom, to others it is any inedible or
poisonous fungus. Scientifically the term has no meaning at all since species
related closely in a botanical sense may be either edible or poisonous. We can
avoid confusion by dropping the term 'toadstool' altogether and speaking only
of edible and poisonous mushrooms.

The structure that we call a mushroom is in reality only the fruiting body
of the fungus. The vegetative part of the plant consists of a system of branching
threads and cord-like strands that ramify through the soil, manure, or other
material on which the fungus may be growing. This vegetative part is called

Pileus

Lamellae

Partial Ve
becom

Stipe

Volva

Figure 1 . Diagram of a section of an amanita illustrating the principal parts of a mushroom.
Young plant on left, mature plant on right.

PARTS OF A MUSHROOM

the mycelium ; it is used by commercial mushroom growers to plant their beds
and is commonly called mushroom spawn. After a period of growth and
accumulation of food reserves and under favorable conditions of temperature
and moisture, the mycelium will produce the fruiting structure that we call the
mushroom.

The principal parts of a mushroom are illustrated by a diagram represent-
ing a section through an amanita (Figure 1). The fruiting body consists of a
stem-like part called the stipe, which supports an expanded, umbrella-shaped
cap or pileus. On the under side of the pileus are the gills or lamellae. In some
mushrooms, particularly those occurring on wood, the stipe may be lacking
and the pileus is then said to be sessile (Figure 10, p. 5). The pileus is usually

8

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

Figures 2-9. Diagrams illustrating various terms used to describe the shape of the pileus: 2,
conical; 3, convex; 4, campanulate; 5, umbonate; 6, plane; 7, umbilicate; 8, depressed;
9, infundibuliform.

Figure 10. Diagram illustrating a sessile fruiting body; the stipe is lacking. In this instance the
fruiting body is represented as growing on a tree trunk.

Figures 11-16. Diagrams illustrating various terms used to describe the attachment of the
lamellae: 11, free; 12, adnexed; 13, adnate; 14, sinuate; 15, decurrent; 16, seceding.

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

circular but may vary from being somewhat irregular to fan-shaped or ear-
shaped, or sometimes shelf-like. The lamellae radiate from the stipe to the
margin of the pileus and may vary from their typical form as one or more
series of knife-blade-like structures to scarcely more than slight folds on the
under surface of the pileus.

In some mushrooms the young plant is at first completely enclosed in a
sheath of tissue called the universal veil or volva. As growth proceeds, the
volva is torn open and the young mushroom emerges, leaving remnants of the
volva as a sheath surrounding the base of the stipe. This universal veil or volva
is not present in all mushrooms but is an important character to look for in
recognizing the dangerous genus Amanita. Two types of volva are found in
Amanita. In one type, such as is found in A. virosa, the volva tears across the
top and remains as a loose, cup-like sheath around the base of the stipe. In the
other type, as in A. muscaria, the sheath is not loose but more or less grows
together with the rest of the tissue of the fruit body. As the fruit body grows,
the volva tears around the margin of the pileus rather than across the top.
Part is left adhering to the surface of the pileus where it becomes torn into
patches as the pileus expands, and part remains attached to the base of the
stipe where it may form a series of rings or patches on the stipe or form a
boot-hke cup closely adhering to the base. This second type of volva is more
difficult to recognize in the field and careful examination should be made to
determine whether or not it is present.

In some kinds of mushrooms the lamellae in the young stage are enclosed
by a layer of tissue that extends from the margin of the pileus to the stipe. This
tissue is known as the partial veil and it usually tears around the margin of the
pileus as the latter expands, and remains attached to the stipe where it forms a
ring or annulus. It may sometimes tear at the stipe and remain attached to the
margin of the pileus, which would then be described as appendiculate. Some
genera such as Amanita have both a universal veil and a partial veil, others such
as Agaricus may have only the partial veil, and in yet others such as Clitocybe
both the universal veil and partial veil may be absent.

The presence of a partial veil is frequently used as a character to distinguish
genera and its presence is usually indicated by the occurrence of the annulus
in the mature fruit body. Care must be taken in determining this character
because in some species the annulus is very delicate and may soon disappear.
It is advisable to examine young specimens to determine whether or not an
annulus is present.

The pileus, lamellae, stipe, volva, and annulus constitute the principal
parts of a mushroom that can be seen with the naked eye. Their variations in
form, color, texture, surface covering and so on are all important in the recog-
nition of species. Other characters can be observed only with the microscope,
and the research taxonomist is coming to place more and more reliance on
these microscopic characters both as a means of distinguishing between similar
species and also of providing characters that indicate relationships between
species or groups of species.

PARTS OF A MUSHROOM

For the purpose of this book relatively little emphasis is being placed on
microscopic characters but some mention of them must be made in order to
understand the function of the mushroom fruiting body. A mushroom repro-
duces by means of spores and the fruiting bodies are organs developed to
promote the dissemination of the spores.

Spores of very varied forms are produced by fungi in general but in the
mushrooms they usually consist of a single, minute cell, rarely more than 1 /50
milhmeter or 0.0008 inch in length and usually much smaller. They are too
small to be seen singly by the naked eye but in mass appear as a white or
colored powder. Their size, shape, and surface markings, if any, are important
in identifying species but these features can be seen only with the microscope.

The measurements of spores are usually expressed in /x (microns). One m
(micron) equals one one-thousandth of a milhmeter. Thus when we say a spore
is 10m in length we mean 10/1000 or 1 /lOO of a milhmeter in length and since a
milhmeter is about 1 /25 of an inch, it would take 2500 such spores to equal
one inch.

Minute objects such as these are measured by placing a glass disk marked
with a scale in the eyepiece of the microscope. The scale can be carefully cali-
brated with a special slide that is ruled very accurately in tenths and hun-
dredths of a milhmeter. It is then easy to calculate what each division on the
eyepiece scale measures and the spores can be measured directly in ordinary
shde mounts.

20 ^ 21 ^22 "23 ' 24

^?
25 26 27 2829 30 31 32 33 34 35 36

Figures 17-24. Semidiagrammatic drawings illustrating some types of cystidia: 17, fusiform-
lanceolate; 18, flask-shaped; 19, capitate-encrusted; 20, horned; 21, ventricose-fusiform ;
22, clavate with projections at the apex; 23, cylindric, obtuse with mucronate tip; 24, nine-
pin-shaped (lecythiform).

Figures 25-36. Semidiagrammatic drawings illustrating various types of spores: 25, globose;
26, ovoid; 27, ellipsoid; 28, ellipsoid-fusiform; 29, cylindric; 30, allantoid; 31, ellipsoid with
truncate apex; 32, longitudinally striate; 33, angular; 34, tuberculate; 35, reticulate; 36,
echinulate.

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

When a spore germinates it puts forth a slender thread called a hypha.
This thread grows rapidly, develops cross walls or septa and becomes many-
celled, then branches repeatedly, producing a mat of hyphae termed the
mycelium. This is the vegetative part of the fungus from which the fruiting
body or mushroom arises. The mushroom is composed of hyphae consisting
of interwoven, branched, septate threads, although in some groups such as
Lactarius and Russula there are also globular cells termed sphaerocysts in the
tissue.

The structure of the lamellae is of special interest because it is here that
the spores are produced. If a section of a lamella is examined it is seen to be
roughly wedge-shaped or triangular. The spores are produced on the outer
surface in a definite layer called the hymenium whereas the central part is
composed of more or less interwoven hyphae and is called the trama (Figure
42, p. 9). The hymenium consists of basidia, paraphyses, and sometimes
cystidia. The basidia are the cells on which the spores are produced; each one
has four little stalks at its apex and a spore develops on the tip of each stalk.
Between the basidia there are cells somewhat similar in shape but lacking the
stalks and never producing spores. These are the paraphyses. Their function is
apparently to hold the basidia far enough apart that their slightly sticky spores
will not become entangled and prevented from shooting forth. In some mush-
rooms there are also specialized cells of varying shape and size that project
from the hymenium and are called cystidia. They may be rounded, pointed,
thick- or thin-walled, sometimes encrusted, and variously shaped, but they are
usually constant for each species. Cystidia may also occur on the surface of the
pileus or on the stipe. Their exact function is still uncertain but when present
they can be of great assistance in the identification of the species.

Figures 37-40. Semidiagrammatic drawings illustrating various types of basidia: 37, basidium
of Agaricaceae (a spore, b sterigma, c basidium); 38, basidium of Tremellaceae with longi-
tudinal septa; 39, deeply forked basidium of Dacrymycetaceae ; 40, basidium of Auricularia-
ceae with transverse septa.

Figure 41. Semidiagrammatic drawing of: a ascus containing ascospores, b paraphysis.

Figure 42. Diagram illustrating a small section of the lamella of a mushroom: a cystidium,
b paraphyses, c basidium, d trama.

Figure 43. Diagram of a transverse section of an apothecium: a hymenium composed of asci
and paraphyses, b hypothecium, c stipe.

Figure 44. Diagram of a transverse section of a perithecium: a ostiole, b perithecial wall, c asci
and paraphyses.

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

COLLECTING MUSHROOMS

The equipment required for collecting mushrooms is relatively simple. A
basket, preferably a wide and fairly deep one, a sharp knife, and a supply of
paper or plastic bags and waxed paper are about all the essentials. A good
hand lens with a magnification of 10 to 14 diameters is desirable, and also a
pencil and notebook if one wishes to take notes in the field. Details of location,
habitat, whether or not associated with particular trees and so on are best
noted down on the spot, and it is well to note such characters as color, taste,
odor, etc., in the field. If the specimens are collected carefully and examined
promptly, detailed notes can be made after returning from the collecting trip,
but it is important that accurate data about the specimens be obtained as soon
as possible.

The method of collecting will vary slightly depending on the purpose for
which the specimens are collected. Those intended for study and identification
should be gathered very carefully. It is important to collect the whole fruiting
body including the base of the stipe, and in order to obtain this it may be neces-
sary to dig the mushroom. The fruit bodies may be placed separately in paper
bags, preferably first wrapped in waxed paper. This is best done by laying the
specimen on a sheet of waxed paper, rolling the paper into a cylinder, and
twisting the ends. The cylinders can then be stacked in the basket or placed in
a large paper bag without danger of the specimens being damaged or the
collections mixed.

If the specimens are to be photographed great care must be taken to avoid
damaging them and it is advisable to keep them standing upright in the col-
lecting basket.

Collections of different species should be kept separate. Specimens that
look the same and are growing in clusters or very closely associated may be
assumed to be the same species, but this is not a safe assumption for specimens
growing singly and scattered over an area of several square yards. This is
especially true in genera such as Russula, Cortinarius, and Inocybe where
specimens that look very similar may have quite different microscopic
characters. It is bad practice to put different mushrooms in the same basket
unwrapped. One fruit body may shed spores on to the lamellae of another
fruit body of a different species and so create much confusion.

Whenever possible, a number of fruit bodies of the same species, including
very young stages, should be collected. Overmature specimens or those badly
infested with insect larvae are best discarded. Such specimens should certainly
be discarded if the collection is intended to be used for food.

Perhaps the most satisfactory way of working is to collect in the morning
and examine the specimens in the afternoon. However, if this is not possible,
most of the larger fleshy forms can be kept satisfactorily overnight, especially
if stored in a cool place, but delicate forms such as species of Coprinus will not
keep overnight and must be examined at once.

When the collector is certain that he knows an edible species and can

10

MUSHROOM POISONING

recognize it in the field he may then proceed to collect it for food. For this
purpose it is advisable to cut off the stem well above ground level to avoid
getting dirt in the specimens, but one should always be certain that the speci-
men is not an Amanita and that there is no volva buried in the ground. Young,
sound specimens should be chosen and overmature ones discarded. Cut the
fruit bodies in two and if the flesh shows tunnel-like pinholes indicating in-
festation with insect larvae these specimens should be discarded also.

When mushrooms are being collected for food keep the species separate.
Species diff'er in texture and some may require longer cooking than others.
Those of similar texture can be cooked together satisfactorily but if one makes
a practice of keeping each species separate when collecting, he is more likely to
examine each fruit body more carefully and is less likely to collect a poisonous
one by mistake.

FOOD VALUE OF MUSHROOMS

Mushrooms have long been esteemed for their pleasant flavor but the
question has often been raised as to whether or not they possess any nutritive
value as well, and contradictory statements as to their food value have ap-
peared from time to time. Several chemical analyses of the composition of
mushrooms have been published and these provide good evidence that mush-
rooms are indeed a valuable source of food.

Figures vary to some extent with diff'erent species and diff^erent analyses
but in general the water content is about 89 per cent, protein 3 per cent, fat
0.4 per cent, carbohydrates 6 per cent, and minerals about 1 per cent. Although
mushrooms do not compare with meat as a source of protein and, some of
the protein appears to occur in an indigestible form, they are good sources of
such minerals as iron and copper.

Mushrooms have been found to be high in vitamin C, ascorbic acid,
niacin and pantothenic acid. These vitamins are well retained during cooking
and in canned or dried mushrooms.

In contrast, the calorie value of mushrooms is low, roughly 30 calories
per 100 grams or about one-quarter pound, but the calorie value will, of course,
be increased if they are cooked in excess fat.

In general it seems safe to say that in addition to their value as flavor,
mushrooms compare favorably with most vegetables as to nutritive value and
vitamin content.

MUSHROOM POISONING

The fear of mushroom poisoning is so great among many people that it
arouses a feeling of dread of all mushrooms. This attitude is justified to a con-
siderable extent because of the high percentage of fatalities among cases of
poisoning by amanitas, and unless a person can recognize the genus Amanita
he is well advised to avoid unknown mushrooms. No case of mushroom

11

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

poisoning should ever be regarded lightly and medical assistance should be
sought at once.

The following summary of mushroom poisoning is mainly taken from
the account by Pilat (1954) who considered that there are at least seven dif-
ferent types of mushroom poisoning.

Unquestionably the most dangerous type of poisoning is caused by mush-
rooms in the Amanita phalloides group. A. phalloides itself is a greenish oUve
species with radiating blackish fibrils on the pileus. It apparently does not
occur in Canada, but our white A. virosa is equally deadly. Ramsbottom (1953)
estimated that 90 per cent of the recorded deaths from fungus poisoning have
been caused by species of this group. The folly of the superstition that a mush-
room that peels is safe is well illustrated here because these Amanita species
peel readily. The mushrooms of the A. phalloides group are so deadly that
even small amounts may prove fatal. The danger is increased by the fact that
there is apparently no unpleasant taste and no symptoms are manifested until
8 to 12 hours, or sometimes even longer, after the mushrooms are eaten. By
this time the poison has been absorbed into the blood stream and the usual
procedures such as pumping out the stomach are of no avail.

The general symptoms of this type of poisoning are severe abdominal
pains, vomiting, cold sweats, diarrhea and excessive thirst. After persisting for
some time the symptoms usually subside for a while and then recur more
intensely; the liver is affected as well as the nervous system. There may be
delirium, deep coma, and finally death. The patient suffers great pain.

Early investigations on the nature of the poison showed that there were at
least two poisonous substances in A. phalloides. One of these was destroyed by
heat but the other was not, and this latter was responsible for most of the
poisoning cases. It was called amanita toxin and later study has shown that
this is a complex of three substances, a;-amanitine, /?-amanitine, and phalloi-
dine. All of these are very poisonous.

Although in cases of poisoning by this group of mushrooms the percent-
age of fatahties is very high, three methods of treatment have been used with
some apparent success.

A serum has been produced at the Institut Pasteur in Paris by immunizing
horses and it is said to give good results if injected hypodermically or intra-
venously and used early. However because of the rare and sporadic occurrence
of this type of poisoning, supplies of fresh serum are not readily available.

The second method is to give injections of glucose in normal saline. This
treatment is based on the fact that in Amanita poisoning there is a pronounced
lowering of blood sugar with consequent damage to the liver and kidneys and
the injections may help to restore the amount of sugar and modify the effects
of the poison. Normal saline alone has also been used. It is better to give these
hypodermically than by mouth because vomiting is usually associated with
this type of poisoning.

The third method sounds fantastic but some success has been claimed for
it. It is based on the idea that the gastric juices of a rabbit will neutralize the

12

MUSHROOM POISONING

poison of the Amanita. It is recommended that the stomachs of three rabbits
and the brains of seven be chopped up finely and made into a paste or pellets
and eaten raw by the patient. Sugar or jam can be added to make it more
palatable, and the sugar itself may be beneficial. This method has received
some pubhcity in the press but it is difficult to know whether or not it is really
effective.

The second type of poisoning is caused by species such as Amanita mus-
caria and A. pantherina and is believed to be due to a substance called mycoa-
tropine. The symptoms usually appear soon after eating the mushrooms,
within one-half to four hours. The most characteristic symptoms are nervous
excitement, hallucinations and behavior suggesting alcohohc intoxication.
This may be followed by coma and sometimes death, although the percentage
of recovery from this type of poisoning is much greater than with the A. phal-
loides type. A. pantherina is considered to be more dangerous than A. muscaria.

Treatment consists in the administration of emetics and purgatives to
clean out the digestive tract and then in treating the delirium with chloral
hydrate or potassium bromide and providing a heart stimulant.

The third type of poisoning is due to the substance called muscarine and is
caused by some Inocybe species and Clitocybe dealbata. Amanita muscaria also
contains muscarine but its main effects are now befieved to be due to mycoa-
tropine. The symptoms of muscarine poisoning are profuse sweating, vomiting,
diarrhea, pains in the stomach, distortion of vision and slowing down of the
heart. Death rarely occurs in this type of poisoning and if it does it is due to the
effect on the heart. Atropine is an antidote for muscarine poisoning.

A fourth type of poisoning may be caused by Entoloma lividum and a few
other species. It is a violent gastrointestinal disturbance usually occurring
within one to two hours after the mushrooms have been eaten. The symptoms
include vomiting, diarrhea, acute pain and profuse perspiration. The symp-
toms may persist for a long time and make the patient very weak. Not much
appears to be known about the poison involved.

The fifth type of poisoning is caused by some of the acrid species of
Russula and Lactarius. It has the effect of a very violent purgative and causes
vomiting and stomach pains. It is claimed that the poisonous substances can be
removed from these mushrooms by boiling them in several changes of water,
but these species are not recommended as food.

The sixth type is the poisoning caused by some Discomycetes and beheved
to be due to helvellic acid. The most important fungus in this group is Gyro-
mitra esculenta and reports about this fungus are very contradictory. There
seems to be no doubt that many people eat this species frequently, apparently
without any harm. On the other hand there are well-authenticated cases of
poisoning and even of deaths caused by it. It would appear that the danger is
greatest with overmature or sHghtly decomposed specimens, but danger cer-
tainly exists and on no account can this fungus be recommended as food.

Finally there is a peculiar type of poisoning that has been said to be
associated with Coprinus species eaten at the same time that alcohol has been

13

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

consumed. It is apparently not dangerous, but in about twenty minutes to two
hours the face may become very red and then violaceous and the color may
spread to the neck and body. The tip of the nose and the ear lobes remain pale.
There is a sensation of heat and the pulse beat becomes very rapid. The symp-
toms disappear in a short time and apparently there are no ill effects.

There has been some controversy about this type of poisoning. Child
(1952) described experiments in which Coprini were fed to a person with and
without alcohol and no effects were observed, but when Panaeolus campanula-
tus was eaten by itself the type of symptoms described above appeared. He
suggested that the reports of poisoning caused by a combination of Coprinus
and alcohol might be due rather to accidental inclusion of Panaeolus with the
Coprinus. However his experiments were rather limited in scope and European
mycologists still insist that these symptoms have appeared in well-authenti-
cated cases where there was no possibility of a misidentification of Panaeolus.
The question may be regarded as still open but it would probably be advisable
to avoid eating Coprinus and consuming alcohol at the same time.

In any case of mushroom poisoning, medical assistance should be sum-
moned immediately. As a first-aid measure the stomach and intestines should
be emptied by inducing vomiting or administering purgatives or an enema.
Parts of mushrooms vomited up, or the remains of the dish eaten should be
preserved so that the species responsible for the poisoning can be identified. If
any fresh mushrooms of the original gathering remain they would be still more
useful for this purpose.

IDENTIFICATION

At first, mushrooms may all look rather similar but as we observe them
more closely and become more interested in them, differences and similarities
are perceived and more and more species are recognized. Some people will be
content with learning to identify a few common species, others will want to
know more and may even want to make a special study of some groups or
genera.

Correct identification, then, becomes a matter of observing carefully the
characters possessed by the fungus, comparing them with descriptions and
illustrations or with other specimens, and assessing the value of differences and
similarities observed. There is no rigid concept or set of rules by which one can
say whether or not an observed difference represents a real difference between
species or simply variation among individuals of the same species. Size of the
pileus and length of the stipe, for example, are characters that are usually
fairly constant within limits for any particular species, but some individuals
may be found in which these or other characters may far exceed the ordinary
limits. Colors may fade, heavy rains may wash scales off the pileus, a delicate
annulus may disappear very early, and so on. On the other hand, spore color
is a very constant character as are many of the microscopic characters.

No single book contains descriptions of all the known species of mush-

14

IDENTIFICATION

rooms and no one person can, with certainty, identify every mushroom he
finds. Much remains to be learned about the species comprising our mush-
room flora, and for the amateur the identification of mushrooms offers a chal-
lenge and an interest that he can pursue as far as he wishes.

Probably the most usual way for a beginner to start learning to identify
mushrooms is by association with some more experienced collector who can
point out the common species and the characters by which they are recognized.
This is a good way for the beginner to start and it often results in arousing his
interest and curiosity to the point where he will want to be able to identify
other species for himself.

At this point the necessity for consulting books on mushrooms will
become apparent and these books usually contain keys, descriptions and
illustrations to aid in identification. A key is a guide to identification that is
constructed by presenting a choice between two characters or groups of
characters. The student decides which of the characters is possessed by the
fungus under study, and by ehminating the species not possessing the charac-
ters, he eventually narrows the choice to one species. Difficulties may arise
because the characters are not clear-cut, or the specimen is inadequate to show
all the characters, or the species under investigation is not found in the key
being used. It is sometimes impossible to decide with certainty which choice
should be made and both will have to be followed up until a definite ehmina-
tion can be made.

Some keys are designed to show relationships so that related forms key
out close to each other but, since relationships are indicated by similarities, and
ehminations are usually made by noting differences, keys of this type are often
difficult to use in making identifications. The keys in this book are intended
primarily to aid in identification and are not designed to indicate relationships.

When a specimen keys out it should then be compared with the detailed
description of the species and, if possible, with good illustrations. It is not
recommended that identification of mushrooms be attempted by simply com-
paring the specimens with illustrations . Undoubtedly many correct identifica-
tions of mushrooms have been made in this way but there are so many species
of mushrooms that are superficially similar in appearance that this method is
likely to lead to serious errors.

In making an identification of a species, the first thing that must be
determined is the color of the spores. This can best be seen in a spore deposit
or spore print (Figure 45). To obtain a spore print cut off the stipe close to the
pileus, lay the pileus on a piece of white paper with the lamellae downward and
leave it for several hours. Better results will be obtained if it is covered with a
glass or dish of some sort to protect it from air currents. Some people have
used black paper in order to better show up white spore deposits, but pale
cream, pale pink, or Hlac spores may appear to be white if deposited on black
paper, and since white spores can always be seen on white paper if viewed at an
angle, only white paper should be used. Satisfactory spore prints of some of
the firmer species can be obtained in the field by cutting off the stipe, laying the

15

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

pileus on a piece of white paper with the lamellae down, wrapping it carefully
in waxed paper, and laying it flat on the bottom of the basket. A good spore
deposit may be obtained by the time one returns from the collecting trip.

If the spore deposit is white to yellow, the amyloid reaction of the spores
should be determined. This reaction is determined by placing some of the
spores on a glass slide and adding a drop of a solution (Meizer's Reagent)
made up of 1.5 grams potassium iodide, 0.5 grams iodine, 20 grams distilled
water and 20 grams chloral hydrate. If the spores turn gray-blue to blackish
blue they are amyloid and if there is no reaction they are nonamyloid. The
reaction can be observed with the microscope if one is available, or, if not, it
can be seen by simply holding the sHde over white paper. The reaction should
be noted within a few minutes of making the test and it is more reliable if
tested on spores that have first been dried. A few species, particularly in
Lepiota, will give a falsely amyloid or pseudoamyloid reaction and the color
will be reddish brown.

This reaction is of considerable importance in taxonomic work. For
example, the genus Leucopaxillus contains some species that were formerly in
Clitocybe and some that were in Tricholoma. These are beheved to form a
natural group and can be recognized by the amyloid reaction of the spores. In

'0$m!^iii

Figure 45. Spore print of a mushroom.

16

IDENTIFICATION

this instance the reaction is used to dehmit a genus. Sometimes it is not con-
sidered to indicate a difference of generic rank but is useful in distinguishing
species. For example Amanita flavoconia and A. frostiana have been confused
at times but they can readily be separated by this reaction since the spores of
A. flavoconia are amyloid and those of A. frostiana are not.

Notes should then be taken on the color and size of the fruit bodies,
whether or not the surface is smooth, hairy, scaly, etc., and whether or not it is
dry, viscid, or hygrophanous. This latter term describes a condition in which
the flesh absorbs moisture and becomes darker, taking on a watery appear-
ance, and then fades considerably on drying. It is often a useful field character
when one has become famihar with the characteristic appearance. The odor
and taste should be noted, although amanitas should not be tasted. If a juice
or latex is present it should be tasted, and the color and any changes in color
noted. It is especially important in Cortinarius to record the color of the young
lamellae before the spores have matured. Features of the stipe that should be
noted are the size, color, and consistency, whether or not there is an annulus or
volva present, whether or not the surface is smooth, fibrillose, scaly, etc., or if
it is viscid or dry.

In short, the collection should be studied carefully and all the characters
noted while the material is still fresh. Notes that are made in the form of a
concise description are hkely to be better than those made by following a form
or chart. Probably most people will make their final identifications from fresh
material but if good notes are made on fresh specimens that are then carefully
dried, it is often possible and even in some instances preferable, to make
identifications from dried specimens.

In preparing dried specimens it is important to dry them as quickly as
possible without scorching or cooking them. A good free circulation of air is
essential. Probably the best method is to spread the mushrooms on a screen or
series of screens that can be suspended or placed in a frame over the source
of heat.

In this book relatively httle emphasis has been placed on the use of
microscopic characters in the identification of species. However, for those who
have a microscope, the size and shape of the spores have been given through-
out, and in some cases also the cystidia are described.

After the specimens have been studied and their characters noted one can
then attempt to identify them by using the key. The key should be used as a
guide only, and when a species keys out it should be checked carefully with the
description and illustrations. Mushrooms are hving organisms and show
variations between individuals and between collections that have grown under
different environmental conditions. The descriptions in this book are based as
far as possible on normal and typical specimens and they attempt to describe
the range of variation ordinarily encountered. It should be kept in mind also
that the descriptions of a great many species have, of necessity, been omitted
and hence a specimen that keys out to a certain species but does not agree with
the description of that species should not be so identified. The chances are good
that it is a species not described in this book.

17

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

Suppose we have a specimen to be identified. The first choice in the key
(p. 29) is based on the character of the lamellae and in this specimen they are
thin, well developed and crowded, so we go to choice 2. We check the spore
deposit and find it is colored, so we go to choice 25. Here there are five choices
and we find our specimen has a pink spore deposit, so we go to choice 26. It
has a central stipe, which takes us to choice 27, and the lamellae are free from
the stipe, which carries us to 28. There is no trace of an annulus or volva, so
we come to Pluteus and turn to the key to the species of this genus (p. 1 65).
The pileus is brown and the lamellae do not have a black edge so we arrive at
Pluteus cervinus, and on comparing our specimen with the description we find
it matches and we can conclude that we have identified the species.

If the specimen had had a yellow pileus and stipe we would similarly
have checked Pluteus admirabilis but a specimen with a yellow pileus and white
stipe would have caused diflftculty. Another reference book might show that
there is a species of Pluteus with a yellow cap and white stipe, P. leoninus, that
is not described in this book. But it would have been wrong to assume that we
had found P. admirabilis because it keyed out here, when the description of
P. admirabilis called for a yellow stipe and our specimen had a white one.

A key thus has its limitations but if used critically and with caution it
should be of great assistance in identifying the specimens collected.

If other methods of identification fail it is sometimes possible to send
specimens to specialists and have them identified. In the Canada Department
of Agriculture we do not have the staff or the time available to undertake
identifications on a large scale. However, for the beginner who may wish to
check on the identification of some common species of which he is uncertain,
or for the more advanced student who thinks he may have found some rare or
unusual species of special interest, we try to provide all the assistance possible.

Fresh specimens may be sent in by mail and if they are not too long in
transit and are not overmature, worm-eaten, or decayed, they often arrive in
good condition. Specimens wrapped in tissue paper or newspaper which will
absorb excess moisture arrive in better condition than those wrapped in
waxed paper or packed in tin cans. Under these latter conditions moisture
accumulates and bacterial decay sets in. Species of Coprinus do not travel well
by mail and usually arrive as an inky mess.

Specimens of mushrooms should never be preserved in fluid or sent in for
identification in fluid. They are almost impossible to identify when preserved
in this way.

It is much preferable when sending material in for identification to take
careful notes on the fresh condition, then dry the specimens and send them in
the dried condition. If properly dried they will keep indefinitely and with good
notes they can be identified just about as readily as in the fresh condition.
Furthermore, there is the advantage to us that if they prove to be an interesting
species the dried specimens can be placed in the herbarium and become part of
the permanent scientific record.

18

NOMENCLATURE

NOMENCLATURE

Undoubtedly one of the things that discourage the amateur from taking
up the study of fungi is the difficulty of mastering the names. Relatively few
species have common or vernacular names and attempts to create common
names for them by translating the Latin names have not been very successful.
In reahty the Latin names are not so difficult as w^ould first appear and after a
little experience in associating them with actual specimens they become as
famihar as do the Latin names of common flowers to enthusiastic gardeners.

Obviously we must apply names to fungi and other plants in order to
refer to them and, since fungi do not recognize national boundaries, some
system of naming must be followed that can be used by scientists of all coun-
tries. The system that has been adopted was devised by the Swedish botanist
Carl Linnaeus in the eighteenth century and is called the binomial system of
nomenclature. In this system individual plants that are considered to be of
the same kind are grouped together to form a species, related species are
placed in a genus, related genera in a family, related famihes in an order,
related orders in a class, and related classes in a division. The whole hierarchy
constitutes the plant kingdom.

The name of any individual plant consists of two words, the name of the
genus and the name of the species, the latter usually a descriptive adjective.
When we name a plant in this way we are at the same time classifying it in
relation to other plants. Our knowledge of the relationships of plants to each
other is continually increasing so that our ideas about the classification of
plants change accordingly and this leads inevitably to changes of the names.

Ideally, of course, one species should have one correct name, but as long
as our system of classification is imperfect and the relationships of plants not
fully understood, botanists will diff^er in their ideas about the classification and
relationships and so will diff*er in their choice of names. Furthermore, many
niistakes can and do occur with resultant confusion concerning names. Some
common errors of this type arise from diff'erent botanists describing the same
plant under diff'erent names or describing diff'erent plants under the same
name, or applying a name to a diff'erent plant from that intended by the
original author. In order to settle disputes and clear up confusion of this sort,
it is necessary for botanists to agree on a set of rules determining the choice of
a name.

From time to time botanists hold an international congress and the
authority of this body is generally recognized in the drawing up of a set of
rules of nomenclature and in making revisions deemed necessary. The official
title of the set of rules is now the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature.

The Code has nothing to do with classification. Each botanist is free to
study a plant and come to a decision himself regarding its relationships with
other plants, but when he has reached such a decision the Code determines the
correct name to use for the plant. It is impossible to discuss the Code in any
detail here, but some of the more important rules might be noted.

19

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

In the first place it is necessary to have a starting point for our nomencla-
ture and although for the higher plants this is Linnaeus' Species Plantarum,
1753, for most of the fungi it has been decided to start with the Sy sterna
Mycologicum published in 1821 by the Swedish mycologist E. M. Fries.

In order to have any claim to recognition, a name must be validly and
effectively published. It is not sufficient to put a name on a specimen in a
herbarium or botanic garden, or to mention it at a public meeting or refer to it
in a thesis. It must be made available to botanists everywhere. Names pub-
lished before the official starting point are regarded as not validly published. A
name must be accompanied by a description and since 1935 a name is not
considered to be validly published unless it is accompanied by a Latin diagnosis.

Sometimes more than one name may be vaHdly pubhshed for the same
plant and in that case the earliest name is considered to be the correct one.

These are, perhaps, the most important rules but there are others which,
if they are not complied with, render a name illegitimate. If a name is found
to be illegitimate it cannot be used and the earliest legitimate name must be
chosen for the plant. If none exists, the plant must be given a new name.

It is usual when writing the scientific name of a plant to give also the
name of the author who proposed the name. If the species is later transferred
to another genus, the name of the original author is placed in parentheses
followed by the name of the author who made the transfer. This practice has
sometimes been criticized as a form of self-advertisement on the part of the
authors, but that is not the purpose. It is rather to supply a reference to the
source of the name, thus enabling taxonomists to check on the validity and
legitimacy of the names and determine exactly to what plants they apply, and
in this way these author references are invaluable to the research taxonomist.

A primary aim of the Code is, of course, to bring about stabihty of names
and one of the most important means of achieving this is the use of the type
concept. When an author describes a new species he is expected to designate
some particular specimen as the type of that species. If he does not do so,
some specimen must subsequently be chosen as the type. The name is then per-
manently fixed to that specimen and when we apply the name to any other
specimen we are, in effect, saying that it belongs to the same species as the
type. If, as sometimes happens, it is found that a name has been applied to
plants belonging to more than one species, the name must be retained for those
that match the type and the others must be given another name. Sometimes an
author may make an error in describing a species or misinterpret structures he
has observed ; the concept of the species is then determined by the type speci-
men and not by what the author said about it.

Similarly when a genus is established, one species is taken as the type of
the genus and the application of the name is determined by that species. For
example, if it is considered that unrelated species may have been placed in the
same genus and it is necessary to divide the old genus into two or more genera,
the original name must be retained for the type species and others that may be
considered congeneric with it. A good example of this is seen in the mush-

20

CLASSIFICATION

rooms. In his Systema Mycologicum, Fries placed nearly all the mushrooms in
the genus Agaricus but he divided the genus into a number of sections such as
Lepiota, Tricholoma, Pholiota, Psalliota, etc. Later authors raised these sec-
tions to the rank of genera, but the old name Agaricus had to be retained for
one of these sections, depending on what was considered to be the type species
of Agaricus. Since the common meadow mushroom, Agaricus campestris, is
taken as the type, the name Agaricus must be used for it and its close relatives.
The name Psalliota, which was used by Fries for this section and by some later
authors as a generic name, then becomes a synonym of Agaricus and is no
longer a legitimate name.

In this book a number of species may be found under unfamiliar names.
Some of the changes are the result of advances in our knowledge and of con-
sequent improvements in the classification. For example, it is beheved that it is
a better expression of relationships to remove the species with granulose caps
from Lepiota to Cystoderma, and the species with viscid caps from Lepiota to
Limacella. Other changes are necessitated in order to comply with the rules
rather than because of changes in our ideas of classification. Examples of these
changes are the use of Agaricus rather than Psalliota, Volvariella rather than
Volvaria, and Lepiota molybdites rather than L. morgani for the green-spored
Lepiota. Such changes are regretted but only by careful adherence to the rules
and the acceptance of changes necessitated thereby, will we eventually attain a
stable nomenclature.

CLASSIFICATION

Fungi, the class of plants to which mushrooms belong, may be defined in
a general way as plants lacking true leaves, stems, and roots, lacking chloro-
phyll, and reproducing by spores. They are usually divided into four main
subclasses.

The first of these is called the Phycomycetes. The fungi referred to this
group are characterized in general by the absence of cross walls or septa in the
hyphae composing the mycehum and by the production of spores within a
sac, usually a more or less swollen cell, termed a sporangium. The Phycomy-
cetes include forms such as the common bread mold, the potato-bhght fungus,
the downy mildews, many aquatic fungi and many minute, one-celled forms.
None of the Phycomycetes will be discussed in this book.

The second subclass is called the Ascomycetes. In this group the hyphae
have cross walls and the spores are produced in a speciahzed cell called an
ascus (Figure 41, p. 9). The production of spores in the ascus is regarded as a
sexual process. In the young ascus two nuclei fuse and then typically divide
three times, forming eight spores which are forcibly discharged when they are
mature. The asci may be produced directly on the mycehum or developed
within more or less speciahzed fruiting bodies. Those Ascomycetes in which
the fruiting bodies bearing the asci are structures that are closed, or that open
by a narrow pore or beak, are known as Pyrenomycetes (Figure 44, p. 9);

21

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

whereas those in which the asci are arranged in a layer exposed to the air are
known as Discomycetes (Figure 43, p. 9). The Ascomycetes as a whole com-
prise many thousands of species including yeasts, molds, powdery mildews,
ergots, numerous leaf-spotting and wood-staining fungi and many others. In
this book only a very few of the larger fleshy Discomycetes, and one Pyreno-
mycete, are discussed'.

The third subclass is called the Basidiomycetes. In this group the hyphae
also have cross walls and the spores are produced on a speciahzed cell known
as the basidium (Figure 37, p. 9). In the basidium two nuclei fuse and then
typically divide twice, giving rise to four nuclei, but in contrast to the Asco-
mycetes where the spores mature within the ascus and are discharged when
mature, in the Basidiomycetes the nuclei migrate to the tips of little stalks and
the spores develop outside the basidium itself and are forcibly shot off" the
stalks when they are mature. Most of the fungi described in this book belong
in the Basidiomycetes.

The fourth subclass is known as the Fungi Imperfecti. This group is not
strictly comparable to the other three since it comprises those forms in which a
perfect or sexual state is unknown or lacking and reproduction takes place by
vegetative means, usually by some form of asexual spore. These asexual
spores are often called conidia and many forms that used to be grouped with
the Fungi Imperfecti are now known to be conidial states of Ascomycetes,
Phycomycetes, or Basidiomycetes. However there are still a great many whose
perfect or sexual state is unknown and it is possible that some of these forms
reproduce so efficiently with conidia alone that they have lost the ability to
develop the sexual state. Hence it is necessary to retain this subclass, although
it does not represent a natural grouping. None of the Fungi Imperfecti are
discussed in this book.

BASIDIOMYCETES

The mushrooms and most of the larger fungi that will be found by the
amateur collector belong in the subclass Basidiomycetes and it is necessary to
consider the classification of this group in a little more detail. As has been
noted, the fundamental character of the group is that the spores are produced
outside the mother cell rather than within it. The typical basidium is a more or
less club-shaped single cell with four Httle stalks or sterigmata arising at the
apex and the spores develop on the tips of these stalks (Figure 37, p. 9).
When mature, the spores are forcibly discharged from the sterigmata by the
pressure of surface tension of a drop of water that is excreted from the tip of
the sterigma below the spore. This is the type of basidium found in most of the
larger fleshy fungi such as the agarics, boletes, hydnums, clavarias, and
polypores.

The basidia are arranged in a definite layer in the fruiting body in such a
way that the spores can be discharged into the open air. This layer is called the
hymenium and these fungi are further divided into families based on the shape

22

FUNGI

of the hymenium. In the Agaricaceae, or mushrooms, the hymenium covers
the surface of thin blades or gill-Hke structures termed lamellae which are
more or less radially arranged on the under surface of the pileus. In the Hyd-
naceae it covers the surface of tooth-like structures. In the Boletaceae the
hymenium lines the inner surface of tubes and the fruiting body is soft, fleshy,
and mushroom-like whereas in the Polyporaceae it also hnes the surface of
tubes but the fruiting body is tough, corky to leathery, or woody. In the
Clavariaceae it is smooth and covers the entire fruiting body; whereas in the
Thelephoraceae it is also smooth but the fruiting body is more or less dif-
ferentiated into an upper, sterile surface, and a lower, fertile surface.

The above brief account is an outline of the traditional basis for dis-
tingiiishing these famihes of Basidiomycetes but as a result of recent studies of
microscopic structure, chemical reactions, cultural characters and so on,
modern taxonomists are pretty generally agreed that it is not a satisfactory
classification from a scientific standpoint. For example, Lenzites has lamellae
but is obviously much more closely related to the polypores than to the other
mushrooms, and Gomphidius has lamellae but is apparently more closely
related to the boletes than to the mushrooms. Many other examples could be
given. However, for the purpose of this book the traditional classification is
quite satisfactory.

In the Gasteromycetes or puffballs, the basidia are produced in a closed
fruiting body and not arranged in a hymenium. The spores are not forcibly
discharged into the air but are disseminated by wind, rain, and insects.

Other groups of Basidiomycetes may exhibit variations in the form and
structure of the basidium itself. In the Auriculariaceae the basidium becomes
transversely septate, the cross walls forming four cells from each of which a
sterigma arises (Figure 40, p. 9). In the Tremellaceae the basidium becomes
longitudinally septate and the walls are at right angles ; consequently four cells
are formed, from each of which a sterigma arises (Figure 38, p. 9). In the
Dacrymycetaceae the basidium becomes deeply divided or forked with sterig-
mata at the apices of the forks (Figure 39, p. 9).

One large group of Basidiomycetes is not discussed in this book. This
group consists of the rusts and smuts, which live as parasites on other plants
and in which the basidium has cross walls and is produced directly on germina-
tion of a speciahzed, thick-walled resting spore rather than in a fruit body.

The above classification may be presented briefly as follows :

FUNGI

Phycomycetes — hyphae lacking cross walls; spores borne in sporangia
Ascomycetes — hyphae with cross walls; spores produced in asci
Plectomycetes — asci produced directly on the mycehum
Pyrenomycetes — asci produced in a closed fruiting body or perithecium
Discomycetes — asci produced in an apothecium, a fruiting body with
an exposed fruiting surface

23

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

Basidiomycetes — hyphae with cross walls; spores produced on a basidium
Hemibasidiomycetes — basidia produced directly on germination of a

resting spore (the rusts and smuts)
Eubasidiomycetes — basidia usually produced in a fruiting body, not

on germination of a resting spore
Tremellales — basidia septate or deeply forked ; fruiting bodies
usually more or less gelatinous
Auriculariaceae — basidia transversely septate
Tremellaceae — basidia longitudinally septate
Dacrymycetaceae — basidia deeply divided, forked
Hymenomycetales — basidia one-celled, arranged in a hymenium;

fruiting bodies fleshy to membranous to
leathery or woody
Agaricaceae — hymenium covering lamellae
Hydnaceae — hymenium covering teeth
Boletaceae — hymenium lining tubes ; fruit body soft and

fleshy
Polyporaceae — hymenium lining tubes ; fruit body tough,

corky, leathery, or woody
Clavariaceae — hymenium smooth, covering entire fruiting

body
Thelephoraceae — hymenium smooth ; fruiting body differenti-
ated into sterile and fertile surfaces
Gasteromycetales — basidia one-celled, borne in a closed fruiting

body, not arranged in a hymenium
Phallaceae — spore mass slimy, evil smeUing, at maturity

raised on a stalk-like receptacle
Lycoperdaceae — spore mass powdery, remaining enclosed by

the peridium
Nidulariaceae — fructification a cup-shaped or vase-shaped
structure containing several peridioles (hard,
egg-like bodies) within which the spores are
produced
Fungi Imperfecti — fungi lacking sporangiospores, ascospores, or basidio-

spores; no sexual organs present, reproduction by vegeta-
tive spores

Figures 46-55

46. Cantharellus cibarius.
48. C. clavatus.
50. C tubaeformis.
52. C. multiplex.
54. L. affinis.

47. C. cinnabarinus.

49. C. floccosus.

51. C umbonatus.

53. Lactarius camphoratus.

55. L. affinis.

24

25

I

A ••

.1" "^

^ . < ♦

^s,^B»^

3
&«

tl^

57. Lac tar ills deliciosus.

59. L. controversHS.

61. L. helvus.

63. L. lignyotus.

65. L. indigo.

Figures 57-66

58. L. deliciosus.

60. L. g rise us.

62. L. hygrophoroides.

64. L. trivial is

66. L. indigo.

26

27

Figure 67. Lactarius deceptiviis.
Figure 68. Russula delica.

28

GENERA OF MUSHROOMS

KEY TO THE GENERA OF MUSHROOMS

1. Lamellae fold-like, thick on edge, forked Cantharellus

1. Lamellae well developed, crowded to distant but not fold-like 2

2. Spore deposit white 3

2. Spore deposit colored 25

3. Lamellae free from stipe 4

3. Lamellae attached to stipe 6

4. Volva and annulus present Amanita

4. Volva present; annulus absent Amanitopsis

4. Volva absent; annulus present 5

5. Pileus viscid Limacella

5. Pileus not viscid Lepiota

6. Annulus present 7

6. Annulus not present 8

7. Cuticle of cap granulose to warty Cystoderma

7. Cuticle smooth or scaly but not granulose Armillaria

8. Fruit body soft and fleshy, not reviving when moistened 9

8. Fruit body tough, corky to leathery, more or less reviving

when moistened 21

9. Stipe excentric, lateral, or absent Pleurotus

9. Stipe central 10

10. Lamellae of waxy consistency 11

10. Lamellae not waxy 12

11. Spores smooth Hygrophorus

11. Spores echinulate Laccaria

12. Trama of fruit body composed of both filamentous and globular
cells; texture brittle; lamellae stiff and easily broken; spores

amyloid 13

12. Trama of filamentous cells only; lacking above combination

of characters '. 14

13. Milky juice present Lactarius

13. Milky juice absent Russula

14. Stipe cartilaginous in texture, different from the pileus 15

14. Stipe fleshy or fibrous, somewhat similar to the pileus in

consistency or tougher 17

15. Stipe somewhat horny in consistency; lamellae decurrent Xeromphalina

15. Stipe not horny; lamellae adnate to adnexed 16

16. Margin of pileus incurved; pileus becoming expanded Collybia

16. Margin of pileus straight; pileus usually somewhat bell-shaped Mycena

17. Lamellae decurrent 18

17. Lamellae not decurrent 19

18. Spores amyloid Leucopaxillus

18. Spores not amyloid Clitocybe

19. Spores not amyloid Tricholoma

19. Spores amyloid 20

29

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

20. Pileus hygrophanus; lamellae with harpoonlike cystidia Melanoleuca

20. Pileus rarely hygrophanous, usually dull colored, large and fleshy;

lamellae without harpoonlike cystidia Leucopaxillus

21. Lamellae split along edge Schizophyllum

21. Lamellae not split along edge 22

22. Lamellae serrate-torn on edge Lentinus

22. Lamellae not serrate-torn on edge 23

23. Lamellae crisped, thick Trogia

23. Lamellae entire 24

24. Stipe central; pileus membranous to somewhat fleshy, reviving Marasmius

24. Stipe excentric, lateral, or wanting; pileus tough, fleshy-leathery

to corky Panus

25. Spore deposit greenish see Lepiota molybdites

25. Spore deposit lilac to grayish lilac Pleurotus

(see Laccaria ochropurpurea)

25. Spore deposit pinkish 26

25. Spore deposit yellowish to rusty or brown 33

25. Spore deposit purplish to purple-brown or blackish 45

26. Stipe lateral or lacking Phyllotopsis

26. Stipe central 27

27. Lamellae free from the stipe 28

27. Lamellae attached to the stipe 29

28. Volva present; annulus lacking Volvariella

28. Both annulus and volva lacking Pluteus

29. Lamellae decurrent CUtopilus

29. Lamellae adnate to adnexed 30

30. Lamellae sinuate 31

30. Lamellae not sinuate 32

31. Spores angular Entoloma

31. Spores not angular, slightly rough Tricholoma

32. Margin at first incurved; pileus convex Leptonia

32. Margin at first straight; pileus usually more or less conical to

campanulate Nolanea

33. Stipe excentric, lateral or wanting Crepidotus

33. Stipe central 34

34. Veil composed of cobweb-like filaments; spore deposit dark brown Cortinarius

34. Veil membranous or lacking 35

35. Annulus present 36

35. Annulus lacking 37

36. Pileus with a mealy-granulose surface Phaeolepiota

36. Surface of pileus smooth or scaly, not mealy-granulose Pholiota

37. Lamellae separating readily from the pileus trama Paxillus

37. Lamellae not separating readily from the pileus trama 38

38. Trama of pileus composed of filamentous and globose cells; spores amyloid 39

38. Trama of pileus filamentous; spores not amyloid 40

30

GENERA OF MUSHROOMS

39. Milky juice present Lactarius

39. Milky juice lacking Russula

40. Stipe fleshy to fibrous 41

40. Stipe cartilaginous 43

41. Growing on wood; lamellae usually bright colored,

yellow to rusty Flammiila

41. Growing on the ground; lamellae dull brownish to pallid 42

42. Pileus viscid, smooth Hebeloma

42. Pileus more or less fibrillose to silky or scaly, or splitting Inocybe

43. Lamellae decurrent Tubaria

43. Lamellae not decurrent 44

44. Pileus convex to plane; margin at first incurved Naucoria

44. Pileus more or less conical; margin straight;

cuticle composed of vesiculose cells Conocybe

44. Fruiting bodies fairly large, white, staining brown;

spores pale yellow see Collybia maculata

45. Lamellae waxy, decurrent Gomphidiiis

45. Lamellae not decurrent 46

46. Lamellae deliquescing Coprinus

46. Lamellae not deliquescing 47

47. Annulus present 48

47. Annulus lacking 50

48. Lamellae free from the stipe Agaricus

48. Lamellae attached to the stipe 49

49. Lamellae mottled Panaeolus

49. Lamellae not mottled Stropharia

50. Cuticle of pileus filamentous N aematoloma

50. Cuticle of pileus composed of vesiculose cells 51

51. Pileus plicate-striate and paraphyses coprinoid Pseudocoprinus

51. Not with above combination of characters 52

52. Lamellae mottled Panaeolus

52. Lamellae not mottled Psathyrella

31

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

CANTHARELLUS

Cantharellus is an important genus for the mycophagist because many of
the species are large and conspicuous, and fairly easily recognized without
much danger of being confused with poisonous species. The chanterelle,
C. cibarius, is one of the species frequently used and highly recommended for
food and should be on the Hst of every amateur collector.

The genus is characterized by the thick, fold-like lamellae which are
decurrent, usually distant and more or less forked. The stipe is continuous
with the pileus and there is no veil. In some species the lamellae are poorly
developed and little more than wrinkles. The genus then approaches Craterellus
of the Thelephoraceae in which the hymenium is smooth. Cantharellus clava-
tus, in which the lamellae are mere wrinkles, has been placed in Craterellus by
some authors. On the other hand, in species in which the lamellae are better
developed and less fold-like, the genus approaches Clitocybe. Cantharellus
umbonatus with well-formed lamellae is hkely to be sought in Clitocybe, and
Clitocybe aurantiaca has been called Cantharellus aurantiacus by many authors.

For those who are interested in the problems of relationships, it may be
noted that modern taxonomists tend to the view that Cantharellus, as here
constituted, does not comprise a natural group of species. For example,
C. multiplex, with its pecuhar warted spores, has been made the type of a new
genus, Polyozellus; and C. umbonatus, with amyloid spores, has been made the
type of a new genus, Cantharellula. Although it is evident from modern taxo-
nomic studies that these and other species are not closely related to C. cibarius,
which is the type species of Cantharellus, it seems preferable to retain Can-
tharellus in the more traditional sense for the purpose of this book. If Can-
tharellus were to be used in the strict sense for only those species closely
related to C. cibarius, it might be considered to be more closely related to the
Clavariaceae than to the Agaricaceae.

Key

1. Fruiting bodies entirely red C. cinnabarinus

1. Fruiting bodies not entirely red 2

2. Fruiting bodies more or less yellow to brown 3

2. Fruiting bodies not yellow 5

3. Fruiting bodies large, vase-shaped, yellowish, with reddish

or reddish orange scales C. floccosus

3. Fruiting bodies not as above 4

4. Fruiting bodies bright chrome-yellow to egg-yellow, firm, fleshy C cibarius

4. Fruiting bodies brownish yellow to ochraceous brown, thin, pliant;

lamellae drying grayish C. tubaeformis

5. Fruiting bodies gray, usually with a small umbo; lamellae well developed,

white; flesh reddening when wounded C umbonatus

5. Fruiting bodies purplish flesh color to blackish 6

6. Growing in dense cespitose masses; spores nearly globose, warty C. multiplex

6. Usually separate to gregarious or sometimes slightly cespitose;

spores narrow-ellipsoid, wrinkled C. clavatus

32

CANTHARELLUS

CANTHARELLUS CIBARIUS Fr. Edible

Figure 46, page 25; Figure 411, page 295

Chanterelle

piLEUS 1-4 in. broad, fleshy, firm, convex or sometimes top-shaped,
becoming expanded and then depressed in the center, often irregularly wavy
or lobed, chrome-yellow to egg-yellow, fading in age, slightly fibrillose to
glabrous, not striate, dry. flesh firm, whitish to yellowish, taste mild to some-
what peppery, odor fruity or sometimes lacking, lamellae decurrent, distant,
forked, thick, blunt on the edge, narrow, yellow, stipe 2-3 in. long, I/2-I in.
thick, narrower toward the base, solid, glabrous, concolorous with the pileus
or paler, spores elhptical, smooth, tinged yellowish in mass, 8-1 1 X 4-6 /x.

Scattered or in groups, or sometimes in small clusters, on the ground in
open woods, either coniferous or deciduous. July-Sept.

Not many mushrooms are sufficiently well known to possess a common
name but this species, which is highly prized as food, especially in Europe, has
many names in diff'erent languages of which the best known is the chanterelle.
The European plants are said to have a fruity odor resembling apricots and,
although this appears to be sometimes lacking in North American chanterelles,
they are none the less desirable for the table. Because of its firm texture this
species may require longer cooking than some of the more tender ones.

It is an important mushroom, for it occurs fairly commonly, is widely
distributed, and is sufficiently distinctive in appearance that it is not likely to
be confused with any other species. It is one that the beginner may easily learn
to recognize and collect with confidence. Care should be taken to distinguish
between this species and the poisonous Clitocybe illudens, which is somewhat
similar in color but has thin, close to crowded lamellae, and usually grows in
large clusters. Clitocybe aurantiaca is another species of doubtful reputation
that might be confused with it, but it is more orange in color and also has
thin, close lamellae.

Cantharellus subalbidus Smith & Morse is a western species that is similar
in stature and appearance to C. cibarius but it is whitish in color and the
spores are white rather than yellowish.

CANTHARELLUS CINNABARINUS Schw. Edible

Figure 47, page 25

PILEUS Yz-lVi in. broad, rarely larger, fleshy, firm, convex, obtuse
becoming expanded-depressed, often irregular, cinnabar-red, fading when old
or on drying, glabrous, margin often wavy or lobed. flesh ;thin, whitish, red-
dish at the surface, odor and taste mild, lamellae long-decurrent, distant,
forked, thick, blunt on the edge, narrow, varying from red to yellowish or
pinkish, stipe %-] 1/2 in. long, Y^-Va in. thick, equal or tapering downward,
sometimes compressed at the apex, tough, fleshy, solid or sometimes stuff'ed,

33

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

smooth, concolorous with the pileus or paler, spores white or faintly pink in
mass, oblong-elliptical, smooth, (7) 8-10 (11) X 3.5-5 /n.

Scattered or in groups in open deciduous woods or along roadsides.
July-Oct.

This is the only Cantharellus that is entirely red, and, although it fades
considerably on exposure to wind and sun, it is not hkely to be confused with
any other species. It is said to be common in some locaHties but has only
rarely been collected in the Ottawa district.

CANTHARELLUS CLAVATUS Fr. Edible

Figure 48, page 25

PILEUS 1-4 in. broad, occasionally larger, fleshy, firm, top-shaped, obconic,
or becoming depressed and cup-shaped with a flaring margin, usually irregular
and lobed, purplish flesh color to greenish yellow, surface cottony to slightly
scaly. FLESH firm, rather tough, thick, whitish, odor and taste mild, lamellae
long-decurrent, rather distant, narrow and ridge-form, forking, flesh color to
pale purplish umber, stipe Yi-^ in. long, )4-% in. thick, gradually expanding
into the pileus, usually tapering downward, solid, purpHsh flesh color to pallid,
white-floccose below, spores pale ochraceous in mass, narrow-elliptical to
cylindrical, wrinkled, 10-14 X 4-6 m-

In groups or clusters on the ground in coniferous woods. July-Sept.

The shape and color of this species are highly distinctive although when
growing luxuriantly it might be confused with C. multiplex. The size and shape
of the spores provide a certain and easy way to distinguish these two.

The lamellae are sometimes very narrow and poorly developed and for
this reason some authors have placed this fungus in Craterellus of the Thele-
phoraceae, but usually they are suflRciently well developed that it would seem
to be better placed in Cantharellus.

C. pseudoclavatus Smith is a western species that is very similar to C. cla-
vatus but has smooth spores. C brevipes Peck is also close to C. clavatus but
has larger spores, 13-16 X 5-6 ix.

CANTHARELLUS FLOCCOSUS Schw. Edible for most people

Figure 49, page 25

PILEUS 2-4 in. broad, sometimes broader, deeply funnel-shaped, vase-
shaped or trumpet-shaped, 3-6 in. high, firm, yellowish at first, becoming
reddish or orange, floccose-scaly, the scales more or less reddish to reddish
orange, margin sometimes wavy, flesh white or whitish, odor and taste mild.
LAMELLAE long-dccurrcnt, close to subdistant, narrow and ridge-form, blunt
on the edge, forked, ochraceous or reddish yellow, stipe short, expanding into
the pileus, J/2-I in. thick, glabrous, pale ochraceous, whitish at base, at first
solid, becoming hollow, the base sometimes abruptly narrowed and often deep

34

CANTHARELLUS

in the ground, spores ochraceous in mass, elliptical, smooth, 11-15 (21) X (6)
6.5-7.5 (8) fjL.

In groups on the ground in coniferous woods. July-Oct.

This mushroom with its large, brightly colored, vase-shaped fruiting
bodies is one of the most striking fungi to be found in the woods. It is not
hkely to be confused with any other species, although there is a western
species, C. kauffmannii Smith, that is somewhat similar in stature and also has
scales on the pileus. The scales on C. kauffmannii, however, are brownish and
never yellow or orange.

This fungus should not be eaten in quantity unless small amounts are
first tested. Although it is usually considered edible and very good, there is
some evidence that it may cause illness in certain individuals.

CANTHARELLUS MULTIPLEX Underw.
Figure 52, page 25

PILEUS Yx-^Vi in. broad, fleshy-pHant, somewhat fan-shaped to funnel-
shaped, purphsh to black, drying black, surface uneven, rough, margin irregu-
lar, lobed or contorted, more or less inroUed, paler to vinaceous brown.
FLESH brittle, purplish, taste mild, odor aromatic, lamellae long-decurrent,
distant, narrow and ridge-form, often connected by cross veins and somewhat
net-hke, ashy gray, stipe J/2-I Vi in. long, Vs-Vi in. thick, central or excentric,
more or less fused irregularly toward the base, equal or tapering downward,
solid, concolorous with pileus, black at the base, glabrous, often somewhat
grooved above, spores white, irregularly warted, subglobose, 4-6 X 3.5-5 ju-

Densely clustered, arising from a compact, blackish base and growing in
masses on the ground in coniferous woods. July-Oct.

Judging from the pubhshed reports, this rare and striking fungus has
seldom been collected in North America. In the herbarium at Ottawa there are
several collections including a part of the original or type collection. There are
also two specimens from Japan. Those who are interested in looking for rare
species should keep a special watch for this one.

In many respects, notably the warted spores, it differs from all other
species of Cantharellus, and Murrill has erected a new genus, Polyozellus, for it.
However, for our purpose it seems preferable to leave it in Cantharellus.

It might be confused with luxuriant forms of C. clavatus but the spores
will distinguish it at once.

We have no information concerning its edibility.

CANTHARELLUS TUBAEFORMIS Fr. Doubtful

Figure 50, page 25

PILEUS %-2 in. broad, at first convex and obtuse, becoming depressed,
sometimes nearly infundibuliform, usually not perforated at the center but
may become so in age, brownish yellow to yellowish ochraceous, minutely

35

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

silky-hairy, margin irregular and wavy, flesh thin, whitish ochraceous, odor
and taste none, lamellae decurrent, distant, narrow, ridge-form, blunt on the
edge, forked, at first yellowish ochraceous, becoming grayish at maturity.
STIPE 1-2)^ in. long, V8~!4 ^^- thick, equal, glabrous, brownish yellow to
ochraceous, whitish at the base, soHd or stuffed, sometimes hollow in age.
SPORES creamy white in mass, ovoid to subglobose or broadly elliptical, smooth,
7-10.5 X 6-8 (9) fx.

In groups on the ground in swampy places, usually among sphagnum.
July-Sept.

Kauffman thought that the specific name tubaeformis was misleading
because the stipe in this species is sohd and not tube-hke. However, the name
is derived from tuba, a trumpet, and refers to the shape of the pileus rather
than to the stipe. It is not so deeply trumpet-shaped as C. floccosus and is a
thinner, more pHant, and less brightly colored plant.

Considerable uncertainty exists concerning the taxonomy and nomen-
clature of this and related species. There appear to be four similar but probably
distinct fungi which have been called respectively, C. tubaeformis Fr., C. in-
fundibuliformis Fr., C. lutescens Fr., and Craterellus lutescens Pers. ex Fr.

The Craterellus is a rather bright yellow species with a smooth or slightly
wrinkled hymenium, and when it dries the pileus becomes gray to blackish and
the hymenium pale yellow. The spores are 9-12 X 7-8.5 /x. Cantharellus
lutescens is yellowish orange to brownish ochre. The lamellae are relatively
well formed, orange-buff in young specimens, more grayish in older ones, and
becoming gray when dried. The spores are (9) 10-12 (13) X 6-8.5 (10) /x.

C. tubaeformis and C. infundibuliformis are not so brightly colored and
have slightly smaller, more subglobose spores. The spores of C. infundibuli-
formis are said to be tinged yellowish to salmon in mass whereas those of
C. tubaeformis are whitish to cream. This seems to be the principal difference
between the two species, although the stipe of C. tubaeformis is said to be solid
at first, becoming hollow in age, whereas the stipe of C. infundibuliformis is
hollow from the first. These fungi need further study to determine whether or
not the differences are constant and sufficiently great to warrant regarding
them as distinct species. If they should prove to be variations of the same
fungus, C. tubaeformis would be the correct name of the species.

Apparently there is a fungus occurring in the western United States that
has a yellow spore deposit and grows on wood. This may be the true C. in-
fundibuliformis or may perhaps be an undescribed species. If this proves to be
C. infundibuliformis probably all the material of the eastern form occurring in
swamps is C tubaeformis.

CANTHARELLUS UMBONATUS Fr. Edible

Figure 51, page 25

PILEUS 54-1 1/2 ill- broad, pliant, at first convex or topshaped, becoming
plane to depressed, usually with a small umbo, bluish gray, gray-brown, or

36

LACTARIUS

blackish gray, smooth or sHghtly flocculose, margin even or wavy, flesh thin,
white, often changing to reddish when wounded or in age, taste and odor mild.
LAMELLAE slightly dccurrcnt, forked, close, narrow, blunt on edge but not
ridge-form, white or stained reddish, stipe 1-3 in. long, Ys-Ya in. thick, equal
or sHghtly tapering upward, whitish or pale gray, usually slightly silky, stuffed
or sohd. SPORES white, smooth, fusiform to fusiform-elliptical, narrow, (8) 10-
12 (14) X 3-4 (5) M.

In groups among moss, usually Polytrichum. July-Oct.

On account of the relatively thin, close lamellae, this species is rather
difficult to place at first, and the beginner is inclined to look for it in Clitocybe.
Once it is recognized as a Cantharellus, however, it is easy to identify and will
not be confused with any other species in this genus. The grayish, umbonate
pileus, the reddening of the flesh and lamellae, and the habitat among mosses
are all distinctive characters. It is said to be edible but because of its small size
is not Hkely to tempt many.

Singer has considered the amyloid spores and well-formed lamellae of
this species to be sufficiently distinct to separate it from Cantharellus and he
has made it the type of a new genus Cantharellula. Other species that Singer
has included in Cantharellula are Clitocybe ectypoides Peck and C. cyathi-
formis (Bull, ex Fr.) Kummer.

LACTARIUS

The principal distinguishing character of Lactarius is the presence of a
latex or milky juice. This latex can best be demonstrated by cutting or breaking
the lamellae or flesh of young specimens. It is sometimes difficult to demon-
strate in old specimens or under very dry conditions, but the apex of the stipe
where it meets the lamellae is a good place to try. A few other mushrooms do
have a latex but they do not resemble Lactarius in stature. Lactarius species
have a characteristic, rather stiff stature and brittle texture that results from
the tissue of the fruit body being composed of many large, round cells termed
sphaerocysts, as well as the usual filamentous hyphae found in other mush-
rooms. The spores are invariably ornamented with more or less prominent
warts and spines or with a raised network. This ornamentation is strongly
amyloid, and the pattern of the ornamentation as observed under very high
magnification is important in critical identification of species. The spores
should be measured in side view since those seen in end view will appear to
be globose.

These characteristic spores and the presence of sphaerocysts in the tissues
are features that distinguish the genera Lactarius and Russula from all other
mushrooms and these two genera are sometimes placed in a separate family,

37

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

the Russulaceae. Lactarius is, of course, distinguished from Russula by the
presence of the latex.

Lactarius is an important and interesting genus for the amateur collector.
There are many species and they may be found over a long period throughout
the summer and fall. Many of the species are large and attractive and a great
many can be identified with reasonable certainty from macroscopic characters.

In collecting Lactarii it is important to note the color of the latex and any
color changes that occur when the latex is exposed to the air, and whether or
not these changes occur slowly or rapidly. The taste of the latex is also an
important character, and this may be ascertained simply by touching the latex
with the tip of the tongue. It may be mild or acrid and burning or sometimes
astringent. Sometimes the burning sensation develops slowly. The color of the
pileus and stipe, and whether or not these are viscid, should be noted.

Although Lactarius is usually classified among the white-spored genera,
many of the species have colored spores and it is advisable to obtain a spore
print in making identifications. The color of the spore deposit is considered to
be a constant character and valuable in determination of species.

Some of the species such as L. deliciosus are well known to be of excellent
quality for eating, but others are doubtful. It is probably better to avoid all
those with an acrid taste even though some are said to be harmless after cook-
ing. L. rufus has been reported to be poisonous and since there are a number of
reddish forms that might be confused with it, these should be tried very
cautiously, and all acrid, reddish fruit bodies should be discarded. Species in
which the latex turns lilac should also be avoided. In Lactarius, as in other
mushrooms, the species should be determined before any are used as food.

Key

1. Latex colored from the first 2

1 . Latex white at first, unchanging or becoming colored on exposure to the air 4

2. Latex blue L. indigo

2. Latex not blue 3

3. Latex orange-red or carrot-colored L. deliciosus

3. Latex dark crimson-red L. subpurpureus

4. Latex white at first, changing color on exposure to the air,

at least on the bruised flesh 5

4. Latex white, unchanging 13

5. Latex changing to lilac or violet 6

5. Latex not changing to lilac or violet 7

6. Pileus glabrous, brownish gray L. uvidus

6. Pileus tomentose, especially on margin, dull yellow L. representaneus

7. Latex changing to yellow 8

7. Latex not changing to yellow 10

8. Pileus glabrous, grayish to tawny reddish L. chrysorheus

8. Pileus tomentose, especially toward margin 9

38

LACTARIUS

9. Pileus yellow; stipe scrobiculate spotted L. scrobiculatus

9. Pileus white; stipe not scrobiculate L. resimus

10. Latex drying greenish or gray-green on the bruised flesh 11

10. Latex not drying greenish 12

11. Spore deposit yellowish L. trivialis

11. Spore deposit white L. mucidus

12. Latex slowly becoming pinkish on the bruised flesh;

pileus dark brown, velvety L. lignyotus

12. Latex causing gray to nearly black stains on the lamellae;

pileus olive-umber L. necator

13. Pileus viscid 14

13. Pileus not viscid 15

14. Pileus glabrous, yellowish L. affinis

14. Pileus tomentose, pinkish L. torminosus

15. Fruiting body with strong, aromatic odor, especially noticeable on drying 16

15. No aromatic odor when fresh or on drying 17

16. Pileus dark brownish red; latex white L. camphoratus

16. Pileus tawny gray to pale tan; latex watery or whey-like L. helvus

17. Taste mild 18

17. Taste acrid 19

18. Pileus glabrous L. subdulcis

18. Pileus pruinose-velvety; gills distant L. hygrophoroides

19. Taste mild at first, sometimes slowly becoming acrid or slightly bitter L. subdulcis

19. Taste definitely acrid 20

20. Pileus glabrous 21

20. Pileus not glabrous 22

21. Pileus ashy gray, darker in center L. cinereus

21. Pileus reddish L. rufus

22. Pileus gray, usually less than XVi inches broad L. griseus

22. Pileus not gray, larger 23

23. Pileus reddish, minutely silky at first, soon glabrous L. rufus

23. Pileus white or whitish 24

24. Pileus with a cottony roll on the margin L. deceptivus

lA. Pileus without a cottony roll on the margin 25

25. Lamellae crowded, becoming pinkish; taste slowly acrid L. controversus

25. Lamellae subdistant, becoming creamy yellowish; taste very acrid L. vellereus

LACTARIUS AFFINIS Peck Not recommended

Figures 54, 55, page 25

PILEUS 2-6 in. broad, fleshy, firm, at first convex-umbilicate, then becom-
ing expanded and depressed in the center, yellowish or ochraceous yellow,

39

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

sometimes slightly flesh-tinted, glabrous, viscid, not zoned, margin at first
inrolled, becoming arched, flesh white, firm, fairly thick, latex white, un-
changing, acrid, lamellae adnate to decurrent, close to subdistant, rather
broad, forked near the base, whitish to creamy yellowish, stipe 1-3 )/2 in. long,
!^-% ^^- thick, equal, glabrous, viscid, concolorous with pileus or slightly
paler, sometimes spotted, stuffed, becoming hollow, spores broadly ellipsoid
to subglobose, whitish, 7.5-10 X 6.5-8.5 m» ornamented with warts joined by
bands or heavy lines to form a fairly complete reticulum.

On the ground in mixed woods, usually sohtary, sometimes in groups.
July-Oct.

The pileus, lamellae and stipe are all more or less the same color and this,
together with the broad subdistant lamellae and acrid latex, characterizes the
species. L. insulsus (Fr.) Fr. is more orange in color and the pileus is dis-
tinctly zoned.

LACTARIUS CAMPHORATUS (Bull, ex Fr.) Fr. Edible

Figure 53, page 25

pileus 1/^-1 14 in. broad, convex, often umbonate, becoming expanded
and at length depressed, fulvous to dark brownish red, dry, glabrous, not
zoned, sometimes slightly wrinkled and uneven, margin at first inrolled,
becoming arched, flesh thin, firm, fragile, tinged the color of the pileus or
paler, odor fragrant and aromatic, especially on drying, latex white, mild, in
dry weather often scant, lamellae adnate to slightly decurrent, close, rather
narrow, whitish to flesh colored, becoming reddish brown, stipe 1/2-2 in.
long, 1/8-% ii^- thick, equal, glabrous to pruinose, spongy-stuffed, colored like
the pileus or paler, spores subglobose, white, mostly 6.5-8.5 X 5.5-7.5 /it,
ornamented with fairly coarse warts, separate or more or less confluent form-
ing short ridges, or some joined by lines, sometimes partly reticulate.

It grows on the ground or on very rotten wood in mixed woods. July-
Sept.

L. camphoratus is a fairly common species and is reported by Kauffman
to be edible. The characteristic odor of this species is not of camphor as the
name might suggest. It is similar to the odor of L. helvus. It is sometimes very
faint in fresh specimens and becomes more pronounced on drying. L. rufus is
similar in color but is larger, has acrid latex, and lacks the odor. L. camphora-
tus might also be confused with L. subdulcis but the latter is usually paler
colored and also lacks the odor.

LACTARIUS CHRYSORHEUS Fr. Suspected

Figure 81, page 47

PILEUS 2-3 in. broad, fleshy, at first convex, usually umbonate but varying
to umbilicate, then becoming plane to depressed, grayish flesh colored to

40

LACTARIUS

tawny reddish or fulvous, glabrous, viscid when moist, somewhat or not at all
zoned, margin inrolled at first, then spreading, flesh fairly thick, white, stain-
ing yellow from the latex, odor strong and pungent, latex at first white,
changing to sulphur yellow, slowly acrid, sometimes bitter at first, lamellae
adnate to slightly decurrent, close, rather narrow, whitish to yellowish, becom-
ing reddish brown in age or when bruised, some forked near the stipe, stipe
1-3 in. long, ^4-1/4 in. thick, equal, glabrous to shghtly hairy at base, con-
colorous with pileus or paler, stuffed, becoming hollow, spores broadly ellip-
soid to subglobose, 6-9 X 5-7 /z, ornamented with fairly high spines and warts
which may be separate, or form short ridges, or be joined by bands or lines to
form a partial reticulum.

It grows on the ground, usually in coniferous woods. July-Oct.

This reddish species with bitter to acrid, white latex that very quickly
changes to bright yellow is fairly common. There has been some doubt as to
whether it should be referred to L. chrysorheus or L. theiogalus Fr. According
to recent illustrations by Wakefield and Dennis (1950) and Neuhoff (1956)
L. theiogalus is a smaller and more reddish brown fungus.

LACTARIUS CINEREUS Peck Not recommended

Figure 56, page 26

PILEUS %-2i/2 in. broad, at first convex, umbiHcate, becoming expanded
and depressed to infundibuliform, ashy gray, darker in the center, glabrous,
viscid, not zoned or occasionally slightly so, margin at first inrolled, then
spreading, flesh thin, white, latex white, unchanging, acrid, lamellae
adnate, close, narrow, white, some forking near the stipe, not becoming
spotted from bruising, stipe 1-2 in. long, V^-V?, in. thick, equal or tapering
upward, glabrous, tomentose at base, concolorous with the pileus, spongy,
becoming hollow, spores white, broadly ellipsoid to subglobose, 6-8 X 5-6 /x,
ornamented with separate or more or less confluent warts, and a few lines but
scarcely reticulate.

In groups on the ground in mixed woods. July-Sept.

There are several grayish species with acrid latex that are not easy to
separate. In L. cinereus the lamellae do not become spotted or stained from
bruising, and the spore deposit is white. L. trivialis (Fr. ex Fr.) Fr. has a
yellowish spore deposit, and the lamellae become stained grayish green to
brownish. The lamellae also become stained in L. varius Peck, L. mucidus
Burl., and L. parvus Peck. The latter is a small species with spores about the
size of those in L. cinereus, but the pileus is soon dry. L. varius and L. mucidus
have large spores, about 8-10 /x long, but diff^er from each other in the structure
of the cuticle of the pileus. In L. mucidus the cuticle is composed of elongated,
very gelatinous hyphae and is very viscid, whereas in L. varius the cuticle is
composed of interwoven, subgelatinous hyphae and is soon dry. These species
are not recommended as food.

41

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

LACTARIUS CONTROVERSUS (Pers. ex Fr.) Fr. Not recommended

Figure 59, page 27

PILEUS 3-8 in. broad, umbilicate, becoming depressed and then infundi-
buliform, whitish or flesh colored, stained with brownish or flesh- colored
spots, indistinctly zoned toward the margin, viscid, slightly tomentose, margin
at first inrolled, then elevated, flesh firm, white or slightly flesh colored.
LATEX white, unchanging, slowly acrid, lamellae shghtly decurrent, crowded,
narrow, whitish to pink flesh colored, stipe l-U/^ in. long, J4-1 in. thick,
equal or tapering slightly toward the base, shghtly floccose-pubescent, white
or slightly stained, soHd, sometimes excentric. spores nearly white or shghtly
flesh tinted, broadly ellipsoid to subglobose, 5-7.5 X 4-5.5 m, ornamented
with a few heavy bands forming a partial reticulum, and some separate warts.

In groups in moist woods, associated with aspens. Aug.-Oct.

This is a very large species with flesh colored lamellae and brownish to
pinkish stains on the pileus. The spots on the pileus are sometimes not very
conspicuous, but the pink lamellae are a distinctive feature. The edible quali-
ties of this fungus are not known but it is not recommended because of the
acrid latex.

LACTARIUS DECEPTIVUS Peck Doubtful

Figure 67, page 28

PILEUS 2-6 in. broad, firm, at first convex-umbilicate and becoming
expanded-depressed to subinfundibuliform, white or with rusty stains, dry,
not zoned, glabrous except the margin which is covered by a cottony roll of
tomentum and more or less inrolled, finally more or less elevated, flesh white,
rather thick, firm, latex white, unchanging, acrid, lamellae adnate to shghtly
decurrent, close to subdistant, rather broad, some forked, white or creamy
yellow. STIPE 1-3 in. long, %-l Yz in. thick, stout, equal, pubescent to tomen-
tose, white, sohd. spores white, broadly eUipsoid to subglobose, 9-12 (14) X
7-9 (10) M, ornamented with low to medium, separate, scattered warts.

It grows singly or in groups on the ground in woods, usually at the edges
of bogs and on boggy ground. July-Sept.

The most striking feature of this mushroom is the cottony roll on the
margin. This will distinguish it from L. vellereus, which it closely resembles.
Mature specimens in which the cottony roll on the margin has largely dis-
appeared are easily confused with L. vellereus. The larger spores of L. decep-
tivus will distinguish them. Specimens in which the latex is scanty or not
evident might be confused with Russula delica.

It is said that the acrid taste disappears on cooking and that it is edible,
but there is danger of confusing mature specimens with L. vellereus, which
has been reported poisonous.

42

LACTARIUS

LACTARIUS DELICIOSUS (L. ex Fr.) Gray Edible

Figures 57, 58, page 27; Figure 412, page 295

Delicious Lactarius

PILEUS 2-5 in. broad, fleshy, firm, at first convex-umbilicate, then ex-
panded and depressed in the center, reddish orange, often with brighter, con-
centric zones, fading to grayish or gray-green, glabrous, viscid when moist,
margin at first inrolled, then arched and spreading, flesh whitish, stained
orange when broken and then becoming greenish, latex orange, reddish
orange, or carrot colored, mild, lamellae adnate-decurrent, close, rather
narrow, bright orange, becoming greenish when bruised, stipe 1 J/2-4 in. long,
1/2-% in. thick, equal or narrowed at the base, pruinose to glabrous, colored
like the pileus or paler, often with orange spots, stuff*ed, becoming hollow.
SPORES faintly yellowish, subglobose, 8-10.5 X 7-8.5 /x, ornamented with lines
and ridges forming a more or less complete reticulum, a few separate warts.

It grows scattered or in groups on the ground under conifers in moist
woods or boggy places. July-Oct.

The 'dehcious lactarius' is one of the more important edible mushrooms.
It is easily recognized by the orange latex and the color. The greenish stains
that develop on the broken flesh are somewhat unattractive in appearance but
do not aff'ect the edible quahties. It is of good flavor and can often be found in
abundance.

In the past this species has been confused with a very similar one recently
recognized by Dr. A. H. Smith, L. thyinos, which can be distinguished by its
viscid stipe, and more strongly decurrent and more distant lamellae. The two
species can be recognized in the field with a little experience but since both are
edible, critical determination is of no importance to those collecting them for
food. The western species, L. sanguifluus Fr., might also be mistaken for
L. deliciosus but can be distinguished by its dark blood-red to purplish red
latex. L. sanguifluus is also edible.

LACTARIUS GRISEUS Peck Not edible

Figure 60, page 27

PILEUS 1/2-1 Vi in. broad, rather flaccid, at first convex, becoming deeply
depressed to infundibuliform, smoky gray, usually darker at center, not zoned,
dry, tomentose, the hairs forming small, erect points, margin incurved at first,
then arched, flesh white, thin, latex white, unchanging, slowly acrid, lamel-
lae adnate to decurrent, close to subdistant, rather broad, white, then cream
to yellowish, stipe 1/2-2 in. long, 1 /16-3/16 in. thick, equal, glabrous, whitish
or grayish, paler than the pileus, stuff'ed then hollow, spores ellipsoid to
subglobose, white, 6-8.5 X 5-6. 5)u, ornamented with a nearly complete reti-
culum of heavy bands and occasional separate warts.

Usually in groups on very rotten wood or on the ground. July-Sept.

Because of its small size and acrid taste it is of no value as food, but it is a

43

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

rather common species and will often be found by the collector. The gray
color, small size, and tomentose pileus distinguish it.

LACTARIUS HELVUS (Fr.) Fr.
Figure 61, page 27

PILEUS 1-4 in. broad, rather fragile, convex at first, becoming plane to
depressed, sometimes slightly umbonate, tawny gray, fading to pale tan, dry,
minutely floccose-fibrillose, not zoned, margin at first inrolled, then spreading.
FLESH watery whitish, odor strong, fragrant and aromatic, especially noticeable
and persistent on drying, latex watery to whitish, unchanging, mild or very
sHghtly acrid, lamellae sHghtly decurrent, close, narrow, whitish, then
yellowish flesh color, stipe 1 1/2-3 in. long, or sometimes longer, Y^-Yz in. thick,
equal, pruinose above to finely hairy at base, concolorous with the pileus,
stuffed, then hollow, spores broadly eUipsoid to subglobose, 6-8.5 X 5-6 )u,
ornamented with a broken reticulum of bands and ridges or fine fines, a few
separate warts.

On the ground or in sphagnum, usually in swampy woods. Aug.-Sept.

This is a rather common species. It is remarkable for the strong odor,
which is very pronounced in dried specimens and persists for a long time. Its
edible qualities are not known.

LACTARIUS HYGROPHOROIDES B. & C. Edible

Figure 62, page 27

PILEUS 1-3 in. broad, rather firm and brittle, at first convex to plane,
slightly depressed in the center, then becoming deeply depressed to somewhat
funnel-shaped, tawny reddish to yellowish, surface dry, pruinose-velvety,
smooth to more or less rugose, margin inrolled, then spreading, flesh rather
thin, whitish, odor and taste mild, latex white, unchanging, mild, copious.
LAMELLAE adnatc to sHghtly decurrent, distant, broad, whitish to cream colored.
STIPE %-2 in. long, Y4-Y2 ^^- thick, equal, rather short, minutely velvety to
glabrous, more or less concolorous with the pileus, solid, spores white,
broadly ellipsoid, 8-10 X 6-7.5 ju, ornamented with low warts and ridges,
some separate but mostly joined by fine lines.

Scattered or in groups, usually in deciduous woods. July-Aug.

The bright reddish-brown color and distant lamellae are the principal
distinguishing characters of this species. L. volemus is similar in color but the
lamellae are close.

Figures

69-78

69.

Lactarius necator.

70. L. necator.

71.

L. representaneus.

72. L. representaneus.

73.

L. resimus.

74. L. scrobiculatus.

75.

L. rufus.

76. L. rufus.

77.

L. subpurpureus.

78. L. subpurpureus.

44

45

O

a

<L>
Cifl

F

gures

80-89

80.

Lac tar ins suhdulcis.

81.

L.

chrysorheus.

82.

L. torminosus.

83.

L.

inucidus

84.

L. uvidiis.

85.

L.

vellereus.

86.

Russula alutacea.

87.

R.

alutacea.

88.

R. aurantiolutea.

89.

R.

aurantiolutea

47

I

I

90

V

92

Figures 90-92, Amanita caesarea. 90, mature plant, note loose membranous volva;
91, section of young plant before volva has ruptured showing outline of young
fruiting body within the volva; 92, young plants showing ruptured volva with
young fruiting body emerging.

93. Russula densifolia.

95. R. emetica.

97. R.jallax.

99. R. joetens.

101. R. lutea.

Figures 93-102

94. R. densifolia.

96. R. emetica.

98. R.flava.
100. R.fragilis.
102. R. nigricans.

48

49

I

104

Figures 103-104. Amanita muscaria. 103, mature plant, note volva adhering to
base of stipe in irregular rings and patches; 104, series of specimens illustrating
the tearing of the volva to leave patches on the pileus and base of the stipe, and
the tearing of the partial veil to form the annulus.

105. Russula abietina.

107. R. chamaeleontina.

109. R. Integra.

111. R. xerampelina.

113. Tricholoma pessundatum.

Figures 105-114

106.
108.
110.
112.
114.

aeruginea.
decolorans.

R.
R.

R. mariae.
Pleurotus serotinus.
Marasmius siccus.

50

51

Figure 115. Amanita virosa: one young fruiting body emerging from the volva and
two mature plants. Note pure white color, membranous volva forming a sheath
around the base of the stipe, and annulus hanging loosely around the stipe.

52

LACTARIUS

LACTARIUS INDIGO (Schw.) Fr. Edible

Figures 65, 66, page 27

PILEUS 2-5 in. broad, at first convex, slightly umbilicate, becoming plane,
depressed in the center, finally infundibuhform, indigo blue, fading and
becoming paler with a silvery-gray appearance, zoned with concentric darker
blue rings, glabrous, sHghtly viscid, margin at first inrolled, becoming arched
and elevated, flesh blue, becoming greenish in age. latex dark blue, mild.
LAMELLAE adnatc-dccurrcnt, close, moderately broad, blue, becoming greenish
in age. stipe 1-2 in. long, y8-% in. thick, equal, glabrous, concolorous with
pileus or paler, sometimes bluish, spotted, stuffed, becoming hollow, spores
yellowish, broadly eUipsoid to subglobose, 7.5-9.5 X 6-7.5 )u, ornamented
with a nearly complete reticulum of light to heavy bands, and occasional
separate warts.

Grows on the ground in woods. July-Sept.

This species is not common but when found cannot be mistaken for
anything else. No other species has dark-blue latex.

LACTARIUS LIGNYOTUS (Fr. ex Fr.) Fr. Suspected

Figure 63, page 27

PILEUS 1-3 in. broad, convex to plane, sometimes centrally depressed,
usually umbonate, dark chocolate brown or sooty brown, evenly colored, dry,
azonate, pruinose-velvety, the margin even to wavy and sometimes plicate.
FLESH white, slowly becoming pinkish when wounded, latex white, slowly
turning reddish, mild to shghtly acrid, lamellae adnate to decurrent, sub-
distant, broad, white then creamy to yellowish buff, the edges sometimes
brown, stipe 1J4-3J/2 in. long, Ys-Ys in. thick, equal, pHcate at the apex,
pruinose-velvety, concolorous with pileus, stuffed, spores yellowish in mass,
subglobose, 8-10 X 7.5-9 ju, ornamented with high, heavy bands and ridges
forming a nearly complete reticulum.

It grows on the ground, usually in conifer woods, especially in bogs.
July-Oct.

Reports concerning the edibility of this species have varied. Some people
have said it is very good, others that it is poisonous. It should be tried cau-
tiously if at all, and is probably best avoided.

The dark brown, velvety pileus of this fungus is very striking in appear-
ance. The reddish stains develop slowly and are not conspicuous. It might be
confused with L. fuliginosus Fr., which is paler, has a shorter stipe not pHcate
at the apex, and slightly smaller spores. L. gerardii Peck looks similar from
the upper surface but can readily be recognized by its very distant lamellae.

53

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

LACTARIUS MUCIDUS Burl. Not recommended

Figure 83, page 46

piLEUS 1-3 in. broad, at first convex, umbilicate, becoming expanded and
depressed to infundibuliform, grayish, putty-colored at margin to brownish in
center, viscid, glabrous, not zoned, margin inrolled at first, then spreading.
FLESH white, not firm, thin, latex white, drying greenish gray to bluish gray,
acrid, lamellae adnate, close to subdistant, rather narrow, some forked,
white, staining greenish gray, sometimes with a tinge of bluish when wounded.
STIPE %-2 in. long, 14-^8 J^i. thick, equal or tapering upward, slightly viscid,
glabrous or somewhat rivulose-wrinkled, colored like the pileus or paler,
stuffed becoming hollow, spores white, ellipsoid to subglobose, 7.5-10 X 6-8 m,
ornamented with a coarse reticulum of lines and bands and a few separate
warts.

On the ground, usually in conifer woods. July-Oct.

This is close to L. trivialis but is somewhat darker in color and the spores
are smaller. The color change of the latex is slow and must be checked care-
fully or the fungus might be confused with L. cinereus. The spores of the latter
are a little smaller. L. varius Pk. is scarcely viscid. It can be distinguished
microscopically by the structure of the cuticle of the pileus. In L. mucidus the
cuticle is composed of elongated, gelatinized hyphae, whereas in L. varius it is
composed of much interwoven, very slightly gelatinized hyphae.

The edible qualities are not known but it is not recommended because of
the acrid latex.

LACTARIUS NEGATOR (Pers. ex Fr.) Lundell Not recommended

Figures 69, 70, page 45

PILEUS 2-6 in. broad, firm, at first convex, umbilicate, becoming expanded
and depressed in the center, olive brown to umber, darker on disk, not zoned,
glabrous or with agglutinated fibrils, viscid when moist, margin at first yellow-
villose. FLESH firm, thick, whitish, latex white, unchanging, acrid, lamellae
slightly decurrent, narrow, crowded, pale yellow, becoming black when
bruised, gray on drying, stipe 1-214 in- long. Vi-^ in. thick, equal, glabrous,
viscid when moist, colored like the pileus or paler, often with darker spots,
stuffed or hollow, spores yellowish to cream colored, ellipsoid to subglobose,
7-9 X 5.5-7 M, ornamented with a nearly complete reticulum of fairly heavy
lines and occasional separate warts.

It grows on the ground, singly or in groups, in mixed woods. July-Sept.

This is an extremely unattractive mushroom, although it is said to be
eaten in Europe. The acrid latex and repellent colors will probably deter most
people from eating it. It was formerly known as L. turpis (Weinm.) Fr. but
this name is illegitimate under the present rules of nomenclature.

It might be confused with L. atroviridis Peck which has more green in the
color of the pileus and has a rough, scabrous surface.

54

LACTARIUS

LACTARIUS REPRESENTANEUS Britz. Not recommended

Figures 71, 72, page 45

PILEUS 3-6 in. broad, convex becoming plane, dull yellow, viscid, tomen-
tose, not zoned, margin at first inrolled and strongly tomentose. flesh firm,
whitish, becoming HIac. latex very abundant, at first white, then watery,
finally becoming lilac, slightly acrid, lamellae adnate, sHghtly decurrent,
close, moderately broad, dull yellowish, staining lilac when bruised, stipe
2-2 Vi in. long. %-l )4 in. thick, equal, glabrous, pruinose at the apex, tomen-
tose at the base, yellowish with brighter spots, hollow, spores white, broadly
eUiptic to subglobose, 9-11 X 7.5-9 /x, ornamented with a broken reticulum
of fairly heavy bands and a few separate warts or short ridges.

On the ground in moist woods, singly or in groups. Aug.-Sept.

This species is not common but it is a very striking fungus with the
yellow, hairy, viscid pileus and the abundant latex which becomes hlac-colored.
The spotted stipe is also a striking character. L. speciosus Burl, is similar but
has a zoned pileus and appears to be a more southern plant. The edible qualities
of L. representaneus are not known but it is not recommended because of the
acrid taste and also because other species in which the latex turns hlac such as
L. uvidus are reported to be poisonous.

LACTARIUS RESIMUS Fr. Not edible

Figure 73, page 45

PILEUS 2-5 in. broad, deeply depressed to infundibuliform, white becoming
tinged with yellow, not zonate or faintly so near the margin, viscid when moist,
glabrous in the center, margin inrolled, then spreading, whitish tomentose.
FLESH firm, white, strong odor when fresh, latex white at first, changing to
sulphur-yellow, acrid, lamellae whitish to pale cream, close, decurrent, some
forked near the stipe, stipe 1-1 )/2 in. long, Y%-Y^ in. thick, whitish with
yellowish stains or spots, equal, glabrous or pruinose above, stuff'ed becoming
hollow. SPORES broadly ellipsoid to subglobose, white, 5.5-8 X 4.5-6 ju?
ornamented with a broken reticulum of rather heavy bands and lines and
occasionally a few separate warts.

On the ground associated with aspens. July-Sept.

This is a rather large white species with a hairy margin and acrid latex that
turns yellow very quickly. No information regarding its edibihty is available
but it is not recommended because of the acrid latex.

LACTARIUS RUFUS (Scop, ex Fr.) Fr. Poisonous

Figures 75, 76, page 45

PILEUS 1 )/^-4 in. broad, convex becoming depressed to infundibuhform,
umbonate, bay-red to rufous, not fading, dry, not zoned, at first minutely

55

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

flocculose-silky, soon glabrous, margin at first inrolled. flesh thin, rather soft,
whitish, tinged pink, odor none, latex white, unchanging, very acrid, lamel-
lae sHghtly decurrent, close, narrow, ochraceous, becoming rufous, sometimes
forked, stipe 2-3 V2 ^^' long» Va-Vi ^^- thick, equal, dry, glabrous to pruinose
or hairy at the base, colored like the pileus or paler, stuffed, then hollow.
SPORES broadly ellipsoid to subglobose, white 7-9 X 5-7 n, ornamented with
fairly heavy bands forming a nearly complete reticulum, some separate warts
and short ridges.

On the ground in conifer woods, especially in spruce bogs. July-Sept.

Reported to be poisonous. It can be confused with L. subdulcis but is
usually larger and more strongly acrid.

LACTARIUS SCROBICULATUS (Scop, ex Fr.) Fr. Poisonous

Figure 74, page 45

PILEUS 2-6 in. broad, at first convex, becoming depressed to infundibuli-
form, pale yellow to ochraceous yellow, sometimes reddish yellow, varying
from azonate to conspicuously zonate, viscid, more or less tomentose espe-
cially toward the margin, becoming glabrous or nearly so in old specimens,
margin at first inrolled, then spreading, flesh firm, white becoming yellow
when wounded, latex white, changing quickly to sulphur-yellow, acrid.
lamellae adnate to shghtly decurrent, crowded, rather narrow, sometimes
forking near the stipe, whitish or yellowish, stipe 1-3 in. long, J^-1 in. thick,
equal, glabrous, colored like the pileus or paler, with brighter colored, de-
pressed spots, hollow. SPORES white, broadly elHpsoid to subglobose, 7-9 X
6-7.5 ju, ornamented with a few heavy bands forming a wide, broken reticulum
with separate warts or short ridges in the spaces.

In groups on the ground in moist woods, usually in coniferous woods.
Aug.-Sept.

The most distinctive characters of this species are the hairy margin and
the prominent depressed spots on the stipe. It is not common but is a striking
species when found.

LACTARIUS SUBDULCIS (Bull, ex Fr.) Gray Edible

Figure 80, page 47

PILEUS %-2 in. broad, at first convex, becoming depressed to infundi-
buliform, often papillate, brownish red to pale tan or reddish fulvous, not
fading, dry, glabrous, not zoned, margin at first inrolled, then spreading.
FLESH firm, whitish or tinged fulvous, odor none, latex white, unchanging,
mild or slowly becoming acrid to bitterish, lamellae adnate to decurrent,
sometimes forked, close, rather narrow, whitish to yellowish flesh color or
stained fulvous, stipe 1-2% in. long, Vg-/^ in. thick, equal or sHghtly tapering
upward, glabrous or pubescent toward the base, colored like the pileus or

56

LACTARIUS

paler, stuffed, becoming hollow, spores broadly ellipsoid to subglobose, white,
7-10 X 6-8 )u, ornamented with fine to medium, separate warts, verrucose.

In groups on the ground in woods, swamps, or wet places. June-Oct.

There are a number of small reddish species that are easily confused and
the exact identity of L. subdulcis is not clear. Among the collections so labeled
in the herbarium at Ottawa there are two distinct species, one with spores
about 7-10 X 6-8 /u that are ornamented with warts and spines not forming
a network, and the other with spores 5.5-8 X 5-6 /x and ornamented with a
network of bands and ridges. Apparently the former is the true L. subdulcis.

It is reported to be edible but there is considerable danger of confusing
it with the poisonous L. rufus. The latter is usually larger but small specimens
might easily be taken for L. subdulcis. L. rufus is strongly acrid.

LACTARIUS SUBPURPUREUS Peck Edible

Figures 77, 78, page 45

PILEUS 1-3 in. broad, fleshy, convex-umbilicate, then expanded, depressed
to nearly infundibuliform, colors mixed and variable, dark red to hydrangea-
pink, zoned with pink and spotted with green, with a grayish luster, fading,
glabrous, slightly viscid when moist, margin at first inrolled, then arched,
pruinose. flesh whitish to pinkish, staining red, especially near the lamellae.
LATEX dark crimson, mild, lamellae slightly decurrent, subdistant, mod-
erately broad, dark red, fading, becoming greenish in age. stipe 1-2)4 in.
long, 14- V2 in. thick, equal, glabrous, hairy at the base, colored like the pileus,
spotted with dark red, stuffed, then hollow, spores broadly ellipsoid to sub-
globose, yellowish, 8-11 X 7-9 m, ornamented with heavy bands forming a
nearly complete reticulum, a few separate warts and ridges.

It grows in moist woods, apparently associated with hemlock. July-Sept.

This is not a common species but it is a very striking one because of the
dark red latex and the variegated colors of the pileus. The latex of L. deliciosus
is more orange-red.

LACTARIUS TORMINOSUS (Schaeff. ex Fr.) Gray Poisonous

Figure 82, page 47

PILEUS IV2-4 in. broad, fleshy, firm, at first convex, depressed in the
center, becoming expanded to nearly infundibuliform, pale yellowish buff to
rosy flesh color, often with more deeply colored zones, viscid, glabrous at the
center, the margin inrolled and persistently covered with long whitish tomen-
tum. FLESH firm, white to pale flesh colored, latex white, unchanging, very
acrid, lamellae decurrent, close, narrow, whitish to yellowish or at length
tinged faintly pinkish, some forked near the stipe, stipe l-lVi in. long, Vi-Va
in. thick, equal or slightly tapering downward, glabrous or pruinose, paler than

57

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

the pileus, sometimes faintly yellowish spotted, stufTed, becoming hollow.
SPORES white, broadly ellipsoid to subglobose, 7-10 X 5.5-8 n, ornamented
with heavy bands forming a fairly complete reticulum, a few separate warts or
short ridges.

It grows on the ground in woods. July-Sept.

This species may be confused with L. cilicioides Fr. which is also reported
to be poisonous. The latter is often more white but may be as deeply colored as
L. torminosus. They can be distinguished with certainty by the spores which
are smaller in L. cilicioides.

LACTARIUS TRIVIALIS (Fr. ex Fr.) Fr. Suspected

Figure 64, page 26

PILEUS 2-6 in. broad, fleshy, at first convex, becoming plane or somewhat
depressed, the margin decurved, then becoming arched, color variable, livid
gray to smoky gray, usually tinted lilac or purplish, fading to pallid, sometimes
pinkish brown on the disk, viscid, not zoned, flesh pallid, rigid-fragile, thick.
LATEX white, acrid, slowly staining the flesh and lamellae dingy grayish green.
LAMELLAE adnate to short decurrent, close, narrow to moderately broad, some
forked, creamy yellowish, staining grayish green or brownish when bruised or
in age. stipe 1 Vi-A in. long, Vj-Va in. thick, equal, surface even or somewhat
wavy, concolorous with the pileus or paler, especially at the apex, hollow.
SPORES yellowish, broadly ellipsoid, 9-12 X 8-10 ji, ornamented with fairly
high warts joined by lines and ridges to form a partial reticulum.

In groups or scattered on the ground in coniferous or deciduous woods.
Aug.-Oct.

This species can be distinguished from the other species of the L. cinereus
group by the yellowish spore deposit.

LACTARIUS UVIDUS (Fr. ex Fr.) Fr. Poisonous

Figure 84, page 47

PILEUS 1-3 in. broad, firm, convex becoming plane, depressed at the
center, sometimes with a slight umbo, brownish gray, tinged with lilac, viscid,
glabrous, usually not zonate but sometimes faintly spotted or zoned, margin
inrolled at first, finally spreading, flesh white, becoming lilac when wounded.
LATEX white, changing quickly to lilac or violet, acrid and bitterish, lamellae
adnate to slightly decurrent, close, rather narrow, whitish to yellowish, quickly
becoming lilac when bruised, stiff 1 '/2-3 in. long, '4-J/2 ^^- thick, equal or
nearly so, glabrous or tomentose at the base, viscid, whitish to yellowish,
stuffed, becoming hollow, spores broadly ellipsoid to subglobose, white,
rather variable in size, 7-12 X 6-8.5 n, ornamented with rather high spines and
warts, separate or more or less joined by lines and ridges forming a partial
reticulum.

58

LACTARIUS

On the ground usually in low wet places, often among moss. July-Sept.
The species most likely to be confused with this is L. maculatus Peck
which is usually larger, and has a zonate pileus and spotted stipe.

LACTARIUS VELLEREUS (Fr.) Fr. Suspected

Figure 85, page 47

PILEUS 2-5 in. broad, convex, umbihcate, becoming expanded and deeply
depressed to subinfundibuhform, white or whitish, tinged yellowish in places,
dry, velvety to the touch, minutely tomentose under a lens, not zoned, margin
at first inrolled, becoming elevated, flesh white, firm, thick, latex white,
unchanging or becoming creamy yellowish, finally staining the lamellae and
flesh brownish, very acrid, lamellae adnate to shghtly decurrent, subdistant
to distant, fairly broad, some forked, whitish becoming cream colored to
yellowish, staining brownish when bruised, stipe Yi-l in. long, Yi-^Va in.
thick, equal or tapering downward, somewhat pruinose-velvety, white or
whitish, solid, spores elHpsoid, white, 7.5-9.5 X 5-6.5 m, ornamented with
very fine, low, separate warts, nearly smooth.

On the ground in mixed woods, usually in groups and sometimes abun-
dant. July-Sept.

It is most hkely to be confused with mature specimens of L. deceptivus in
which the cottony roll on the margin has more or less disappeared. It can be
distinguished from L. deceptivus with certainty by the spores, which in the
latter are larger and have more prominent markings on the walls.

A similar large white species, L. piperatus (L. ex Fr.) S. F. Gray, has very
narrow, densely crowded, forked lamellae, and the pileus is not tomentose.
It is very acrid. This species is reported as common in some parts of the
United States but there are no Canadian specimens in the herbarium at
Ottawa. L. pergamenus (Sw.) Fr. which is regarded by some as simply a
variety of L. piperatus has very narrow, close lamellae.

L. subvellereus Peck is a less common species with a more southern dis-
tribution. The lamellae are closer than in L. vellereus and remain narrow.

59

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

RUSSULA

Russula is similar to Lactarius in having sphaerocysts present in the tissue
of th« fruiting body and in the broadly ellipsoid to subglobose, rough-walled,
amyloid spores, but differs in the absence of a latex. The rather stiff stature and
brittle texture that characterize these two genera are difficult to describe in
words but are soon easily recognized in the field.

Russula is one of the largest and most important genera of the mushrooms.
It is also one of the most difficult genera in which to make accurate identifica-
tions of species although it has been studied intensively by many mycologists.
One reason for this is that there appear to be a great many species that are very
similar and differ only in small characters so that many misidentifications
have occurred and different authors will be found applying the same name to
different fungi. Another reason is that Russula species frequently occur only
singly and sporadically and it is difficult to study the range of variation of a
species; consequently there is considerable difference of opinion as to the
species limits in the genus.

Although Russula is usually classified among the white-spored genera,
the color of the spore deposit varies in different species from pure white to
cream, pale yellow, pale ochre or bright ochre. The exact color of the spore
deposit is very important in the identification of species of Russula and a good
deposit should be obtained from every collection. The spores, as in Lactarius,
are typically broadly ellipsoid to subglobose, strongly amyloid, and ornamented
with warts, spines, or a network of ridges, and the pattern of ornamentation is
important in critical determination of the species. The attachment of the
lamellae varies from adnexed to adnate or sHghtly decurrent and one section of
the genus is characterized by having the lamellae alternately long and short.

The pileus is often brightly colored in shades of red, yellow, purple, green,
or bluish, although there are some species with dull colors of white or brown.
They may be dry or viscid, glabrous or pruinose to tomentose, and the margin
may be more or less tuberculate-striate. The taste varies in different species
from mild to acrid, bitter, nauseous, etc., and this should be noted in fresh
specimens since it is an important character to aid in distinguishing species.

Some authors claim that all russulas are edible and that the acrid taste
disappears on cooking. However, we do not recommend eating the acrid
species and they should be tried very cautiously if at all. One species, R. vesi-
catoria Burl., described from Florida and also known on the west coast, is
reported to cause blistering of the lips and tongue when tasted. Also species
like R. foetens, which have a very unpleasant odor and taste, should certainly
be avoided.

Only a few of the commoner species are described here. The collector will
find many others that he will be unable to identify with this book.

60

^ RUSSULA

Key

1. Lamellae alternating long and short 2

1. Lamellae equal 5

2. Flesh becoming black in age or when wounded 3

2. Flesh unchanging, fruit body white R. delica

3. Flesh first reddening, then blackening 4

3. Flesh blackening without any intermediate reddening R. sordida

4. Lamellae broad, subdistant R. nigricans

4. Lamellae narrow, very crowded R. densifolia

5. Spore deposit white or cream 6

5. Spore deposit yellow 13

6. Taste mild 7

6. Taste acrid 9

7. Pileus green or greenish to brownish on disk R. aeruginea

I. Pileus red or brownish red 8

8. Pileus dark crimson to maroon, sometimes paler to yellowish, dry;

stipe usually red R. mariae

8. Pileus dull brownish red, drying greenish toward margin;

stipe white staining yellowish to brownish at base R. vesca

9. Lamellae forked throughout; pileus pinkish to purplish becoming

olivaceous or greenish R. variata

9. Lamellae equal, or forked rarely or only near the base 10

10. Pileus yellowish to brownish yellow; odor fetid R. foetens

10. Pileus more or less red, no odor 11

II. Pileus uniformly red or fading to whitish 12

11. Pileus red on margin, olivaceous to purplish in center, small R. fallax

12. Pileus mostly l-2Vi in. broad; flesh white under the pellicle R. fragilis

12. Pileus mostly 2-5 in. broad; flesh red under the pellicle R. emetica

13. Taste acrid 'T.Z.. 14

13. Taste mild 17

14. Pileus yellow to orange R. aurantiolutea

14. Pileus red 15

15. Spores deep ochraceous; margin of pileus striate;

stipe often tinged red R. tenuiceps

15. Spores pale yellow, margin even or very slightly striate 16

16. Pileus large, bright, shining, red to purplish red or orange-red, fragile;

taste slightly acrid; stipe often tinged reddish R. paludosa

16. Pileus medium size, rosy red, rather firm; taste very acrid;

stipe never red R- veternosa

17. Pileus yellow 18

17. Pileus not yellow 19

18. Lamellae becoming gray on drying R- flava

18. Lamellae unchanging R- lutea

61

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

19. Lamellae becoming gray on drying 20

19. Lamellae unchanging 21

20. Pileus orange-red to red, no odor R. decolorans

20. Pileus purplish red to olivaceous; fishy odor on drying R. xerampelina

21. Spores ochraceous yellow 22

21. Spores pale yellow 24

22. Pileus mostly more than 2 in, broad R. alutacea

22. Pileus mostly less than 2 in. broad 23

23. Pileus purplish to greenish, disk darker R. abietina

23. Pileus reddish to purplish, disk paler R. chamaeleontina

24. Pileus mostly more than 2 in. broad R. Integra

lA. Pileus mostly less than 2 in. broad R. puellaris

RUSSULA ABIETINA Peck Edible

Figure 105, page 51

PILEUS 1-21/2 in. broad, fleshy, thin, fragile, convex, becoming plane or
slightly depressed, color variable, dull purple, greenish purple, or olive-green,
the center always darker, sometimes nearly black, the margin paler to grayish,
viscid, glabrous, with a separable pellicle, margin tuberculate-striate. flesh
white, rather fragile, mild, lamellae whitish becoming pale yellow, narrowed
toward the stipe, somewhat rounded behind and nearly free, subdistant, equal.
STIPE 1-2J/2 in. long, )4-!/2 in. thick, equal or shghtly tapering upward, gla-
brous, white, stuffed or hollow, spores bright yellowish ochraceous, subglo-
bose, about (7) 8-10 (11) X (6) 7-9 (9.5) m, ornamented with warts that are
mostly separate, or some confluent forming short ridges, a few joined by
fine Hnes.

Gregarious under balsam fir. Aug.-Oct.

R. abietina is a small species with ochraceous spores, mild taste, and
variable colors, usually more or less mixed purplish and greenish. R. chamae-
leontina Fr. is similar but usually more reddish, tending to fade to yellowish in
the center and has slightly smaller spores. Other somewhat similar species are
R. gracilis Burl., which has yellow spores but is acrid, R.fallax sensu Kauff^m.,
which has white spores and is also acrid, and R. puellaris Fr., which is mild but
has pale yellow spores.

RUSSULA AERUGINEA Lindbl. Edible

Figure 106, page 51

PILEUS 1 J/2-3 in. broad, at first moderately firm, becoming fragile, convex
becoming expanded and slightly depressed in the center, dull green, dark
green, or smoky green, darker in the center and sometimes tinged brownish,
paler on the margin, viscid when wet, slightly pruinose to pruinose-velvety
when dry, the peUicle separable only on the margin, margin even or becoming

62

RUSSULA

slightly tuberculate-striate in age. flesh thick on the disk, becoming thin at the
margin, white or greenish, ashy under the pellicle, mild, lamellae narrowly
adnate to nearly free, close to subdistant, narrow, equal or with a few short
ones, white, becoming cream colored, stipe 1 )/2-2 in. long, i4-J/2 in. thick,
nearly equal or slightly tapering downward, glabrous, white, firm to spongy-
stuffed. SPORES creamy white, subglobose, 7-9 X 5.5-7 m, ornamented with
rather low, mostly separate warts and a few fine lines.

Gregarious or solitary on the ground in coniferous or mixed woods.
July-Sept.

The green color, mild taste and creamy white spore deposit are the
important field characters of this species. It is somewhat viscid when wet but is
soon dry and more or less pruinose to minutely velvety. R. virescens Fr. is a
green species with white spores and mild taste and the cuticle tending to
become cracked on the margin. R. olivascens Fr. has yellow spores.

RUSSULA ALUTACEA (Pers. ex Schw.) Fr. Edible

Figures 86, 87, page 47

PILEUS 3-6 in. broad, firm, convex, becoming depressed, dull red or dark
reddish purple, sometimes fading to greenish, glabrous, viscid when wet,
pellicle somewhat separable, margin even at first, becoming tuberculate-
striate. FLESH firm, white, mild, lamellae rounded behind, adnexed, nearly
free, subdistant, fairly broad, ochraceous to tan colored, equal, stipe 2-4 in.
long, Yi-l )4 in. thick, equal or nearly so, glabrous, white or tinged reddish,
solid. SPORES ochraceous yellow, broadly ellipsoid to subglobose (7) 8-10
(11) X (6) 7-9 M, ornamented with rather prominent separate warts and spines.

Usually sohtary on the ground in frondose or mixed woods. Aug.-Sept.

This is one of the species about which authors do not agree concerning
its identity. The name is used here for a medium to large, dull-reddish or
purphsh species usually with more or less red on the stipe, a mild taste, and
ochraceous spore deposit.

RUSSULA AURANTIOLUTEA Kauffm. Doubtful

Figures 88, 89, page 47

PILEUS 2-4 in. broad, thin, fragile, at first convex, becoming plane to
slightly depressed, yellowish in the center to more orange on the margin,
glabrous, viscid, peUicle separable to the disk, margin even, becoming slightly
tuberculate-striate. flesh white, yellowish under the pellicle, acrid, lamellae
narrowly adnate, close to subdistant, broad in front becoming narrower
toward the stipe, yellow, often forked near the base, stipe 1 )/2-4 in. long,
Va-Va in. thick, equal or nearly so, glabrous, white, spongy-stuffed, spores
ochraceous yellow, subglobose, (6) 7-8 (9) X 5.5-7.5 /x, ornamented with
warts joined by heavy bands.

63

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

Solitary or scattered in mixed woods. July-Sept.

This is a yellow to orange species with ochraceous spores and acrid taste
in which the lamellae and stipe do not turn gray on drying. Its edible quahties
are not known but it is not recommended because of the acrid taste.

RUSSULA CHAMAELEONTINA Fr. sensu Kauffm. Edible

Figure 107, page 51

PILEUS %-2 in. broad, thin, fragile, plane or depressed, variable in color,
red to purpHsh or hlac, fading to yellowish, especially on the disk, glabrous,
viscid, pellicle separable, margin even, becoming somewhat tuberculate-
striate. flesh thin, fragile, white, mild, lamellae adnexed to almost free, close
to crowded, rather narrow, equal or a few forked, ochraceous yellow, stipe
%-2 in, long, i4-!4 in. thick, equal or sHghtly tapering upward, glabrous or
sHghtly marked with lines, white, spongy-stuffed becoming hollow, spores
ochraceous, subglobose, 7-9 (10) X 5.5-7.5 /x, ornamented with rather promi-
nent warts and spines, mostly separate or occasionally confluent or joined by
fine hnes.

Sohtary or gregarious on the ground in coniferous or mixed woods.
Aug.-Sept.

Considerable confusion exists in the Hterature concerning this species and
it may be a collective species including several recognizable forms. In general,
a small Russula with ochraceous spore deposit, mild taste, and variable colors
with some tendency to fade to yellowish, would probably be referred here.

RUSSULA DECOLORANS Fr. Edible

Figure 108, page 51

piLEUS 2-5 in. broad, firm, at first globose, becoming plane to shghtly
depressed, orange-red, Hght red, or salmon colored, the disk usually ochre,
glabrous, shghtly viscid, the pellicle partly separable, margin even, becoming
shghtly striate when old. flesh at first firm, becoming fragile in age, white,
becoming ashy in age or when wounded, mild, lamellae adnexed, close,
moderately broad, at first white, becoming pale yellowish, ochraceous, becom-
ing ashy gray on drying, some forked at the base, equal or with a few short
ones. STIPE 2-4 )/2 in. long, J/2-I ii^- thick, equal or nearly so, smooth or some-
what wrinkled with fine hnes, white, becoming ashy in age or when bruised,
sohd or spongy, spores subglobose, pale ochraceous yellow, 10-13 X 8-10 m>
ornamented with high, separate warts and spines, some joined by fine fines.

Sohtary or scattered on the ground in coniferous or mixed woods. July-
Sept.

This is a large orange-red species particularly characterized by the lamellae
and stipe changing to ashy gray when dried or in age.

64

RUSSULA

RUSSULA DELICA Fr. Edible

Figure 68, page 28

PILEUS 3-6 in. broad, fleshy, firm, at first convex and umbilicate, becoming
deeply depressed to infundibuliform, dull white or with rusty-brown stains,
glabrous or very finely hairy, dry, margin at first involute, becoming arched,
not striate, flesh compact, firm, white or whitish, not changing color when
bruised, mild to slowly and slightly acrid, lamellae adnate-decurrent, sub-
distant, alternating long and short, few forked, white or whitish, sometimes
greenish on edge, stipe %-2 in. long, j/^-% in. thick, short, stout, equal or
tapering downward, white, not turning blackish when bruised, usually with a
pale green zone at the apex, glabrous to subtomentose. spores subglobose,
white in mass, rough 8.5-11 X 7-9 n, ornamented with rather coarse warts,
mostly joined by fine lines or forming short ridges, partly reticulate.

Gregarious on the ground in conifer or frondose woods. July-Oct.

At first sight this species suggests a Lactarius, but it has no latex. It is
fairly common and is often found pushing up earth or old leaves and partly
concealed by them. The greenish zone at the apex of the stipe, though often
inconspicuous, can be observed by turning the fruit body in the fight and it
makes a good field character. Collectors on the west coast should beware of a
species resembling R. delica but smaller and with the lamellae equal, not
alternating long and short. This is R. vesicatoria Burl, and it is excruciatingly
acrid and may cause blistering of the lips and tongue if tasted.

Another characteristic Russula of the west coast is R. crassotunicata
Singer which is found growing under devil's-club and is a white species that
stains brown. It is slightly acrid and its edible quafities appear to be unknown.

RUSSULA DENSIFOLIA (Seer.) Gill. Edible

Figures 93, 94, page 49

PILEUS 2-4 in. broad, convex-umbificate becoming depressed to subin-
fundibuliform, firm and rigid, dull whitish at first, becoming smoky brown,
slightly viscid, glabrous, margin even, flesh thick, firm, white, slowly turning
reddish then black when cut or bruised, mild to slowly and shghtly acrid.
LAMELLAE adnatc to shghtly decurrent, close to crowded, rather narrow,
whitish or grayish, when bruised becoming reddish then black, stipe 1%-
lyi in. long, 1/^-1 in. thick, equal or tapering below, glabrous, whitish, becom-
ing reddish then black when bruised, soHd. spores broadly ellipsoid, white,
7-9 (10) X 5.5-8.5 /z, ornamented with fine warts which are joined by a network
of fine fines.

Usually sofitary or gregarious on ground in woods from July-Sept.

This species is distinguished from R. nigricans principally by the close to
crowded lamellae and from R. sordida by the appearance of red color in the
wounded flesh before it becomes black. The color change is sometimes slow
and the red color is transitory so it must be watched for carefully.

It is said to be edible but is unattractive in appearance.

65

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

RUSSULA EMETICA (Schaeff. ex Fr.) Pers. ex S. F. Gray Suspected

Figures 95, 96, page 49

piLEUS 2-4 in. broad, fleshy, firm at first, soon becoming fragile, convex,
becoming plane or slightly depressed, rosy red to blood-red, sometimes fading
to white, viscid when wet, glabrous, shining, pelhcle separable, margin strongly
tuberculate-striate. flesh white, red under the pellicle, very acrid, lamellae
slightly adnexed to free, close to subdistant, rather broad, narrowed behind,
white, stipe 1 )/2-3 in. long, )/2-% in. thick, nearly equal, smooth, white or
tinged red, spongy-stuff'ed. spores white, subglobose, (7) 8-10 X (6) 7-8.5
(9) ju, ornamented with fairly high warts and spines, more or less joined by
fine lines to form a partial reticulum.

Scattered to gregarious on the ground or on very rotten wood. July-Oct.

This species is very close to R.fragilis and some authors consider these to
be varieties or subspecies. R. emetica is usually a little larger, the flesh is red
under the cuticle rather than white, and the spores seem to be slightly larger
with slightly higher ornamentation.

The taste is very acrid and although some have claimed that this taste
disappears on cooking and that the species is edible, it is not recommended.

RUSSULA FALLAX sensu Kauffm. Suspected

Figure 97, page 49

PILEUS 1-21/2 in. broad, thin, fragile, plane or sHghtly depressed, usually
rose or flesh colored on the margin, with an ohvaceous zone surrounding the
disk which is usually much darker and purplish, viscid, glabrous, pellicle
separable, the margin striate, flesh white, or tinged like the peUicle under the
surface, acrid, lamellae adnexed, subdistant, narrow, white, stipe 1-2 in.
long, )4-/4 ir^- thick, equal, cylindrical or somewhat compressed and with
minute longitudinal wrinkles, white, spongy-stuff'ed to hollow, spores white,
subglobose, 6-8 X (4.5) 5-7 m» ornamented with warts that are more or less
joined by lines and ridges to form a nearly complete reticulum.

Solitary or gregarious on mossy ground in the woods, or among sphag-
num. July-Sept.

This little species with its characteristically colored pileus, white spores,
and very acrid taste is fairly common. It is related to the fragilis-emetica com-
plex. It is probably not the true R. fallax Cke. but is the species Kauff'man
described under that name.

It is not recommended for eating because of the acrid taste.

RUSSULA FLAVA Rom. Edible

Figure 98, page 49

PILEUS 2-3 in. broad, rather fragile, at first convex, becoming plane or
slightly depressed, dull yellow or golden yellow, sometimes becoming ashy in
age, viscid when moist, glabrous, pellicle separable, margin even or slightly

66

RUSSULA

Striate when old. flesh white, becoming ashy gray when old, mild, lamellae
adnexed, close, moderately broad, narrowed behind, at first white, becoming
pale yellow and finally ashy gray in age or in drying, stipe 2-3 in. long, 1/2-
% in. thick, equal or nearly so, smooth or with a fine network of lines, at first
white, becoming ashy gray in age, spongy-stuffed, spores pale yellow, sub-
globose, 8-10(11) X 7.5-9 M, ornamented with rather fine warts that are more
or less joined by fine lines forming a partial reticulum.

SoHtary or scattered on the ground in conifer or mixed woods. July-Sept.

The most characteristic feature of this species is the change to ashy gray
of the flesh and lamellae in age or on drying. The bright yellow color, mild
taste and pale yellow spore deposit are also distinguishing characters. It is
probably the same as R. claroflava W.B. Grove, and, if so, this would be the
correct name since it was published earher.

RUSSULA FOETENS Pers. ex Fr. Not edible

Figure 99, page 49

pileus 21/2-5 in. broad, at first firm, becoming fragile, at first nearly
globose, expanding and becoming plane to slightly depressed, yellowish or
dingy ochraceous, glabrous, viscid, peUicle separable part way to the disk,
margin widely and coarsely tuberculate-striate. flesh thin, rather fragile,
dingy white, yellowish under the pelHcle, taste acrid, odor strong, resembhng
bitter almonds, then fetid, lamellae adnexed, rather close, broad, at first
whitish, becoming yellowish with age and dingy when bruised, exuding drops
of water when young, some forked, stipe 1-3 in. long, I/2-I in. thick, equal or
nearly so, smooth, white or dingy brown in age or when bruised, stuffed,
becoming hollow, spores white, subglobose, 8.5-10 X 8-9 m, ornamented
with coarse, separate spines.

Gregarious on the ground in mixed woods. July-Sept.

The dingy colors and unpleasant odor make this an extremely unattractive
fungus. It is not recommended as an edible species, but is not hkely to be
eaten anyway, because of its unpleasant taste.

There is a group of species somewhat similar to R. foetens. R. foetentula
Peck has pale yellow spores and red stains on the stipe. R. pectinata Fr. has
different spore ornamentation. R. granulata Peck is smaller, lacks the odor
and has granules on the pileus, and R. pectinatoides Peck lacks the granules, is
mild or sHghtly acrid and has whitish spores. R. ventricosipes Peck has pro-
nounced red stains on the stipe and grows in sand. In this species the taste is
slowly acrid and the spores are pale ochraceous.

RUSSULA FRAGILIS (Pers. ex Fr.) Fr. Suspected

Figure 100, page 49

PILEUS 1-2 in. broad, thin, fragile, at first convex, becoming plane or
shghtly depressed, rosy red to pale red, fading to whitish, glabrous, viscid,

67

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

pellicle separable, margin tuberculate-striate. flesh white, not red under the
pellicle, thin, fragile, very acrid, lamellae adnexed, close to crowded, ventri-
cose, white, stipe 1-2 in. long, Ya-Yz in. thick, equal, smooth, white, spongy-
stuffed to hollow, fragile, spores white, subglobose, 7-9 X 6-8 m, ornamented
with moderately high warts, more or less joined by lines and ridges to form a
partial reticulum.

Scattered on the ground in woods. July-Sept. Common.

See the notes on R. emetica for a comparison with this species.

RUSSULA INTEGRA (L. ex Vitt.) Fr. Edible

Figure 109, page 51

pileus 2-5 in. broad, at first firm, soon becoming fragile, convex becoming
plane or sHghtly depressed, color variable, rather dingy or sordid, from buff
to reddish brown to dark, dull red, fading, glabrous, viscid when wet, pellicle
separable, margin becoming coarsely tuberculate-striate. flesh white, mild.
lamellae adnexed, nearly free, distant, broad, white becoming pale yellow.
stipe 1V2-2J4 ill- long, Vz-^ ^^- thick, tapering upward to nearly equal,
sometimes ventricose, smooth, white, spongy-stuffed, fragile, spores pale
yellow, subglobose, 7-9 X 5.5-7 /x, ornamented with low to medium separate
warts, some more or less confluent or joined by fine lines.

Gregarious on the ground in woods. Aug.-Sept.

The exact identity of R. Integra appears to be somewhat in doubt but this
is believed to be the same fungus that was described by Kauffman under this
name. It is a medium-sized, dull red species and has a pale yellow spore
deposit and mild taste. The stipe is never red.

RUSSULA LUTEA (Huds. ex Fr.) S. F. Gray Edible

Figure 101, page 49

PILEUS 1-21/2 in. broad, thin, fragile, plane or shghtly depressed, bright
yellow to golden yellow, glabrous, viscid, pellicle separable, margin even,
becoming slightly striate when old. flesh white, thin, fragile, mild, lamellae
free, subdistant, rather narrow, broader at the front, bright ochraceous.
STIPE 1-2 in. long, about 14-/4 in. thick, equal or slightly tapering upward,
smooth, white, spongy-stuffed becoming hollow, spores ochraceous, globose,
8.5-10 X 7.5-9 /x, ornamented with moderately coarse warts, mostly separate
or some confluent forming short ridges.

Usually solitary on the ground in mixed woods. Aug.-Sept.

This species is fairly easily recognized with its bright yellow pileus and
deep ochraceous lamellae and spores.

Figures 116-125
116. Russula paludosa. 117. R. paludosa.

118. R.variata. 119. R.variata.

120. R. vesca. 121. R. vesca.

122. R. tenuiceps. 123. Amanita ftavoconia.

124. A. br untie sc ens. 125. A. citrina.

68

69

Figures 126-128. Lepiota americana. 126, mature fruiting body; 127, young fruit-
ing body; 128, section of young fruiting body.

129. Amanita frostiana.
131. A. gemmata.
133. A. muscaria.
135. A. porphyria.
137. A. rubescens.

Figures 129-138

130. A. frostiana.
132. A. gemmata.
134. A. muscaria.
136. A. porphyria.
138. A. rubescens.

70

71

72

RUSSULA

RUSSULA MARIAE Peck Edible

Figure 110, page 51

PILEUS 1-3 in. broad, firm, convex, becoming plane or slightly depressed,
dark reddish purple, dark crimson or maroon colored, sometimes paler to
slate violet or yellowish when shaded, dry, pruinOse-velvety, margin usually
even, sometimes becoming striate when old. flesh white or reddish under the
peUicle, becoming sticky when cut or handled, mild or very slightly acrid.
LAMELLAE adnatc, close to subdistant, rather narrow, somewhat broader in
front, white, becoming yellowish in age. stipe 1 )/2-3 in. long, 1/2-1 in. thick,
equal or tapering downward, pruinose, usually white at each end and rosy red
to purphsh red in the middle, occasionally entirely white, spongy-stuffed.
SPORES whitish to faintly yellowish, subglobose, 7-9 (10) X (5.5) 6-7.5 (8.5) ju,
ornamented with a more or less complete network of bands and ridges, and a
few separate warts.

Gregarious on the ground in woods. July-Oct.

This is a beautiful species with purplish red pilei and stipes, cream-colored
spore deposit, and mild taste. The pileus is dry and minutely velvety.

RUSSULA NIGRICANS (Bull.) Fr. Edible

Figure 102, page 49

PILEUS 3-6 in. broad, firm, at first convex and umbilicate, becoming
expanded and infundibuliform, whitish, becoming smoky umber to blackish,
glabrous, slightly viscid when moist, margin incurved at first, not striate.
FLESH firm, whitish, changing to reddish and then black when wounded, mild to
slowly acrid, lamellae adnexed, rounded or narrowed behind, subdistant to
distant, broad, alternating long and short, whitish, changing to reddish then
black when bruised, stipe %-2]/^ in. long, J^-l in. thick, stout, equal, glabrous,
whitish at first, becoming smoky brown with age, changing to reddish then
black when bruised, solid, spores white, subglobose 7-9 X 6-8 ju, ornamented
with a network of fine fines joining low warts.

Gregarious or solitary on the ground in conifer or frondose woods. July-
Sept.

The pronounced blackening of the flesh and lamellae of this species make
it rather unattractive but it is said to be edible. The reddening of the flesh when
wounded must be watched for carefully. It is distinguished from R. densifolia
by the broad, subdistant lamellae.

RUSSULA PALUDOSA Britz.

Figures 116, 117, page 69

PILEUS 3-5 in. broad or sometimes larger, convex, becoming expanded and
depressed in the center, deep blood-red to red-purple or red-orange sometimes

73

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS'OF CANADA

fading to yellowish, somewhat shining, glabrous, viscid, margin slightly
striate-tuberculate. flesh white, rather fragile, acrid, lamellae white to
creamy yellow, broad, subdistant, nearly free, stipe 3-4 in. long, y2-\ in. thick,
nearly equal or slightly narrowed above, white or washed with pinkish, spongy.
SPORES pale yellow, subglobose, 9-12 X 8-10 /u, ornamented with prominent
warts and spines, a few joined by fine lines, not reticulate.

Singly or gregarious in wet places or among sphagnum. July-Sept.

A large and showy species differing from R. emetica in the pale yellow
spore deposit and less acrid taste. Some authors say the taste is mild and there
is some doubt as to whether the forms with mild taste might be considered a
distinct species, R. rubrotincta (Pk.) Burl. Specimens labeled as having a mild
taste seem to be identical microscopically with the acrid forms. The edges of
the lamellae are said to be sometimes red near the margin. Its edible qualities
are not known.

RUSSULA PUELLARIS Fr.

PILEUS l-lj/^ in. broad, thin, fragile, convex, becoming plane or slightly
depressed, variable in color, bluish black, purplish, or yellowish, usually
darker or brownish in the center, viscid, glabrous, pelHcle separable, margin
tuberculate-striate. flesh white or becoming watery translucent, tinged like
the surface under the pellicle, fragile, mild, lamellae narrowly adnate to
adnexed, close, narrowed toward the stipe, white, becoming pale yellow, stipe
1-2 in. long, J4-!/2 ^^- thick, equal or tapering upward, glabrous, white, usually
with yellowish stains toward the base especially when old, stuffed or hollow,
soft and fragile, spores pale yellow, subglobose, rough, (7) 8-10 (11) X (6)
7.5-9 M, ornamented with medium to high warts and spines, some joined by
fine Hnes or confluent forming short ridges, partly reticulate.

Gregarious on the ground in moist woods. Aug.-Oct.

This species is distinguished from R. abietina and R. chamaeleontina by
the pale yellow spore deposit. The yellowish stains that develop in the stipe are
also a distinguishing character. It is probably edible but is a small, fragile
species not likely to be gathered for food.

RUSSULA SORDIDA Peck Edible

Figure 79, page 46

PILEUS 2-6 in. broad, firm, convex, depressed in the center, whitish becom-
ing smoky with age, dry, glabrous, margin at first incurved, not striate, flesh
firm, whitish, when bruised quickly becoming blackish without first turning
reddish, mild to slightly and slowly acrid, lamellae adnate to sHghtly decur-
rent, close, rather narrow, alternating long and short, white becoming blackish
in age or on drying, stipe 1-2 in. long, J^-l in. thick, equal, white becoming
black when bruised, soHd. spores white, oblong-ellipsoid, (7) 8-10 (1 1) X 5.5-
7.5 M, ornamented with fine, low, separate warts, nearly smooth.

74

RUSSULA

Solitary or gregarious on the ground. Said to be associated with hemlocks.
July-Aug.

Because of the pronounced blackening of the flesh this is an unattractive
species but it is reported to be edible. It is distinguished from R. densifolia and
R. nigricans by the direct change of the wounded flesh to black without any
reddening.

R. sordida appears to be very close to R. albonigra (Krombh.) Fr. of
Europe and may be the same species.

RUSSULA TENUICEPS Kauff'm. Not edible

Figure 122, page 69

PILEUS 2 1/2-4 J/2 in. broad, fragile, convex, becoming plane to sHghtly
depressed, rosy red to blood-red, sometimes uniformly colored, usually whitish
spotted or with orange blotches, viscid, glabrous, sometimes with minute
wrinkles, pellicle separable, margin striate, flesh white, red under the pellicle,
very fragile in mature plants, acrid, sometimes slowly, lamellae adnexed to
free, close to crowded, narrow, white, becoming yellow-ochraceous. stipe
2-3 1/2 in. long, %-l in. thick, nearly equal or ventricose, smooth or marked
with fine Hnes, white or rosy tinged, spongy-stuff'ed. spores yellow-ochraceous,
subglobose, rough (6) 6.5-8.5 (9) X 5.5-8 /x, ornamented with medium high
to low warts usually separate or sometimes confluent into short ridges or with
a few fine lines, very slightly reticulate.

Gregarious on the ground in mixed woods. July-Sept.

This is a red species with ochraceous spores and acrid taste. There does
not appear to be any information concerning its edibihty but it is considered
doubtful because of the acrid taste.

RUSSULA VARIATA Banning Edible

Figures 118, 119, page 69

PILEUS l-SYi in. broad, fleshy, firm, at first convex, expanding and becom-
ing depressed to nearly infundibuliform, reddish purple or brownish purple,
often mixed with olive or green, or sometimes entirely greenish, viscid, gla-
brous, pelhcle separable on the margin, margin not striate, sometimes with the
peUicle cracking, flesh white or grayish under the pellicle, mild to slowly acrid.
LAMELLAE adnate to slightly decurrent, close to crowded, narrow, forking two
or three times, white, stipe 1 1/4-3 in. long, I/2-I in. thick, equal or nearly so,
smooth, white, solid, spores white, subglobose, (7) 8-10 (1 1) X (6) 7-8.5 (9) /x,
ornamented with low, separate warts and a few fine lines.

Gregarious on the ground in woods. July-Sept.

This species is close to R. cyanoxantha Fr. and is sometimes regarded as a
variety of it. It diff'ers in the forked lamellae and slightly acrid taste.

75

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

RUSSULA VESCA Fr.
Figures 120, 121, page 69

piLEUS 1 %-4 in. broad, convex-umbilicate becoming rather deeply de-
pressed, sometimes plane, rather firm, brownish red with a tinge of purphsh,
drying to dull olive-green toward margin and brownish red in center, viscid,
glabrous or slightly pruinose, margin slightly striate-tuberculate. flesh firm,
whitish or tinged brownish or violet under cuticle, mild, lamellae white to
cream, close to crowded, rather narrow to moderately broad, some forked,
adnate. stipe 1 )/^-3 in. long, 1/2-1 )4 in. thick, nearly equal, glabrous, slightly
wrinkled, white, staining yellowish to brownish at the base, solid, spores
oblong, white, 6-8 (9) X 5-6 (7) )u, ornamented with low, fine, separate warts
and some fine lines.

On the ground in mixed woods. July-Sept.

This is a rather dull reddish brown species sometimes drying greenish,
with lamellae close to crowded, mild taste and white spore deposit. R. brun-
neola Burl, is probably the same species. The mild taste would suggest that it is
probably edible but definite information about it appears to be lacking.

RUSSULA VETERNOSA Fr. sensu Kaufifm. Not edible

PILEUS 2-3 in. broad, fleshy, convex, becoming plane or sHghtly depressed,
rosy red or flesh colored, fading to whitish or yellow on the disk, viscid when
wet, glabrous, pellicle separable only on the margin, margin even or slightly
striate, flesh white, reddish under the pellicle, very acrid, lamellae adnate,
close, narrow, some short ones present, at first white becoming straw colored.
stipe 2-3 in. long, )/i-% in. thick, equal, smooth, white, fragile, stuff'ed or
hollow. SPORES pale yellowish, subglobose, 7-9 (10) X 6-8 Mj ornamented with
moderately high warts and spines, separate or more or less joined by Hnes and
ridges but scarcely reticulate.

Scattered or gregarious on the ground in frondose woods. Aug.-Sept.

Different authors seem to have different ideas about this species and there
is considerable doubt as to what R. veternosa really is. This is beHeved to be the
same fungus as that described by Kauflfman under this name.

It is a species with the pileus red, paler on the disk, acrid taste and pale
yellow spore deposit. The stipe is never red. Definite information concerning
its edibility appears to be lacking but it is not recommended because of the
acrid taste.

RUSSULA XERAMPELINA (Schaeff*. ex Seer.) Fr. Suspected

Figure 111, page 51

PILEUS 2-4 in. broad, firm, convex, becoming plane or shghtly depressed,
colors variable, more or less reddish purple on the margin to olive green in the
center, or colors mixed with brownish purple or olivaceous, dry, glabrous to

76

AMANITA

pruinose, pellicle scarcely separable, margin even, flesh white, pinkish under
the peUicle, taste mild, odor disagreeable, somewhat fishy in age or on drying.
LAMELLAE adncxcd, close to subdistant, narrowed behind, some forked, whitish
to cream colored, stipe 1 1/2-3 in. long, 1/2-1 in. thick, equal or nearly so,
smooth or slightly wrinkled, white or reddish becoming dingy olivaceous
yellow when handled or in age, solid or somewhat spongy, spores pale yellow,
subglobose, (7) 8-10 (1 1) X (5.5) 6-8.5 (9) m, ornamented with rather promi-
nent, separate warts and spines.

Scattered on the ground in woods. Aug.-Oct.

The principal distinguishing characters of this species are the unpleasant
fishy odor and the pronounced graying of the lamellae on drying. The odor
may not be detected in fresh specimens until they have begun to dry. The
colors of the pileus are variable and the species is easier to identify from dried
material than fresh because of the characteristic graying of the lamellae.

R. squalida Peck has a similar odor and the spores are very similar. The
lamellae also become gray on drying but the pileus dries to an olivaceous or
greenish color rather than the vinaceous red of R. xerampelina. R. serissima
Peck seems to be very similar to R. squalida, mainly differing in having larger
spores.

AMANITA

For anyone interested in eating mushrooms, Amanita is the most impor-
tant of all the genera because it is here that the deadly poisonous species belong.
It is absolutely essential for the beginner to learn the diagnostic characters of
this genus and avoid it. It is true that some Amanita species are edible, but until
these species are known beyond any possibility of doubt, no Amanita should be
eaten.

Amanita is characterized by the combination of three principal characters:
white spore deposit and presence of both annulus and volva. The lamellae are
typically free from the stipe but in a few species they may be narrowly attached
or attached by a line. The stipe separates readily from the pileus.

The annulus is formed from a layer of tissue extending from the stipe to
the margin of the pileus and enclosing the lamellae during the button stage.
As the pileus expands, this layer of tissue tears apart around the margin of the
pileus and remains adhering to the stipe as a more or less definite ring. If this
layer of tissue is delicate, the ring may be poorly formed and easily rubbed off
or evanescent, hence great care should be taken before deciding that an annulus
is absent.

The volva is, perhaps, the most important character and it is also the one
most easily missed by careless collecting. It is a layer of tissue completely en-
closing the young button, which at this stage may resemble a puffball. How-
ever, if it is cut open the outline of the young mushroom can be seen (Figure

77

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

91, p. 48). The true puffballs are homogeneous within. As the pileus expands,
the volva becomes torn. This may occur in different ways. In some species it
tears across the top and the mushroom emerges leaving the volva as a loose
membranous sheath enclosing the base of the stipe (Figure 90, p. 48). In other
species it may tear around the margin of the pileus and part of it remains on the
surface of the pileus as warts or patches whereas the remainder more or less
tightly encloses the base of the stipe, sometimes forming a series of irregular
rings and patches or sometimes appearing as a more or less evident collar
(Figure 103, p. 50). In some species the volva is friable and powdery and tends
to disappear. The volva is often buried in the ground and in order to identify
them correctly it is necessary to collect Amanita species very carefully, making
certain to get the base of the stipe.

In spite of the interest of many students in this genus, the identity of a
number of the species is still in doubt. It is thus advisable to avoid all species
of the genus when collecting for the table.

Key

1. Pileus white or whitish 2

1. Pileus not predominantly white 4

2. Volva forming ragged scales and rings on the stipe;

spores nonamyloid white form of A. muscaria

2. Volva not as above; spores amyloid 3

3. Fruiting body entirely pure white; volva forming a loose sac-like

sheath enclosing the bulb A. virosa

3. Pileus tinged greenish yellow; volva usually adnate to the bulb

but separable at the margin A. citrina

4. Pileus brown, reddish brown, or yellow-brown 5

4. Pileus not predominantly brown 10

5. Wounds in flesh and stipe staining brown or reddish 6

5. Wounds not conspicuously staining 8

6. Bulb abrupt, expanded cup-shaped, depressed-marginate, firm,

often splitting vertically; spores globose A. brunnescens

6. BulS clavate or ovoid, not as above, spores ellipsoid 7

7. Yellow tones present in pileus, warts, or annulus A. flavorubescens

7. No yellow tones present; entire fruit body reddening A. rubescens

8. Annulus gray; bulb not collared; spores amyloid A. porphyria

8. Annulus white; bulb with a collar; spores nonamyloid 9

9. Pileus with creamy margin, brownish disk, very large A. velatipes

9. Pileus yellowish to dark brown with white warts, usually rather small A. pantherina

10. Pileus orange or red, at least on the disk 11

10. Pileus yellow or paler, lacking orange or red tones 14

11. Lamellae clear yellow; volva loose, sac-like A. caesarea

11. Lamellae white or cream; volva not sac-like 12

78

AMANITA

12. Volva powdery; pileus nonstriate; spores amyloid A. flavoconia

12. Volva not powdery; pileus striate; spores nonamyloid 13

13. Pileus large; volva ragged, in rings and scales on the stipe A. muscaria

13. Pileus usually small; volva a small white boot with a slight collar A. frostiana

14. Pileus not striate at margin 15

14. Pileus conspicuously striate at the margin 16

15. Pileus pale greenish yellow; bulb abruptly globose A. citrina

15. Pileus deeper yellow to yellow-brown; bulb clavate or

tapering down A. ftavorubescens

16. Lamellae clear yellow; volva loose, sac-like A. caesarea

16, Lamellae white or cream; volva not loose and sac-like 17

17. Volva forming ragged rings and scales on the stipe;

pileus color lacking brown tones A. russuloides

17. Volva closely enclosing bulb and with a more or less free, collared margin 18

18. Pileus creamy yellowish or buff, lacking brown tones, usually small ... A. gemmata

18. Pileus with brown tones 19

19. Pileus with creamy margin, brownish disk, very large, fragile A. velatipes

19. Pileus yellowish to dark brown with white warts,

usually rather small A. pantherina

AMANITA BRUNNESCENS Atk. Poisonous

Figure 124, page 69

PILEUS 1 54-4 (5) in. broad, convex, becoming expanded, often with a
broad obtuse umbo, dark brown, smoky brown, or olive-brown, paler on the
margin, usually somewhat streaked with innate fibrils, viscid, decorated with
whitish or pallid brownish, floccose warts or patches which may disappear,
sometimes faintly striate on the margin, flesh thin except on the margin,
white, tending to stain reddish brown, odor faint, lamellae free or almost so,
creamy white, close, rather broad, narrowing toward the stipe, with many
short lamellulae interspersed, stipe 3-6 in. long, i/4-% in. thick, with an
abrupt, hard, marginate bulb whose margin splits longitudinally in a very
characteristic manner, equal or tapering upward above the bulb, stuffed with
a pith, subglabrous or minutely scurfy, white, staining reddish brown from
the base upward, annulus large, membranous, collapsing against the stipe,
white or pallid, staining reddish brown, volva dingy white to pallid brownish,
breaking up into membranous-floccose fragments, some of which may cling to
the pileus or bulb margin, usually leaving no trace on the bulb, spores amyloid,
smooth, white, globose, 7-9 (10) /x-

In groups or scattered, on the ground in woods. July-Sept.

Bruises and wounds of the pileus and stipe stain reddish brown. The mar-
ginate bulb and globose spores distinguish this species from A. rubescens.
However, it is very easy to confuse these two species, and, as one is poisonous
and the other edible, a mistake might be serious. A. brunnescens var. pallida
Krieger is a whitish form which Singer has called Amanita aestivalis.

79

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

AMANITA CAESAREA (Scop, ex Fr.) Pers. ex Schw. Edible

Frontispiece; Figures 90, 91, 92, page 48

piLEUS 2-4 in. broad or larger, fleshy, hemispherical, bell-shaped, or con-
vex, expanding to nearly plane, sometimes obtusely umbonate, deep reddish
orange on the disk, shading to bright yellow on the margin, or entirely clear
yellow with disk slightly deeper in color, smooth, viscid, glabrous, prominently
striate on the margin, flesh thin, white or tinged yellowish, odor faint, lamel-
lae free or attached by a line, close to crowded, moderately broad, yellow.
STIPE 3-8 in. long, J4-/4 in. thick, scarcely bulbous, subequal or tapering
toward the apex, hollow, glabrous or slightly floccose-scaly below the annulus,
yellow. ANNULUS soft, membranous, yellow to orange, hanging down loosely
around the stipe, volva thick, white, membranous, at first encasing the entire
fruit body to form a structure the size and shape of a hen's egg, spHtting open
at the apex as the stipe elongates and the pileus pushes up through, and finally
encasing the base of the stipe as a loose, free-margined sac. spores nonamyloid,
smooth, white, oval, 8-9.5 (11.5) X 6-7.5 (8) fi.

Solitary or in groups or large fairy rings on the ground in woods. July-
Oct.

This mushroom is southern in distribution and seems to be rare as far
north as Canada. There are specimens in the herbarium at Ottawa from Elgin
County in Ontario and from Kentville, Nova Scotia. It is also said to occur in
abundance around Quebec City.

A. caesarea is said to be a fine edible mushroom, but anyone collecting it
for food should first be very certain of its correct identification. The poisonous,
A. muscaria has similar colors on the pileus but can readily be distinguished if
a careful examination is made of the volva and other characters such as the
color of the lamellae, stipe, and annulus.

AMANITA CITRINA (Schaeff.) S. F. Gray Suspected

Figure 125, page 69

PILEUS 1.5-3.5 in. broad, convex becoming expanded, pale lemon-yellow
or almost white, viscid when moist, decorated with appressed, friable, whitish
or dingy buff, volval patches which may disappear, nonstriate on the margin.
FLESH rather thin, white, lamellae free or sHghtly attached, close, moderately
broad, creamy white, floccose on the edges, stipe 3-5 in. long, Va-Vi in. thick,
equal or tapering slightly toward the apex, whitish, entirely glabrous or slightly
scurfy at the base, stuffed or hollow, with a rather soft, globose bulb, annulus
creamy yellow or whitish, fragile, membranous, collapsing against the stipe.
VOLVA whitish to dingy buff, membranous, more or less adnate to the soft bulb
but usually separable at the margin, occasionally exceeding the bulb margin
slightly. SPORES amyloid, smooth, white, globose, 7-9 m-

Solitary or scattered on the ground in woods. Aug. -Oct. Fairly common,
at least in Eastern Canada.

80

AMANITA

This mushroom has been known in North America as A. mappa, but the
correct name is A. citrina. Bruises on the pileus, lamellae, and stipe tend to stain
reddish brown. It has been reported as nonpoisonous but is better avoided.

AMANITA FLAVOCONIA Atk. Possibly poisonous

Figure 123, page 69

PILEUS 1-3 in. broad, convex, expanding to almost plane, sometimes
broadly umbonate, brilliant orange to bright yellow, the entire pileus more or
less unicolorous, usually paling slightly toward the margin, smooth, viscid,
with scattered, very friable, floccose or granular-powdery patches of the bright
yellow volva, soon becoming glabrous, nonstriate on the margin, occasionally
becoming faintly short-striate in places in age. flesh thin except on the disk,
white or tinged yellow next to the pellicle, odor not distinctive, lamellae free
or almost so, white or creamy, often yellow on the edges, close, moderately
broad, stipe 2-5 in. long, V^-Vi in. thick, equal or tapering upward from the
oval to clavate-bulbous base, stuffed, then hollow, white or pale yellow,
pruinose above the annulus, minutely scurfy below, usually with a few friable,
yellow, volval fragments clinging to it. annulus membranous, creamy to
yellow. VOLVA entirely bright yellow, very friable, floccose to granular-powdery
present on the pileus in scattered friable warts, a few fragments usually clinging
to the stipe but most remaining in the soil when the fruit body is collected.
spores smooth, white, ovoid, amyloid, 7-9 (10) X (4.5) 5-6 (7) m-

Fairly common at least in Eastern Canada, scattered or in groups on the
ground in woods. June-Sept.

The two orange-yellow species most hkely to be confused with this one,
A. muscaria and A. frostiana, are both conspicuously striate, and both have
nonamyloid spores. A. flavoconia has much more brilhant coloring than
A.flavorubescens and the base of the stipe does not stain reddish.

AMANITA FLAVORUBESCENS Atk. Suspected

Figure 142, page 89

PILEUS fleshy, 1 1/^-4 in. broad, convex to campanulate or broadly gibbous,
expanding, hght yellow to deep, dull yellow, or tinged olive-yellow, often dingy
yellow-brown to umber on the disk, bruising brown to reddish brown, smooth,
slightly viscid, decorated with small, very floccose warts which vary in color
from brilhant ochre-yellow to dingy buff", nonstriate, or in places faintly striate
on the margin, flesh thin except on the disk, white or tinged yellow, bruising
reddish, lamellae moderately broad to rather narrow, free or attached by a
line, close, creamy white, stipe 2-55/2 in. long, y^-\ in. thick, equal or tapering
upward, sHghtly swollen at the base to form an oval-clavate bulb, occasionally
tapering below the bulb, stuffed or hollow, white or tinged yellow above,
staining reddish toward the base, pruinose or minutely floccose, sometimes
bearing a few bright yellow volval fragments, annulus membranous, fragile,

81

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

yellowish on the lower surface, creamy white with a yellow margin on the upper
surface, striate, volva on the bulb thick, membranous, sordid buff, staining
reddish, usually forming a neat appressed boot so tightly appressed as to be
inconspicuous and overlooked, occasionally leaving rings of dingy tissue on
the stipe above the bulb, present on the pileus in dingy buff, floccose warts, or
(especially in young buttons) in bright yellow, floccose fragments, a few of
which may cling to the stipe or annulus but which seem to be lacking from the
bulb except perhaps around its margin, spores smooth, white, amyloid, ellip-
soid, 7.5-9 (10) X 5.5-6.5 ^l.

Solitary or in groups on the ground in woods. June-Sept.

This seems to be a rather rare Amanita^ although it may not be uncom-
mon in certain localities. The combination of reddening stipe base, lack of any
orange-red coloring in the pileus, and amyloid, ellipsoid spores will distinguish
it from other yellowish species. The warts frequently disappear from the pileus,
leaving it glabrous. The thick white flesh of the bulb may pull apart into slight
scales or rings as the mushroom grows.

AMANITA FROSTIANA Peck Not edible

Figures 129, 130, page 71

PILEUS X-lYi in. broad, convex, expanding to plane, deep orange or
reddish orange on the disk, often changing to clear yellow on the margin,
conspicuously striate, viscid, bearing scattered, friable-floccose warts which
are usually yellow or more rarely whitish with a few bright yellow fragments
clinging to them, flesh thin, white, tinged yellow beneath the cuticle, odor not
distinctive, lamellae free, moderately broad, close, white or tinged creamy
yellow, at times yellow-marginate. stipe 2-4 J/2 in. long, about i/i in. thick,
subequal or tapering upward above the small, oval or subglobose bulb, stuffed,
becoming hollow, white or pale yellow, subglabrous. annulus fragile, mem-
branous, often yellow, volva on the bulb forming a Httle white boot with a
free collar at the margin, usually with few to many bright yellow friable frag-
ments clinging to the bulb and stipe base, on the pileus either entirely yellow
and friable, or at times white-floccose with a few bright yellow friable frag-
ments adhering, spores nonamyloid, smooth, white, subglobose to globose,
apiculate, 7.5-9.5 X 7-9 /x-

Solitary or in groups on the ground in mixed woods. July-Sept. Rather
rare.

This species is easily confused with both A. muscaria and A. flavoconia,
although it differs from both in its globose spores and the collared white boot
on the bulb. From A. muscaria it also differs in its small stature and the yellow
friable warts on the pileus. The nonamyloid spores and the prominent stria-
tions on the pileus margin are further characters that separate it from A.flavo-
conia.

It is said to be nonpoisonous but the danger of confusing it with A. mus-
caria is too great and it should be avoided at all times.

82

AMANITA

AMANITA GEMMATA (Fr.) Gill. Doubtful

Figures 131, 132, page 71

PILEUS %-2J4 in. broad, at first ovoid to convex, expanding to plane,
slightly depressed in center, occasionally subumbonate, smooth, viscid, gla-
brous or with floccose-membranous, whitish warts on the disk, pale creamy
yellow on the margin, more dingy yellowish to buff on the disk, margin con-
spicuously striate, flesh soft, fragile, thin, white or tinged creamy yellow, odor
not distinctive, lamellae free, close, broad in comparison to the flesh, creamy
white, edge minutely flocculose. stipe 2-4 in. long, Ys-Vs in. thick, nearly
equal or tapering upward shghtly, with a small, round to oval bulb about
*/4-% in. diam. at the base, whitish, finely pruinose at the apex, subglabrous
to appressed-floccose or appressed-fibrillose below, stuffed becoming hollow.
annulus white, membranous, fragile, evanescent or sometimes remaining
attached to the margin of the pileus. volva adnate to the bulb, at first with a
slight free margin forming a collar at the top of the bulb, this later disappearing
and leaving a slightly torn bulb margin, spores white, subglobose to globose,
nonamyloid, 7-10 (11) X 7-9.5 m-

Singly or gregarious on the ground in mixed woods. June-Sept.

This is a rather small, creamy yellowish to buff colored Amanita. The
annulus is very fragile and may disappear very soon so that one would be
inclined to look for the species in Amanitopsis. It might be confused with
A. russuloides.

Konrad and Maublanc assert that they have eaten this species and that it
is edible; however it cannot be recommended.

AMANITA MUSCARIA Fr. Deadly poisonous

Figures 103, 104, page 50; 133, 134, page 71
Fly Agaric

PILEUS 3-8 in. broad, hemispherical, becoming convex, then expanded,
viscid when fresh, striate on the margin, blood-red to scarlet, orange, or yellow,
or sometimes white, darkest on the disk, adorned with thick floccose to pyra-
midal warts which are whitish or tinged buff or straw-yellow, flesh white or
creamy, moderately thick on the disk, thinning to a line at the margin, tinged
yellow under the cuticle, odor not distinctive, lamellae free but reaching the
stipe, close to crowded, rather broad, white or creamy, often minutely floccose
on the edges, stipe 4-8 in. long, V2-% in. thick, equal or tapering upward
above the clavate bulb, stuffed, whitish or tinged yellow, subglabrous above,
lacerate-scaly toward the base from the remains of the torn volva. annulus
large, membranous, white to yellowish, volva whitish or tinged buff or straw
color, broken up into rings of shaggy scaliness on bulb and base of stipe, in
thick warts on the pileus. spores nonamyloid, smooth, white, ellipsoid, 8-1 1 X
6-8 M.

On the ground in scattered groups or large colonies, sometimes in fairy
rings, along roadsides and in open woods. July-Oct.

83

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

This poisonous Amanita is fairly common and widely distributed. The
ragged volval scales on the stipe are very characteristic but the scales on the
pileus may become washed off by rains. On the west coast of North America
the form with reddish pileus seems to be the common one; while in the East the
pileus tends to be yellow to orange. A white form is sometimes found. For a
comparison with A.frostiana and A.flavoconia, see the notes on those species.
See also the notes on A. velatipes.

AMANITA PANTHERINA (DC. ex Fr.) Seer. Deadly poisonous

PILEUS 2-4 in. broad, convex at first, becoming expanded to nearly plane,
viscid, surface covered with whitish, pyramidal warts which later may fall off
or be washed off, typically smoky brown in color but varying to yellowish
brown or olive-brown, sometimes quite yellowish, margin striate, flesh
whitish, thick in center to thin at margin, odor not distinctive, lamellae
white, free or attached by a line at first, close to crowded, with 1-2 tiers of
lamellulae. stipe 2^/2-4 in. long, %-% in. thick, swollen at the base, white,
silky above the annulus, fibrillose below, stuffed, annulus median or superior,
floccose-membranous, fibrillose below, margin yellowish to grayish brown.
VOLVA closely adhering to the bulb as a sheath with a free collar, sometimes
leaving a few concentric rings of volval tissue on the stipe, forming whitish
warts on the pileus. spores white, smooth, nonamyloid, broadly ellipsoid to
ovoid, (8) 9-11 (12) X 6.5-8 }x.

Under conifers apparently only along the west coast. May-Nov.

This is a very poisonous mushroom and according to Smith (1949)
it has caused more deaths in Europe than A. muscaria, which usually receives
more publicity. All of the records in our herbarium are from British Columbia
except one, which is from the Yukon. A. pantherina may not occur in eastern
North America but it has been included because of its very poisonous properties.

It is reported to be variable in color, typically brown but sometimes
varying to yellow. Yellow forms may be confused with A. muscaria but the
collar-like margin of the volva should distinguish it. A. velatipes is paler,
larger, and more fragile.

AMANITA PORPHYRIA (A. & S. ex Fr.) Seer. Suspected

Figures 135, 136, page 71

PILEUS 1-2 )/2 ir^- broad, convex, becoming expanded, sometimes broadly
subumbonate, brown to gray-brown or muddy brown, smooth, viscid, usually
bearing a few remnants of the friable, gray volva, nonstriate, tending to remain
for a long time decurved on the margin, flesh thin, white, odor not distinctive.
LAMELLAE free, close, moderately broad, creamy white, stipe 2-41/2 in. long,
Va-Vi in. thick, equal or tapering upward above the rather soft, subglobose
bulb, often patterned with innate gray flecking on a white background.
ANNULUS thin, membranous, ashy gray, collapsing against the stipe. Volva

84

AMANITA

pallid or grayish on the bulb, usually separable at the margin, often leaving a
few friable, gray patches on the pileus, and around the stipe base, spores
amyloid, smooth, white, globose, 7-9 /z.

Sohtary or in groups of several on the ground in woods. Aug.-Oct.
Infrequent.

The brown pileus, ashy gray annulus and soft, globose bulb are the dis-
tinguishing marks of this species. A. tomentella Krombh. is said to differ in the
densely powdery, gray coating of the pileus and stipe. A form answering to
the description of A. tomentella is occasionally collected and seems distinct
from the usually glabrous A. porphyria. Whether or not this is a variation of
A. porphyria is a question. A. porphyria often bears a few fragments of gray
pulverulence on the pileus and occasionally it has a rather large powdery
volval patch. A. spreta Peck is another brown to umber species in which the
stipe is equal throughout and not bulbous at the base.

AMANITA RUBESCENS (Pers. ex Fr.) Gray Edible

Figures 137, 138, page 71

PILEUS 2-6 in. broad, at first ovoid, expanding to convex or with a broad
obtuse umbo, variable in color, usually dingy reddish or dull reddish brown,
often with muddy brown or olive-umber shades present, shghtly viscid,
adorned with numerous, floccose, grayish or dirty pinkish scales which are
readily washed off, nonstriate or the extreme margin indistinctly striate.
FLESH thin, soft, white, staining reddish, odor not distinctive, lamellae free or
scarcely attached, close to crowded, moderately broad, narrowing toward the
stipe, dingy white, staining reddish, stipe stout, sometimes slightly excentric,
3-8 in. long, )4-% in. thick, swollen at the base, subequal or tapering up-
ward, stuffed, subglabrous to minutely fibrillose, staining dingy pink to
reddish, annulus large, membranous, fragile, collapsing against the stipe,
dingy white or pale greenish yellow, staining pinkish, volva fragile, gray,
tinged sordid reddish, breaking up into scales on the pileus, usually lacking
or almost so on the stipe base as most of the fragments remain in the soil.
spores amyloid, smooth, white, ellipsoid, 7-9 (10) X 5-7 }i.

Sohtary or scattered, on the ground in woods. July-Sept.

This is one of the edible species of Amanita, but the danger of confusing
it with the poisonous A. brunnescens is great. Wounds and bruises in A. rubes-
cens stain a sordid reddish color, while in A. brunnescens the stains are more
reddish brown. A. brunnescens has a marginate bulb and globose spores.
A. flavorubescens also stains reddish, but the dull yellow coloring, especially
in the pileus margin, should distinguish it.

AMANITA RUSSULOIDES Peck Poisonous

Figures 140, 141, page 89

PILEUS 1-2 1/2 in. broad, convex, expanding to plane, prominently striate
on the margin, smooth, viscid, pale straw-yellow to yellowish buff, paler on

85

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

the margin, occasionally bearing a few whitish volval fragments, flesh thin,
white. LAMELLAE free or almost so, close to crowded, not broad, white or
creamy, stipe 2-4 (5) in. long, Y^-Va in. thick, tapering upward slightly above
the clavate bulb, white or pallid, annulus membranous, collapsed against the
stipe, sometimes disappearing, volva white or pallid, in ragged rings and
fragments up the stipe, resembling the volva of A. muscaria. spores smooth,
white, nonamyloid, ellipsoid, 8-10.5 (11.5) X 5.5-7.5 /x.

Scattered, on the ground in open places. July-Sept. Infrequent to rare.

This Peck species, which is infrequently collected, has been relegated by
most authors to the long list of synonymy with A. junquillea and A. gemmata.
However, it does not belong in that group. As Peck himself says, "The bulb is
ovate and the volva fragile and easily broken into fragments. Its nearest
relationship is with A. [Agaricus] muscarius. . . . ''A. russuloides can be distin-
guished by its small stature, its straw colored, striate pileus, its muscaria-type
volva, and its nonamyloid, ellipsoid spores.

A. russuloides may be confused with A. gemmata but the latter is more
creamy yellow in color and it has globose spores, an evanescent annulus and
an inconspicuous volva that is often marked only by a slight torn hne around
the margin of the bulb. It lacks the ragged volval fragments on the stipe that
are characteristic of A. russuloides.

Definite information regarding its edibility appears to be lacking but it
should be avoided.

AMANITA VELATIPES Atk. Doubtful

Figure 143, page 89

PILEUS large, 3-5 Yi in. broad, fleshy, ovoid in the button stage, later con-
vex and finally broadly expanded, striate on the margin, in age grooved-striate
or somewhat tuberculate-striate, smooth on the disk, viscid, creamy yellow,
usually darkening to brownish or umber on the disk and paUng to cream on
the margin (or, according to Atkinson, at times entirely hair-brown), deco-
rated with thick, dingy white, floccose warts, flesh moderately thick on the
disk, thinning to a line at the margin, white, tinged yellowish beneath the
cuticle, odor faint, lamellae free, broad, elliptical, crowded, creamy white,
slightly floccose on the edges, with many shorter, truncate lamellulae of varying
lengths present, stipe stout, 5-8 in. long, Y^-\ in. thick, subequal or tapering
upward slightly, clavate-bulbous, stuff'ed with a pith or becoming hollow
within, dry, creamy white, minutely pruinose at the apex, annulus large,
membranous, creamy white, median, collapsed against the stipe, volva thick,
membranous, dingy white, tightly booting the clavate bulb but with a more or
less free, thick margin, sometimes leaving one or two rings of tissue on the
stipe above the bulb, scattered in thick, dingy white, floccose warts on the
pileus. spores nonamyloid, smooth, white, ellipsoid, 8-10 X 6-7 m-

Scattered or in groups on the ground in open woods, or in grassy places
at the edge of woods. July-Sept.

86

AMANITA

This large Amanita, with its pale yellowish color, has been mistaken at
first glance for a faded A. muscaria by more than one collector. Plate 6 in
Giissow and Odell labeled A. muscaria is undoubtedly A. velatipes. However,
the complete lack of any orange-red coloring, even in buttons, and the neat
volval boot on the stipe will distinguish it. The booted stipe has caused some
people to call this mushroom A. cothurnata Atk., and certainly these two are
very closely related. The type specimens of both these Atkinson species have
been examined. A. cothurnata is a small slender mushroom, pure white or with
a very faint tinge of color on the disk, and with shghtly broader spores which
are thus more broadly ovoid than ellipsoid in shape.

Amanita glabriceps Peck, which has elliosoid and not globose spores as
stated by Peck, is a later synonym.

There is no information concerning the edibihty of this species but it
should be left alone.

AMANITA VI ROSA Lam. ex Seer. Deadly poisonous

Figures 115, page 52; 291, page 193

Destroying Angel

PILEUS 2-5 in. broad, at first ovoid, becoming convex and finally ex-
panded, nonstriate, pure white, at times becoming faintly discolored on the
disk, viscid, glabrous, rarely bearing a patch of volval membrane, flesh soft,
white, thin except on the disk, developing a disagreeably sweet odor, lamel-
lae free or reaching the stipe by a line, close to crowded, fairly broad, white,
often minutely flocculose on the edges, stipe 3-8 in. long, |4-% ii^- thick,
swollen at the base to a clavate or oval bulb, equal above or tapering upward,
smooth or appressed-fibrillose, sometime floccose, white, stuffed within.
ANNULUS large, white, membranous, hanging skirt-like near the apex of the
stipe or clinging in shreds to the pileus margin, volva white, membranous,
sac-like, loosely encasing the bulb and stipe base, usually extending up the
stipe well beyond the bulb, spores amyloid, smooth, white, subglobose varying
to ovoid or elHpsoid, (8) 9-10.5 (12) X (7) 8-9.5 (10) /z.

Solitary or scattered on the ground in woods, sometimes on lawns beneath
trees. July-Oct. Frequent.

This is the most deadly poisonous of our wild mushrooms. Everyone
collecting mushrooms should learn to recognize it. The distinguishing marks
are the pure white color of all parts, the presence of annulus and sac-like volva,
the free lamellae and the white spore print. The volva may be left in the ground
and overlooked if the mushroom is pulled carelessly. The danger of mistaking
A. virosa for the edible Lepiota naucina is great, and a mistake could be fatal.

The folly of applying simple popular 'tests' to determine the edibility of a
mushroom is well illustrated here. The pileus o^ A. virosa peels readily, and yet
many people use this peehng test as a proof of edibility.

A. verna (Lam. ex Fr.) Pers. ex Vitt. is said to differ in having truly ellip-

87

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

soid spores. In the collections of A. virosa in the herbarium at Ottawa, spores
vary from globose to ellipsoid. Most specimens have at least some eUipsoid
spores and a few have a considerable number of truly ellipsoid spores, but
always mixed with globose ones. It does not seem possible in our collections to
separate two species on the basis of spore shape or other characters. Since
globose spores predominate, it seems best to use the name A. virosa for our
species.

A. bisporigera Atk. seems to be identical with A. virosa except for the
2-spored basidia. Size is not a distinguishing feature as A. bisporigera can vary
from very large to very small.

A. virosa has been mistakenly called A. phalloides in North America. The
true A. phalloides, however, is a greenish species native to Europe, which has
not yet been found in Canada but may possibly occur in Cahfornia.

Amanita aestivalis Singer is not a synonym of A. virosa but of A, brun-
nescens var. pallida Krieger. It would key to this place in the above key but it
has a marginate bulb which bruises reddish brown, and its volva is not loose
and sac-like.

AMANITOPSIS

Species of Amanitopsis are white-spored. They have the lamellae free from
the stipe, and possess a volva but no annulus. They are very similar to species
of Amanita in appearance and stature, differing only in the absence of an
annulus, and some authors do not regard them as generically distinct from
Amanita. The name Amanitopsis has been officially conserved against the
earlier name Vaginata.

It is not a large genus and, except for the varieties of Amanitopsis vaginata,
the species are not commonly collected. None are known to be poisonous but
because of their great similarity to Amanita and the danger of mistaking an
Amanita that may have lost its annulus for an Amanitopsis, the amateur
should avoid using these species as food until he is thoroughly familiar with
them.

Figures 140-149

140. Amanita russuloides. 141. A. russuloides.

142. A. flavorubescens. 143. A. velatipes.

144. Amanitopsis vaginata. 145. Armillaria imperialis.

146. A.mellea. 147. Limacella glischra.

148. L. illinita. 149. Lepiota acutaesquamosa.

88

89

Figure 150, Lepiota naucina. Note that the base of the stipe is somewhat bulbous
but no volva is present, also note the rather stiff annulus which stands out from
the stipe.

151. Lepiota brunnea.

153. L. cristata.

155. Pleurotus applicatus.

157. P. subpalmatus.

159. C clavipes.

Figures 151-160

152. L. clypeolaria.

154. Cystoderma cinnabarinum.

156. P. porrigens.

158. Clitocybe aurantiaca.

1 60. C. decora.

90

91

Figures 161-163. Lepiota procera. 161, two immature fruiting bodies; 162, mature
fruiting body; 163, young fruiting body after the partial veil has torn and formed
the annulus. Note the furfuraceous stipe.

92

LIMACELLA

AMANITOPSIS VAGINATA Fr. Edible

Figure 144, page 89

PILEUS 2-4 in. broad, soft and fleshy, at first ovate, becoming campanulate
or convex, then plane, umbonate, occurring in three color forms — white,
(var. alba Sacc), tawny, (var. fulva Sacc.), or grayish, (var. livida Pk.), surface
glabrous or occasionally bearing fragments of the volva, margin grooved-
striate. flesh white, lamellae free, not close, moderately broad, whitish.
STIPE 3-7 in. long, about )4 in. thick, tapering slightly towards the apex, base
not bulbous, extending some distance into the ground, stuffed, becoming
hollow, surface glabrous or somewhat mealy, whitish, annulus lacking.
VOLVA ample, white, membranous, mostly underground, encasing the base of
the stipe and usually collapsed against it. spores smooth, white, globose,
8-10 M.

Solitary or scattered, on the ground in woods. June-Sept. Fairly common.

Edible but not to be confused with specimens of Amanita from which the
annulus has disappeared, especially the poisonous Amanita spreta Pk. whose
stipe also lacks a bulb.

It seems probable that the three color varieties mentioned above are good
autonomous species. They seem to be entirely distinct without intermediate
forms. Amanitopsis inaurata (Seer.) Fayod has a gray volva and large spores.

LIMACELLA

Limacella is a small genus and most of the species are rather rare. They
were formerly placed in Lepiota, but constitute a fairly well-marked, related
group that seems worthy of generic rank. The fundamental character separat-
ing them from Lepiota is the microscopic structure of the trama of the lamellae,
but they can usually be recognized in the field by the viscid pileus; the stipe,
too, is often viscid. The lamellae are free or in one species shghtly attached
and an annulus is present. The North American species have been studied by
Helen V. Smith (1945) and she recognized twelve species. Two species may be
found fairly often in the Ottawa district.

There does not appear to be much information on the edibihty of Lima-
cella species, but since the genus is generally considered to be closely related to
Amanita, they are probably best avoided or tried very cautiously.

LIMACELLA GLISCHRA (Morg.) Murr.
Figure 147, page 89

PILEUS %-2^/2 in. broad, convex or subumbonate, slimy-viscid, yellow-
brown to reddish brown, flesh white, thick, soft, lamellae free, close to
crowded, white, broad, stipe 2-3 in. long, V8-!4 in. thick, equal or nearly so,

93

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

glutinous, colored like the pileus, cottony at the base, solid, annulus slight,
evanescent, glutinous-fibrillose. spores white, subglobose, 4-6 X 4-5 ^i.

Usually singly or scattered on ground in woods. Aug. -Oct.

The rather bright colored, thick gluten covering both pileus and stipe,
together with the white spores and free lamellae characterize this species.
L. glioderma (Fr.) Earle is also brown but is darker and the stipe is not viscid.

LIMACELLA ILLINITA (Fr.) Earle
Figure 148, page 89

PILEUS 1 %-2)/2 in. broad, at first ovoid becoming campanulate to plane or
subumbonate, glutinous, viscid, glabrous, white, sometimes yellowish on the
disk. FLESH white, thin, soft, no taste, lamellae free, close, moderately broad,
white. STIPE 2-31/2 in. long, V^-V^ in. thick, equal or tapering upward slightly,
white, glutinous below annulus, silky above, stuffed to hollow, annulus
fibrillose, evanescent, spores white, subglobose to broadly elHpsoid, smooth,
5-6 X 4-5.5 11.

Singly to gregarious on the ground in woods. Sept.-Oct.

The very glutinous white pileus and stipe, and the free lamellae distin-
guish this species. Sometimes the gluten is so copious that it drips from the
pileus. A form is sometimes found in which the gluten on the stipe becomes
pinkish or red and this has been described as L. illinita var. rubescens H. V.
Smith.

LEPIOTA

The genus Lepiota contains a great many species including some of the
largest and most important edible species. It has white spores and lamellae
free from the stipe. An annulus is present, but the volva is lacking. The stipe is
a different texture from the flesh of the pileus and separates readily from it. An
exception to the spores being white is found in Lepiota molybdites where they
are greenish.

It is an important genus for those who are interested in mushrooms as
food. L. procera is one of the finest edible species we have and L. brunnea and
L. americana are also very good. However, the occurrence of the poisonous
L. molybdites, which might be mistaken for either L. procera or L. brunnea if
spore prints are not taken, makes it important that the characters of the
species be examined closely.

Careful identification is particularly important in the case of L. naucina.
This beautiful white species, which occurs commonly in lawns and meadows,
is edible itself but has probably been indirectly responsible for many deaths
from mushroom poisoning because of people mistaking the deadly poisonous

94

LEPIOTA

Amanita virosa for it. For this reason no one should eat L. naucina or any pure
white mushroom until he is absolutely certain he knows and can recognize
A. virosa.

As with most of the older genera of agarics, modern investigators tend to
spHt Lepiota into a number of smaller genera composed of groups of closely
related species. Two of these segregated genera have been recognized here,
Limacella including the viscid species formerly placed in Lepiota, and Cysto-
derma including the species with granulose covering of the pilei and with the
lamellae attached to the stipe.

Key

1. Spore print green L. molybdites

1. Spore print white 2

2. Pileus glabrous, white; lamellae faintly pinkish in age L. naucina

2. Pileus more or less scaly 3

3. Annulus movable, fruiting bodies very large 4

3. Annulus not movable, fruiting bodies small to medium 5

4. Stipe glabrous, striate, turning reddish when wounded;

fruiting body about as broad or broader than tall L. brunnea

4. Stipe furfuraceous, not reddening when wounded; fruiting body

much taller than broad L. procera

5. Stipe glabrous 6

5. Stipe clothed with a floccose or filamentous sheath, sometimes scaly 7

6. Stipe equal, mostly less than Va, in. thick L. cristata

6. Stipe bulbous or ventricose, mostly Va in. or more thick;

whole fruiting body staining reddish when bruised or in age L. americana

7. Scales of pileus erect, wart-like; spores 7-9 ju long L. acutaesquamosa

7. Scales of pileus more or less appressed, patch-like;

spores 10-6 ^ long L. clypeolaria

LEPIOTA ACUTAESQUAMOSA (Weinm.) Kummer Edible

Figure 149, page 89

PILEUS 2-5 in. broad, convex expanding to almost plane, obtuse or
broadly umbonate, bright tawny, tomentose, covered with erect, beaked or
squarrose, tawny brown scales which gradually fall off and leave tawny, fibril-
lose, scar-hke patches with paler flesh showing between, flesh not very thick,
soft, white. LAMELLAE free, very crowded, unforked, moderately broad, white,
pruinose on the edge, minutely saw-toothed, stipe 2-4 in. long, about )4 ii^-
thick, bulbous at base, equal or tapering slightly to the apex, dingy white,
covered with a dense cottony-fibrillose sheath, stuffed or hollow, annulus
white, with brownish scales on the lower surface, membranous, hanging loosely
around the stipe, sometimes disappearing, spores smooth, white, long-ellip-
soid, 7-9 X 2.5-3 /z.

95

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

In groups, on the ground or on decayed wood in woods, gardens, green-
houses. Aug.-Sept.

It can be recognized by its bright tawny color and spiny scales. L. friesii
Lasch is similar but with forking lamellae.

LEPIOTA AMERICANA Peck Edible

Figures 126, 127, 128, page 70

PILEUS 1-4 in. or more broad, at first subglobose or ovoid, becoming
conic-expanded, convex, or broadly expanded, with more or less striate
margin, dull reddish brown, breaking up into large scales except on the umbo
and exposing the whitish flesh beneath, flesh thin, white, reddening where
bruised, gradually turning pinkish brown with age, taste mild, lamellae free,
close, moderately broad, narrowing toward the stipe, white, turning red where
bruised, in dried specimens a smoky cocoa-brown color, stipe central, sepa-
rable, 2-5 in. long, often with a decided swelHng at the base or just above the
base, varying above from moderately stout to very slender, stuffed, glabrous,
white, bruising reddish, annulus fairly ample, sometimes disappearing.
spores smooth, white, broadly oval, 7-9 (11) X 5.5-6 (7) m, many shghtly
inequilateral.

SoHtary or in clusters, on the ground in grassy places. Rare. Aug.-Oct.

The tendency of the entire fruiting body to redden where handled or in
age is characteristic. In dried specimens the entire fruiting body is a smoky
cocoa-brown color. Another distinctive character is that the stipe is usually
broader above the base and tapers both up and down.

LEPIOTA BRUNNEA Farlow & Burt Edible

Figure 151, page 91

PILEUS 3-7 in. or more broad, thick, soft, ovoid, expanding to convex,
then plane, brown to smoky brown, cracking (except on disk) into concentric
rings of large, coarse, persistent scales whose outer edges become reflexed.
FLESH beneath cuticle whitish, darkening to smoky color or reddish on expo-
sure to air. LAMELLAE free but not remote from the stipe, broad, crowded, dull
whitish, darkening on drying, stipe stout, central, 2-6 in. or more long, up to
1 in. thick, with a large underground bulb at the base, silky-striate to fibrillose-
striate, smoky brown, paler above the annulus, becoming reddish where
wounded, hollow, easily separable from pileus. annulus large, thick, flaring,
persistent, smoky brown on the lower surface, whitish on the upper surface,
fixed becoming free and movable, spores smooth, white, variable in size and
shape, eUipsoid to subglobose, inequilateral, obhquely apiculate, often trun-
cate, (7.5) 9.5-11 X (4.5) 5.5-7 /z.

Sohtary or in small clusters on the ground in open grassy places, laneways,
etc. Sept.-Oct.

96

LEPIOTA

L. brunnea is distinguished from L. procera by its stout stature, dingy
coloring, striate stipe, and thick recurving scales as well as by the spores.

The poisonous L. molybdites is very similar in size and stature. If L. brun-
nea is being collected for food, a spore print should be obtained to make certain
the spores are white. The spores of L. molybdites are green.

L. brunnea is very close to L. rachodes (Vitt.) Quel, (sometimes spelled
rhacodes or racodes by different authors). The characters by which L. brunnea
is said to differ are the darker brown color, striate stipe, and less remote
lamellae. The most important of these characters would seem to be the striate
stipe, and most European illustrations of L. rachodes do not show a striate
stipe, although there is a suggestion of it in Cooke's Plate 22 in Illustrations of
British Fungi. There are two European specimens labeled L. rachodes from
England and Norway in the herbarium at Ottawa and in these the stipes
appear to be identical with those of dried specimens of L. brunnea from
Canada in which the stipe was known to be striate when fresh. On the other
hand, A. H. Smith's photograph in Mushrooms in their Natural Habitats,
Reel 21, No. 142, shows specimens with smooth nonstriate stipes. Since the
species commonly collected around Ottawa does have a striate stipe we are
referring it to L. brunnea until more information is available. From the stand-
point of edibihty the problem is of no significance because both L. brunnea and
L. rachodes are edible but it is very important to distinguish the poisonous
L. molybdites.

LEPIOTA CLYPEOLARIA (Bull, ex Fr.) Kummer Suspected

Figure 152, page 91

PILEUS 1-2 in. broad, at first ovate or acorn-shaped, coated with a thin
layer of yellowish-buff or brownish tissue, expanding to campanulate-convex,
the outer tissue being drawn apart into scales which range in color from
creamy white to ochraceous or brown and which vary from appressed or
floccose patches to somewhat squarrose, brown-tipped scales, the exposed flesh
between the scales creamy white, fibrillose, the disk umbonate or obtuse,
smooth, brownish, in age the pileus becoming nearly plane, the scaliness
partly or almost entirely disappearing, margin often ragged with fragments of
veil, sometimes striate, flesh thin, soft, white, lamellae free, close, moderately
broad, white, edges somewhat floccose. stipe 1 ]/^-4 in. long, about Y^ in.
thick, tapering slightly upward, hollow, whitish, silky-fibrillose, sheathed with
white or creamy yellow, cottony fibrils which may partly disappear, annulus
white, floccose, disappearing, spores smooth, white, variable in size and shape,
subfusiform to ellipsoid, often slightly beaked or curved at one end, 10-16
(18) X 4-6 /x.

In groups, on the ground in open woods or fields. Aug.-Oct.

Suspected of being poisonous.

L. cristata may be somewhat similar in size and coloring but it has a
glabrous stipe and quite different spores.

97

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

LEPIOTA CRISTATA (A. & S. ex Fr.) Kummer Edible

Figure 153, page 91

PILEUS 1/4-2 in. broad, at first ovate, becoming campanulate-convex, then
expanded, umbonate, cuticle reddish tan, intact on the umbo, elsewhere
broken up into scales which become finer toward the margin and tend to
disappear, leaving exposed the white surface beneath, margin sometimes
striate, flesh thin, fleshy, white, odor rather unpleasant, taste mild, lamellae
free, close to crowded, rather narrow, white, edges finely crenulate. stipe
slender, equal, 1-2 in. long, about J/g in. thick, glabrous or slightly fibrillose,
sometimes striate, stuff'ed or hollow, whitish or tinged lilac or pinkish brown.
annulus soft, white, tending to disappear, spores white, irregular and variable,
elliptical, wedge-shaped, or angular, 5.5-7 (8) X 3-4 /x.

On the ground, usually in groups, in open grassy places. June-Oct.

The glabrous stipe and the small wedge-shaped spores easily separate this
species from L. clypeolaria. The odor of L. cristata was described as 'fishy'
by Krieger (1936). Apparently the odor varies from strong to weak or absent
under diff'erent conditions.

LEPIOTA MOLYBDITES (G. Meyer ex Fr.) Sacc. Poisonous

Figure 139, page 72

PILEUS 3-1 1 in. broad, sometimes even larger, at first subglobose, expand-
ing to convex, sometimes slightly umbonate, buff colored, soon breaking up
(except on disk) to form irregular patchy scales which tend to disappear, whitish
between the scales, flesh thick, firm, white, lamellae free, remote from the
stipe, close, broad, at first white, becoming dull green, stipe 4-8 in. or more
long, up to 1 1/2 in. thick at the swollen base, tapering somewhat toward the
apex, fibrous-stuff'ed, stout and firm, glabrous, grayish white or tinged with
brown, annulus large, thick, firm, somewhat floccose, movable, spores
smooth, subelhptical, bright to dull green in mass, 9-12 X 6-8 m-

In large colonies, sometimes in fairy rings. On the ground in grassy places
and open woods. Aug.-Sept.

L. molybdites is poisonous, at least to some people, and should be avoided
as food. The danger of mistaking it for L. brunnea or L. rachodes is great. A
spore print should be obtained first, if either of the latter two species is to be
eaten. The green spore print of L. molybdites will distinguish it. The flesh of
L. molybdites is said to redden sHghtly on bruising. This species tends to be
southerly in distribution but has been collected near Ottawa. It has been
generally known under the name of L. morgani Peck. Some authors place it in
a separate genus, Chlorophyllum.

LEPIOTA NAUCINA (Fr.) Kummer Edible: Use caution

Figure 150, page 90

PILEUS 2-4 in. broad, soft, fleshy, at first subglobose, becoming hemi-
spherical, then expanded-convex, white or somewhat smoky, in age darkening

98

LEPIOTA

to buff or leather color, smooth, dry, glabrous, or occasionally with the cuticle
cracking into scales, flesh soft, white, thick, thinning toward the margin,
odor and taste not distinctive, lamellae free, close, rather broad, often
rounded behind, white, gradually taking on a pinkish tinge with age, finally
darkening to pinkish brown, stipe stout, 2-4 in. long, up to J/2 in. in diameter,
subequal or tapering upward from the swollen base, smooth, glabrous, pru-
inose above the ring, white, stuffed to hollow, easily separable, annulus
median to superior, thick, white, rolling back upon itself to form a stiff, collar-
hke ring on the stipe, persistent, becoming movable in age. spores smooth,
white, oval to ellipsoid, shghtly inequilateral, 7-9 X 5-6 m-

In scattered colonies on the ground in grassy places, common. Aug. -Oct.

This species is edible, but is not recommended for food because of the
danger of confusing it with the deadly Amanita virosa. In A. virosa the annulus
is pendent and skirt-like. In Lepiota naucina the annulus is rolled and collar-
Hke. If Amanita virosa is carelessly collected, the volva may be left behind and
its presence overlooked, thus increasing the danger of mistaking it for a
Lepiota. The two species can be distinguished with certainty by the spores.

LEPIOTA PROCERA (Fr.) S. F. Gray Edible

Figures 161, 162, 163, page 92

Parasol Mushroom

pileus 3-9 in. broad, or sometimes larger, at first subglobose or egg-
shaped, becoming campanulate, then plane, umbonate, cuticle reddish tan
except on the disk, soon breaking up into more or less concentric rings of
scales which are larger and more scattered toward the margin and tend to
disappear, exposing the finely fibrillose, white surface beneath, flesh soft,
white, thick, thinning toward the margin, lamellae free, remote from the
stipe, close to crowded, broad, ventricose, white, floccose on the edge, stipe
tall and slender, 6-12 in. or more long, tapering upward from a bulbous base,
Va-Vi iri- thick at the apex, white, silky-fibrillose, covered with fine, brown,
floccose or fibrillose scales, sometimes with several brown rings of scaliness
near the annulus, hollow, easily separable from the pileus. annulus large and
flaring, thick, soft, movable, spores smooth, white, oval, 14-18 X 9-12 /x.

Sohtary or in groups, on the ground in grassy places and open woods.
July-Sept.

L. procera is taller and more slender in stature than either L. brunnea or
L. molybdites. Its nonstriate, floccose stipe will separate it from L. brunnea and
its white spore print from L. molybdites.

L. procera is one of the largest of our mushrooms and is frequently called
the Parasol Mushroom. As long as care is taken to distinguish it from the
green-spored L. molybdites, it is not likely to be confused with any other
poisonous species and it is one of the most desirable mushrooms for the
table.

99

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

CYSTODERMA

Cystoderma is characterized by having white spores, lamellae attached to
the Stipe, a more or less distinct annulus, and a granulose covering of the
pileus. Cystoderma species suggest Lepiota in general appearance and were
formerly placed in that genus but are now separated from it because the lamel-
lae are not free. Cystoderma is distinct from Armillaria in the granulose cov-
ering of the pileus and it forms a natural group that is easily recognized in the
field.

They are mostly small species unlikely to interest the mycophagist but
they are usually attractive in appearance. As far as we know, none are poison-
ous. The species are distinguished to a large extent by microscopic characters.
Smith & Singer (1945) have published a good monograph on the genus in
which they recognized fourteen species and a few more have been added since.

CYSTODERMA CINNABARINUM (Alb. & Schw. ex Seer.) Fayod Edible

Figure 154, page 91

PILEUS 1-21/2 in. broad, at first ovoid, then expanded-convex to plane,
finely granular-scaly with bright cinnamon to brownish orange or rusty brown
particles, pallid between the scales, darkest on the disk, margin incurved at
first, sometimes with fragments of the annulus clinging to it. flesh thin,
whitish or stained rusty near the surface, lamellae at first adnate to the stipe
but later separating from it, white or creamy, close to crowded, not broad.
STIPE short and stout, 1-2 in. long, about )4-in. thick, equal or slightly thick-
ened at the base, coated up to the annulus with mealy-granular, cinnamon
particles, above the annulus paler and glabrous, annulus shght, disappearing.
SPORES minute, eUipsoid, smooth, white, nonamyloid, 3.5-5 X 2.5-3 ju. CY-
STiDiA with spear-shaped tips.

Singly or in small groups on the ground in woods. Sept.-Oct.

This is one of the largest species of the genus and is a very attractive and
beautiful mushroom. It is reported to be edible. C. granulosum (Batsch ex Fr.)
Fayod and C. amianthinum (Scop, ex Fr.) Fayod are also fairly common
species that are somewhat similar in appearance and a microscope is required
to identify them with certainty. C. amianthinum has amyloid spores and C
granulosum lacks cystidia on the lamellae.

ARMILLARIA

Armillaria is generally used to include the species that have an annulus,
white spores, and lamellae attached to the stipe. No volva is present. It is
generally agreed among taxonomists that the genus as so understood includes
several groups of unrelated species but there is not agreement as to the most
suitable way of splitting the genus in order to bring out the relationships. It
therefore seems preferable to use it in the broad sense at present.

100

ARMILLARIA

ARMILLARIA IMPERIALIS (Fries in Lund) Quel.
Figure 145, page 89

PILEUS 3-8 in. broad, very large and firm, at first convex, becoming
expanded, whitish to smoky gray with innate darker fibrils near margin,
glabrous, slightly viscid, sometimes becoming cracked on the disk, margin
decurved, strongly inrolled at first, flesh white, thick, no odor, strong taste.
LAMELLAE dccurrcnt, white to yellowish white, drying brownish, close, rather
narrow, stipe 2-4 in. long, Yi-l in. thick, equal, concolorous with pileus or
more yellowish, floccose to scaly, sohd. annulus double, the outer ring mem-
branous, concolorous with pileus, the inner ring more filamentous, whitish,
somewhat evanescent, spores hyahne, smooth, oblong-ellipsoid, 11-15 X
5-6 (7) M.

On ground under conifers, single or gregarious. Aug.-Sept.

This is a large, massive mushroom whose fruit bodies develop slowly and
persist for a long time. It is rather rare but is a very striking fungus when found.

A. ventricosa (Peck) Peck is another large species with a double annulus.
It is perhaps a httle smaller than A. imperialis, whiter in color, and has smaller
spores 9-12 (15) X 4.0-5.5 m-

There does not seem to be any information regarding the edibihty of these
species but a somewhat similar large species is said to be used extensively for
food by the Japanese on the west coast of the United States. This is Armillaria
ponderosa (Peck) Sacc. and is as large as A. imperialis but paler in color, with
smaller spores, and only a single annulus. This species is also known to occur
in the East but is less common than A. imperialis.

The species with oblong-ellipsoid spores, double veil, and decurrent
lamellae have been placed by some authors in a separate genus, Catathelasma.

ARMILLARIA MELLEA (Fr.) Kummer Edible

Figure 146, page 89

Honey Mushroom

pileus 1 1/4-4 in. broad, at first acorn-shaped to hemispherical with in-
rolled margin, then convex or expanded, sometimes subumbonate, yellow-
brown, yellow-buff or rusty tinged, minutely scaly, especially on the disk, with
buff to brown or blackish tufts of fibrils, becoming striate on the margin.
flesh thin except on the disk, white to rusty tinged, odor mild to slightly un-
pleasant, taste mild or slightly acrid and unpleasant, lamellae adnate or
subdecurrent, fairly close to subdistant, moderately broad, white or creamy,
staining rusty brown, stipe 2-6 in. long, !4-% iri- thick, subequal or broaden-
ing below into a clavate base, stuffed, then hollow, finely fibrillose to fibrillose-
scaly, paler than the pileus, becoming rusty stained, paler at apex, annulus
white or tinged brown, fibrillose-membranous, subpersistent or evanescent.
SPORES smooth, white, broadly oval, obliquely apiculate, 7.5-9.5 X 5-6.5 ^l.

101

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

In dense clusters around the base of living trees and old stumps, common.
July-Oct.

This is perhaps the only really common species of Armillaria. It is widely
distributed and often occurs in considerable abundance. It is rather variable
and may confuse the amateur at first, but it has a characteristic appearance that
is difficult to describe though soon recognized. The colors may vary consid-
erably and the annulus may be somewhat evanescent.

Another feature of this fungus is the presence of tough, black strands of
mycelium which may be found under the bark of the tree or stump from which
it is growing. These strands, sometimes called 'shoe strings' are more properly
termed rhizomorphs.

The unpleasant taste of this fungus when raw disappears on cooking and
the species is widely used as food. Smith recommends it as being very good but
suggests that younger stages should be selected.

PLEUROTUS

The genus Pleurotus has been used to include those species with excentric
or lateral stipes, or lacking stipes altogether, and having a white spore deposit.
However, in P. sapidus the spore deposit is lilac tinged and in P. subpalmatus
it is pinkish. The genus corresponds to Claudopus in the pink-spored group
and Crepidotus in the brown-spored group.

Most of the species occur on decaying wood and they vary in size from
very minute to very large. Some species might be mistaken for Clitocybe but
the most closely related forms are to be found in Panus and Lentinus. It is now
generally recognized that Pleurotus, Panus, and Lentinus are all artificial genera,
and modern authors tend to redistribute the species of all three among a num-
ber of other genera. Pleurotus ostreatus (Jacq. ex Fr.) Kummer, which may be
the same as P. sapidus Kalchbr., is regarded as the type species of Pleurotus.

No poisonous species are known in Pleurotus.

Key

1. Pileus with excentric to central stipe 2

1. Pileus sessile or with lateral stipe 3

2. Pileus at first whitish, becoming tan, smooth P. ulmarius

2. Pileus reddish tan to pinkish, veined P. subpalmatus

3. Pileus tiny, usually much less than 1 inch across 4

3. Pileus larger, usually more than 1 inch across 5

4. Pileus pure white P. candidissimus

4. Pileus gray to blackish P. applicatus

5. Pileus olivaceous to yellow-brown P. serotinus

5. Pileus white or whitish 6

102

PLEUROTUS

6. Pileus thin, fragile, sessile P. porrigens

6. Pileus thick, fleshy; lamellae decurrent on the lateral stipe P. sapidus

PLEUROTUS APPLICATUS (Fr.) Kummer
Figure 155, page 91

PILEUS less than 54 in. broad, sand-color to pinkish gray, darkening to
nearly black, growing from the underside of logs, etc., sessile, resupinate, at
first almost cyhndrical, expanding to deep cup-shaped, then saucer-shaped,
somewhat irregular in outline because of the excentric to lateral attachment,
coarsely pruinose, margin inrolled. flesh thin, gelatinous, lamellae radiating
from a central point, subdistant, rounded behind, moderately broad, thick,
with bluntly rounded edges, sand-color to dark gray, densely pruinose, alter-
nate lamellae short, stipe lacking, or sometimes with the thickened flesh at the
point of attachment prolonged into a stubby, stipe-Hke base, densely pruinose
to white-mycehoid at the base, spores smooth, white, subglobose, 4-5 n in
diameter.

In groups on decaying wood. Aug.-Oct.

This tiny mushroom is not common and will often be overlooked because
of its small size and its occurrence on the underside of logs and planks. When
dry it tends to fold up and appears as a small blackish spot on the wood, which
at first glance, would not be taken for a mushroom. However, when moistened
and expanded, the numerous fruiting bodies with their radiating lamellae form
rather a pretty sight. It is obviously not closely related to other species that
have been placed in Pleurotus and is not hkely to be confused with any of them.
Trogia crispa Fr. may also be found on the underside of branches, growing
resupinate at times, but it is larger and the upper surface is reddish tan to
yellowish in color.

PLEUROTUS CANDIDISSIMUS B. & C.

Figure 174, page 110

PILEUS pure white, thin, soft, V8-% ^^- broad, laterally attached, sessile or
almost so but never resupinate, white-mycelioid at the point of attachment,
semicircular to shell-shaped or fan-shaped in outline, at first convex with
inrolled margin, expanding to nearly plane, with a soft powdery appearance to
the surface, somewhat radiately wrinkled in dried specimens, flesh thin, white,
membranous, stipe absent or insignificant, lateral, minutely tomentose, whit-
ish. LAMELLAE reaching the point of attachment or (if stipe is present) sub-
decurrent, distant or subdistant, broad, narrowing toward each end, creamy
white, with edges fimbriate, spores white, smooth, globose, 4-6 /x in diameter.

In scattered colonies on decaying wood. July-Sept.

Several small white species of Pleurotus have been described, of which
this one appears to be the most common. It has a somewhat chalky appearance
and is very delicate, soon becoming shriveled.

103

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

PLEUROTUS PORRIGENS (Fr.) Kummer
Figure 156,'page 91

piLEUS sessile, laterally attached, elongated, ^/2-3 in. long, up to 2 in.
broad, at first resupinate with inrolled margin, expanding to almost plane, or
depressed toward the base, narrowing toward the base, variable in shape,
mostly fan-shaped to ear-shaped, white, watery and sUghtly striate on the
margin when moist, varying from almost glabrous at the margin to densely
tomentose at the base, sometimes lobed on the margin, flesh thin, white,
fragile, odor and taste mild, lamellae mostly reaching the point of attach-
ment, close, rather narrow, Hnear, white or cream, in some specimens showing
a certain amount of forking near the base, stipe lacking, base somewhat white-
mycelioid. spores smooth, white, subglobose to broadly ovoid, 5-7.5 X 5-6 /z.

In overlapping, shelving clusters, on decaying wood of conifers. Sept.-
Nov.

A number of whitish species of Pleurotus that may key out here are
known. From our herbarium records, P. porrigens appears to be the most com-
mon, but the others are often difficult to distinguish and some can be deter-
mined only by microscopic characters.

The fruiting bodies of one group of species, including P. porrigens, are
resupinate when very young but soon become reflexed, whereas those of
another group are never resupinate. Among the resupinate forms, P. albo-
lanatus Pk. in Kauffm. differs in having a gelatinous layer of tissue in the
pileus, and is more hairy. P. porrigens appear slightly hairy when dry, especially
toward the base, but P. albolanatus is decidedly hairy alL over and is a larger,
firmer plant. Among the nonresupinate forms, P. petaloides Fr. is a brownish'
mushroom with sHghtly smaller spores and also has cystidia on the lamellae.
P. porrigens lacks cystidia. P. spathulatus (Fr.) Peck has ovoid-eUipsoid spores.
Panus angustatus Berk, is another species that might be confused with this
group. It is tougher in consistency, has cystidia on the lamellae, and has a
gelatinous layer of tissue in the pileus.

PLEUROTUS SAPIDUS Kalchbr.
Figure 186, page 112

Edible

Oyster Mushroom

PILEUS firm to pliant, fleshy, white to ashy or brownish, 2-8 in. broad or
sometimes larger, fan-shaped to shell-shaped or elongated, usually marginate
behind, sometimes more or less circular and nearly centrally stipitate, convex,
sometimes depressed toward the stipe, smooth, moist, glabrous or minutely
tomentose toward the stipe, margin thin, inrolled, faintly striate when moist,
sometimes lobed and wavy, flesh thick, white, soft when young, becoming
tougher with age, odor and taste agreeable, lamellae broad, white or whitish,
close to subdistant, decurrent, extending down the stipe in vein-like lines with
varying amounts of converging and branching at the base, stipe very short,

104

PLEUROTUS

usually lateral or almost lacking, occasionally excentric to nearly central,
stout, firm and solid, sometimes hairy at the base, spores smooth, tinged lilac
in heavy deposits, oblong, 7-10 (12) X 3-4 jjl.

Usually growing in overlapping shelving clusters on wood of deciduous
trees. May-Oct. Common.

The name 'oyster mushroom' has been applied to this species because of
the shape of the pileus, which often suggests a shell. It is edible, but authors
disagree as to its quahty. The manner of cooking is important if this species is
to be fully appreciated. It is recommended that this mushroom be cut in pieces,
which are then dipped in seasoned beaten egg, rolled in bread or cracker
crumbs and fried in hot fat.

Many authors have tried to distinguish Pleurotus sapidus from P. ostreatus
(Fr.) Kummer on the basis of the color of the spore deposit. The spore print of
P. sapidus was said to be hlac-tinted and that of P. ostreatus white. However,
we have been unable to find any specimen in which the lilac color did not show
up in a good spore deposit. This has also been the experience of other collectors
in North America and, although it is possible that a similar white-spored spe-
cies occurs in Europe, it is either absent or very rare in North America. P.
subareolatus Peck is somewhat similar in appearance and has a white spore
deposit but larger spores. If it should prove to be universally true that all the
forms with small spores have a Hlac-tinted spore deposit, P. sapidus will
become a synonym of P. ostreatus, which is the older name.

The amount of development of the stipe is variable and might lead to
possible confusion with some forms of Pleurotus ulmarius, but the decurrent
lamellae and cylindric spores will distinguish it readily.

It has been claimed that successive crops of fruit bodies may be obtained
by watering a log on which they are known to occur.

PLEUROTUS SEROTINUS (Fr.) Kummer Edible

Figure 1 1 2, page 5 1 ; Figure 413, page 296

PILEUS compact, 1-3 in. broad, typically more or less semicircular in out-
line, varying to kidney-shaped, convex with inrolled margin, expanding some-
what, varying from densely tomentose to almost glabrous, shmy-viscid when
moist, muddy olivaceous or yellow-green to dull shades of yellow-brown or
reddish, flesh thick, white, firm, odor and taste not distinctive, lamellae
narrowly adnate, often showing a sharp fine of demarcation between the end of
the lamellae and beginning of tomentum on stipe, thin, close, narrowing in
front and behind, whitish to yellowish tan. stipe soHd, stubby, i/i-% in. long,
up to % in. thick, laterally attached, continuous with peUicle of the pileus on
the upper surface, densely tomentose below or partially dotted with minute,
dark brown scales, yellowish, spores smooth, white, narrowly oblong, some
slightly curved, 4-6 X 1-1.5 /*• cystidia up to 28/x long, about 12 /x broad at
widest point, narrowing slightly toward the apex and considerably toward the
base, sac-Hke.

105

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

Solitary, or more often in overlapping clusters, on wood of deciduous
trees. Aug.-Nov. Fairly common.

It is most likely to be confused with Phyllotopsis nidulans, but the greenish
or olive tints in the pileus distinguish it. In addition, the spore print of P. sero-
tinus is white whereas in P. nidulans it is pinkish. It is sometimes found late in
the fall. It is said to be edible but seems rather tough.

PLEUROTUS SUBPALMATUS (Fr.) Gill.
Figure 157, page 91

PILEUS 1-2% in. broad, fleshy, convex to plane, flesh-colored to brick-red,
glabrous, the cuticle gelatinous and forming coarse reticulations on the surface.
FLESH reddish, fairly thick, lamellae adnate, close, rather broad, sometimes
forked, pinkish, stipe J^-IJ^ in. long, V^-Y^ in. thick, excentric, usually
curved, equal, fibrillose, reddish, spores pinkish in mass, subglobose, echinu-
late, 5-7 X 4.5-6.5 /x.

Usually on fallen logs, occasionally on standing trees, singly or gregarious,
rare. June-Sept.

There is no information concerning the edible qualities of this mushroom
but it is so rare that it is not of any importance as an edible species in any case.
It is not a good Pleurotus. The pinkish, spiny spores and the peculiar, gelati-
nous, reticulated cuticle separate it sharply from other species of this genus. It
has been made the type of a new genus, Rhodotus by Maire.

PLEUROTUS ULMARIUS (Fr.) Kummer Edible

Figure 187, page 112

pileus firm, compact, 2-6 in. broad, convex with inrolled margin, expand-
ing to nearly plane, varying from fairly regular in shape with near-central
stipe to irregular with strongly excentric stipe, white to dull buff" becoming
darker with age, sometimes tinged with yellow or reddish brown shades, moist,
glabrous, flesh thick, white, odor and taste mild, lamellae sinuate-adnexed
becoming rounded or notched at the stipe, close to subdistant, broad, white or
whitish, stipe firm, stout, solid, 1-3 in. long, up to % in. thick, sometimes
swollen at the base, often curving to bring the pileus into upright position,
whitish, varying from glabrous to densely tomentose. spores white, smooth,
broadly ovoid to subglobose, 5.5-8 X 4.5-6 /x.

Solitary or in clusters on wood of deciduous trees, especially elm. Sept.-
Nov.

According to Kauff'man, the pileus may at times be somewhat tomentose.
In robust specimens the surface sometimes cracks to form a network pattern.

This is the large white mushroom commonly seen in late fall, often high up
in a tree, arising from a wound or branch stub. The fruiting bodies do not decay
very quickly and sometimes persist until after snowfall. P. ulmarius is edible
but inclined to be tough, especially in older specimens, and requires careful

106

CLITOCYBE

cooking. According to Singer (1951) the European P. ulmarius is a different
fungus and the North American species is really P. tessulatus (Bull, ex Fr.) Gill.
Considerable variation may occur in the size and position of the stipe:
from central to decidedly excentric or almost lateral. Plants of the latter type
might be confused with P. ostreatus, but the attachment of the lamellae will
distinguish them and, if a microscope is available, the size and shape of the
spores will provide a sure diagnostic character. Another species was described
by Peck as Pleurotus elongatipes, which differs from P. ulmarius chiefly in hav-
ing a stuffed to hollow stipe and sHghtly smaller spores. It seems to be rare but
has probably been confused with P. ulmarius. This makes no difference from
the standpoint of edibihty.

CLITOCYBE

Species of Clitocybe are mostly white-spored, with decurrent lamellae, and
lack a volva and annulus. In some species the spores are pinkish buff or pale
yellowish in a good deposit, but these species would not likely be looked for in
the yellow-spored group. The stipe is fibrous, more or less similar to the pileus
in texture and not separating readily from it. In this respect as well as in the
attachment of the lamellae they differ from Collybia, in which the stipe is more
cartilaginous in texture than the pileus and separates readily.

It is sometimes difficult to distinguish between Clitocybe and Tricholoma
and the attachment of the lamellae is the principal distinguishing character. In
Clitocybe the lamellae are typically decurrent to adnate whereas in Tricholoma
they are more or less sinuate to emarginate or adnexed, but since the attach-
ment may vary to some extent at different stages of maturity and in individual
fruiting bodies, a clear-cut distinction is not always easy.

Other genera that might be confused with Clitocybe are Cantharellus,
Laccaria, Leucopaxillus and Omphalina. Cantharellus differs in having blunt-
edged, more or less fold-like, forking lamellae, although species Hke Cantha-
rellus umbonatus and Clitocybe aurantiaca make sharp separation difficult.
Laccaria has globose, spiny spores and lamellae of waxy consistency. Some
species of Leucopaxillus have the form and stature of a Clitocybe but differ in
having rough-walled, amyloid spores. Omphalina includes a group of small,
umbiUcate species with decurrent lamellae and cartilaginous stipes. The size of
the fruiting body and the texture of the stipe seem to be the principal characters
distinguishing them from Clitocybe but it seems almost impossible to make a
clear-cut separation. No species of Omphalina are described here.

Clitocybe is a fairly large genus and many of the species, especially the
small whitish forms are difficult to identify. Only a few of the commoner and
more striking species are described here. Most of the species appear to be
edible but information is lacking concerning several species and at least two,
C. illudens and C. dealbata, are known to be poisonous.

107

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

Key

1. Fruiting bodies with strong anise odor;

pileus greenish, bluish, or white C odora

1. Fruiting bodies not with odor of anise 2

2. Pileus and lamellae yellow or yellowish 3

2. Pileus and lamellae not yellow 6

3. Pileus glabrous, growing in dense clusters C. illudens

3. Pileus not glabrous 4

4. Pileus deeply depressed to infundibuliform;

lamellae subdistant C. ectypoides

4. Pileus convex to slightly depressed; lamellae crowded 5

5. Pileus minutely scaly; lamellae yellow C. decora

5. Pileus fibrillose to subtomentose; lamellae orange C. aurantiaca

6, Fruiting bodies white or whitish 7

6. Fruiting bodies not white 9

7. Fruiting bodies in notable cespitose clusters C. multiceps

7. Fruiting bodies occurring singly or gregarious, small 8

8. Fruiting bodies convex, or slightly depressed, grayish white C. dealbata

8. Fruiting bodies deeply depressed to

infundibuliform, buff-white C. adirondackensis

9. Pileus and lamellae gray C. cyathiforme

9. Pileus and lamellae not gray 10

10. Pileus obtuse, grayish brown; stipe clavate C. clavipes

10. Pileus deeply depressed to infundibuliform 11

11. Pileus buff-white, usually less than 2 in. broad C adirondackensis

11. Pileus reddish tan fading to dingy white,

usually more than 2 in. broad C. infundibulijormis

Figures

164-173

164.

Clitocybe illudens.

165.

C.

illudens.

166.

C. ectypoides.

167.

C.

infundibulijormis.

168.

C. odora.

169.

Tricholoma aurantium.

170.

Leucopaxillus giganteus.

171.

L.

giganteus.

111. L. laterarius. 173. L. laterarius.

108

109

Figure 174. Pleurotus candidissimus.

Figure 175. Panus operculatus.

176. Tricholoma flavovirens.

178. T. irinum.

1 80. T. resplendens.

182. T. saponaceum.

184. T. vaccinum.

Figures 176-185

177. T. flavovirens.

179. T. personatum.

181. T. rutilans.

183, T. sejimctum.

185. T. terreum.

110

Ill

Figure 186. Pleiirotiis sapidiis.

Figure 187. Pleurotus ulmariiis.

188. Melanoleuca alboflavida.

190. Hygrophoriis borealis.

192. H. chrysodon.

194. H. conicus.

196. H. marginatus.

Figures 188-197

189. M. melaleuca.
191. H. cantharellus.
193. H. chrysodon
195. H. flavescens.
197. //. miniatus.

112

113

•2

00
On

(U
u

p

60

Figures 199-208

199.

Hygrophorus nitidus.

200. H. nitidus.

201.

H. olivaceoalbus.

202. H. oHvaceoalbus

203.

H. pratensis.

204. H. psittacinus.

205.

H. pudorinus.

206. H. speciosus.

207.

H. puniceus.

208. H. puniceus.

114

115

CM

•^A-r

CD
fN

<s

<s

05
ex

ON

o

l-r

=J

00

116

CLITOCYBE

CLITOCYBE ADIRONDACKENSIS (Pk.) Sacc.
Figure 198, page 114

PiLEUS 1-2 in. broad, thin, pliant, somewhat funnel-shaped with depressed
disk and elevated, decurved margin, dull whitish at first, then tinged buff, some-
times darkening to a dingy buff-brown, glabrous, not hygrophanous, slippery-
smooth when moist, margin even, flesh thin, white, lamellae decurrent, close
to crowded, very narrow and tapering toward each end, whitish, stipe 1-1 % in.
long, about J/g in. thick, straight, equal or shghtly swollen at the base, pruinose,
concolorous with the pileus or paler, stuffed, becoming hollow, spores smooth,
white, oval, apiculate, 4-6 X 2.5-3.5 n.

Scattered, on the ground among debris. Aug.-Oct.

The paUid color, rubbery-pliant consistency, and shppery, smooth pileus
are characteristic. It is a small species, not hkely to be collected for food, and
its edible qualities are not known.

CLITOCYBE AURANTIACA (Fr.) Studer Doubtful

Figure 158, page 91

PILEUS 1-3 in. broad, fleshy, pliant, convex to plane, becoming depressed
in age, orange-yellow to brownish orange, fibrillose to subtomentose, some-
times nearly smooth, margin at first involute, then elevated and somewhat
wavy. FLESH soft, thick in the center, thin on the margin, yellowish, odor and
taste mild, lamellae decurrent, crowded, forked, thin, narrow, bright orange
to salmon-tinged, stipe 1-2 in. long, ^4-^2 i^i- thick, tapering upward, min-
utely tomentose, pale orange, varying to brownish or pale yellowish, spongy
within, sometimes hollow.' spores white, elliptical, smooth, 5-7 X 3-4 /jl.

Gregarious on the ground or rotten wood, in both coniferous and fron-
dose woods. July-Oct.

This species has long been known as Cantharellus aurantiacus. The forked
lamellae suggest Cantharellus but in other respects it is not closely related to
other Cantharellus species. Some authors consider it better placed in Clitocybe
although Singer (1951) considers it to be more closely related to Paxillus and
treats it and one other southern species in the genus Hygrophoropsis.

It varies considerably in color from pale yellow to dark brown, but the
crowded, forked, orange lamellae are distinctive.

There have been conflicting reports in the hterature concerning its edi-
bility, some maintaining that it is poisonous and others that they have eaten it
quite safely. In view of this doubt it is not recommended or should be tried
only with caution, although Singer (1951) states that its edibility has been
established.

117

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

CLITOCYBE CLAVIPES (Pers. ex Fr.) Kummer Edible

Figure 159, page 91 ; Figure 414, page 296

PILEUS %-2% in. broad, fleshy, convex becoming expanded, often ob-
tusely umbonate, sometimes centrally depressed, drab grayish brown, smooth
and glabrous, extreme margin tending to remain incurved for some time.
FLESH white, thick at the disk, odor and taste mild, lamellae decurrent, sub-
distant, white or yellowish, broadest in the center, narrowing toward the ends.
STIPE stout, %-2i/2 in. long, 14-% in. thick at the apex, broadening downward
into a clavate-bulbous base i/4-l in. thick, concolorous with the pileus, white
and somewhat spongy within, spores smooth, white, ellipsoid, 6-8 X 3.5-5 /x.

In groups or occasionally in clusters of two or three on the ground in
woods, often under conifers. July-Oct. Fairly common.

The broadly clavate, gray-brown stipe and the subdistant lamellae are the
distinguishing marks of this Clitocybe.

Clitocybe nebularis (Fr.) Kummer is a large cloudy-gray species with
crowded lamellae. It is apparently more common on the west coast than in the
East and collectors in the West are hkely to find it. It may reach 6 inches in
diameter. Kauffman reported it to be edible although he noted that some
European authors had considered it dangerous. There are no collections of
this species from Eastern Canada in the herbarium.

CLITOCYBE CYATHIFORMIS (Bull, ex Fr.) Kummer

PILEUS %-2 in. broad, at first convex, soon umbilicate-depressed to in-
fundibuliform, smoky brown when moist becoming more grayish when dry,
hygrophanous, glabrous or innately fibrillose, margin even, inrolled. flesh
thin, grayish, rather watery, taste mild, lamellae decurrent, narrow, close to
subdistant, grayish brown, stipe 1-2 in. long, V8-!4 in. thick, equal or tapering
upward, brownish or grayish, fibrillose, tomentose at base, spongy-stuff'ed.
SPORES smooth, white, eUiptical-ovate, 7.5-10.5 X 5.0-6.5 ju-

Singly or gregarious on rotten wood. Aug.-Sept.

The gray lamellae are the most striking character of this species, and a
spore print is required to make certain of the color of the spores. Clitopilus
noveboracensis Pk. is somewhat similar in appearance but has pink spores, a
farinaceous odor, and a bitter taste. The spores of C. cyathiformis are amyloid
and Singer has on this account removed it from Clitocybe and placed it in the
genus Cantharellula along with Cantharellus umbonatus and Clitocybe ec-
typoides.

CLITOCYBE DEALBATA (Sow. ex Fr.) Kummer Poisonous

Figures 210, 211, page 116

PILEUS Yx-X Yi in. broad, rarely larger, thin, hygrophanous, convex, ob-
tuse, expanding to plane, sometimes depressed, pallid, whitish when dry, pale

118

CLITOCYBE

grayish brown when moist, smooth, glabrous, margin tending to remain in-
curved. FLESH thin, whitish, odor none, taste mild or slightly astringent.
LAMELLAE aduate-decurrent, fairly close, narrow, broadest in the center,
narrowing to each end, whitish to pallid, stipe short, %-l 14 in. long, about
Vg in. thick, sometimes excentric, equal or nearly so, straight or curved, tough,
subfibrillose, pruinose, concolorous with pileus, solid, spores smooth, white,
elUpsoid, 4-5 X 2.5-3 /x.

Solitary or scattered in grass on lawns, etc. Aug.-Oct.

This poisonous little mushroom is dangerous because of its habit of
growing in or near rings of Marasmius oreades, which is often collected for
food. The color of the pileus is somewhat similar in the two species although
the Clitocybe is whiter, but a glance at the lamellae will quickly distinguish
the two.

Clitocybe morbifera Pk. and C. sudor ifica Pk. appear to be synonyms of
C. dealbata. C. rivulosa (Ft.) Kummer is a closely related species more pinkish
in color and it is also said to be poisonous.

CLITOCYBE DECORA (Fr.) Gillet Edible

Figure 160, page 91

PILEUS 1-21/2 in. across, convex becoming expanded, finally plane or
depressed at disk, surface moist, yellow to ochre or brownish ochre, sometimes
with a slight olive cast, covered with very minute gray to dark brown fibrillose
scales which are dense on the disk and more scattered toward the margin,
margin thin, incurved, tomentose. flesh rather thin, firm, yellow, odor and
taste mild, lamellae mostly decurrent with a narrow tooth, sometimes merely
adnate or adnexed, seceding readily, close, moderately broad except for decur-
rent portion on stipe, yellow, often with alternate lamellae short, stipe 1 1/2-
2 1/2 in. long, Ys-Ys in. thick, subequal, yellow, subglabrous to slightly fibrillose-
scaly, becoming hollow, spores smooth, white, broadly oval, 6-7.5 X 4-5 m.

Single, in small clusters of several, or in groups, on decaying coniferous
wood. June-Oct.

The attachment of the lamellae is not typical for the genus Clitocybe, and
the color of the lamellae might lead one to look for it in Flammula. A spore
print should be obtained.

This species is considered to be closely related to Tricholoma rutilans (Fr.)
Kummer, and has been called Tricholoma decorum by Quelet. Singer places
both these species in a new genus, Tricholomopsis.

CLITOCYBE ECTYPOIDES Pk.

Figure 166, page 109

pileus %-2 in. broad, rather thin, broadly umbilicate, approaching
funnel-form, watery, gray-buff to yellow-buff, virgate with brown or dark

119

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

brown fibrils, usually slightly punctate with minute dark scales, margin even.
FLESH rather thin, tinged the color of the pileus. lamellae decurrent, occasion-
ally forking, subdistant, narrow, tapering at each end, yellowish, stipe %-2 in.
long, about J/g in. thick, equal or tapering slightly upward or downward, con-
colorous with pileus or paler, densely tomentose at base, less tomentose to
subglabrous upward, solid when young, often becoming hollowed by grubs.
SPORES smooth, white, ellipsoid, 7-9 X 4-5 ii.

In groups or small clusters on decaying logs. July-Sept.

The subdistant, forking lamellae in this species might lead one to look for
it in Cantharellus. The spores are amyloid, and Singer has placed this species
in the genus Cantharellula along with Cantharellus umbonatus. The minute,
dark scales in the center of the pileus are a valuable diagnostic character.

CLITOCYBE ILLUDENS Schw. Poisonous

Figures 164, 165, page 109

Jack-o'-lantern

pileus 2-41/2 in. broad (large specimens reaching 8 inches), sometimes
irregularly lobed especially in crowded situations, at first shallow-convex with
umbonate disk and inrolled margin, becoming expanded-convex with de-
pressed disk, the umbo sometimes persisting within the depression, bright
orange-yellow, smooth, at first moist, becoming dry, more or less innately
fibrous-streaked, pellicle rather tough, separable, margin at length elevated
and wavy but with the extreme edge remaining incurved, flesh very thin
except on the disk, fibrous-pithy, tinged orange, drying whitish, continuous
with the context of the stipe, odor strong, sweetish, pleasant, lamellae un-
equally long-decurrent, close, rather narrow for so large a mushroom, narrow-
ing at each end, occasionally forking, brittle, orange-yellow, either brighter or
paler than the pileus, phosphorescent in the dark, stipe stout, tough, 3-8 in.
long, y8-% in. thick, tapering at the base, often twisted and contorted, central
or sHghtly excentric, soHd, surface finely white-pruinose at first, smooth and
dry, fibrillose, tinged pinkish orange, spores creamy white, smooth, globose,
4-5 M-

In dense clusters at base of old stumps, sometimes from buried wood.
July-Sept.

This mushroom is remarkable for its phosphorescent properties. Although
apparently not common in Canada, its bright colors and its habit of growing in
large clusters make it very conspicuous when it is present. Over 100 fruiting
bodies may grow in a single cluster. The odor apparently varies, as it is reported
as unpleasant by some authors.

It is sometimes mistaken for Armillaria mellea or Cantharellus cibarius.
The much brighter colors and lack of an annulus should distinguish it easily
from A. mellea and the crowded narrow lamellae and the habit of growing in

120

CLITOCYBE

dense clusters separate it from C. cibarius. Neither A. mellea nor C. cibarius is
phosphorescent, but old or dried-out specimens of Clitocybe illudens will not
show this character either, so that it cannot be rehed on by itself as a certain
means of identifying C. illudens.

It is not considered to be a deadly poisonous mushroom but will certainly
cause more or less severe illness in most people if it is eaten. The flavor is said
to be good so that this is no guide to its poisonous properties.

CLITOCYBE INFUNDIBULIFORMIS (Schaeff. ex. Fr.) Quel. Edible

Figure 167, page 109

PILEUS l%-2% in. broad, at first convex with subumbonate disk, later
becoming depressed on the disk and finally funnel-shaped, reddish tan, becom-
ing faded, finely silky, margin thin, flesh white, thin on the margin, thicker on
the disk, odor and taste not distinctive, lamellae decurrent, close, not very
broad, tapering to each end, thin, whitish, stipe 1 )/2-3 in. long, J4-)4 in. thick,
often slightly larger at the base, elsewhere subequal, white-mycelioid at the
base, glabrous upward, concolorous with pileus or pallid, spores smooth,
white, ovoid to ellipsoid or subpyriform, obliquely apiculate, 5-8 X 3-4 //,
with many smaller immature spores present.

Solitary or in groups on the ground in woods. July-Oct. Fairy common.

This is the type species of Clitocybe^ and illustrates well the characteristics
of the genus. It is a fairly common species occurring throughout a long period
of the growing season. The color may fade to nearly white. C. gibba (Fr.)
Kummer is probably the correct name for this species.

CLITOCYBE MULTICEPS Pk. Edible

Figure 209, page 116

PILEUS 1-3 in. broad or larger, convex, sometimes irregular in outline
when growing in a crowded cluster, whitish, often tinged with gray or buff,
moist, glabrous, margin thin, flesh white, thick on disk, lamellae adnate to
short-decurrent, or slightly sinuate, close, moderately broad in center, narrow-
ing to each end, whitish, stipe 2-5 in. long, V^-Vi in. thick, stout, subequal or
tapering upward slightly, pruinose at apex, elsewhere subglabrous to fibrillose-
scaly, whitish, soHd within, central or slightly excentric in crowded clusters.
SPORES smooth, white, globose, 5-7 ju broad.

In clusters, often densely crowded, on the ground in grassy places or open
woods. July-Oct.

Kauffman reports this mushroom to be edible but does not recommend it
very highly. GUssow and Odell also describe it as rather insipid.

Clitocybe cartilaginea Bres. is somewhat similar in habit but is darker in
color, gray to brown, and has a cartilaginous cuticle.

121

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

CLITOCYBE ODORA (Bull, ex Fr.) Kummer Edible

Figure 168, page 109

PILEUS 1-3 in. broad, convex with margin incurved at first, becoming
expanded, varying in color from bluish green or grayish green to whitish,
tinged green or entirely lacking the green tints, smooth and glabrous, flesh
white, thin toward the margin, odor sweet, fragrant, sometimes faint, lamel-
lae broadly adnate to subdecurrent or short-decurrent, close, moderately
broad, white to creamy yellowish or tinged green, stipe 1-3 in. long, V8-!4 in.
thick, equal or sHghtly thickened at the base, whitish to pallid, concolorous,
pruinose above, white-mycelioid at base, becoming hollow, spores smooth,
white, oval, 6-8 X 4-5 /x.

Solitary or in clusters of 2 or 3, on the ground in woods, often attached to
leaves and debris. July-Oct.

The greenish colors and the fragrant odor of anise are the distinguishing
marks of this species, but the greenish color is sometimes entirely lacking and
the fruiting bodies may then be white. A smaller and thinner species C. fra-
grans (Sow. ex Fr.) Kummer has a similar odor.

LEUCOPAXILLUS

Leucopaxillus is rather difficult to define in such a way that the amateur
collector can readily recognize the genus by the gross appearance, but it is
fairly easy to determine by microscopic characters. It includes Clitocybe-like or
Tricholoma-WkQ species with rough-walled spores that turn blue in iodine.
These species are mostly whitish or dull colored, with fairly large to large pilei
and fleshy stipes. The attachment of the lamellae varies from decurrent to
sinuate. Unless a microscope is available the beginner will have some difficulty
at first in recognizing a Leucopaxillus and will be inclined to look in Clitocybe
or Tricholoma.

Singer & Smith (1943) published a monograph on the genus and recog-
nized twelve species. Some of the species they included in Leucopaxillus were
formerly known as Clitocybe gigantea (Fr.) Quel., Tricholoma laterarium
(Pk.) Sacc, T. tricolor Peck, Clitocybe albissima (Peck) Sacc, and as varieties
of the latter, C. piceina Peck, C. subhirta Peck, and Tricholoma lentum (Post in
Romell) Sacc.

LEUCOPAXILLUS ALBISSIMUS (Pk?) Sing.

var. PICEINUS (Peck) Singer & Smith Edible

Figure 222, page 134

PILEUS 2-4 in. broad, sometimes larger, convex becoming plane or nearly
so, dry, glabrous to slightly fibrillose, especially toward the margin, whitish to

122

LEUCOPAXILLUS

cream, or pale tan on the disk, margin inrolled at first, sometimes irregular and
ribbed, flesh white, firm, rather thick, taste bitter and disagreeable, odor
unpleasant, lamellae short-decurrent with anastomosing lines at apex of
stipe, narrow, close to subdistant, whitish to yellowish in age, separating read-
ily from the context, stipe 1 1/4-3 Vi in. long. J4-1 in. thick, at first bulbous and
tapering upward, then elongating and becoming nearly equal, white or tinged
buff, glabrous or fibrillose to strigose toward the base, solid, spores white,
elHpsoid, rough, amyloid, 5.5-8 X 4.5-5 ju-

Usually gregarious to single on beds of needles in conifer woods. Aug.-
Oct.

The bitter taste, anastomosing ridges at the apex of the stipe and the
development of yellowish colors distinguish this variety. L. albissimus var.
albissimus is pure white. The fruit bodies persist a long time without decaying.
It has been reported edible in spite of the bitter taste.

LEUCOPAXILLUS GIGANTEUS (Fr.) Sing. * Edible

Figures 170, 171, page 109

PILEUS 4-12 in. or more broad, at first convex to plane, then becoming
depressed and finally infundibuHform, dry or sHghtly moist, glabrous to
slightly pubescent at the margin, whitish to buff or tan, margin at first inrolled,
then spreading and becoming ribbed, sometimes splitting, flesh white or
whitish, thick, firm becoming softer, taste mild, lamellae slightly decurrent,
crowded, at first whitish, darkening with age, narrow to moderately broad,
separable from the context, stipe 1 %-3 in. long, %-2 in. thick, short, stout,
swollen at the base, glabrous, white or colored Hke the pileus, solid, spores
white, ellipsoid, nearly smooth, slightly amyloid, 5.5-8 X 3-5.5 m.

Singly or in small groups on the ground in woods or open places. Aug.-
Oct.

This species is remarkable because of the large size it sometimes reaches
but smaller specimens may be recognized by the color, crowded lamellae and
short stipe.

L, tricolor (Pk.) Kiihner is another species that reaches considerable size,
sometimes exceeding 12 inches in diameter. It is yellowish to pale tan, dry and
unpohshed, sometimes appearing matted-fibrillose, and usually more or less
ribbed or grooved on the margin. The lamellae are close to crowded and
separate readily from the pileus. They are whitish to yellowish when fresh but
on drying change to vinaceous or purplish. Kauffman called this fungus
Clitocybe maxima. Its edible quahties appear to be unknown.

LEUCOPAXILLUS LATERARIUS (Peck) Singer & Smith Not edible

Figures 172, 173, page 109

PILEUS 2-4 in. broad or sometimes larger, convex to plane, sometimes
umbonate, dry, shghtly fibrillose to scurfy, white to faintly pinkish, sometimes

123

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

yellowish on the disk, margin inrolled, slightly ridged, flesh white, thick, firm,
taste very bitter, odor farinaceous to disagreeable, lamellae adnate to sinuate,
decurrent by lines, narrow, crowded, white to pale cream, stipe 1 )/2-4 in. long,
14-% ill- thick, nearly equal or enlarged at the base, white, at first pruinose to
finely tomentose, becoming fibrillose, solid, spores white, subglobose to
globose, slightly rough, amyloid, 3.5-5.5 X 3.5-4.5 m-

Gregarious to subcespitose on the ground in frondose woods. June-Oct.

The bitter taste, non-anastomosing, close, narrow lamellae, and ridged or
ribbed margin are characteristic of this species. It is fairly common, and will
attract the collector because of its size, but it has a very unpleasant taste.

TRICHOLOMA

Tricholoma is a large genus and the species are often difficult to identify.
Usually they are fairly large forms growing on the ground and often appearing
late in the season. The genus is characterized by the white spores, fleshy stipes,
lamellae adnexed to sinuate and frequently notched at the stipe, and the lack
of a volva or annulus. The type species of the genus is T. flavovirens (Fr.)
Lundell. Some of the species included here, such as T. personatum and T.
irinum, have a creamy to dirty pinkish spore deposit and most authors now put
these in the genus Lepista.

Only some of the more common and easily recognized species are included
here. Many of the species are edible and highly prized, but some are disagree-
able in flavor and a few are known to be poisonous. Therefore, only those
species that can be definitely identified and are known to be edible should
be used.

Key

1. Pileus viscid 2

1. Pileus not viscid 6

2. Fruiting body white J. resplendens

2. Fruiting body not white 3

3. Pileus yellow or yellowish 4

3. Pileus without yellow in the coloration 5

4. Lamellae yellow; pileus yellowish, usually reddish on disk T. flavovirens

4. Lamellae white; pileus yellowish with innate black fibrils T. sejunctum

5. Stipe peronate with reddish orange scales T. aurantium

5. Stipe smooth to minutely fibrillose T. pessundatum

6. Lamellae yellow; pileus tomentose-scaly, purple-red T. rutilans

6. Lamellae white or becoming reddish stained 7

7. Lamellae stained with reddish spots; pileus

fibrillose-scaly, dark reddish brown T. vaccinum

7. Lamellae not reddish spotted 8

124

TRICHOLOMA

8. Pileus with prominent, acute umbo, gray T, subacutum

8. Pileus not umbonate 9

9. Pileus fibrillose to scaly, gray T. terreum

9. Pileus glabrous 10

10. Spore deposit white; pileus pale gray usually tinged olive;

flesh turning pinkish; taste disagreeable, soapy T. saponaceum

10. Spore deposit creamy to dirty pinkish 11

11. Pileus and lamellae more or less tinged with blue or lavender T. personatum

11. Pileus whitish to buff, no blue or lavender shades T. irinum

TRICHOLOMA AURANTIA (Schaeff. ex Fr.) Ricken
Figure 169, page 109

PILEUS 1-3 in. broad, convex, becoming expanded, slightly umbonate,
reddish ochraceous to orange-red, rather bright colored, viscid, soon becoming
appressed-scaly, margin floccose, glutinous, inrolled at first, flesh white,
thick on disk, thin on margin, odor farinaceous, lamellae adnexed, close,
white, becoming spotted with rusty brown, a few forked, stipe lYi-'^Vi in.
long, y^-Yi in. thick, equal or narrowed at the base, more or less covered with
rings of scales the same color as the pileus up to an obscure annular zone,
white at apex and between the scales, soHd. spores white, broadly ellipsoid to
ovoid, 4.5-6 X 3-4 m-

Usually gregarious on the ground. Aug.-Oct.

Because of the suggestion of an annulus in this species one might be
incHned to look for it in Ar miliaria and some authors have placed it in this
genus. However, the structure of the trama of the lamellae indicates that it is
more closely related to Tricholoma than to Armillaria. It is a rather bright
colored species and can be recognized by the characteristic scahness on the
stipe, the viscid pileus and the lamellae staining brownish. Its edible quahties
are not known.

TRICHOLOMA FLAVOVIRENS (Fr.) Lundell Edible

Figures 176, 177, page 111

PILEUS 2-4 in. broad, compact, fleshy, convex, expanding, sometimes
obtuse on the disk, pale to bright yellow, usually stained brownish or reddish
on the disk, viscid, glabrous or faintly scaly on the disk, incurved on the margin
at first. FLESH white or tinged yellow, odor not distinctive, taste shghtly un-
pleasant. LAMELLAE free or almost so, rounded behind, rather broad, close to
crowded, sulphur-yellow, stipe stout, 1-2 1^ in. long, I4-/4 ^^- thick, equal or
shghtly thickened at the base, pale yellow or white, solid, smooth or slightly
scaly. SPORES smooth, white, eUipsoid, 6-7 X 4-4.5 /x.

In groups, on the ground in conifer woods. Sept.-Oct.

This species has been well known by the name Tricholoma equestre (Fr.)
Kummer, but under the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature, T.

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

flavovirens is the correct name. It is a striking species with its bright yellow
pileus and lamellae. It might be confused with T. sejunctum but the latter has
usually dark radiating lines on the pileus whereas T. flavovirens tends to
become stained reddish or brownish on the disk and is usually a more robust
species. The lamellae of T. sejunctum are usually white or whitish but may
show some yellow. T. sulphureum (Fr.) Kummer, another yellow species, is not
viscid and is characterized by a disagreeable odor resembling coal tar.

TRICHOLOMA IRINUM (Fr.) Kummer Edible

Figure 178, page 111

PILEUS 1 1/2-6 in. broad, fleshy, convex becoming expanded-plane, gla-
brous, not viscid, pale alutaceous, tinged flesh color to nearly white, margin at
first inrolled, then spreading, flesh thick, firm, whitish, taste mild, lamellae
sinuate to adnexed, crowded, whitish or nearly the same color as the pileus.
STIPE %-2 in. long, )4-% in. thick, equal or bulbous at the base, fibrillose-
striate, whitish, solid, spores ellipsoid, smooth or some minutely rough, pale
cream in mass, 7-9 X 3.5-4.5 /x.

Usually gregarious in troops on the ground in woods or open places.
Sept.-Oct.

This species has the appearance and stature of T. personatum but entirely
lacks the violet or lilac colors. According to Singer the true T. irinum has
smooth white spores but the species described above is evidently the fungus
described and illustrated by Lange and other European authors as T. irinum.
The spores appear smooth under ordinary magnifications but under oil im-
mersion a few seem to be minutely roughened.

T. irinum may be found growing in large fairy rings in the woods. I have
seen such rings 1 8, 24 feet, and one even 50 feet in diameter, forming almost
perfect circles and containing hundreds of fruiting bodies. When a tree is in the
way the mycelium appears to grow around each side of the tree and join up
again on the other side.

TRICHOLOMA PERSONATUM (Fr. ex Fr.) Kummer Edible

Figure 179, page 111

PILEUS 2-5 in. broad, sometimes larger, at first broadly convex, becoming
plane or sHghtly umbonate, glabrous, moist, becoming subviscid and water-
soaked in wet weather, grayish to brownish, tinged more or less with lilac,
fading to buff or whitish, margin at first inrolled, pruinose, then spreading and
often wavy and irregular, flesh whitish, tinged lavender, becoming water-
soaked in wet weather, taste mild, lamellae sinuate to adnexed, close to
crowded, rather broad, at first blue, becoming buff-lilac to grayish buff,
usually with tinge of lilac, with two or three tiers of shorter ones interspersed.
STIPE 1-3 in. long, J^-1 in. thick, equal or often somewhat bulbous at base,
solid, pale lilac or bluish, fading to paUid whitish, fibrillose-pruinose, becoming

126

TRICHOLOMA

glabrous, sometimes striate, spores elliptical, minutely rough, pale dirty flesh
color, 7-8 X 4-5 m-

Singly, in groups, or in clusters of several, on the ground, often under old
leaves, in the woods or on decaying vegetable matter. Sept. -Oct.

This species is rather common and is one of the better edible species,
although it may have a disagreeable flavor if the pilei are old and water-soaked.
It varies considerably in color but there is always some lilac.

According to European accounts, T. personatum exhibits the blue color
only in the stipe, and specimens with blue pilei and lamellae are referred to
T. nudum (Bull, ex Fr.) Kummer. We have referred a smaller species with
much deeper color and slightly diff'erently colored spore print to T. nudum.
The exact identity of these species is somewhat in doubt but they are all edible.
This group of species in which the spore print is not pure white and at least
some of the spores are minutely roughened has been separated from Tricho-
loma as the genus Lepista.

TRICHOLOMA PESSUN DATUM (Fr.) Quelet Edible

Figure 113, page 51

piLEUS 2-4 in. broad, at first convex becoming expanded, reddish bay to
reddish brown or rufous tan, paler toward the margin to a whitish flesh color,
viscid, glabrous, margin inrolled at first, flesh white, tinged reddish, firm,
odor and taste farinaceous, lamellae sinuate to adnate or decurrent by a
tooth, crowded, white staining reddish, stipe 1 }4-3 in. long, y^-\ in. thick,
equal to shghtly bulbous and narrowed below the bulb, glabrous or with a few
fibrils, whitish or becoming stained reddish brown, solid, spores white, ovoid-
ellipsoid, 4.5-6 X 2.5-4 M.

Gregarious, in troops under conifers. Sept.-Oct.

This species is included as the representative of a group of somewhat
similar species occurring with conifers, especially pines, and with reddish
brown pilei and the lamellae staining reddish. From our herbarium records
this appears to be the commonest species.

T. flavobrunneum (Fr.) Kummer also has a farinaceous odor but the stipe
is sulphur-yellow within and the lamellae are pale sulphur-yellow. T. albo-
brunneum (Fr.) Kummer has a faint farinaceous odor, the pileus is minutely
striate with innate fibrils, and the stipe is somewhat squamulose above.
T. transmutans Peck has a farinaceous odor but the taste of the surface of the
pileus is bitter. T. ustale (Fr.) Kummer lacks the farinaceous odor and the
pileus is glabrous and viscid, whereas T. imbricatum (Fr.) Kummer, which
also lacks the farinaceous odor, is dry and the surface of the pileus breaks up
into rather coarse, more or less imbricate scales.

TRICHOLOMA RESPLENDENS (Fr.) Quel. Edible

Figure 180, page 111

PILEUS 1 1/^-3 in. broad, convex to plane, white, viscid, glabrous, flesh
white, rather soft, odor and taste mild, lamellae adnexed, emarginate, close,

127

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

white, fairly broad, stipe 1 J/2-3 (5) in. long, 14-% ^^- thick, equal or tapering
downward, glabrous, dry, white, solid or becoming hollow, spores white,
elliptical, smooth 5-7 X 3.5-5 /i.

Singly or gregarious on the ground, usually in hardwood forests. Aug.-
Oct.

This species is similar in stature to T. sejunctum but is pure white.

TRICHOLOMA RUTILANS (Schaeff. ex Fr.) Kummer Edible

Figure 181, page 11 1

piLEUS 1 )/2-3 in. broad, campanulate-convex, expanding to nearly plane,
sometimes broadly umbonate, dry, covered with a dense brick-red to wine-
colored tomentum which separates into tomentose scales exposing yellowish
flesh between, incurved on the margin at first, flesh yellow, thin at the margin,
thick at the disk, taste mild, lamellae adnate, becoming rounded at the stipe,
crowded, rather narrow to moderately broad, clear yellow, floccose on the
edges, stipe 2-4 in. long, Y^-Vi in. thick, equal or nearly so, stuffed in the
center, becoming hollow, often curved, yellow, dotted with minute wine-
colored tomentose scales which may partly or almost entirely disappear,
yellow within, spores smooth, white, broadly ovoid, 6-7 X 3.5-5 ii.

Solitary or sHghtly clustered, on conifer wood, sometimes apparently on
the ground. June-Sept,

It can be easily distinguished by its purple-red scales, yellow flesh and
lamellae, and by its habitat on wood. It is not a typical Tricholoma in many
ways and has been made the type of a new genus Tricholomopsis by Singer.

It might be confused with Clitocybe decora (Fr.) Gill, also growing on
wood and having yellow lamellae, but the scales of the latter are blackish and
the attachment of the lamellae is different. C. decora has also been placed in
Tricholomopsis and these two species are undoubtedly closely related.

TRICHOLOMA SAPONACEUM (Fr.) Kummer Not edible

Figure 182, page 111

piLEUS %-3 in. broad, convex becoming expanded, variable in color, pale
gray or pale brown, usually more or less tinged olive or greenish, darker on
disk, glabrous or becoming cracked, not viscid, margin incurved, flesh white
becoming pinkish, thick, firm, odor and taste rather soapy, disagreeable.
LAMELLAE adnate, emarginate, with a decurrent tooth, subdistant, rather broad,
whitish. STIPE 1 ]/2-3 in. long, ^4-% in. thick, equal to ventricose, white, be-
coming pinkish within, glabrous to minutely floccose, solid, spores white,
elHptical to ovoid, 5.5-7 X 3.5-5 /x-

Singly or gregarious on the ground in mixed woods. Aug.-Oct.

The gray-green pilei, the flesh staining pink, and the very disagreeable
odor and taste are the distinguishing characters of this species. Sometimes the
odor is not very pronounced.

128

TRICHOLOMA

TRICHOLOMA SEJUNCTUM (Sow. ex Fr.) Quel. Edible

Figure 183, page 111

PILEUS 1 14-3 in. broad, fleshy, convex becoming expanded, umbonate,
often somewhat irregular in outline, smooth, slightly viscid, white to yellowish,
streaked with minute, radiating, innate, blackish fibrils, in dark specimens with
the entire disk umber-brown to blackish, flesh white or tinged yellow, taste
bitter to nauseous, lamellae broad, white, adnate, becoming notched at the
stipe, close to moderately distant, stipe stout, 2-4 in. long, 54-/4 ^^' thick,
more or less equal, often curved, usually solid, smooth, white to straw-colored.
SPORES smooth, white, broadly ovoid, 6-7 X 4-5.5 m-

In groups, on the ground in woods. Sept.-Oct.

T. sejunctum diff'ers from T. flavovirens in its fibrous-streaked pileus and
white lamellae. Specimens with a more or less yellow tinge in the lamellae
have been found and these might be T. intermedium Peck but they were growing
along with typical forms of T. sejunctum and it seems more likely that this
yellow color in the lamellae represents a variation rather than a distinct species.

TRICHOLOMA SUBACUTUM Pk. Doubtful

Figure 233, page 136

PILEUS 1 1/4-3 in. broad, at first conic-campanulate with incurved margin,
expanding to broadly convex with a conspicuous acute umbo, varying in color
from slate-gray or pale gray to ashy or grayish brown, sometimes blackish on
the umbo, fading toward the margin, streaked with minute, radiating, dark
fibrils, dry, glabrous or slightly fibrillose-scaly. flesh thin except at the umbo,
white, odor not distinctive, taste somewhat acrid, lamellae adnexed, close,
broad, white, stipe 2-4 in. long, y^-Vi in. thick, equal, smooth or slightly
fibrillose-scaly, solid, white, spores smooth, white, broadly ovoid, 6-7.5 X
4.5-5 M.

In groups, on the ground in conifer woods. Sept.-Oct.

Apparently there are several closely related forms similar to T. subacutum.
There is some disagreement as to their edibility but none are known to be
dangerously poisonous. The gray color and prominent, acute umbo are the
most distinctive characters. T. virgatum (Fr.) Kummer is probably the same
fungus and, if so, this would be the correct name for it.

TRICHOLOMA TERREUM (Schaeff. ex Fr.) Kummer Edible

Figure 185, page 111

pileus 1-21/2 in. broad, convex to expanded, subumbonate, gray or
mouse-colored, dry, fibrillose, becoming fibrillose-scaly to slightly floccose,
with the scales concolorous or dark gray to sooty, flesh thin, fragile, white,
grayish beneath the cuticle, odor and taste mild, lamellae adnexed, close,
moderately broad, white to dingy, stipe short, 1-2 in. long, I/8-I/4 in. thick,

"^ 129

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

equal, solid or stuffed, white or grayish, spores smooth, white, broadly ovoid,
6-7.5 X 3.5-5.5 m-

In groups, or clusters of several, on the ground, in open woods. July-Oct.

There are a number of closely related forms in the T. terreum group that
are puzzling to distinguish from one another. Just how many species or forms
are involved in this complex is uncertain. The species described above is fairly
common and is characterized by the gray color and fibrillose to scaly pilei.
T. myomyces (Pers.) Lange is similar in appearance but has a farinaceous odor
and taste and slightly smaller spores.

TRICHOLOMA VACCINUM (Pers. ex Fr.) Kummer Suspected

Figure 184, page 111

piLEUS 1 1/2-3 in. broad, convex to campanulate, sometimes subumbonate,
becoming expanded, dry, covered with cinnamon-brown to dark reddish
brown, appressed scales, margin tomentose, incurved at first, flesh thin
except at the disk, white, staining faintly reddish, taste sHghtly disagreeable.
LAMELLAE adncxcd or almost adnate, becoming sinuate, close, moderately
broad, dingy white, staining reddish brown, stipe 2-3 in. long, V^-Yi in. thick,
subequal, hollow, pale reddish brown, fading to whitish at the apex, fibrillose-
scaly with reddish brown scales, spores smooth, white, broadly ovoid to
subglobose, 5.5-6 X 4 m-

In groups or sHghtly clustered on the ground under conifers. Sept.-Oct.

T. vaccinum is a fairly common species, well characterized by the reddish,
scaly pileus, hollow stipe, and by the lamellae staining reddish brown. Other
species in which the lamellae also stain reddish brown are T. imbricatum (Fr.)
Kummer, which has a less scaly pileus and solid stipe, and T. transmutans
Peck, which is viscid with the surface tasting bitter. Both the latter species are
reported edible but there seems to be some doubt regarding T. vaccinum.

MELANOLEUCA

This genus includes a group of species formerly placed in Tricholoma.
The characters used to separate it from Tricholoma are mainly microscopic,
being the rough-walled, amyloid spores and the harpoon-shaped cystidia on
the edges of the lamellae. However, we can usually recognize a Melanoleuca in
the field by its stiff stature and the texture of the stipe, which is almost carti-
laginous as in Colly bia.

The type of the genus, M. melaleuca (Pers. ex Fr.) Murr., is a fairly
common and widely distributed species. As far as is known, all the species are
edible but, as with all mushrooms, they should be tried cautiously at first.

130

HYGROPHORUS

MELANOLEUCA ALBOFLAVIDA (Pk.) Murr. Edible

Figure 188, page 113

piLEUS 2-41/2 in. broad, at first somewhat campanulate, expanding to
almost plane with disk often sHghtly obtuse or shghtly depressed and margin
tending to remain decurved for a long time, smooth, moist, glabrous, dingy
yellowish brown at first, becoming dingy yellowish buff to whitish, darkest on
disk. FLESH white, odor and taste not distinctive, lamellae thin and crowded,
moderately narrow, sinuate-adnexed, white to dingy, stipe rather tall and
straight, giving the plant a stiff, rigid appearance, 3-7 in. long, J4-!/2 in. thick,
equal, subbulbous, solid within, with a cartilaginous rind, glabrous, fibrillose-
striate, whitish or tinged the color of the pileus. spores ovoid, thick-walled,
minutely punctate, strongly amyloid, white, 7-10 X 4.5-5.5 /x. cystidia lanceo-
late, often encrusted at the apex into a harpoon-like tip.

Solitary or in small groups on the ground in woods. June-Sept. Fairly
common.

The general appearance and stature of this species and especially the sub-
cartilaginous stipe would lead one to look for it in the genus Collybia. It was
placed in Collybia by Kauffman, although it was described by Peck as a
Tricholoma, and its closest relatives appear to be in the T. melaleucum group.
Since this group is now separated from Tricholoma as a distinct genus, Mela-
noleUca, this seems to be the proper place for this species. It is larger than
M. melaleuca and paler in color.

MELANOLEUCA MELALEUCA (Pers. ex Fr.) Murr. Probably edible

Figure 189, page 113

PILEUS 1-3 in. broad, convex, subumbonate, expanding to almost plane,
moist, hygrophanous, smoky brown, drying much paler, smooth and glabrous,
sometimes wavy on the margin, flesh thin, whitish, lamellae adnexed,
notched at the stipe, close, moderately broad, white or whitish, stipe 1-3 in.
long, 1/8-54 in. thick, equal or slightly swollen at the base, whitish, marked
with darker fibrils, centrally stuffed, spores white, ellipsoid, rough-walled,
strongly amyloid, 6-8 X 4-5 /x- cystidia lanceolate, encrusted at apex forming
a harpoon-like tip.

Solitary or scattered, on the ground, in woods and open places. Sept.-Oct.

This species is distinguished by its rather stiff stature and rigid stipe, the
strongly hygrophanous, fading pileus, and the rough-walled amyloid spores.
M. brevipes (Bull, ex Fr.) Pat. is very similar but has a short stipe, less than
the diameter of the pileus in height.

HYGROPHORUS

Hygrophorus is a large and important genus that includes some of our
most beautiful mushrooms and several fine edible species. The spore deposit is

131

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

white and the chief distinguishing character of the genus is the texture of the
lamellae. This texture is difficult to describe but is usually termed waxy, and is
fairly readily recognizable with a little field experience. The lamellae are as a
rule rather thick, more or less triangular in shape, and usually subdistant to
distant. The attachment to the stipe varies considerably in different species
from adnexed to decurrent.

Some of the species are brilliantly colored, scarlet to orange, yellow, or in
one species bright green. Others are duller colored, brown, gray, dull viola-
ceous, or white. They may be moist or dry, or both the pileus and stipe may be
viscid, or only the pileus viscid.

The genus Hygrophorus is divided into three sections based on the struc-
ture of the trama of the lamellae. This is a character that can be determined
only by making thin transverse sections of the lamellae and examining them
under the microscope. In this treatment not much emphasis is laid on the
structure of the trama but from a scientific standpoint it is such a valuable
character in making identifications when a microscope is available that it has
been included in the descriptions. However, the key and descriptions are so
arranged that it should be possible to identify the species described here
without knowing the structure of the trama.

Three types of structure may be found. In the first the trama is said to be
'divergent' and in this type the hyphae form a more or less definite core in the
center of the lamella and from it they curve out obliquely and rather loosely to
the hymenium. The other two types are said to be 'parallel' or 'interwoven'
and sometimes difficulty may be encountered in deciding whether a particular
specimen has parallel trama or interwoven trama.

In general there is a correlation between the structure of the trama and
the diameter of the hyphae. If the tramal hyphae are consistently more than
7/x broad the species will usually be classified in the group with parallel hyphae,
and if they are consistently less than 7 /x broad, it will be found in the group
with interwoven hyphae. Those species with divergent trama are placed in the
subgenus Limacium, those with interwoven trama in Camarophyllus, and those
with parallel trama in Hygrocybe.

Although some of the species are small, many of them are among our best
edible mushrooms. Only H. conicus is considered to be dangerous and it is
easily recognized by its conical shape and blackening flesh.

Laccaria laccata is likely to be mistaken for a Hygrophorus but it has
spiny spores.

Figures 212-221

212. Hygrophorus russula. 213. Mycenapura.

214. Laccaria laccata. 215. L. ochropurpurea.

216. Xeromphalina campanella. 217. X.campanella.

218. Mycena leaiana. 219. M. leaiana.

220. Collybia acervata. 221. C. acervata.

132

133

3

H
<3
Ci,
O
O

(S

o

(30

Figures

223-232

223.

Collybia confluens.

224.

C. maculata.

225.

C. dryophila.

226.

C. dryophila

227.

C. platyphylla.

228.

C. tuberosa.

229.

C. velutipes.

230.

C. velutipes.

231.

Marasmius oreades.

232.

M. oreades.

134

\

135

Figure 233. Tricholoma subacutum.

136

HYGROPHORUS

Key

1. Pileus viscid 2

1. Pileus not viscid 13

2. Pileus white or whitish 3

2. Pileus not white 5

3. Pileus with yellow granules, at least at

the margin and at the apex of the stipe H. chrysodon

3. Pileus not with yellow granules 4

4. Pileus glutinous H. eburneus

4. Pileus moist, occasionally subviscid H. borealis

5. Fruiting body bright green, fading to orange, yellow,

or pinkish, very viscid H. psittacinus

5. Fruiting body not green 6

6. Fruiting body gray-brown with tinge of olive;

stipe more or less floccose-scaly H. olivaceoalbus

6. Not as above 7

7. Blackening when handled; pileus conical H. conicus

7. Flesh of pileus and stipe not blackening 8

8. Lamellae becoming reddish spotted, close;

pileus rosy red, somewhat variegated H. russula

8. Lamellae not reddish spotted 9

9. Pileus pale tan or pale flesh colored, often

flushed with pink H. pudorinus

9. Pileus yellow to orange or red 10

10. Stipe viscid 11

10. Stipe not viscid 12

11. Pileus Vs-lVi in. broad, wax-yellow, fading,

becoming deeply umbilicate H. nitidus

11. Pileus 1-3 in. broad, bright reddish orange, fading to yellowish

at margin, plane or slightly umbonate H. speciosus

12. Pileus scarlet to bright red H. puniceus

12. Pileus yellow to orange, never red H. flavescens

13. Fruiting body white H. borealis

13. Fruiting body not white 14

14. Pileus becoming squamulose 15

14. Pileus remaining glabrous or may be somewhat cracked in age 16

15. Lamellae decurrent H. cantharellus

15. Lamellae adnexed H. miniatus

16. Pileus bright orange, fading to yellowish or whitish; the lamellae

also orange and not fading, brighter than the pileus in age H. marginatus

16. Pileus reddish brown when young, fading to tawny or buff,

often turbinate in shape H. pratensis

137

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

HYGROPHORUS BOREALIS Pk. Edible

Figure 190, page 113

PILEUS yg-l ^2 in. broad, slightly fleshy, convex to obtusely subumbonate,
at length slightly depressed on the disk, surface smooth, glabrous, moist,
occasionally slightly subviscid, watery white to white, margin decurved,
finally expanded, striatulate when moist, flesh thickish on the disk, white to
watery, odor and taste mild, lamellae not very broad, arcuate, decurrent,
subdistant to distant, white, trama of interwoven hyphae. stipe 1-21/2 iii-
long, approximately Vs ^^- thick, equal or tapering downward, white, smooth,
glabrous, stuffed, spores smooth, white, ellipsoid, 7-10 X 5-6.5 \i.

In groups, on the ground in woods. Aug.-Oct.

Hygrophorus niveus Fr. is said to differ from H. borealis in its thin sub-
membranous pileus, which is decidedly viscid. H. eburneus Fr. is usually
larger and is also viscid, and has the trama of the lamellae of divergent hyphae.

HYGROPHORUS CANTHARELLUS Schw. Edible

Figure 191, page 113

PILEUS y^-\ 54 in. broad, convex, with disk at first plane or shghtly
depressed, usually becoming decidedly depressed to umbilicate as pileus
expands, dry, glabrous at first but soon becoming minutely scurfy to squamu-
lose, bright scarlet, fading to orange or yellowish, margin often regularly
crisped, flesh thin, concolorous with or paler than the surface, odor and
taste not distinctive, lamellae decurrent to long-decurrent, subdistant, broad,
yellowish or tinged orange, paler than the pileus, trama of parallel hyphae.
STIPE 1 )4-3 Vi in. long, about i/g in. thick, equal or almost so, stuffed at first,
becoming hollow, glabrous, more or less concolorous with pileus, paler at the
base. SPORES smooth, white, broadly oval, apiculate, 8-10 X 4-6 ju-

In groups on the ground in moist woods or bogs. June-Oct. Fairly
common.

Some authors consider this to be a variety of H. miniatus and the two
species are very close but H. cantharellus has a longer, more slender stipe,
decidedly decurrent lamellae, and is usually not as broad. It is a very attractive
little mushroom and is reported to be edible.

HYGROPHORUS CHRYSODON Fr. Edible

Figures 192, 193, page 113

PILEUS 1-3 in. broad, at first convex with margin incurved, becoming
expanded, disk sometimes remaining obtusely subumbonate, white, viscid
when fresh, sprinkled with minute, golden yellow granules, flesh soft, white,
thick at the disk, odor and taste mild, lamellae decurrent, broad, subdistant
to distant, white, trama of divergent hyphae. stipe lJ/2-4 in. long, V^-Vi in.

138

HYGROPHORUS

thick, equal or tapering downward, stuffed, viscid when fresh, white, sprinkled
with minute, golden yellow granules, especially toward the apex where they
sometimes form a yellowish annular zone, spores smooth, white, elHpsoid,
apiculate, 7-10 X 4-5 /x-

In groups on the ground in woods. Sept.-Oct.

The yellow granules on the pileus and at the apex of the stipe provide an
easy means of recognizing this species. It is apparently more common on the
west coast than in the east. It is reported to be edible although Smith and
Hesler (1939) report unfavorably on the flavor.

HYGROPHORUS CONICUS Fr. Suspected

Figure 194, page 113

PILEUS 1-2 in. broad, acutely conic to obtusely conic, remaining unex-
panded, orange-red, orange-yellow, or yellowish, often tinged with ohve to
blackish streaks, blackening when bruised or in age, glabrous, sometimes
obscurely fibrous-streaked, viscid when wet, becoming dry, margin often
splitting as the pileus expands, sometimes lobed. flesh thin, tinged orange,
odor and taste not distinctive, lamellae almost free, fairly close, moderately
broad, broadest in center, pallid yellowish, trama of parallel hyphae. stipe
1 54-35/2 ii^- long, 5/8-54 in. thick, equal, yellowish or orange-tinged, blackening
where bruised, moist or dry, becotning hollow, readily splitting longitudinally,
fibrillose-striate, the striations sometimes twisting around the stipe, spores
smooth, white, ovoid to slightly irregular 9-13 X (4.5) 5.5-6.5 (7.5) m-

In groups or singly on the ground in woods. Fairly common. June-Oct.

The entire fruit body blackens with age or on handling or drying but
traces of blackening can be found on nearly any plant, especially at the base of
the stipe or on the disk. The bright colors, conical shape, and twisted stipe are
characteristic features. H. cuspidatus Peck is somewhat similar in color and
shape but does not blacken.

HYGROPHORUS EBURNEUS Fr. Edible

Figure 244, page 154

PILEUS 1-3 in. broad, pure white, glutinous, convex or obtusely subum-
bonate, becoming expanded, margin at first slightly floccose and incurved,
becoming expanded, in age somewhat elevated, flesh white, rather thick on
the disk, odor and taste not distinctive, lamellae subdecurrent, becoming
decurrent, subdistant to distant, moderately broad, narrowing toward the
margin, pure white, becoming dingy with age, trama of divergent hyphae.
STIPE 2-6 in. long, 5/3-% in. thick, subequal or tapering downward, stuff'ed
then hollow, glutinous, pure white becoming dingy, apex dotted with minute
white squamules. spores smooth, white, ellipsoid, 6-8 X 4-5.5 /x.

In groups on the ground in woods. Sept.-Oct.

This is a fairly common species, distinguished by the very glutinous cov-

139

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

ering of both pileus and stipe. It is somewhat shiny when dry. It is usually
larger than H. borealis Pk. and H. niveus Fr.

HYGROPHORUS FLAVESCENS (Kauffman) Smith & Hesler Edible

Figure 195, page 113

PILEUS brittle-fragile, %-2'4 in. broad, convex to expanded-convex with
decurved margin, often shghtly irregular in outhne, striate on the margin when
moist, smooth, glabrous, viscid, shining when dry, at first bright orange, fading
in streaks to bright yellow, then paler yellow, flesh thin, pale yellowish, odor
and taste not distinctive, lamellae unevenly attached, mostly adnexed, varying
from broad to moderately narrow, close to subdistant, thick and waxy, deep
yellow to pale lemon-yellow, many shorter lamellulae present, trama of
parallel hyphae. stipe 1 J4-3 in. long, Y^-Yi in. thick, subequal or tapering
downward, often compressed or grooved, hollow, waxy to the touch but not
viscid, orange to yellow, usually paler than the pileus, whitish at the base.
SPORES smooth, white, ellipsoid, 7-8 X 3.5-4.5 /x.

In groups or scattered, on the ground in woods, fairly common. June-
Sept.

Kauffman described this fungus as a variety of H. puniceus but it is evi-
dently a distinct species. H. chlorophanus Fr. is similar but has a viscid stipe.
The stipe of H. flavescens may feel sHppery or subviscid on handling but it is
not truly viscid. H. chlorophanus is apparently rare but H. flavescens is common
and probably most specimens identified as H. chlorophanus are, in reality,
H. flavescens.

HYGROPHORUS MARGINATUS Pk. Not recommended

Figure 196, page 113

PILEUS 1/2-2 in. broad, at first obtusely conic with incurved margin,
becoming more or less convex to broadly expanded, disk often tending to
remain obtuse, smooth, glabrous, moist, hygrophanous, bright orange, fading
gradually to pale yellowish, flesh thin, fragile, concolorous with pileus, odor
and taste not distinctive, lamellae adnexed, broad, ventricose, subdistant,
intervenose, bright orange, retaining this deep color, especially on the edges,
after the rest of the plant has faded, trama of subparallel to interwoven hyphae.
STIPE 1-3 in. long, up to 54 in. thick, subequal, often slightly compressed,
hollow, smooth, glabrous, moist, concolorous with pileus or paler, spores
smooth, white, oval, apiculate, 7-9 X 4-6 /x.

In groups on ground in woods. Not common. July-Sept.

The most striking character of this species is the manner in which the
lamellae retain their colors after the pileus has faded. Sometimes the edges of
the lamellae are brighter colored but not always. Kauffman reported this
species as suspected and we have no further information about it, hence it is
not recommended for food.

140

HYGROPHORUS

HYGROPHORUS MINIATUS Fr. Edible

Figure 197, page 113

PILEUS %-l )/2 in. broad, slightly convex to expanded, with disk plane or
depressed, glabrous when fresh and moist but very soon becoming minutely
scurfy as pileus loses its moisture, scarlet at first, fading to orange or yellow,
margin at first incurved, flesh more or less concolorous with the pileus, thin,
odor and taste not distinctive, lamellae broad, subdistant, adnate to adnexed,
paler than the pileus, fading to yellowish, trama of parallel hyphae. stipe
1-2 in. long, about i/g in. thick, equal, glabrous or almost so, concolorous with
the pileus, fading gradually to orange, then yellowish, stuffed at first, becoming
hollow, spores smooth, white, oval, apiculate, 7-9 X 4-5 /x.

In groups on the ground or on much-decayed logs in woods, fairly
common. June-Sept.

This species is rather variable in appearance and different authors have
described several -varieties. The surface is not viscid and appears glabrous at
first, soon becoming fibrous or scurfy to squamulose. The color is brilHant
scarlet at first, soon fading to orange or yellow. The attachment of the lamellae
is another variable character in this species.

HYGROPHORUS NITIDUS B. & C.

Figures 199, 200, page 115

PILEUS %-! Vi in. broad, flattened-hemispherical to convex, with disk
becoming depressed then deeply umbiHcate, smooth, glabrous, viscid when
moist, clear bright yellow, fading to cream or whitish, margin striate when
moist, incurved, gradually becoming elevated but with the extreme margin
tending to remain decurved. flesh thin and fragile, yellowish, fading, odor and
taste not distinctive, lamellae arcuate-decurrent, becoming long-decurrent,
moderately broad, rather distant, with a soft, waxy appearance, yellow, usually
retaining the yellow color after the pileus and stipe have faded to whitish,
trama of parallel hyphae. stipe 1-3 in. long, about i/g in. thick, equal, hollow
within, glabrous, viscid, concolorous with the pileus, fading, spores smooth,
white, broadly oval, apiculate, 7-8 X 4-5 ju.

In groups on the ground in moist woods, fairly common. July-Sept.

This is a fairly common species but is too small and fragile to be of any
interest as food. The most distinctive character is the pileus, which fades from
bright yellow to whitish while the lamellae retain their yellow color. H. cera-
ceus Fr. is similar in color but does not fade and the pileus is not umbiHcate.

HYGROPHORUS OLIVACEOALBUS Fr. Edible

Figures 201, 202, page 115

pileus 1-3 in. broad, fleshy, at first convex to campanulate with incurved
margin, becoming expanded but disk sometimes remaining obtuse or broadly

141

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

subumbonate, smooth, viscid, dark gray-brown on the disk, paler toward the
margin, streaked with blackish fibrils beneath the viscid layer, flesh white,
thickest on the disk, odor and taste mild, lamellae broad, white, close to sub-
distant, broadly adnate to subdecurrent, trama of divergent hyphae. stipe
1 Yi-^Vi in. long, i4-!/2 in. thick, soHd, equal or tapering toward the base or
apex, streaked up to an annular zone with dark gray fibrils under a viscid
coating, white above this zone, occasionally with the fibrils on the lower part
of the stipe arranged in a series of rings or bands, spores smooth, white, oval,
apiculate, 9-12 X 5-7 fi.

In groups on the ground beneath conifers. Sept.-Oct.

The stipe in this species has a double sheath, an outer glutinous layer and
an inner fuscous-fibrillose layer which breaks up into irregular bands as the
stipe elongates. H. paludosus Peck is very similar but does not have the fuscous
inner sheath on the stipe, and in wet weather it develops greenish spots and
stains on the lamellae and upper part of the stipe. H . fuligineus Frost is darker
colored and has smaller spores. H. tephroleucus Fr. is a smaller gray species
with whitish fibrils on the stipe, which soon become gray.

HYGROPHORUS PRATENSIS Fr. Edible

Figure 203, page 115

PILEUS %-3 in. broad, fleshy, convex or with a broad obtuse umbo, often
turbinate, smooth, dry, sometimes cracking around the disk, light reddish
brown fading to pinkish tan or pale tan, margin at first incurved, gradually
becoming expanded, in age the margin becoming elevated and the disk some-
what depressed, flesh thick on the disk, tinged the color of the pileus, odor
and taste mild, lamellae thick, decurrent, distant, intervenose, rather broad,
narrowing toward the margin, flesh colored, trama of interwoven hyphae.
stipe 1 1/2-3 in. long, 14-I/2 in. thick, equal or tapering upward or downward,
stuff'ed, dry, pallid or tinged the color of the pileus. spores smooth, white,
ellipsoid, 6-8 X 4-5 m-

In groups on the ground in woods and open places, fairly common. July-
Oct.

The stipe is usually short and the pileus more or less top-shaped. It often
grows in more open and exposed places and sometimes fades to whitish.

HYGROPHORUS PSITTACINUS Fr. Not edible

Figure 204, page 115

pileus yg-iyg in. broad, conic-campanulate becoming convex or ex-
panded, sometimes persistently umbonate, at first deep ohve-green to parrot-
green, quickly fading on drying out to salmon color, flesh color, pinkish
orange or yellowish, smooth, glabrous, sHmy-viscid and very shppery when
moist, margin striate when moist, flesh thin, fragile, brittle, more or less con-
colorous with the pileus. lamellae adnate, moderately broad, subdistant,

142

HYGROPHORUS

thick especially next to the flesh, somewhat intervenose, greenish at first, soon
fading to flesh color, orange, or yellowish, trama of parallel hyphae. stipe
1/4-2/4 iri- long, about i/g in. thick, equal, glabrous, sHppery-viscid, at first
green, drying to flesh color or yellowish, the apex retaining the green color
longest, hollow, spores smooth, white, oval, obHquely apiculate, 6-9 X 4-5 fi.

In groups on the ground in grassy places and woods. July-Oct.

The bright green color is unusual in mushrooms and this is an attractive
fungus for collectors, but is too small and sHmy to be of any interest as food.
The color fades rather rapidly but traces of it can usually be found around the
margin of the pileus and at the apex of the stipe. Faded specimens might be
confused with H. laetus Fr., which is very variable in color and may be of
mixed colors, but it is not bright green and the lamellae are decurrent.

HYGROPHORUS PUDORINUS Fr. Edible

Figure 205, page 115

The Blushing Hygrophorus

pileus 1 J4-4 in. broad, fleshy, convex to somewhat campanulate with
incurved margin, becoming expanded but disk tending to remain obtuse,
smooth, glabrous, viscid, pale pinkish tan. flesh rather thick, firm, white or
pinkish, odor and taste mild, lamellae not very broad, adnate to subdecur-
rent, thick, subdistant, intervenose and tending to fork, whitish to cream or
flesh colored, trama of divergent hyphae. stipe stout, 1 )/^-3 Yi in. long, J4-
% in. thick, equal or tapering downward, solid or stuff'ed, dry, whitish or
tinged the color of the pileus, somewhat fibrillose below, apex dotted with
minute white flecks which become reddish as the plant dries, spores smooth,
white, ellipsoid, apiculate, 7-9 X 4-5.5 /x.

In groups or slightly clustered on the ground in woods. Sept.-Oct.

According to Smith and Hesler (1939) there is some doubt as to whether or
not this is the true H. pudorinus and there is a western species, H. fragrans
Murr., which diff'ers in having the base of the stipe ochraceous and tends to
stain yellow when bruised, and which in some respects seems closer to the
original description of H. pudorinus.

HYGROPHORUS PUNICEUS Fr. Edible

Figures 207, 208, page 115

pileus 1-2 J4 in. broad, at first bluntly conic with incurved margin,
expanding to convex or nearly plane, disk often remaining obtusely umbonate,
smooth, glabrous, viscid, deep blood-red when fresh, soon becoming streaked
with orange, finally fading entirely to orange, flesh thin, watery, reddish
orange to yellowish, odor and taste not distinctive, lamellae adnate to
adnexed, broad, subdistant, reddish orange to yellowish, trama of parallel
hyphae. stipe lJ/2-314 in. long, I4-/4 in. thick, subequal or tapering at the
base, stuffed then hollow, at first reddish above, fading to orange, then yellow,

143

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

base paler, yellow to white, spores smooth, white, eUipsoid, apiculate, (7) 8-
10 X 4.5-6 fjL.

In groups on the ground in woods. July-Nov.

Young, fresh specimens of this species are among the most brilhantly
colored of our mushrooms. The white base of the stipe and the broad, deeply
colored lamellae are also distinctive. H. coccineus Fr. is said to be similar but
not viscid and is apparently very rare in North America.

HYGROPHORUS RUSSULA (Fr.) Quel. Edible

Figure 212, page 133

piLEUS 2-4 1/2 in. broad, firm, fleshy, convex or with a broad obtuse umbo,
viscid when fresh, rosy red to wine color on the disk, paling toward the margin
to flesh-pink or whitish, sometimes flecked with wine-colored spots, becoming
very minutely areolate, especially on the disk, margin at first incurved and
slightly floccose, becoming expanded and finally elevated, flesh thick, firm,
white to pinkish, odor and taste not distinctive, lamellae adnate to decurrent,
moderately narrow, close to crowded, white then pinkish, finally spotted with
purplish red stains, trama of divergent hyphae. stipe stout, 1 ^4-3 in. long,
%-l in. thick, equal or tapering downward, dry, white then pinkish, solid.
SPORES smooth, white, eUipsoid, 6-8 X 3.5-5 /x-

Scattered or in groups on the ground in hardwoods. Sept.-Oct.

This species is rather unusual in the genus because of the close to crowded
lamellae and some authors have placed it in Tricholoma. However, it now
seems to be generally agreed that it properly belongs in Hygrophorus. It some-
times occurs late in the autumn under fallen leaves. This is considered to be
one of the best edible species.

H. purpurascens Schw. can be distinguished by the presence of an evanes-
cent, fibrillose annulus.

HYGROPHORUS SPECIOSUS Peck Edible

Figure 206, page 115

PILEUS 1-3 in. broad, at first subconic to campanulate, then expanded,
often umbonate, scarlet to orange-red, fading to yellowish near the margin
but remaining red on the disk, viscid, glabrous, margin incurved at first, then
spreading, flesh white, tinged orange under the pellicle, soft, odor and taste
mild. LAMELLAE dccurrcnt, distant, rather broad, thick, white to yellowish,
trama of divergent hyphae. stipe 1)4-4 in. long, )4-)4 in. thick, equal or
sHghtly compressed, floccose-fibrillose up to an evanescent annular zone,
subglabrous above, viscid, soHd. spores broadly ellipsoid, white, smooth,
8-10 X 5-6 M-
, Usually gregarious in larch swamps. Sept.-Oct.

This species is not common but is a very showy and beautiful fungus and
will certainly attract notice when it is found. It is said to be edible.

144

LACCARIA

LACCARIA

Species of Laccaria have white or pale lilac spores, usually strongly
echinulate and not amyloid. They have rather thick, somewhat waxy-looking
lamellae that are usually purpHsh to flesh colored, and lack annulus and volva.
They have been placed in Clitocybe but they are not closely related to this
genus. They are most likely to be confused with Hygrophorus because of the
waxy appearance of the lamellae but the echinulate spores will distinguish
them. They might even be mistaken for the fruiting bodies of a Lactarius in
which the latex had dried up, but the iodine reaction of the spores is a sure
way of separating them. The spores of all Lactarius species turn blue in iodine.
Laccaria species are edible but are not reputed to be of good flavor.

LACCARIA LACCATA (Fr.) Berk. & Br. Edible

Figure 214, page 133

piLEUS %-2 (3) in. broad, convex becoming plane, sometimes slightly
umbilicate, glabrous at first, then scurfy to somewhat scaly, hygrophanous,
variable in color, reddish brown to reddish flesh colored, fading to ochraceous
or paHid, margin even or wavy to notched, flesh thin, moist, taste mild.
LAMELLAE emarginate to short decurrent, broad, distant to subdistant, thick,
tinged flesh color, stipe 1-4 in. long, j/g-W (%) in^- thick, equal, tough, fibrous,
glabrous to scurfy, sometimes striate, sohd to stuff*ed or becoming hollow,
colored Hke the pileus. spores globose, echinulate, white, 8-10 ju diam.

Common in woods or open places. May-Nov.

This is one of our commonest fungi and one of the most puzzHng to the
beginner. It is very variable and is likely to be collected many times before it is
recognized with certainty. The broad, distant, flesh-colored lamellae are,
perhaps, the best field mark and if a microscope is available the spiny, non-
amyloid spores are characteristic.

L. amethystina (Bolt, ex Fr.) B. & Br. is similar in stature but the whole
fruiting body is a beautiful deep violet.

LACCARIA OCHROPURPUREA (Berk.) Peck Edible

Figure 215, page 133

PILEUS 2-4 in. broad, sometimes larger, convex to nearly plane and
depressed in the center, hygrophanous, minutely downy-tomentose at first,
becoming glabrous, or sometimes cracking into scale-like areas, purplish
brown at first, becoming tawny yellow to grayish leather colored, margin
even or wavy, flesh tough, taste unpleasant, lamellae adnate to shghtly
decurrent, broad, thick, distant, purple, stipe 1 Yi-^ in. long, Yi-l in. thick,
variable in shape, equal or tapering either upward or downward, sometimes

145

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

curved or twisted, tough and hard, solid, colored like the pileus or paler.
SPORES globose, echinulate, pale lilac in mass, 8-10 m in diameter.

Scattered to subcespitose in woods, open grassy places or bare soil.
Aug.-Oct.

The purple lamellae are characteristic and might suggest a Cortinarius
but there is no veil and the spores are pale lilac. It is not as common as L.
laccata.

XEROMPHALINA

The genus Xeromphalina includes a small group of species, most of which
were formerly put in Omphalia. However, the name Omphalia is illegitimate
under the International Code of Nomenclature and, furthermore, the species
formerly placed there are not regarded as a taxonomic unit by modern taxono-
mists. They have been divided among several genera of which Xeromphalina is
one. There is some disagreement as to the exact limits of this genus but the
type species is X. campanella (Fr.) Kiihner & Maire.

The species of this genus have white, amyloid spores. The lamellae are
adnate to decurrent and the stipes dark brown to blackish, horny in con-
sistency, and with a bright-colored tomentum at the base. There is no annulus
or volva. The amyloid spores provide the best character for separating Xerom-
phalina from Marasmius. The species are mostly small and of no value as food.

XEROMPHALINA CAMPANELLA (Fr.) Kuhner & Maire Edible

Figures 216, 217, page 133; Figure 415, page 297

PILEUS 1/4-% ii^- broad, fragile, convex, expanding, umbiHcate, rusty
orange-yellow, orange-brown, or reddish-tinged, glabrous or almost so, hygro-
phanous, fading on drying, margin slightly incurved, tending to remain so,
becoming striate, flesh membranous, yellowish, odor and taste not distinctive.
LAMELLAE dccurrcnt, close to subdistant, rather narrow, connected by veins,
yellowish, stipe slender, i/^-l I/2 in. long, ^6-^8 ii^- thick, smooth, cartilaginous,
even, straight or curved, hollow, dark reddish brown, yellowish at apex,
pruinose, with a hairy, orange, root-hke tuft at the base, spores smooth,
white, eUipsoid to long-elHpsoid, amyloid, 6-7.5 X 2.5-3.5 ju.

In clusters, often densely crowded, on decaying logs and stumps of coni-
fers, common. May-Oct.

This species has been reported as edible but is too small to be of much
interest as food although it sometimes occurs in very large clusters. Its abun-
dance, bright colors, and rather graceful stature make it a very attractive Httle
mushroom and it may be found throughout the growing season.

146

MYCENA

XEROMPHALINA TENUIPES (Schw.) Smith

Figure 255, page 156

PILEUS i/^-l 1/4 (2I/2) in. broad, convex, becoming plane or broadly umbo-
nate, rather variable in color, orange-brown, tinged olive or ochraceous, dry,
velvety to sHghtly granulose when old, margin even or becoming slightly
striate in age. flesh watery brown, pHant, no odor, lamellae adnate or decur-
rent by a line, whitish soon becoming pale yellow, close, moderately broad.
STIPE 1-3 in. long, Vs-Vi ii^- thick, equal or shghtly enlarged toward base, con-
colorous with pileus, drying more yellowish, velvety-tomentose. spores white,
eUipsoid, smooth, amyloid, 7-9 X 4-5 /x.

Singly or in clusters on hardwood. June-July.

This species appears early in the season and is the largest species in the
genus. It somewhat resembles Colly bia velutipes but differs in the dry, velvety
pileus and amyloid spores. There is no information concerning its edibihty but
its texture seems rather tough.

MYCENA

Mycena is a very large genus of which the species are small and difficult to
identify. Smith (1947) pubhshed a monograph of the genus in North America
and recognized 232 species. With rare exceptions the species can be identified
only from microscopic characters and the group is not one for the beginner.
The species are all too small to be of any interest as food.

As interpreted by Smith the genus includes white-spored species with
cartilaginous, hollow stipes, and usually conical or convex pilei with the
margin straight and appressed to the stipe when young, although some forms
with incurved margins and decurrent lamellae are included. The fruit bodies
are fragile, fleshy or membranous. In dehmiting the genus. Smith also placed
considerable emphasis on microscopic characters.

Some of the species are rather attractive and brightly colored but many
are small, brownish or grayish forms, all looking rather similar. Only a few of
the more distinctive ones are included here.

MYCENA ALCALINA (Fr.) Kummer
Figure 266, page 174

PILEUS y^-\ in. broad, occasionally larger, fragile but pHant, ovoid in the
button stage, then obtusely conic, expanding to conic-campanulate with the
disk usually remaining obtusely umbonate, becoming long-striate on the mar-
gin as the pileus expands, moist, when young dark grayish brown with a
pruinose bloom, soon glabrous, drab grayish brown at maturity, paUid on the

147

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

margin, flesh thin except on the disk, white to pallid, odor alkaline, lamel-
lae ascending-adnate, moderately broad, uncrowded, white or tinged grayish,
with shorter lamellae interspersed, stipe 2-3)/^ in. long, up to J/g in. thick,
equal, hollow, brittle, subconcolorous with the pileus, at first with a pruinose
bloom, soon glabrous, usually somewhat white-mycelioid at the base, spores
smooth, white, amyloid, ovoid, 7.5-10 X 4.5-6/x. cystidia fusoid-ventricose
on the sides of the lamellae, up to 60 /x long, rare to abundant; those on the
edges of the lamellae varying from ventricose to clavate, sometimes with one to
several fingerlike projections at the apex.

In groups or in clusters of several on decaying conifers, common. May-
Sept.

This is one of the commonest species of the genus and is a fairly typical
Mycena. It may sometimes be found early in the spring. The characteristic
alkaline odor is the most distinctive single character of the species, but it may
vary from being quite strong to only detectable when the flesh is crushed or
even occasionally apparently absent.

MYCENA GALERICULATA (Fr.) S. F. Gray Edible

Figure 277, page 176 ^

PILEUS %-l )/2 in. broad, at first conic, becoming campanulate to ex-
panded-umbonate, the umbo sometimes disappearing, buff'-brown on the
margin, darker to umber on disk, fading, glabrous, somewhat sHppery, not
viscid, margin striate, flesh grayish white to pallid, cartilaginous, odor and
taste slightly farinaceous, lamellae adnexed to adnate or sinuate, close to
subdistant, moderately broad, whitish becoming tinged with pale pink, edges
even, stipe XVi-'^Vi in. long, sometimes longer, He^Vs ^^- thick, equal, gla-
brous, cartilaginous, smooth or twisted-striate, grayish white, darker below to
brownish at base, hollow, rooting, spores white, smooth, ellipsoid, amyloid,
8-10 X 5-7 M.

Usually in clusters or sometimes scattered, on rotten wood. May-Pet.

Although this is a small fragile species it sometimes occurs in such large
clusters that it may be of interest as food. Another common species that
occurs in clusters on wood is M. inclinata (Fr.) Quel. It is more grayish in
color, the margin is more or less scalloped, and the stipe has a white fibrillose
coating when young that usually leaveslftecks or fibrils on the stipe as the
fruiting body matures.

MYCENA LEAIANA (Berk.) Sacc.
Figures 218, 219, page 133

PILEUS 54-1 !4 in. broad, tough, pliant, convex, becoming expanded-
convex, with a slight depression on the disk, translucent-striate on the margin,
smooth and very viscid, bright flaming orange, fading to yellowish orange and

148

COLLYBIA

finally pale yellow, flesh very thin, yellowish, odor and taste not distinctive.
LAMELLAE adnate, ventricose, moderately broad, close to subdistant, yellowish
to pinkish-tinged with the edges bright orange, stipe %-2 in. long, about Xq in.
thick, gradually tapering downward, hollow, glabrous, viscid, orange, not
fading as readily as the pileus. spores smooth, white, ellipsoid, 7-9 X 5-6 /x-

In clusters of few to many individuals on old logs and stumps. June-Oct.

The bright orange edges of the lamellae are a distinctive field mark of this
species since they retain their color after the pileus has faded to yellow. The
brilliant colors of this species are certain to attract attention.

MYCENA PURA (Fr.) Kummer
Figure 213, page 133

PILEUS 1/2-1 Vi ill- broad, convex to expanded, usually obtusely umbonate,
smooth, glabrous, moist, hygrophanous, translucent-striate on the margin,
varying in color from rosy red to violet or shades of grayish violet, sometimes
nearly white, flesh moderately thick on the disk, thin on the margin, tinged the
color of the pileus or whitish, odor and taste of radish, lamellae adnate to
sinuate at the stipe, broad, subdistant to moderately close, interveined, vari-
able in color, white or more often tinged the color of the pileus. stipe 1 1/2-3 in.
long or longer, i/g-i/i in. thick, equal, hollow, glabrous or pruinose, con-
colorous with the pileus or paler to whitish, sometimes twisted, fibrillose-
striate. spores smooth, white, long-ellipsoid, 6-8 X 3.5-4 f^.

SoHtary or in groups on the ground in woods. June-Oct. Common.

This is a common and widely distributed species and is attractive because
of its beautiful colors. It is one of the larger species of the genus but is too
small to be of value as food.

COLLYBIA

The genus Collybia has usually been defined as comprising those species
with white spores, cartilaginous stipes, the lamellae adnate to adnexed, the
margin of the pileus incurved to inrolled at first, and lacking both annulus and
volva. However, modern taxonomists seem to be generally agreed that this
concept is too broad and brings together many unrelated species. The tend-
ency now is to spht the genus into several genera with Collybia dryophila as
the type of Collybia in a more restricted sense. Since some of the divisions are
based principally on microscopic characters and there is not yet general agree-
ment as to precise generic limits, for the purpose of this book Collybia is
retained in the older and broader sense.

It is sometimes difficult to draw a distinction between Collybia and
Marasmius on the one hand and Collybia and Mycena on the other. The prin-
cipal diff'erence between Collybia and Marasmius is in the ability of Maras-

149

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

mius species to revive after drying but sometimes this distinction is not very
clear-cut and Collybia confluens, for example, might equally well be placed in
Marasmius. Mycena is usually distinguished by the small, more or less conic to
campanulate pilei which do not become expanded, and also by the margin of
the pileus which in the young stage lies straight along the stipe rather than
being incurved or inrolled as in Collybia.

No poisonous species of Collybia are known and some of the larger ones
are considered to be very good but many of the species are too small to be of
any value as food.

Key

1. Fruiting bodies densely cespitose, reddish brown or vinaceous brown;
the stipes glabrous above, tomentose below and
more or less bound together C. acervata

1. Fruiting bodies single, gregarious, or subcespitose 2

2. Stipe deeply rooting C. radicata

2. Stipe not deeply rooting 3

3. Stipe glabrous 4

3. Stipe velvety or tomentose to pruinose 6

4. Fruiting body white becoming spotted or stained rusty brown C. maculata

4. Fruiting body not white 5

5. Lamellae very broad; fruiting body gray C. platyphylla

5. Lamellae narrow; fruiting body reddish tan

to yellowish fawn C dryophila

6. Fruiting body small, usually less than Vi in. broad; stipes arising

from a small sclerotium C. tuberosa

6. Fruiting bodies more than V2 in, broad; stipes not arising from sclerotia 7

7. Stipe velvety, dark brown to black; pileus viscid; on wood C. velutipes

1 . Stipe densely whitish pubescent; pileus not viscid;

usually among fallen leaves on the ground C. confluens

COLLYBIA ACERVATA (Fr.) Kummer Probably edible

Figures 220, 221, page 133

PILEUS %-2 in. broad, convex to nearly plane, glabrous, somewhat hygro-
phanous, reddish brown to vinaceous brown, the margin becoming paler and
finally fading over all to nearly whitish, margin slightly striate when moist,
sometimes wavy and irregular and becoming upturned in age. flesh thin,
pallid, taste mild, lamellae free to adnexed, crowded, narrow, whitish or
tinged reddish, stipe 2-4 in. or sometimes more in length, V8~!4 in. thick,
equal, hollow, glabrous above, whitish tomentose below, densely cespitose
and often bound together with the white mycelium, reddish brown or vina-
ceous brown, often darker than the pileus. spores smooth, white, nonamyloid,
narrowly oblong to ellipsoid, with a prominent apiculus, 5-7 X 2-3 /x.

Densely cespitose on the ground or rotten wood. Aug.-Oct.

It is reported to be edible although Smith (1949) describes the taste as

150

COLLYBIA

bitter. The dense clusters with reddish brown stipes more or less bound to-
gether toward the base are a characteristic feature of this fungus. When dried
the stipes retain the reddish brown color and are darker than the pilei.

Collybia familia (Pk.) Sacc. and C. abundans (Pk.) Sacc. are two other
densely cespitose species which have amyloid spores and are differently colored,
whitish or buff to pale brown, more gray than C. acervata, and with whitish to
brownish stipes. In C. abundans the pileus is depressed in the center and in
C. familia it is not. Both of these species are edible.

COLLYBIA CONFLUENS (Pers. ex Fr.) Kummer Edible

Figure 223, page 135

PILEUS %-2 in. broad, convex to nearly plane, reddish brown to buff-
brown when moist, becoming grayish to pinkish buff or whitish when dry,
glabrous to pruinose, sometimes minutely subsquamulose on the disk, obtuse
to subumbonate, even or striatulate on the margin when moist, flesh thin,
white, rather tough, odor and taste mild, lamellae free, narrow, crowded,
whitish, stipe 2-4 in. long, 3^6-% in. thick, equal- or nearly so, often com-
pressed, tough, cartilaginous, reddish brown under a dense white pubescence,
hollow, spores hyahne, narrow-fusoid, 6-9 X 2.5-4 /x.

Cespitose or gregarious, usually among fallen leaves on the ground. July-
Oct. Common.

This species tends to revive when moistened, and in this way forms a
connecting link between Collybia and Marasmius. It occurs rather commonly
and is sometimes abundant. The densely whitish pubescent stipe is a good dis-
tinguishing character. C. hariolorum Fr. is somewhat similar but is reddish on
the disk, the stipe is usually shorter and it does not revive so well, tending to
become soft when moistened.

COLLYBIA DRYOPHILA (Bull, ex Fr.) Kummer Edible

Figures 225, 226, page 135

PILEUS 1-2 in. broad, rather thin and pliant, convex becoming expanded
with margin finally elevated and irregularly wavy, disk remaining slightly
obtuse or becoming depressed, surface smooth, glabrous, moist when fresh,
color variable, ranging from deep reddish tan to yellowish fawn, fading with
age. FLESH thin, whitish, odor and taste not distinctive, lamellae adnate to
adnexed, narrow, crowded, white or palHd. stipe 1 V^-lYi in. long, ^'bout J/g in.
thick, cartilaginous, equal or tapering upward, often compressed, central or
shghtly excentric, hollow within, surface smooth, glabrous, more or less con-
colorous with pileus, often tufted with white mycehum at the base, spores
smooth, white, ellipsoid, 5-7 X 3-3.5 ju-

In groups or small clusters, on the ground in woods, common. June-Sept.

There are several species such as C. butyracea (Bull, ex Fr.) Kummer, C.
lentinoides Peck, and C. aquosa (Fr.) Kummer that are closely related to C.

151

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

dryophila and sometimes difficult to distinguish. However, these are all edible
species as well. C. dryophila may be found throughout the growing season and
is sometimes abundant.

COLLYBIA MACULATA (A. & S. ex Fr.) Kummer Edible

Figure 224, page 135

piLEUS 2-6 in. broad, rather firm, convex becoming expanded, disk tending
to remain obtuse, margin at first inrolled, then decurved, becoming somewhat
wavy when fully expanded, surface smooth, glabrous, white, spotted with
rusty brown stains, in age the entire plant becoming rusty-stained, flesh
white, compact, lamellae adnexed to almost free, narrow, crowded, white.
stipe white, IVi-^Vi in. long, up to Yi in. thick, equal or sHghtly ventricose,
the tapering base extending down some distance into the soil, cartilaginous,
becoming hollow, fibrous-striate to sHghtly grooved, spores broadly oval to
subglobose, smooth, yellowish, 5-7 X 4-5 ii.

In groups or in clusters of 2 or 3, on the ground in woods. June-Sept.

This is a fairly large white species which can be recognized by the rusty
stains that develop as it matures. The spores are not pure white but have a
yellowish tinge. It is reported to be edible but not of particularly good flavor.

COLLYBIA PLATYPHYLLA (Fr.) Kummer Edible

Figure 227, page 135; Figure 416, page 297

PILEUS averaging 21^-5 in. broad, occasionally up to 8 in. broad, convex
to subcampanulate at first, becoming expanded, disk often remaining obtusely
umbonate or sometimes becoming sHghtly depressed, margin at first incurved,
becoming expanded or recurved, in age splitting raggedly, color drab grayish
brown to brownish drab, streaked with darker innate fibrils, paling toward the
margin to grayish white, surface dry or moist, smooth or slightly scurfy.
FLESH thin, white, taste unpleasant, odor mild to unpleasant, lamellae white
or whitish, very broad, subdistant, adnexed, becoming sinuate at the stipe.
STIPE stout, 3-5 in. long or sometimes longer, %-% in. thick, equal or tapering
upward slightly, white or whitish, fibrous-striate, cuticle sHghtly cartilaginous,
center stuff'ed, becoming hollow, spores smooth, white, broadly oval, 7-10 X
5-7 Mj immature spores smaller.

Single or in groups of several, on decaying stumps and logs or in rich soil.
June-Oct.

C. platyphylla is edible but is often infested with insect larvae and the
flavor is said to be strong. The gray color and very broad lamellae are dis-
tinguishing characters.

Figures

234-243

234.

Marasmius rotula.

235. M. rotula.

236.

M. scorodonius.

1?)1. Schizophyllum commune.

238.

Partus rudis.

239. P. rudis.

240.

Trogia crispa.

241. Pluteus admirabilis.

242.

P. atromarginatus.

243. P. atromarginatus.

152

53

£^5

3

245. Pluteus cervinus.

247. Volvariella bombycina.

249. Entoloma rhodopolium.

251. Leptonia asprella.

253 . Clitopilus abortivus.

Figures 245-254

246.

P. cervinus.

248.

V. bombycina.

250.

E. salmoneum

252.

L. formosa.

254.

C. abortivus.

154

155

to

5

o

3

156

COLLYBIA

COLLYBIA RADICATA (Fr.) Quel. Edible

Figure 292, page 194

PILEUS 1 J4-4 in. broad, convex, becoming expanded, often slightly umbo-
nate, surface viscid when wet, glabrous, smooth or wrinkled around the umbo,
color varying from grayish brown to grayish fawn or paUid. flesh thin except
on disk, whitish, odor shght or lacking, taste mild, lamellae adnexed, often
with fine decurrent hnes on the stipe, broad, subdistant, pure white, several
tiers of shorter lamellulae not reaching the stipe, stipe tall, 2-8 in. above
ground, with a long tapering root-Hke underground extension, i/^-^/z in. thick
at the ground, tapering upward sHghtly, cartilaginous, stuffed, becoming
hollow, surface varying from even to twisted-striate or sulcate, glabrous to
densely pruinose, white at the apex, elsewhere brownish to mouse colored.
spores smooth, white, broadly oval, obliquely apiculate, 14-17 X 9-11 /x.

On the ground in woods, solitary or in small groups, common. June-Sept.

The 'rooting' stipe and the pure white, subdistant lamellae are the field
marks of this species. C longipes (Fr.) Kummer also has a long rooting stipe
but is smaller with a dry, velvety pileus and brownish tomentose stipe. C.
radicata exhibits a great range of variation in size and color and several vari-
eties have been described. It is a very common species and sometimes may be
found when other mushrooms are scarce.

COLLYBIA TUBEROSA (Bull, ex Fr.) Kummer
Figure 228, page 135

PILEUS tiny, y%-Y% in. broad, convex to expanded, sometimes slightly um-
bonate, white to creamy or tinged tan, surface glabrous, unpoHshed or almost
chalky in appearance, flesh thin, white, lamellae adnate, or with a slight,
decurrent line, distant or subdistant, rather narrow, whitish, many short ones
not reaching the stipe, stipe %-% in. long, slender, fihform, surface minutely
scurfy or powdery especially toward the base, glabrous at the apex, white or
tinged reddish brown, hollow, attached at the base to a small reddish brown or
blackish sclerotium. sclerotium 3^6~!4 in. in diameter, varying in shape from
elongated to pip-shaped, spores smooth, white, ellipsoid, 4-5.5 X 2-3 /x.

In groups on decayed mushrooms or occasionally on the ground. July-
Oct.

This tiny Httle species is of no interest as food, but it is fairly common and
will be encountered by any collector. It can be recognized by the small brown-
ish sclerotia from which the fruit bodies arise. It is usually found on much-
decayed mushrooms.

C. cirrhata (Schum. ex Fr.) Quel, is a similar small species but does not
have sclerotia; C. cookei (Bres.) Arnold has sclerotia that are yellowish and
more rounded than those of C. tuberosa. C. albipilata Peck is another small
species growing on pine cones.

157

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

COLLYBIA VELUTIPES (Curt, ex Fr.) Kummer Edible

Figures 229, 230, page 135; Figure 417, page 298

piLEUS %-2 in. broad, convex-expanded, often slightly excentric and
irregular, surface glabrous, viscid, pellicle separable, color yellowish to reddish
yellow or reddish brown, usually darkest on disk, flesh moderately thick,
white or tinged yellow or reddish, taste mild, lamellae sinuate-adnexed,
rather broad, subdistant, creamy to yellowish, edges minutely fimbriate.
STIPE %-2j/2 in. long, Ys-Ya in. thick, tough, subequal or tapering slightly to
base or apex, stuffed to hollow, surface densely velvety-tomentose, bright
cinnamon, usually yellowish toward the apex and dark brown to blackish
toward the base, spores smooth, white, long-eUiptic, obhquely apiculate,
7-9 X 3-4 M.

In small clusters or singly on decaying logs and stumps, and on bark of
living trees, chiefly in late autumn but found also in early spring or in summer.

C velutipes seems to be hardy in cold weather. Fruiting bodies are some-
times found during mild spells in January and February. The reddish brown to
yellowish, viscid pilei and dark velvety stipes are distinctive characters for this
species.

Kauffman says the peUicle should be removed from the pileus before
cooking.

MARASMIUS

Marasmius is a large genus of white-spored mushrooms, mostly small in
size, and characterized by the abiUty to shrivel up during dry periods and
revive again when moistened. This character is not very clear-cut and some
species may readily be mistaken for Collybia or Mycena. There is no veil and
the stipe is of a different texture from the pileus.

Many of the species are small and membranous and with the exception of
M. oreades are of little interest as food. Some are, however, attractive little
mushrooms and a few of the commoner species are included.

Key

1. Stipe glabrous 2

1. Stipe not glabrous; pileus buff or tan colored;

growing in rings in grassy places M. oreades

2. Odor of garlic M. scorodonius

2. Odor not of garlic 3

3. Pileus ochraceous red, sulcate M. siccus

3. Pileus whitish with dark umbilicus; lamellae attached

to a free collar M. rotula

158

MARASMIUS

MARASMIUS OREADES Fr. Edible

Figures 231, 232, page 135; Figure 418, page 298

Fairy Ring

piLEUS %-2 in. broad, rather fleshy for this genus, pliant, at first bell-
shaped with slightly incurved margin, expanding to convex with or without a
broad obtuse umbo, finally broadly expanded with margin elevated and disk
plane or shghtly umbonate, varying from dull reddish to Hght brown or tan,
fading to yellowish buff" when dry, smooth to somewhat uneven or lumpy,
glabrous, margin more or less striate when moist, flesh thin at the margin,
thicker on the disk, palHd and watery when moist, whitish when dry, odor faint,
taste not distinctive, lamellae almost free, subdistant, somewhat interveined,
rather broad, rounded behind, very thick next to the pileus, paUid whitish buff.
STIPE tough, 1-2J4 in. long, about y^ in. thick, equal or tapering downward,
sometimes compressed at the apex, concolorous with the pileus or paler,
smooth to minutely scurfy, stuff*ed to hollow, spores smooth, white, some-
what irregular in shape, mostly slightly subfusiform, prominently apiculate,
7-9 X 4-5.5 M.

On the ground in lawns and grassy places, often in rings or arcs, common.
May-Oct.

This is a good edible species and can be dried for winter use. However, the
collector should be careful to avoid getting fruiting bodies of the poisonous
Clitocybe dealbata (Figures 210, 21 1, p. 116) mixed in with his collection. The
two species are likely to be found growing together, and are sufficiently similar
in size and coloring to be accidentally included in the same collection. They
can be distinguished readily by the lamellae, which are broad and subdistant in
the Marasmius, and narrow and close to crowded in the Clitocybe. The Clito-
cybe is much whiter in color as a rule but it might be mistaken for faded speci-
mens of the Marasmius if color alone were relied upon.

M. oreades is commonly known as the fairy ring mushroom from its habit
of growing in circles on lawns or grassy places. The circles tend to increase in
size from year to year and the grass at the periphery of the circle is usually a
richer, darker green than the surrounding grass.

MARASMIUS ROTULA (Fr.) Kummer
Figures 234, 235, page 153

pileus 1/^-1/4 in. broad, thin, tough and pliant, hemispheric to convex,
unexpanded, umbilicate, radiately grooved from disk to margin in an umbrella-
hke fashion, dry, unpolished, white or whitish, darker in the depression of the
disk. FLESH whitish, membranous, odor and taste not distinctive, lamellae
distant or subdistant, broad, attached not to the stipe but to a free collar at
the apex of the stipe, concolorous with the pileus. stipe 1/2-2 in. long, fihform,

159

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

tough, shining blackish, pallid at the apex, spores smooth, white, pip-shaped,
6-9 X 3-4 M-

In dense groups on decaying wood and debris, common in eastern
Canada. June-Oct.

This attractive little species often occurs in great abundance in the woods.
The whitish pileus with dark umbilicus and the attachment of the lamellae to a
free collar are the distinctive field characters.

MARASMIUS SCORODONIUS (Fr.) Kummer
Figure 236, page 153

PILEUS 54-% ii^- broad, phant, convex, expanding to plane, unpoHshed,
smooth or slightly wrinkled, at first tinged reddish or tan, finally whitish.
flesh thin, odor of gariic when crushed, lamellae adnate, not broad, mod-
erately close, pallid, stipe 1-2 in. long, about J/fg in. thick, subequal or tapering
downward, smooth, dark reddish brown to blackish at the base, paUid at the
apex. SPORES smooth, white, ellipsoid, tapering to the apiculate end, 6-8 X

3-4 M.

In groups on twigs and debris, fairly common. June-Sept.

The striking feature of this little species is its strong odor of gadic and it is
sometimes used as a seasoning for roasts and gravies.

MARASMIUS SICCUS (Schw.) Fr.
Figure 114, page 51

PILEUS 1/2-1 in. broad, at first conical, becoming campanulate, often
depressed in the center, dry, glabrous, pinkish red to ochraceous red to rusty
red, striate-sulcate to the disk, flesh membranous, mild, lamellae free to
adnexed, distant, white or tinged like the pileus. stipe about 1 )^-3 in. long,
very slender and thread-Hke, horny, glabrous, blackish brown, paler at apex,
tubular, mycelioid at base, spores elongated, narrowed toward one end, white,
smooth, 13-18 X 3-4.5 m-

Gregarious in the woods on leaves, twigs and forest debris. July-Sept.
Common.

Although of small size this little mushroom will attract notice because of
its bright color and abundance. The color, deeply furrowed pilei and distant
lamellae are good field characters.

LENTINUS

Lentinus includes a rather small group of white-spored species growing on
wood and characterized by their hard, tough consistency and the serrate-torn
edge of the lamellae. The stipe may be present or excentric, or lacking.

160

^ PANUS

LENTINUS LEPIDEUS Fr. Edible

Figures 303, 304, page 196

PILEUS 2-6 in. broad, tough to leathery, at first hemispherical or convex
with margin incurved, expanding to plane or nearly so, dry, whitish to dingy
yellowish or drab brownish buff, decorated, especially on the disk, with brown
appressed spot-like or triangular scales arranged more or less concentrically,
the entire surface usually at length becoming areolate or subscaly. flesh
white, firm to tough, becoming hard when old and dry, very thick on the disk.
LAMELLAE variable in attachment, usually sinuate at the stipe and decurrent
by narrow fines, broad, close to subdistant, white to dingy yellowish, edges
saw-toothed, stipe stout, 1 1/2-4 in. long, )4-l in. thick, tapering toward the
base, often more or less excentric and curved, especially if growing from the
sides of stumps, etc., dry, sofid, very hard and tough, white, browning in age,
surface varying from nearly smooth to conspicuously scaly, sometimes with
brown patches similar to those on the pileus. veil membranous, covering
the lamellae in young stages, leaving an annular ridge on the apex of the stipe
or often disappearing entirely in age. spores smooth, white, long-ellipsoid,
many sfightly irregular in shape, 9-12 X 4-5.5 /x-

Sofitary or in clusters of 2 or 3, on timbers, railway ties, fence posts,
stumps, etc., usually on conifer wood, common. May-Sept.

Although this species is reported to be edible when young, it soon be-
comes so tough and woody that it is of no value. It is often found growing in
dry situations such as on railway ties or old timbers and it sometimes causes
serious rotting of the wood.

Several other species are fairly common. L. tigrinus Fr. is a large, scaly,
deeply umbificate species that is sometimes much deformed. L. cochleatus Fr.
usually grows in clusters with the stipes confluent and deeply furrowed. L. vul-
pinus Fr. grows in shelving clusters without stipes, and is remarkable for the
very rough, coarsely hairy surface of the pileus. L. haematopus Berk, is a small
species with a short blood-red stipe.

PANUS

The species of Panus occur on wood and have white spores, and the stipes
are excentric or lateral or sometimes lacking. They differ from Pleurotus in
being of tough consistency, more or less reviving when moistened, but some
species might readily be mistaken for a Pleurotus. The consistency is similar to
Lentinus but in Panus the edges of the lamellae are entire and even, whereas in
Lentinus they are serrate-torn. Panus species are too tough to be of much value
as food although some have been used to flavor soups and gravies.

161

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

Key

1. Stipe lateral or lacking 2

1. Stipe excentric 3

2. Pileus cupulate; lamellae covered by a veil when young P. operculatus

2. Lamellae not covered by a veil; taste astringent P. stipticus

3. Pileus densely hairy P. rudis

3. Pileus glabrous or delicately tomentose to slightly scaly P. torulosus

PANUS OPERCULATUS B. & C. Not edible

Figure 175, page 110

PILEUS 54-/4 ii^- broad, leathery, more or less pendent to convex, narrowed
behind or above to a short stipelike base, brown or grayish brown, at first
minutely flocculose-tomentose, becoming glabrous, margin strongly incurved,
even, flesh whitish, thin, lamellae radiating from an excentric point, close,
narrow, pale brown, veil a membranous tissue, covering the lamellae and
sphtting, leaving fragments on the margin, stipe lateral or dorsal, very short or
almost wanting, about J^e-Vs ii^- ^^ diameter, concolorous with pileus. spores
white, allantoid, smooth 4-5 X 1-1.5 /x.

In groups on twigs of deciduous trees. Sept.-Nov.

Panus salicinus Peck is very similar in appearance but lacks the veil. These
two species have been discussed by Overholts (1938). They are not closely
related to other species placed in Panus, but would be better placed in the
genus Tectella, of which T. patellaris (Fr.) Murr. is the type. Some authors
regard Panus operculatus as a synonym of Tectella patellaris, but Overholts
questioned this since Fries did not describe or illustrate a veil for T. patellaris.

The species is of no importance from the standpoint of edibility, but it is
an interesting and puzzUng form that is not very common.

PANUS RUDIS Fr. Edible; tough

Figures 238, 239, page 153

PILEUS %-2% in. broad, depressed toward the stipe, varying in shape from
vase-like with central stipe to ear-shaped with almost lateral stipe, leather color
to tawny or reddish, surface with a rather coarse, velvet-hke, hairy coating,
sometimes shghtly tufted, margin at first inrolled, sometimes irregularly lobed.
FLESH tough, somewhat corky when dry, taste slightly bitter, odor not distinc-
tive. LAMELLAE dccurrcnt on stipe, crowded, narrow, paler than the pileus.
STIPE short and stout, sometimes almost lacking, equal or tapering downward,
slightly excentric to almost lateral (never truly lateral), tomentose, conco-
lorous with or paler than the pileus. spores smooth, white, ellipsoid, 5-6 X
2-3 M.

Clustered on logs and stumps, common. June-Sept.

This is a very common species occurring on old stumps or logs. Its tough

162

PANUS

consistency and velvety, hairy pilei are distinctive. It is said to be edible but it is
not recommended because of its tough consistency.

PANUS STIPTICUS Fr. Poisonous

Figures 278, 279, 280, 281, page 176

piLEUS i^-l 14 iri- broad, tough and leathery, reviving when moistened,
variable in shape, mostly kidney-shaped to shell-shaped, convex, with a sHght
depression toward the lateral stipe, pale cinnamon-buff, fading, surface very
minutely scurfy, margin entire or irregularly lobed. flesh leathery, taste very
astringent, disagreeable, lamellae cinnamon color, moderately broad, close to
crowded, interveined, becoming tough when dry, ending in an even Hne at the
stipe. STIPE a lateral continuation of the pileus, somewhat flattened, short and
stubby, scarcely visible from above but distinct from below, paler than the
pileus, soHd, tough, surface somewhat mealy, spores minute, smooth, white,
oblong, 4-5 X 2 /i.

In crowded, overlapping, shelving clusters, on stumps and logs, common.
July-Oct.

Panus stipticus has a very unpleasant taste and is reported to be poisonous.
In addition it is remarkable for its phosphorescent properties. When fresh and
moist the fruiting bodies and myceHum glow in the dark, sometimes producing
a ghostly eff'ect in the woods.

PANUS TORULOSUS Fr. Edible; tough

Figures 315, 316, page 214 -

PILEUS 1 1/2-4 in. broad, occasionally larger, tough and leathery, plane to
depressed or infundibuliform, pale tan to brownish, tinged violet or reddish
when moist, glabrous, or deHcately tomentose when young, sometimes slightly
scaly near the center, margin inrolled, even, lamellae decurrent, close, narrow,
some forked, pale tan, often tinged violet when moist, stipe y^-\ in. long,
14-% in. thick, short and stout, excentric to lateral or sometimes nearly
central, with a fine violaceous to gray tomentum, solid, tough, spores white,
eUiptical, 5.5-7 X 3-3.5 /x-

Clustered or occasionally sohtary, on old stumps and logs. June-Aug.

Various authors diff'er as to whether or not P. torulosus and P. conchatus
Fr. are distinct. Lange (1935-40) attempts to separate them on the basis of the
habit of growth. He would place the forms with regular pilei and more or less
central stipes in P. torulosus, and the clustered forms with lateral stipes in
P. conchatus. It will probably require cultural studies to determine whether or
not these forms are diff'erent species.

This fungus might be mistaken for a Clitocybe if collected when young and
moist. It is said to be edible, but is too tough to be of much interest from that
standpoint.

163

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

SCHIZOPHYLLUM

The name Schizophyllum means 'split leaf and refers to the characteristic
lamellae, which appear to be split along the edge and to fold back during dry
weather.

Only one species is known in Canada but it is rather common. It suggests
a Pleurotus in habit but is very different in texture. It is tough and leathery and
inedible, although according to Singer the islanders in the Dutch East Indies
and Madagascar chew the fruit bodies. The species of Schizophyllum may be of
some importance as wood destroyers.

SCHIZOPHYLLUM COMMUNE Fr. Not edible

Figure 237, page 153

PILEUS i/i-l in. broad, thin, leathery-tough, densely matted-tomentose,
pale grayish buff to grayish white, whitish when dry, sessile, fan-shaped to
shell-shaped when laterally attached, vase-shaped expanding to saucer-shaped
when attachment is central or excentric, margin incurved and lobed. lamel-
lae radiating from the point of attachment, uncrowded, thick and tough,
grayish white or with a faint pinkish cast, densely hairy under a lens, appearing
double on the edges because of a groove running the length of the edge of each
lamella, spores smooth, creamy to deep yellowish, cyhndric, about 3.5-5.5 X
1-1.5 M-

On dead wood, often with bases confluent when growing in crowded
clusters, common throughout the growing season.

This httle species is of no interest as food because of its small size and
tough, leathery consistency, but it frequently attracts attention because of its
abundance. It is interesting because of the adaptations to withstand dry
conditions that it exhibits. If the fungus is examined when moist it will be seen
that each of the lamellae is spHt along the edge, and as the fruit body dries out,
the edges curl back and roll outward, protecting the sides of the lamellae from
loss of moisture, while at the same time the margin of the pileus also rolls
inward and in this condition the fungus can survive considerable periods of
drying. When re-moistened the margin of the pileus spreads out, the lamellae
unroll and the fruit body commences to shed spores again.

TROGIA

Only a single species of this genus occurs in Canada. It is a small, white-
spored, rather tough, wood-inhabiting fungus, that tends to fold up in dry
weather and to revive again when moistened. It has no stipe. The most char-
acteristic feature is the lamellae which are thick, blunt on the edge, and very
much crisped and irregular.

164

PLUTEUS

TROGIA CRISPA Fr. Not edible

Figure 240, page 153; Figure 419, page 299

PILEUS 1/4-% in. broad, sessile, sometimes resupinate, shell-shaped, or
shelf-Hke, sometimes overlapping, incurved when dry, reviving and spreading
out when moist, reddish yellow to tan colored, covered with whitish hairs
when young, lamellae whitish to bluish gray, vein-like, very narrow, irregular,
crisped, edges blunt, spores white, cylindric to allantoid, 3-4 X 1-1.5 fi.

Crowded to scattered on dead branches of frondose trees, fairly common.
May-Nov.

This tiny mushroom is of no interest as food and is not very conspicuous
when it is dry, but when it is moist the large clusters and beautifully crisped
lamellae are sure to attract attention.

PLUTEUS

Pluteus includes species with a pink spore deposit, lamellae free from the
stipe, and lacking both annulus and volva. The stipe is central and easily
separable from the pileus. Pluteus species usually occur on old logs and stumps
or on some form of decayed wood. Except for the common P. cervinus most of
them are too small to be of much value as food. They are typically soft in
consistency and decay rapidly.

Key

1. Pileus and stipe yellow and glabrous P. admirabilis

1. Pileus brown 2

2. Lamellae black on the edge P. atromarginatus

2. Lamellae not differently colored on edge P. cervinus

PLUTEUS ADMIRABILIS (Pk.) Pk.

Figure 241, page 153

PILEUS Yz-lYz in. broad, fleshy-pliant, campanulate when very young,
becoming expanded-campanulate to expanded-convex, at first subumbonate,
at length slightly depressed on the disk, moist, hygrophanous, glabrous, un-
polished, somewhat wrinkled especially on the disk, deep yellow, at times
tinged ohve-yellow, dusky yellow around wrinkles of the disk, margin striate
when moist, flesh very thin, white or whitish, dry and pithy, odor and taste
not distinctive, lamellae free, close, broad, broadest next to the stipe, soft and
fragile, at first very pale yellowish, becoming sordid pinkish, stipe 1-2 in. long,

165

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

about J/g in. thick, equal, hollow within, fragile, spHtting readily, glabrous,
moist, clear yellow, paler than the pileus. spores smooth, subglobose, 5.5-
6.5 X 5-6 M, pinkish in deposits, cystidia slightly ventricose, with an elon-
gated neck, obtuse at the apex, not horned.

In groups or scattered, on badly decayed logs and stumps, fairly common.
June-Sept.

This is one of the more common of the smaller species and is an attractive
little mushroom. One of the most distinctive field characters is the yellow
stipe. P. flavofuligineus Atk. is another small yellow species with a pinkish
stipe, and P. leoninus (Fr.) Kummer has a white stipe and the pileus is not
wrinkled. These species are all too small to be of value as food.

PLUTEUS ATROMARGINATUS (Sing.) Kuhner Edible

Figures 242, 243, page 153

PILEUS \-2y2 in. broad, convex to expanded-convex, sometimes broadly
umbonate or subumbonate, dark brown, moist, somewhat uneven, more or
less fibrillose-streaked, the disk squarrose-scaly with minute upright tufts of
fibrils, margin not striate, flesh moderately thick on the disk, very thin on the
margin, white, odor and taste mild, lamellae free and not quite reaching the
stipe, close to crowded, moderately broad, whitish, then dingy flesh color with
smoky brown edges, many shorter lamellae of various lengths interspersed.
stipe 1-3 in. long, V8-!4 ii^- thick, subequal or sHghtly enlarged at the apex or
base, whitish or tinged the color of the pileus, solid within, glabrous at the
apex, fibrillose with smoky brown fibrils below, spores smooth, broadly ovoid,
5.5-7 X 4.5-5.5 /x» dingy flesh color in spore print, cystidia fusoid- ventricose,
horned at the apex.

Solitary or scattered on decaying logs and stumps, not common. July-
Oct.

The dark edges of the lamellae which provide a good field character for
this species, are caused by the dark contents of the cystidia. This species is
usually smaller and darker colored than P. cervinus and has been called P.
umbrosus (Pers. ex Fr.) Kummer, but the latter has cystidia of a diff'erent type.

PLUTEUS CERVINUS (Schaeff*. ex Seer.) Kummer Edible

Figures 245, 246, page 155

PILEUS 1 1/^-4 in. broad, fleshy, soft, at first convex to broadly campanu-
late, expanding to almost plane, the broad umbo either persisting or disap-
pearing, smooth and glabrous to somewhat fibrillose, moist to dry, drab,
varying from dull dark brown to pale dingy fawn (white in var. albus), darkest
on the disk, paler toward the margin, sometimes streaked with darker innate
fibrils, fading with age, margin even, flesh very thin on the margin, thicker

166

VOLVARIELLA

toward the disk, white, odor and taste mild to somewhat disagreeable, lamel-
lae close, free, broad, rounded next to the stipe, soft, in youth whitish, then
flesh-pink to flesh-tan. stipe 2-6 in. long, X^-Ys in. thick, shghtly enlarged
downward, solid, smooth, whitish or tinged dingy yellow or brown, often
bearing scattered appressed fibrils, apex at first pruinose. spores flesh-pink,
smooth, broadly eUipsoid to ovoid, bluntly rounded or somewhat flattened on
the ends, 5-8 X 4-6 ju, variable in size and shape, cystidia abundant, fusoid
with long necks, about 60 X 14 m, bearing 2-4 short horns at the apex.

Sohtary or in groups of several, on decaying stumps and logs or associ-
ated with buried wood, common, especially in hardwoods. May-Oct.

This is the commonest species of the genus and is well known as a good
edible mushroom. It varies considerably in size and color. P. salicinus Fr. is
another brown species but usually smaller, with bluish or greenish tints
toward the base of the stipe, and an unpleasant taste. P. tomentosulus Pk. may
be as large as P. cervinus but is white and the pileus is floccose-tomentose. It
can be distinguished microscopically by the cystidia which are not horned.
P. aurantiorugosus (Trog) Sacc. is another fairly large but rare species. It is
brilhantly colored, orange to reddish orange and is also known under the
names P. coccineus Mass., P. aurantiacus Murr. and P. caloceps Atk.

Singer (1956) discusses a large species, P. magnus McClatchie, described
from Cahfornia but which he has also found in the eastern United States. This
species would Hkely be mistaken for a pale P. cervinus unless examined micro-
scopically. It diff'ers in the cystidia which, instead of being horned as in P.
cervinus, are fusoid with a long conical point, sometimes with a few small
spines along the side. So far as is known there are no Canadian records of this
species but it is one that might be found in this country.

VOLVARIELLA

Volvariella includes species with a pink spore deposit, lamellae free from
the stipe, and a volva, but no annulus. Thus it is comparable to Amanitopsis in
the white-spored group. The stipe is readily separable from the pileus and the
flesh is usually rather soft. These species may be found either on wood or on
the ground. They were formerly placed in Volvaria but this name cannot be
maintained under the International Code of Nomenclature.

It is a relatively small genus and the species are not very frequently col-
lected. In the Hterature there are conflicting reports as to their edibility. It
seems to be established that V. bombycina is edible, but other species of the
genus are best avoided.

167

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

VOLVARIELLA BOMBYCINA (Pers. ex Fr.) Sing. Edible

Figures 247, 248, page 155

PILEUS 2-8 in. broad, at first ovate, becoming subcampanulate or convex-
expanded, white and silky when young, becoming dingy or yellowish-stained,
especially on the disk, at length finely fibrillose-scaly all over, cuticle separable
to the disk, margin floccose, exceeding the lamellae and tending to split slightly
at the edge, flesh pure white, thick on the disk, thinning toward the margin,
at the extreme margin almost lacking, odor and taste not distinctive, lamel-
lae free, not reaching the stipe, very crowded, very broad, whitish with a faint
pink cast, becoming dingy flesh color, then brownish pink, edges somewhat
uneven, stipe 3-8 in. long, %-% in. thick, sometimes thicker at the base,
tapering upward, often curved, white, silky-shining, smooth and glabrous,
soHd, no annulus. volva large, thick, membranous, sac-like, cUnging loosely
around the base of the stipe, spores deep flesh color to brownish pink, smooth,
ovoid, 6-8 X 5-5.5 fi.

Singly or several together on trunks of living trees or on dead wood,
uncommon. July-Sept.

This is a very striking, although not common species. It sometimes reaches
considerable size and the silky-tomentose pileus and large membranous volva
are distinctive characters.

VOLVARIELLA SPECIOSA (Fr.) Sing. Not edible

Figures 327, 328, 329, page 216

PILEUS 1 1/^-4 in. broad, at first globose to ovate, becoming expanded to
plane, sHghtly umbonate, white to grayish, viscid, glabrous, margin even.
FLESH thin, soft, odor disagreeable, lamellae free, crowded, broad, narrowed
toward ends, rosy flesh color, stipe 2-6 in. long, |/2-54 in. thick, equal or
shghtly enlarged at base, at first minutely hairy, becoming glabrous, tomentose
at base, white, soHd. volva large, white, somewhat lobed. spores pink, ellip-
soid, smooth, 14-20 X 9-12 m-

SoHtary or in groups on manure or rich soil, sometimes in grass or field.
June-July.

There is a diff'erence of opinion among authors as to whether or not this
species is poisonous. It might be confused with Lepiota naucina or Agaricus
campestris but both these species have an annulus and no volva. V. gloiocephala
is very similar but the margin is striate and the spores slightly smaller. Some
authors consider it to be a variety. This species has been reported as poisonous
and'could very easily be confused with V. speciosa. These species should not
be eaten.

168

ENTOLOMA

ENTOLOMA

Entoloma includes the pink-spored species roughly comparable to Tri-
choloma of the white-spored group. The stipe is fibrous to fleshy, sometimes
splitting longitudinally very easily and there is no volva or annulus. The
lamellae are sinuate-adnate to adnexed, sometimes seceding. The spores are
more or less angular (Figure 33), varying from eUiptical to spherical in general
outline and sometimes almost square.

There is no very clear-cut distinction between the genera Entoloma,
Leptonia, Nolanea, Eccilia, and the section of Clitopilus including species with
angular spores. Many authors believe that they should be combined into one
genus but this raises some difficult nomenclatural problems. Some authors
have placed these species in the genus Rhodophyllus but this name is illegitimate
because it was pubhshed after some of the other generic names mentioned
above, and it is also of questionable validity because of its similarity to the
name of the algal genus Rhodophyllis. Of the names listed above, Entoloma
is the earliest, but there is also the older generic name Acurtis to be taken into
account. This name was based on the so-called 'abortive' fruit bodies of Clito-
pilus abortivus and for a long time was disregarded because it was considered
to be based on an abnormality. However, it has recently been shown that these
fruit bodies produce normal basidia and spores and there is good reason to
consider them to be a normal structure in the life cycle of the fungus. If this is
so, then Acurtis will be the correct name for this group of species, but so far
this name has not been taken up by mycologists and to use either Acurtis or
Entoloma would require the creation of a good many new combinations. Thus,
until either Acurtis is accepted or Entoloma officially conserved, it is thought
preferable to use the other generic names rather than make new combinations
in a book of this type.

None of these genera is of any importance as food. In fact some of the
species of Entoloma are known to be poisonous and this whole group should be
avoided. This genus provides a good illustration of the danger of attempting
to lay down general rules regarding edibihty. It has often been said that any
mushroom that is pink underneath is good to eat, but Entoloma and its rela-
tives provide a whole group of species with pink lamellae, and some of these
species are definitely known to be poisonous, and others are suspected.

ENTOLOMA GRISEUM Pk.

PILEUS 114-3 in. broad, at first firm, becoming fragile, campanulate-
convex to nearly plane, grayish brown, more umber when moist, shghtly
hygrophanous, glabrous, with a delicate separable peUicle, margin even,
decurved, wavy, flesh thin, easily splitting, odor and taste farinaceous, lamel-
lae adnexed, close to subdistant, moderately broad, at first grayish white,
slowly becoming flesh colored, stipe 1-3 in. long, X^-Vs in. thick, equal or

169

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

nearly so, silky-fibrillose, whitish or grayish, stuffed to hollow, spores pink,
angular, 7-9 X 6.5-8 /x-

SoHtary or in groups on the ground in the woods. July-Oct.

E. sericeum is close to this species but is smaller, and has a dark brown
pileus with an umbo.

ENTOLOMA RHODOPOLIUM (Fr.) Kummer
Figure 249, page 155

PILEUS 1-3 in. broad, firm, campanulate, becoming expanded to nearly
plane, hygrophanous, umber brown or smoky brown when moist, fading to
pale brownish gray, silky-shining when dry, glabrous, not viscid but the sur-
face slightly slippery, margin even, wavy, flesh whitish, spHtting easily, taste
mild, lamellae adnate, becoming emarginate, subdistant, broad, whitish at
first, becoming deep rose, stipe 11/^-4 in. long, V^-Vi in. thick, equal or
tapering up or down, sometimes curved, white, glabrous, somewhat floccose
at apex, stuffed then hollow, easily spHtting longitudinally, spores rosy pink,
angular, 8-10.5 X 7-9 m-

SoHtary, in groups, or in clusters of two or three, on the ground in mixed
or deciduous woods. July-Oct.

The pileus of this species is almost cartilaginous in texture and this charac-
ter together with the white stipe and rosy spores and lamellae form its dis-
tinguishing characters. In E. griseum the stipe is more grayish and the spore
color is not so bright.

ENTOLOMA SALMON EUM Peck
Figure 250, page 155

PILEUS 1/4-1 1/2 (2) in. broad, fragile, conical to campanulate, with a sHght
umbo or papilla, rosy salmon to orange-salmon, becoming more brownish in
age, glabrous at first, the older ones appearing sHghtly fibrillose-tomentose,
margin straight, even, becoming upturned in age. flesh very thin, lamellae
adnexed, subdistant, broad, narrowed at ends, yellowish salmon to pinkish
salmon, stipe 2-3 in. long, j/fe-^ i^- thick, equal, glabrous, pruinose at the
apex, concolorous, hollow, spores pink, 4-angled, nearly square, 11-13 ^
measured diagonally.

In groups, usually among mosses in damp woods. July-Sept.

This is a beautiful and deHcate species. It can easily be confused with
Hygrophorus amoenus (Lasch) Quel, which is similar in coloring and stature
but has smooth, white spores. E. cuspidatum Peck is somewhat similar in
stature but is yellow and has a prominent papilla in the center of the pileus.

170

LEPTONIA

LEPTONIA

This genus includes a group of rather small, pink-spored species closely
related to Entoloma. The genus is distinguished from Entoloma principally on
the character of the stipe, which is cartilaginous in texture rather than fleshy-
fibrous, but the distinction here is not very clear-cut. The spores are angular,
as in Entoloma. The margin of the pileus is incurved when young so that at
maturity it is usually expanded rather than conical or campanulate. The pileus
is usually umbilicate or centrally depressed. The lamellae are adnate to adnexed
often seceding. The genus is distinguished from Nolanea principally by the
margin being inrolled when young, and from Eccilia by the attachment of the
lamellae.

The species are mostly small and not well known. They are of no value as
food but some of them are attractively colored. Usually they grow on the
ground, occasionally on rotten wood or among sphagnum.

LEPTONIA ASPRELLA (Fr.) Kummer
Figure 251, page 155

PILEUS 1/2-1 Va in. broad, fleshy, convex, becoming expanded, umbiHcate,
gray-brown to umber, hygrophanous, somewhat scaly in the umbilicus, then
fibrillose to glabrous, silky-shining when dry, margin striate, often splitting.
FLESH whitish, thin, fragile, odor and taste mild, lamellae adnate to adnexed
or with a decurrent line, whitish or grayish white, then becoming pink, sub-
distant, He-H i^- broad, stipe 1^-3 in. long, H6~V8 i^^- thick, cyhndric to
somewhat compressed, sometimes twisted, glabrous, smoky brown with a
bluish cast, white mycehoid at base, hollow, spores pink, angular, more or
less elongated, 9-13 X 6-8 m-

Singly or in groups on the ground in woods. June-Sept.

The bluish stipe and the brown pileus which is striate and hygrophanous
are the most distinctive characters of this species. L. serrulata (Fr.) Quel, is
distinguished by the black serrulate margin of the lamellae. L. placida (Fr.)
Quel, is a dark bluish species usually occurring on rotten wood, with a scaly
pileus and dark squamules on the stipe. L. lampropoda (Fr.) Quel, occurs on
the ground and has a bluish black pileus and smooth bluish stipe.

LEPTONIA FORMOSA (Fr.) Quel.

Figure 252, page 155

PILEUS Ys-lYz in. broad, fleshy, convex-umbilicate, becoming plane,
waxy-yellowish to grayish yellow, covered with small blackish scales especially
in umbihcus, margin striate, becoming somewhat phcate in older specimens,
FLESH thin, grayish or faintly yellowish, odor and taste mild, lamellae adnate,
sometimes with a shght decurrent tooth, broad, subdistant, tinged yellow,

171

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

nearly white at first, becoming flesh-colored, stipe 1 )/2-2!/2 in- long ^6"!^ in.
thick, equal, smooth, somewhat striate, yellow, white-mycelioid at base, hollow,
central, spores pink, angular, 10-12 X 6-7 fi.

Singly or in groups in swampy woods. Aug.-Sept.

A rather distinctive species in which the whole plant is more or less
yellowish and the pileus is scaly.

NOLANEA

Nolanea includes a group of species with angular pink spores, closely
related to Leptonia. In the young fruiting bodies the margin of the pileus is
straight on the stipe rather than inrolled and the mature pileus is usually more
or less conical to campanulate. This is the principal distinction from Leptonia
although in Nolanea the pileus is usually umbonate or papillate whereas in
Leptonia it is umbilicate or depressed. The lamellae are adnate to adnexed,
often seceding. The cartilaginous stipe distinguishes it from Entoloma.

The species are not well known and are small and of no value as food.
The one described here is fairly common.

NOLANEA MAMMOSA (Fr.) Quel.

pileus J/^-1 1/2 in. broad, conic to campanulate, umbonate, slightly hygro-
phanous, umber when moist, becoming grayish brown to fuscous, innately
fibrillose and shining when dry, margin decurved. flesh thin, brownish to
whitish, odor and taste of rancid meal, lamellae adnate, seceding, subdistant,
broad, at first pale gray, then becoming pinkish, edges often uneven, stipe
2-31/2 in. long, Jf6~% in- thick, equal, sometimes compressed, glabrous,
pruinose at the apex, brownish gray, hollow, spores pink, angular, 9-11 X

6-7 M-

In groups on the ground in woods or grassy places. July-Sept.

N. fuscogrisella Peck is somewhat similar but is usually smaller; it has
smaller spores, and the lamellae are at first white rather than gray. N. papillata
Bres. is also very close to A^. mammosa and is separated principally on the
basis of smaller size and closer lamellae.

Figures 256-265

256. Clitopilus orcellus. 257. Cortinarius collinitus.

258. Phyllotopsis nidulans. 259. P. nidulans.

260. Cortinarius armillatus. 261. C semisanguineus.

262. Inocybe fastigiata. 263. Cortinarius violaceus.

264. Inocybe geophylla. 265. f^holiota acericola.

Ill

173

I

267. Pholiota aurivella.
269. F. caperata.
271. P- marginata.
273. P- fiammans.
275. P- squarrosoides.

268. P. aurivella.

270. F. caperata.

272. F. marginata.

21 A. P. spectabilis.

276. Flammula spumosa.

174

175

^

yj/s^^^

119

Figure 277. Mycena galericulata.
Figures 278-281. Panus stipticus.

176

CLITOPILUS

CLITOPILUS

Clitopilus, as used here, corresponds roughly in the pink-spored group to
Clitocybe in the white-spored group. The forms included have pink spores, the
lamellae are broadly adnate to decurrent, and a volva and annulus are lacking.
The stems are fleshy-fibrous, more or less similar in texture to the pileus and
not separating from it readily.

The species included in the genus are probably not all closely related. The
type species is Clitopilus prunulus (Scop, ex Fr.) Kummer in which the spores
are marked with longitudinal ridges (Figure 32). Some students consider that
only those species with longitudinally ridged spores are true Clitopilus species.
The species with angular spores are probably more closely related to Entoloma.
Kauff'man recognized eleven species in Michigan.

Key

1. Spores longitudinally ridged C orcellus

1. Spores angular or nearly smooth 2

2. Pileus usually more than 2 in. broad, gray, usually accompanied

by whitish abortive fruit bodies C abortivus

2. Pileus usually less than 2 in. broad 3

3. Spores strongly angular, taste and odor farinaceous;

pileus not marked with concentric lines C. albogriseus

3. Spores smooth or very slightly angular, taste bitter; pileus with

more or less concentric brownish lines C. noveboracensis

CLITOPILUS ABORTIVUS Berk. & Curt. Edible

Figures 253, 254, page 155; Figure 420, page 300

PILEUS 2-4 in. broad, at first convex, becoming plane to depressed, gray to
grayish brown, dry, at first delicately silky, becoming glabrous, margin at first
inrolled, becoming wavy to lobed. flesh white, rather fragile, odor and taste
farinaceous, lamellae decurrent, close, rather narrow, at first grayish then
becoming pink, stipe 1-3 in. long, V^-Vi in. thick, nearly equal, minutely
floccose, grayish, paler than the pileus to whitish, solid, fibrous, spores pink,
elongated, angular 8-10 X 5-7 m-

In groups or sometimes in clusters, around stumps, or on rotten or buried
wood. Sept.-Oct.

This fungus is remarkable in that some of the fruiting bodies frequently do
not develop normally but form malformed whitish structures that at first sight
would be taken for puffballs. These abortive fruiting bodies may be globoid or
depressed or very irregular in shape. The abortive fruit bodies may be found
alone or associated with normal fruit bodies. Both the abortive and normal
forms are said to be edible.

177

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

CLITOPILUS ALBOGRISEUS Peck Edible

piLEUS )/2-l in. broad, convex at first, becoming plane and depressed to
umbilicate, pale gray, glabrous to slightly tomentose at the center, margin
inrolled, odor and taste farinaceous, lamellae adnate to decurrent, close,
rather broad, at first grayish, becoming pinkish, stipe Y2-I in. long, He-^ i^-
thick, equal, glabrous, pale gray, whitish at base, solid, spores pink, elongated,
angular, 9.5-12 X 6-8 m-

On the ground in mixed woods, in groups or solitary. July-Sept.

This small species is fairly common. It is reported to be edible but is too
small to be of any importance from that standpoint. C subplanus Peck is very
close but is said to lack the farinaceous odor. C. micropus Peck is supposed to
have slightly smaller spores, shorter stipe, and a more silky pileus. Some of our
specimens have rather short stipes, and pilei that are not entirely glabrous, but
they have the larger spores of C. albogriseus.

CLITOPILUS NOVEBORACENSIS Peck Doubtful

Figure 340, page 234

pileus %-2 in. broad, at first convex, becoming plane or slightly depressed,
ashy gray to whitish, somewhat zoned toward the margin, concentrically
rivulose, glabrous, margin inrolled. flesh thin, white, taste bitter, odor farina-
ceous. LAMELLAE dccurrent, crowded, narrow, ashy gray to pinkish flesh
colored, stipe 1-2 in. long, H6~!4 in. thick, nearly equal, pruinose to minutely
tomentose, white-tomentose at base, colored hke the pileus or paler, stuff'ed,
becoming hollow, spores pink, ovoid, very shghtly angular, nearly smooth,
4-6 X 3.5-4.5 /i.

Usually in groups on the ground in woods. July-Oct.

This species might be mistaken for Clitocybe cyathiformis (Bull, ex Fr.)
Kummer, which is similar in coloring and stature. The pink spores and con-
centrically rivulose pileus distinguish the Clitopilus, which appears to be the
more common of the two.

CLITOPILUS ORCELLUS (Bull, ex Fr.) Kummer Edible

Figure 256, page 173

PILEUS 1-2 in. broad, sometimes larger, convex at first, becoming plane to
depressed, grayish white to buff" or faintly yellowish, slightly viscid, silky,
margin inrolled, undulate or lobed. flesh white, rather thick, odor and taste
farinaceous, lamellae decurrent, close, narrow, white, becoming pinkish.
STIPE 1-2 in. long, V^-Vi in. thick, nearly equal or sometimes slightly swollen
in the middle, somewhat floccose-fibrillose, white, solid, sometimes excentric.
SPORES pinkish, fusiform, longitudinally striate or ridged, 9-1 1 X 5-6 m-

Solitary or in groups on the ground in open woods. July-Oct.

This fungus may not be distinct from C. prunulus (Scop, ex Fr.) Kummer.
The latter is not viscid, and has subdistant lamellae, but the viscidity of C
orcellus is not very pronounced. Both species have longitudinally ridged spores.

178

CORTINARIUS

PHYLLOTOPSIS

The genus Phyllotopsis is based on the fungus that has been commonly
known as Claudopus nidulans (Pers. ex Fr.) Karst. However, this species is
obviously not closely related to the type species of Claudopus, C. byssisedus
(Pers. ex Fr.) Gill., and should not be placed in the same genus. It seems to be
more closely related to Pleurotus, especially P. serotinus (Fr.) Kummer, but the
spores are colored. It has also been placed in Partus because of the tough con-
sistency but the spore color excludes it here also. Sometimes the spore color
has been interpreted as ochre and it has been placed in Crepidotus but the
color seems to be more pink than ochre.

The tomentose pileus, lack of stipe, tough consistency, colored lamellae, and
small, cyHndric-allantoid pinkish spores are the chief characters of the genus.

One other species, P. subnidulans (Overholts) Singer, has been described
and is said to differ in having globose spores.

PHYLLOTOPSIS NIDULANS (Pers. ex Fr.) Singer Not edible

Figures 258, 259, page 173; Figure 421, page 300

PILEUS 1/^-3 in. broad, rather tough, sessile, attached laterally or some-
times narrowed behind to a stem-like base, nearly circular to reniform or
fan-shaped, sometimes laterally confluent forming a shelf up to 6 in. long,
convex, bright yellow, fading to buff, densely tomentose-hairy, margin
strongly inrolled, odor pungent, disagreeable when fresh or sometimes lacking.
LAMELLAE adnatc, close, rather narrow, bright orange-yellow, stipe lacking,
but there may be a tomentose base next to the lamellae, spores flesh pink in
mass, allantoid, smooth, 6-8 X 3-4 /i.

In groups or clusters on decaying logs of both deciduous and coniferous
trees. June-Oct.

The pecuhar, pungent odor of this species is a good means of recognizing
it when it is present, but sometimes it appears to be very faint or lacking.

CORTINARIUS

Cortinarius is a very large and difficult genus containing several hundred
species. The spores are dark brown or rusty brown. The principal distinguish-
ing character of the genus is the cortina or veil which covers the lamellae in the
young stages. It is composed of loose silky hyphae that suggest a cobweb. If
copious, the veil may remain as a ring or annular zone on the stipe, or it may
disappear quite early. The typical rough spores and rusty brown spore deposit
are diagnostic when the cortina has disappeared. An outer, universal veil may
also be present and may leave a sheath or several annular zones on the stipe.
In one section of the genus the cortina is glutinous.

179

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

In mature fruit bodies the lamellae are usually dark brown, but in young
ones they may be of different colors such as white, yellow, olivaceous, or lilac,
and the color of the young lamellae is very important in the identification of
species. In a great many Cortinarii it is necessary to have a series of stages from
young buttons to mature plants before the species can be identified. Micro-
scopic characters, especially the size and shape of the spores, are also important
in distinguishing species.

Kauffman (1932) has given the most complete account of the North
American species. He recognized seven sections of the genus as follows :

1 . Myxacium, in which both the pileus and the stipe are viscid ;

2. Bulbopodium, in which only the pileus is viscid and the stipe is furnished

with a marginate bulb;

3. Phlegmacium, in which the pileus is viscid and if the stipe is bulbous the

bulb is not marginate;

4. Inoloma, in which the pileus is neither viscid nor hygrophanous but is

usually fibrillose or scaly, and the stipe rather stout and usually clavate-
bulbous;

5. Dermocybe^ in which the pileus is neither viscid nor hygrophanous, but is

usually silky, and the stipe rather slender;

6. Telamonia, in which the pileus is hygrophanous and a universal veil is

present ;

7. Hydrocybe, in which the pileus is hygrophanous and a universal veil is

lacking.

Cortinarius is a genus which, in general, should be avoided by the amateur
who is collecting for the table. Some of the species are known to be deadly and
some are unpleasant to the taste. In addition, the difficulty of determining the
species accurately is so great that they are best left alone.

Only a very few of the commoner and more striking species that are not
likely to be confused with others are described here.

CORTINARIUS ALBOVIOLACEUS (Fr.) Kummer Edible

Figure 341, page 235

PILEUS 1-2 ]/2 in. broad, fleshy, at first campanulate, then convex and
broadly umbonate, at first pale violaceous, soon becoming silvery-white and
shining, usually slightly violaceous tinged, surface dry, appressed-silky, margin
decurved. flesh tinged violet, odor and taste mild, lamellae adnate to emargi-
nate or slightly decurrent, close, rather broad, at first pale violet, finally
becoming cinnamon-brown, stipe n/2-3 in. long, V^-Vi in. thick near the
apex, becoming thicker below and somewhat clavate, usually sheathed by a
thin, whitish, universal veil, violaceous in the upper part and beneath the veil,
spongy-stuffed, spores brown, elliptical, slightly rough, 6.5-10 X 4.5-6.0 ju.

In groups on the ground in mixed woods. Aug.-Oct.

180

CORTINARIUS

This species is fairly common and can be recognized by the silvery-shining
appearance with the slight violet tinge, which is especially noticeable in the
stipe and young lamellae.

CORTINARIUS ARMILLATUS (Fr.) Kummer Edible

Figure 260, page 173

piLEUS 2-5 in. broad, fleshy, convex becoming expanded to plane, tawny
reddish to brick-red, moist, innately fibrillose, margin decurved, becoming flat
in age. flesh rather thin, paUid, somewhat spongy, odor shghtly of radish,
taste mild, lamellae adnate, sometimes sinuate, broad, distant, at first pale
cinnamon, then dark rusty brown, stipe about IVi-^Vi in. long, %-% in.
thick at the apex, up to 1 Yi in. thick below, clavate, brownish or reddish
brown, with several orange-red or cinnabar-red bands from the universal veil,
soHd. SPORES brown, eUipsoid, rough, 10-13 X 7-8 m-

Solitary or in groups on the ground in coniferous woods. Usually Aug.-
Sept.

The distinguishing character of this species is the series of red bands on
the stipe, and it is not Hkely to be confused with any other species. C. haemato-
chelis (Bull.) Fr. has a single red band on the stipe instead of several, but some
authors regard this as only a form of C. armillatus.

CORTINARIUS COLLIN ITUS Fr. Edible

Figure 257, page 173

PILEUS 1 1/4-3 in. broad, fleshy, convex to plane, variable in color, usually
yellowish to orange-yellow, sometimes whitish when young and sometimes
with lilac tints near the margin, very viscid when moist, the margin at first
incurved, finally becoming upturned, flesh whitish to pale yellowish buff*;
odor and taste mild, lamellae adnate with a tooth, close, fairly broad, at first
pale violet or paUid, when mature becoming dull reddish brown, stipe about
21/2-41/2 in. long, %-l i/i in. thick, equal or tapering shghtly at the base,
spongy-stuff'ed, covered with the pale violaceous or whitish, viscid, universal
veil which cracks transversely leaving thick, irregular bands or patches, at first
whitish then becoming stained rusty or yellowish especially toward the base,
with the cortina forming a collapsed ring above, and the apex of the stipe
white and silky, spores rusty brown, almond-shaped, rough, 11-15 X 7-8.5 /u.

Usually in groups on the ground in either coniferous or deciduous
woods. Aug.-Oct.

This species was described by Kauff*man under the name Cortinarius
mucifluus Fr. but, according to the International Rules of Nomenclature,
C. collinitus is the correct name. It is a fairly easy species to recognize because
of the very viscid pileus and stipe, the pale-yellowish colors, and the whitish
patches on the stipe. It shows considerable variation in the amount of lilac

181

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

color present on the stipe, young lamellae, and pileus, and several varieties and
forms have been recognized on this basis. The collections in the herbarium of
the Plant Research Institute can be placed in two groups depending on spore
size. In one group the spores are as noted above, and Smith (1944) considers
this to be the typical form. In the other group the spores are smaller, 10-13 X
6-7.5 M, and Smith would call these C. collinitus v. trivialis (Lange) Smith.

CORTINARIUS SEMISANGUINEUS (Fr.) Gillet Probably edible

Figure 261, page 173

PILEUS %-2i/2 in. broad, fleshy, campanulate-convex, subumbonate, in
age becoming expanded, tawny yellow to cinnamon-yellow, silky to delicately
fibrillose-scaly, margin even, sometimes sphtting in age. flesh yellowish white,
odor and taste mild, lamellae adnate to sHghtly decurrent, close to crowded,
narrow, blood-red. stipe l-lYi in. long, Vg-W ii^- thick, equal, yellow, tawny-
fibrillose, soHd. spores brown, elliptical, nearly smooth, shghtly rough under
high magnification, 5-8 X 3.5-5.0 m-

In groups in moist swamps or sphagnum. Aug.-Oct.

This is a typical member of the section Dermocybe, and is recognized by
the combination of blood-red lamellae and yellowish pileus and stipe. In
C cinnabarinus Fr. the pileus and stipe as well as the lamellae are blood-red.
C. croceofolius Peck has bright orange lamellae and C. cinnamomeus Fr. has
yellow lamellae. C. semisanguineus appears to be the commonest species of
the group in the Ottawa district at least. Members of this group are probably
all edible but there does not seem to be much definite information about them
available.

CORTINARIUS VIOLACEUS (L.) Kummer Edible

Figure 263, page 173

PILEUS 2-5 in. broad, fleshy, convex, obtuse, finally becoming plane or
sHghtly umbonate, dark violet, sometimes metallic shining, covered with small
erect tufts or scales, margin fibrillose or fringed, flesh thick, firm, violet-gray
to dark violet, not turning purple when bruised, odor and taste mild, lamel-
lae adnate, becoming adnexed, broad, subdistant, dark violet, stipe 21/2-5 in.
long, %-l in. thick above, wider below, clavate to bulbous, fibrillose, dark
violet, violaceous within, spores rusty cinnamon, broadly eUipsoid, rough,
12-17 X 7-10 M.

Singly or scattered on the ground in coniferous forests. Aug.-Oct.

This species is not very common but has been included because it is one of
the most strikingly beautiful of the mushrooms. The dark violet colors and
erect scales are very characteristic. It is considered to be the type species of the
genus Cortinarius .

182

INOCYBE

INOCYBE

The genus Inocybe is a large one but it is not of much interest to the
amateur collector. Most of the species are small and can be identified only by
the use of microscopic characters. Only a few species become large enough to
attract the attention of the mycophagist, and these are best left alone. Some of
the species are known to be poisonous and the amateur collector is well advised
to avoid the entire genus.

The spores are ochre-brown in mass and may be rough or smooth or more
or less angular or tuberculate (Figure 34). Many species have cystidia on the
lamellae and the characters of the cystidia and spores are important in the
determination of species. The pileus is usually conic to campanulate and more
or less fibrillose or scaly, sometimes silky and often splitting radially. The
colors are usually rather dull, mostly shades of grown, gray, or ochre, although
there are a few species more distinctively colored.

INOCYBE FASTIGIATA (Schaeff. ex Fr.) Quel.
Figure 262, page 173

PILEUS %-2i4 in. broad, at first conic-campanulate, then more or less
expanded, umbonate, splitting readily on the margin, varying in color from
tawny to ochraceous or dull yellowish, innately fibrillose-streaked, soon be-
coming conspicuously long-rimose with streaks of paler color showing as the
cuticle becomes rimose. flesh white, rather thin except at the umbo, lamel-
lae adnexed, moderately broad, close, pallid, then grayish oHve, finally brown-
ish. STIPE 1-21/4 in. long, Vg-i/i in. thick, equal, fibrillose, white or tinged the
color of the pileus. spores ellipsoid to somewhat bean-shaped, smooth, dull
ochre-brown, 9-12 X 5-6 (7) Mj cystidia lacking.

In groups on the ground in woods and on lawns beneath trees. June-Oct.

This species has been included because it is one of the more common
species of Inocybe and will Hkely be found by anyone collecting mushrooms.
The ochraceous colors, radiating fibrils, prominent umbo, and spHtting of the
pileus are distinctive features.

INOCYBE GEOPHYLLA (Sow. ex Fr.) Kummer
Figure 264, page 173

PILEUS 1/2-1 1/2 in. broad, at first subconic to campanulate, with incurved
margin, then expanded-campanulate to nearly plane with a small umbo per-
sisting, white, dry, radiately fibrillose-silky, splitting readily on the margin.
FLESH white, thin except on the umbo, lamellae adnate to adnexed, mod-
erately broad, close, whitish to grayish, finally pale clay-colored, stipe %-1 Yi
in. long, about i/g in. thick, equal, soHd, silky-fibrillose, concolorous with the
pileus. spores smooth, pale brown, ellipsoid, sHghtly inequilateral, 7-9.5 X
4.5-5.5 M- cystidia ventricose, fusoid, about 40-55 X 10-20 m-

183

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

In groups on the ground in woods, occasionally on lawns beneath trees,
fairly common. July-Oct.

This is an interesting little species that is entirely white but has brown
spores. The lamellae become pale clay-colored in age. It is a common species
and can be recognized easily.

Inocybe lilacina (Boud.) Kauffm. is very similar except for its color, and
some authors regard it as merely a variety of /. geophylla. Its pileus and stipe
are lilac colored at first but soon fade. It is frequently found associated with
/. geophylla.

PHOLIOTA

Pholiota is an important genus for the mycophagist because it includes a
number of good edible species that are fairly large and often occur in large
clusters providing abundant material for food. However, as in other genera,
some care must be taken to identify the species correctly because at least one
is known to be poisonous. Some of the species are important as wood des-
troyers.

The genus includes those species that have rusty brown or ochre-brown
spores, lamellae attached to the stipe, and a membranous annulus but no
volva. They may be found either on wood or on the ground. Some of the
species are markedly scaly but others are smooth.

The North American species have been pretty well known since the excel-
lent monograph by Overholts (1927). He recognized 56 species and a few have
been added since then. However, recent authors tend to divide Pholiota into
several genera, with P. squarrosa (Pers. ex Fr.) Kummer as the type of Pholiota
in the narrower sense.

Many of the characters used in distinguishing these genera are based on
microscopic structures not readily determined by the amateur collector, hence
for the purposes of this book it is considered preferable to use the genus in the
wider, more traditional sense.

Key

1. Occurring on the ground 2

1. Occurring on wood or sawdust 3

2. Pileus whitish to cream, glabrous; spores smooth with

truncate apex P. vermiflua

2. Pileus ochraceous buff to cinnamon-buff, unevenly wrinkled, at
first with fine whitish fibrils or with a hoary bloom;

spores large, rough-walled P. caperata

3. Pileus glabrous at all stages 4

3. Pileus scaly or becoming so 5

184

PHOLIOTA

4. Pileus cinnamon-brown, fading; spores rough, ellipsoid P. marginata

4. Pileus yellowish buff or paler; spores smooth with a

truncate apex (Figure 31, page 7) P. acericola

5. Pileus viscid 6

5. Pileus not viscid 7

6. Edge of lamellae white-crenulate; spores 11-14 jli long P. albocrenulata

6. Edge of lamellae even, not white; spores 7-9 fx long P. aurivella

7. Stipe fibrillose; taste bitter; spores rough, 7-9 ju long P. spectabilis

7. Stipe squarrose-scaly; taste not bitter; spores smooth, less than 6 jli long 8

8. Pileus bright golden yellow to orange; scales

soft and floccose P. flammans

8. Pileus dull colored, cinnamon-buff to tawny; scales stiff P. squarrosoides

PHOLIOTA ACERICOLA Peck

Figure 265, page 173

PILEUS 1-3 in. broad, fleshy, at first convex with an inrolled margin,
becoming expanded, at times broadly subumbonate, nonstriate, smooth, gla-
brous, slightly hygrophanous, pale watery brownish to yellow-buff* when
moist, unpolished and paler when dry. flesh white, rather thin except on the
disk. LAMELLAE adnatc, sinuate to slightly subdecurrent on the stipe, mod-
erately broad, close, paUid, sometimes with a purpHsh tint, then dull brown
from the spores, stipe 2-4 in. long, V^-Yi in. thick, equal or enlarged at the
base, stuff'ed within, glabrous to fibrillose-striate, paUid, usually with strings
of whitish mycelium at the base, annulus persistent, ample, membranous,
white or pallid, tending to be remote from the apex, spores dull brown,
smooth, ovoid with a truncate apex, 8.5-10.5 X 5-6.5 /x. cystidia flask-shaped
to ventricose, occasionally divided at the tip to form two or three blunt
projections.

Single or in groups on decaying stumps and logs, occasionally on the
ground, rather common. June-Sept.

This species is most likely to be confused with P. praecox. The latter
usually grows on the ground in open grassy places and P. acericola usually is
on rotten wood but is sometimes found on the ground in woods. The white
mycehal strands at the base of the stipe of P. acericola are a helpful distin-
guishing character. The slightly purpHsh cast of the lamellae is another field
character to watch for.

The edible qualities of this species are not known but it might be confused
with the poisonous P. autumnalis. If a microscope is available they can easily
be distinguished by the spores. P. acericola is usually a taller, more slender
plant, paler and more yellowish in color.

185

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

PHOLIOTA ALBOCRENULATA Peck

Figure 351, page 236

PILEUS 1-4 in. broad, fleshy, at first convex or campanulate, becoming
expanded, nonstriate, margin often appendiculate with veil fragments, very
viscid, ochre-brown to tawny or chestnut, decorated with darker appressed
scales which on drying become faded and subsquarrose. flesh moderately
thick, whitish, odor not distinctive, taste unpleasant, lamellae sinuate-adnate
to subdecurrent, broad, close to subdistant, at first grayish, becoming rusty
brown, white-crenulate on the edge, stipe 2-5 in. long, Ys-Yz in. thick, equal or
sHghtly enlarged at the base, often curved, pallid or tinged yellow or brown
below, white-floccose at the apex, sparsely to densely scaly up to the annulus
with squarrose or fibrillose scales, annulus slight, ragged, disappearing, often
clinging in fragments to the pileus margin and failing to form a ring on the
stipe. SPORES smooth, brown, inequilateral, subfusiform, 11-14 X 6-7 /x.

Solitary or in groups of several, on stumps and logs, and on trunks of
living trees, especially maple. June-Sept.

The white-crenulate edge of the lamellae is the most striking single
character of this species. The fruiting bodies are darker colored than those of
P. aurivella and usually are not in clusters. The scales on the pileus are rather
easily rubbed off or washed off. The large spores will also distinguish it readily
from similar species. Its edible quahties are not known.

PHOLIOTA AURIVELLA (Batsch ex Fr.) Kummer Edible

Figures 267, 268, page 175

PILEUS 1 1/2-4 in. broad or sometimes larger, fleshy-pliant, hemispheric to
convex with inrolled margin at first, becorriing expanded, smooth, viscid when
moist, yellow to tawny, darkest on the disk, concentrically spotted with darker
squamules which in age become appressed and sometimes wash off in wet
weather, margin even, somewhat appendiculate. lamellae adnate or sinuate
at the stipe, broad, close, paUid yellowish, then rusty brown, stipe stout, cen-
tral or excentric, 1 1/^-4 in. long, Y^-Yi in. thick, subequal, ^olid or stuffed,
viscid in wet weather, more or less concolorous with the pileus, somewhat
squamulose-scaly below the annulus, often curved, annulus slight, yellowish,
disappearing, spores smooth, eUipsoid, rusty brown, 7-9 X 4-5 y..

Solitary or in clusters on stumps and logs of deciduous trees, fairly com-
mon. Aug.-Oct.

This species is well known in North American literature under the name
of Pholiota adiposa (Fr.) Kummer, but it now appears that the true P. adiposa
is a European species with smaller spores than those of our fungus. P. aurivella
is fairly common and can be recognized by the rather bright colored, scaly,
viscid pileus. The viscid layer should be peeled before cooking.

Collectors on the west coast are likely to confuse this species with P. squar-
roso-adiposa Lange. This latter species occurs in large clusters, often on alder,

186

PHOLIOTA

and has pale yellow, viscid caps with darker scales, and a dry, very scaly stipe.
It has smaller spores than P. aurivella and can be distinguished from P. adiposa
by the dry stipe.

PHOLIOTA CAPERATA (Fr.) Kummer Edible

Figures 269, 270, page 175; Figure 422, page 301

PILEUS 2-4 in. broad, fleshy, convex then expanded, sometimes subumbo-
nate, glabrous or at first with fine whitish fibrils and thin patches of whitish
bloom, usually more or less uneven to wrinkled, cinnamon-buff" to ochraceous
buff", paler on the margin or evenly colored, flesh thick, white, lamellae
adnate to adnexed, broad, close, often transversely marked with Hght and dark
bands, at. first palHd, then brown from the spores, stipe 2J/2-5 in. long, 54"!^
in. thick, equal, soHd, pallid, glabrous to subfibrillose, at times somewhat
scurfy with minute white floccules at the apex, annulus large, membranous,
remote from the apex, volva usually not evident, sometimes leaving a few
traces at the base of the stipe, spores rusty brown, rough, broadly ovoid, in-
equilateral in one view, tapering to one end, 11-16 X 7-10 ju. or varying larger.

Solitary to scattered, on the ground in woods, fairly common. July-Oct.

This species is fairly common and is an easy one to recognize. The color,
the uneven surface and somewhat hoary appearance of the pileus, and the
large membranous annulus are quite distinctive. The spores are more Hke those
of Cortinarius than Pholiota and the presence of a rudimentary volva is also a
character distinguishing it from other species of Pholiota. Most modern au-
thors separate this species from Pholiota and put it in the genus Rozites.

PHOLIOTA FLAMMANS (Batsch ex Fr.) Kummer
Figure 273, page 175

PILEUS 1-2 in. broad or occasionally larger, campanulate or convex with
inrolled margin at first, becoming expanded, bright golden yellow or tinged
orange, covered when young with a dense coating of dry, lemon-yellow floc-
cules, even on the margin, appendiculate. flesh rather thin, yellow, lamellae
adnate or with a shght decurrent tooth, close, not broad, yellow at first, then
somewhat rusty from the spores, stipe 1-3 in. long, Vg-^ ^^- thick, subequal,
stuffed or hollow, yellow, densely coated up to the annular zone with lemon-
yellow floccules or squarrose scales, annulus yellow, ragged, disappearing.
spores minute, elHpsoid, smooth, 3-6 X 2-3 /x-

SoHtary or in clusters of several, on stumps and logs, rare. Aug.-Sept.

This species is rare but is included because of its striking appearance. The
bright colors and scaly pileus and stipe make it attractive. The very small
spores are also a distinctive character. There is no information regarding its
edibihty.

P. kaujfmaniana Smith is a species occurring on the Pacific Coast that is
similar in appearance to P.flammans but has viscid pilei.

187

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

PHOLIOTA MARGINATA (Batsch ex Fr.) Quel. Dangerous

Figures 271, 272, page 175

PILEUS %-3 in. broad, fleshy, convex to plane or slightly depressed, some-
times slightly umbilicate, dark cinnamon-brown, hygrophanous, fading to
yellowish buff or ochraceous orange, glabrous, margin even or slightly striatu-
late, extending somewhat beyond the lamellae, flesh thin, concolorous with
the pileus, odor and taste none (Overholts says farinaceous), lamellae adnate
to slightly decurrent, subdistant, moderately broad, Ys-Va in., at first yellowish
brown, becoming darker and concolorous with the pileus. stipe %-2 in. long,
Vs-Vs ill- thick, equal or shghtly enlarged near apex, fibrillose, pruinose above
the annulus, hollow, concolorous with pileus or paler, annulus somewhat
fibrillose and sometimes disappearing, spores brown, elHpsoid, at first smooth
finally slightly rough, 7-10 X 4.5-6 /z.

On rotten wood. May-Oct.

There are several small species with smooth pilei that resemble P. margi-
nata. This group of species probably belongs in Galerina rather than Pholiotay
and while P. marginata itself may be edible, the group as a whole is dangerous
because it contains species known to be poisonous. P. autumnalis Peck is hke
P. marginata but is viscid and thi^ species is definitely known to be poisonous.
P. marginella Peck {Kuehneromyces vernalis (Pk.) Sing. & Sm.) is similar to
P. marginata in gross appearance but has smaller, smooth spores and lacks
cystidia on the lamellae. P. unicolor is said to differ in having a more persistent
annulus and a thinner stipe, and in drying a brighter color. There is a species
occurring on lawns on the Pacific Coast that belongs in this complex and is also
definitely known to be poisonous. This species has been described as Galerina
venenata Smith. It is said to be up to 1 J4 iii- broad, glabrous, moist, hygro-
phanous, cinnamon-brown, fading to dingy yellowish white, with a farinaceous
odor and taste but the taste slowly becomes bitter and disagreeable. The stipe
is brownish and has a thin apical annulus. Its occurrence on lawns makes this
a very dangerous species. All of these small species with smooth pilei should be
avoided as food.

PHOLIOTA SPECTABILIS (Fr.) Gill. Not edible

Figure 274, page 175

PILEUS 1 1/2-4 in. broad, convex becoming expanded to nearly plane, rather
bright colored, buff-yellow to tawny orange, dry, glabrous at first, becoming
fibrillose to fibrillose-scaly, margin even, sometimes wavy, incurved at first.
FLESH yellowish, thick, taste bitter, lamellae adnate to adnexed with a decur-
rent tooth, crowded, narrow to moderately broad, yellow becoming rusty
reddish, stipe 1 1/^-6 in. long, 54-1 in. thick, nearly equal to ventricose or en-
larged at base, concolorous or darker below the annulus, more yellow above,
fibrillose below the annulus, pruinose to floccose above, solid, sometimes very
hard, annulus superior, membranous, persistent, yellowish, spores rusty
brown, elHpsoid, rough-walled, 7-9 X 4.5-6 ^i.

188

PHOLIOTA

Singly to cespitose on stumps or trunks or sometimes from buried wood.
June-Oct.

Because of the bitter taste this species is not recommended as an edible
fungus although it is not known to be poisonous. However, it is likely to
attract attention because of its size and bright colors. It is similar in color to
Phaeolepiota aurea but lacks the granulose covering of the pileus of the latter.

PHOLIOTA SQUARROSOIDES (Pk.) Saccardo Edible

Figure 275, page 175

PILEUS 1--3 in. broad, at first subglobose with inrolled margin, becoming
expanded-convex or broadly subumbonate, even on the margin, often appendi-
culate, densely squarrose-scaly with dry, coarse, tawny scales, between the
scales whitish to cinnamon-buff and viscid, flesh whitish, moderately thick on
the disk, odor and taste not distinctive, lamellae sinuate-adnate, moderately
broad, close, palHd, then brown from the spores, stipe stout, 1 1/^-4 in. long or
longer, about J4 iii- thick, equal, stuffed, pallid, brownish toward the base,
scaly up to the annulus with recurved tawny squamules, white at the apex.
ANNULUS paUid, fibrillose-torn, often disappearing, spores smooth, brown,
ellipsoid 4-6 X 3-4 ju.

In dense clusters on deciduous wood. Aug.-Sept.

P. squarrosoides is fairly common and frequently occurs in large clusters
providing plenty of material for a meal. It is not Hkely to be confused with any
poisonous species.

Pholiota squarrosa, a similar species, is a yellower fungus, with a dry
pileus and slightly larger spores. It is also edible but may have an unpleasant
taste when old.

PHOLIOTA VERMIFLUA Peck Edible

Figure 362, page 254

PILEUS Y^-lVi in. broad, occasionally larger, firm, fleshy, subhemispher-
ical, becoming expanded, even on the margin, at times appendiculate with veil
fragments, creamy whitish or tinged yellowish, smooth, glabrous, moist to sub-
viscid, almost shining when dry, becoming areolate-cracked on the disk, flesh
white, moderately thick on the disk, thin toward the margin, odor mild, taste
mild to slightly unpleasant, lamellae adnexed to sinuate-adnate or with a
sHght decurrent tooth, seceding, rather broad, close, pallid at first, then pale
grayish brown, finally dark brown with edges white, alternate lamellae short.
STIPE 1 14-4 in. long, usually swollen at the apex up to 54- ^/^ in. thick, tapering
downward, sometimes subequal, solid or with a narrow tubule, at the apex
whitish and minutely scurfy, below the annulus glabrous and concolorous with
the pileus. annulus disappearing or persistent, small, membranous, white,
staining brown from spore deposit, spores smooth, ovoid, thick-walled, sHghtly

189

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

inequilateral, truncate at one end, dark brown, 10-14 X 6-8 m- cystidia pear-
shaped or subglobose, scattered or scarce.

In groups in lawns, cultivated fields, and grassy places in open woods.
May-Aug.

This species often appears early in the season in May or June on lawns or
in gardens. It is most likely to be confused with P. praecox (Pers.) Fr. which
can be separated with certainty by the spores, which are mostly less than 10 /*
long. Both species are edible.

PHAEOLEPIOTA

This genus has been separated from Pholiota on the basis of the mealy-
granulose covering of the pileus. It is best characterized as a brown-spored
Cystoderma and only the one species is known.

PHAEOLEPIOTA AUREA (Mattuschka ex Fr.) Maire ex Suspect

Konr. & Maubl.
Figure 373, page 256

PILEUS 2-6 in. broad, convex to plane, slightly umbonate, dry, with a
granulose, powdery covering that is easily rubbed off, ochraceous yellow to
golden yellow, or ochraceous tawny, margin incurved at first, somewhat ap-
pendiculate. flesh thick, yellowish, odor none, taste mild, lamellae adnexed,
rounded behind, close, broad, light buff to ochraceous buff or cinnamon.
STIPE 1 1/2-5 in. long, !/2-% ii^- thick, enlarged at the base, concolorous or
Hghter than the pileus, granular-scurfy below the annulus, glabrous above,
stuffed, sometimes becoming hollow, annulus large, pendulous, membranous,
dark buff below, lemon color above, disappearing in old plants, spores pale
ochraceous buff, ovoid to elongate-ovoid, smooth or sometimes sHghtly rough
in age, 9-12 X 4-6 m-

Singly or gregarious on the ground. Sept.

This is a rare but very striking fungus. It appears to be western in its dis-
tribution. It has the appearance of a large Cystoderma with brown spores.

FLAMMULA

The genus Flammula includes species with ochre spores, fleshy to fibrous,
central stipes, lamellae usually rather bright colored, and an annulus usually
lacking although sometimes a trace of one may be found. Most of the species
occur on wood although there are a few exceptions.

They are distinguished from Pholiota by the lack of an annulus, from
Hebeloma by the brighter lamellae and spores and from Naucoria by the
fibrous stipe.

190

HEBELOMA

The Species are not very well known and are difficult to identify. Many of
them have a bitter or unpleasant taste and the genus is not one to attract
amateur collectors. They are not recommended for eating although there is no
evidence that they are poisonous. Only the one species, F. spumosa (Fr.)
Kummer, which is one of the commonest of the genus, is described here.

FLAMMULA SPUMOSA (Fr.) Kummer
Figure 276, page 175

piLEus %-2 in. broad, convex then expanded, smooth, glabrous, viscid
when moist, pale sulphur-yellow except on the disk which is fulvous-tinged,
margin even, flesh thin, tinged yellowish, lamellae adnate to shghtly sinuate
or decurrent by a tooth, moderately broad, close, pallid yellowish, then ochre-
brown. STIPE 1-21/2 in. long, V8-!4 in. thick, equal, stuffed or becoming hollow,
fibrillose, yellowish above, stained brownish toward the base, veil fibrillose,
yellowish, disappearing, spores smooth, ellipsoid, ochre-brown (6) 7-8 (9) X
4-4.5 (5) M- CYSTiDiA numerous, fusoid-ventricose.

In groups on decaying wood or on the ground in woods, fairly common.
July-Oct.

This is one of the commonest species of the genus and is principally
characterized by the sulphur-yellow to greenish yellow margin of the pileus
and the fulvous to tawny disk.

HEBELOMA

Hebeloma includes a group of rather poorly known brown-spored species.
They have viscid pilei, adnexed or emarginate lamellae, and a volva and annu-
lus are lacking but some species have a fibrillose veil. The spores are dull
colored in mass, alutaceous or dull brown, never bright rust-colored as in
Inocybe or Cortinarius, and the colors of the pileus are usually somewhat dull
also.

The species are not well known and are difficult to identify. Some of the
species are known to be poisonous and none are recommended as food. It is a
genus to be avoided by the amateur. Only one species is described here.

HEBELOMA SINAPIZANS (Fr.) Gillet Not edible

Figure 384, page 282

PILEUS 21/2-4J/2 in. broad, fleshy, firm, convex, obtuse, margin even,
inrolled at first, becoming expanded, glabrous, viscid, pinkish buff" to cinna-
mon. FLESH thick, compact, odor and taste of radish or mustard, lamellae
adnexed, broad, close, pallid then pale brownish from the spores, stipe white,
'^Vi-^Vi in. long, 1/2-1 in. thick, subequal, stuff'ed then hollow, white-floccose-
scaly, especially toward the apex, spores large, rough, almond-shaped, inequi-
lateral, brown, 11-13 (13.5) X 7-8 (8.5) m-

191

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

Scattered or in groups on the ground in woods, uncommon. Sept.-Oct.

This is one of the largest of the hebelomas and has been included as a
representative of the genus. The floccose-scaly stipe and broad lamellae
together with the large size are the distinguishing characters. Definite informa-
tion as to its edibihty is lacking but it is not recommended since other members
of the genus are known to be poisonous.

CONOCYBE

Conocybe includes a group of small, fragile, Mycena-\\kt mushrooms with
rusty brown spores. They were formerly included in the genus Galera but this
name cannot be used under the International Code of Nomenclature because
the name had been given earlier to a genus of flowering plants. The old genus
Galera has been divided into two genera based on the structure of the cuticle.
In Conocybe the cuticle is cellular and in Galerina it is filamentous. The species
are unimportant as food because they are so small and fragile and they are
difficult to identify. One species is included here because it is commonly found
on lawns and is fairly easily recognized.

CONOCYBE CRISPA (Longyear) Singer

Figure 385, page 283

PILEUS Yi-l Va in. broad, conic to campanulate, sometimes slightly umbo-
nate, striate to rugulose, glabrous, atomate, whitish buff", more brownish on
disk when moist, flesh thin, membranous, lamellae adnexed, close to sub-
distant, narrow, crisped and interveined, ferruginous brown, stipe 1 y^-2> in.
long, about i/fg in. thick, white, or tinged ochraceous, equal, shghtly bulbous at
base, hollow, spores ellipsoid to ovoid, rather variable, smooth, rusty brown,
11-16(18) X 8-12 M-

Gregarious on lawns and grassy places. June-July (Sept.).

The distinctive character of this species is the crisped lamellae. A similar
species in which the lamellae are not crisped is also common on lawns. It has
been generally known as Galera tenera Fr., but according to Smith (1949) the
true G. tenera is rare and the common species that has been called G. tenera is,
in reality, Conocybe lactea (Lange) Metrod. Although this species is, perhaps,
more common than G. crispa it was thought desirable to choose the latter as a
representative of this group because it could be identified with more certainty.
All the species of this group are too small and fragile to be of any value as food.

Figures 282-291

282. Naucoria semiorbicularis. 283, Paxillus involutus.

284. P. atrotomentosus. 285. P. atrotomentosus.

286. Agaricus campestris. 287. A.haemorrhoidarius.

288. A. diminutivus. 289. A. diminutivus.

290. A. silvicola. 291. A. silvicola and Amanita virosa.

192

193

Figure 292. Colly bia radicata.

Figures 293-302

293. Crepidotus fulvotomentosus.

295. S. hornemannii.

297. 5". semiglobata,

299. Psathyrella candolleana.

301. Coprinus comatus.

294. Stropharia coronilla.

296. S. hornemannii.

298. Naematoloma capnoides.

300. P. candolleana.

302. C. quadrifidus.

194

^ ,^^3^

195

303

1304

Figures 303-304. Lentinus lepideus.

196

TUBARIA

NAUCORIA

Naucoria includes a group of small, brown-spored species that are not
well known. The spores are ochre-brown to rusty brown. The stipe is subcarti-
laginous and there is no annulus. They grow either on the ground or on wood,
occasionally on dung. Because of their small size they are of no value as edible
mushrooms and not much is known about their edibihty. Only one rather com-
mon species is described here.

NAUCORIA SEMIORBICULARIS (Bull.) Fr. Edible

Figure 282, page 193

piLEUS 54-1 in. broad, hemispherical to convex, smooth, glabrous, viscid
when moist, dull yellowish varying to tan or tinged reddish brown, unicolorous
or darker on the disk, margin even, flesh thin, paUid. lamellae adnate,
broad, close, paUid, then dull brown from the spores, edges paUid. stipe 1-21/2
in. long, up to i/g in. thick, subequal or slightly thickened at the base, stuffed,
glabrous to minutely fibrillose, concolorous or paler than the pileus. spores
smooth, thick-walled, ovoid, inequilateral in one view, dull brown (10.5)
11-13.5 (15) X 7.5-8 {9) IX.

In groups on the ground in grassy places, common. May-Sept.

This species is common on lawns and grassy places, appearing after rains
throughout most of the season. The small size, yellowish tan color, brown
spores and lack of an annulus are its distinguishing characters.

TUBARIA

Tubaria is a small genus of poorly known species. They are small brown-
spored forms with decurrent lamellae and fragile, cartilaginous stipes. The
species are mostly rather rare, and are of no interest to those collecting mush-
rooms for food.

One species is included here because it is one of the earliest mushrooms to
appear in the spring and for that reason may attract attention.

TUBARIA FURFURACEA (Pers. ex Fr.) Gill.

pileus %-! in. broad, occasionally larger, fleshy, convex to plane or
slightly depressed, cinnamon-brown, hygrophanous, fading to buff or pinkish
buff, long-striate on the margin when moist, sometimes with whitish patches
from the veil, appressed-fibrillose to glabrous on the disk, flesh thin, watery
brownish, no odor, taste mild, lamellae close to subdistant, broad, adnate to

197

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

slightly decurrent, concolorous with pileus. stipe about %-l y^ ii^- long, and
about '/g in. thick, equal or slightly enlarged at the base, fibrillose, concolorous
with pileus or slightly paler, hollow, spores ellipsoid, flattened shghtly on one
side, pale ochraceous in mass, smooth, 7-9 X 4-5.5 \i.

Growing singly or in groups on sticks and debris in the woods. May-Oct.

This is a rather common little brown mushroom with broad lamellae and
a fibrillose pileus, often found early in the spring. T. pellucida (Bull, ex Fr.)
Gill, is similar but has smaller spores, 5.5-7 X 4-5 ju.

CREPIDOTUS

Crepidotus corresponds to Pleurotus of the white-spored group and in-
cludes those species with ochre-brown to rusty spore deposit and in which the
stipe is excentric, lateral, or lacking. The lamellae may be whitish in young
fruiting bodies but become brown as the spores mature. Most of the species
occur on decayed wood and they are mostly rather small and of no importance
as food.

CREPIDOTUS FULVOTOMENTOSUS Peck Edible

Figure 293, page 195

PILEUS V^-21/2 in. broad, convex becoming expanded, sessile, laterally
attached, often semicircular or kidney-shaped in outline, margin incurved at
first, striatulate when moist, surface coated when young with a dense tawny
tomentum, which, as the pileus expands, becomes separated into tawny, fibril-
lose scales, exposing the paler ground color beneath, flesh thin, pliant, paUid
or tinged yellowish, lamellae radiating from the lateral point of attachment,
moderately broad, close, pallid then dull ochre-brown, edges white, stipe
lacking, the pileus attached to the substrate at a lateral point, spores ovoid,
slightly inequilateral in one profile, dull ochre-brown, 7.5-9 (10) X 5-6 m-

In groups on decaying hardwood, common. May-Oct.

This is one of the larger species of the genus and can be recognized by the
tawny scales on the pileus. C. calolepis (Fr.) Karst. also has a brown tomentum
but has smaller spores. C. dorsalis Peck is reddish yellow and has globose
spores. C. versutus Peck has a white tomentum. C. mollis Peck is glabrous and
somewhat gelatinous, and C. haerens Peck is viscid. C. malachius B. & C. has
globose spores and broad lamellae, and C applanatus (Fr.) Kummer has glo-
bose spores and narrow lamellae. These five species are all white or whitish.
C. cinnabarinus Peck is bright scarlet and more common in the West.

The genus is not important as far as food is concerned but several of the
species are fairly common and will be encountered by the collector.

198

PAXILLUS

PAXILLUS

Paxillus includes species with ochre-yellow spores, the stipe more or less
excentric, and the lamellae easily separable from the flesh of the pileus. The
lamellae are usually more or less decurrent and anastomose on the stipe, some-
times becoming poroid. In this respect they show relationship with the Boleta-
ceae and some authors consider that they should be placed in this family. It is a
relatively small genus and we have two fairly common species, neither of which
is recommended as food.

PAXILLUS ATROTOMENTOSUS (Batsch ex Fr.) Fr. Not recommended

Figures 284, 285, page 193

PILEUS 2-5 in. broad, occasionally larger, tough, convex at first, becoming
plane to depressed, rusty brown to blackish brown, appressed-tomentose, dry,
margin inrolled. flesh white, firm, rather thick, odor and taste mild, lamel-
lae adnate-decurrent, easily separable from the pileus, close, rather narrow,
forked and anastomosing on the stipe, yellowish tawny, stipe excentric to
lateral, 1-3 in. or more long, )/2-l 54 in. thick, stout, straight or curved, en-
larged toward base, rooting, covered with a dense, blackish brown, velvety
tomentum, soHd. spores yellow, oval, smooth, 5-7 X 3-4 y..

Singly or clustered on old logs or stumps or from buried wood. July-Sept.

The blackish tomentose stipe is a very distinctive character of this species.
It is reported to be edible but tough and of poor flavor.

PAXILLUS INVOLUTUS (Batsch ex Fr.) Fr. Not recommended

Figure 283, page 193

PILEUS 2-5 in. broad, at first convex, becoming expanded, then depressed,
yellowish brown to reddish brown or olive-brown, with darker spots, downy-
tomentose, becoming smooth, margin persistently inrolled and often some-
what ridged, flesh pale yellowish, becoming brownish when bruised, thick.
LAMELLAE dccurrcnt, easily separable from the pileus, crowded, broad, forked
and anastomosing on the stipe, olive-yellow, becoming brown when bruised.
stipe 1 1/^-3 in. long, j/^-l )4 in. thick, equal or tapering slightly downward,
sometimes enlarged at the base, glabrous, colored like the pileus or paler,
often streaked or spotted with darker brown, solid, central or excentric.
spores yellowish brown, elliptical, smooth, 7-9 X 4-5.5 /z.

Sohtary or in groups on the ground in woods or at the base of stumps.
July-Oct.

This is an unattractive plant because of the rather dingy colors and the
brown stains that develop. Some authors maintain that it is edible but as there
are reports that it has caused poisoning in Europe, it is not recommended. It is
fairly common and easily recognized by the inrolled margin and the close,
decurrent, yellowish lamellae that separate readily from the pileus.

199

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

AGARICUS

Agaricus is one of the most important genera for those who are interested
in mushrooms as food. It includes both the common cultivated mushroom and
the meadow mushroom, which is probably the wild mushroom most frequently
eaten, at least in English-speaking countries.

The genus is characterized by the purple-brown spores, presence of an
annulus, and free lamellae. The stipe is a different texture from the pileus and
separates readily from it. The genus is relatively clear-cut and it is compara-
tively easy to recognize an Agaricus but many of the characters used to dis-
tinguish species seem to intergrade and some of the species are difficult to
identify.

Agaricus is usually regarded as one of the safest genera to use as food, and
critical identification of the species is not very important from this standpoint.
However, A. xanthodermus Genev. has been reported to cause illness in some
people, and Smith reported that a form of A. arvensis Fr. found growing in a
swamp in Michigan caused illness. A. placomyces Pk. and A. hondensis Murr.
have also been reported to cause illness on occasion. Hence, with Agaricus
species as with any other mushroom, unfamiliar species should be tried cauti-
ously at first.

The name Psalliota has frequently been used for this genus but under the
International Code of Nomenclature Agaricus is the correct name.

According to Smith (1949) there are about 70 species o{ Agaricus in North
America. There have been two recent studies of the European species by
Moller (1950, 1952) and Pilat (1951) but they do not include all the North
American species.

Key

1. Pileus small, less than Wi in. broad A. diminutivus

1. Pileus mostly 2 in. or more broad 2

2. Flesh quickly turning red when broken A. haemorrhoidarius

2. Flesh not reddening when broken 3

3. Growing in fields, pastures, open places or lawns 4

3. Growing in the woods 5

4. Annulus double, lamellae narrow A. edulis

4. Annulus single A. campestris

5. Pileus scaly with brown to black fibrils A. placomyces

5. Pileus smooth, white, disk turning yellowish when bruised A. silvicola

AGARICUS CAMPESTRIS Fr. Edible

Figure 286, page 193

Meadow Mushroom

PILEUS 1 1/2-3 in. broad, fleshy, firm, convex, somewhat flattened, becom-
ing nearly plane, white, sometimes tinged brownish when old, at first silky,
becoming dehcately fibrillose-scaly or glabrous, the margin extending beyond

200

AGARICUS

the lamellae and usually fringed with veil remnants, flesh white, thick, firm,
not changing color when bruised, odor and taste pleasant, lamellae free,
crowded, rather narrow, at first pink, becoming gradually purple-brown and
finally black, stipe 1-2 in. long, Ys-Ys in. thick, equal or sometimes narrowed
below, white, silky above the annulus, becoming brownish below, slightly
fibrillose to glabrous, stuffed, annulus thin, single, sometimes evanescent or
remaining attached to the margin of the pileus. spores dark chocolate-brown,
elHpsoid, smooth, 5.5-7.5 X 3.5-4.5 fx; basidia four-spored.

It grows singly or in groups in grassy places, lawns, pastures, fields, etc.
It is usually found in the fall but sometimes occurs in the spring.

The meadow mushroom is probably the best known of all the wild species
and for some people it is the only true mushroom, all other species being
regarded as unsafe to eat. About the only danger in connection with this
mushroom is that the button stage may be collected carelessly and a young
Amanita virosa gathered by mistake. In most cases the habitat is suflftciently
different to prevent such errors, since the Agaricus is usually found in open
fields and the Amanita in the woods. Nevertheless the danger is sufficiently
great that button stages should not be used unless the collector is certain that
he can distinguish between Agaricus and Amanita at this stage and that no
universal veil is present.

The cultivated mushroom was for a long time considered to be a form or
variety of the meadow mushroom but it is now recognized as a distinct species,
Agaricus hortensis Cke. The spores, basidia, and cystidia are different in the
two species, and A. campestris grows in grassland and will not grow under the
same conditions as A. hortensis. However, the two species are so similar in
appearance that an acquaintance with the cultivated species will enable one to
recognize A. campestris in the field.

A. arvensis Fr., the field mushroom or horse mushroom, is a larger,
more robust species with a flatter pileus. The spores are larger also. Larger
specimens of A. campestris might be confused with it but this is unimportant
since both are edible, although Smith reported that specimens of what he
considered to be a variety of this species growing in a swamp and to which he
gave the name A. arvensis var. palustris, caused illness.

AGARICUS DIMINUTIVUS Peck Edible

Figures 288, 289, page 193

pileus %-1 1/4 in. broad, fragile, convex becoming plane, whitish or gray-
ish, more brownish on disk, silky-fibrillose, the fibrils more or less reddish or
pinkish to reddish brown, flesh thin, whitish, odor and taste mild, lamellae
free, close to crowded, moderately broad, at first whitish, finally dark purplish
brown, stipe 1-2 in. long, ^6"% in. broad, equal or sHghtly bulbous at base,
whitish, glabrous or somewhat fibrillose, stuffed, then hollow, annulus deh-
cate, whitish, persistent, spores purple-brown, ellipsoid, smooth, about 5-6 X
3-3.5 M.

201

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

Usually single, occasionally in groups, among grass or moss. One collec-
tion in our herbarium is on wood. Aug.-Sept.

This is an attractive but rather delicate species, usually too small to be of
any interest as food but said to be edible. Several other small species have been
recognized but they are not well known. A. auricolor Krieger is yellow with
yellow floccose patches on the stipe below the annulus, A. micromegethus Peck
is merely white fibrillose below the annulus, and the stipe of A. comptuliformis
Murr. is glabrous below the annulus.

AGARICUS EDULIS (Vitt.) Moeller & J. Schaeffer Edible

Figure 343, page 235

PILEUS 1 )^-4 in. broad or sometimes larger, firm, fleshy, at first broadly
convex to hemispherical, somewhat depressed on the disk, expanding and be-
coming plane, white or whitish to slightly yellowish when old, glabrous to
slightly silky, the margin at first incurved and exceeding the lamellae, flesh
thick, firm, white, odor and taste mild, lamellae free, crowded, narrow, at
first pink, then purple-brown to blackish brown, stipe l-P/^ (2) in. long,
J/2-1 in. thick, short, stout, equal, glabrous or somewhat scurfy above the
annulus, white, solid, annulus double, usually about midway up the stipe.
SPORES purplish brown to chocolate-brown, broadly eUipsoid to subglobose,
smooth, 5-6 X 4-5 ju-

Singly or in groups, usually in cities along pavements or on lawns or some-
times in barren areas where the soil is packed hard. June-Oct.

This species has been better known in North America as A. rodmani Peck
but A. edulis seems to be the correct name for it. The rather squatty stature,
double annulus, and firm flesh are the principal characters of this species. It is
a fine edible mushroom and usually appears in towns and cities where it is
probably collected by mistake for Agaricus campestris.

AGARICUS HAEMORRHOIDARIUS Fr. Edible

Figure 287, page 193

PILEUS 2-4 in. broad, fleshy, at first subglobose to ovoid, expanding and
becoming campanulate-convex or finally plane, fibrillose-scaly, vinaceous
brown to grayish brown, flesh white, quickly turning to blood-red when cut or
bruised, odor and taste mild, lamellae free, crowded, moderately broad, at
first whitish, then pinkish, finally purple-brown, stipe 2-5 in. long, V^-Vi in.
thick, equal or bulbous at the base, somewhat fibrillose to glabrous, whitish
becoming brownish, stuff'ed, then hollow, annulus large, conspicuous, white,
persistent, spores purple-brown, ellipsoid, smooth, 5-7 X 3-4 /x-

In groups or scattered, sometimes in small clusters, on the ground in
mixed woods. July-Oct.

The outstanding character of this species is the almost instantaneous
change to blood-red in the color of the flesh when fresh specimens are broken
or bruised. Other species also exhibit this color change but it is usually slower.

202

AGARICUS

AGARICUS PLACOMYCES Peck Probably edible for most people

Figure 344, page 235

PILEUS 2-5 in. broad, rather fragile, at first broadly ovate, becoming con-
vex and finally plane, whitish beneath the blackish brown, fibrillose scales, the
disk blackish brown from the unbroken fibrillose covering, flesh white or
sHghtly yellowish under the cuticle, sometimes becoming pinkish, thin, odor
sHght to somewhat disagreeable, taste mild, lamellae free, crowded, rather
narrow to moderately broad, at first white to grayish, becoming pink and then
purple-brown, stipe 2 1/2-5 in. long, !4-!/^ in. thick, tapering upward, more or
less bulbous at the base, glabrous, whitish, sometimes staining yellow, stuffed
becoming hollow, annulus large, conspicuous, double, whitish above, the
lower layer cracking into brownish patches, spores chocolate-brown, ellipsoid,
smooth, 5-6 X 3.5-4 jjl.

Solitary or in groups or sometimes in clusters in mixed woods. June-Sept.

The scaly pileus, large annulus, and tapering, somewhat bulbous stipe are
the chief distinguishing characters of this species. There have been occasional
reports of it causing illness so that it should be tried with caution at first.

AGARICUS SILVICOLA (Vitt.) Sacc. Edible for most people

Figures 290, 291, page 193

PILEUS 2)/2-6 in. broad, moderately firm, at first convex, expanding and
becoming plane, white or creamy white, staining yellow on the disk when
bruised, somewhat silky-fibrillose. flesh moderately thick, brittle, white,
becoming yellow when bruised, odor and taste mild, lamellae free, crowded,
narrow to moderately broad, at first whitish, then pink and finally blackish,
brown, stipe 3-6 in. long, J4-% in. thick, equal or tapering upward sHghtly,
with an abrupt bulb at the base, or bulb lacking and base flattened, somewhat
silky to glabrous, creamy white, staining yellow when bruised, stuff'ed then
hollow, annulus large, double, smooth above with the lower layer cracking
and forming yellowish patches which may disappear, spores purpHsh brown
to chocolate-brown, elhpsoid, smooth, 5-6.5 X 3-4.5 m-

SoHtary or in groups, occasionally in clusters of two or three, usually
growing in the woods. July-Sept.

This species is edible although it should be tried with caution as occa-
sional cases of illness in individuals have been reported. The remarks relative
to the dangers of using button stages in A. campestris apply with much greater
force to A. silvicola because it grows in much the same habitat as Amanita
virosa.

A. silvicola is rather variable in size from a slender plant to a very robust
form easily confused with A. arvensis. Usually the slender forms have an
abrupt, flattened bulb at the base of the stipe but this character may vary also.
The annulus is large and conspicuous. Agaricus abruptibulbus Peck is con-
sidered to be a synonym.

203

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

STROPHARIA

Stropharia includes the species that have purple-brown spores, an annulus,
and the lamellae attached to the stipe. Usually the pileus is viscid. It differs
from Naematoloma in possessing an annulus and might be confused with that
genus if the annulus has disappeared.

It is not a large genus. About 35 species are known from North America
but only a few are common, and the species are sometimes difficult to identify.
Some are suspected of causing poisoning and the genus should be avoided by
amateurs.

Key

1. Pileus bright green, fading to yellow S. aeruginosa

1. Pileus never green 2

2. Growing on dung; pileus yellow, hemispherical S. semiglobata

2. Not on dung 3

3. Pileus mostly more than 2 in. broad, brownish or smoky purplish;

stipe squarrose-scaly S. hornemannii

3. Pileus less than 2 in. broad, yellowish; stipe smooth or

slightly fibrillose S. coronilla

STROPHARIA AERUGINOSA (Curt, ex Fr.) Quel. Reported poisonous

Figures 386, 387, page 283

PILEUS %-2 in. broad, fleshy, campanulate-convex, becoming plane,
slightly umbonate, viscid, at first bright green from the thick gluten, fading
slowly to yellowish, sometimes with white scales near the margin, becoming
glabrous, flesh whitish to bluish, soft, lamellae adnate, close, broad, at first
whitish, then grayish, finally chocolate-brown, slightly purplish, the edges
white and minutely flocculose. stipe 1 54-3 in. long, J/g-yg in. thick, equal,
viscid, scaly to fibrillose below the annulus, bluish green, hollow, annulus
evanescent, spores dark brown, sHghtly purplish, eUipsoid, smooth, 7-9.5 X
4-5 M.

It occurs in the woods or sometimes in gardens. Sept.-Oct.

This is a striking and beautiful species when it is young and fresh but the
bright green color fades with age. It is said to be common in Europe but has
only been collected occasionally in the Ottawa district.

STROPHARIA CORONILLA (Bull, ex Fr.) Quel. Suspected

Figure 294, page 195

pileus %-2 in. broad, convex to nearly plane, pale yellow to whitish or
buff to pale ochre-yellow, glabrous, moist to slightly sticky, flesh white, soft,
fairly thick, odor shghtly unpleasant, lamellae adnate, rounded behind, Hlac-

204

STROPHARIA

flesh color becoming purplish black, close, moderately broad, edge white-
fimbriate. stipe short, 3/^-1 V2 in. long, Ys-Vi in. thick, equal, white, dry, floc-
culose above the annulus, fibrillose below, becoming smooth, stuffed to
hollow. ANNULUS membrauous, distant from apex, persistent, striate on upper
side. SPORES purple-brown, elHpsoid, smooth, 7-9 X 4.5-5 /x.

Gregarious to scattered on lawns or grassy places. Aug.-Oct.

This small species is not common but because of its occurrence on lawns
and the fact that it is suspected of being poisonous it has been included. It
might be mistaken for an Agaricus but the lamellae are not free from the stipe.

STROPHARIA HORNEMANNII (Fr.) Lund. & Nannf. Not recommended

Figures 295, 296, page 195

piLEUS 1-5 in. broad, fleshy, firm, convex to plane, sometimes sHghtly
umbonate, viscid, glabrous or with some white floccose scales at the margin at
first, brownish or smoky reddish brown, to purplish brown, becoming ohve-
brown near the margin and more yellowish brown on the disk, margin inrolled
when young, then decurved and sometimes elevated, flesh whitish to watery
buff" or yellowish, thick, thin on margin, odor sHght, taste somewhat disagree-
able. LAMELLAE adnatc with a decurrent tooth, close, broad, pale grayish then
becoming dull purple-brown, some shorter, stipe 2-5 in. long, i4-% in. thick,
equal or nearly so, whitish to yellowish, stuff'ed becoming hollow, covered
with white, fibrillose or floccose scales below the annulus, glabrous and silky
above, annulus at first erect, then pendant, white to brownish, spores elHp-
soid, smooth, purple-brown in mass, 11-13 X 5.5-7 ju-

It usually is soHtary or in groups in mixed woods. Sept. and Oct.

This species can be recognized by the large size, scaly stipe, and dull-
brown color, often with a smoky purpHsh tinge. It has been known under the
name Stropharia depilata (Pers. ex Fr.) Quel. It is one of the largest and most
conspicuous species of the genus. Although there does not seem to be any
definite information regarding its edibility, it is not recommended because
some of the Stropharia species are under suspicion as causing poisoning.

STROPHARIA SEMIGLOBATA (Fr.) Quel. Not recommended

Figure 297, page 195

PILEUS I/2-I Yi in. broad, fleshy, hemispherical, finally convex to nearly
plane, bright fight yellow, fading to dull yellow, sometimes with an oHve tinge,
glabrous, very viscid, margin even, flesh thick on disk to thin on margin, pale
watery yellowish, odor and taste mild, lamellae adnate, close to subdistant,
broad, at first ohve-gray, becoming purplish brown, stipe 2-4)/^ in. long,
V%-H% in. thick, equal or sHghtly enlarged at the base, stuff'ed becoming hollow,
viscid below the annulus, slightly fibrillose above, whitish to pale yellowish.

205

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

ANNULUS delicate, whitish, often evanescent, spores purple-brown, ellipsoid,
smooth, 15-20 X 8.5-11 m-

It occurs singly or in groups on the dung of cattle and horses. June-Sept.

The veil in this species is very delicate and frequently tears in such a way
that no annulus is formed, or the annulus may be very evanescent. The most
striking characters are the yellow color, viscid pileus and stipe, hemispherical
pileus, and the habitat on dung. KautTman attempted to separate the forms
that become convex to plane as S. stercoraria Fr. but they seem to be too close
to be recognized as distinct species. It has been reported edible but, in general,
Stropharia species should be avoided.

NAEMATOLOMA

The best-known species of this genus were formerly placed in the genus
Hypholoma but Smith (1951) has pointed out that the old genus Hypholoma
was composed of diverse elements and under the International Code of No-
menclature Naematoloma should be the correct name for the group of species
typified by A^. sublateritium (Fr.) Karst.

Naematoloma thus includes a rather small group of species with purple-
brown to dull cinnamon-brown spores. The pileus is usually rather bright
colored and may or may not be viscid. The lamellae vary from adnexed to
adnate or subdecurrent and the color of the young lamellae is sometimes im-
portant in distinguishing species. The stipe may be thick and fleshy to fibrous-
tough, or slender and cartilaginous.

Naematoloma is distinguished from Stropharia by the presence of an
annulus in the latter. However, the distinction is not clear-cut because a veil is
sometimes present in Naematoloma but usually remains attached to the margin
of the pileus; in some of the dung-inhabiting species o{ Stropharia the annulus
is evanescent.

Naematoloma is also very close to Psilocybe and can only be separated
with certainty from this genus by microscopic characters. A characteristic type
of cystidium called a gloeocystidium is present in the lamellae of Naemato-
loma but absent in Psilocybe (see Addendum).

Only two of the larger species of Naematoloma are described here and
both are considered to be edible. Many of the other species are quite small and
of no value as food, and N.fasciculare (Fr.) Karst., which has been reported to
be poisonous, is not likely to be eaten because of its very bitter taste.

NAEMATOLOMA CAPNOIDES (Fr.) Karst. Edible

Figure 298, page 195

pileus Y2-2 in. broad, firm, convex, expanding to plane, sometimes
slightly umbonate, brightly colored, orange-reddish or yellowish brown on the

206

NAEMATOLOMA

disk, paler and more yellowish on the margin, glabrous or at first slightly
fibrillose, the margin inrolled at first and appendiculate with fibrils of the veil.
FLESH whitish, fairly thick, firm, taste mild, lamellae adnate-seceding, close,
rather narrow to moderately broad, at first whitish to grayish, becoming
purple-brown, stipe 2-3 in. long, sometimes longer, Y^-Ys in. thick, equal or
sHghtly enlarged at the base, sHghtly fibrillose up to the faint annular zone,
yellowish above, rusty brown below, hollow, spores purple-brown, ellipsoid,
smooth 6-7.5 X 3.5-4.5 /x.

In clusters on wood of conifers. August to November and occasionally in
May.

This species is usually a little smaller and more orange to tawny than
A'^. sublateritium. It might be confused with N. fasciculare (Fr.) Karst. but in
the latter the lamellae are at first pale yellow and become greenish to olive-
green. A'^. fasciculare also has an intensely bitter taste and has been reported to
be poisonous.

NAEMATOLOMA SUBLATERITIUM (Fr.) Karst. Edible

Figure 342, page 235; Figure 423, page 301
Brick-top

piLEUS 1-3 in. broad, firm, fleshy, convex-expanded, sometimes with a
slight obtuse umbo, brick-red on the disk, paler on the margin to whitish,
glabrous on disk to more or less whitish to yellowish-fibrillose on the decurved
margin, flesh thick, firm, whitish or becoming yellowish in age or when
bruised, no odor, taste mild to slightly bitter, lamellae adnate, close to
crowded, narrow, at first whitish or in some collections yellow, then becoming
gray or olive-gray and finally purple-brown, stipe 2-4 in. long, V^-Yi in. thick,
equal, whitish above to reddish brown below, the veil leaving a fibrillose
annular zone and the surface more or less fibrillose below this, soHd. spores
purple-brown, eUipsoid, smooth, 6-7.5 X 3-4 ju-

It grows in dense clusters or occasionally in groups on hardwood logs,
stumps, or roots, common. Aug.-Nov.

This species is commonly known as the brick-top mushroom because of
the brick-red color of the pileus. It is common and rather variable. One form
with bright yellow lamellae in the young mushrooms has been called Hypho-
loma perplexum (Pk.) Sacc. but it is now generally regarded as merely a form of
the brick-top. Partly to nearly completely sterile fruiting bodies may be found.

In European hterature it has been reported poisonous but North Ameri-
can mycophagists seem to be unanimous in claiming it to be edible.

207

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

PSATHYRELLA

Psathyrella is now used to include a large group of species formerly dis-
tributed throughout other genera such as Hypholoma, Psilocybe, Psathyra,
and Stropharia. The spore color is typically purple-brown but may vary from
pinkish to brick-red, dark brown, or blackish. They are mostly small, fragile
species that can be identified only by microscopic characters and, in general,
they are of no value as food.

Of the other dark-spored genera, Coprinus differs from Psathyrella by its
deliquescing lamellae, Panaeolus by its mottled lamellae, and Pseudocoprinus
by its plicate-striate pileus and the presence of paraphyses of the. type found
in Coprinus. The remaining genera, Agaricus, Stropharia, Naematoloma, and
Psilocybe are all distinguished from Psathyrella by the structure of the cuticle
which in them is composed of filamentous hyphae but in Psathyrella is com-
posed of pear-shaped to vesiculose cells arranged in a palisade layer.

PSATHYRELLA CANDOLLEANA (Fr.) Smith Edible

Figures 299, 300, page 195

PILEUS 1-3 in. broad, sometimes larger, fragile, at first oval, then conic to
convex, finally more or less umbonate with the margin upturned, buff or honey
colored, fading to whitish or creamy, hygrophanous, at first with some whitish
flocci, then glabrous and atomate, margin thin, often splitting, sometimes a
dirty violet color, often appendiculate with white fragments of the veil, flesh
thin, white, fragile, odor and taste mild, lamellae adnate, crowded, narrow,
at first whitish to grayish, then purplish, finally purple-brown, stipe 2-4 in.
long, V8~!4 ill- thick, equal, smooth, somewhat mealy at the apex, white,
hollow, rigid and easily splitting lengthwise, annulus membranous, some-
times remaining attached to the margin of the pileus, usually evanescent.
spores purple-brown, eUipsoid, smooth, 7-8.5 X 4-5 m-

Common in lawns, fields and occasionally in woods. June-Sept.

This is a common species on lawns and grassy places, sometimes occurring
in considerable abundance after rains. It may be found throughout the growing
season. The pilei are rather thin and fragile but they are of good flavor and
anyone interested in mushrooms as food should become acquainted with this
species.

P. candolleana was formerly in the genus Hypholoma and H. appendicula-
tum Fr. and H. incertum Peck are synonyms. The buff color, appendiculate
margin, rather cartilaginous, hollow stipe, and the series of color changes of the
lamellae as the spores mature are its distinguishing characters. Sometimes the
pileus ghstens as if small particles of mica were scattered on the surface.

PSATHYRELLA HYDROPHILA (Fr.) Smith Suspected

Figure 388, page 284

Pileus %-2i/2 in. broad, fragile, campanulate-convex, becoming nearly
plane with a sHght umbo, watery cinnamon-brown to chestnut-brown, fading

208

COPRINUS

to ochraceous buff, hygrophanous, glabrous, or with silky white fibrils espe-
cially at the margin, margin somewhat striate when moist, flesh thin, fragile,
brownish, odor and taste mild, lamellae adnate-seceding, crowded, narrow,
at first grayish brown, then purpHsh brown to dark brown, stipe 1-2^2 in. long,
Vs-Va in. thick, equal, white, glabrous or somewhat fibrillose, somewhat
pruinose at the apex, hollow, spHtting easily, spores purple-brown, ellipsoid,
smooth, 4-6 X 2.5-3.5 )u.

Cespitose to densely gregarious on very rotten wood. July-Sept.

This is a fairly common species and usually occurs in large clusters on
rotten wood. It is typical of a number of small, fragile, reddish brown species
placed in this genus. They are difficult to identify accurately and must be
studied microscopically. Kauffman hsted this species as suspected and, with the
exception of P. candolleana above, this whole group is best avoided as food.

PSATHYRELLA VELUTINA (Fr.) Sing. Edible

Figure 389, page 285

piLEUS 1 1/4-3 in. broad, convex to convex-campanulate, then plane and
obtusely umbonate, tawny brown or yellowish brown, darker in center, hygro-
phanous, fading to buff-brown, appressed-fibrillose, becoming fibrillose-scaly,
margin not striate but often fringed or appendiculate from the veil, and spHt-
ting. FLESH watery brownish, thick, odor and taste earthy, lamellae adnate,
close to crowded, broad, at first yellowish, then dark purple-brown, the edges
white-flocculose and beaded with drops of moisture in wet weather, stipe 1-3
in. long, y%-Y^ in. thick, equal, fibrillose or somewhat floccose-scaly up to the
annulus, whitish above, brownish below, hollow, annulus evanescent, fibril-
lose, whitish at first, becoming blackish from the spores, spores dark purple-
brown, ovoid-eUipsoid, rough, 9-12 X 7-8 ju-

In clusters, scattered, or solitary, along roadsides or in the woods. July-
Sept.

The tendency for the lamellae to become beaded with drops of moisture is
one of the noteworthy characters of this species which has also been known as
Hypholoma lachrymabundum (Fr.) Quel. The rough spores are also a distin-
guishing character.

COPRINUS

Species of the genus Coprinus are commonly known as 'inky caps' because
the lamellae and often the flesh of the pileus dissolve into an inky fluid at
maturity. This characteristic and the black color of the spore deposit are
the principal distinguishing features of the genus.

209

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

According to Smith (1949) there are about 75 species of Coprinus known
in North America. Many of these are small delicate fungi that are httle known
and difficult to identify. The four species described here are the best known and
are fairly common and frequently used for food. The stipes are tough and
cartilaginous and should be discarded.

When Coprinus species are gathered for food, it is important to pick
young specimens and use them immediately because of this characteristic of
the lamellae and flesh dissolving at maturity. Specimens kept for any length of
time will Hkely be found to be a revolting inky mess. The appearance of these
fungi in various stages of decomposition is, at first sight, likely to create a feel-
ing of disgust and revulsion. To the imaginative they may suggest scenes of
horror and it is undoubtedly a Coprinus species that inspired the following hnes
by the poet Shelley :

"Their moss rotted off* them flake by flake
Till the thick stalk stuck hke a murderer's stake
Where rags of loose flesh yet tremble on high,
Infecting the winds that wander by."

However, when the process is understood it is found to be a remarkable
and fascinating adaptation for spore dissemination. In most mushrooms, the
lamellae are more or less wedge-shaped, the broad edge of the wedge being
attached to the pileus. The spores mature evenly over the entire surface of the
lamellae from where they fall down and are carried away by air currents. In
Coprinus, however, the lamellae are not wedge-shaped, but are parallel-sided
and are frequently very crowded. Consequently, if spores were matured and
discharged in the usual way, they would be shot onto the surface of the neigh-
boring lamella and their passage into the air would be interfered with. In
Coprinus the spores do not mature simultaneously over the surface of the
lamellae but in a relatively narrow zone beginning first at the outer edge of the
pileus and progressing gradually back toward the stipe. As the spores mature,
a process of autodigestion sets in by which the lamellae and flesh are trans-
formed to fluid and the edge of the pileus curls back, spreading the lamellae
apart (Figure 392, p. 287), thus enabling the mature spores to be discharged
into the air. The spores are disseminated by air currents as in other mush-
rooms, and not by the drops of fluid, although if the fluid is examined under
the microscope it will be found to contain many spores that have been acci-
dentally trapped there.

From time to time reports have appeared in the literature suggesting that
mild poisoning may result from eating Coprinus in conjunction with alcohol
consumption. Recent experiments conducted by Child (1952) have given no
support to this contention. It seems probable that such reports have been
based upon misidentifications of Panaeolus sphinctrinus or perhaps other
Panaeolus species eaten by mistake for a Coprinus. However, other mycologists
claim that there are well-authenticated cases of poisoning by Coprinus where
there has been no possibility of misidentification.

210

COPRINUS

COPRINUS ATRAMENTARIUS (Bull, ex Fr.) Fr. Edible

Figures 390, 391, page 286

Inky Cap

PILEUS 1-3 in. broad, occasionally larger, at first ovoid, then expanding to
conic or campanulate, gray to brownish on disk, often lobed and folded, some-
what silky-fibrous, smooth or sometimes squamulose, becoming tattered on
the margin in age. flesh thin, lamellae free, crowded, broad, at first white,
becoming black and then dissolving into an inky fluid, stipe 2-8 in. long,
Ya-Ya in. thick, equal or narrowed at the base, somewhat fibrillose below the
annulus, white and silky above, hollow, annulus usually toward the base of
the stipe, very evanescent, spores black, eUiptical, smooth, 8-11 X 5-6.5 /x-

Usually in clusters on the ground or in sawdust, apparently associated
with buried wood. July-Sept.

This species is common and often appears in dense clusters. It is consid-
ered a very desirable edible species for the young pilei are firm and meaty.
Usually the gray pilei are smooth but, especially under dry conditions, may
become more or less scaly from the splitting of the cuticle. Coprinus insignis
Peck is somewhat similar in appearance, but has rough spores.

COPRINUS COMATUS (Mull, ex Fr.) S. F. Gray Edible

Figure 301, page 195; Figures 392, 393, page 287

Shaggy Mane

PILEUS cyHndrical or barrel-shaped, 2-6 in. long and 1-2 in. thick, grad-
ually expanding and becoming somewhat conical to bell-shaped, at first cov-
ered with a brownish or ochraceous brown cuticle which becomes torn into
shaggy scales except on the disk, exposing the white to pinkish flesh, margin
becoming split and recurved, flesh thin, soft and fragile, lamellae nearly free,
very crowded, broad, at first white, becoming pinkish and then black, gradually
dissolving into an inky fluid starting at the margin of the pileus. stipe 2-6 in.
long, J4-% in. thick, equal or tapering upward, shghtly bulbous at the base,
smooth, hollow, annulus movable, usually basal, spores black, elliptical,
smooth, 13-18 X 7-8 m-

Common along roadsides, in city dumps, fields, or on lawns. It may be
found at any time during the growing season, but is more common in the fall.

The shaggy mane is one of the most easily recognized mushrooms and
probably one of those most frequently used for food. It might be confused with
Coprinus ovatus Fr. or C. sterquilinus Fr. The former is more ovate than
cyHndrical in shape and has smaller spores, whereas the latter is usually
smaller, becomes more expanded than C. comatus, and has larger spores.
Since both of these species are also edible a misidentification is of no con-
sequence.

211

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

COPRINUS MICACEUS (Bull, ex Fr.) Fr. Edible

Figure 305, page 213
Glistening Inky Cap

PILEUS 1/2-2 in. broad, at first ovate to elliptical, becoming conic to cam-
panulate, ochraceous tan to ochraceous brown, sometimes fading to whitish,
usually darker on the disk, at first covered with minute, ghstening particles
which may either persist or disappear in older specimens, strongly striate to
sulcate, the striae of unequal lengths, smooth on the disk, more or less lobed
and uneven on the margin, lamellae adnate-seceding, crowded, moderately
broad, at first white, then purpHsh to black and dissolving into an inky fluid.
STIPE 1-3 in. long, Vg-W in. thick, equal, silky, white, hollow, spores dark
brown to black, eUipsoid to ovoid, 7-9 X 4-5 n.

Usually in dense clusters on the ground or around old stumps. Very
common and may be found throughout the growing season.

This species is rather small and dehcate, but usually appears in consider-
able abundance. Many householders regard it as a nuisance because they
consider the masses of fruiting bodies appearing on the lawn to be unsightly.
It is associated with buried wood and may continue to appear for several
years in places where a tree has been removed and old roots remain in the soil.
Successive crops of fruit bodies may develop throughout the growing season
following wet periods.

COPRINUS QUADRIFIDUS Peck Edible

Figure 302, Page 195

PILEUS 1-3 in. broad, at first oval, becoming campanulate to somewhat
expanded, gray to grayish brown, at first covered with a tomentose-floccose
veil which breaks up into flakes or scales and may disappear, margin long-
striate, often wavy, becoming rolled back, lamellae free, crowded, broad, at
first whitish, then dark purple-brown to black, stipe 1 J4-4 in. long, Ys-Vs in-
thick, equal or tapering upward, white, somewhat floccose, with an evanescent
basal annulus. spores black, smooth, elHpsoid, 7.5-10 X 4-5 /x.

Gregarious or cespitose on rotten wood. June-Aug.

This is a good edible species often appearing early in the season and
occurring on rotten wood. It diff'ers from C. atramentarius in having floccose
veil patches on the pileus and in its occurrence on rotten wood. The fruit bodies
arise from well-developed, root-like strings of mycehum termed rhizomorphs.

Figures 305-314

305. Coprinus micaceus. 306. Gomphidius glutinosus.

307. Panaeolus semiovatus. 308. P. sphinctrinus.

309. Boletinellus merulioides. 310. Boletinus spectabilis.

311. B.cavipes. 312. B.cavipes.

313. B.pictus. 314. B.pictus.

212

213

so
CO

CO

St

"a

o

to

C
Q
ft.

vd

00

317. Gyroporus cyanescens.
319. Boletus edulis.
321. B. subvelutipes.
323. Leccinum aurantiacum.
325. L. chromapes.

Figures 317-326

318.
320.
322.
324.
326.

G. castaneus.
B. edulis.
B. subvelutipes.
L. subglabripes.
L. chromapes.

214

215

Figures 327-329. Volvariella speciosa. 'Ml , mature fruiting body; 328, young fruit-
ing body; 329, immature fruiting body emerging from volva.

216

PANAEOLUS

PANAEOLUS

Panaeolus includes a small group of black-spored species. The lamellae
have a characteristic mottled or dotted appearance as a result of the spores
maturing unevenly. The lamellae do not deliquesce as in Coprinus. A veil is
present in some species but is usually evanescent.

Species of Panaeolus should not be eaten. Some are known to be poisonous
and to cause a form of intoxication. It is considered probable that reports of
poisoning by Coprinus species when taken with alcohol are sometimes based on
the use of Panaeolus species that have been mistaken for Coprini.

PANAEOLUS FOENISECII (Fr.) Kiihner Edible, not recommended

Figure 394, page 288

piLEUS 1/2-1 ^^' broad, convex or campanulate-convex, sometimes plane,
fleshy, hygrophanous, variable in color, dark grayish brown or smoky brown
to reddish brown, fading to dingy tan or buff, glabrous, the surface sometimes
cracking into patches or scales, margin even, sometimes striate when moist.
FLESH thin, watery brown, fading, odor and taste mild, lamellae adnate, then
seceding, close to subdistant, broad, variegated chocolate-brown to purphsh
black, stipe 1 J^-3 in. long, ^6"% ii^- thick, equal, glabrous, pruinose at the
apex, pale brownish, hollow, spores somewhat almond-shaped, dark purphsh
brown, rough, 12-20 X 8-10 /x-

In groups or scattered on lawns and grassy places. June-Sept.

This is one of the commonest of the small mushrooms occurring on lawns.
It may be puzzhng at first because of the great changes in color that occur as it
dries out, but one soon becomes acquainted with its range of variation. Micro-
scopically the large rough spores are very distinctive. It is reported to be edible,
but all species of Panaeolus are best avoided.

PANAEOLUS SEMIOVATUS (Fr.) Lundell Not recommended

Figure 307, page 213

PILEUS %-2 in. broad, occasionally larger, conic to ovoid to campanulate,
not expanded, whitish to pale clay-colored, viscid, smooth, or becoming
cracked in age. flesh fairly thick, soft, fragile, whitish, odor and taste not
distinctive, lamellae adnate, separating from the stipe, ventricose, close,
broad, grayish or brown, mottled black, stipe 3-8 in. long, J4-J4 i^i- thick,
equal or enlarged at the base, white to palhd buff, smooth or somewhat striate,
hollow. ANNULus whitish becoming black from the spores, may be striate,
membranous, attached near the middle of the stipe or slightly above, spores
black, elhpsoid, smooth, 16-20 X 8-11 /x-

Sohtary or in small groups on horse dung, throughout the growing season.

Because of the membranous annulus some authors have placed this fungus

217

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

in Stropharia and it has also been placed in a distinct genus Anellaria where it
has been known as Anellaria separata (Fr.) Karst. However, it seems closely
related to other Panaeolus species and many of them also have a partial veil
which usually remains attached to the margin of the pileus rather than forming
an annulus. Thus in this instance the presence of an annulus does not seem to
be a character worthy of generic rank.

Panaeolus species are generally regarded as dangerous and this species is
not recommended.

PANAEOLUS SPHINCTRINUS (Fr.) Quel. Poisonous

Figure 308, page 213

PILEUS %-2 in. broad, fragile, at first bluntly conic or nearly ovoid,
becoming conic-campanulate, brownish gray or oHvaceous gray, glabrous,
moist or somewhat slippery when wet, sometimes more or less areolate when
dry, the margin shghtly incurved and appendiculate from fragments of the
veil. FLESH thin, colored hke the surface, odor and taste not distinctive, lamel-
lae ascending-adnate, seceding, subdistant, broad, at first grayish, becoming
mottled blackish, edges white-flocculose, shorter lamellae present, stipe 2J4-
5 in. long, ^6"!^ ^^- thick, equal, reddish brown with a grayish-pruinose cov-
ering, hollow, striate at the apex, spores black, more or less lemon-shaped,
smooth, 13-19 X 9-12 m-

It grows singly or in groups, usually on cow or horse dung in pastures.
May-Sept.

This species is fairly common and is known to be poisonous. It produces
symptoms of intoxication. It might be gathered by mistake for Coprinus
atramentarius and should be carefully distinguished from that species. It was
called P. campanulatus Fr. by Kauffman.

P. rctiru^is Fr. (Figure 424, page 302) is similar to P. sphinctrinus but has
a more wrinkled or reticulate pileus. It is also believed to be poisonous.

PSEUDOCOPRINUS

Pseudocoprinus includes a small group of thin, fragile species with plicate-
striate pilei and black spores. They are similar to delicate Coprinus species but
the lamellae do not dissolve. Because of their small size and deHcate texture,
they are of no value as food, but one species is included here because it some-
times appears in such abundance as to attract attention.

218

GOMPHIDIUS

PSEUDOCOPRINUS DISSEMINATUS (Pers. ex Fr.) Kuhner Edible

Figure 395, page 288

piLEUS 14-/4 ini- broad, membranous, obtusely conic to oval or campanu-
late, umbonate, whitish to grayish or gray-brown with the umbo buff, scurfy,
becoming glabrous, margin strongly pHcate-sulcate to the umbo, flesh thin,
membranous, fragile, odor none, taste mild, lamellae adnate, subdistant,
broad, ventricose, at first white, becoming gray to finally black, stipe %-1 I/2 in.
long, very slender, scarcely }/(^ in. in diameter, at first minutely hairy, becoming
glabrous, white, hollow, spores black or purple-black, eUipsoid, smooth, 7-10
X 4-5 fi.

It is common throughout the summer and fall, usually arising in clusters
of numerous fruit bodies on old stumps or associated with buried wood,
often appearing in abundance on lawns.

It might be taken for a Coprinus but the lamellae do not deliquesce. It can
be recognized by the small size, furrowed pileus and buff umbo, and by its
occurrence in extensive clusters. It is edible but so thin and fragile as to be of
Httle value.

GOMPHIDIUS

Gomphidius includes a group of species characterized by their black or
blackish spores and decurrent, waxy, usually subdistant to distant lamellae.
They are usually more or less slimy-viscid, sometimes with a viscid veil that
may leave traces of an annulus and cause the lower part of the stipe to be
viscid also. Because of the waxy lamellae they were formerly considered to be
close to Hygrophorus but they are now considered to be more closely related to
the boletes.

At least in eastern Canada, they are generally rather rare and not much is
known about their edibility. They are not attractive as food because of the
shmy coating and rather watery flesh but they will certainly draw the attention
of the collector by their striking and unusual appearance.

Singer (1949) made a study of Gomphidius in North America and recog-
nized thirteen species. Only one is described here.

GOMPHIDIUS GLUTINOSUS (Schaeff. ex Fr.) Fr.
Figure 306, page 213

PILEUS 2-4 in. broad, convex to plane or slightly depressed, not umbonate
or rarely subumbonate, glabrous, viscid to glutinous, livid purplish brown.
FLESH white, unchanging when bruised, sometimes sordid or pinkish in age,

219

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

taste mild to slightly acid, lamellae at first whitish, then smoky gray to black-
ish, decurrent, forked, subdistant to distant, waxy in consistency, stipe 1 )4-
3|/^ in. long, yg-/^ ir^- thick, nearly equal or tapered at the base, glabrous to
slightly fibrillose, white to pale brownish, yellow at the base, sheathed by a
viscid veil that leaves an annular Hne near the apex, spores smoky gray,
cyhndric-fusoid, smooth, (15) 17-20 (22) X 5-7.5 /z.

Singly or gregarious in conifer woods, usually associated with spruce.
Aug.-Sept.

The dark, decurrent lamellae, the brownish, slimy pileus, and the yellow
base of the stipe are the principal field characters of this species. It is not known
whether or not it is edible.

G. maculatus (Scop, ex Fr.) Fr. is another brownish to reddish brown
species with a yellow base to the stipe but it lacks the slimy veil and grows in
association with larch. G. vinicolor Peck is a reddish brown to vinaceous red
species found with two-needle pines. Collectors on the west coast may find
G. tomentosus Murr., an ochraceous or ochraceous orange species with a fibril-
lose to somewhat scaly pileus that is not viscid.

BOLETACEAE

The Boletaceae comprise a group of species that have the stature and
shape of a mushroom and are soft and fleshy in consistency but in which the
spores are produced on the sides of pores or tubes rather than on lamellae.
They were formerly classified with the Polyporaceae but modern systematists
are generally convinced that they are more closely related to the mushrooms
than to the polypores. Such genera as Gomphidius and Paxillus in the mush-
rooms show definite relationships with the boletes.

The demarcation of genera within the family Boletaceae is a matter of
some uncertainty at present. Traditionally three genera have been recognized
in North America, Boletus, Boletinus, and Strobilomyces, but modern investi-
gators have concluded that these genera are too broad and, especially in the
genus Boletus, there are groups of related species sufficiently distinct to merit
the rank of genera. It is considered that the splitting of the old genus Boletus
into several other genera represents a distinct advance in our knowledge of the
classification and relationships of this group, but since some of the characters
that form the principal bases for the genera are microscopic they are not readily
used in a popular work intended for those who may not have a microscope
available.

In addition, the distinctions between some of the genera are not based on
clear-cut characters but rather on combinations of characters that may be
difficult for the amateur. It is therefore proposed to present two keys. The first

220

BOLETACEAE

of these is a more technical key to the genera of boletes in which the species
described here would fall according to the system proposed by SHpp and Snell
(1944) The second is a key to the species themselves, based only on macro-
scopic characters. It makes no attempt to indicate relationships but is intended
only as a guide to the identification of the species.

Coker and Beers (1943) and Smith (1949) consider the boletes to be one of
the safest groups for the amateur to try as food. To be sure, some of the species
with red pore mouths are poisonous and all of these should be avoided, but
they are relatively rare. Smith also advises against using species in which the
flesh turns blue when cut or broken although Gyroporus cyanescens which
shows this reaction to an extreme degree is reported to be edible.

One of the difficulties about using the boletes for food is that it is hard to
find them free from insect larvae. They seem to become infested very early and
they need to be collected carefully, the button stages being especially desirable.
It is recommended that the tubes be removed and discarded before the pilei are
cooked as they are of a different consistency and tend to become sHmy.

Key to the genera

1. Spores globose, reticulate Strobilomyces

1. Spores smooth 2

2. Spores small, oblong to short-elliptical 3

2. Spores long-elliptical or subfusiform, colored 4

3. Spores hyaline Gyroporus

3. Spores colored Boletinellus

4. Tubes more or less radially arranged, not easily separable from

the pileus or from each other Boletinus

4. Tubes not radially arranged, easily separable from

the pileus and from each other 5

5. Pileus viscid and spores ellipsoid Suillus

5. Pileus not viscid, or if viscid spores subfusiform 6

6. Tubes and spores flesh-colored Tylopilus

6. Tubes and pores not flesh-colored 7

7. Stipe scabrous, rather slender, tapering upward Leccinum

7. Stipe not scabrous 8

8. Stipe often more or less bulbous when young, may be reticulate,

tubes sometimes stuffed when young with red mouths Boletus

8. Stipe never subbulbous, tubes not stuffed nor with red mouths Xerocomus

Key to the species

1. Tubes easily separable from the pileus and from each other 6

1. Tubes not easily separable from the pileus or from each other 2

2. Tubes arranged more or less in radial rows

with veins between 3

2. Tubes not arranged in radial rows, pileus with prominent,

erect scales, becoming blackish Strobilomyces floccopus

221

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

3. Stipe hollow Boletinus cavipes

3. Stipe solid 4

4. Stipe central 5

4. Stipe excentric to lateral; pileus brownish;

tubes greenish yellow Boletinellus merulioides

5. Pileus with red scales on a yellow background;

spores ochraceous brown in mass Boletinus pictus

5. Pileus with gray scales on a red background;

spores purple-brown in mass Boletinus spectabilis

6. Parasitic on Scleroderma Xerocomus parasiticus

6. Not parasitic on Scleroderma 7

7. Tube mouths not differently colored from the rest of the tubes 8

7. Tube mouths red; colored tomentum at base of stipe Boletus subvelutipes

8. Pileus viscid 9

8. Pileus not viscid 14

9. Annulus present 10

9. Annulus lacking 11

10. Stipe dotted with glandules Suillus subluteus

10. Stipe not dotted Suillus grevillei

11. Pileus glabrous 12

11. Pileus subtomentose, viscid when wet; tubes turning

blue when broken Xerocomus badius

12. Stipe dotted with glandules 13

12. Stipe not dotted; fruiting bodies small,

reddish brown; taste peppery Suillus piperatus

13. Pileus bright yellow, often streaked or spotted with red;

stipe slender, 14 inch or less in diameter Suillus americanus

13. Pileus reddish brown, to grayish yellow or tawny; stipe stouter,

usually more than Vx inch in diameter Suillus granulatus

14. Stipe soon hollow 15

14. Stipe solid 16

15. Flesh and tubes instantly turning blue when cut Gyroporus cyanescens

15. Flesh not becoming blue when cut Gyroporus castaneus

16. Stipe stout, more or less reticulate 17

16. Stipe slender, not reticulate 18

17. Tubes white becoming pinkish, taste bitter Tylopilus felleus

17. Tubes soon yellow, taste pleasant Boletus edulis

18. Tubes yellow or greenish yellow 19

18. Tubes whitish 20

19. Pileus glabrous Leccinum subglabripes

19. Pileus subtomentose, cracking Xerocomus chrysenteron

20. Pileus orange or red 21

20. Pileus brown to blackish Leccinum scabrum

111

BOLETACEAE

21. Pileus pinkish red; stipe bright yellow at base Leccinum chromapes

21. Pileus orange-red to brownish orange; stipe not

yellow at base Leccinum aurantiacum

BOLETINELLUS MERULIOIDES (Schw.) Murr. Edible

Figure 309, page 213

PILEUS 1 1/2-5 in. broad, circular to reniform, depressed towards one side,
olive-brown to yellowish brown or reddish brown, finely tomentose to gla-
brous, dry, margin usually indented and inrolled, finally spreading, even.
FLESH soft but rather tough, yellowish to pinkish near the surface, sometimes
turning bluish green when cut, taste mild, odor none or of raw potatoes.
TUBES decurrent, strongly radiating, partly lamellate, short and wide, yellow
with a greenish tinge, becoming more ochraceous in age. stipe excentric or
lateral, 1/2-2 in. long, i/^-% in. thick, nearly equal or slightly swollen at the
base, expanding into the pileus above, reticulate and yellowish above, reddish
brown or olivaceous brown to blackish and short-tomentose below, solid.
spores yellowish to brownish-ochraceous, eUipsoid, smooth, 7.5-10.5 X 5.5-
7.5 M.

On damp ground in woods or open places, usually gregarious and gen-
erally associated with ash. July-Sept.

This species is not likely to be confused with any other. It has been widely
known also under the name Boletinus porosus (Berk.) Pk. It resembles Paxillus
involutus in color and shape and shows relationships with the genus Paxillus.
It is said to be edible but it is not a very attractive fungus.

BOLETINUS CAVIPES (Opat.) Kalchbr. Edible

Figures 311, 312, page 213

PILEUS 1-4 in. broad or sometimes larger, broadly convex, subumbonate,
tawny brown to yellowish brown, sometimes tinged reddish or purphsh, fibril-
lose-squamulose. flesh yellowish, taste farinaceous to bitter, tubes decurrent,
radiating, at first sulphur-yellow becoming dingy ochraceous in age. stipe 1-3
in. long, 54-1/2 in. thick, enlarged below up to 1 1/2 in., usually more or less
reticulate above the annulus, yellow above the annulus, concolorous with the
pileus below, at first stuffed, soon hollow, annulus white to ochraceous,
dehcate, evanescent, sometimes partly adhering to the margin of the pileus.
spores olivaceous-ochraceous in a fresh deposit, changing to yellowish-ochra-
ceous, one-celled, elHpsoid, smooth, (7) 8-10 X 3-4 m-

Singly or gregarious in damp woods or swamps, associated with larch or
pine. Sept. and Oct.

This species is usually a rich tawny brown but one collection was a bright
golden yellow. It seemed to be the same in every other respect and was growing
along with typical specimens. The hollow stipe is the chief diagnostic character.

223

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

BOLETINUS PICTUS Peck Edible

Figures 313, 314, page 213
Painted Boletc

PILEUS 1 1/2-4 in. broad, convex, at first dark red, fibrillose, soon becoming
squamulose, the fibrils separating into reddish scales and revealing the yellow-
ish flesh beneath, dry to moist or subviscid, margin somewhat appendiculate
from the veil, flesh yellow, slowly becoming reddish when bruised, tubes
adnate to decurrent, at first yellowish, becoming dingy ochraceous, drying
brown, more or less radiately arranged, stipe 114-3 in. long, )4-!/2 (%) Jri-
thick, equal or swollen at the base, colored Hke the pileus, yellow at the apex,
reddish-scaly below, annulus whitish to grayish, fairly persistent, spores och-
raceous brown, eUipsoid, smooth, (7.5) 8-10 (11) X 3.0-4.0 fi.

Singly or gregarious in woods or swamps, perhaps associated with pine.
July-Oct.

This species is sometimes called the painted boletus and is one of the more
beautiful of our fungi. It is sometimes confused with B. spectabilis but the
latter has gray scales on a red background in contrast to the red scales on a
yellowish background of B. pictus. The spore size will separate them with
certainty.

BOLETINUS SPECTABILIS (Peck) Murr. Edible

Figure 310, page 213

PILEUS 1 1/2-3 in. or more broad, convex, bright red, at first covered with a
red tomentum, then becoming scaly, the scales viscid, fading to grayish red,
brownish, or yellowish, margin more or less appendiculate. flesh whitish to
pale yellow, becoming brighter yellow when wounded, taste and odor un-
pleasant. TUBES adnate to slightly decurrent, yellowish to ochraceous, drying
dark brown, more or less radiately arranged, stipe 11/2-3 in. long, V^-Vi in.
thick, swollen at the base or nearly equal, yellow above the annulus, red or
yellowish red below, solid, annulus reddish to yellowish, double, more or less
persistent, spores purpHsh brown, ellipsoid, smooth, 11-14 X 4.5-6 /x-

Singly or gregarious, associated with larch in bogs. Aug.-Sept.

The radiating arrangement of the tubes is less marked in this species than
in other Boletinus species. It is a very showy and beautiful species. The grayish
scales and larger spores separate it from B. pictus. B. paluster Peck is somewhat
similarly colored but is smaller and has strongly radiating, decurrent pores,
and smaller spores.

BOLETUS EDULIS Bull, ex Fr. Edible

Figures 319, 320, page 215
Edible Boletus (Cepe, Steinpilz)

PiLEUS 21/2-6 in. broad, sometimes larger, convex to nearly plane, variable
in color, yellowish brown or tawny brown to fight buff or grayish red, margin

224

BOLETACEAE

often paler, glabrous, dry to subviscid when wet. flesh white or yellowish,
sometimes pinkish, unchanging, taste sweet and nutty, tubes adnexed to
nearly free, depressed around the stipe, at first white and stuffed, becoming
greenish yellow, stipe 2)/2-6 in. long, J^-1 1/4 in. thick, equal or swollen at the
base up to 2j4 in., reticulate, sometimes for the entire length, sometimes only
at the apex, whitish to yellowish or brownish, soHd. spores oHvaceous brown
to ochraceous brown, ellipsoid-fusiform, smooth, 13-18 (21) X 4-6 ju.

Solitary or gregarious on the ground in woods and open places. June-Oct.

B. edulis is one of the best edible fungi but it is difficult to find it free from
insect larvae in eastern Canada. In Europe it is a very well-known species and
has a good many common names such as cepe and Steinpilz. In some parts of
central Europe special trains used to and may still run from the cities in the
right season for people to go to the country and collect this bolete. It can be
shced and dried and retains its rich, nutty flavor when used in gravies or stews.

BOLETUS SUBVELUTIPES Peck Dangerous

Figures 321, 322, page 215

piLEUS 1 54-5 in. broad, convex, yellowish brown to reddish or dark
brown, sometimes paler or olivaceous toward the margin, at first somewhat
velvety-tomentose, becoming glabrous, flesh yellow, changing to blue when
wounded, taste mild, tubes adnexed, depressed around the stipe, red at the
mouths, elsewhere yellow, becoming blue when wounded, stipe 2-4% in. long,
V2-1 54 in. thick, equal or tapering upward, sometimes bulbous at the base,
more or less furfuraceous to nearly glabrous, with a red or yellow, coarsely
hairy tomentum at the base, reddish brown above, yellow at the apex, solid.
SPORES yellowish, elHpsoid-fusiform, smooth, 12-17 X 4.5-6 /x.

Usually sohtary or gregarious on the ground in mixed woods. July-Sept.

In several species the mouths of the tubes are red and some of these are
known to be poisonous. The species in this group are rather difficult to identify
and no species with red tube mouths should be eaten. This species, with the
furfuraceous, nearly equal stipe and colored tomentum at the base appears to
be the commonest one.

GYROPORUS CASTANEUS (Bull, ex Fr.) Quel. Edible

Figure 318, page 215

PILEUS 1-2% in. broad, convex to nearly plane, chestnut-brown to reddish
brown, sometimes paler to cinnamon, dry, minutely velvety-tomentose, margin
becoming upturned, flesh white, unchanging or sometimes brownish, mild.
TUBES depressed around the stipe, at first white, becoming cream to yellow,
and becoming brownish when bruised, stipe 1-2 in. long, 54-% in. thick,
tapering upward or nearly equal, concolorous, velvety-tomentose, hollow.
SPORES yellow, broadly ellipsoid, smooth, (7) 8.5-11 (13) X (4) 5-6 (7) ji.

225

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

Singly or gregarious on the ground in woods or open places. July-Sept.
This species is easily recognized by the chestnut-brown, tomentose pileus
and stipe, the eUipsoid spores, whitish to yellowish tubes, and hollow stipe.

GYROPORUS CYANESCENS (Bull, ex Fr.) Quel. Edible

Figure 317, page 215

PILEUS 1 1/2-4 in. broad, convex to nearly plane, pale yellowish to buff or
tan, coarsely floccose-tomentose, dry, margin incurved, flesh whitish, in-
stantly turning blue when wounded and darkening to nearly black, mild.
TUBES free, depressed around stipe, whitish, becoming yellowish, instantly
turning blue when wounded, stipe 2-3 in. long, Y^-l in. thick, tapering up,
ventricose or irregularly swollen, tomentose, concolorous with pileus, in-
stantly turning blue when wounded, stuffed, becoming hollow, spores yellow,
oblong-ellipsoid, smooth, 8-10 (11) X 4.5-6 ju.

Singly or gregarious on the ground in woods and open places. July-Sept.

This species is easily recognized by the pale, tomentose pileus and the im-
mediate change to blue of all parts of the fruit body when wounded. In spite of
the unattractive appearance from this reaction it is reported to be edible and of
good flavor.

LECCINUM AURANTIACUM (Bull.) S. F. Gray Edible

Figure 323, page 215

PILEUS 1 1/2-6 in. broad, convex, reddish orange to orange-yellow or
reddish brown, dry, minutely tomentose to fibrillose-squamulose, rarely gla-
brous, margin appendiculate. flesh white or whitish to pinkish, at times turning
shghtly blue when cut, finally becoming grayish to blackish, firm, taste mild,
TUBES adnate to adnexed, becoming free, dirty white to gray, stipe 2-6 in. long,
1/^-2 in. thick, tapering upward to nearly equal, more or less scabrous to
squamulose, the projections at first whitish, then reddish brown, finally
blackish, solid, sometimes changing to blue-green at base when cut. spores
brown, ellipsoid-fusiform, smooth, 11-17 X 3.5-5 fi.

Solitary or gregarious on the ground, usually associated with birch or
poplar. June-Oct.

The scabrous stipe, orange pileus, and appendiculate margin are the dis-
tinguishing characters. It is often very firm and hard, especially when young.
It is one of our commonest boletes.

LECCINUM CHROMAPES (Frost) Sing. Edible

Figures 325, 326, page 215

PILEUS 1 J/2-4 (5) in. broad, convex to nearly plane, pinkish red, sometimes
brownish or buff in older specimens, dry, slightly tomentose, margin thick.
flesh white or faintly pink, unchanging, mild, tubes depressed at the stipe,

226

BOLETACEAE

nearly free, whitish to flesh colored, somewhat brownish in age. stipe 2-4 in.
long, y8-% iri- thick, equal or tapering upward, sometimes narrowed at the
base, whitish, more or less washed with rose, bright chrome-yellow at the
base, scabrous-dotted, spores pinkish brown, oblong-ellipsoid, smooth, 10-14
(16) X 3.5-5.5 /x.

Usually singly on the ground in woods. June-Sept.

This species is not common but is one of our most beautiful boletes and is
easily recognized by the rosy pileus and the bright yellow base of the stipe.

LECCINUM SCABRUM (Bull, ex Fr.) S. F. Gray Edible

Figure 330, page 233

PILEUS 2-5 in. broad, convex to plane, minutely velvety to glabrous,
slightly viscid when wet, color variable, usually some shade of brown, from
paUid to tawny brown, grayish brown, or blackish brown, flesh whitish, un-
changing or occasionally becoming shghtly pinkish to grayish, not blackening,
taste mild, tubes depressed at the stipe and free or nearly so, whitish becoming
hght brownish, darkening when bruised, stipe 3-5 in. long, ^2-% ii^- thick,
tapering upward to nearly equal, whitish or grayish, with blackish, scabrous
dots, soHd, sometimes turning blue at the base when cut. spores brown, ellip-
soid-fusiform, smooth, (14) 15-19 (21) X 5-7 /u.

Singly or gregarious on the ground in woods or open places. July-Oct.

This is probably our commonest bolete although Singer has recently
shown that two species have been confused under this name. He has described
the second species as Leccinum oxydabile (Sing.) Sing. The two are very similar
in appearance and can be separated with certainty only by microscopic
characters. If a form is collected in which the flesh turns red when cut it is
probably L. oxydabile. The latter has slightly larger spores and the structure of
the cuticle of the pileus is diff'erent. In L. scabrum the cuticle is composed of
slender, filamentous hyphae but in L. oxydabile there are some much broader
hyphae and chains of short cells.

A whitish form is sometimes found that Singer calls L. scabrum ssp.
niveum (Figure 331, p. 233) but which others have regarded as a good species.
It has smaller spores than the typical form and sometimes has greenish tints
in the pileus. It can be distinguished from the whitish L. albellum (Pk.) Sing, by
the structure of the cuticle which in the latter also has chains of short cells.

Duller-colored specimens of L. aurantiacum may also be mistaken for
L. scabrum, but can be distinguished by their smaller spores and the appendicu-
late margin of their pilei.

LECCINUM SUBGLABRIPES (Peck) Sing. Edible

Figure 324, page 215

pileus 1 14-3 J/2 in. broad, convex to plane, yellowish brown to reddish
brown or chestnut, glabrous, dry, with a shghtly projecting, sterile margin.

227

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

FLESH pale yellowish, unchanging, mild to sHghtly acid, tubes adnate, becoming
depressed around the stipe, bright yellow becoming greenish yellow to olive.
STIPE 1 Yz-^Yz in. long, !4-% in. thick, equal or shghtly tapering upward, nar-
rowed at the base, yellowish with reddish stains, somewhat yellowish furfura-
ceous, solid, spores oHve-brown, eUipsoid-fusiform, smooth, (11) 12-14(16) X
(3) 3.5-4.5 (6) M.

Singly or gregarious on the ground in frondose or mixed woods. June-
Sept.

This is a fairly common species and differs from the other Leccinums in
having yellow tubes. However, the slender, furfuraceous stipe, and other
characters seem to indicate that it is more closely related to Leccinum than to
Boletus.

STROBILOMYCES FLOCCOPUS (Vahl ex Fr.) Karst. Edible

Figure 348, page 235; Figure 425, page 302

pileus 2-5 in. broad, hemispherical to convex, dry, covered with large,
thick, erect, floccose, blackish brown scales, margin thick and irregular, appen-
diculate with scales and veil fragments, flesh whitish, soon reddening and
becoming black when wounded, mild, tubes at first whitish, changing color
like the flesh, adnate, depressed at the stipe, mouths rather large, angular.
STIPE 2-5 in. long, i4-% in. thick, nearly equal or somewhat enlarged at base,
colored like the pileus, floccose-tomentose from the remains of the veil, solid.
SPORES black in mass, globose, reticulate, 9-12 X 9-10 /x.

Usually occurring singly on the ground or attached to rotten wood in
frondose or mixed woods. July-Sept.

This species has been known under the name Strobilomyces strobilaceus
(Scop, ex Fr.) Berk., but S.floccopus is the correct name for it. It is sometimes
called the cone-like boletus or pine cone fungus, perhaps because of the
shaggy appearance caused by the large scale. It is a striking fungus but rather
unattractive in appearance. It is said to be edible but of indifferent quality.

SUILLUS AMERICANUS (Peck) Snell Edible

Figure 332, page 233

PILEUS 1-3 in. broad, convex to subconic or sometimes slightly umbonate,
bright yellow, more or less streaked or spotted irregularly with red to reddish
brown, viscid, glabrous, margin sHghtly tomentose-appendiculate when young.
FLESH yellow, turning reddish when wounded, mild, tubes adnate to decurrent,
yellow to brownish yellow, drying ochraceous brown, glandular-dotted, stipe
1-2 1/2 in. long, Vg-W in. thick, sometimes thicker, rather slender, equal or
nearly so, thickly glandular-dotted, yellow between the brownish dots, blackish
when dried, solid, annulus lacking or very rarely present, then yellowish, floc-

228

BOLETACEAE

cose, evanescent, spores cinnamon-brown, ellipsoid, smooth, (8) 9-10 (11) X
3-4 (5) M

Gregarious on the ground in woods or open places, probably associated
with pine. July-Sept.

This species is easily confused with S. subaureus (Pk.) Snell. The latter has
a thicker stipe, less heavily glandular-dotted, and a thicker pileus. The spores of
S. subaureus are slightly smaller, mostly 7-9 m long and only rarely reaching
10 M> whereas spores of S. americanus are mostly 9-10 ju and some reach 1 1 /x.

It is usually described as lacking an annulus but one collection was found
which agreed with S. americanus in every respect but had a clearly marked
annulus present.

It is said to be edible but lacking flavor.

SUILLUS GRANULATUS (L. ex Fr.) Kuntze Edible

Figure 333, page 233

PILEUS %-3 54 in. broad, convex to plane, usually reddish brown but vari-
able to grayish pink, grayish yellow, tawny, or brown, viscid, glabrous, flesh
pale yellowish to whitish, mild, tubes adnate, yellowish, the mouths glandular-
dotted, stipe %-2% in. long, Ya-Vi in. thick, equal or nearly so, white to
brownish, yellow near apex, glandular-dotted at apex to about half way down,
soHd. spores yellowish brown, elHpsoid, smooth, (6) 7-9 (10) X 2.5-3.5 m-

Usually gregarious in woods or open places, probably associated with
pine. June-Oct.

This is one of our commonest boletes. It is most Hkely to be confused with
S. brevipes (Peck) Kuntze which is also associated with pines but usually
appears late in the year and has a short stipe that lacks glandular dots. Both
species are good to eat.

SUILLUS GREVILLEI (Kl.) Sing. Edible

Figure 334, page 233

PILEUS 1 1/^-4 in. broad, sometimes larger, convex to nearly plane, chest-
nut-brown to yellow on margin, or reddish yellow to golden yellow, glabrous,
viscid, margin sometimes more or less appendiculate. flesh yellow, mild.
TUBES adnate to decurrent, bright golden yellow, becoming brown or purplish
brown when wounded, stipe 1-4 in. long, 54-% in. thick, equal or sHghtly
tapering upward, usually finely reticulate above the annulus, not glandular-
dotted, variable below the annulus, more or less fibrillose to glabrous, reddish
or reddish brown to yellow, bright yellow above the annulus, soHd. annulus
whitish to yellowish to reddish brown, usually prominent and persistent.
spores golden brown to ochraceous brown, smooth, ellipsoid, 7-1 1 X 3-4 m-

Gregarious on the ground, associated with larch. Aug.-Oct.

Sometimes this species is very richly colored and striking in appearance.

229

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

It has also been known under the names Boletus clintonianus Peck and B. ele-
gans Fr. The shmy cuticle should be removed before cooking.

SUILLUS PIPERATUS (Bull, ex Fr.) Kuntze Not edible

Figure 335, page 233

piLEUS %-2i4 in. broad, convex, yellowish brown, cinnamon-brown or
reddish brown, glabrous or subtomentose toward the margin when young,
slightly viscid when moist, flesh whitish or yellowish, sometimes tinged red-
dish, sometimes turning blue near the tubes when wounded, the blue quickly
fading again, taste very acrid and peppery, tubes adnate to shghtly decurrent,
deep reddish brown, irregular, slightly radially arranged near the stipe, stipe
1-3 in. long, J/g-^/i ii^- thick, equal or nearly so, straight or curved, paler than
the pileus, bright yellow at the base, soHd. spores rusty brown, elUpsoid,
smooth, 8-11 X 3-4 /z.

On the ground in woods and open places. July-Oct.

The most distinctive character of this small brownish species is the very
peppery taste. S. rubinellus (Peck) Sing, is another small species but brighter
colored, with tubes entirely red and mild taste.

SUILLUS SUBLUTEUS (Peck) Snell Edible

Figure 336, page 233

PILEUS 1-3 in. broad, convex to nearly plane, yellowish brown to reddish
brown, sometimes with an olive tinge, viscid, glabrous or somewhat virgate-
fibrillose to indistinctly squamulose. flesh yellow or yellowish, unchanging,
mild or sHghtly acid, tubes adnate, yellow at first, becoming more olivaceous
in age, glandular-dotted, stipe lYz-^Vi in. long, |4-!^ in. thick, equal above
and below the annulus, yellow above, more pallid toward the base, solid.
ANNULUS forming an apical to median, grayish band, not sheathing the stipe,
viscid. SPORES brownish-ochraceous, ellipsoid, smooth, (7.5) 8-10 (11) X 2.5-
3.5 fjL.

Usually solitary to gregarious on the ground, associated with five-needle
pines. July-Sept.

It is likely to be confused with S. luteus (L. ex Fr.) S. F. Gray which is
generally a stouter plant with a stipe usually more than Yi in. thick, and the
annulus forming a sheath rather than a band on the stipe. S. luteus is more
likely to be found associated with two-needle pines.

TYLOPILUS FELLEUS (Bull, ex Fr.) Karst. Not edible

Figure 337, page 233

PILEUS 1 1/2-8 1/2 in. broad, convex, becoming nearly plane, grayish brown,
yellowish brown, to reddish brown, dry, glabrous, flesh white, sometimes

230

BOLETACEAE

more or less pinkish when wounded, taste very bitter, tubes adnate, depressed
around the stipe, at first white, becoming rosy flesh colored, becoming brown-
ish when bruised, stuffed when young, stipe 1 J/i-4% in. long, J/2-2 in. thick,
equal or tapering upward, sometimes bulbous at the base, more or less reticu-
late, concolorous with the pileus or nearly so. spores ellipsoid-fusiform,
smooth, rose colored (9) 10-14 (17) X 3-4.5 /x-

Solitary or gregarious in woods and open places. June-Oct.

The rose colored tubes, reticulate stipe, and bitter taste are the distin-
guishing characters of this species. Occasionally the bitter taste may be lacking.
It is one of the more common species and sometimes reaches a very large size.
T. plumbeoviolaceus (Snell) Snell has been confused with it or regarded as a
variety, but it seems to be a distinct species with violaceous colors and very
firm consistency, and matures rather slowly.

XEROCOMUS BADIUS (Fr.) Klihner ex Gilbert Edible

Figures 338, 339, page 233

PILEUS 2-3 in. broad, convex to nearly plane, bay-brown to chestnut-
brown, sometimes tinged olivaceous, viscid, minutely tomentose. flesh yellow-
ish, turning blue when wounded, especially near the tubes, then the blue fading,
mild. TUBES adnate or depressed around the stipe, pale greenish yellow, becom-
ing blue when wounded, stipe 2-3)/^ in. long, Vi-% ^^- thick, nearly equal,
colored Hke the pileus, sometimes yellow at the apex, white mycehoid at base,
more or less streaked with darker hnes, sohd. spores olive-brown, elHpsoid-
fusiform, smooth, 10-15 X 3.5-5.0 jx.

Singly or gregarious on the ground, usually associated with pine. June-
Sept.

The deep brown pileus and stipe and the greenish yellow pores that turn
blue when wounded are the chief distinguishing characters of this species. It is
not very common.

XEROCOMUS CHRYSENTERON (Bull, ex Fr.) Quel. Doubtful

Figures 345, 346, page 235

PILEUS 1-2 in. broad, convex to nearly plane, olive-brown to reddish
brown, dry, felty-tomentose, becoming cracked and showing reddish in the
cracks, flesh yellowish, slightly acid, tubes adnate to depressed, greenish
yellow, changing to blue when wounded, rather large, stipe 1-1 1/2 in. long, %-
yg in. thick, equal or nearly so, striate, reddish or yellowish, soHd, rather tough
and rigid, spores yellow-brown, ellipsoid-fusiform, smooth, 10-14 X (3) 4-
5.5 M.

Usually soHtary on the ground or on rotten wood. June-Oct.

This species is common and variable. The felty pileus with cracks showing
red, the large greenish pores that change to blue, and the slender, tough stipe

231

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

usually showing some red coloration are the distinguishing features. X. subto-
mentosus (L. ex Fr.) Quel, might be confused with it but in this species the
cracks on the pileus show yellow, the flesh and tubes do not turn blue or per-
haps the mouths very shghtly so, the tubes are more yellow, and the stipe is
slightly reticulate at the apex and has no red in its coloration.

There are conflicting reports in the Hterature regarding the edibility of
X. chrysenteron. Its rather tough texture does not recommend it and it is
probably better avoided, although it is likely not actually poisonous.

XEROCOMUS PARASITICUS (Bull, ex Fr.) Quel.

Figure 347, page 235

PILEUS 1 1/2-2 in. broad, convex, yellowish brown to grayish to oHvaceous,
dry, velvety-tomentose, becoming glabrous, sometimes cracking, flesh white,
becoming yellowish when cut. tubes decurrent, somewhat lamellate near the
stipe, yellow to ohvaceous. stipe 1-2 in. long, Y^-Yi in. thick, equal or nearly
so, yellow, with a velvety tomentose covering that becomes torn into flecks and
patches leaving the stipe more or less dotted, spores dark oHve-brown, elhp-
soid-fusiform, smooth, 12-17 X 5-6.5 /x

Parasitic on species of Scleroderma. Aug.-Sept.

This is a rare species, remarkable for its unusual habit of parasitizing a
puff'ball. It is not likely to be confused with anything else because of its unusual
place of growth.

Figures

330-339

330.

Leccinum scabrum.

331. L. scabrum ssp. niveum.

332.

Suillus americanus.

333. S. granulatus.

334.

S. grevillei.

335. S. piper atus.

336.

S. subluteus.

337. Tylopilus felleus.

338.

Xerocomus badius.

339. X. badius.

232

233

•2

5

o

s:

'S.

o

3
00

Figures 341-350

341.

Cortinarius alboviolaceus.

342.

343.

Agaricus edulis.

344.

345.

Xerocomus chrysenteron.

346.

347.

X. parasiticus.

348.

349.

Clavaria stricta.

350.

Naematoloma sublateritium.
A. placomyces.
X. chrysenteron.
Strobilomyces floccopus.
Hypomyces lactifluorum.

234

235

«3

O
ft.

«0

236

POLYPORACEAE

POLYPORACEAE

The Polyporaceae include a group of fungi in which the spores are borne
in the interior of tubes as in the Boletaceae but the fruiting bodies are not fleshy
as in the Boletaceae but usually hard and tough, leathery, corky, cheesy, or
woody in consistency. They are nearly always found on wood and are a very
important group of fungi economically because of the damage they cause by
rotting the wood. However, because of their tough consistency they are of
Httle interest as food. Only a very few species are edible.

They will doubtless attract the attention of the collector because of their
abundance and prominence in the fungus flora of the woods. Typically the}
appear as bracket-hke or shelf-like fruiting bodies sometimes referred to as
conks on trees or logs ; some are inconspicuous, lying flat against the substrate,
and some are more or less stalked and mushroom-Hke in shape. It might be
thought that the latter type would be confused with boletes but in practice
there is little difficulty in distinguishing between the boletes and polypores
because the consistency is so different.

Some of the fruiting bodies of the polypores are perennial, persisting for
several years and developing a new layer of tubes each season. Some of these
fruiting bodies may reach considerable size. One species that occurs on the
Pacific Coast, Oxyporus nobilissimus W. B. Cooke has been known to reach a
size of 56 X 37 inches and a weight of 300 pounds.

Only seven species have been included here: one, Ganoderma tsugae,
because its distinctive and beautiful appearance will certainly attract attention,
and the others because they are fairly common and have been reported to be
edible when young. The Beefsteak Fungus, Fistulina hepatica (Huds.) Fr., long
celebrated as an excellent edible fungus, belongs in the Polyporaceae but it
appears to be so rare in Canada as to be scarcely worth including. It is a fleshy
tongue-shaped fungus, said to resemble a beefsteak in color, and with the pores
separate from each other. It may be found in southern Ontario.

Key to the species described

1. Pileus and stipe appearing as if varnished Ganoderma tsugae

1. Pileus and stipe not varnished 2

2. Pileus yellowish, scaly; pores large Polyporus squamosus

2. Pileus not scaly 3

3. Pileus with strongly projecting, thick sterile margin,

growing on birch Polyporus betulinus

3. Pileus without a projecting sterile margin 4

4. Pileus stipitate 5

4. Pileus not stipitate 6

5. Fruiting bodies occurring singly or gregarious,

whitish to yellowish Polyporus ovinus

5. Fruiting bodies densely cespitose; stipes numerous,

branching, arising from a fleshy mass Polyporus frondosus

237

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

6. Pileus bright sulphur-yellow to

pinkish or orange Polyporus sulphureus

6. Pileus dark brown, velvety, watery-fleshy Polyporus resinosus

GANODERMA TSUGAE Murr. Not edible

FigLiic 396, page 289

PILEUS 2-12 in. in diameter, more or less fan-shaped to bean-shaped,
stipitate or sessile by a narrowed base, variable in color, reddish, reddish
brown, mahogany colored, brownish orange to nearly black, with a white to
yellow or orange margin, glabrous, with a varnished appearance, flesh white
or nearly so, except brownish near the tubes, thick, tough, corky, tubes whitish
becoming brown when bruised, stipe when present usually lateral or excentric,
colored like the pileus, 1 y^-6 in. long, Yi-X Vi in. thick, spores brown, ovoid,
sHghtly rough, 9-1 1 X 6-8 //•

On and about stumps and logs of coniferous trees, especially hemlock.
July-Nov., sometimes persisting through the winter.

This is a beautiful fungus. The bright colors and varnished appearance
will certainly attract attention, but it is not edible. There has been some differ-
ence of opinion as to whether or not G. lucidum (Leyss ex Fr.) Karst. is the
same fungus but it seems best to regard this form, which occurs on hardwoods,
as a distinct species.

POLYPORUS BETULINUS Bull, ex Fr. Edible when young

Figure 352, page 253

pileus 1 1/4-10 in. long, 1 14-6 in. broad, more or less elongated to circular,
convex, or attached by a lateral, stem-like umbo, usually sessile, whitish to
brownish, glabrous or somewhat scurfy, with a thick, sterile, inroUed margin
projecting down below the tube surface, flesh white, rather thick, rather
cheesy to corky in age. tubes white, small, usually smooth but sometimes
becoming somewhat toothed, spores cylindric to allantoid, smooth, 3.5-5 X

1-2 M.

On living or dead birch trees. May-Nov.

The characteristic, thick, projecting margin and the occurrence on birch
only, are the chief distinguishing marks of this species. It is an easy one to
recognize. It has been reported to be edible when young but is usually too
tough to be of any value.

POLYPORUS FRONDOSUS (Dicks.) Fr. Edible

Figure 397, page 289

Hen of the Woods

fructification 6-12 in. or more in diameter, consisting of a fleshy mass of
crowded, much-branched stipes which expand above into imbricated pilei )^-

238

POLYPORACEAE

2 in. broad, somewhat fan-shaped, whitish to gray, smooth, margin often split
or lobed, taste sHghtly peppery, tubes white, decurrent, very short, spores
white, smooth, broadly ellipsoid to ovoid, 5-7 X 3.5-5 /x.

Arising from a buried sclerotium, usually around hardwood stumps. Not
common. Sept.

This species is sometimes called the hen of the woods because the mass of
imbricated gray pilei suggests a hen on a nest. It is said to be of good flavor.
P. umbellatus (Pers.) Fr. has a more definite, central, stem-hke mass from
which the stipes arise, the pilei are more circular and centrally depressed, and
the spores are cylindric. It is also said to be edible.

POLYPORUS OVINUS (Schaeff.) Fr. Edible

Figure 353, page 253

pileus 1 Yi-S in. broad, white or whitish, becoming yellowish in age, con-
vex to expanded or sometimes depressed, smooth or surface becoming cracked.
FLESH white, becoming yellowish, rather tough, taste and odor mild and pleas-
ant, tubes whitish to yellowish, short, decurrent. stipe 1-3 in. long, )4- % iii-
thick, central to excentric, white, somewhat bulbous, spores white, smooth,
broadly elhpsoid to subglobose, 3.5-4 X 2.5-3.5 /x-

On the ground in coniferous woods, not common. July-Oct.

This is reported to be a good edible species but is not found often. P. con-
Huens (Alb. & Schw.) Fr. differs in becoming reddish when old or on drying. It
is also said to be edible. P. griseus Peck is a whitish to smoky gray species
with shghtly larger, rough spores.

POLYPORUS RESINOSUS Schrad. ex Fr. Edible when young

Figure 354, page 253

PILEUS 2^4-10 in. long, 1J4-6 in. broad, sessile or effused-reflexed, shelf-
like or bracket-Hke, dark brown to blackish brown, at first velvety-tomentose,
becoming nearly glabrous, sometimes radiately furrowed, the margin thick,
exuding drops of water when young, flesh thick, straw-colored, watery when
young, becoming tough and corky when mature, tubes whitish, becoming
brown when bruised, small, stipe lacking, spores allantoid, smooth, 4-7 X
1.5-2 M.

On old logs and stumps of hardwoods or conifers. Aug.-Nov.

The form on conifers is regarded by some as a distinct species, P. benzoi-
nus (Wahl.) Fr., but it is at least very close to P. resinosus. This species has also
been reported as edible when young but soon becomes tough. The velvety
brown fruiting bodies are attractive in appearance.

239

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

POLYPORUS SQUAMOSUS Micheli ex Fr. Edible when young

Figures 356, 357, page 253

piLEUS 2y2-\2 in. broad, or sometimes larger, nearly circular to elongated
or reniform, convex to plane and centrally depressed, whitish to yellowish or
brownish, dry, scaly, tough-fleshy, tubes decurrent, large, angular, white or
yellowish, stipe lateral or excentric, %-2 in. long, y^-l |^ in. thick, sometimes
nearly lacking, reticulate above, black below, spores elongate-cylindric,
smooth, 10-15 (18) X 4-6 m-

Singly or in clusters, usually from wounds on deciduous trees, occasionally
on stumps or logs. May-July.

The large pores and scaly pileus are the chief distinguishing characters of
this species. It is said to be edible when young but mostly is too tough to be of
any value as food.

POLYPORUS SULPHUREUS (Bull.) Fr. Edible

Figure 355, page 253

FRUITING BODY consisting of a massive cluster of overlapping, more or less
horizontal shelves, up to 12 in. or more across, variable in form, bright sulphur-
yellow to yellow-orange or pink, sessile or on a stipe-like base, upper surface
glabrous, uneven, lower surface bearing short yellow pores, margin at first
thick and blunt, becoming narrower with age, at first soft and fleshy, becoming
tougher with age, taste mild or sometimes unpleasant in age. spores smooth,
one-celled, ovoid to subglobose 5-7 X 4-5 m-

In clusters on dead or living trees or around stumps. Aug. -Oct.

The large, brilliantly colored fruiting bodies are very distinctive and un-
likely to be confused with anything else. This species is edible and has been
highly recommended when young specimens are used. Older specimens are
likely to be tough and of poor flavor.

HYDNACEAE

The family Hydnaceae includes a large group of fungi in which the spores
are borne over the surface of teeth or spines developing from the underside of
the fruiting body. The fruiting body may vary considerably in structure from a
simple layer of fungus tissue on a piece of wood to a large shelf-like or bracket-
like form, to an intricately branched structure, or to a mushroom-like fruiting
body with pileus and stipe. Many Hydnaceae grow on wood but some are
found on the ground. Most of the species are tough and fibrous to woody and
not edible but a few are quite good and none are known to be poisonous.

240

HYDNACEAE

HYDNUM CORALLOIDES Fr. Edible

Figure 358, page 253

FRUCTIFICATION Consisting of an intricate system of branches, white to
buffy, soft and fleshy, up to 10 inches across, with white cyhndric spines about
14- 1/2 in. long distributed along the under side of the branches more or less in
tufts. SPORES spherical, smooth, hyahne, 5.5-7 11.

On dead hardwood trunks or logs, frequently on beech. July-Nov.

This is a striking and beautiful species. There are several other rather
similar species and it is uncertain whether or not some of these are just ecologi-
cal forms, H. caput-ursi Fr., the bear's head fungus, has longer spines but it
seems possible to build up a graded series from one type to the other through
examination of many collections. H. laciniatum Fr. is more branched and has
shorter spines and there also appears to be a difference in the spores which are
smaller and ellipsoid. H. erinaceum Fr. is a more massive fructification with
very long spines up to 1 Yi in. in length. All of these are edible.

In modern classifications this group of species is placed in the genus
Hericium.

HYDNUM RERAN DUM Fr. Edible

Figure 359, page 253; Figure 426, page 303

PILEUS 1 1/2-4 in. broad, convex to plane or depressed, uneven and often
irregular, whitish to buff'or pinkish cinnamon, dry, minutely velvety to smooth.
FLESH white, soft, fairly thick, teeth slightly decurrent, fleshy, soft, fragile,
round to slightly flattened, whitish to cream colored, stipe 1/2-2 1/2 in. long,
14-I in. thick, sometimes excentric, smooth, colored like the pileus, soHd.
spores white, smooth, ovoid to subglobose, 7-9 X 6.5-7.5 mu-
singly or gregarious on the ground in frondose and mixed woods. July-
Oct.

This species is now usually placed in the genus Dentinum. It is mushroom-
like in form but is readily recognized by the teeth on the under side of the
pileus, the color and the soft, fleshy consistency. Most of the other stipitate
Hydnaceae are tough and fibrous or corky to woody in consistency.

HYDNUM SEPTENTRIONALE Fr. Not edible

Figure 360, page 253

fructification consisting of many horizontal, overlapping sessile pilei
united at the base and forming a massive cluster, single pilei 1-6 in. wide and
about the same in length, sometimes much larger, at first whitish, becoming
buff" or yellowish, finely hairy, dry, margin slightly incurved, tough and
fibrous in consistency, teeth white to yellowish, round, pointed, about |4-
% in. long, stipe lacking, spores white, ellipsoid, smooth, 4-6 X 2.5-3.5 m-

On hving trunks of hardwoods, especially maple and beech. Aug.-Sept.

241

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

This species is too tough to be of value as food but the massive fructifica-
tions of overlapping pilei are Hkely to attract attention. It will appear in suc-
cessive years on the same tree. In modern classifications this fungus is placed
in the genus Steccherinum.

CLAVARIACEAE

The Clavariaceae, sometimes called coral fungi, include forms with erect,
simple or branched, fleshy or tough fructifications, the fruiting surface smooth,
not diff^erentiated into spines, pores, or lamellae. The important character in
distinguishing this family from the Thelephoraceae is that there is no differen-
tiation of the fruiting body into an upper sterile surface and a lower fertile
surface. The entire surface of the fruiting body is fertile in the Clavariaceae.

The species are difficult to identify and only a few are described here.
Most of the clavarias are edible but some are bitter and unpleasant to the
taste or are very tough, and in Europe one species has been reported to be
poisonous. This is Clavaria formosa Pers., which is also widely distributed in
North America. It is a medium to large, much-branched form, white at the
base, flesh color or pinkish above, but with the tips of the branches yellow. In
age it fades to tan or ochraceous tan. This species should be avoided.

Key

1. Fruiting body simple, unbranched 2

1. Fruiting body much branched 3

2. Growing in clusters, bright yellow C. fusiformis

2. Growing singly or gregarious, ochraceous yellow

to brownish, club-shaped C. pistillaris

3. Tips of branches pink or rosy C. botrytis

3. Tips of branches not pink 4

4. Taste bitter, fruiting body light tan to tawny C. striata

4. Taste mild 5

5. Fraiting body smoky gray C. cinerea

5. Fruiting body pale yellowish C. flava

CLAVARIA BOTRYTIS Fr. Edible

Figure 361, page 253

FRUCTIFICATION 2-4 in. high, much branched, stipitate, the stipe white,
%-l in. thick, slightly tapering downward, bulbous at base, the branches
whitish to cream with pink to rosy tips, or sometimes lavender in age, erect,
parallel or curving and with a somewhat cauliflower-hke appearance, taste and

242

CLAVARIACEAE

odor mild, spores cylindric-ellipsoid to oblong-ellipsoid, longitudinally striate,
12-15 X 3.5-5.5 )u.

On the ground in woods. July-Oct.

The rosy tips of the branches provide a striking character by which this
species can be recognized.

CLAVARIA CINEREA Fr. Edible

Figure 398, page 290

FRUCTIFICATION 1-4 in. high, much branched, stipitate, the stipe smoky
gray, Ys-Va in. thick, nearly equal, smooth, branches smoky gray to bluish
gray, surface finely powdery, erect, parallel or irregular, often wrinkled, some-
times toothed at apex, taste and odor not distinctive, spores white, smooth,
broadly ellipsoid to ovoid, 7-10 X 5.5-7.5 /x.

Cespitose or gregarious on the ground in woods. July-Sept.

CLAVARIA FLAVA Fr. Edible

Figure 399, page 290

FRUCTIFICATION 2-6 in. high, much branched, the main branches arising
from a thick, short, whitish, stem-like base, erect, cyhndric, tapering toward
the apex, pale yellow, becoming brownish when bruised, whitish, sometimes
brownish, sometimes toothed, taste mild, pleasant, spores yellow, ellipsoid,
minutely rough, 7.5-10 X 3-4 /x.

On the ground in moist woods. June-Oct.

C. aurea (Schaeff.) Fr. is said to be very similar, but more robust, deeper
yellow, and not turning brown when bruised.

CLAVARIA FUSIFORMIS (Sow.) Fr. Edible

Figure 363, page 255

FRUCTIFICATION 2-4 in. high, cylindrical or compressed, not branched,
pointed at the top, bright yellow, hollow, taste mild or bitter, spores nearly
spherical 4.5-6.5 m in diameter.

Singly or in clusters on the ground in woods. Aug.-Sept.

This is a distinctive species with bright yellow, unbranched but clustered
fruiting bodies.

CLAVARIA PISTILLARIS (L.) Fr. Edible

Figure 364, page 255

FRUCTIFICATION 4-6 in. high, 1-2 in. thick, club-shaped, unbranched, top
rounded or sometimes depressed, yellowish or ochraceous to brownish,
smooth or sometimes longitudinally grooved or wrinkled, soft and fleshy,

243

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

cream colored within, finally hollow, taste mild, spores oblong-ellipsoid,
smooth, 11-13.5 X 5-7 m-

Singly or gregarious on the ground in moist woods. Aug.-Oct.

The large, rather bright colored, club-shaped fruiting bodies of this
fungus are very striking and distinctive. Occasionally the tip of the club will
be somewhat depressed and sterile, thus proving the exception to the rule that
the clavarias are fertile all over.

CLAVARIA STRICTA Fr. Edible, not recommended

Figure 349, page 235

FRUCTIFICATION 1 J/2-3 in. high, much branched, the main branches arising
from a thick irregular whitish base, erect, cylindric or flattened toward the base,
tapering upwards, terminating in several small yellowish teeth, light tan to
tawny, consistency rather tough, not brittle, taste bitter, spores cinnamon-
buff", elHpsoid, minutely rough 7.5-9 X 3.5-4.5 /i-

Forming dense tufts on rotten wood. July-Oct.

The tough consistency and bitter taste are the distinguishing characters of
this species and render it of poor quality as an edible species although it is not
poisonous.

THELEPHORACEAE

The Thelephoraceae include a large group of fungi in which the spores are
borne on a smooth surface and not on spines, pores, or lamellae. Most of them
consist simply of a layer of fungus tissue growing on wood or bark, frequently
on the under side of logs or sticks, and producing spores over the surface.
Some of this group develop a definite pileus which may be more or less
bracket-like, growing on wood, or upright and growing on the ground. The
latter are distinguished from the Clavariaceae, which also have a smooth
hymenium, by the fact that the hymenium does not cover the entire surface of
the fruiting body, but there is always some differentiation into an upper sterile
surface and a lower fertile surface. Only a single species is described here.

CRATERELLUS CORNUCOPIOIDES Fr. Edible

Figure 365, page 255

Horn of Plenty

FRUCTIFICATION about 1-3 in. high, %-2J4 in. across the top, funnel-
shaped or trumpet-shaped with a flaring margin, the margin even to wavy or
lobed, sometimes becoming torn, thin, rather tough or brittle, interior or
upper surface dry, rough to scaly, dark grayish brown, lower surface or hy-
menium ashy to blackish, smooth or somewhat wrinkled, stipe very short or
absent, spores ellipsoid, smooth, one-celled, 11-15 X 7-9 /x-

244

TREMELLALES

Gregarious on the ground in open woods. July-Oct.

Although rather unattractive in appearance because of its dark colors,
this is reported to be quite good as an edible fungus and it is unhkely to be
confused with anything else. It has several common names such as horn of
plenty, trumpet of death, and fairy's loving cup, indicating that it is a species
that attracts attention. The name trumpet of death has no reference to its
edible quaHties but only to its sombre appearance.

TREMELLALES

The Tremellales or jelly fungi can be recognized in the field by their more
or less gelatinous or jelly-Hke consistency. They shrink greatly on drying and in
dry weather are inconspicuous, but when moistened they swell up and are
sometimes striking in appearance.

The group is separated from the other basidiomycetes on a character that
is considered to be more fundamental than their jelly-hke consistency, namely,
the structure of the basidium. A typical basidium is one-celled with a septum
at the base, but in the Tremellales the basidium itself becomes septate or
deeply forked. The Tremellales are divided into three famihes, the Tremel-
laceae in which the basidium is longitudinally or obhquely septate, the Auri-
culariaceae in which it is transversely septate, and the Dacrymycetaceae in
which it is forked and deeply divided. These characters can be determined
only by microscopic examination so that for the amateur the consistency is the
best field character, although there are some instances in which this character
alone is misleading.

Only four species are described here, two of the Tremellaceae, one of the
Auriculariaceae, and one of the Dacrymycetaceae.

PSEUDOHYDNUM GELATINOSUM (Fr.) Karst.
Figure 366, page 255

FRUITING BODY 1-2 {4 in. broad, gelatinous, translucent, whitish becoming
brownish, rather thick, upper surface papillose, lower surface bearing whitish,
gelatinous, tooth-like spines about J/g in. long, short stipitate or sessile, spores
white, subglobose, 5-7 ^i.

On rotten wood. Aug.-Sept.

At first sight this might be taken for one of the Hydnaceae because of the
teeth on the under side of the pileus, but the gelatinous consistency distin-
guishes it and if examined microscopically the basidia are found to be divided
longitudinally. It is not of interest as food but is a pretty and unusual fungus.
It is likely to be found only in wet weather as it shrinks greatly and becomes
very inconspicuous when dry.

245

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

PHLOGIOTIS HELVELLOIDES (Fr.) Martin
Figure 367, page 255

FRUITING BODIES 2-4 in. high, U/2-2i4 in. in diameter, gelatinous but
rather firm, drying horny, more or less funnel-shaped, usually split on one
side, pinkish white to deep rose, substipitate, spores oblong. 10-12 X 4-6 m-

On the ground under conifers or on rotten coniferous wood. Aug.-Oct.

This is not regarded as an edible species but is an attractive and striking
fungus. It has been known under the name Gyrocephalus rufus (Jacq.) Bref.

AURICULARIA AURICULA (Hook.) Underw. Edible

Figure 368, page 255

FRUITING BODY about %-3i/2 in. broad, sessile, somewhat cupulate or ear-
shaped, irregular, smooth or wrinkled, tough-gelatinous, yellow-brown to
cinnamon-brown, drying horny and nearly black, attached centrally or lat-
erally, spores white in mass, allantoid, 12-16 X 4-6 /x-

Gregarious or cespitose on dead wood or sometimes exposed wood of
living trees. July-Oct.

As the name indicates, this fungus is somewhat suggestive of a human ear.
It has become involved in an ancient legend to the effect that Judas Iscariot
hanged himself on an elder tree and the elder was thereupon condemned to
bear this excrescence, which was known as Judas' ear and later corrupted to
Jew's ear. Apparently the fungus occurs rather commonly on the elder in
Europe but no doubt it did so for many centuries before the time of Judas
Iscariot. It is not clear why Judas' ear should have been singled out to com-
memorate his evil deed but there may be some confusion here with the ear of
the servant of the high priest, which was cut off by Peter at the time of the
betrayal.

DACRYMYCES PALMATUS (Schw.) Bres.
Figure 369, page 255

FRUITING BODIES bright Orange to orange-red, tough-gelatinous, becoming
softer in age, forming irregular clusters, often wrinkled and convoluted, some-
times up to 2 in. across, usually smaller, sometimes with a whitish, stipe-hke
base, spores orange, cyhndrical, curved, becoming seven-septate, 17-25 X
6—8 11.

On coniferous wood. May-Nov.

The bright orange fructifications are very conspicuous when moist but
on drying they shrivel to an inconspicuous, reddish orange, horny mass. This
is probably one of the fungi that have been called 'witches' butter' or *fairy
butter.' It is not regarded as an edible fungus.

246

GASTEROMYCETES

GASTEROMYCETES

The G aster omycetes include the fungi commonly known as puflfballs and
closely related forms. In this group the spores are produced on basidia but are
not forcibly discharged as in the mushrooms, boletes and other Basidiomy-
cetes. The basidia break down and the spores are typically left as a powdery
mass within the fruiting body and are dispersed through a pore or by the
wearing away of the outer layers of the fruit body.

Representatives of three main groups of Gasteromycetes are discussed
here. In the Lycoperdaceae, which include the puffballs proper, the spores are
produced and dispersed as described above. In the Phallaceae or stinkhorns,
the spores are produced in shme and elevated on the end of a stalk-Hke struc-
ture that emerges from an enclosing volva. They usually produce an offensive
odor that is beheved to attract insects which aid in the dispersal of the spores.
In the Nidulariaceae or bird's-nest fungi, the spores are produced within
structures called peridioles which are borne in a cup-Hke fructification from
which they are dispersed by driving rain drops, and the spores are then freed
by the decay of the peridiole wall.

The effect of rain in dispersing spores of the true puffballs may easily be
demonstrated by placing a mature puffball at some distance under a burette
and permitting drops of water to fall on it. As each drop strikes the puffball a
puff of spores is emitted.

This is a large and extremely varied group of fungi with many quaHties
that attract the attention and interest of naturaHsts from the immense size
attained by some specimens of Calvatia gigantea to the repulsive odors of the
stinkhorns, fantastic shapes of some of the other groups, and fascinating
methods of spore dispersal found among them.

The puffballs proper are generally regarded as one of the safest groups of
fungi to use as food and one of the few groups in which it is possible to give a
sort of rule of thumb for determining an edible species. It seems safe to say that
any puffball that is white and homogeneous inside is good to eat. However, in
this group as with all other fungi it is wise to proceed cautiously with any
species not previously tried because of the possibihty of personal sensitivity
to a particular species. It is important to make certain that the fruiting body is
homogeneous within since it is possible that young specimens of the deadly
poisonous Amanita virosa might be mistaken for a puffball before the volva is
ruptured. Cutting the fruit body across will reveal the outhne of the young
mushroom if it is an Amanita (Figure 91). The eggs of the phalloids can also be
distinguished from the puffballs in this way and in spite of the fact that these
are edible, according to some authors, they are not recommended as food.
The Nidulariaceae are, of course, too small and tough to be of any value as
food.

247

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

Key

1. Fruiting body a stalked structure with a differentiated apical portion

where the spores are borne; odor offensive 2

1. Fruiting body not as above 4

2. Apical spore-bearing portion forming a distinct pileus,

separate from the stalk : 3

2. Apical spore-bearing portion a continuation of the stalk,

not separate; fruiting body pinkish, odor slight Mutinus caninus

3. Plant with a lacy veil extending below the pileus Dictyophora duplicata

3. Veil membranous, inconspicuous, scarcely extending below the pileus;

surface of pileus granular, greenish Phallus ravenelii

4. Fruiting body a small cup-like structure striate within, containing

several tiny spore cases, suggesting a nest containing eggs Cyathus striatus

4. Fruiting body not as above 5

5. Outer layers of fruit body splitting into several segments or rays

to form a star-shaped body Geastrum triplex

5. Outer layers of fruit body not splitting into rays 6

6. Fruiting body very large; spores dispersed by wearing away

of the outer layers Calvatia gigantea

6. Fruiting body not over 3 in. in diameter; spores dispersed

through an apical pore 7

7. Inner coat rather papery; fruiting bodies easily becoming detached

and blown about by the wind Bovista pila

7. Inner coat not papery; fruiting bodies remaining attached 8

8. Outer coat of cone-shaped spines that fall off leaving

distinct spots; typically growing on the ground Lycoperdon per la turn

8. Outer coat more or less persistent, rough, not of conical spines;

typically growing in clusters on rotten wood Lycoperdon pyriforme

MUTINUS CANINUS (Pers.) Fr. Not edible

Figure 370, page 255

EGG white, ovoid, about Yx-Ya X Vi-V^ in., attached by a rhizomorph.
FRUITING BODY 2-4 in. tall, 14-% in. thick, cylindric, equal, narrowed at the
apex and usually perforated, pinkish to whitish, olivaceous brown at the tip
where the spores are borne, sheathed at the base by a volva. odor unpleasant
but relatively sHght. spores 4-5 X 1.5- Iji.

Singly or gregarious on soil or rotten wood in open woods, sometimes in
gardens. July-Sept.

The small size and pinkish colors are distinctive for this species. Usually
the odor is relatively weak.

DICTYOPHORA DUPLICATA (Bosc) E. Fisch. Not edible

Figure 400, page 291

EGG 1 1^-2% in. in diameter, subglobose to somewhat flattened or ovate,
whitish, sometimes wrinkled at the base, attached by a thick white rhizomorph.

248

GASTEROMYCETES

FRUITING BODY 5-8 in. high, l-2)/2 in. thick at the base, tapering upward
sHghtly, odor fetid and very disagreeable, stipe cyhndrical, spongy or honey-
combed, hollow, white, sheathed at base by remains of egg forming a whitish
to brownish volva. pileus more or less conical, attached to the apex of the
stipe, perforated, reticulate, greenish black, veil lacy and net-hke, whitish to
pinkish, attached to apex of stipe beneath the pileus and projecting below it.
SPORES 3. 5M X 1.5-2.0 M-

Singly or gregarious in the woods or in gardens, usually around dead
trees or stumps. July-Oct.

The large size and lacy veil are the distinguishing characters of this
species.

PHALLUS RAVENELII Berk. & Curt. Not edible

Figure 371, page 255

EGG 1-2 in. in diameter, more or less egg-shaped to subglobose, whitish to
pinkish, or tinged lilac, tough, wrinkled at the base, attached by a pinkish
lilac rhizomorph. fruiting body 4-6 in. high and y2-\ 54 in. thick, odor fetid
and very disagreeable, stipe whitish to yellowish, somewhat spongy or honey-
combed, hollow, equal or tapering upward, encircled by a white, membranous
band from the veil, the base enclosed by the remains of the egg, forming a
volva. PILEUS more or less conical, attached around a raised, white, perforated
disk at the apex, granular, shiny, greenish to olive-gray, spores 3-3.5 X 1.5 /x-

Usually gregarious on sawdust or very rotten wood. June-Oct.

The eggs might be mistaken for a puffball but if they are cut open the out-
line of the young fruiting body can be seen surrounded by a layer of a jelly-
Hke substance. A closely related species, P. impudicus Pers., has a deeply
reticulated pileus.

CYATHUS STRIATUS Pers. Not edible

Figure 372, page 255

FRUITING BODY V^-Y^ in. tall, V^-Vi in. broad at the mouth, tapering to the
base, somewhat vase-shaped, attached by a pad of brown mycelium, exterior
dark cinnamon-brown, coarsely fibrillose, inner surface pallid to blackish or
tinged purplish, striate, mouth at first closed by a thin fibrillose epiphragm
which ruptures and disappears at maturity, peridioles more or less flattened or
disk-shaped, nearly black, attached to the cup by an elastic cord, spores hya-
line, thick-walled, 14-20 X 8-1 2/i.

Gregarious to cespitose on old sticks and various vegetable debris. July-
Oct.

This species is distinguished by the striations on the inner surface of the
cup. C. stercoreus (Schw.) de Toni is another common species growing on the

249

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

ground and with the inside of the cup smooth. C. olla Pers. has a smooth cup
but has smaller spores than C. stercoreus.

Crucibulum levis (DC) Kambly & Lee is another species belonging in
this group. It has whitish peridioles and the wall of the fructification consists of
only one layer rather than three as in Cyathus. It is usually found on old wood
also.

It has been demonstrated that these fruiting bodies of the bird's-nest
fungi are adapted to dispersal of the spores by rain. The force of rain drops
splashing against the inside of the cup is sufficient to drive the peridioles out
for some considerable distance and the spores are freed by the gradual decay
and wearing away of the wall of the peridiole. This is referred to as the splash-
cup method of spore dispersal.

GEASTRUM TRIPLEX Jungh. Edible

Figure 374, page 281

Earth Star

FRUITING BODY 1-2 in. in diameter at the widest part, more or less bulb-
shaped, acute at the apex, not stalked, brown or reddish brown, the outer coat
splitting at the apex into 4-6 rather uniform segments or rays, spreading back
to form a star shape and often splitting into two layers of which the inner
remains as a sort of cup around the spore case, spore case sessile, thin and
papery, opening by a conical pore which is different in texture from the rest of
the spore case, smooth but somewhat fringed, usually seated in a shght depres-
sion. SPORES brown, globose, warted, 3.5-4.5 m*

Singly or gregarious on the ground in open woods. July-Nov.

There are several species of Geastrum commonly known as 'earth stars'
but this is one of the larger and more common species. It is reported to be
edible when young but seems to be pretty hard and tough.

CALVATIA GIGANTEA Pers. Edible

Figures 404, 405, page 292
Giant Puffball

FRUITING BODY morc or less globose, 8-20 in. or more in diameter,
attached to the ground by a short, cord-Hke rhizomorph, surface smooth,
soft-leathery, white to creamy yellow or finally brownish, white within when
young, firm, fleshy, slowly becoming yellowish to oHvaceous, finally rusty
ochraceous and powdery, spores globose, minutely spiny, 3.5-4.5 m-

Singly to gregarious in woods, pastures or fields. Aug.-Sept.

The giant puffball is one of the best-known and most widely used edible
fungi. The large size, white color, and chamois-Hke outer skin are distinguish-
ing features. Specimens intended for food should be cut open to make sure that
they are white and homogeneous inside and not infested by worms.

250

GASTEROMYCETES

Some people have the idea that these large puffballs appear very suddenly,
but actually they grow and increase in size over a period of nearly two weeks
before they reach maturity. Observations published by Peck (1912) indicate
that their period of development is about 12-14 days and that the daily in-
crease in circumference is about 3-4 inches.

Nearly every year reports are published concerning the finding of large
puffballs with competing claims as to record size. Most of these, however, are
far short of any real record. Giissow and Odell (1927) report a specimen 5 feet
1 54 inches in circumference and weighing 18J^ pounds but this is dwarfed by a
report from New York State in 1877 mentioned by Ramsbottom (1953) of a
specimen 5 feet 4 inches long, 4 feet 6 inches wide and 9)/2 inches high. It was
said to have been mistaken for a sheep at a distance. The largest specimen ever
collected by the author was 4 feet in circumference and weighed 1 1 pounds.

BuUer calculated that a fruit body 16 X 12 X 10 inches would produce
7 trillion spores and Ramsbottom noted that if each of these produced one
puff ball of similar size and if their spores were equally successful, the resulting
mass would be 800 times the weight of the earth. It is an amazing example of
the reproductive potential of a Hving organism and it is obvious that under
natural conditions the chances of a puffball spore for survival must be ex-
tremely shght indeed.

Two other species of Cahatia that are fairly common but do not attain
the size of C. gigantea are C cyathiformis (Bosc) Morgan and C. craniiformis
(Schw.) Fr. Both of these have a rather thick, stout basal part that is some-
what pear-shaped to top-shaped and may sometimes be found persisting after
all the spores have been dispersed. C cyathiformis can be distinguished by the
purplish spore mass whereas in C. craniiformis it is olivaceous brown to dark
brown. All of these species are edible when young.

BOVISTA PILA Berk. & Curt. Edible

Figures 401, 402, 403, page 291

FRUITING BODY 1 1/2-2 Yi in. in diameter, usually globose or nearly so,
attached by a small rhizomorph which breaks easily, at first white with a thin
furfuraceous outer coat that soon wears off, exposing the smooth, somewhat
papery, gray-brown to bronze, inner coat, which often has a somewhat metaUic
luster, at first white within, then becoming purplish brown and powdery.
SPORES dark brown, globose, smooth, sometimes with a short pedicel 3.5-4.5 /x.

Solitary or gregarious in woods or pastures. Aug.-Oct.

The fruiting bodies frequently come loose from their attachment. They
often persist through the winter and are found the following spring full of
spores.

B. plumbea Pers. is a somewhat smaller species, attached to the ground by
a mass of fibers rather than a rhizomorph, and with a more blue-gray inner
coat. The spores are larger, more ovoid, and have very long pedicels.

251

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

LYCOPERDON PERLATUM Pers. Edible

Figure 375, page 281 ; Figures 406, 407, page 292

FRUITING BODY 1-2 1/2 in. high, Vi-IVa in. thick at the widest part, typically
top-shaped to pear-shaped, or irregular in shape from crowding with a tapering
or nearly cylindric, stem-like base, sometimes wrinkled or folded toward the
base, white at first, becoming buff or brownish, surface covered with many
cone-shaped, whitish spines, some longer, some shorter, which disappear as
the plant matures, leaving net-like markings on the surface, entirely white
within when young, spores produced only in the upper part which becomes
yellowish to olive-brown and powdery, basal part remaining sterile, the tissue
containing small chambers, spores olive-brown, globose, minutely spiny,
3.5-4.5 ju in diameter.

Singly, gregarious, or cespitose on rich soil, or sometimes on rotten wood.
June-Nov.

This is one of our commonest puffballs. The shape and the cone-shaped
spines that leave a network of scars when they fall off are the chief distinguish-
ing characters. It has long been known as Lycoperdon gemmatum Batsch but
L. perlatum is the correct name.

LYCOPERDON PYRIFORME Pers. Edible

Figure 408, page 293

FRUITING BODY %-2 in. high, %-l Yi in. thick at the widest part, typically
somewhat pear-shaped to subglobose, narrowed below and attached by white
rhizomorphs, pale brownish to tawny brown or rusty brown, sometimes
yellowish, surface furfuraceous, scaly or with short spines, sometimes areolate,
the outer coat eventually wearing away and exposing the smooth inner coat,
white within at first, becoming olivaceous to olive-brown and powdery as the
spores mature, basal part sterile, tissue containing small chambers, spores
olive-brown, globose, smooth, 3-4 /x-

Usually cespitose to gregarious around old logs, stumps, sawdust piles.
June-Nov.

This is a very common and widely distributed puffball. It is not very large
but is usually found in considerable abundance. The old fruit bodies often
persist through the winter and may be found the following spring but, of
course, they are only edible when young and white within. The color, shape,
and occurrence on rotten wood are distinguishing characters.

Figures

352-361

352.

Polyporus betulinus.

353. P. ovinus.

354.

P. resinosus.

355. P. sulphureiis.

356.

P. squamosus.

"iSl . P. squamosus.

358.

Hydnum coralloides.

359. H. repandum.

360.

H. septentrionale.

361. C lav aria botrytis.

252

253

^;"'"l*''

«3

o
a,

3

Figures 363-372

363, C lav aria fusiformis

365. Craterellus cornucopioides.

367. Phlogiotis helvelloides.

369. Dacrymyces palmatus.

371. Phallus ravenelii.

364. C. pistil la r is.

366. Pseudohydnum gelatinosum.

368. Auricularia auricula.

370. Mutinus caninus.

312. Cyathus striatus.

254

255

<^

ft,

m

o

u

3

256

ASCOMYCETES

ASCOMYCETES

The Ascomycetes comprise a vast number of species of fungi that differ
fundamentally from the Basidiomycetes in the manner in which the spores are
formed. In the Basidiomycetes the spores are formed outside the mother cell or
basidium, usually developing on Httle stalks that arise from it, whereas in the
Ascomycetes the spores are produced within the mother cell or ascus and are
not discharged until they are mature.

The great majority of the Ascomycetes are minute fungi requiring a
microscope for determination of their characters but some are large enough to
attract the attention of the amateur collector and a few are known to be among
our best edible fungi. Although a microscope is needed to actually see the
difference between an ascus and a basidium, in practice it is not difficult to
recognize an ascomycete in the field.

All of the species described here, with one exception, belong in the section
Discomycetes in which the asci are borne in an exposed fruiting layer or
hymenium and not within a closed fruiting body. Relatively few species are
described here and anyone interested in the group should consult special
works deahng with them. The single pyrenomycete described, Hypomyces
lactifluorum (Schw.) TuL, is not included in the key.

Key

1. Fruiting body with a distinct stipe and differentiated pileus 2

1. Fruiting body more or less cup-shaped, without a differentiated

pileus but sometimes stipitate 8

2. Pileus pitted or honeycombed 3

2. Pileus convoluted, wrinkled, or smooth, not pitted 5

3. Base of pileus attached to stipe 4

3. Base of pileus free from the stipe Verpa bohemica

4. Pileus subglobose to ovoid; pits irregular with edges

the same color or paler Morchella esculenta

4. Pileus conical; pits more or less longitudinally

arranged with edges darker Morchella angusticeps

5. Pileus irregular, reddish brown, surface convoluted;

growing on the ground in spring Gyromitra esculenta

5. Pileus slightly wrinkled or smooth, usually more

or less saddle-shaped 6

6. Stipe deeply longitudinally fluted Helvella crispa

6. Stipe smooth or slightly furrowed at base 7

7. Pileus smoky gray to smoky yellowish or nearly black Helvella elastica

7. Pileus tan to reddish brown Gyromitra infula

8. Cups bright scarlet, whitish-hairy externally;

growing on sticks in the spring Sarcoscypha coccinea

8. Cups not scarlet 9

9. Cups black, stipitate, tough Urnula craterium

9. Cup brownish, sessile to substipitate, soft, fleshy,

spreading out widely; growing on wood Peziza repanda

257

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

MORCHELLA ESCULENTA Fr. Edible

I igiiic 376, page 281 ; f iguic 427, page 304

Common Morel

PILEUS 2-5 in. long and %-l ^2 in. thick at the widest point, sometimes
much larger, usually more or less ovoid to somewhat conical or sometimes
subglobose, the surface covered with rounded to irregular or somewhat
elongated pits, irregularly arranged or often more or less in rows, gray-brown
to yellowish brown, the edges of the pits colored Hke the interior or paler, and
finally becoming thin and somewhat torn, stipe 1-4 in. long, 1/2-1 in. thick,
white to cream color or yellowish, at first cyHndric, becoming more or less
compressed and furrowed, sometimes much thickened at the base, glabrous to
sHghtly floccose, mealy, hollow, asci cyHndric, eight-spored 225-325 X (15)
18-22 (27) fjL. ASCOSPORES slightly yellowish in deposits, ellipsoid, smooth, one-
celled, (12) 16-22 (26) X (7.5) 11-13 (14) /x.

Singly or gregarious in open woods, orchards, or grassy places. May or
early June.

This is the common morel and is highly regarded as one of the best of the
edible fungi. The pitted, sponge-Uke pilei are very characteristic and unhkely to
be mistaken for anything else. However, care must be taken to distinguish
Gyromitra esculent a, or false morel, which occurs at the same time of year and
has a wrinkled and convoluted, rather than pitted, pileus.

MORCHELLA ANGUSTICEPS Peck Edible

Figure 377, page 281 ; Figure 428, page 304

Narrow-capped Morel

PILEUS %-2i/2 in. long, Vx-'^Va in. broad at the base, more or less elon-
gated to narrowly conic, the surface covered with somewhat elongated pits
arranged more or less in vertical rows, yellowish or yellowish brown within,
the edges smoky brown to black, stipe %-21/2 in. long, i/^-l in. thick, white to
yellowish, cylindric or enlarged at the base, often furrowed toward the base,
floccose-mealy, hollow, asci cyHndric, eight-spored, 200-300 X 16-22 (26) ju-
ASCOSPORES yellowish in a deposit, eUipsoid, smooth, one-celled, 1 8-25 (29) X

11-15 M.

Singly or gregarious in open woods or at the edges of woods. May or early
June.

This morel is distinguished from the common morel by its more conical
pileus, scurfy stipe, and elongated pits with dark edge. It is fully as good to eat
as the common morel. M. conica Fr. is probably the same species.

VERPA BOHEMICA (Krombh.) Schrot. Edible

Figure 378, page 281

PILEUS about V2-I V2 ill- loi^g ^^^ V^-^ Va ii^- ii^ diameter, somewhat bell-
shaped, attached to the apex of the stalk and hanging down around it with the

258

ASCOMYCETES

margin free, yellowish brown to reddish brown, the surface usually promi-
nently ridged and reticulated, stipe 1-5 in. long, %-l in. thick, whitish to
yellowish, glabrous to somewhat floccose, especially toward the base, stuffed
becoming hollow, cyhndric or somewhat compressed, asci cyhndric, two-
spored, 200-325 X 18-24 (27) ju- ascospores yellowish in deposits, ellipsoid,
one-celled, smooth, (45) 50-75 (84) X 15-22 m-

Singly or gregarious on the ground in open woods. May.

This fungus might be mistaken for a morel and it has been called Mor-
chella bispora Sor. but the attachment of the pileus to the upper end of the
stipe and the free margin distinguish it. Morchella semilibera (DC.) Fr. is
attached part way up the stipe and has the margin free but is a smaller plant.
The two-spored asci with very large spores are characteristic of this species.

Another species of Verpa, V. conica (Miill.) Swartz, is a smaller plant
with a smooth, oHve-tinged pileus, and eight-spored asci with much smaller
spores. It is found at the same time of the year in about the same type of
habitat,

GYROMITRA ESCULENTA Fr. Can be poisonous

Figure 379, page 281 ; Figure 429, page 305
False Morel

PILEUS 1-3 in. broad, variable and irregular in shape, usually more or less
lobed and the surface irregularly wrinkled, folded, or convoluted, but not
pitted, reddish brown to dark brown, stipe 54-2 in. long, )^-l in. thick,
whitish, fragile, usually somewhat compressed and grooved, hollow, glabrous
to shghtly floccose. asci cyhndric, eight-spored, 225-325 X 15-18 ^l. asco-
spores eUipsoid, one-celled, smooth, (17) 20-28 X 11-16 (17) ju.

On the ground in woods, associated with conifers. May-June.

This fungus has been the subject of much controversy, both concerning its
identity and its edible qualities. Seaver (1928, 1942) claimed that G. esculenta
and G. infula are both forms of the same species but this has been disputed by
Kanouse (1948) on what appears to be convincing evidence that is also borne
out by my personal observation. They are, therefore, regarded as distinct
species here. G. esculenta occurs on the ground in the spring, associated with
conifers, is larger and more irregular in shape and has larger spores. G. infula
occurs in the fall on rotten wood, probably always hardwood, is smaller than
G. esculenta, has a more regularly saddle-shaped pileus, is less wrinkled and
convoluted and has smaller spores.

Undoubtedly many people eat this species with no ill eff'ects. I have seen
it on sale in grocery stores in Finland and have eaten it myself when it was
served by friends there and the flavor is excellent. However, reports of poison-
ing occur every once in a while and it has beenknown to cause death. Whether
or not this is the result of personal idiosyncrasy, the occurrence of certain
poisonous races of the fungus, or the development of the poisonous principle
by the fungus under certain conditions is not yet certain. One significant case

259

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

was reported by Dearness (191 1) in which a family ate part of a collection of
Gyromitra at one meal with no ill effects, but when they ate the rest of the
collection the next day severe poisoning developed and one member of the
family died. This suggests that the poison may have been produced on
ageing or partial decay of the fungus. Nevertheless any fungus known to have
such deadly potentialities cannot be recommended as food.

G. gigas (Krombh.) Cke. is another species that occurs in the spring. It
may occur on the ground or on rotten wood and has been collected on a
birch stump. It is brighter yellow than G. esculenta and tends to grow in
clusters with the stipes irregularly fused and grown together. It can easily be
distinguished microscopically by the spores, which have a small apiculus on
each end.

GYROMITRA INFULA (Schaeff. ex Fr.) Quel. Dangerous

Figure 380, page 281 ; Figure 430, page 306

PILEUS 1-3 in. broad, usually more or less saddle-shaped but sometimes
irregular, surface usually smooth to sHghtly wrinkled and convoluted, usually
some shade of tan to brownish cinnamon, the margin partly free, stipe %-
2]4 in. long, |4-% ii^- thick, whitish or tinged the color of the pileus, finely
floccose, cylindric to compressed or with irregular furrows, hollow, asci
cylindric, eight-spored, 225-300 X 10-14 }x. ascospores ellipsoid, one-celled,
smooth, 16-18 (21) X 7-9 /x-

Singly or gregarious on or in close association with rotten wood. Sept.-
Oct.

For a discussion of this species see Gyromitra esculenta. Its edible quali-
ties appear to be uncertain but it is regarded as dangerous and is not recom-
mended.

HELVELLA CRISPA (Scop.) Fr. Edible

Figure 409, page 294

PILEUS about Yi-l in. broad, saddle-shaped to irregularly lobed, reflexed,
margin free from the stipe, whitish or cream colored to buff or yellowish,
smooth to sHghtly convoluted, stipe %-2j^ in. long, y^-\ in. thick, white or
colored Hke the pileus, very uneven and deeply fluted with longitudinal fur-
rows. ASCI cyHndric, eight-spored, 225-300 X 14-18 /x. ascospores one-celled,
ellipsoid, smooth, (16) 18-20 (22.5) X 10-13 /z.

Usually gregarious on the ground in damp woods. Aug.-Oct.

The pale colors and deeply fluted stipe are the chief distinguishing charac-
ters of this species. H. lacunosa Afz. ex Fr. is similar in shape and stature but
the pileus is smoky gray to nearly black. The stipe is also deeply fluted and
usually paler than the pileus but becoming smoky gray.

260

ASCOMYCETES

HELVELLA ELASTICA Bull, ex Fr.

f igurc 410, page 294

piLEUS %-l )4 in. in diameter, usually more or less saddled-shaped or
irregularly two- to three-lobed, margin free from the stipe, smoky gray to
yellowish brown or nearly black, smooth or slightly convoluted, stipe 1 14-4 in.
long, Ys-Ys in. thick, rather slender, even, not fluted, whitish to yellowish,
cylindrical or slightly compressed, usually tapering upward, hollow, asci cy-
lindric, eight-spored, 200-270 X 15-18 /x- ascospores ellipsoid, smooth, one-
celled, 18-20 X 10-12 M.

Singly or gregarious on the ground in woods. June-Oct.

This species is recognized by its dark color and smooth stipe.

PEZIZA REPANDA Pers. ex Fr.

Figure 381, page 281

APOTHECiA about 2-4 in. in diameter, at first cup-shaped, expanding and
becoming nearly flat, or sometimes convex, pale brown, externally whitish,
smooth, margin even or somewhat wavy, fleshy in consistency, rather brittle,
sessile or short-stipitate. asci cyHndric, eight-spored, 175-250 X 12-15 ji.
ASCOSPORES ellipsoid, one-celled, smooth, 14-16 (18) X 8.5-10.5 /x-

On rotten logs or occasionally on the ground in woods. May-Oct.

There are a number of species of cup fungi but this is one of the largest and
most common. Most of this group require microscopic study for their identi-
fication.

SARCOSCYPHA COCCINEA (Jacq.) Pers. Not edible

Figure 382, page 281

APOTHECIA %-l )/2 in. in diameter, deep cup-shaped, bright scarlet within,
externally whitish and densely covered with fine, long hairs, margin usually
incurved and more or less fringed or torn, tough and rather leathery in con-
sistency, more or less stipitate, the stipe Vg in. or sHghtly more in thickness and
variable in length, asci cyhndric, eight-spored, 350-450 X 14-18 n. asco-
spores ellipsoid, one-celled, smooth, 28-35 X 12-15 m-

On buried or partly buried twigs and branches. April-June.

This is one of the earliest fungi to appear in the spring. It is too tough to
be of any value as food but the briUiant scarlet color of the disk is very
striking.

URNULA CRATERIUM (Schw.) Fr. Not edible

Figure 383, page 281

APOTHECIA 1-1 V2 in. in diameter, at first closed, becoming somewhat
goblet-shaped, entirely black or brownish black, externally covered with a

261

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

dense tomentum and sometimes becoming somewhat scaly, margin notched
and lacerated, irregular, tough and leathery in consistency, stipitate. asci
cylindric, eight-spored, very long 400-600 X 16-18 /x- ascospores ellipsoid,
one-celled, smooth, 25-40 X 1 1-14 /x.

On buried or partly buried wood, probably always hardwood. April-May.

This species is too tough to be edible but the black fruit bodies are hkely
to attract attention.

HYPOMYCES LACTIFLUORUM (Schw.) Tul.
Figure 350, page 235

Fungus growing on mushrooms, producing a stroma, which may entirely
cover the lamellae and stipe and obHterate the lamellae, which may appear only
as slight ridges, scarlet to bright orange-red or finally purple-red; perithecia
thickly scattered, immersed in the stroma and appearing as small pimples;
asci very long and narrow, cylindrical; ascospores, fusiform, slightly curved,
with an apiculus at each end, rough-walled, 35-40 X 7-8 /x-

On species of Lactarius. August and September.

This one representative of the Pyrenomycetes has been included because
the malformed mushrooms that have been attacked by it are fairly common
and always attract the attention of collectors by reason of their brilHant colors.

The parasitized mushrooms have been reported to be edible, but since it
is usually not possible to identify the species of mushroom attacked and there
is the possibility of a poisonous species being parasitized by the Hypomyces,
they are not recommended as food.

262

TECHNICAL KEY TO THE GENERA OF MUSHROOMS

TECHNICAL KEY TO THE GENERA OF MUSHROOMS

The amateur collector who is simply interested in mushrooms as food
need pay no attention to this key, but for the benefit of those who might be
more interested in the classification of the mushrooms it was thought desirable
to include one that is more technical. The following is based largely on an un-
pubHshed manuscript of Dr. A. H. Smith, University of Michigan, and the
keys of Singer (1951). These authors treat the mushrooms as an order, the
Agaricales, and group the genera into famihes within the order. However,
since there is still lack of agreement on the bases to be used for the erection of
famihes in the Agaricales, this category has not been recognized here.

This key is intended to show better the scientific bases for the separation
of genera and more emphasis is placed on microscopic characters than in the
previous key (p. 00). A great many more genera are recognized than have been
used elsewhere in this book. Cantharellus and related forms that are not
regarded as true agarics are not included. It was thought desirable to indicate
the type species of each genus, and where the genus is relatively unfamihar, the
older genus where the type species has been placed or would likely be sought,
is indicated in brackets. This does not mean that all of the species included in
the new genus were originally all in the same old genus. For example, the type
of Leucopaxillus is L. tricolor which was formerly in Tricholoma but some
other species now considered to belong in Leucopaxillus were formerly in
Clitocybe. However, to those famihar with the species under the old names,
this does give some idea of the concept of the newer genus.

This is by no means a complete survey of the modern genera of Agari-
cales; Singer (1951), for example, recognizes 145 genera excluding the Boleta-
ceae. It does, however, include most of the genera that are Hkely to be found
in Canada.

1. Trama of pileus and stipe composed of both sphaerocysts and filamentous

hyphae; spores amyloid, more or less ornamented 2

1. Not with above combination of characters 3

2. Latex present Lactarius

L. deliciosus (L. ex Fr.) S. F. Gray

2. Latex absent Russula

R. lutea (Huds. ex Fr.) Fr.

3. Parasitic on other agarics and flesh of pileus breaking down into

a mass of chlamydospores Asterophora

A. (Nye talis) lycoperdoides (Bull.) Ditmar ex S. F. Gray

3. Not parasitic on other agarics or if occasionally so then flesh of

pileus not breaking up to form chlamydospores 4

4. Lamellae waxy in consistency, usually more or less decurrent 5

4. Not with above combination of characters 7

5. Spores amyloid Neohygrophorus

N. (Hygrophorus) angelesianus (Smith & Hesler) Singer
5, Spores not amyloid 6

263

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

6. Spores echinulate (smooth in L. trullisata) Laccaria

L. laccata (Scop, ex Fr.) B. & Br.

6. Spores smooth Hygrophorus

H. eburneus (Bull, ex Fr.) Fr.

7. Trama of lamellae divergent; lamellae free or nearly so; spores white;

either a partial or universal veil or both present 8

7. Not with above combination of characters 10

8. Volva absent (glutinous universal veil may be present) Limacella

L. (Lepiota) delicata (Fr.) Earle ex H. V. Smith

8. Volva present 9

9. Annulus absent Amanitopsis

A. vaginata Fr.

9. Annulus present Amanita

A. phalloides (Vaill. ex Fr.) Seer.

10. Spore deposit greenish 11

10. Spore deposit white to creamy or pale dingy vinaceous 12

10. Spore deposit more deeply colored 49

11. Surface of the pileus composed of interwoven hyphae Chlorophyllum

C. (Lepiota) molybdites (Meyer ex Fr.) Sacc.

11. Surface of the pileus composed of sphaerocysts; spore deposit

becoming purplish on drying Melanophyllum

M. (Agaricus) echinatus (Roth ex Fr.) Sing.

12. Pileus readily separable from stipe; annulus usually present 13

12. Pileus and stipe confluent or stipe lacking 15

13. Spores with lens-shaped apical pore 14

13. Spores not as above Lepiota

L. colubrina (Pers.) ex Gray

14. Clamp connections present; pileus fleshy, not

plicate-striate on margin Macrolepiota

M. (Lepiota) procera (Scop, ex Fr.) Sing.

14. Clamp connections absent; pileus thin, margin plicate-striate Leucocoprinus

L. (Lepiota) flavipes Pat.

15. Lamellae splitting longitudinally Schizophyllum

S. commune Fr.

15. Lamellae not splitting longitudinally 16

16. Spores amyloid 17

16. Spores nonamyloid or pseudoamyloid 28

17. Trama of lamellae bilateral in young sporophores; lamellae decurrent;

veil distinctly double; fruiting bodies usually very large Catathelasma

C. (Armillaria) evanescens Lovej.

17. Not as above 18

18. Stipe excentric to lateral; habit pleurotoid 19

18. Stipe central 20

19. Margin of lamellae serrulate Lentinellus

L. (Lentinus) cochleatus (Fr.) Karst.

19, Margin of lamellae even Panellus

P. (Panus) stipticus (Bull, ex Fr.) Karst.

264

TECHNICAL KEY TO THE GENERA OF MUSHROOMS

20. Veil present 21

20. Veil absent 23

21. Veil composed of thick-walled elements; hymenophore

venose to sublamellate Delicatula

D. (Omphalia) integrella (Pers. ex Fr.) Pat.

21. Veil not as above 22

22. Pileus covered with sphaerocysts Cystoderma

C. (Lepiota) amianthinum (Scop, ex Fr.) Fayod

22. Pileus with a cuticle of appressed hyphae Armillariella

A. ( Armillaria) mellea (Vahl ex Fr.) Karst

23. Spores rough with a smooth spot at the hilum; cystidia usually present on edges
of the lamellae and typically with a harpoon-like incrustation at apex; clamp
connections absent Melanoleuca

M. (Tricholoma) melaleuca (Pers. ex Fr.) Murr.

23. Not as above 24

24. Spores without a smooth spot at the hilum; clamp connections present;

fruiting bodies fleshy Leucopaxillus

L. (Tricholoma) tricolor (Peck) Kuhner

24. Not as above 25

25. Fruiting bodies thin pliant, marasmioid; stipe cartilaginous to tough,

with bright colored mycelium surrounding the base Xeromphalina

X. (Omphalia) campanella (Batsch ex Fr.) Kuhner & Maire

25. Not as above 26

26. Lamellae decurrent and margin of pileus inrolled Cantharellula

C. (Cantharellus) umbonata (Gmelin ex Fr.) Singer

26. Lamellae variously attached but if decurrent then margin

of pileus straight at first 27

27. Fruiting bodies typically small, fragile, more or less conical;

trama amyloid Mycena

M. galericulata (Scop, ex Fr.) Kummer
27. Fruiting bodies coUybioid, omphalioid or clitocyboid in habit;

trama not amyloid Fayodia

F. (Omphalia) bisphaerigera (Lange) Kuhner

27. Fruiting bodies larger, more fleshy; lamellae more or less sinuate Tricholoma

T. flavovirens (Pers. ex Fr.) Lundell

28. Stipe excentric to lateral; habit pleurotoid 29

28. Stipe central 36

29. Pileus and trama of lamellae gelatinous or with well-defined gelatinous

layers present in the pileus, especially the cuticle 30

29. No gelatinous layers present 31

30. Spores white, smooth Resupinatus

R. (Pleurotus) applicatus (Batsch ex Fr. sensu Kaufi'm.) S. F. Gray

30. Spores rough, creamy pink Rhodotus

R. (Pleurotus) palmatus (Bull, ex Fr.) Maire

31. Veil at first covering the hymenium; resupinate or laterally

attached, not stipitate Tectella

T. (Partus) patellaris (Fr.) Murr.
31. Veil lacking, or if present carpophore stipitate 32

265

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

32. Hyphae of the pileus and gill trama predominantly thin-walled Pleurotus

P. ostreatus (Jacq. ex Fr.) Kummer

32. Hyphae of trama mostly thick-walled 33

33. Trama of lamellae intricately interwoven and subhymenium

inconspicuous to absent Partus

P. conchatus (Bull, ex Fr.) Fr.

33. Trama not intricately interwoven or if so then subhymenium

very distinct 34

34. Lamellae thick on edge; consistency dry and almost leathery Plicatura

(= Trogia as used here) P. alni Peck

34. Lamellae thin on edge 35

35. Fruiting body tough; edge of lamellae serrate Lentinus

L. lepideus Fr.

35. Fruiting body fleshy; edge of lamellae even Pleurotus

P. ostreatus (Jacq. ex Fr.) Kummer

36. Annulus present 37

36. Annulus lacking or veil leaving a fibrillose zone on upper

part of stipe 38

37. Cuticle of pileus composed of sphaerocysts Cystoderma

C. amianthina (Scop, ex Fr.) Fayod

37. Cuticle of pileus filamentous (see Lentinus also) Armillaria

A. luteovirens (A. & S. ex Fr.) Gill.

38. Lamellae waxy, typically flesh colored; spores echinulate

(smooth in L. trullisata) Laccaria

L. laccata (Scop, ex Fr.) B. & Br.

38. Not as above 39

39. Cuticle of pileus a turf of gelatinous, narrow, branched hyphae;
stipe velvety-pubescent and fulvous to dark brown below

from colored tomentum Flammulina

F. (Collybia) velutipes (Curt, ex Fr.) Sing.

39. Not as above 40

40. Typically lignicolous in habit; cheilocystidia present, large;

clamp connections present; cystidia on pileus when present decumbent
as somewhat differentiated end cells of hyphae;

rhizomorphs usually present at base Tricholomopsis

T. (Tricholoma) rutilans (Schaeff. ex Fr.) Sing.

40. Not as above 41

41. Fruiting body, especially the lamellae, staining gray, bluish, or black,
or if not staining then the lamellae gray and the cuticle of the
pileus filamentous; color white to black, seldom brightly colored in
any part; if lamellae white at first then basidia with

carminophilous granulation Lyophyllum

L. (Collybia) leucopheatum Karst.

41. Not as above 42

42. Stipe slender and cartilaginous to tough, or if thick, then with

a clearly distinct, cartilaginous cortex 43

42. Stipe typically fleshy in consistency, if thin then it is pliant 47

266

TECHNICAL KEY TO THE GENERA OF MUSHROOMS

43. Reviving when moistened 44

43. Not reviving when moistened 45

44. Hairs of pileus dark rusty brown in Melzer's solution Crinipellis

C. ( Colly bia) stipitaria (Fr.) Pat.

44. Without hairs as above Marasmius

M. rotula (L. ex Fr.) Fr.

45. Lamellae decurrent and margin of pileus incurved when young Omphalina

O. (Omphalia) umbellifera (L. ex Fr.) Quel.

45. Lamellae adnate to decurrent; margin of pileus straight or

incurved but not in above combination 46

46. Pileus typically convex to obtuse; margin incurved when young;

hypoderm not differentiated; lamellae mostly adnate to subdecurrent Colly bia

C. dryophila (Bull, ex Fr.) Kummer

46. Pileus conic to obtuse; margin typically straight or bent in slightly;

hypodermal region often of enlarged cells; lamellae adnate to decurrent .... Mycena
M. galericulata (Scop, ex Fr.) Kummer

47. Spores slightly rough, creamy to vinaceous; lamellae

variously attached Lepista

L. (Tricholoma) subaequalis (Britz.) Sing.

47. Spores smooth, white to pale cream 48

48. Lamellae typically decurrent to broadly adnate Clitocybe

C. infundibuliformis (Schaeff, ex Fr.) Quel.

48. Lamellae typically sinuate to adnexed at maturity Tricholoma

T. flavovirens (Pers. ex Fr.) Lundell

49. Spores pink to vinaceous cinnamon in mass 50

49. Spores not as above 57

50. Stipe lateral or lacking 51

50. Stipe central 52

51. Spores angular Rhodophyllus

(species formerly in Claudopus)

51. Spores not angular Phyllotopsis

P. (Claudopus) nidulans (Fers. ex Fr.) Sing.

52. Spores angular or longitudinally striate 53

52. Spores smooth or slightly echinulate 54

53. Spores longitudinally striate Clitopilus

C. prunulus (Scop, ex Fr.) Kummer

53. Spores angular Rhodophyllus

R. (Entoloma) lividus (Bull, ex Fr.) Quel.

(includes Entoloma, Leptonia, Nolanea, Eccilia and some species

formerly placed in Clitopilus)

54. Volva present Volvariella

V. argentina Speg.

54. Volva absent 55

55. Annulus present Chamaeota

Agaric us xanthogrammus Cesati
55. Annulus lacking 56

267

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

56. Lamellae free; spores smooth Pluteus

P. cervinus (Schaeff. ex Seer.) Fr.

56. Lamellae variously attached; spores slightly echinulate Lepista

L. subaequalis (Britz. ) Sing.

57. Spore deposit yellow-brown to purple-brown; spores truncate at apex,

dull yellow-brown in KOH; cuticle of pileus not cellular 58

57. Not with above combination of characters 61

58. Spores typically purple-brown in deposit; if dull rusty brown

then annulus well developed; usually with a special type of cystidia
with an amorphous internal body that stains golden yellow when
mounted in ammonia (chrysocystidia);

if lignicolous, chrysocystidia present Stropharia

S. aeruginosa (Curt, ex Fr.) Quel.

58. Not as above 59

59, Chrysocystidia absent; stipe typically fleshy; spores rusty brown in mass;

annulus usually present; habitat typically lignicolous Kuehneromyces

K. (Pholiota) mutabilis (Schaeff. ex Fr.) Sing. & Smith

59. Not as above 60

60. Chrysocystidia present Naematoloma

N. (Hypholoma) sublateritium (Fr.) Karst.

60. Chrysocystidia absent Psiiocybe

P. semilanceata (Fr.) ex Kummer
6L Spore deposit typically bright rusty brown to earth-brown, spores truncate;

cuticle of pileus cellular in structure 62

6L Spore deposit typically cocoa-brown to chocolate, or if rusty

brown to yellow then spores have not a truncate apex 64

62. Pileus viscid and soft, often subdeliquescent; margin of pileus

plicate-striate Bolbitius

B. fragilis (L. ex Fr.) Fr.

62. Not as above 63

63. Stipe typically fleshy and spore deposit typically dull clay color

to earth-brown (sec Psat/iyrella nho) Agrocybe

A. (Pholiota) praecox (Pers. ex Fr.) Fayod

63. Stipe typically cartilaginous; spore deposit bright rusty brown Conocybe

C. (Galera) tenera (Schaeff. ex Fr. ) Fayod

64, Spores smooth, lamellae readily separable from pileus Paxillus

P. involutus (Batsch ex Fr.) Fr.

64. Not as above 65

65. Spore deposit yellow to dark rusty brown 66

65. Spores cocoa-brown to chocolate or black 82

66. Stipe excentric or lacking Crepidotus

C. mollis (Schaeff. ex Fr.) Kummer

66. Stipe typically central 67

67. Spores thin-walled (many collapsed spores usually visible in mounts);
spore deposit typically pale yellow to ochraceous and spores very

pale under the microscope Tubaria

T. furfuracea (Pers. ex Fr.) Gill.
67. Spores well pigmented and with appreciably thickened walls 68

268

TECHNICAL KEY TO THE GENERA OF MUSHROOMS

68. Spores smooth (use oil immersion) 69

68. Spores roughened or angular 73

69. Subhymenial zone typically well developed and gelatinous;
typically lignicolous; often with an annulus, and stipe fibrillose

to scaly below annulus or annular zone Pholiota

P. squarrosa (Pers. ex Fr.) Kummer

69. Not as above, typically terrestrial (lignicolous in Gymnopilus) 70

70. Stipe fleshy 71

70. Stipe brittle, typically thin 72

71. Pileus viscid; cystidia when present neither thick-walled

nor encrusted Hebeloma

H. fastibile (Fr.) Kummer

71. Pileus dry or moist; if subviscid then encrusted cystidia

present on sides of lamellae Inocybe

I. trechispora (Berk.) Karst.

72. Spores somewhat almond-shaped; margin of pileus appressed

when young Galerina

G. (Galera) rubiginosa (Pers. ex Fr.) KUhner

72. Spores somewhat reniform in side view or elliptic; margin of

pileus inrolled or incurved at first Naucoria

N. centuncula (Fr.) Kummer

73. Spores angular to nodulose or with prominent spines or

compound nodules Inocybe

I. trechispora (Berk.) Karst.

73. Not as above 74

74. Spores with a smooth area around the hilum Galerina

G. rubiginosa (Pers. ex Fr.) Kummer

74. Not as above 75

75. Membranous annulus present; volva rudimentary Rozites

R. (Pholiota) caperata (Pers. ex Fr.) Karst.

75. Not as above 76

76. Typically lignicolous and spore deposit very bright rusty

fulvous to orange-fulvous Gymnopilus^

G. (Flammula) liquiritiae (Pers. ex Fr.) Karst.

76. Not as above 77

77. Veil lacking and stipe long-radicating Phaeocollybia

P. (Naucoria) f estiva (Fr.) Heim. ex Sing.

77. Not as above 78

78. Lamellae separable from pileus Ripartites

R. (Inocybe) tricholoma (A. & S. ex Fr.) Karst.

78. Not as above 79

79. Stipe thin and fragile; clamp connections absent Galerina

G. rubiginosa (Pers. ex Fr.) Kummer

79. Stipe thick, or if thin then clamp connections present 80

80. Typically associated with alder, and pileus showing some differentiation
of the cuticle other than a gelatinous pellicle, or cystidia present

on the pileus; stipe cartilaginous-brittle Alnicola

A. (Naucoria) submelinoides KUhner
80. Not as above 81

269

EDIIiLH AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

81. Spore deposit rusty brown; cheilocystidia if present mostly clavate;

pilcLis dry, to moist or viscid; partial veil cortinate Cortinarius

C. violaccus ( L. ex Fr. ) Fr.

81. Spore deposit clay color or dull brown; cheilocystidia typically elongate
to filamentose-capitate; pileus viscid; partial veil more or less

cortinate to membranous or lacking Heheloma

H. jiistihile (Fr. ) Kummer

82. Cuticle of pileus cellular or lamellae deliquescing or both 83

82. Not as above 87

83. Lamellae deliquescing at maturity Coprinus

C. conuitiis (Miiller ex Fr.) S. F. Gray

83. Lamellae not deliquescing 84

84. Sides of lamellae mottled by maturing spores; (see Pscithyrella

also if pileus is fibrillose) Panaeolus

P. canipaniilatus (L. ex Fr.) Quel.

84. Not as above 85

85. Pileus plicate-striate and pseudoparaphyses present Pseudocoprinus

P. (Psathyrella) disseminatus (Pers. ex Fr.) Kijhner

85. Never with both a plicate-striate pileus and pseudoparaphyses 86

86. Spore deposit at first greenish, becoming purplish on drying Meldnophylliim

M. (Agaricus) ccliinatiis (Roth ex Fr. ) Sing.

86. Spore deposit never greenish Psathyrella

P. gracilis (Fr.) Quel.

87. Lamellae free or nearly so; stipe separating readiU from pileus Agaricus

A. campestris L. ex Fr.
87. Lamellae decurrent, somewhat waxy; stipe not separating

readily from pileus Gomphidms

G. glutinosus (Schaeff. ex Fr.) Fr.

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

Atkinson, G. F. 1911. Studies of American fungi, mushrooms, edible, poisonous, etc. 3rd

ed. Holt and Co.. New York.
Bandoni, R. J., and Szczawinski, A. F. 1976. Guide to common mushrooms of British

Columbia. Revised ed. B.C. Prov. Mus., Handbook 24. Victoria.

Child, G. P. 1952. The ability of coprini to sensitize man to ethvl alcohol. Mvcologia

44:2()()-2()2.
Christi NSFiN, C. M. 1943. Common edible mushrooms. Univ. Minnesota Press, Minnea-
polis, Minn.
CooKF, M. C. 1881-1891. Illustrations of British fungi. Williams & Norgatc, London. 8

vols.
Di-.ARNFSS, J. 1911. The personal factor in mushroom poisoning. Mycologia 3:75-78.
Fari.ow, W. Ci.. and Burt, F. A. 1929. Icones Farlowianae. Farlow Herbarium of Harvard

Univ.. Cambridge. Mass. 120 pp.. 103 pi.
Graham, V. O. 1970. Mushrooms of the Great Lakes Region. Dover Publ.. New York.

(First published in 1944.)
GiJssow, H. T.. and Odit i . W. S. 1927. Mushrooms and toadstools. Can. Dep. Agric,

Ottawa.
Hard, \t. F. 1908. Mushiooms. edible and otherwise. Mushroom Publ. Co., Columbus,

Ohio.
Hf.im, R. 1969. Champignons d'Furopc. Fditions N. Boubee. Paris.

270

REFERENCES FOR SELECTED GROUPS

Kauffman, C. H. 1971. The gilled mushrooms of Michigan and the Great Lakes Region.

Dover Publ.. New York. (First published in 1918.)
KoNRAD, P.. and Maublanc. A. 1924-1937. Iconcs Selectae Fungorum. Lechevalier. Paris.

6 vols.
Krieger, L. C. 1967. The mushroom handbook. Dover Publ.. New York. (First published

in 1936.)
KiJUNER, R., and Romagnesi. H. 1953. Flore analytique des champignons superieurs.

Masson &. Cie.. Paris.
Lange. J. E. 1935-1940. Flora Agaricina Danica. Soc. Adv. Mycol. Denmark & Danish

Bot. Soc. Copenhagen. 5 vols.
Lange, M., and Hora, F. B. 1963. Mushrooms and toadstools. E.P. Dutton, New York.
McIlvaine, C, and Macadam, R. K. 1973. One thousand American fungi. Dover Publ..

New York. (First printed in 1902.)
Michael, E., and Hennig. B. 1964-1971. Handbuch fiir Pilzfreunde. Quelle and Meyer.

Heidelberg. 5 vols.
Miller, O. K, 1972. Mushrooms of North America. E.P. Dutton, New York.
MosER, H. 1978. Die Rohrlinge und Bliitterpilze (Polyporales, Boletales, Agaricales, Rus-

sulales). /// H. Gams, Kleine Kryptogamenflora, Fischer Verlag, Stuttgart.
Overholts, L. O. 1938. Mycological notes for 1934-35. Mycologia 30:269-279.
PiLAT. A., and U§ak, O. 1958. Mushrooms. Spring Books, London.

1961. Mushrooms and other fungi. Peter Nevill. London.

Pomerleau, R. 1951. Mushrooms of Eastern Canada and the United States. Editions

Chantecler, Montreal.
Ramsrottom, J. 1953. Mushrooms and toadstools. Collins, London.
Rea. C. 1922. British Basidiomycetae. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge.
ROLFE, R. T., and Rolfe, R. W. 1928. The romance of the fungus world. Lippincott,

Philadelphia.
Romagnesi, H. 1956-1967. Nouvel atlas des champignons. Bordas, Paris. 4 vols.

1962. Petit atlas des champignons de France. Bordas, Paris. 3 vols.

Shaffer, R. L. 1968. Keys to the genera of higher fungi. Univ. Michigan Biol. Stn.. Ann

Arbor.
Singer, R. 195 1 . The Agaricales (mushrooms) in modern taxonomy. Lilloa 22: 1-832.

1961. Mushrooms and truffles. Interscience Publishers, New York.

1962. The Agaricales in modern taxonomy. 2nd ed. J. Cramer, Weinheim.

Singer, R. 1975. The Agaricales in modern taxonomy. 3rd ed. J. Cramer, Vaduz.

Smith, A. H. 1938. Common edible and poisonous mushrooms of Southeastern Michigan.

Cranbrook Inst. Sci.. Bull. 14, 71 pp.
1949. Mushrooms in their natural habitats. Sawyers Inc., Portland, Ore. Vol. 1,

626 pp.; Vol. 2, 33 Viewmaster reels. stereo-Kodachromes. Vol. 1 reprinted by Hafner

Press, New York. 1973.

1963. The mushroom hunter's field guide. Univ. Michigan Press, Ann Arbor.

Revised.

Smith, A. H. 1975. A field guide to western mushrooms. Univ. Michigan Press, Ann Arbor.
Smith, H. V., and Smith. A. H. 1973. How to know the non-gilled fleshy fungi. Wm. Brown

Co., Dubuque.
Thomas, W. S. 1948. Field book of common mushrooms. Putnam and Sons, New York.
Wakefield, E. M.. and Dennis. R. W. G. 1950. Common British fungi. P. R. Gawthorn.

London.

REFERENCES FOR SELECTED GROUPS

AGARICUS
EssETTE, H. 1964. Les psalliotes. Lechevalier, Paris.
Hotson, J. W.. and Stuntz, D. E. 1938. The genus Ai>aricii.s in western Washington.

Mycologia 30:204-234.
Moller. F. H. 1950-1952. Danish P.sY////>;m species: I & II. Friesia 4: 1-60. 135-242.
PiLAT, A. 1951. The Bohemian species of the genus Ai>ariciis. Acta Mus. Nat. Pragae 7. B.

1-142.

27J

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

AMANITA

Bas, C. 1969. Morphology and subdivision of Amanita and a monograph of its section

Lepidella. Persoonia 5:285-579.
CoKER, W. C. 1917. The Amanitas of the Eastern United States. J. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc.

33:1-88.
Gilbert, E. J. 1940-1941. Amanitaceae (Supplement to honoi'iaphia Mycolo^ica of

Bresadola). Comitato Onoranze Bresadoliane, Milan.
Heinemann, p. 1964. Les Amanitees. Naturalistes belg. 45: 1-15.
HoTSON, J. W, 1936. The Amanitae of Washington. Mycologia 28:63-76.
Jenkins, D. T. 1977. A taxonomic and nomenclatural study of the genus Amanita Section

Amanita for North America. Biblotheca Mycologica 57. J. Cramer, Vaduz.
JOLY, P. 1967. Cles des principales amanites de la flore frangaise. Rev. Mycol. 32 (suppl.

2):162-175.
PoMERLEAU. R. 1966. Les amanites du Quebec. Nat. Can. (Que.) 93:861-887.

AMANITOPSIS

See references under Amanita.

ARMILLARIA

HoTSON, H. H. 1940. The genus Armillaria in western Washington. Mycologia 32:776-790.
Kauffman, C. H. 1923. The genus Armillaria in the United States and its relationships.

Pap. Mich. Acad. Sci. Arts & Lett. 2:53-67.
MiTCHEL, D. H., and Smith, A. H. 1976. Notes on Colorado fungi. 11. Species of Armillaria

(Fr.) Kummer (Agaricales). Mycotaxon 4:513-533.
RoMAGNESi, H. 1970-1973. Observations sur les Armillariella. I and IL Bull. Soc. Mycol.

France 86:257-265; 89: 195-206.
See also Singer ( 1951 ) under general bibliography (as Armillariella).

ASCOMYCETES
Dennis, R. W. G. 1977. British Ascomycetes. 3rd ed. J. Cramer, Vaduz.
Shaver, F. J. 1961. The North American cup fungi (Operculates and Inoperculates).

Hafner, New York. 2 vols. (First printed in 1928.)
Weber, N. S. 1972. The genus Helvella in Michigan. Mich. Bot. 11:1 47-20 1 .
See also Smith and Smith ( 1973 ) under general bibliography.

BOLETACEAE

CoKER, W. C, and Beers, A. H. 1974. The Boletaceae of North Carolina. Dover Publ..

New York. (First printed in 1943.)
Grund, D. W., and Harrison, K. A. 1976. Nova Scotian Boletes. Biblotheca Mycologica 47.

J. Cramer, Vaduz.
Singer, R. 1945-1947. The Boletineae of Florida with notes on extralimital species: I-IV.

Farlowia 2:97-141, 223-303, 527-567; Am. Midi. Nat. 37: 1-135.
Slipp, a. W., and Snell, W. H. 1944. Taxonomic-ecologic studies of the Boletaceae in

northern Idaho and adjacent Washington. Lloydia 7: 1-66.
Smith, A. H., and Thiers, H. D. 1964. A contribution toward a monograph of North

American species of Suillus. Publ. by the authors, Ann Arbor, Mich.

1971. The Boletes of Michigan. Univ. Michigan Press, Ann Arbor.

Smith, A. H., Thiers, H. D., and Watling, R. 1966-1967. A preliminary account of the

North American species of Lecciniim. NlTch. Bot. 5:131-179 (section Leccinitm):

6 : 1 07- 1 54 ( sections Luteoscabra and Scabra ) .
Snell, W. H., 1936. Tentative keys to the Boletaceae of the United States and Canada.

Rhode Island Bot. Club Publ. 1 . 25 pp.
Snell, W. H., and Dick, E. A. 1970. The Boleti of Northeastern North America. J.

Cramer, Lehre.
Thiers, H. D. 1963. The bolete flora of the gulf coastal plain: I. The Strobilomycetaceae.

J. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc. 79:32-41.

1965. The genus Xerocomiis Quelet in Northern California. Madrono 17:237-249.

1965. California boletes: I. Mycologia 57:524-534.

1966. California boletes: II. Mycologia 58:815-826.

1967. California boletes: III. Madrono 19: 148-160.

1971. California boletes: IV. The genus Lecciniim. Mycologia 63:161-276.

272

REFERENCES FOR SELECTED GROUPS

Thiers, H. D. 1975. California mushrooms. A field guide to the Boletes. Hafner Press, New

York.
See also Smith and Smith ( 1973 ) under general bibliography.

CANTHARELLUS

BiGELOW, H.E.I 978. The cantharelloid fungi of New England and adjacent areas. Mycologia

70:707-756.
Corner. E. J. H. 1966. A monograph of the Cantharelloid fungi. Oxford Univ. Press,

London.
Smith, A. H. 1968. The Cantharellaceae of Michigan. Mich. Bot. 7: 143-183.
Smith, A. H.. and Morse, E. 1947. The genus Cantharellus in the western United States.

Mycologia 39:497-534.
See also Smith and Smith ( 1973 ) under general bibliography.

CLAVARIACEAE

CoKER, W. C, and Couch, J. N. 1923. The Clavarias of the United States and Canada.

Univ. North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill.
Corner, E. J. H. 1950. A monograph of Clavaria and allied genera. Ann. Bot. Mem. 1.

740 pp.

1970. Supplement to "A monograph of Clavaria and allied genera." Nova

Hedwigia 33: 1-299.

Doty, M. S. 1944. Clavaria, the species known from Oregon and the Pacific Northwest.

Ore. State College Press, Corvallis.
Leathers, C. R. 1955. The genus Clavaria Fries in Michigan. Ph.D. Diss., Univ. Michigan.

Unpubl. (Available from University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Mich.)
Marr, C. D., and Stuntz, D. E. 1973. Ranuiria of Western Washington. Bibliotheca

Mycologia, Vol. 38.
Perreau, J. 1969. Les clavaires. Rev. Mycol. 33 (suppl. 5) : 396-41 5.
Petersen, R. H. 1968. The genus Claviilinopsis in North America. Mycologia Mem. 2.

1971. The genera Gompluis and Glococautharellus in North America. J. Cramer,

Lehre.

Wells, V. L., and Kempton, P. E. 1968. A preliminary study of Clavariadclphiis in North

Ariierica. Mich. Bot. 7:35-57.
See also Smith and Smith ( 1 973 ) under general bibliography.

CLITOCYBE
BiGELOW, H. E. 1965. The genus Clitocxhe in North America: \. Section Clitocxbe. Lloydia
28:139-180.

1968. The genus Clitocxhe in North America: IL Section Infundihuliformes.

Lloydia 31:43-62.

BiGELOW, H. E., Miller, O. K., and Thiers, H. D. 1976. A new species of Omphalotus.

Mycotaxon 3:363-372.
BiGELOW, H. E., and Smith, A. H. 1969. The status of Lepista - a new section of Clitocyhc.

Brittonia 21: 144-177.
Harmaja, H. 1969. The genus Clitocybe (Agaricales) in Fennoscandia. Karstenia 10:5-

168.
Kauffman, C. H. 1927. The genus Clitocyhe in the United States, with a critical study of

all the north temperate species. Pap. Mich. Acad. Sci. Arts & Lett. 8: 153-214.
Metrod, G. 1946, 1951. Revision des Clitocybes. Bull. Soc. Mycol. France 62:42-49;

67:387-403.

CLITOPILUS

See Hesler (1967) under E///o/t>/;j« and Singer (1951) under the general bibliography.

COLLYBIA

BiGELOW, H. E. 1973. The genus Clitocybula. Mycologia 65:1101-1116.
Metrod, G. 1952. LesCollybies. Rev. Mycol. 17 (suppl. 1 ): 60-93.

CONOCYBE
Kits van Waveren, E. 1970. The genus Conocyhe subgenus Pholiolina: 1. Persoonia
6:119-165.

273

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

KuHNrR, R. 1935. I c genre Cdlcra. l.echevalier. Paris.

Wafiinc;, R. \91 \ .The genus Conocy/w subgenus Pliolioiiiui: II. F^Msoonia 6; 3 I 3-.V39.

COPRINUS

Kits van Wavfrf.n, E. 1968. The '^stcnorctrius group" of the genus Copriiitis. Persoonia

5:131-176.
Langi , M. 1952. Species concept in the genus Copr'uut.s. Dansk Bot. Ark. 14: 1-164.
Langf. M., and Smith, A. H. 1953. The Coprinus cphenicrns group. Mvcologia 45:747-

780.
Pll AT, A., and Svrcfk. M. 1967. Revision specierum sectionis Hcrhicolac generia Coprinus.

Ceska Mycol. 21 : 1 36-145.
Van of Bogart, F. 1976. The genus Coprinus in western North America, Part 1 : Section

Coprinus. Mycotaxon 4:233-275.

CORTINARIUS

Ammirati. J. F. 1972. The section Dcrniocybc of Coriinanus in North America. Ph.D.

Diss., Univ. Michigan. Unpuhl. (Available from Universitv Microfilms. Ann Arbor.

Mich.)
Bertaux, a. 1966. Les Cortinaires. Lechevalier, Paris.

Henry. R. 1958. Suite a I'etude des Cortinaires. Bull. Soc. Mycol. France 74:249-422.
1967-1969. Etude provisoire du genre Hydrocybe: Hydrocybes a pied attenue a la

base. Bull.Soc. Mycol. France 83:989-1046:84:396-421:85:385-449.
Kauffman, C. H. 1932. Cortinarius. North Am. Flora 10:282-348.
MosER, M. 1960. Die Gattung P/ilci>nuuiuni. Pilze Mitteleuropas IV. Kiinkhardt. Bad

Heilbrunn.
1969-1970. Cortinarius Fr. Untcrgattung Leprocvbe subgen. nov.. Die Rauhkopfe.

Zeitschr. Pilzk. 35:213-248; 36:37-57.
Smith, A. H. 1942. New and unusual Cortinarii from Michigan, with a key to the North

American species of subgenus Bulbopodium. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 69:44-64.
1944. New and interesting Cortinarii from North America. Lloydia 7: 163-235.

CREPIDOTUS

Hesler. L. R.. and Smith. A. H. 1965. North American species of Crepidotus. Hafner.

New York.
Pii AT. A. 1948. Monographic des especes europeennes du genre Crepidotus Fr. Atlas de

Champignons de L'Europe 6. Prague.

CYSTODERMA

Smith, A. H.. and Singer. R. 1945. A monograph on the genus Cystodemui. Pap. Mich.

Acad.Sci.. Arts & Lett. 30:125-147.
Sec also Hotson ( 1940) imder Armillaria.

ENTOLOMA

Hesi^er. L. R. 1967. Entolonui ( Rhodophyllus) in Southeastern North America. Nova

Hedw. Beih. 23.
Peck. C. H. 1909. New York species of Entolotna. Bull. N.Y. State Mus. 13:47-58.

FLAMMULA
Hesler. L. R. 1969. North American species of Gymnopilus. Mycologia Mem. 3.
Kauffman. C. H. 1926. The genera Flaniniula and Paxil I us and the status of the American

species. Am. J. Bot. 13: 1 1-32.
See also Smith and Hesler ( 1968) under Pholiota for a treatment of some of the species.

GASTROMYCETES

Brodie, H. J. 1975. The bird's nest fungi. Univ. Toronto Press, Toronto, Ont.

CoKER. W. C. and Couch. J. N. 1968. The Gastromycetes of the Eastern United States

and Canada. J. Cramer, Lehre. (First printed in 1928 by Univ. North Carolina Press.

Chapel Hill.)
Dissing, H., and Lange, M. 1961-1962. The genus Geastrum in Denmark. Bot. Tidsskr.

57: 1-27; 58:64-67.

274

REFERENCES FOR SELECTED GROUPS

EcKBLAD. F. E. 1955. The gastromycetes of Norway. Nytt Mag. Bot. 4: 19-86.

Kreisel, H. 1967. Taxonomisch-pflanzengeographische Monographic der Gattung Bovisui.

Nova Hedw. Beih. 25.
Singer. R. 1963. Notes on secotiaceous fungi: Galeropsis and Brauniella. Proc. Kon. Ned.

Akad. Wetensch., Ser. C, 66: 106-1 17.
Singer, R.. and Smith, A. H. 1958-1960. Studies on secotiaceous fungi: I. Tha.\tero}>aster.

Brittonia 10:201-216, 1958. II. Etidoptychiim. ibid 10:216-221, 1958. III. Weraroa.

Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 85:324-334, 1959. IV. Gastroboleius, Truncocolumella,

Chamonixia. Brittonia 11:205-223. 1959. V. hJivatogastrium. ibid 11:224-228, 1959.

VI. Setchelliogaster. Madrofio 15:73-79, 1960. VII. Secotium and Neosecotium. ibid

15:152-158, 1960. VIII. Brauniella. Mycologia 50:927-938, 1958. IX. Astrogastra-

ceous series. Mem. Torrey Bot. Club 21:1-1 12, 1960.
Smith, A. H. 1951. Puffballs and their allies in Michigan. Univ. Michigan Press, Ann

Arbor.
Smith, A. H., and Zeller, S. M. 1966. A preliminary account of the North American

species oi Rhizopogon. Mem. N.Y. Bot. Gard. 14(2) : 1-177.
Soehner, E. 1962. Monographic der Gattung Hymenogaster. Nova Hedw. Beih. 2.
Zeller, S. M. 1949. Keys to the orders, families, and genera of the gastromycetes.

Mycologia 41 : 36-58.
Zeller, S. M., and Smith, A. H. 1964. The genus Calvatia in North America. Lloydia

27:148-186.
.S>e fl/.vr> Shaffer (1968) and Smith and Smith (1973) under general bibliography.

GOMPHIDIUS
Miller, O. K. 1964. Monograph of CliroogoiupJius (Gomphidiaceae). Mycologia 56:526-

549.
— 1971. The genus Gomphidiiis with a revised description of the Gomphidiaceae and

a key to the genera. Mycologia 63: 1 129-1 163.
Singer. R. 1949. The genus Gomphidiiis Fries in North America. Mycologia 41 :462-489.

HEBELOMA
Bruchlt, G. 1970. Contribution a Tetude du genre Hebclonia (Fr.) Kummer; partie

speciale. Bull. Soc. Linn. Lyon 39 (suppl. 6) : 1-1 32.
MosER. M. 1970. Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Gattung Hebclonia. Zeitschr. Pilzk. 36:61-75.
Peck, C. H. 1910. New York species of //^/)W(>/?;rt. N.Y. State Mus. Bull. 139:67-77.
Romagnesi. H. 1965. Etudes sur le genre Hebclonia. Bull. Soc. Mycol. France 81 :321-344.

HYDNACEAE
CoKLR, W. C, and Beers, A. H. 1951. The stipitate hydnums of the Eastern United States.

Univ. North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill.
Hall, D., and Stuntz, D. E. 1971. Pileate Hydnaceae of the Puget Sound area. I. White-
spored genera: Aitriscalpiuni, Hcriciiini, Dentinuni and Phcllodon. Mycologia
63:1099-1128.

1972. Pileate Hydnaceae of the Puget Sound area. II. Brown-spored genera: Hydniim.

Mycologia 64:15-37,

1972. Pileate Hydnaceae of the Puget Sound area. III. Brown-spored genus: Hydncl-

liini. Mycologia 64:560-590.
Harrison, K. A. 1961. The stipitate hydnums of Nova Scotia. Can. Dep. Agric. Publ. 1099.
1968. Studies on the hydnums of Michigan: I. Genera Phellodon, Bankera. Hydnel-

liim. Mich. Bot. 7:212-264.

1973. The genus Hericiiini in North America. Mich. Bot. 12: 177-194.

Maas Geesteranus, R. A. 1956-1959. The stipitate hydnums of the Netherlands: I-IV.

Fungus 26:44-60; 27:50-71 ; 28:48-61. Persoonia 1 : 1 15-147.
See also Smith and Smith ( 1973) under general bibliography.

HYGROPHORUS
HiSLER, L. R.. and Smith. A. H. 1963. North American species of Hygrophonts. Univ.

Tennessee Press. Knoxville.
Smith, A. H., and Hesier, L. R. 1938, 1942. Studies in North American species of

Hygrophonts: I & II. Lloydia 2: 1-62; 5: 1-94.

275

HDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

INOCYBH

Grund, D. W., and Stuntz, D. F. I96S. 1970. Nova Scotian Inocybes: I & II. Mycologia
60:406-425; 62:925-939.

Grund, D. W., and Stuntz, D. E. 1975. Nova Scotian Inocybes. III. Mycologia 67:19-31.

IV. Mycologia 69:392-408.
Heim, R. 1931. Le Genre Inocyhc. Lechevalier. Paris.
Kauffman, C. H. 1924. Inocyhc. North Am. Flora 10:227-260.
KiJHNi R, R., and Boursifr, J. 1928, 1932. 1933. Les Inocybes goniospores. Bull. Soc.

Mycol. France 44:l70-189;48:Ii8-161;49: 81-121.
MtTROD, G. 1956. Les Inocybes leiospores a cystides courtes. Bull. Soc. Mycol. France

72:122-131.
Peck, C.H. 1910. New York species of //;<>'cv/>t'. N.Y. State Mus. Bull. 139:48-67.
Stuntz, D. F. 1947. Studies in the genus Inocyhc. I. New and noteworthy species from

Washington. Mycologia 39:21-55.

LACCARIA

SiNCjhK. R. 1967. Notes sur le genre Laccr/r/rt. Bull. Soc. Mycol. France 83 : 104-123.

LACTARIUS

Coker, W. C. 1918. The Lactarias of North Carolina. .1. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc. 34:1-61.

BuRLiNGHAM, G. 1910. Loctaria. North Am. Flora 9: 172-200.

Heinemann, p. 1960. Les Lactaires. Nat. Belg. 41 : 133-156.

Hfsler, L. R., and Smith, A. H. 1960. Studies on Lactariiis: I. The North American
species of section Lactariiis. Brittonia 12:119-139. II. The North American species of
section Scrobiciilus, Crocei, Theio^ali, and Velliis. ihid 12:306-350.

Hesler, L. R., and Smith, A. H. (in press). The North American species of the genus Lac-
tariiis (Russulaceae). Univ. Michigan Press, Ann Arbor.

Neuhoff, W. 1956. Die Milchlinge. Klinkhardt Verlag, Bad Heilbrunn.
Smith, A. H., and Hesler, L. R. 1962. Studies on Lactariiis: III. The North American
species of section P/m///f>>^!,'rt//. Brittonia 14:369-440.

LFNTINUS
Miller, O. K., and Stewart, L. 1971. The genus Lcntincllus. Mycologia 63:333-369.
PiiXr. A. 1946. Monographic des especes europeennes du genre Lcniinns Fr. Atlas des

Champignons de TEurope 5, Prague.
See also Singer ( 1951 ) in the general bibliography.

LEPIOTA
Kauffman, C. H. 1924. The genus Lepiota in the United States. Pap. Mich. Acad. Sci..

Arts& Lett. 4:311-344.
KiJHNER. R. 1936. Recherches sur le genre Lepiota. Bull. Soc. Mycol. France 52: 177-238.
Smith, H. V. 1954. A revision of the Michigan species of Lepiota. Lloydia 17:307-328.

LEPTONIA

Largent, D. L. 1977. The genus Leptonia on the Pacific coast of the United States — Includ-
ing a study of the North American types. Biblotheca Mycologia 55. J. Cramer, Vaduz.

Largent. D. L.. and Benedict. R. G. 1970. Studies in the rhodophylloid fungi: 11.
Alholeptonia, a new genus. Mycologia 62:437-452.

See also Hesler ( 1967) under Entoloma.

LEUCOPAXILLUS
Singer, R.. and Smith, A. H. 1943. A monograph of the genus Leiuopaxillns. Pap. Mich.
Acad. Sci.. Arts & Lett. 28:85-132.

LIMACELLA

Smith, H. V. 1945. The genus Liniacella in North America. Pap. Mich. Acad. Sci.. Arts &
Lett. 30:125-147.

MARASMIUS
Gilliam, M. S. 1975, Marasniiiis section Chordales in the Northeastern United States and
adjacent Canada. Contrib. Univ, Mich, Herb. ll(2):25-40,

1976, The genus Marasmiiis in the Northeastern United States and adjacent Canada.

Mycotaxon 4:1-144.

276

REFERENCES FOR SELECTED GROUPS

MELANOLEUCA

GiLLMAN, L. S., and Miller, O. K. 1977. A study of the Boreal, Alpine, and Arctic species of
Mclanolcuca. Mycologia 69:927-951.

Metrod, G. 1948. Essai siir le genre Melanoleiica Patouillard emen. Bull. Soc. Mycol.
France 64:141-165.

MYCENA

KiJHNER, R. 1938. Le genre Mycena. Lechevalier, Paris.

Smith, A. H. 1947. North American species of Mjce/io. Univ. Michigan Press. Ann Arbor.

NAEMATOLOMA
Smith. A. H. 1951. North American species of A^f/£'/»a/o/o///rt. Mycologia 43 :467-52 1 .

NAUCORIA
RoMAGNESi, H. 1962. Les Naucoria du group centunculus {Raniicola Velen.). Bull. Soc.

Mycol. France 78:337-358.
5£'£' rtAvo Kijhner and Romagnesi (1953) under general bibliography.

NOLANEA

Mazzer, S. J. 1976. A monographic study of the genus Pouzarclla. Biblotheca Mycologica

46, J, Cramer, Vaduz,
See also Hesler ( 1967) under Entolonia.

PANAEOLUS
Ola'h, G. M. 1970. V.Q gQnxQ Panaeoliis. Rev, Mycol. Mem. 10.

PANUS
Mil LER. O. K. 1970. The genus Panellus in North America. Mich Bot. 9: 17-30.

PAXILLUS

See Kauftman ( 1926) under Flamnuda and Singer ( 1951 ) under general bibliography.

PHAEOLEPIOTA

Only one species known.

PHOLIOTA

Overholts, L. O. 1927. A monograph of the genus PhoHota in the United States. Ann.

Mo. Bot.Gard. 14:87-210.
Smith, A. H., and Hesler. L. R. 1968. The North American species of PlwUotu. Hafner

Publ.Co., New York.

PHYLLOTOPSIS

Only one species known.

PLEUROTUS

Coker, W. C. 1944. The smaller species of Pleurotus in North Carolina. J. Elisha Mitchell
Sci. Soc. 60:71-95.

Miller, O. K., and Manning, D. L. 1976. Distribution of the Lignicolous Tricholomataceae
in the Southern Appalachians, Pages 307-344 //; B. C. Parker and M. K. Roane, eds. The
distributional history of the Biota of the Southern Appalachians, IV., Univ. Press of
Virginia, Charlottesville.

PiLAT, A. 1935. Pleurotus. Atlas des champignons de I'Europe 2. Prague.

See also Singer (1951) under general bibliography.

PLUTEUS

HoMOLA, R. L. 1972. Section Celluloderma of the genus Pluteus in North America.

Mycologia 64: 121 1-1247.
Singer, R. 1956. Contributions toward a monograph of the genus Pluteus. Trans. Brit.

Mycol. Soc. 39:145-232.

POLYPORACEAE
BoNDARTSEV, A. S. 1953. The Polyporaceae of the European USSR and Caucasia. Acad.

Sci. USSR, Leningrad. (English translation published by U.S. Dept. Agric. 1971.)
DoMANSKi. S. 1972. Fungi (Polyporaceae I). Nat. Center Sci., Tech. & Econ. Inf., Warsaw.
DoMANSKi. S., Ortos, H., and Skirgietto, A. 1973. Fungi (Polyporaceae II). Nat. Center

Sci., Tech. & Econ. Inf,, Warsaw.

277

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

Fergus, C. L. 1960. Illustrated genera of wood decay fungi. Burgess Publ. Co.. Minnea-
polis. Minn.

Lowe, J. L. 1957. Polyporaceae of North America. The genus Foiues. Tech. Publ. N.Y.
State Coll. For. 80.

1966. The genus Foria. Tech. Publ. N.Y. State Coll. For. 90.

Lowe, J. L. 1975. Polyporaceae of North America: The genus Tyromyccs. Mycotaxon 2:1-82.

Lowe, J. L., and Gilbertson, R. L. 1961. Synopsis of the Polyporaceae of the western
United States and Canada. Mycologia 53:474-51 1.

OvERHOLTS, L. O. 1953. The Polyporaceae of the United States, Alaska and Canada. Univ.
Michigan Press, Ann Arbor.

Ryvarden, L. 1976-1978. The Polyporaceae of North Europe. I and IL Fungiflora. Oslo.

See also Smith and Smith ( 1973) under general bibliography.

PSATHYRELLA

Smith, A. H. 1972. The North American species of Psathyrella. Mem. N.Y. Bot. Card..
Hafner Press, N.Y.

PSEUDOCOPRINUS

See Lange and Smith (1953) under Coprinus.

RUSSULA

Beardsi.ee. H. C. 1918. The Russulas of North Carolina. J. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc.

33:147-197.
Blum, J. 1962. Les Russules: flore monographique des Russules de France et des pays

voisins. Lechevalier, Paris.
BuRLiNGHAM, G. 1915. Riissula. North Am. Flora 9:201-236.
Crawshay, R. 1930. The spore ornamentation of the Russulas. Bailliere. Tindall and Co.x.

London.
Heinemann, p. 1962. Les Russules. Nat. Belg. 43 : 1-32.
Rayner, R. W. 1968-1970. Keys to the British species of Rtissnia. Bull. Brit. Mycol. Soc.

2:76-108; 3:59; 3:89-120; 4: 19-46.
Romagnesi, H. 1967. Les Russules d'Europe et d'Afrique du Nord. Bordas. Paris.
ScHAEFFER, J. 1952. Russiila-Monographie. Klinkhardt Verlag, Bad Heilbrunn.
Shaffer, R. L. 1964. The subsection Lactarioideae of Russula. Mycologia 56:202-231.
1970. Notes on subsection Crassotunicatinae and other species of Russula. Lloydia

33:49-96.

1972. North American Russulas of the subsection Foetentinae. Mycologia 64:

1008-1053.

Shaffer, R. L. 1975. Some common North American species of Russula subsection Emeti-
cinae. Beih. Nova Hedw. 51:207-237; pis. 49-54.

SCHIZOPHYLLUM
Cooke, W. B. 1961. The genus Schizopliyllum. Mycologia 53 :575-599.
Linder, D. H. 1933. The genus Schizophvilum: \. The species of the western hemisphere.
Am. J. Bot. 20:552-564.

STROPHARIA

See Kiihner and Romagnesi (1953) under general bibliography.

THELEPHORACEAE
Corner. E. J. H. 1968. A monograph of Thelephora (Basidiomycetes). Nova Hedw. Beih.

27.
The genus Craterellus is treated in the Cantharellaceae by most authors.

TREMELLALES
Martin, G. W. 1952. Revision of the North Central Tremellales. State Univ. Iowa Stud.

Nat. Hist. 19(3).
See also Smith and Smith (1973 ) under general bibliography.

TRICHOLOMA

BoN, M. 1967-1970. Revision des Tricholomes. Bull. Soc. Mycol. France 83:324-335;
85:475-492:86:755-763.

278

Malloch, D. 1974. Tricholonia juhiiiu. Fungi Can. 31. (Includes a key to Tricholonia

species with brown, viscid caps and farinaceous flesh.)
Metrod. G. 1942. Les Tricholomes. Rev. Mycol. 7 (suppl. 2) :22-50.
Smith. A. H. 1960. Tricholomopsis (Agaricales) in the western hemisphere. Brittonia

12:41-70.
See also Bigelow and Smith ( 1969) under Clitocyhe.

TROGIA

No other species can be confused with T. crispa. It is now usually placed in the genus
Plicati/rn.

TUBARIA

See KUhner and Romagnesi ( 1953) under general bibliography.

VOLVARIELLA
Shaffer, R. L. 1957. Volvariella in North America. Mycologia 49:545-579.

XEROMPHALINA
Miller. O. K. 1968. A revision of the genus A'^/v;/?//?/^///?^. Mycologia 60: 156-188.

279

Figures 374-383

374. Geastrum triplex. 375. Lycoperdon perlatum.

376. Morchella esculenta. 371. M. angusticeps.

378. Verpa bohemica. 379. Gyromitra esculenta.

380. G.infula. 381. Peziza repanda

382. Sarcoscypha coccinea. 383. Urnula craterium.

280

281

Figure 384. Hebeloma sinapizans.

282

Figure 385. Conocybe crispa.
Figures 386-387. Stropharia aeruginosa.

283

00

90

3

284

V.
ft.

ON
00

3

285

Figures 390-391. Coprinus atramentarius.

286

Figures 392-393. Coprinus comatus.

287

Figure 394. Panaeolus foenisecii.
Figure 395. Pseudocoprinus disseminatus.

288

396

397

Figure 396. Ganoderma tsugae.
Figure 397. Polyporus frondosus.

289

4 *•■

399;

Figure 398. Clavaria cinerea.
Figure 399. Clavaria fiava.

290

Figure 400. Dictyophora duplicata.
Figures 401-403. Bovista pila.

291

Figures 404-405. Calvatia gigantea. 404, whole specimen; 405, section.
Figures 406-407. Ly coper don per la turn. 406, whole specimen; 407, section.

292

293

,' I

409

410

Figure 409. Helvetia crispa.
Figure 410. Helvella elastica.

294

Figure 411. Cantharellus cibarius.
Figure 412. Lactarius deliciosus.

295

Figure 413. Pleurotus serotinus.
Figure 414. Clitocybe clavipes.

296

Figure 415. Xeromphalina campanella.
Figure 416. CoUybia platyphylla.

297

00

.ex

-5

a

3
00

3

298

419

Figure 419. Trogia crispa.

299

Figure 420. CUtopilus abortivus.
Figure 421. Phyllotopsis nidulans.

300

Figure 422. Pholiota caperata.
Figure 423. Naematoloma sublateritium.

301

I

'^A

424

Figure 424. Panaeolus retirugis.
Figure 425. Strobilomyces floccopus.

425

302

60

303

304

Figure 429. Gyromitra esculenta.

305

Figure 430. Gyromitra infula.

306

Figure 431. Psilocybe semilanceata.

307

ABBREVIATIONS OF NAMES OF AUTHORS

A. — J. B. von Albertini
Alb. — J. B. von Albertini
Afz. — A. Afzelius

Atk. — G. F. Atkinson

B. — M. J. Berkeley
Berk. — M. J. Berkeley
Bolt. — J. Bolton
Boud. — E. Boudier
Br. — C. E. Broome
Bref. — O. Brefeld
Bres. — G. Bresadola
Britz. — M. Britzelmayr
Bull. — J. B. F. BuUiard

Burl. — Gertrude S. Burlingham

C. — M. A. Curtis
Cke. — M. C. Cooke
Curt. — M. A. Curtis
DC. — A. P. De CandoUe
Dicks. — J. Dickson

Fr. — E. M. Fries

Genev. — G. Genevier

Gill. — C. C. Gillet

Hook. — W. J. Hooker

Huds. — W. Hudson

Jacq. - — N, J. von Jacquin

Jungh. — F. F. W. Junghuhn

Kalchb. — K. Kalchbrenner

Karst. — P. A. Karsten

Kauffm. — C. H. Kauffman

Kl. — J. F. Klotzch .

Konr. — P. Konrad

Krombh. — J. V. von Krombholz

L. — C. Linnaeus

Lam. — J. B. A. P. M. de Lamarck

Lindbl. — M. A. Lindblad

Lovej. — Ruth H. Lovejoy

Lund. — S. Lundell

Mass. — G. Massee

Maubl. — A. Maublanc

Morg. — A. P. Morgan

MUU. — O. F. Muller

Murr. — W. A. Murrill

Nannf. — J. A. Nannfeldt

Opat. — W. Opatovi'ski

Pat. — N. T. Patouillard

Pk. — C. H. Peck

Pers. — C. H. Persoon

Quel. — L. Quelet

Rom. — L. Romell

S. — L. D. von Schweinitz

Sacc. — P. A. Saccardo

Schaeff. — J. C. Schaeffer

Schrad. — H. A. Schrader

Schrot. — J. Schroter

Schw. — L. D. von Schvi'einitz

Sebum. — H. D. F. Schumacher

Scop. — J. A. Scopoli

Seer. — L. Secretan

Sing. — R. Singer

Sm. — A. H. Smith

Sor. — N. V. Sorokin

Sow. — J. Sowerby

Speg. — C. L. Spegazzini

Sw. — O. P. Swartz

TuL — E. L. R. Tulasne and C. Tulasne

Underw. — L. M. Underwood

Vaill. — S. Vaillant

Vitt. — C. Vittadini

Wahl. — G. Wahlenberg

Weinm. — J. A. Weinmann

309

GLOSSARY

a:- prefix signifying without or absence of.

acrid: a biting or peppery taste.

adnate: (of lamellae) broadly joined to the
stipe; (of cuticle or volva) not peeling
off or pulling off readily.

adnexed: (of lamellae) narrowly joined to
the stipe.

allantoid: sausage-shaped.

alutaceous: light leather-colored, pale tan,
pale brown.

amygdaline: (of taste) like that of peach or
cherry stones.

amyloid: turning blue when treated with a
solution of iodine in chloral hydrate and
water.

anastomose, anastomosing: (of lamellae)
joined crosswise forming angular areas
or a network.

annulus: ring of tissue left on the stipe from
the torn partial veil.

apical: (of stipe) the part near the attach-
ment of the lamellae or where it joins
the flesh of the pileus, the upper part.

apiculate: provided with an apiculus.

apiculus: (of spores) a short, sometimes
sharp papilla or projection by which the
spore was attached to the sterigma.

apothecium: the usually cup-shaped or
saucer-shaped to saddle-shaped fruiting
body of Discomycetes in which a layer
of asci is exposed to the air.

appendiculate: (of the margin of the pileus)
hung with fragments of the veil or
pellicle.

appressed: closely flattened down.

arcuate: arched or curved like a bow.

areolate: (of the surface of the pileus, or
stipe) marked out in little areas by
cracks or crevices.

ascus (pi. asci): the cell in which the spores
of the Ascomycetes are produced. Typi-
cally there is a fusion of nuclei in the
young ascus followed by three nuclear
divisions resulting in eight ascospores.

atomate: covered with minute shining par-
ticles, glistening like mica.

azonate: not zoned.

basidium (pi. basidia): the cell on which the
spores of the Basidiomycetes are pro-
duced. Typically there is a fusion of
nuclei in the young basidium followed
by two nuclear divisions resulting in
four spores that develop outside the cell
on small stalks.

booted: (of base of stipe), closely sheathed
by the volva.

campanulate: bell-shaped.

cespitose: growing in dense tufts or clusters.

chlamydospore: an asexual spore formed
by the cells of the hyphae becoming
rounded, thick-walled, and separated
from one another.

cinereous: ashy gray.

clavate: club-shaped.

concolor, concolorous: (of lamellae or
stipe), same color as the pileus.

conidium (pi. conidia): spore produced
asexually.

cortina: the cobwebby veil found in some
mushrooms.

crenate: scalloped, round-toothed.

crenulate: finely crenate.

crisped: finely curled or crinkled.

cupulate: cup-like in form.

cystidium (pi. cystidia): a large, sterile,
more or less differentiated cell occur-
ring among the basidia and usually pro-
jecting beyond them.

cyathiform: cup-shaped with a flaring mar-
gin.

decumbent: resting on the substratum with
the end turned up.

decurrent: (of lamellae or tubes), running
down the stipe.

decurved: bent down.

deliquescing: dissolving into fluid.

echinulate: covered with small pointed
spines.

eflfused-reflexed: spread out over the sub-
stratum and turned back at the margin
to form a pileus.

ellipsoid: (of spores), rounded at both ends
and with sides curved.

emarginate: (of lamellae), notched near the
stipe.

epiphragm: the thin membrane covering the
mouth of the young peridium in the
Nidulariaceae.

evanescent: soon disappearing.

excentric: (of the stipe), not attached to the
center of the pileus, off-center.

farinaceous: (of odor and taste) resembling
fresh meal.

ferruginous: rust colored.

fetid: stinking.

fibrillose: (of pileus or stipe), with thin
thread-like filaments or fibrils, usually
somewhat scattered.

310

GLOSSARY

filiform: very slender, thread-like.
fimbriate: with the edge or margin finely

fringed or torn.
floccose: loose cottony to woolly.
floccule: small cottony tuft.
frondose: descriptive of a wood or forest of
broad-leaved trees.

fulvous: reddish cinnamon-brown.

furfuraceous: covered with bran-like par-
ticles, scurfy.

fuscous: a dark smoky brown.

fusiform: spindle-shaped, tapering to both
ends.

generic: of the rank of a genus or pertain-
ing to a genus.

genus (pi. genera): a category used in
classification; the first major grouping
above the rank of species, considered to
include related species.

gibbous: (of the pileus), having an unsym-
metrical convexity or umbo, irregularly
rounded.

glabrous: smooth, lacking scales, hairs, etc.

globose: spherical.

gloeocystidium: a special form of cystidium
of gelatinous or horny consistency and
with oily, resinous, granular contents.

glutinous: very sticky.

granulose: covered with granules.

hilum: (of spores), the scar marking the
point of attachment.

hygrophanous: (of the pileus), with a watery
appearance when moist and changing
markedly in color as it dries out.

hyaline: colorless, transparent.

hymenium: the fruiting surface in fruit
bodies of Ascomycetes and Basidiomy-
cetes.

hypha (pi. hyphae): a single thread or fila-
ment of the vegetative structure of a
fungus.

hypoderm: (of pileus), a region of differen-
tiated hyphae just below the pellicle.

imbricate: overlapping like shingles.

infundibuliform: funnel-shaped.

intervenose: with veins between the lamel-
lae.

involute: inroUed.

lacerate: appearing as if torn.

lamella (pi. lamellae): the blade-like or gill-
like structure on the under side of the
pileus of a mushroom.

lamellula (pi. lamellulae): small lamellae
which do not reach the stipe.

lanceolate: lance-shaped, longer than broad
and tapering.

latex: milky juice found in some mush-
rooms.

livid: blue-black, colored like a bruise.

marginate: (of lamellae), with the edge dif-
ferently colored than the sides; (of the
bulb of the stipe), having a circular
ridge on the upper, exterior angle where
the universal veil was attached.

membranous: thin and pliant like a mem-
brane.

mycelioid: resembling mycelium, often ap-
plied to a mold-like growth at base of
stipe.

mycelium: the vegetative part of a fungus,
a collective term for the hyphae.

mycophagist: one who eats mushrooms.

obconic: inversely conic.

-old: a suffix meaning like or similar to.

ovoid: egg shaped.

pallid: of an indefinite pale or whitish ap-
pearance.

papillate: having small nipple-shaped eleva-
tions on the surface.

papillose: same as papillate.

paraphyses: unspecialized sterile cells in the
hymenium between the basidia.

pedicel: a slender stalk.

pellicle: a skin-like covering of the pileus
which often peels off easily.

peridiole: the seed-like or egg-like struc-
tures in the bird's-nest fungi consisting
of an inner peridium enclosing the
spores.

peridium: the outer enveloping wall or coat
of the puff ball fruit body.

peronate: (of the stipe), sheathed by the
universal veil.

pileus: the cap-like structure that bears the
hymenium.

plicate: folded like a fan.

poroid: (of lamellae) becoming joined by
cross veins so as to resemble pores.

pruinose: appearing as if finely powdered.

pubescent: provided with a covering of
short, soft, downy hairs.

pulverulent: powdery.

punctate: marked with small point-like
spots, scales, glandules, etc.

pyriform: pear-shaped.

reniform: kidney-shaped.

resupinate: (of fruit bodies), lying flat on
the substratum with the hymenium
facing outwards.

reticulate: marked with lines or ridges that
form a network.

rhizomorph: a cord-like strand of mycel-
ium.

rimose: cracked.

rivulose: marked with lines suggesting a

river system on a map.
rugose: coarsely wrinkled.
rugulose: finely wrinkled.

31

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

scabrous: rough with short, rigid projec-
tions.

sclerotium: a resting body, usually very
hard in consistency, composed of thick-
walled hyphae, and sometimes with a
definite rind.

scrobiculate: with shallow depressions or
pits.

septum: a cross wall in a hypha or spore.

sensu: in the sense of.

serrate: (of lamellae), notched or toothed
on the edge like the blade of a saw.

sessile: (of the pileus), lacking a stipe.

sinuate: (of lamellae), wavy or notched
near the stipe.

species: a population of individuals with
certain inherited characters in common.
There are no fixed rules or standard
for determining a species. The species
concept is largely a matter of judgment
and agreement among taxonomists. The
species is designated by a Latin binomial
consisting of the name of the genus (a
noun) followed by the specific epithet
(an adjective).

sphaerocyst: more or less globular cells
found in the flesh of Russula, Lactarius
and some other basidiomycetes.

sporangium: sac-like cell within which
spores are produced.

spore: the reproductive body of a fungus
or other cryptogams.

squamulose: covered with small scales.

squarrose: covered with erect, recurved
scales.

sterigma (pi. sterigmata): the small stalk
on a basidium on which the basidio-
spore is borne and from which it is
forcibly discharged.

stipe: the stalk or stem-like part of a
mushroom, bolete, etc.

stipitate: possessing a stipe.

striate: marked with minute lines or fur-
rows.

striatulate: finely striate.

strigose: with coarse, rather long, stiff

hairs.
stuffed: (of the stipe), having the central

part composed of a differentiated pith

that may disappear leaving the stipe

hollow.
sub-: prefix meaning nearly, almost, some-
what, or under.
substrate, substratum: substance on or in

which the fungus grows.
sulcate: grooved or furrowed, intermediate

between striate and plicate.
taxonomy: the science of classification.
tomentose: densely matted with a covering

of soft hairs.
tomentum: a covering composed of long,

soft, hairy filaments or fibrils, usually

more or less interlaced and matted.
trama: (of the lamellae), the tissue between

the two hymenia; (of the pileus) the

fleshy part.
truncate: ending abruptly as though the

end were cut off.
tuberculate: covered with wart-like or

knob-like projections.
turbinate: top-shaped.
umbilicate: (of the pileus), having a central

navel-like depression.
umbo: a raised conical to convex swelling

like the boss at the center of a shield.
umbonate: (of the pileus), having an umbo.
undulate: wavy.
ventricose: swollen or enlarged in the

central part.
verrucose: warty.
vesiculose: (of cells), enlarged and swollen

to globose or nearly so.
virgate: streaked, usually with fibrils of a

different color.
viscid: sticky to the touch.
volva: the universal veil found in certain

genera such as Amanita.
zonate: (of pileus), marked with concentric

bands of different color than the

remainder of the pileus.

312

INDEX

abietina, Russula 62, 74

abortivus, Clitopilus 169, 177

abruptibulbus, Agaricus 203

abundans, Collybia 151

acericola, Pholiota 185

acervata, Collybia 150

Acurtis 169

acutesquamosa, Lepiota 95

adiposa, Pholiota 186, 187

adirondackensis, Clitocybe 117

admirabilis, Pluteus 18, 165

aeruginea, Russula 62

aeruginosa, Stropharia 204, 268

aestivalis, Amanita 79, 88

affinis, Lactarius 39

Agaricaceae 4, 23, 24, 32

Agaricales 263

Agaricus 6, 21, 200, 205, 208, 264, 270

Agrocybe 268

albellum, Leccinum 227

albipilata, Collybia 157

albissima, Clitocybe 122

albissimus var. albissimus, Leucopaxillus

123
albissimus var. piceinus, Leucopaxillus

122
albobrunneum, Tricholoma 127
albocrenulata, Pholiota 186
alboflavida, Melanoleuca 131
albogriseus, Clitopilus 178
albolanatus, Pleurotus 104
albonigra, Russula 75
alboviolaceus, Cortinarius 180
alcalina, Mycena 147
alni, Plicatura 266
Alnicola 269
alutacea, Russula 63
Amanita 2, 6, 11, 12, 13, 77, 88, 93, 201,

264
amanitine 12

Amanitopsis 83, 88, 167, 264
americana, Lepiota 94, 96
americanus, Suillus 228
amethystina, Laccaria 145
amianthinum, Cystoderma 100, 265, 266
amoenus, Hygrophorus 1 70
Anellaria 218

angelesianus, Neohygrophorus 263
angustatus, Panus 104
angusticeps, Morchella 258
appendiculatum, Hypholoma 208
applanatus, Crepidotus 198
applicatus, Pleurotus 103
applicatus, Resupinatus 265
aquosa, Collybia 151
argentina, Volvariella 267

Armillaria 100, 125, 264, 265, 266

Armillariella 265

armillatus, Cortinarius 181

arvensis, Agaricus 200, 201, 203

arvensis var. palustris, Agaricus 201

Ascomycetes 21, 22, 23, 257

ascus 21

asprella, Leptonia 171

Asterophora 263

atramentarius, Coprinus 211, 212, 218

atromarginatus, Pluteus 166

atropine 13

atrotomentosus, Paxillus 199

atroviridis, Lactarius 54

aurantia, Tricholoma 125

aurantiaca, Clitocybe 32, 33, 107, 117

aurantiacum, -Leccinum 226, 227

aurantiacus, Cantharellus 32, 117

aurantiacus, Pluteus 167

aurantiolutea, Russula 63

aurantiorugosus, Pluteus 167

aurea, Clavaria 243

aurea, Phaeolepiota 189, 190

auricolor, Agaricus 202

auricula, Auricularia 246

Auricularia 246

Auriculariaceae 23, 24, 245

aurivella, Pholiota 186

autumnalis, Pholiota 185, 188

badius, Xerocomus 231

Basidiomycetes 22, 23, 24, 257

basidium 22

bear's head fungus 241

beefsteak fungus 237

benzoinus, Polyporus 239

betulinus, Polyporus 238

bird's nest fungi 247, 250

bisphaerigera, Fayodia 265

bispora, Morchella 259

bisporigera, Amanita 88

blushing hygrophorus 143

bohemica, Verpa 258

Bolbitius 268

Boletaceae 23, 24, 199, 220, 237, 263

Boletinellus 223

Boletinus 220, 223

Boletus 220, 224, 228

bombycina, Volvariella 167, 168

borealis, Hygrophorus 138, 140

botrytis, Clavaria 242

Bovista 251

bread mold 21

brevipes, Cantharellus 34

brevipes, Melanoleuca 131

brevipes, Suillus 229

313

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

brick-top mushroom 207

brunnea, Lepiota 94, 96, 97, 98, 99

briinnescens, Amanita 79, 85

brunnescens var. pallida, Amanita 79, 88

brunneola, Russula 76

Bulbopodium 180

buiyracea, Collybia 151

byssisedus, Claudopus 179

caesarea, Amanita 80

caloceps, Pluteus 167

calolepis, Crepidotus 198

Calvatia 250

Camarophyllus 132

campanella, Xeromphalina 146, 265

campanulatus, Panaeolus 14, 218, 270

campestris, Agaricus 2, 21, 168, 200, 202,

203, 270
camphoratus, Lactarius 40
candidissimus, Pleurotus 103
candolleana, Psathyrella 208, 209
caninus, Mutinus 248
Cantharellula 32, 37, 118, 120, 265
Cantharellus 32, 107, 117, 120, 263, 265
cantharellus, Hygrophorus 138
caperata, Pholiota 187
caperata, Rozites 269
capnoides, Naematoloma 206
caput-ursi, Hydnum 241
cartilaginea, Clitocybe 121
castaneus, Gyroporus 225
Catathelasma 101, 264
cavipes, Boletinus 223
centuncula, Naucoria 269
cepe 224

ceraceus, Hygrophorus 141
cervinus, Pluteus 18, 165, 166, 268
chamaeleontina, Russula 62, 64, 74
Chamaeota 267
chantarelle 2, 32, 33
chlorophanus, Hygrophorus 140
Chlorophyllum 98, 264
chromapes, Leccinum 226
chrysenteron, Xerocomus 231
chrysodon, Hygrophorus 138
chrysorheus, Lactarius 40
cibarius, Cantharellus 2, 32, 33, 120, 121
cilicioides, Lactarius 58
cinerea, Clavaria 243
cinereus, Lactarius 41, 54, 58
cinnabarinum, Cystoderma 100
cinnabarinus, Cantharellus 33
cinnabarinus, Cortinarius 182
cinnabarinus, Crepidotus 198
cinnamomeus, Cortinarius 182
cirrhata, Collybia 157
citrina, Amanita 80, 81
claroflava, Russula 67
Claudopus 102, 179, 267

Clavaria 242

Clavariaceae 23, 24, 32, 242, 244

clavalus, Cantharellus 32, 34, 35

clavipes, Clitocybe 118

clintonianus. Boletus 230

Clitocybe 6, 16, 32, 37, 102, 107, 122,

145, 163, 177, 263, 267
Clitopilus 169, 177, 267
clypeolaria, Lepiota 97, 98
coccinea, Sarcoscypha 261
coccineus, Hygrophorus 144
coccineus, Pluteus 167
cochleatus, Lentinellus 264
cochleatus, Lentinus 161
collinitus, Cortinarius 181
collinitus var. trivialis, Cortinarius 182
Collybia 107, 130, 131, 149, 158, 266, 267
colubrina, Lepiota 264
comatus, Coprinus 2, 211, 270
commune, Schizophyllum 164, 264
comptuliformis, Agaricus 202
conchatus, Panus 163, 266
cone-like boletus 228
confluens, Collybia 150, 151
confluens, Polyporus 239
conica, Morchella 258
conica, Verpa 259
conicus, Hygrophorus 132, 139
Conocybe 192, 268
controversus, Lactarius 42
cookei, Collybia 157
Coprinus 10, 13, 14, 18, 208, 209, 217,

218, 219, 270
coralloides, Hydnum 241
cornucopioides, Craterellus 244
coronilla, Stropharia 204
Cortinarius 10, 17, 146, 179, 187, 191, 270
cothurnata, Amanita 87
craniiformis, Calvatia 251
crassotunicata, Russula 65
Craterellus 32, 34, 244
craterium, Urnula 261
Crepidotus 102, 179, 198, 268
Crinipellis 267
crispa, Conocybe 192
crispa, Helvella 260
crispa, Trogia 103, 165
cristata, Lepiota 97, 98
croceofolius, Cortinarius 182
cuspidatum, Entoloma 170
cuspidatus, Hygrophorus 139
cyanescens, Gyroporus 221, 226
cyanoxantha, Russula 75
cyathiformis, Calvatia 251
cyathiformis, Clitocybe 37, 118, 178
Cyathus 249
Cystoderma 21, 95, 100, 190, 265, 266

Dacrymyces 246

314

INDEX

Dacrymycetaceae 23, 24, 245

dealbata, Clitocybe 13, 107, 118, 159

deceptivus, Lactarius 42, 59

decolorans, Russula 64

decora, Clitocybe 119, 128

decorum, Tricholoma 119

delica, Russula 42, 65

delicata, Limacella 264

Delicatula 265

deliciosus, Lactarius 2, 38, 43, 57, 263

delicious lactarius 2, 43

densifolia, Russula 65, 73, 75

Dentinum 241

depilata, Stropharia 205

Dermocybe 180, 182

destroying angel 87

Dictyophora 248

diminutivus, Agaricus 201

Discomycetes 22, 23, 257

disseminatus, Pseudocoprinus 219, 270

dorsalis, Crepidotus 198

downy mildews 21

dryophila, Collybia 149, 151, 267

duplicata, Dictyophora 248

earth star 250

eburneus, Hygrophorus 138, 139, 264

Eccilia 169, 171, 267

echinatum, Melanophyllum 264, 270

ectypoides, Clitocybe 37, 118, 119

edible boletus 224

edulis, Agaricus 202

edulis. Boletus 224

elastica, Helvella 261

elegans. Boletus 230

elongatipes, Pleurotus 107

emetica, Russula 66, 68, 74

Entoloma 169, 171, 172, 177, 267

equestre, Tricholoma 125

ergot 22

erinaceum, Hydnum 241

esculenta, Gyromitra 13, 258, 259, 260

esculenta, Morchella 2, 258

Eubasidiomycetes 24

evanescens, Catathelasma 264

fairy butter 246

fairy ring 1, 159

fairy's loving cup 245

fallax, Russula 62, 66

familia, Collybia 151

fasciculare, Naematoloma 206, 207

fastibile, Hebeloma 269, 270

fastigiata, Inocybe 183

Fayodia 265

felleus, Tylopilus 230

festiva, Phaeocollybia 269

field mushroom 201

flammans, Pholiota 187

Flammula 119, 190, 269
Flammulina 266
flava, Clavaria 243
flava, Russula 66
flavescens, Hygrophorus 140
flavipes, Leucocoprinus 264
flavobrunneum, Tricholoma 127
flavoconia, Amanita 17, 81, 82, 84
flavofuligineus, Pluteus 166
flavorubescens, Amanita 81, 85
flavovirens, Tricholoma 124, 125, 126, 129,

265, 267
floccopus, Strobilomyces 228
floccosus, Cantharellus 34, 156
fly agaric 83
foenisecii, Panaeolus 217
foetens, Russula 60, 67
foetentula, Russula 67
formosa, Clavaria 242
formosa, Leptonia 171
fragilis, Bolbitius 268
fragilis, Russula 66, 67
fragrans, Clitocybe 122
fragrans, Hygrophorus 143
friesii, Lepiota 96
frondosus, Polyporus 238
frostiana, Amanita 17, 81, 82, 84
fuligineus, Hygrophorus 142
fuliginosus, Lactarius 53
fulvotomentosus, Crepidotus 198
Fungi Imperfecti 22, 24
furfuracea, Tubaria 197, 268
fuscogrisella, Nolanea 172
fusiformis, Clavaria 243

Galera 192, 268, 269
galericulata, Mycena 148, 265, 267
Galerina 188, 192, 269
Ganoderma 238
Gasteromycetales 24
Gasteromycetes 23, 247
Geastrum 250

gelatinosum, Pseudohydnum 245
gemmata, Amanita 83, 86
gemmatum, Lycoperdon 252
geophylla, Inocybe 183
gerardii, Lactarius 53
giant puffball 2, 250
gibba, Clitocybe 121
gigantea, Calvatia 2, 247, 250
gigantea, Clitocybe 122
giganteus, Leucopaxillus 123
gigas, Gyromitra 260
glabriceps, Amanita 87
glioderma, Limacella 94
glischra, Limacella 93
glistening inky cap 212
gloiocephala, Volvariella 168
glutinosus, Gomphidius 219, 270

315

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

Gomphidius 23, 219, 220, 270
gracilis, Psathyrella 270
gracilis, Russula 62
granulata, Russula 67
granulatus, Suillus 229
granulosum, Cystoderma 100
grevillei, Suillus 229
griseum, Entoloma 169, 170
griseus, Lactarius 43
griseus, Polyporus 239
Gymnopilus 269
Gyromitra 259
Gyroporus 225

haematochelis, Cortinarius 181
haematopus, Lentinus 161
haemorrhoidarius, Agaricus 202
haerens, Crepidotus 198
hariolorum, Collybia 151
Hebeloma 190, 191, 269, 270
Helvella 260
helvellic acid 13
helvelloides, Phlogiotis 246
helvus, Lactarius 40, 44
Hemibasidiomycetes 24
hepatica, Fistulina 237
hen of the woods 238
Hericium 241
hondensis, Agaricus 200
honey mushroom 101
hornemannii, Stropharia 205
horn of plenty 244
horse mushroom 201
hortensis, Agaricus 201
Hydnaceae 23, 24, 240, 245
Hydnum 241
Hydrocybe 180
hydrophila, Psathyrella 208
Hygrocybe 132
hygrophoroides, Lactarius 44
Hygrophoropsis 117
Hygrophorus 131, 145, 219, 264
Hymenomycetales 24
Hypholoma 206, 208, 268
Hypomyces 262

illinita, Limacella 94
illinita var. rubescens, Limacella 94
illudens, Clitocybe 33, 107, 120, 121
imbricatum, Tricholoma 127, 130
imperialis, Armillaria 101
impudicus. Phallus 249
inaurata, Amanitopsis 83
incertum, Hypholoma 208
inclinata, Mycena 148
indigo, Lactarius 53
infula, Gyromitra 259, 260
infundibuliformis, Cantharellus 36
infundibuliformis, Clitocybe 121, 267

316

inky cap 211

Inocybe 10, 13, 183, 191, 269
Inoloma 180
insignis, Coprinus 211
insulsus, Lactarius 40
integra, Russula 68
integrella, Delicatula 265
intermedium, Tricholoma 129
involutus, Paxillus 199, 233, 268
irinum, Tricholoma 124, 126

jack-o'-lantem 120
Jew's ear 246
junquillea, Amanita 86

kauffmaniana, Pholiota 187
kaufmannii, Cantharellus 35
key, use of 17
Kuehneromyces 268

Laccaria 107, 145, 264, 266

laccata, Laccaria 132, 145, 146, 264, 266

lachrymabundum, Hypholoma 209

laciniatum, Hydnum 241

Lactarius 8, 13, 37, 60, 65, 145, 262, 263

lactea, Conocybe 192

lactifluorum, Hypomyces 257, 262

lacunosa, Helvella 260

laetus, Hygrophorus 143

lampropoda, Leptonia 171

laterarium, Tricholoma 122

laterarius, Leucopaxillus 123

leaf-spotting fungi 22

leaiana, Mycena 148

Leccinum 226

Lentinellus 264

lentinoides, Collybia 151

Lentinus 102, 160, 161, 264, 266

lentum, Tricholoma 122

Lenzites 23

leoninus, Pluteus 18, 166

lepideus, Lentinus 161, 266

Lepiota 16, 21, 93, 94, 100, 264, 265

Lepista 124, 127, 267, 268

Leptonia 169, 171, 172, 267

Leucocoprinus 264

Leucopaxillus 16, 107, 122, 263, 265

leucophaeatum, Lyophyllum 266

levis, Crucibulum 250

lignyolus, Lactarius 53

lilacina, Inocybe 183

Limacella, 21, 93, 95, 264

Limacium 132

liquiritiae, Gymnopilus 269

lividum, Entoloma 13

lividus, Rhodophyllus 267

longipes, Collybia 157

lucidum, Ganoderma 238

lutea, Russula 68, 263

I

INDEX

luteovirens, Armillaria 266
lutescens, Cantharellus 36
lutescens, Craterellus 36
luteus, Suillus 230
Lycoperdaceae 24, 247
lycoperdoides, Asterophora 263
Lycoperdon 252
Lyophyllum 266

Macrolepiota 264

maculata, Collybia 152

maculatus, Gomphidius 220

maculatus, Lactarius 59

magnus, Pluteus 167

malachius, Crepidotus 198

mammosa, Nolanea 172

mappa, Amanita 81

Marasmius 146, 149, 150, 151, 158, 267

marginata, Pholiota 188

marginatus, Hygrophorus 140

marginella, Pholiota 188

mariae, Russula 73

maxima, Clitocybe 123

meadow mushroom 2, 200

melaleuca, Melanoleuca 130, 131, 265

Melanoleuca 130, 265

Melanophyllum 264, 270

mellea, Armillaria 101, 120, 121

mellea, Armillariella 265

Melzer's reagent 16

merulioides, Boletinellus 223

micaceus, Coprinus 212

micromegethus, Agaricus 202

micropus, Clitopilus 178

miniatus, Hygrophorus 138, 141

mollis, Crepidotus 198, 268

molybdites, Chlorophyllum 264

molybdites, Lepiota 21, 94, 97, 98, 99

morbifera, Clitocybe 119

Morchella 259

morel 2, 258

morel, common 258

morel, false 259

morel, narrow capped 258

morgani, Lepiota 21, 98

mucidus, Lactarius 41, 54

mucifluus, Cortinarius 181

multiceps, Clitocybe 121

multiplex, Cantharellus 32, 34, 35

muscaria, Amanita 6, 13, 80, 81, 82, 83,

84, 86, 87
muscarine 13

mutabilis, Kuehneromyces 268
Mutinus 248

Mycena 147, 149, 150, 158, 192, 265, 267
mycoatropine 1 3
myomyces, Tricholoma 130
Myxacium 180

Naematoloma 204, 205, 208, 268

naucina, Lepiota 87, 94, 95, 98, 99, 168

Naucoria 190, 197, 269

nebularis, Clitocybe 118

necator, Lactarius 54

Neohygrophorus 263

nidulans, Claudopus 179

nidulans, Phyllotopsis 106, 179, 267

Nidulariaceae 24, 247

nigricans, Russula 65, 73, 75

nitidus, Hygrophorus 141

niveus, Hygrophorus 138, 140

nobilissimus, Oxyporus 237

Nolanea 169, 171, 172, 267

noveboracensis, Clitopilus 118, 178

nudum, Tricholoma 127

Nyctalis 263

ochropurpurea, Laccaria 145

odora, Clitocybe 122

olivaceoalbus, Hygrophorus 141

olivascens, Russula 63

olla, Cyathus 250

Omphaha 146, 265, 267

Omphalina 107, 267

operculatus, Panus 162

orcellus, Clitopilus 178

oreades, Marasmius 119, 158, 159

ostreatus, Pleurotus 102, 105, 107, 266

ovatus, Coprinus 211

ovinus, Polyporus 239

oxydabile, Leccinum 227

oyster mushroom 104

painted bolete 224

palmatus, Dacrymyces 246

palmatus, Rhodotus 265

paludosa, Russula 73

paludosus, Hygrophorus 142

paluster, Boletinus 224

Panaeolus 14, 208, 210, 217, 270

Panellus 264

pantherina, Amanita 13, 84

Panus 102, 161, 179, 264, 265, 266

papillata, Nolanea 172

parasiticus, Xerocomus 232

parasol mushroom 2, 99

parvus, Lactarius 41

patellaris, Tectella 162, 265

Paxillus 117, 199, 220, 223, 268

pectinata, Russula 67

pectinatoides, Russula 67

pellucida, Tubaria 198

pergamenus, Lactarius 59

perlatum, Lycoperdon 252

perplexum, Hypholoma 207

personatum, Tricholoma 124, 126, 127

pessundatum, Tricholoma 127

petaloides, Pleurotus 104

317

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

Peziza 261

Phaeocollybia 269

Phaeolepiota 190

Phallaceae 24, 247

phalloides, Amanita 12, 13, 88, 264

phalloidine 12

Phallus 249

Phlegmacium 180

Phlogiotis 246

Pholiota 21, 184, 190, 268, 269

Phycomycetes 21, 22, 23

Phyllotopsis 179, 267

piceina, Clitocybe 122

pictus, Boletinus 224

pine cone fungus 228

pila, Bovista 251

piperatus, Lactarius 59

piperatus, Suillus 230

pistillaris, Clavaria 243

placida, Leptonia 171

placomyces, Agaricus 200, 203

platyphylla, Collybia 152

Plectomycetes 23

Pleurotus 102, 161, 164, 179, 265, 266

Plicatura 266

plumbea, Bovista 251

plumbeoviolaceus, Tylopilus 231

Pluteus 18, 165, 268

Polyozellus 32, 35

Polyporaceae 23, 24, 220, 237

Polyporus 238

ponderosa, Armillaria 101

porosus, Boletinus 223

porphyria, Amanita 84, 85

porrigens, Pleurotus 104

potato blight fungus 21

powdery mildews 22

praecox, Agrocybe 268

praecox, Pholiota 185, 190

pratensis, Hygrophorus 142

procera, Lepiota 2, 94, 97, 99

procera, Macrolepiota 264

prunulus, Clitopilus 177, 178, 267

Psalliota 21, 200

Psathyra 208

Psathyrella 208, 268, 270

pseudoclavatus, CantHarellus 34

Pseudocoprinus 208, 218, 270

Pseudohydnum 246

Psilocybe 206, 208, 268

psittacinus, Hygrophorus 142

pudorinus, Hygrophorus 143

puellaris, Russula 62, 74

puffballs 23, 247

puniceus, Hygrophorus 140, 143

pura, Mycena 149

purpurascens, Hygrophorus 144

Pyrenomycetes 21, 22, 23, 262

pyriforme, Lycoperdon 252

quadrifidus, Coprinus 212

rabbits, antidote for Amanita poisoning

12
rachodes, Lepiota 97, 98
radicata, Collybia 157
ravenelii. Phallus 249
repanda, Peziza 261
repandum, Hydnum 241
representaneus, Lactarius 55
resimus, Lactarius 55
resinosus, Polyporus 239
resplendens, Tricholoma 127
Resupinatus 265
retirugis, Panaeolus 218
Rhodophyllis 169
Rhodophyllus 169, 267
rhodopolium, Entoloma 170
Rhodotus 106, 265
Ripartites 269
rivulosa, Clitocybe 119
rodmani, Agaricus 202
rotula, Marasmius 159, 267
Rozites 187, 269
rubescens, Amanita 79, 85
rubinellus, Suillus 230
rubiginosa, Galerina 269
rubrotincta, Russula 74
rudis, Panus 162
rufus, Gyrocephalus 246
rufus, Lactarius 38, 40, 55, 57
Russula 8, 10, 13, 37, 38, 60, 263
russula, Hygrophorus 144
Russulaceae 38

russuloides, Amanita 83, 85, 86
rusts 23, 24

rutilans, Tricholoma 119, 128
rutilans, Tricholomopsis 266

salicinus, Panus 162
salicinus, Pluteus 167
salmoneum, Entoloma 170
sanguifluus, Lactarius 43
saponaceum, Tricholoma 128
sapidus, Pleurotus 102, 104, 105
Sarcoscypha 261
scabrum, Leccinum 227
scabrum ssp. niveum, Leccinum 227
Schizophyllum, 164, 264
Scleroderma 232
scorodonius, Marasmius 160
scrobiculatus, Lactarius 56
sejunctum, Tricholoma 126, 128, 129
semiglobata, Stropharia 205
semilanceata, Psilocybe 268
semilibera, Morchella 259
semiorbicularis, Naucoria 197
semiovatus, Panaeolus 217
semisanguineus, Cortinarius 182
separata, Anellaria 218

318

INDEX

septenlrionale, Hydnum 241

sericeum, Entoloma 170

serissima, Russula 77

serotinus, Pleurotus 105, 106, 179

serrulata, Leptonia 171

shaggy mane 2, 211

siccus, Marasmius 160

silvicola, Agaricus 203

sinapizans, Hebeloma 191

smuts 23, 24

sordida, Russula 65, 74, 75

spathulatus, Pleurotus 104

spawn, mushroom 5

speciosa, Volvariella 168

speciosus, Hygrophorus 144

speciosus, Lactarius 55

spectabilis, Boletinus 224

spectabilis, Pholiota 188

sphinctrinus, Panaeolus 210, 218

sporangium 21

spreta, Amanita 85, 93

spumosa, Flammula 191

squalida, Russula 77

squamosus, Polyporus 240

squarrosa, Pholiota 184, 189, 269

squarroso-adiposa, Pholiota 186

squarrosoides, Pholiota 189

Steccherinum 242

Steinpilz 224

stercoraria, Stropharia 206

stercoreus, Cyathus 249

sterquilinus, Coprinus 211

stipitaria, Crinipellis 267

stipticus, Panellus 264

stipticus, Panus 163

striatus, Cyathus 249

stricta, Clavaria 244

strobilaceus, Strobilomyces 228

Strobilomyces 220, 228

Stropharia 204, 206, 208, 218, 268

subacutum, Tricholoma 129

subaequalis, Lepista 267, 268

subalbidus, Cantharellus 33

subareolatus, Pleurotus 105

subaureus, Suillus 229

subdulcis, Lactarius 40, 56, 57

subglabripes, Leccinum 227

subhirta, Clitocybe 122

sublateritium, Naematoloma 206, 207, 268

subluteus, Suillus 230

submelinoides, Alnicola 269

subnidulans, Phyllotopsis 179

subpalmatus, Pleurotus 102, 106

subplanus, Clitopilus 178

subpurpureus, Lactarius 57

subtomentosus, Xerocomus 232

subvellereus, Lactarius 59

subvelutipes. Boletus 225

sudorifica, Clitocybe 119

Suillus 228

sulphureum, Tricholoma 126

sulphureus, Polyporus 240

Tectella 162, 265

Telamonia 180

tenera, Conocybe 268

tenera, Galera 192

tenuiceps, Russula 75

tenuipes, Xeromphalina 147

tephroleucus, Hygrophorus 142

terreum, Tricholoma 129

tessulatus, Pleurotus 107

theiogalus, Lactarius 41

Thelephoraceae 23, 24, 32, 34, 242, 244

thyinos, Lactarius 43

tigrinus, Lentinus 161

toadstool 4

tomentella, Amanita 85

tomentosulus, Pluteus 167

tomentosus, Gomphidius 220

torminosus, Lactarius 57, 58

torulosus, Panus 163

transmutans, Tricholoma 127, 130

trechispora, Inocybe 269

Tremellaceae 23, 24, 245

Tremellales 24, 245

Tricholoma 16, 21, 107, 122, 124, 130,

131, 144, 169, 263, 265, 266, 267
tricholoma, Ripartites 269
Tricholomopsis 119, 128, 266
tricolor, Leucopaxillus 123, 263, 265
tricolor, Tricholoma 122
triplex, Geastrum 250
trivialis, Lactarius 41, 54, 58
Trogia 164, 266
trullisata, Laccaria 264, 266
trumpet of death 245
tsugae, Ganoderma 237, 238
tubaeformis, Cantharellus 35
Tubaria 197, 268
tuberosa, Collybia 157
turpis, Lactarius 54
Tylopilus 230

ulmarius, Pleurotus 105, 106, 107
umbellatus, Polyporus 239
umbellifera, Omphalina 267
umbonata, Cantharellula 265
umbonatus, Cantharellus 32, 36, 107, 118,

120
umbrosus, Pluteus 166
unicolor, Pholiota 188
Urnula 261
ustale, Tricholoma 127
uvidus, Lactarius 55, 58

vaccinum, Tricholoma 130
vaginata, Amanitopsis 93, 264

319

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

vaginata var. alba, Amanitopsis 93
vaginata var. fulva, Amanitopsis 93
vaginata var. livida, Amanitopsis 93
variata, Russula 75
varius, Lactarius 41, 54
velatipes, Amanita 84, 86, 87
vellereus, Lactarius 42, 59
velutina, Psathyrella 209
velutipes, Collybia 147, 158
velutipes, Flammulina 266
venenata, Galerina 188
ventricosa, Armillaria 101
ventricosipes, Russula 67
vermiflua, Pholiota 189
verna, Amanita 87
vernalis, Kuehneromyces 188
Verpa 258

versutus, Crepidotus 198
vesca, Russula 76
vesicatoria, Russula 60, 65
veternosa, Russula 76

vinicolor, Gomphidius 220

violaceus, Cortinarius 182, 270

virescens, Russula 63

virgatum, Tricholoma 129

virosa, Amanita 6, 12, 87, 88, 95, 99, 201,

203, 247
volemus, Lactarius 44
Volvaria 21, 167
Volvarielia 21, 167, 267
vulpinus, Lentinus 161

witches' butter 246
wood-staining fungi 22

xanthodermus, Agaricus 200
xanthogrammus, Agaricus 267
xerampelina, Russula 76, 77
Xerocomus 231
Xeromphaiina 146, 265

yeasts 22

320

ADDENDUM

S. A. Redhead

Biosystematics Research Institute

Research Branch

Edible and Poisonous Mushrooms of Canada was first published in 1962. At
that time there were many generic names that were new or had recently been
restricted by using microscopic features. Their acceptance by mycologists in
general was not guaranteed. For these reasons Dr. Groves chose well-estab-
lished generic names and used them in broad, traditional ways. However, many
of the new or restricted genera mentioned in the 1962 edition have since gained
worldwide acceptance and a few additional names have been proposed. Now
that some of these genera are being used in popular guides, an update of the
names is appropriate. Unavoidably many genera are defined by using micro-
scopic features, and this makes their recognition difficult for amateurs.

Only the species whose names have been changed are listed and these are
in alphabetical order as they appear in the index. The updated name follows
the former name as do any qualifying statements about the changes. These
changes are not the last for the species treated here. Many of the genera are not
universally recognized and the limits of some of them are still uncertain. How-
ever, all the names used are currently being applied in the National Mycologi-
cal Herbarium, Ottawa. For the most part, Singer's (1975) The Agaricales in
Modern Taxonomy, 3rd. ed., has been used as a standard.

The current edition of Edible and Poisonous Mushrooms of Canada also
contains additional references, which have been published since 1975 when Dr.
David Malloch enlarged the bibliography. Some of the theses mentioned in the
enlarged bibliography have been replaced by their published counterparts.

Since 1974 possession of Canadian or foreign mushrooms containing the
restricted drugs psilocin and psilocybin has been illegal in Canada. A number
of species known from Canada in the genera Psilocybe, Panaeolus, and
Conocybe contain these hallucinogens. Some of these species are poorly char-
acterized and their distribution is not well known. In all cases the species are
small, usually inconspicuous fungi not normally collected by persons interested
in edible mushrooms. The most commonly encountered species is described
below.

PSILOCYBE SEMILANCEATA (Fr.) ex Kummer Poisonous

Figure 431, page 307 .

PiLEUS 1/2-214 in. broad, at first obtusely conical to conico-campanulate,
often becoming acutely umbonate with age, dark greenish to vinaceous brown,
hygrophanous, fading to ocherous over the center and beige elsewhere, striate
and viscid when moist, often slightly incurved and more conspicuously striate
on the margins from heavy spore deposits between the lamellae, flesh thin,

321

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

membranous, concolorous with the pileus, with no distinctive odor, lamellae
ascending adnalc, moderately spaced, moderately broad, narrowly ventricose,
vinaceous buff when young, brown vinaceous with age, with whitish margins.
STIPE I'^s-2^,s in. long, l^j-, or less in. thick, equal, slender, often wavy, dry,
dull or subpolished, white to beige apically, ocherous to cinnamon basally,
often partially covered with whitish scattered fibrils, darkening with age,
usually developing blue to bluish green stains on the whitish silky parts when
handled, spores 12-14.5 X 6.3-8.2 ^u, smooth, purple brown, ellipsoid, slightly
thick-walled, slightly truncated from a well-developed germ pore.

Singly or gregarious in pastures or other grassy areas in the eastern and
western maritime regions. Sept. -Nov.

Psilocybe silvatica (Pk.) Singer & Smith and P. pelUcuIosa (Smith) Singer
& Smith are similar but occur in forested areas and have smaller spores. A
number of other species containing hallucinogens and having a collybioid
aspect and sometimes with a prominent annulus also occur in Canada. Among
the nonhallucinogenic species, P. montana (Pers. ex Fr.) Kummer is common
on beds of Polytrichum (haircap mosses) and P. atrohrwmea (Lasch) Gillet is
infrequently found on Sphagnum (peat moss) in bogs.

322

NOMENCLATURAL AND TAXONOMIC UPDATE

FORMER NAME

abortivus, Clitopilus
abundans, Collybia
acericola, Pholiota
albipilata, Collybia
albogriseus, Clitopilus
albolanatus, Pleurotus
americana, Lepiota
amoenus, Hygrophorus
angustatus, Panus
angusticeps, Morchella
applicatus, Pleurotus
aurantiaca, Clitocybe
aurea, Clavaria
auricolor, Agaricus
autumnalis, Pholiota
benzoinus, Polyporus
betulinus, Polyporus
borealis, Hygrophorus
botrytis, Clavaria
brevipes, Cantharellus
brunnea, Lepiota
candidissimus, Pleurotus
cantharellus, Hygrophorus
caperata, Pholiota
capnoides, Naematoloma
cartilaginea, Clitocybe

ceraceus, Hygrophorus
chlorophanus, Hygrophorus
cinerea, Clavaria
clavatus, Cantharellus
coccineus, Hygrophorus
cochleatus, Lentinus
confluens, Polyporus
conica, Morchella
conicus, Hygrophorus
coralloides, Hydnum
cothurnata, Amanita
crispa, Conocybe
crispa, Trogia
cuspidatum, Entoloma
cuspidatus, Hygrophorus
cyathiformis, Clitocybe
decora, Clitocybe
delica, Russula

UPDATED NAME

Entoloma abort ivum (B, & C.) Donk

Clitocyhula abundans (Pk.) Sing.

Agiocybc acericola (Pk.) Sing.

Strobilurus albipilatits (Pk.) Wells & Kempton

Entoloma albogrisca (Pk.) Redhead comb, nov.^

Notlwpanus porrigens (B. & C.) Sing.

Leucocoprinus americana (Pk.) Redhead comb, nov.'

Hygrocybe calyptaeformis (Berk.) Fayod

Hohenbuehelia angusta (Berk.) Sing.

Morchella elata Fr.

Resupinatus applicatus (Batsch ex Fr.) S. F. Gray

Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca (Wulf. ex Fr.) Maire

Ramaria aurea (Fr.) Quel.

This is most likely Agaricus semotus Fr.

Galerina autumnalis (Pk.) Smith & Sing.

Ischnoclerma benzoinum (Wahl. ex Fr.) Karst.

Piptoporus betulinus (Fr.) Karst.

Camarophyllus borealis (Pk.) Murr.

Ramaria botrytis (Pers. ex. Fr.) Ricken

Gomphus clavatus (Pers. ex Fr.) S. F. Gray

Macrolepiota rachodes (Vitt.) Sing.

Cheimonophyllum candidissimus (B. & C.) Sing.

Hygrocybe cantharellus (Schw.) Murr.

Rozites caperata (Pers. ex Fr.) Karst.

Hypholoma capnoides (Fr. ex Fr.) Kummer

In the sense of Bresadola this is Lyophyllum loricatum

(Fr.) Kiihner.

Hygrocybe ceracea (Fr.) Kummer

Hygrocybe chlorophana (Fr.) Wiinsche

Clavulina cinerea (Fr.) Schroet.

Gomphus clavatus (Pers. ex Fr.) S. F. Gray

Hygrocybe coccinea (Fr.) Kummer

Lcntinellus cochleatus (Fr.) Karst.

Albatrellus confluens (Fr.) Kotl. & Pouz.

Morchella elata Fr.

Hygrocybe conica (Fr.) Kummer

Hericium coralloides (Scop, ex Fr.) S. F. Gray

Amanita pantherina var. multisquamosa (Pk.) Jenkins

Conocybe lactea (Lange) Metrod

Plicatura crispa ((Pers.) ex Fr.) Rea

Nolanea murrayi (B. & C.) Dennis

Hygrocybe cuspidata (Pk.) Murr.

Pscudoclitocybe cyathiformis (Bull, ex Fr.) Sing.

Tricholomopsis decora (Fr.) Sing.

Ii^ Grove's sense this is Russula brevipes Peck.

'Basionym: Agaricus albogriseus Peck, Annu. Rep. N.Y. State Mus. Nat. Hist. 31 :33 (1879).
^Basionym: Agaricus americanus Peck, Annu. Rep. N.Y. State Cabinet Nat. Hist. 23:71 (1872).

323

EDIBLE AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

(iiminutivus, Agaricus
disseminatus, Pseudocoprinus
duplicata, Dictyophora
cctypoides, Clitocybe
edulis, Agaricus
clon^atipes, Plcurotus
fallax, Russiila
familia, Collybia
fasciculare, Naematoloma
flava, Clavaria
flavescens, Hygrophorus
flavobrunncum, Tricholoma
floccosus, Cantharellus
foenisecii, Panaeolus
foetens, Russula

foetentula, Russula
fragrans, Hygrophorus

frondosus, Polyporus
fuscogrisella, Nolanea
fusiformis, Clavaria
gemmata, Amanita
gigantea, Calvatia
glabriceps, Amanita
griseus, Polyporus
haematopus, Lentinus
hariolorum, Collybia
helvelloides, Phlogiotis
helvus, Lactarius
hortensis, Agaricus
illudens, Clitocybe
imperialis, Armillaria
inaurata, Amanitopsis
infundibuliformis, Cantharellus
irinum, Tricholoma
kauifmannii, Cantharellus
lachrymabundum, Hypholoma
laetus, Hygrophorus
longipes, Collybia
marginata, Pholiota
marginatus, Hygrophorus
marginella, Pholiota

meliea, Armillaria
merulioides, Boletinellus
micromegethus, Agaricus
micropus, Clitopilus
miniatus, Hygrophorus
molybdites, Lepiota
multiceps, Clitocybe
multiplex, Cantharellus
naucina, Lepiota

In Grove's sense this is Agaricus scnwtiis Fr.
Coprinus (/isscniinatus (Pcrs. ex Fr.) S. F. Gray
Phallus duplicata Bosc
Pseudoarniiilariella cctypoides (Pk.) Sing.
Agaricus hitorquis (Oucl.) Sacc.
Hypsizygus clongatipcs (Pk.) Bigelow
In Grove's sense this is Russula fragilis (Pers. ex Fr.) Fr.
Clitocyhula familia (Pk.) Sing.
Hypholoma fasciculare (Huds. ex Fr.) Kummer
Ramaria flava (Fr.) Quel.
Hygrocybe flavescens (KaufF.) Sing.
Tricholoma fulvum (Bull, ex Fr.) Sacc.
Gomphus floccosus (Schw.) Sing.
Panaeolina foenisecii (Pers. ex Fr.) Maire
In Grove's sense this is Russula fragrantissima
Romagnesi; the true Russula foetens is not definitely
known from North America.
Russula suhfoetens W. G. Smith

Hygrophorus pudorinus var. fragrans (Murr.) Hesler &
Smith

Grifola frondosa (Fr.) S. F. Gray
Leptonia fuscogrisella (Pk.) Largent
Clavulinopsis fusiformis (Fr.) Corner
Amanita gemmata (Fr.) Bertillon
Langermannia gigantea (Batsch ex Pers.) Rostkov.
Amanita pantherina var. multisquamosa (Pk.) Jenkins
Boletopsis subsquamosa (L. ex Fr.) Kotl. & Pouz.
Panus suavissimus (Fr.) Sing.
Collybia confluens (Pers. ex Fr.) Kummer
Tremiscus helvelloides (DC. ex Pers.) Donk
In Grove's sense this is Lactarius aquifluus Peck.
Agaricus brunnescens Peck.
Omphalotus olearius (DC. ex Fr.) Sing.
Catathelasma imperiale (Fr. apud Lund) Sing.
Amanita strangulata (Fr.) Roze apud Karst.
Cantharellus tubaeformis Fr.
Lepista irina (Fr.) Bigelow
Gomphus kauffmannii (Smith) Petersen
Psathyrella lacrymabunda (Fr.) Moser
Hygrocybe laeta (Fr.) Kummer
Oudemansiella longipes (Bull, ex St.-Amans) Maire
Galerina marginata (Batsch ex Fr.) Kiihner
Humidicutis marginata (Pk.) Sing.
. The position is not certain; possibly it should be placed
in Kuehneromyces or Galerina according to Singer.
Armillariella meliea (Fr.) Karst.
Gyrodon merulioides (Schw.) Sing.
This is probably Agaricus semotus Fr.
Entoloma micropus (Pk.) Hesler
Hygrocybe miniata (Fr.) Kummer
Chlorophyllum molybdites (Meyer ex Fr.) Mass.
Lyophyllum de castes (Fr. ex Fr.) Sing.
Polyozellus nu/ltiplex (Underw.) Murr.
Leucoagaricus naucinus (Fr.) Sing.

324

nigricans, Russula

nitidus, Hygrophorus
niveus, Hygrophorus
noveboracensis, Clitopilus
nudum, Tricholoma
operculatus, Panus
orcellus, Clitopilus
ovinus, Polyporus
personatum, Tricholoma
petaloides, Pleurotus

pictus, Boletinus
piperatus, Suillus
pistillaris, Clavaria
platyphylla, Collybia
ponderosa, Armillaria
porrigens, Pleurotus
praecox, Pholiota
praetensis, Hygrophorus
procera, Lepiota
pseudoclavatus, Cantharellus
psittacinus, Hygrophorus
punlceus, Hygrophorus
rachodes, Lepiota
radicata, Collybia
repandum, Hydnum
resinosus, Polyporus
rodmani, Agaricus
rubinellus, Suillus
russuioides, Amanita
rutilans, Tricholoma
salicinus, Panus
salmoneum, Entoloma
semilibera, Morchella
semiorbicularis, Naucoria

semiovatus, Panaeolus
separata, Anellaria
septentrionale, Hydnum
serotinus, Pleurotus
sordida, Russula
spathulatus, Pleurotus

spectabilis, Boletinus
spectabilis, Pholiota
spumosa, Flammula
squarroso-adiposa, Pholiota
stipticus, Panus
stricta, Clavaria
subacutum, Tricholoma

In Grove's sense this is probably Russula dissimulans

Shaffer, however, Russula nigricans does occur on the

west coast.

Hygrocyhc nitida (B. & C.) Murr.

Hygrocyhc nivca (Scop, ex Fr.) Murr.

Rhociocyhc munciula (Lasch) Sing.

Lcpista nucla (Bull, ex Fr.) Cooke

Tcctclla patcllaris (Fr.) Murr.

Clitopilus prunulus (Scop, ex Fr.) Kummer

Albafrcllus ovinus (Fr.) Kotl. & Pouz.

Lcpista persona ta (Fr. ex Fr.) Cooke

Hohenbuehelia petaloides (Bull ex Fr.)

Schulz. apud Schulz., Kanitz & Knapp

Suillus pictus (Pk.) Smith & Thiers

Chalciporus piperatus (Bull, ex Fr.) Sing.

Clavariadelphus pistillaris (Fr.) Donk

Tricholomopsis platyphylla (Pers. ex Fr.) Sing.

Tricholoma ponderosum (Pk.) Sing.

Nothopanus porrigens (Pers. ex Fr.) Sing.

Agrocybe praecox (Pers. ex Fr.) Fayod

Camarophyllus pratensis (Fr.) Kummer

Macrolepiota procera (Scop, ex Fr.) Sing.

Gomphus pseudoclavatus (Smith) Corner

Hygrocybe psittacina (Fr.) Kummer

Hygrocybe punicea (Fr.) Kummer

Macrolepiota rachodes (Vitt.) Sing.

Oudemansiella radicata (Relh. ex Fr.) Sing.

Dentinum repandum (Fr.) S. F. Gray

Ischnoderma resinosum (Fr.) Karst.

Agaricus bitorquis (Quel.) Sacc.

Chalciporus rubinellus (Pk.) Sing.

Amanita gemmata (Fr.) Bertillon

Tricholomopsis rutilans (Schaeff. ex Fr.) Sing.

Panellus ringens (Fr.) Romagnesi

Nolanea quadrat a B. & C.

Mitrophora semilibera (DC. ex Fr.) Lev.

Agrocybe semiorbicularis (Bull, ex St.-Amans) Fayod

In Grove's sense this is Agrocybe pediades (Pers. ex Fr.)

Fayod.

Anellaria semiovata (Sow. ex Fr.) Pearson & Dennis

Anellaria semiovata (Sow. ex Fr.) Pearson & Dennis

Steccherinum septentrionale (Fr.) Banker

Panellus serotinus (Fr.) Kiihner

Russula albonigra (Krombh.) Fr.

Hohenbuehelia petaloides (Bull, ex Fr.) Schulz. apud

Schulz., Kanitz & Knapp

Suillus spectabilis (Pk.) O. Kuntze

Gymnopilus spectabilis (Fr.) Sing.

Pholiota spumosa (Fr.) Sing.

Pholiota limonella (Pk.) Sacc.

Panellus stipticus (Bull, ex Fr.) Karst.

Ramario stricta (Fr.) Quel.

Tricholoma virgatum (Fr.) Kummer

325

IDIBLH AND POISONOUS MUSHROOMS OF CANADA

subdulcis, Lactarius

subglabripes, Lecciniim
sublateritium, Naematoloma
subnidulans, Phyllotopsis
subpalmatus, Pleurotus
subplanus, Clitopilus
sulphureus, Polyporus
tenera, Galera
tessulatus, Pleurotus
tigrinus, Lentinus
tomentella, Amanita
tomentosus, Gomphidius
torulosus, Panus
transmutans, Tricholoma
ulmarius, Pleurotus

umbonatus, Cantharellus
unicolor, Pholiota
vaginata, Amanitopsis
velatipes, Amanita
velutipes, Collybia
ventricosa, Armillaria
vermiflua, Pholiota
vinicolor, Gomphidius
virosa, Amanita
vulpinus, Lentinus

In Grove's sense this represents a complex of species

such as Lactarius carhonicola Smith in Hesler & Smith

and Lactarius thcjogalus Fr. ; the true Lactarius subdulcis

is not definitely known from North America.

Boletus suh^labripes Peck

Hypholoma sublateritium (Fr.) Quel.

Crepiclotus subnidulans (Overh.) Hesler & Smith

Rhodotus palmatus (Bull, ex Fr.) Maire

Entoloma subplanum (Pk.) Hesler

Laetiporus sulphureus (Fr.) Murr.

Conocybe tencra (Schaeff. ex Fr.) Fayod

Hypsizygus tessulatus (Bull, ex Fr.) Sing.

Panus tigrinus (Bull, ex Fr.) Sing.

Amanita porphyria (A. & S. ex Fr.) Seer.

Chroogomphus tomentosus (Murr.) Miller

Panus concha t us (Bull, ex Fr.) Fr.

Tricholoma fulvuin (Bull, ex Fr.) Sacc.

Lyophyllum ulmarium (Bull, ex Fr.) Kiihner

However, in Grove's sense it is Hypsizygus tessulatus

(Bull, ex Fr.) Sing.

Cantharellula umbonata (Fr.) Sing.

Galerina unicolor (Fr.) Sing.

Amanita vaginata (Bull, ex Fr.) Vitt.

Amanita pantherina var. velatipes (Atk.) Jenkins

Flammidina velutipes (Curt, ex Fr.) Sing.

Catathelasma ventricosum (Pk.) Sing.

Agrocybe dura (Bolt, ex Fr.) Sing.

Chroogomphus vinicolor (Pk.) Miller

Amanita virosa (Lam. ex Fr.) Gillet

Lentinellus vulpinus (Fr.) Kiihner & Maire

326

»

i

CAL'BCA OTTAWA K1A 0C5

>073 00185105 6